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What is the earliest date I, an English speaking American, could effectively communicate with other earlier English speakers?
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hi! fyi, you'll find a few previous posts in this FAQ section
* [How far back could I go and still communicate?](_URL_0_)
As you'll see in those threads, the differences between Old English and modern American (and every other variety of) English is extreme. But on the off-chance that your last question is asking about the divergence of British and American Englishes, there's another FAQ section that may be of interest
* [American and British accents](_URL_1_)
|
[
"Since Native Americans and First Nations peoples speaking a language of the Algonquian group were generally the first to meet English explorers and settlers along the Eastern Seaboard, many words from these languages made their way into English.\n",
"Native Americans in the United States have developed several original systems of communication, both in Pre-Columbian times, and later as a response to European influences. For example, the Iroquois, living around the Great Lakes and extending east and north, used strings or belts called \"wampum\" that served a dual function: the knots and beaded designs mnemonically chronicled tribal stories and legends, and further served as a medium of exchange and a unit of measure. The keepers of the articles were seen as tribal dignitaries. Another form of communication was the Wiigwaasabak, birch bark scrolls on which the Ojibwa (Anishinaabe) people wrote complex geometrical patterns and shapes, can also be considered a form of writing.\n",
"After the first permanent English-speaking settlement was established in April 1607, at Jamestown, Virginia, Captain Christopher Newport led explorers northwest up the James River to an area inhabited by Powhatan Native Americans.\n",
"In Native American communities prior to 1492, for instance, it seems one or more signed systems existed as a lingua franca which neighboring tribes used to communicate with one another Native American communities believed people born deaf were physically and mentally capable, while people in Europe, starting with the urging of Pedro Ponce de León, would not begin to believe so until the late 16th century. Accounts of such signing indicate these languages were fairly complex, as ethnographers such as Cabeza de Vaca described detailed communications between them and Native Americans that were conducted in sign. A number of Martha's Vineyard settlers from a community in Kent, England, for instance, seemed to be carriers of deaf genes, leading to a high density of deaf individuals on the island from the 1700s, being the highest around 1840. This environment proved ideal for the development of what is today known as Martha's Vineyard Sign Language, which was used by hearing and deaf islanders alike. Years earlier, their Kentish ancestors, too, may have had a number of deaf community members and developed their own signing system as well.\n",
"Sometime prior to January 20, 1877, Isawa became the first person to use a language other than English on the telephone. According to Bell, the telephone's inventor, \"...a young Japanese student named Isawa...came to me for the purpose of studying the pronunciation of English. Of course, when he heard about the telephone he became very much interested. He said, “Mr. Bell, will this thing talk Japanese?” I said, “Certainly, any language.” He seemed very much astonished at that, and said he would like to try it. Mr. Isawa went to one end of the circuit and I stood at the other. He talked in Japanese and I reported the result to him. \"\n",
"The first documented English-speakers came, in the spring of 1782, when James Moore, Larken Rutherford, and James Garretson, of Maryland and Virginia, settled at or near Bellefontaine. Upon their arrival, they were the first permanent English-speakers, in the entire Northwest Territory. James Moore and many of the settlers that followed him had been soldiers in George Rogers Clark's Illinois campaign of 1778. Moore established himself at the site of the namesake spring, and the tract remained in possession of the Moore family for over a century. \n",
"The closest living language to them are the languages of the Mohawk and Tuscarora Iroquois, who once lived immediately north and south of them. The English and Dutch came to call them the Minqua, from Lenape, which breaks into min-kwe and translates to \"as a woman.\" As to when they arrived, some early records detailing their oral history seem to point to the fact that they descended from an Iroquoian group who conquered Ohio centuries before, but were pushed back east again by Siouan and Algonquin enemies. They also conquered and absorbed other unknown groups in the process, which probably explains how languages like Tuscarora came to be so completely divergent from other Iroquoian languages. It also appears possible that the word \"Iroquois\" actually derived from their language.\n"
] |
Can/will Psychology ever be considered a physical science?
|
Psychology is never going to be a physical science. Wikipedia's definition of physical science being;
> Physical Science is an encompassing term for the branches of natural science and science that study non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences.
So, no.
Let me go into a bit more detail. Psychology is actually a *really, really* broad subject - to the extent where sometimes I feel it's justified to treat it as multiple subjects masquerading under one name - and many of its subfields might be classified in different ways.
As quick examples, I'd feel comfortable calling biological psychology part of the life sciences, cognitive psychology part of the behavioural sciences, social psychology part of the social sciences, and a few like analytical psychology might even be better classed as arts or humanities. All of these categorizations are somewhat vague - that's the nature of scientific taxonomy, I suppose. I also imagine that there will inevitably be some disagreement with my classifications; I've seen some claim that psychology can never be a science at all, or that all its subfields should be classed as behavioural science, or social science, *et cetera*.
The point I'm making, however, is that although psychology can never be a *physical* science, at least parts of it are (arguably) within the realm of *natural* science - so leaf through a few articles in, I don't know, a recent issue of *Psychological Review* or the *Journal of Experimental Psychology* if you want to see how the field looks today.
|
[
"Physical science is a branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to life science. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a \"physical science\", together called the \"physical sciences\".\n",
"History of physical science – history of the branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a \"physical science\", together called the \"physical sciences\". However, the term \"physical\" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena (organic chemistry, for example).\n",
"As a discipline, psychology has long sought to fend off accusations that it is a \"soft\" science. Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn's 1962 critique implied psychology overall was in a pre-paradigm state, lacking the agreement on overarching theory found in mature sciences such as chemistry and physics. Because some areas of psychology rely on research methods such as surveys and questionnaires, critics asserted that psychology is not an objective science. Skeptics have suggested that personality, thinking, and emotion, cannot be directly measured and are often inferred from subjective self-reports, which may be problematic. Experimental psychologists have devised a variety of ways to indirectly measure these elusive phenomenological entities.\n",
"Physical science is an encompassing term for the branches of natural science and science that study non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. However, the term \"physical\" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena. There is a difference between physical science and physics.\n",
"The psychology of science has well-established literature in most every subfield of psychology, including but not limited to neuroscientific, developmental, cognitive, personality, motivational, social, industrial/organizational, and clinical. Feist's 2006 book \"The Psychology of Science and the Origins of the Scientific Mind\" reviews and integrates much of this literature. \n",
"All sciences are founded on general theories: Biology has the theory of evolution; Physics, the theory of relativity; Chemistry, the theory of molecular quantum mechanics; and Geology, the theory of plate tectonics. Psychology has no general theory. In his 2018 monograph, 'A General Theory of Behaviour' (GTB), David Marks (2018) attempts to fill that gap with a central theory covering all areas of the discipline.\n",
"BULLET::::- History of physical science – history of the branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to the biological sciences. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a \"physical science\", together called the \"physical sciences\". However, the term \"physical\" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena (organic chemistry, for example).\n"
] |
what does "the u.s. has officially quit the un human rights council." mean?
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We didn't do much on it, and Trump isn't the biggest supporter of the U.N., so it was only a matter of time. The human rights council, last I heard, is actually headed by Saudi Arabia, a country that stones unfaithful women and throws gays off tips of towers, so I don't think they're the best example of human rights anyways.
|
[
"On June 19, 2018, U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo and U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations Nikki Haley announced that the United States, under President Donald Trump, was pulling out of the United Nations Human Rights Council, accusing the council being \"hypocritical and self-serving\" and, in the past, Haley had accused it of \"chronic anti-Israel bias.\" \"When the Human Rights Council treats Israel worse than North Korea, Iran, and Syria, it is the Council itself that is foolish and unworthy of its name. It is time for the countries who know better to demand changes,\" Haley said in a statement at the time, pointing to the council's adoption of five resolutions condemning Israel. \"The United States continues to evaluate our membership in the Human Rights Council. Our patience is not unlimited.\"\n",
"The U.S. State Department said on March 5, 2007 that, for the second year in a row, the United States has decided not to seek a seat on the Human Rights Council, asserting the body had lost its credibility with repeated attacks on Israel and a failure to confront other rights abusers. Spokesman Sean McCormack said the council has had a “singular focus” on Israel, while countries such as Cuba, Myanmar and North Korea have been spared scrutiny. He said that though the United States will have only an observer role, it will continue to shine a spotlight on human rights issues. The most senior Republican member of the Committee on Foreign Affairs of the U.S. House of Representatives, Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, supported the administration decision. “Rather than standing as a strong defender of fundamental human rights, the Human Rights Council has faltered as a weak voice subject to gross political manipulation,” she said.\n",
"In February 2016, Amnesty International launched its annual report of human rights around the world titled \"The State of the World's Human Rights\". It warns from the consequences of \"us vs them\" speech which divided human beings into two camps. It states that this speech enhances a global pushback against human rights and makes the world more divided and more dangerous. It also states that in 2016, governments turned a blind eye to war crimes and passed laws that violate free expression. Donald Trump signed an executive order in an attempt to prevent refugees from seeking resettlement in the United States. Elsewhere, China, Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Iran, Thailand and Turkey carried out massive crackdowns, while authorities in other countries continued to implement security measures represent an infringement on rights. In June 2016, Amnesty International has called on the United Nations General Assembly to \"immediately suspend\" Saudi Arabia from the UN Human Rights Council. Richard Bennett, head of Amnesty's UN Office, said: \"The credibility of the U.N. Human Rights Council is at stake. Since joining the council, Saudi Arabia's dire human rights record at home has continued to deteriorate and the coalition it leads has unlawfully killed and injured thousands of civilians in the conflict in Yemen.\"\n",
"In regard to the United Nations Human Rights Council, the position of the United States is: \"human rights have been a cornerstone of American values since the country's birth and the United States is committed to support the work of the UN Commission in promoting the principles embodied in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. U.S. President George W. Bush declared that the United States would not seek a seat on the Council, saying it would be more effective from the outside. He did pledge, however, to support the Council financially. State Department spokesman Sean McCormack said, \"We will work closely with partners in the international community to encourage the council to address serious cases of human rights abuse in countries such as Iran, Cuba, Zimbabwe, Burma, Sudan, and North Korea\".\n",
"On 19 June 2018, the United States pulled out of the UNHRC accusing the body of bias against Israel and a failure to hold human rights abusers accountable. Nikki Haley, US Ambassador to the UN called the organisation a \"cesspool of political bias\". At UNHRC's 38th Session, on 2 July 2018, Western nations held a \"de facto\" boycott of Agenda Item 7 by not speaking to the item.\n",
"The UN adopted The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, \"as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations.\" The Soviet Union abstained from voting on adoption of the declaration. The US did not ratify the social and economic rights sections.\n",
"Regarding the UN Human Rights Council, Annan said \"declining credibility\" had \"cast a shadow on the reputation of the United Nations system. Unless we re-make our human rights machinery, we may be unable to renew public confidence in the United Nations itself.\" However, he did believe that, despite its flaws, the council could do good.\n"
] |
why does the circle on the isis flag look poorly drawn?
|
idk about the circle, could be stylistic choices or that it's easy to reproduce but the writing is the [shahada](_URL_0_), with the top line saying "there is no god but god" and the words inside the circle being, from top to bottom, "god messenger muhammad" but if you read it from bottom to top it w/ some arabic grammar thrown into the mix there it says "muhammad is the messenger of god", and bam, baby you got a shahada going
|
[
"According to Ludvík Mucha, author of \"Webster's Concise Encyclopedia of Flags & Coats of Arms\", the white disk located in the center of the flag represents the sun. The red crescent and the five-pointed star, two ancient symbols of Islam, were most notably used on Ottoman flag and have since appeared on many flags of Islamic countries. The crescent is, from the viewpoint of an Arabic observer, supposed to bring good luck. The color red is a symbol of resistance against Turkish supremacy. Whitney Smith states that the crescent was first emblazoned on standards and buildings in the Punic state of Carthage, located in present-day Tunisia. Since appearing on the Ottoman flag, they were widely adopted by Muslim countries, and have become known as symbols of Islam, when in fact, they may be cultural symbols. Likewise, the sun is often represented with the crescent on ancient Punic artifacts and is associated with the ancient Punic religion, especially with the Sign of Tanit.\n",
"The Red Crescent emblem was first used by ICRC volunteers during the armed conflict of 1876–8 between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire. The symbol was officially adopted in 1929, and so far 33 states in the Muslim world have recognized it. In common with the official promotion of the red cross symbol as a colour-reversal of the Swiss flag (rather than a religious symbol), the red crescent is similarly presented as being derived from a colour-reversal of the flag of the Ottoman Empire.\n",
"Its design is based on that of the Palestinian flag, which in turn was derived from the colors used in the Arab Revolt. The star and crescent are considered symbols of Islam, and can be seen on flags of other neighbouring Islamic countries such as Algeria and Mauritania.\n",
"In the Vaishnava tradition, the \"white lines represent the footprint of their God, while the red refers to his consort, Lakshmi\". The Swaminarayana tradition holds that the tilaka (yellow U-shaped mark) \"is a symbol of the lotus feet of Paramatma,\" and the kumkuma \"represents the bhakta\" (devotee). In both of these traditions, the forehead mark serves as a reminder that a devotee of God should always remain as a servant at the feet of God.\n",
"The association of the crescent with the Ottoman Empire appears to have resulted in a gradual association of the crescent shape with Islam in the 20th century. A Red Crescent appears to have been used as a replacement of the Red Cross as early as in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877/8, and it was officially adopted in 1929.\n",
"Replaced by Isis in literature after the 5th Dynasty, as Osiris \"takes the throne of Ra,\" images of Raet are rare. When she is depicted, she is shown as a woman with cow horns holding a sun disk on her head, similar to the headdress of Hathor. Additionally, any representation of Isis can be considered a type of rendering of Raet. The headdress is adorned with a uraeus or with feathers.\n",
"Although a flag representing Islam as a whole does not exist, some Islamic denominational branches and Sufi brotherhoods employ flags to symbolize themselves. Among specific Islamic branches, Nizari branch of Ismaili-Shia Islam employs an official flag constitutes of green color which represents Muhammad's standard and Ali's cloak, as well as a red stripe meaning blood and fire. The flag was ordained by the Aga Khan IV as a part of the new constitution in 1986. The flag is flown on the Ismaili Jamatkhana, a place for congregational worship for Ismaili Muslims during the festive occasions. The Ahmadiyya movement also employs an official flag (\"Liwaa-i Ahmadiyya\") constitutes of black and white colors, first hoisted in 1939. Mirza Tahir Ahmad, the fourth caliph of the Ahmadiyya Caliphate, explained the symbolism of the colours black and white in terms of the concept of revelation and prophethood. Muslim African-American religious movement Nation of Islam deploys an official flag known as \"The Flag of Islam\" which symbolizes universal peace and harmony. \n"
] |
Would two people pointing guns at each other have enough time to react to the first gunshot?
|
Let's take [600 feet per second](_URL_0_) as the speed of the bullet (this would be a pretty slow bullet). At 10 feet, the bullet would take ~0.02 seconds to get to the target. Average human reaction time is in the order of [0.2 seconds](_URL_1_). So to have any chance of reacting in time, you need a bullet traveling around ten times slower or ten times further away. This ignores the fact that you may notice the protagonist's hand moving before they actually fire the gun.
So in conclusion, Han must have shot first.
Edit: I accidentally a word.
|
[
"Neddie is doubtful. He says \"How can someone shoot themselves by pointing their finger at their head like this and going...\" At that point there is the sound of a gunshot, followed by Neddie's body falling to the ground.\n",
"For a pistol duel, the two would typically start at a pre-agreed length of ground, which would be measured out by the seconds and marked, often with swords stuck in the ground (referred to as \"points\"). At a given signal, often the dropping of a handkerchief, the principals could advance and fire at will. This latter system reduced the possibility of cheating, as neither principal had to trust the other not to turn too soon. Another system involved alternate shots being taken, beginning with the challenged firing first.\n",
"Suddenly, they turned around, got on their knees, as if they were ordered to, they did it all together, aimed. And personally, I was standing there saying, they're not going to shoot, they can't do that. If they are going to shoot, it's going to be blank.\n",
"Many accounts state that both men fired in near perfect unison. Some stated it sounded as if one shot had been fired. \"One witness said it looked as if the guns were spitting fire at the same time.\" Then, a number of shots followed, ranging between five and nine according to different testimonies. As reports tell of a total of five entry wounds in the two men, the minimum number of shots fired had to be five. The exchange occurred rapidly. Reid received a bullet to one leg. Reid fired two more rounds, one grazing Smith's left arm and the other striking his left thigh above the knee and exiting the other side. Chambering his Winchester, Smith sent a bullet into Reid's lower abdomen and groin. Reid fell face down upon the planking, severely wounded. It is not known if Smith remained standing or also had fallen.\n",
"Investigations on the gunfight concluded that while it was Courtright who went for his pistol first, it was Short who ultimately outdrew and killed him. Courtright's inability to fire off a shot was due to a number of possible scenarios; one was that his pistol got caught on his watch chain for a second as he drew it, and another was that his pistol broke when one of Short's bullets struck it and his thumb.\n",
"Both men faced each other sideways in the dueling position and hesitated briefly. Then Tutt reached for his pistol. Hickok drew his gun and steadied it on his opposite forearm. The two men fired a single shot each at essentially the same time, according to the reports. Tutt missed, but Hickok's bullet struck Tutt in the left side between the fifth and seventh ribs. Tutt called out, \"Boys, I'm killed,\" ran onto the porch of the local courthouse and back to the street, where he collapsed and died.\n",
"Pointed. When presented with a target, the soldier keeps the rifle at his side and quickly fires a single shot or burst. He keeps both eyes open and uses his instinct and peripheral vision to line up the rifle with the target. Using this technique, a target at 15 meters or less may be engaged in less than one second.\n"
] |
Is radiation given out from everyday objects harmful towards us?
|
Radio frequency (RF) radiation isn't harmful in the levels produced by household electronics.
"Radiation" is a broad category; there's a lot of confusion about what it means. There are various types of radiation, primarily including:
* Beta radiation-- this is electrons that are emitted by the nuclear decay of certain isotopes. This is ionizing radiation and can cause cancer.
* Alpha radiation-- alpha particles are helium nuclei, two protons & two neutrons bound together, and are emitted by the nuclear decay of heavy isotopes. This is also ionizing radiation, but can easily be blocked by skin and so is only dangerous if the isotope is inside the body.
* Neutron radiation-- neutrons emitted in nuclear decays. Also ionizing, also dangerous.
* electromagnetic radiation-- this includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma rays. Only UV, X-rays, and gamma rays are ionizing. Radio waves can't ionize atoms in your body. If you expose yourself to a really strong emitter, it can heat up your tissues and cause burns (this is what would happen if you were to expose yourself to the magnetron in your microwave). But all that about it "accelerating brain waves" is complete nonsense.
Basically the guy in the video is walking around discovering that objects like wifi routers which are designed to send radio signals do, in fact, send radio signals. Anything running an unshielded electrical current is going to emit some radio waves. These are nothing to be concerned about unless you're very close to a very powerful and unshielded source--which won't happen unless you do something willfully stupid like rig your microwave to work with the door open and then stick your hand in it.
|
[
"This article deals with radiation damage due to the effects of ionizing radiation on physical objects. Radiobiology is the study of the action of ionizing radiation on living things, including health effects of radiation in humans. \n",
"Radiation protection, also known as radiological protection, is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as \"The protection of people from harmful effects of exposure to ionizing radiation, and the means for achieving this\". Exposure can be from a source of radiation external to the human body or due to internal irradiation caused by the ingestion of radioactive contamination.\n",
"Ionizing radiation is generally harmful and potentially lethal to living things but can have health benefits in radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer and thyrotoxicosis. Its most common impact is the induction of cancer with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. High doses can cause visually dramatic radiation burns, and/or rapid fatality through acute radiation syndrome. Controlled doses are used for medical imaging and radiotherapy.\n",
"Ionizing radiation is generally harmful and potentially lethal to living things but can have health benefits in radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer and thyrotoxicosis. Its most common impact is the induction of cancer with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. High doses can cause visually dramatic radiation burns, and/or rapid fatality through acute radiation syndrome. Controlled doses are used for medical imaging and radiotherapy.\n",
"Ionizing radiation has many practical uses in medicine, research and construction, but presents a health hazard if used improperly. Exposure to radiation causes damage to living tissue; high doses result in Acute radiation syndrome (ARS), with skin burns, hair loss, internal organ failure and death, while any dose may result in an increased chance of cancer and genetic damage; a particular form of cancer, thyroid cancer, often occurs when nuclear weapons and reactors are the radiation source because of the biological proclivities of the radioactive iodine fission product, iodine-131. However, calculating the exact risk and chance of cancer forming in cells caused by ionizing radiation is still not well understood and currently estimates are loosely determined by population based data from the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and from follow-up of reactor accidents, such as the Chernobyl disaster. The International Commission on Radiological Protection states that \"The Commission is aware of uncertainties and lack of precision of the models and parameter values\", \"Collective effective dose is not intended as a tool for epidemiological risk assessment, and it is inappropriate to use it in risk projections\" and \"in particular, the calculation of the number of cancer deaths based on collective effective doses from trivial individual doses should be avoided.\"\n",
"Some human-made radiation sources affect the body through direct radiation, known as effective dose (radiation) while others take the form of radioactive contamination and irradiate the body from within. The latter is known as committed dose.\n",
"Non-ionizing radiation in certain conditions also can cause damage to living organisms, such as burns. In 2011, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the World Health Organization (WHO) released a statement adding radio frequency electromagnetic fields (including microwave and millimeter waves) to their list of things which are possibly carcinogenic to humans.\n"
] |
why is folk music called “folk”?
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What's so hard to understand? It's the music of ordinary folk, originating in the days before the term "pop(ular) music" was made up, before electrification, and was passed down by word of mouth (song) from one genreation to another - oftan a way of preserving stories - folk tales.
|
[
"According to its encyclopedic definition, the term folk music (that derives from the German word \"folk\" or people in English) serves to designate the music spontaneously created and preserved by the people of a country, in contrast with the terms commercial and classical music, which are related to works generated by trained specialists.\n",
"Folk music includes traditional folk music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th-century folk revival. Some types of folk music may be called world music. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways: as music transmitted orally, music with unknown composers, or music performed by custom over a long period of time. It has been contrasted with commercial and classical styles. The term originated in the 19th century, but folk music extends beyond that.\n",
"Folk music is one of the major divisions of music, now often divided into traditional folk music and contemporary folk music. There are many styles of folk music, all of which can be classified into various traditions, generally based around some combination of ethnic, racial, religious, tribal, political or geographic boundaries.\n",
"This is a list of folk music traditions, with styles, dances, instruments, and other related topics. The term \"folk music\" cannot be easily defined in a precise manner. It is used with widely varying definitions depending on the author, intended audience and context within a work. Similarly, the term \"traditions\" in this context does not connote any strictly-defined criteria. Music scholars, journalists, audiences, record industry individuals, politicians, nationalists, and demagogues may often have occasion to address which fields of folk music are distinct traditions based along racial, geographic, linguistic, religious, tribal, or ethnic lines, and all such peoples will likely use different criteria to decide what constitutes a \"folk music tradition\". This list uses the same general categories used by mainstream, primarily English-language, scholarly sources, as determined by relevant statements of fact and the internal structure of works.\n",
"Folk music, in the original sense of the term as coined in the 18th century by Johann Gottfried Herder, is music produced by communal composition and possessing dignity, though by the late 19th century the concept of ‘folk’ had become a synonym for ‘nation’, usually identified as peasants and rural artisans, as in the Merrie England movement and the Irish and Scottish Gaelic Revivals of the 1880s. Folk music was normally shared and performed by the entire community (not by a special class of expert or professional performers, possibly excluding the idea of amateurs), and was transmitted by word of mouth (oral tradition).\n",
"The English term \"folklore\", to describe traditional folk music and dance, entered the vocabulary of many continental European nations, each of which had its folk-song collectors and revivalists. The distinction between \"authentic\" folk and national and popular song in general has always been loose, particularly in America and Germany – for example popular songwriters such as Stephen Foster could be termed \"folk\" in America. The International Folk Music Council definition allows that the term can also apply to music that, \"...has originated with an individual composer and has subsequently been absorbed into the unwritten, living tradition of a community. But the term does not cover a song, dance, or tune that has been taken over ready-made and remains unchanged.\"\n",
"The Folk music genre is classified as the music that is orally passed from one generation to another. Usually the artist is unknown, and there are several different versions of the same song. The genre is transmitted by singing, listening and dancing to popular songs. This type of communication allows culture to transmit the styles (pitches and cadences) as well as the context it was developed. \n"
] |
how do earthquakes effect the rotation of the earth? wouldn't that be an object acting upon itself, like using a fan to power the sails on a sailboat
|
Rotation can be affected by the rearrangement of mass. Much like if you're spinning, pulling in your arms so more mass is towards the axis of rotation will make you spin faster and throwing your arms out will make you spin slower.
|
[
"Some movements are aperiodic, others regular, as the Earth tides caused by the lunar and solar gravitational field. The pendulums measure a distance of 95 m between the upper and lower mountings, which contributes to the fact that the instruments detect tectonic movements with high precision and are relatively immune to some of the noise which affects smaller instruments.\n",
"In popular (non-technical) usage of the term \"Coriolis effect\", the rotating reference frame implied is almost always the Earth. Because the Earth spins, Earth-bound observers need to account for the Coriolis force to correctly analyze the motion of objects. The Earth completes one rotation per day, so for motions of everyday objects the Coriolis force is usually quite small compared to other forces; its effects generally become noticeable only for motions occurring over large distances and long periods of time, such as large-scale movement of air in the atmosphere or water in the ocean. Such motions are constrained by the surface of the Earth, so only the horizontal component of the Coriolis force is generally important. This force causes moving objects on the surface of the Earth to be deflected to the right (with respect to the direction of travel) in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. The horizontal deflection effect is greater near the poles, since the effective rotation rate about a local vertical axis is largest there, and decreases to zero at the equator. Rather than flowing directly from areas of high pressure to low pressure, as they would in a non-rotating system, winds and currents tend to flow to the right of this direction north of the equator and to the left of this direction south of it. This effect is responsible for the rotation of large cyclones (see Coriolis effects in meteorology).\n",
"The Earth's rotation causes the Coriolis effect, which bends currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. When this bend brings the currents into more perpendicular contact with the shore, it can amplify the surge, and when it bends the current away from the shore it has the effect of lessening the surge.\n",
"Major earthquakes cause abrupt polar motion by altering the volume distribution of the Earth's solid mass. These shifts, however, are quite small in magnitude relative to the long-term core/mantle and isostatic rebound components of polar motion.\n",
"Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid structures. The severity of the local effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude, the distance from the epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave propagation. The ground-shaking is measured by ground acceleration.\n",
"Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high levels of shaking on the ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes. This effect is called site or local amplification. It is principally due to the transfer of the seismic motion from hard deep soils to soft superficial soils and to effects of seismic energy focalization owing to typical geometrical setting of the deposits.\n",
"The surface of the Earth is rotating, so it is not an inertial frame of reference. At latitudes nearer the Equator, the outward centrifugal force produced by Earth's rotation is larger than at polar latitudes. This counteracts the Earth's gravity to a small degree – up to a maximum of 0.3% at the Equator – and reduces the apparent downward acceleration of falling objects.\n"
] |
How much CO2 does the internet produce now?
|
As the internet is the result of the interconnection of billions of devices, each operating independently, in many different environments, each parameterised in its own way, a good portion of them being mobile and under variable workloads, I doubt it's in any way feasible to find an accurate result.
You could estimate a lot of it, but you'll have to settle for a lot of accuracy. Unless of course you want to convince everyone to provide telemetry on their devices and are willing to combine the results to give everyone an accurate picture. :-) It would be a grand experiment that would get you more than a handful of citations.
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[
"In 2011, researchers estimated the energy used by the Internet to be between 170 and 307 GW, less than two percent of the energy used by humanity. This estimate included the energy needed to build, operate, and periodically replace the estimated 750 million laptops, a billion smart phones and 100 million servers worldwide as well as the energy that routers, cell towers, optical switches, Wi-Fi transmitters and cloud storage devices use when transmitting Internet traffic. According to a study published in 2018, nearly 4% of global CO emission could be attributed to global data transfer and the necessary infrastructure. The study also said that online video streaming alone accounted for 60% of this data transfer and therefore contributed to over 300 million tons of CO emission per year.\n",
"Google disclosed in September 2011 that it \"continuously uses enough electricity to power 200,000 homes\", almost 260 million watts or about a quarter of the output of a nuclear power plant. Total carbon emissions for 2010 were just under 1.5 million metric tons, mostly due to fossil fuels that provide electricity for the data centers. Google said that 25 percent of its energy was supplied by renewable fuels in 2010. An average search uses only 0.3 watt-hours of electricity, so all global searches are only 12.5 million watts or 5% of the total electricity consumption by Google.\n",
"OLADE (Latin American Energy Association) estimated that CO emissions from electricity production in 2003 were 3.32 million tons of CO, which corresponds to 13% of total emissions from the energy sector.\n",
"OLADE (Latin American Energy Association) estimated that CO emissions from electricity production in 2003 were 1.57 million tons of CO, which corresponds to 25% of total emissions from the energy sector.\n",
"OLADE (\"Organización Latinoamericana de Energía\") estimated that CO emissions from electricity production in 2003 were 13.82 million tons of CO, which represents 25% of total emissions for the energy sector. It is estimated that, by 2030, emissions from electricity generation will account for the largest share of emissions from the energy sector, 39% (some 74 million tons) of the total.\n",
"For the most recent Global Carbon Budget released in December 2018, the GCP projects fossil CO emissions in 2018 to rise by 2.7% (range 1.8% to 3.7%) to a record 37.1 billion tonnes (Gt) CO, as policy and market forces are currently insufficient to overcome growth in fossil energy use. Atmospheric CO concentration is set to increase by 2.3 ppm [range 2.0 to 2.6 ppm] to reach 407 ppm on average in 2018, 45% above pre-industrial levels. Increases in global use of natural gas and oil are the primary causes of rising atmospheric CO concentrations today. Global coal use will likely increase in 2018 but still remain below its historical peak in 2013. Over the past decade, coal has been displaced by natural-gas-fired, wind, and solar power in some countries.\n",
"In 2011, according to the International Energy Agency, the actual CO emissions from electricity generation were 67.32 million metric tons, a share of 36.7% of the countries' total CO emissions from fuel combustion.\n"
] |
Why is coffee turbid when cooled down but clear when freshly made?
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What is coffee, exactly? A Solution? Suspension?
Turns out, hot black coffee is a solution, meaning that the coffee itself is dissolved in the hot water.
Perhaps you remember that solubility increases with heat (generally speaking). So when the water is hot, it will take in all the coffee it can while brewing. When it cools, the solubility decreases and the coffee precipitates out to become a suspension, and then cause that turbidity you are talking about.
|
[
"Because the ground coffee beans in cold-brewed coffee never come into contact with heated water, the process of leaching flavor from the beans produces a chemical profile different from conventional brewing methods. Coffee beans contain a number of constituent parts that are more soluble at higher temperatures, such as caffeine, oils and fatty acids. Brewing at a lower temperature results in lower acidity and lower caffeine content when brewed in equal volume. It is around 65 to 70 percent less acidic than hot drip coffee or espresso, per part. Although less caffeine is extracted with the cold brew method, a higher coffee-to-water ratio is often used, between 2 and 2 1/2 times. This may compensate for this difference in solubility, resulting in a brew with equal, if not more, caffeine (although this is unlikely).\n",
"Coffee contains flavor and aroma qualities that are created due to the Maillard reaction during roasting and can be preserved with freeze-drying. Compared to other drying methods like room temperature drying, hot-air drying, and solar drying, Robusta coffee beans that were freeze-dried contained higher amounts of essential amino acids like leucine, lysine, and phenylalanine. Also, few non-essential amino acids that significantly contributed to taste were preserved.\n",
"The spray-dried instant coffee contains nearly no oil, just tiny particles (coffee solids), some molecules responsible for flavour and taste, and caffeine. When dissolved, spray-dried coffee forms a simpler and more stable colloid relative to traditionally brewed coffee. This enables creation of the characteristic thick frothy layer at the top of the coffee. This layer appears similar to crema, the foam found in espresso, but is much thicker and the composition is different. It can be characterised mainly as a three phase colloid where tiny bubbles are held together by the coffee solids.\n",
"This process is mainly used when processing \"Coffea arabica\". After de-pulping, the beans are collected in fermentation tanks where bacterial removal of the mucilage takes place over 12 to 36 hours. The fermentation phase is important in the development of the flavour of the coffee, which is partially due to the microbiological processes that take place. The emergence of yeasts and moulds in acidic water can lead to off-flavors like \"sour coffee\" and \"onion-flavour\". However, wet processing is believed to yield higher quality coffee than the other processes since small amounts of off-flavors give the coffee its particular taste and \"body\".\n",
"As the brew continually seeps through the grounds, the overall temperature of the liquid approaches boiling point, at which stage the \"perking\" action (the characteristic spurting sound the pot makes) stops, and the coffee is ready for drinking. In a manual percolator it is important to remove or reduce the heat at this point. Brewed coffee left on high heat for too long will acquire a bitter taste.\n",
"Maragogipe coffee's flavor varies depending on the soil where it grows. Poor soils produce a coffee with diminished flavors. That is why it is often referred to as a coffee with \"not much flavor\", but the flavor can be enhanced by allowing these coffee beans to dry with its natural sugars.\n",
"The fermentation process has to be carefully monitored to ensure that the coffee doesn't acquire undesirable, sour flavors. For most coffees, mucilage removal through fermentation takes between 24 and 36 hours, depending on the temperature, thickness of the mucilage layer, and concentration of the enzymes. The end of the fermentation is assessed by feel, as the parchment surrounding the beans loses its slimy texture and acquires a rougher \"pebbly\" feel. When the fermentation is complete, the coffee is thoroughly washed with clean water in tanks or in special washing machines.\n"
] |
Is it possible to get high from second-hand cannabis smoke?
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This is actually one of the things we studied in forensic toxicology - the case of [Ross Rebagliati](_URL_0_), a Canadian snowboarder whose Olympic gold medal was in jeopardy after testing positive for marijuana. His defense was that he did not partake in smoking, but was in the vicinity as others smoked.
The conclusion in our class is that passive inhalation is usually not enough to give significant blood THC concentrations - one study reporting blood THC levels of 1 - 6 ng/mL right after exposure (to give context: with normal inhalation, blood THC rises to above 100 ng/mL in the minutes immediately after, and settles to about 30 ng/mL in about 20 minutes, in a typical user). And even obtaining that level required _extreme exposure_ - high concentration of smoke and limited volume ("hot-boxing"). Subjects complained of such severe eye irritation that they requested sealed goggles.
So my toxicology professor is adamant passive inhalation does next to nothing, physiologically.
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[
"Recent studies indicate that a natural cannabinoid of cannabis, cannabidiol (CBD), increases adult neurogenesis while having no effect on learning. THC however impaired learning and had no effect on neurogenesis. \n",
"According to Delphic analysis by British researchers in 2007, cannabis has a lower risk factor for dependence compared to both nicotine and alcohol. However, everyday use of cannabis may be correlated with psychological withdrawal symptoms, such as irritability or insomnia, and susceptibility to a panic attack may increase as levels of THC metabolites rise. However, cannabis withdrawal symptoms are typically mild and are never life-threatening.\n",
"A 25-year longitudinal study of \"1000 Christchurch born young people between the ages of 15–25\" concluded that \"regular or heavy cannabis use was associated with an increased risk of using other illicit drugs, abusing or becoming dependent upon other illicit drugs, and using a wider variety of other illicit drugs\". The lead author of the study, David Fergusson, stated:\n",
"Marijuana: The American Medical Association stated in \"Report 3 of the Council on Science and Public Health (I-09)\" that \"...Results of short term controlled trials indicate that smoked cannabis reduces neuropathic pain...\".\n",
"When cannabis is inhaled to relieve pain, blood levels of cannabinoids rise faster than when oral products are used, peaking within three minutes and attaining an analgesic effect in seven minutes. A 2014 review found limited and weak evidence that smoked cannabis was effective for chronic non-cancer pain. A 2015 meta-analysis found that inhaled medical cannabis was effective in reducing neuropathic pain in the short term for one in five to six patients. Another 2015 review found limited evidence that medical cannabis was effective for neuropathic pain when combined with traditional analgesics.\n",
"BULLET::::- Substance Use studies, including showing that patients who use marijuana have lower odds of achieving abstinence from other drugs and alcohol, that recreational drug use on weekends often turns into more frequent use, and that benzodiazepines increase the risk of opioid overdose.\n",
"It is possible that drug users may accidentally purchase a product without knowing that it has been laced with a more potent drug, but psychiatrist Dr Bill MacEwan believes that drug dealers in British Columbia are intentionally lacing cannabis with methamphetamine to make it more addictive. He had some psychiatric patients that claimed they only smoked pot but their drug tests were positive for methamphetamine use.\n"
] |
just how much less nutritious is food that has been frozen such as frozen fruits/meals
|
Calories should stay exactly the same. Mineral content will also be exactly the same. Some vitamins can be changed by various environmental factors including temperature. Vitamin C, for example, is degraded by exposure to oxygen. Freezing can actually help protect against oxidizing since liquid water more efficiently transports oxygen than frozen water. I honestly don't know chemistry details on most of the other vitamins, so hopefully someone else can weigh in there.
Freezing will primarily change the texture of food. This happens mostly because cell walls and other microstructures in the food get destroyed by the expansion and crystallization of water when it freezes. This is why thawed frozen fruits are almost always more mushy than fresh fruits. This destruction will make the food degrade *very* fast after the food is thawed. This is why most frozen foods are meant to be eaten directly after defrost and often instruct you to avoid refreezing them.
With frozen meals, the makers know that freezing will change textures to be less palatable. This is often alleviated by making meals that are heavily dependent on sauces which usually means adding considerable salt and simple sugars. Carb-heavy foods like potatoes are also more likely to reheat deliciously than most meats, fruits, and some veggies. This can make frozen meals tough to fit with some diet goals.
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[
"Food frozen at 0 °F and below is preserved indefinitely. However, the quality of the food will deteriorate if it is frozen over a lengthy period. The United States Department of Agriculture, Food Safety and Inspection Service publishes a chart showing the suggested freezer storage time for common foods.\n",
"Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below , which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product.\n",
"A very common and well known freeze dried item was the potato or when it was frozen, Chuño. All food grown or killed by the Inca could be freeze dried. Freeze drying is still very popular today. One of the biggest benefits for freeze drying is that it takes out all of the water and moisture but leaves all of the nutritious value. The water in meats and vegetables is what gives them a lot of their weight. This is what made it very popular for transportation purposes and storage because dried meats lasted twice as long as non freeze dried foods.\n",
"A 1997 study performed by the University of Illinois, 2007 study performed by University of California - Davis and a 2003 Austrian study support that canned or frozen produce has no substantial nutritional difference not attributable to the presence of added salt, syrup or other flavouring, and in fact suggest that canned or frozen produce is nutritionally superior because of the very rapid deterioration of nutrients in fresh produce. \n",
"Globally, about 60% of fresh foods are transported in the cold chain helping restrict loss in value and extending reach to distant markets. In India, While almost 12% of fruits and vegetables have access to storage capacity, less than 5% of such goods continue transport in the cold-chain with most of the fresh produce being subject to harsh climatic conditions. This results in the gross loss of perishable food items. Similar lack of cold-chain in the pharmaceutical sector witnesses increased risk and loss of medical products. Lack of appropriate integrated infrastructure in this sector also increases risk to frozen foods shipments. Despite being a large food producer globally, this disallows the supply chain to support India's aspirations to better serve its domestic population and increase its share in global food trade. NCCD is intended to address all segments and the developmental aspects of cold-chain.\n",
"Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n",
"Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n"
] |
why do people and animals get comfortable? what is comfort?
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Comfort is a lack of hardship, danger or stress. From an evolutionary point of view, avoiding dangerous situations is obviously beneficial to survival, so an animal that experienced negative emotions (discomfort) during these situations is going to try & avoid being in them. Feeling happy in a safe area means an animal would be more likely to stay in that safe area.
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[
"Comfort behaviours are performed from an early age and change little during development. Several comfort behaviours are associated with the beginning of a rest period (e.g. grooming), whereas others are associated with the end of a rest period (e.g. stretching), possibly to prepare the body for escape or hunting. Others, (e.g. dust bathing) will be performed only when the appropriate internal and external stimuli are present (see also sham dustbathing). Animals generally perform comfort behaviours only when they are not engaged in essential activities (e.g. feeding, drinking, hunting, escape); these behaviours are therefore sometimes categorised as \"luxury activities\". However, animals can be highly motivated to perform some comfort behaviours (e.g. dust bathing in hens), and conditions that thwart these behaviours (e.g. battery cages) are considered to have a negative influence on animal welfare.\n",
"There are many adaptive and functional purposes for comfort behaviours among a diverse group of animals. One function of comfort behaviours is hygiene, particularly in the form of ectoparasite removal. The animal removes the ectoparasites through the scratching or brushing of their own bodies, or the grooming of others. Through licking and brushing, animals such as the red squirrel clean wounds and remove dirt and debris from their bodies, also aiding in hygiene. Other physical purposes for comfort behaviours includes reduction in heart rates as seen in horses, and thermoregulation.\n",
"In contrast to service dogs who assist disabled people with physical tasks, comfort dogs are not trained in skilled tasks, but serve as constant companions with a keen sense for someone feeling down. They can provide a way for people who are distressed to find sanctuary.\n",
"Pets provide their owners (or \"guardians\") both physical and emotional benefits. Walking a dog can provide both the human and the dog with exercise, fresh air, and social interaction. Pets can give companionship to people who are living alone or elderly adults who do not have adequate social interaction with other people. There is a medically approved class of therapy animals, mostly dogs or cats, that are brought to visit confined humans, such as children in hospitals or elders in nursing homes. Pet therapy utilizes trained animals and handlers to achieve specific physical, social, cognitive or emotional goals with patients.\n",
"As companions, they love people and children and do make good pets. Their activity level is generally reflective of the pace of their environment. This breed should not be kept or live outside since they thrive on human contact.\n",
"Animals roles in society have commonly been companionship and work and research has found animals can have an overall positive effect on health and improve mood and quality of life. The positive effect has been linked to the human-animal bond. In a variety of settings, such as prisons, nursing homes, and mental institutions, animals are used to assist people with different disabilities or disorders. In modern times animals are seen as \"agents of socialization\" and as providers of \"social support and relaxation\". The earliest reported use of AAT for the mentally ill took place in the late 18th century at the York Retreat in England, led by William Tuke. Patients at this facility were allowed to wander the grounds which contained a population of small domestic animals. These were believed to be effective tools for socialization. In 1860, the Bethlem Hospital in England followed the same trend and added animals to the ward, greatly influencing the morale of the patients living there. However, in other pieces of literature it states that AAT was used as early as 1792 at the Quaker Society of Friends York Retreat in England. Velde, Cipriani & Fisher also state \"Florence Nightingale appreciated the benefits of pets in the treatment of individuals with illness.\"\n",
"Comfort (or being \"comfortable\") is a sense of physical or psychological ease, often characterized as a lack of hardship. Persons who are lacking in comfort are uncomfortable, or experiencing discomfort. A degree of psychological comfort can be achieved by recreating experiences that are associated with pleasant memories, such as engaging in familiar activities, maintaining the presence of familiar objects, and consumption of comfort foods. Comfort is a particular concern in health care, as providing comfort to the sick and injured is one goal of healthcare, and can facilitate recovery. Persons who are surrounded with things that provide psychological comfort may be described as being \"in their comfort zone\". Because of the personal nature of positive associations, psychological comfort is highly subjective.\n"
] |
what is so special about go pro type cameras that can't be done with just any video camera.
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They are a small, light, durable, relatively inexpensive camera that comes with a protective waterproof casing. The casing has a stand that can easily be mounted on a variety of surfaces.
The result is a camera that can be used in harsh environments without breaking, and is cheap enough that if it does break it won't bankrupt you to replace.
There are a number of camera that can do this, but GoPro was the first to combine these features in an easy to use product.
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[
"GoPro and other brands offer action cameras which are rugged, small and can be easily attached to helmet, arm, bicycle, etc. Most have wide angle and fixed focus, and can take still pictures and video, typically with sound.\n",
"Pro-Vision initially began as a manufacturer of cameras and recording systems that could be used in vehicles. Dashcams and backup cameras could be installed in commercial vehicles, school buses, and police cars to prevent accidents and limit liability. These devices continue to be manufactured by Pro-Vision. In recent years, their trademarked \"Bodycam\" has become one of their notable products. These devices can be clipped on to an officer's uniform (generally in the shoulder or chest area) where it can capture and record video of any incident with the public. The cameras have a 150-degree field of vision, are IP68 waterproof, and have night vision technology. The cameras shoot in 1296p HD at 30 frames per second.\n",
"GoPro released their first product, the GoPro HERO 35mm, which began a successful franchise of wearable cameras. The cameras can be worn atop the head or around the wrist and are shock and waterproof. GoPro cameras are used by many athletes and extreme sports enthusiasts, a trend that became very apparent during the early 2010s.\n",
"In comparison to photo or video cameras, these special cameras are very simple. However, it makes no sense to use them in an isolated manner. They are, as other sensors, only components of a bigger system (please cf. System integration).\n",
"Simple point-and-shoot cameras rely almost exclusively on their built-in automation and machine intelligence for capturing images under a variety of situations and offer no manual control over their functions, a trait which makes them unsuitable for use by professionals, enthusiasts and proficient consumers (also known as \"prosumers\"). Bridge cameras provide some degree of manual control over the camera's shooting modes, and some even have hot shoes and the option to attach lens accessories such as filters and secondary converters. DSLRs typically provide the photographer with full control over all the important parameters of photography and have the option to attach additional accessories using the hot shoe. including hot shoe-mounted flash units, battery grips for additional power and hand positions, external light meters, and remote controls. DSLRs typically also have fully automatic shooting modes.\n",
"There are several types of tripods. The least expensive, generally made of aluminum tubing and costing less than US$50, is used primarily for consumer still and video cameras; these generally come with an attached head and rubber feet. The head is very basic, and often not entirely suitable for smooth panning of a camcorder. A common feature, mostly designed for still cameras, allows the head to flip sideways 90 degrees to allow the camera to take pictures in portrait format rather than landscape. Often included is a small pin on the front of the mounting screw that is used to stabilize camcorders. This is not found on the more expensive photographic tripods.\n",
"Video camera readers use small video cameras with the same CCD technology as in a CCD barcode reader except that instead of having a single row of sensors, a video camera has hundreds of rows of sensors arranged in a two dimensional array so that they can generate an image.\n"
] |
Are there better job opportunities for historians depending on which history they study? Which fields have more demand?
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I can't grab a link right now, but the American Historical Association publishes a report once in a while evaluating the field. Their last was in 2013 and it showed that you do have slightly better odds with an Asian History focus, but if I remember correctly you still have less than a 50% of finding work in academia. Outside of academia, there aren't really any ways to track job success accurately. But in American non-academia there probably isn't great demand for an Asian historian.
So basically its a huge risk no matter what you choose and you can't really "plan" a history career anymore. It sort of depends on who you know and your timing, which no one can predict.
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[
"Professional historians typically work in colleges and universities, archival centers, government agencies, museums, and as freelance writers and consultants. The job market for new PhDs in history is poor and getting worse, with many relegated to part-time \"adjunct\" teaching jobs with low pay and no benefits.\n",
"Fink's third book, 1998's \"Progressive Intellectuals and the Dilemmas of Democratic Commitment,\" drew attention in the field of history for its focus on the tension which arises when educated historians study relatively uneducated workers. Using biographies of some of the top labor historians and intellectuals in the field of labor studies, Fink illustrated the problems which can arise when historians try to learn from workers at the same time that they attempt to advise them.\n",
"BULLET::::- Historians have employed political economy to explore the ways in the past that persons and groups with common economic interests have used politics to effect changes beneficial to their interests.\n",
"Low employability is found among teaching, humanities and some social sciences fields of study, like history, geography, linguistics, philosophy, sociology; or to a lesser degree among the exact sciences and natural sciences, such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology or geology, when these courses are oriented towards a teaching career instead of a more technical or scientific research career.\n",
"The most economics-minded historians have sought to relate education to changes in the quality of labor, productivity and economic growth, and rates of return on investment in education. A major recent exemplar is Claudia Goldin and Lawrence F. Katz, \"The Race between Education and Technology\" (2009), on the social and economic history of 20th-century American schooling.\n",
"The most economics-minded historians have sought to relate education to changes in the quality of labor, productivity and economic growth, and rates of return on investment in education. A major recent exemplar is Claudia Goldin and Lawrence F. Katz, \"The Race between Education and Technology\" (2009), on the social and economic history of 20th-century American schooling.\n",
"Local history research, like that of family history, is accessible to people without prior historical training or experience. This is because the very nature of local history is such that starting points are always available locally. An intelligent lay researcher can learn the necessary skills as they research. Archivists and societies can provide advice, encouragement, and information; formal courses of study are also widely available. Many local historians are non-specialists whose enthusiasm for history and have applied this to their area.\n"
] |
why do some pills come in bottles, and some in blister packs?
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Prescriptions that are dispensed in the US have to meet child safety standards. If you're buying it OTC it isn't being dispensed and thus doesn't have to meet the standards.
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[
"80% of pills in the world are packed with blister packaging, which is the most convenient type for several reasons. Blister packs have two main components, the “lid” and the “blister” (cavity). Lid is mainly manufactured with aluminum (Al) and paper. The Cavity consists of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP), polyester (PET) or aluminum (Al). If users employ proper disposal methods, all these materials can be recycled and the harmful effects to the environment can be minimized. However, a problem arises with the improper disposal either by burning or disposing as normal household waste.\n",
"Blister packs are a common form of packaging. They are safe and easy to use and the user can see the contents without opening the pack. Many pharmaceutical companies use a standard size of blister pack. This saves the cost of different tools and changing the production machinery between products. Sometimes the pack may be perforated so that individual tablets can be detached. This means that the expiry date and the drug's name must be printed on each part of the package. The blister pack itself must remain absolutely flat as it travels through the packaging processes, especially when it is inserted into a carton. Extra ribs are added to the blister pack to improve its stiffness.\n",
"Each box, as supplied by the manufacturer, contains 3 blister packs of 28 tablets packaged in individual boxes. Each blister pack of 28 tablets contains 24 pink active pills containing drospirenone 3 mg, ethinylestradiol 20 mcg, and levomefolate calcium 0.451 mg and four light orange inactive pills containing of levomefolate calcium 0.451 mg.\n",
"Blister packs are commonly used as unit-dose packaging for pharmaceutical tablets, capsules or lozenges. Blister packs can provide barrier protection for shelf life requirements, and a degree of tamper resistance. In the US, blister packs are mainly used for packing physician samples of drug products or for over-the-counter (OTC) products in the pharmacy. In other parts of the world, blister packs are the main packaging type since pharmacy dispensing and re-packaging are not common. A series of blister cavities is sometimes called a blister card or blister strip as well as blister pack. The difference between a strip pack and blister pack is that a strip pack does not have thermo-formed or cold formed cavities; the strip pack is formed around the tablet at a time when it is dropped to the sealing area between sealing moulds. In some parts of the world the pharmaceutical blister pack is known as a push-through pack (PTP), an accurate description of two key properties (i) the lidding foil is brittle, making it possible to press the product out while breaking the lidding foil and (ii) a semi-rigid formed cavity being sufficiently collapsible to be able to dispense the tablet or capsule by means of pressing it out with the thumb. Breaking the lidding foil with a fingernail for the appropriate tablet will make the pressing out easier.\n",
"In general longer fibers pill less than short ones because there are fewer ends of fibers, and because it is harder for the longer fibers to work themselves out of the cloth. Fabrics with a large number of loose fibers have a higher tendency to pill. Also, knitted fabrics tend to pill more than woven fabrics, because of the greater distance between yarn crossings in knitted fabrics than in woven ones. For the same reason, a tightly knitted object will pill less than a loosely knitted one. When a fabric is made of a blend of fibers where one fibre is significantly stronger than the other, pills tend to form as the weaker fibre wears and breaks, and the stronger fibre holds the pills onto the cloth.\n",
"Pills do not interfere with the functionality of the textile, unless a spot with a lot of pills turns into a hole in the fabric. This is because both pills and holes are caused by the fabric wearing—a pill is fibre that was in the cloth. After the pill forms the fabric is thinner there, increasing the likelihood that a hole will form.\n",
"Blister packs are pre-formed plastic/paper/foil packaging used for formed solid drugs. The primary component of a blister pack is a cavity or pocket made from a thermoformed plastic. This usually has a backing of paperboard or a lidding seal of aluminum foil or plastic film. Blister packs are useful for protecting drugs against external factors, such as humidity and contamination for extended periods of time.\n"
] |
Everest is currently the highest mountain on Earth (elevation above sea level). But mountain chains are growing/eroding all the time -- so when in the distant future Everest become second tallest, and what mountain will surpass it?
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Everest, and the Himalayan range is still growing, and will likely do so for many millions of years due to the Indian Sub-Continent pushing into Asia. This collision also created the Karakoram range (of K-2 fame), among others.
Which particular peak among the area will be the tallest in the future is hard to say due to factors like earthquakes and erosion that are hard to predict. There are other factors like depressing the crust that I won't really get into, but may play a factor. Some people think it unlikely that a peak could be too much higher than Everest is currently.
Considering that (if memory serves) the highest 100 peaks in the world are in this area, and are still growing, you can bet one of those existing peaks would be your best bet for surpassing Everest.
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[
"The South Summit of Mount Everest in the Himalayas is the second-highest peak on Earth, and is a subsidiary peak to the primary peak of Mount Everest. Although its elevation above sea level of is higher than the second-highest mountain on Earth, K2 (whose summit is above sea level), it is only considered a separate peak and not a separate mountain as its prominence is only 11 meters.\n",
"The highest summit in the world is Everest with height of 8844.43 m above sea level (29,029 ft). The first official ascent was made by Tenzing Norgay and Sir Edmund Hillary. They reached the mountain's peak in 1953.\n",
"Mount Everest was climbed the following year. On 26 May, three days before the successful attempt, Tom Bourdillon and Charles Evans reached the South Summit before turning back due to malfunctioning oxygen apparatus. Their height of 8,760 m (28,750 ft) represented a new, short lived, altitude record, and can be seen as a summit record if this is taken to include minor tops as well as genuine mountains. Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay finally reached the 8,848 m (29,029 ft) true summit on 29 May 1953, marking the final chapter in the history of the mountaineering altitude record. While the exact height of Everest's summit is subject to minor variation due to the level of snow cover and the gradual upthrust of the Himalaya, significant changes to the world altitude record are now impossible.\n",
"Mount Everest is the world's highest mountain, with a peak at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) above sea level. Its summit was first achieved in 1953 after numerous failed attempts that began in 1921. The first person to finally set foot on its summit was New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary, who was accompanied by Tenzing Norgay of India. Both M. Magendran and N. Mohanadas were conferred Datukships by the Penang state government in 2010 for their Himalayan achievement. Both men were also conferred the Federal 'Datukships' title by the King of Malaysia in Jun 2011 \n",
"However, the massif remained unclimbed until 1960. The Amne Machin mountains had been overflown by a few American pilots who overestimated the elevation to 30,000 feet (9,100 m). A 1930 article of the National Geographic estimated the peak elevation to 28,000 feet [8,500 m] according to the report of Joseph Rock, an American botanist and explorer who, despite death threats from the Golog Tibetans, had ventured to within 80 km of the mountain. For a while, the mountains were considered as a possible place for a peak higher than Mount Everest. While Rock only downgraded his estimate publicly in 1956 to \"not much more than 21,000 feet\", he did give a detailed description of the peaks: By 1980 Anyi Machen had been resurveyed at .\n",
"The summit of Everest is the point at which earth's surface reaches the greatest distance above sea level. Several other mountains are sometimes claimed to be the \"tallest mountains on earth\". Mauna Kea in Hawaii is tallest when measured from its base; it rises over when measured from its base on the mid-ocean floor, but only attains above sea level.\n",
"The height of Mount Everest was calculated to be exactly high, but was publicly declared to be in order to avoid the impression that an exact height of was nothing more than a rounded estimate. Waugh is therefore wittily credited with being \"\"the first person to put two feet on top of Mount Everest\"\".\n"
] |
Do dogs have an awareness of seasonal weather change?
|
Why would you think that they might not. They live long enough to experience many seasons. Their breeding cycle is tied to the seasons, they can feel both hot and cold, they know what snow is (whether they like it or not), et. al.
Not to mention that the modern domesticated dog will certainly see us responding to seasonal changes through what we wear, eat, etc. In summer, they will camp out near the air conditioner, and near the heater in winter. You could certainly say that they are just responding to immediate stimuli, but they are smarter than that. I've had dogs that will drag their beds to different spots in the house to take advantage of heating/cooling. That involves some forward thinking.
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[
"Since changes in season can coincide with favorable changes in environment, the distinction between seasonal breeder and opportunistic can be muddled. In equatorial climes, the change in seasons is not always perceptible and thus, changes in day length not remarkable. Thus, the tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus) previously categorized as a seasonal breeder is now suspected to be an opportunistic breeder.\n",
"All prairie dogs, including the Gunnison's prairie dog are diurnal. This means they exert the most activity in the early morning and late afternoon. During warm weather, the highest activity levels occur at about 9 a.m., and from 2 p.m. to about an hour before the sun sets. When the temperature starts to cool, they become more active during the day. When it snows or rains, the prairie dogs will stay underground.\n",
"Dogs may exhibit severe anxiety during thunderstorms; between 15 and 30 percent may be affected. Research confirms high levels of cortisol - a hormone associated with stress - affects dogs during and after thunderstorms. Remedies include behavioral therapies such as counter conditioning and desensitization, anti-anxiety medications, and Dog Appeasing Pheromone, a synthetic analogue of a hormone secreted by nursing canine mothers.\n",
"Apart from daily alternations in the environment, there are substantial seasonal variations that animals must adapt to across the year. Working with Drent, Daan showed that one strategy used to deal with seasonal changes is to adjust the number and even sex of offspring.\n",
"Even after astrology and its influence on health and agriculture waned in importance, the \"dog days\" continues to be vaguely applied to the hottest days of the summer, with its attendant effects on nature and society. In North America, it became proverbial among farmers that a dry growing season through the dog days was preferable to the trouble of a wet one:\n",
"Dogs with canine cognitive dysfunction may exhibit many symptoms associated with senile behavior and dementia. Dogs will often find themselves confused in familiar places of the home, spending long periods of time in one area of the home, not responding to calls or commands, and experiencing abnormal sleeping patterns. Although some of these symptoms may be attributed to old age itself, when they are exhibited together, there is a higher likelihood of CCD.\n",
"Sun dogs were apparently well known during the Middle Ages, as they are mentioned in the \"Old Farmer's Almanac\" (\"Bondepraktikan\") which states that the phenomenon forecasts strong winds, and also rain if the sun dogs are more pale than red. According to the passage in the \"Vasa Chronicle\", however, both Petri and the master of the mint Anders Hansson were sincerely troubled by the appearance of these sun dogs. Petri interpreted the signs over Stockholm as a warning from God and had the \"Vädersolstavlan\" painting produced and hung in front of his congregation. Notwithstanding this devotion, he was far from certain on how to interpret these signs and in a sermon delivered in late summer 1535, he explained there are two kinds of omens: one produced by the Devil to allure mankind away from God, and another produced by God to attract mankind away from the Devil — one being hopelessly difficult to tell from the other. He therefore saw it as his duty to warn both his congregation, mostly composed of German burghers united by their conspiracy against the king, and the king himself.\n"
] |
what is the philosophy behind a ddos attack on gaming servers?
|
It's a cry for attention, similar to what a baby does when they poop their diapers.
|
[
"A DDoS attack is characterized by an explicit attempt by attackers to prevent legitimate users of a service from using that service. A hit-and-run DDoS is accomplished by using high volume network or application attacks in short bursts. The attacks only last long enough to bring down the server hosting the service, normally 20 to 60 minutes. The attack is then repeated every 12 to 24 hours over a period of days or weeks, causing issues for the company hosting the service.\n",
"A denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) or distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack) is an attempt to make a computer resource unavailable to its intended users. Another way of understanding DDoS is seeing it as attacks in cloud computing environment that are growing due to the essential characteristics of cloud computing. Although the means to carry out, motives for, and targets of a DoS attack may vary, it generally consists of the concerted efforts to prevent an Internet site or service from functioning efficiently or at all, temporarily or indefinitely. According to businesses who participated in an international business security survey, 25% of respondents experienced a DoS attack in 2007 and 16.8% experienced one in 2010. DoS attacks often use bots (or a botnet) to carry out the attack.\n",
"A distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack occurs when numerous systems flood the bandwidth or resources of a targeted system, usually one or more web servers. Such an attack is often the result of multiple systems (for example a botnet) flooding the targeted system with traffic. When a server is overloaded with connections, new connections can no longer be accepted.\n",
"An application layer DDoS attack (sometimes referred to as layer 7 DDoS attack) is a form of DDoS attack where attackers target application-layer processes. The attack over-exercises specific functions or features of a website with the intention to disable those functions or features. This application-layer attack is different from an entire network attack, and is often used against financial institutions to distract IT and security personnel from security breaches. In 2013, application-layer DDoS attacks represented 20% of all DDoS attacks. According to research by Akamai Technologies, there have been \"51 percent more application layer attacks\" from Q4 2013 to Q4 2014 and \"16 percent more\" from Q3 2014 over Q4 2014. In November 2017; Junade Ali, a Computer Scientist at Cloudflare noted that whilst network-level attacks continue to be of high capacity, they are occurring less frequently. Ali further notes that although network-level attacks are becoming less frequent, data from Cloudflare demonstrates that application-layer attacks are still showing no sign of slowing down.\n",
"DDoS attacks are executed against websites and networks of selected victims. A number of vendors are offering \"DDoS resistant\" hosting services, mostly based on techniques similar to content delivery networks. Distribution avoids single point of congestion and prevents the DDoS attack from concentrating on a single target.\n",
"A distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack occurs when multiple systems flood the bandwidth or resources of a targeted system, usually one or more web servers. Such an attack is often the result of multiple compromised systems (for example, a botnet) flooding the targeted system with traffic. A botnet is a network of zombie computers programmed to receive commands without the owners' knowledge. When a server is overloaded with connections, new connections can no longer be accepted. The major advantages to an attacker of using a distributed denial-of-service attack are that multiple machines can generate more attack traffic than one machine, multiple attack machines are harder to turn off than one attack machine, and that the behavior of each attack machine can be stealthier, making it harder to track and shut down. These attacker advantages cause challenges for defense mechanisms. For example, merely purchasing more incoming bandwidth than the current volume of the attack might not help, because the attacker might be able to simply add more attack machines. This, after all, will end up completely crashing a website for periods of time.\n",
"In computing, a denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) or distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack) is an attempt to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users. Perpetrators of DoS attacks typically target sites or services hosted on high-profile web servers such as banks, credit card payment gateways, and even root nameservers. DoS attacks may not be limited to computer-based methods, as strategic physical attacks against infrastructure can be just as devastating. For example, cutting undersea communication cables may severely cripple some regions and countries with regards to their information warfare ability.\n"
] |
Is there a limit to the number of immunity genes bacteria can carry?
|
Now theoretically, there must be a physical limit to the quantity of DNA that can be present in a typically sized bacterial cell (or any cell, for that matter). However, realistically it's probably never ever going to occur, due to the huge, vast quantities of DNA that can fit in one cell. The ameboid Polychaos dubium has the largest known genome of any organism (670 gigabases, that's 670,000,000,000 bases). Your average bacteria has a genome of 1mb to 10mb (megabase), and even though an amoeba cell is much bigger than your average bacterium, it can't account for such a discrepancy.
(Interestingly, there's absolutely no correlation between genome size and organism complexity - we only have about 3.2 gigabases in our genome.)
And even if you could overload a cell with DNA, the chance of it occurring in evolution is just as low - without a selection pressure genes are lost by neutral evolution and a number of other mechanisms. Unless we keep using ever bigger cocktails of antibiotics, and never retire old antibiotics even though they don't work anymore, then bacteria will not maintain every single resistance gene.
|
[
"Given that over 80% of almost all of the fully sequenced bacterial genomes consist of intact ORFs, and that gene length is nearly constant at ~1 kb per gene, it is inferred that small genomes have few metabolic capabilities. While free-living bacteria, such as \"E. coli\", \"Salmonella\" species, or \"Bacillus\" species, usually have 1500 to 6000 proteins encoded in their DNA, obligately pathogenic bacteria often have as few as 500 to 1000 such proteins.\n",
"There are more than 900 restriction enzymes, some sequence specific and some not, have been isolated from over 230 strains of bacteria since the initial discovery of \"Hind\"II. These restriction enzymes generally have names that reflect their origin—The first letter of the name comes from the genus and the second two letters come from the species of the prokaryotic cell from which they were isolated. For example, \"Eco\"RI comes from Escherichia coli RY13 bacteria, while HindII comes from Haemophilus influenzae strain Rd. Numbers following the nuclease names indicate the order in which the enzymes were isolated from single strains of bacteria: \"Eco\"RI, \"Eco\"RII.\n",
"New genes may be introduced into bacteria by a bacteriophage that has replicated within a donor through generalized transduction or specialized transduction. The amount of DNA that can be transmitted in one event is constrained by the size of the phage capsid (although the upper limit is about 100 kilobases). While phages are numerous in the environment, the range of microorganisms that can be transduced depends on receptor recognition by the bacteriophage. Transduction does not require both donor and recipient cells to be present simultaneously in time nor space. Phage-encoded proteins both mediate the transfer of DNA into the recipient cytoplasm and assist integration of DNA into the chromosome.\n",
"Recently, two strains of this bacteria - subsp. \"sepidonicum\" and subsp. \"michiganensis\" - have had their genomes sequenced and annotated. There is still much to discover about this pathogen-host interaction but now that the genome has been sequenced, the rate of discoveries will likely increase. One of the main goals pertaining to research of these bacterial genomes is to develop resistant varieties. Unfortunately, no resistant varieties have yet been found.\n",
"Bacteria genomes usually encode a few hundred to a few thousand genes. The genes in bacterial genomes are usually a single continuous stretch of DNA and although several different types of introns do exist in bacteria, these are much rarer than in eukaryotes.\n",
"Some bacteria are naturally resistant to certain antibiotics; for example, gram-negative bacteria are resistant to most β-lactam antibiotics due to the presence of β-lactamase. Antibiotic resistance can also be acquired as a result of either genetic mutation or horizontal gene transfer. Although mutations are rare, with spontaneous mutations in the pathogen genome occurring at a rate of about 1 in 10 to 1 in 10 per chromosomal replication, the fact that bacteria reproduce at a high rate allows for the effect to be significant. Given that lifespans and production of new generations can be on a timescale of mere hours, a new (de novo) mutation in a parent cell can quickly become an inherited mutation of widespread prevalence, resulting in the microevolution of a fully resistant colony. However, chromosomal mutations also confer a cost of fitness. For example, a ribosomal mutation may protect a bacterial cell by changing the binding site of an antibiotic but will also slow protein synthesis. manifesting, in slower growth rate. Moreover, some adaptive mutations can propagate not only through inheritance but also through horizontal gene transfer. The most common mechanism of horizontal gene transfer is the transferring of plasmids carrying antibiotic resistance genes between bacteria of the same or different species via conjugation. However, bacteria can also acquire resistance through transformation, as in \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\" uptaking of naked fragments of extracellular DNA that contain antibiotic resistance genes to streptomycin, through transduction, as in the bacteriophage-mediated transfer of tetracycline resistance genes between strains of \"S. pyogenes\", or through gene transfer agents, which are particles produced by the host cell that resemble bacteriophage structures and are capable of transferring DNA.\n",
"Obligatory parasites and symbionts have the smallest genome sizes due to prolonged effects of deletional bias. Parasites which have evolved to occupy specific niches are not exposed to much selective pressure. As such, genetic drift dominates the evolution of niche-specific bacteria. Extended exposure to deletional bias ensures the removal of most superfluous sequences. Symbionts occur in drastically lower numbers and undergo the most severe bottlenecks of any bacterial type. There is almost no opportunity for gene transfer for endosymbiotic bacteria, and thus genome compaction can be extreme. One of the smallest bacterial genomes ever to be sequenced is that of the endosymbiont \"Carsonella rudii\".\n"
] |
what has the large hadron collider discovered exactly?
|
Many things. Too many to list and explain individually (many are very technical and incapable of being eli5'd), but the biggest thing, and in many ways the thing the LHC was built to discover, was is the [Higgs boson](_URL_0_). At the time of the construction of the LHC, the Higgs boson was a theorized and predicted yet undiscovered elementary particle that was a big missing piece in quantum physics. The confirmed discovery of the Higgs boson was hugely significant and answered a ton of questions in particle physics while also creating new questions for us to answer.
|
[
"The ISR (standing for \"Intersecting Storage Rings\") was a particle accelerator at CERN. It was the world's first hadron collider, and ran from 1971 to 1984, with a maximum center of mass energy of 62 GeV. From its initial startup, the collider itself had the capability to produce particles like the J/ψ and the upsilon, as well as observable jet structure; however, the particle detector experiments were not configured to observe events with large momentum transverse to the beamline, leaving these discoveries to be made at other experiments in the mid-1970s. Nevertheless, the construction of the ISR involved many advances in accelerator physics, including the first use of stochastic cooling, and it held the record for luminosity at a hadron collider until surpassed by the Tevatron in 2004.\n",
"In 1966, work began on the Intersecting Storage Rings at CERN, and in 1971, this collider was operational. The ISR was a pair of storage rings that accumulated particles injected by the CERN Proton Synchrotron. This was the first hadron collider, as all of the earlier efforts had worked with electrons or with electrons and positrons.\n",
"The Large Hadron Electron Collider (LHeC) is an accelerator study for a possible upgrade of the existing LHC storage ring - the currently highest energy proton accelerator operating at CERN in Geneva. By adding to the proton accelerator ring a new electron accelerator, the LHeC would enable the investigation of electron-proton and electron-ion collisions at unprecedented high energies and rate, much higher than had been possible at the electron-proton collider HERA at DESY at Hamburg, which terminated its operation in 2007. The LHeC has therefore a unique program of research, as on the substructure of the proton and nuclei or the physics of the newly discovered Higgs boson.\n",
"The Large Hadron Collider at CERN in Switzerland, was designed specifically to be able to either confirm or exclude the existence of the Higgs boson. Built in a 27 km tunnel under the ground near Geneva originally inhabited by LEP, it was designed to collide two beams of protons, initially at energies of per beam (7 TeV total), or almost 3.6 times that of the Tevatron, and upgradeable to (14 TeV total) in future. Theory suggested if the Higgs boson existed, collisions at these energy levels should be able to reveal it. As one of the most complicated scientific instruments ever built, its operational readiness was delayed for 14 months by a magnet quench event nine days after its inaugural tests, caused by a faulty electrical connection that damaged over 50 superconducting magnets and contaminated the vacuum system.\n",
"The Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC ) is the first and one of only two operating heavy-ion colliders, and the only spin-polarized proton collider ever built. Located at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) in Upton, New York, and used by an international team of researchers, it is the only operating particle collider in the US. By using RHIC to collide ions traveling at relativistic speeds, physicists study the primordial form of matter that existed in the universe shortly after the Big Bang. By colliding spin-polarized protons, the spin structure of the proton is explored.\n",
"The LHCb (Large Hadron Collider beauty) experiment is one of seven particle physics detector experiments collecting data at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. LHCb is a specialized b-physics experiment, designed primarily to measure the parameters of CP violation in the interactions of b-hadrons (heavy particles containing a bottom quark). Such studies can help to explain the matter-antimatter asymmetry of the Universe. The detector is also able to perform measurements of production cross sections, exotic hadron spectroscopy, charm physics and electroweak physics in the forward region. The LHCb collaboration, who built, operate and analyse data from the experiment, is composed of approximately 1260 people from 74 scientific institutes, representing 16 countries. As of 2017, the spokesperson for the collaboration is Giovanni Passaleva. The experiment is located at point 8 on the LHC tunnel close to Ferney-Voltaire, France just over the border from Geneva. The (small) MoEDAL experiment shares the same cavern.\n",
"BULLET::::- CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) (Franco-Swiss border, near Geneva). Its main project is now the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which had its first beam circulation on 10 September 2008, and is now the world's most energetic collider of protons. It also became the most energetic collider of heavy ions after it began colliding lead ions. Earlier facilities include the Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP), which was stopped on 2 November 2000 and then dismantled to give way for LHC; and the Super Proton Synchrotron, which is being reused as a pre-accelerator for the LHC and for fixed-target experiments.\n"
] |
how come it's always night on moon and you can see the space as it is?
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The colour of the sky is caused by sunlight light bouncing around within the atmosphere. At night, on earth, there's no sunlight so it appears black.
On the moon there's no atmosphere, so whether or not there's any sunlight, it still appears black.
|
[
"The term night sky, usually associated with astronomy from Earth, refers to the nighttime appearance of celestial objects like stars, planets, and the Moon, which are visible in a clear sky between sunset and sunrise, when the Sun is below the horizon.\n",
"The term night sky refers to the sky as seen at night. The term is usually associated with skygazing and astronomy, with reference to views of celestial bodies such as stars, the Moon, and planets that become visible on a clear night after the Sun has set. Natural light sources in a night sky include moonlight, starlight, and airglow, depending on location and timing. The fact that the sky is not completely dark at night can be easily observed. Were the sky (in the absence of moon and city lights) absolutely dark, one would not be able to see the silhouette of an object against the sky.\n",
"It may be less obvious why the \"moon\" (\"tsuki\") is an autumn kigo, since it is visible year round. In autumn the days become shorter and the nights longer, yet they are still warm enough to stay outside, so one is more likely to notice the moon. Often, the night sky will be free of clouds in autumn, with the moon visible. The full moon can help farmers work after the sun goes down to harvest their crops (a \"harvest moon\").\n",
"The Moon is directly illuminated by the Sun, and the cyclically varying viewing conditions cause the lunar phases. Sometimes the dark portion of the Moon is faintly visible due to earthshine, which is indirect sunlight reflected from the surface of Earth and onto the Moon.\n",
"Full moon is generally a suboptimal time for astronomical observation of the Moon because shadows vanish. It is a poor time for other observations because the bright sunlight reflected by the Moon, amplified by the opposition surge, then outshines many stars.\n",
"BULLET::::- The Moon - A real, faceless, silent moon which appears every night of the year in Natterjack Forest. The moon is not always seen in the sky, but its only role is to brighten up the darkness in the forest between Dusk and Dawn every day of the year.\n",
"Earth's Moon is a grey disc in the sky with cratering visible to the naked eye. It spans, depending on its exact location, 29-33 arcminutes - which is about the size of a thumbnail at arm's length, and is readily identified. Over 27.3 days, the moon goes through a full cycle of lunar phases. People can generally identify phases within a few days by looking at the moon. Unlike stars and most planets, the light reflected from the moon is bright enough to be seen during the day. (Venus can sometimes be seen even after sunrise.)\n"
] |
Oil and natural gas come from decomposing ancient life. But how did these substances get so far beneath the surface of the Earth?
|
They get buried. Sediments get deposited on top of them, from processes such as sand dunes, rivers, volcanic eruptions, ocean deposits, and such.
Once you pile a bunch of sediments over a landscape, the landscape sinks from the weight, which often allows for more sediments to be piled on top. Nearby continents (or volcanoes or mountain ranges) are often long-term supplies of material that can be eroded/erupted and layered on offshore ocean floors or on top of surrounding landscapes.
Sedimentary layers can be many kilometers thick if left to accumulate over long enough time spans, so any organic material that is deposited within those layers has a chance of being buried deep enough to form oil or natural gas deposits (although the vast majority of oil and natural gas deposits come from marine deposits, and so are at least initially buried by marine sediments).
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[
"Aquatic phytoplankton and zooplankton that died and sedimented in large quantities under anoxic conditions millions of years ago began forming petroleum and natural gas as a result of anaerobic decomposition. Over geological time this organic matter, mixed with mud, became buried under further heavy layers of inorganic sediment. The resulting high levels of heat and pressure caused the organic matter to chemically alter, first into a waxy material known as kerogen which is found in oil shales, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in a process known as catagenesis. Despite these heat driven transformations (which may increase the energy density compared to typical organic matter), the embedded energy is still photosynthetic in origin.\n",
"Hydrocarbon liquids such as Crude oil found in oil reservoirs formed in the Earth's crust from the left-over of once-living creatures. Evidence indicates that millions of years of heat and pressure changed the remains of microscopic plant and animal into oil and natural gas.\n",
"The World's natural oil supply is fixed because petroleum is naturally formed far too slowly to be replaced at the rate at which it is being extracted. Over many millions of years, plankton, bacteria, and other plant and animal matter became buried in sediments on the ocean floor. When conditions were right – a lack of oxygen for decomposition, and sufficient depth and temperature of burial – these organic remains were converted into petroleum compounds, while the sediment accompanying them was converted into sandstone, siltstone, and other porous sedimentary rock. When capped by impermeable rocks such as shale, salt, or igneous intrusions, they formed the petroleum reservoirs which are exploited today.\n",
"Oil and gas form on the bottom of shallow seas when micro-organisms decompose under anoxic conditions and later become covered with sediment. Many deserts were at one time the sites of shallow seas and others have had underlying hydrocarbon deposits transported to them by the movement of tectonic plates.\n",
"Some abiogenic hypotheses have proposed that oil and gas did not originate from fossil deposits, but have instead originated from deep carbon deposits, present since the formation of the Earth. Additionally, it has been suggested that hydrocarbons may have arrived on Earth from solid bodies such as comets and asteroids from the late formation of the Solar System, carrying hydrocarbons with them.\n",
"It may be possible to make petroleum from any kind of organic matter under suitable conditions. The concentration of organic matter is not very high in the original deposits, but petroleum and natural gas evolved in places that favored retention, such as sealed-off porous sandstones. Petroleum, produced over millions of years by natural changes in organic materials, accumulates beneath the earth's surface in extremely large quantities.\n",
"Crude oil is found in all oil reservoirs formed in the Earth's crust from the remains of once-living things. Evidence indicates that millions of years of heat and pressure changed the remains of microscopic plant and animal into oil and natural gas.\n"
] |
Do fingerprints change as you age? For instance if your fingerprinted at 5 years old will it have any similarity to your fingerprints at 20?
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The pattern won't change. You can get a scar that would show up on newer prints that wouldn't show up on older prints. It shouldn't affect identification of a print.
You can still ID the prints by matching loops, whirls, and arches.
|
[
"Since the elasticity of skin decreases with age, many senior citizens have fingerprints that are difficult to capture. The ridges get thicker; the height between the top of the ridge and the bottom of the furrow gets narrow, so there is less prominence.\n",
"The strong effects of age on DNA methylation levels have been known since the late 1960s. A vast literature describes sets of CpGs whose DNA methylation levels correlate with age, e.g. The first robust demonstration that DNA methylation levels in saliva could generate accurate age predictors was published by a UCLA team including Steve Horvath in 2011 (Bocklandt et al 2011). The labs of Trey Ideker and Kang Zhang at the University of California, San Diego published the Hannum epigenetic clock (Hannum 2013), which consisted of 71 markers that accurately estimate age based on blood methylation levels. \n",
"At least 25 studies have demonstrated that DNA damage accumulates with age in the mammalian brain. This DNA damage includes the oxidized nucleoside 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), single- and double-strand breaks, DNA-protein crosslinks and malondialdehyde adducts (reviewed in Bernstein et al.). Increasing DNA damage with age has been reported in the brains of the mouse, rat, gerbil, rabbit, dog, and human. Young 4-day-old rats have about 3,000 single-strand breaks and 156 double-strand breaks per neuron, whereas in rats older than 2 years the level of damage increases to about 7,400 single-strand breaks and 600 double-strand breaks per neuron.\n",
"Lu et al. studied the transcriptional profiles of the human frontal cortex of individuals ranging from 26 to 106 years of age. This led to the identification of a set of genes whose expression was altered after age 40. They further found that the promoter sequences of these particular genes accumulated oxidative DNA damage, including 8-OHdG, with age (see DNA damage theory of aging). They concluded that DNA damage may reduce the expression of selectively vulnerable genes involved in learning, memory and neuronal survival, initiating a pattern of brain aging that starts early in life.\n",
"In a study that analyzed the complete DNA methylomes of CD4 T cells in a newborn, a 26 years old individual and a 103 years old individual was observed that the loss of methylation is proportional to age. Hypomethylated CpGs observed in the centenarian DNAs compared with the neonates covered all genomic compartments (promoters, intergenic, intronic and exonic regions). However, some genes become hypermethylated with age, including genes for the estrogen receptor, p16, and insulin-like growth factor 2.\n",
"DNA methylation's age relation has been further investigated in the promoter regions of several Alzheimer's related genes in the brains of postmortem late-onset Alzheimer's disease patients. The older patients seem to have more abnormal epigenetic machinery than the younger patients, despite the fact that both had died from Alzheimer's. Though this in of itself is not conclusive evidence of anything, it has led to an age-related epigenetic drift theory where abnormalities in epigenetic machinery and exposure to certain environmental factors which occur earlier in life lead to aberrant DNA methylation patterns far later, contributing to sporadic Alzheimer's Disease predisposition.\n",
"In 2011, the government led by Abhisit Vejjajiva proposed that the minimum age for identification card should be reduced from 15 to 7 years, in order to reduce the use of birth certificate and other evidences for children.\n"
] |
why is it safe to put some chemicals like hydrogen peroxide on open wounds, but not to ingest them?
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It's not just about getting into your blood, it also has to do with the way it's broken down in your body, and what it comes in contact with along the way. That said, most things that would be poisonous to rub on a wound are also poisonous to ingest.
Hydrogen peroxide at the concentrations you'd use on a cut is actually pretty harmless if ingested, too. It'll jack up your stomach, but that's about it. At the end of the day, though, the dose makes the poison (repeat that about a thousand times a day and maybe you'll ward off the crazy people like Vani Hari). If you ingest enough hydrogen peroxide, yeah, it'll still kill you. But it would be a *lot* more than you'd be exposed to just pouring on a cut. And if the concentration were high enough, it would kill you to drink it pretty quick, but at those concentrations it'll burn the shit out of your skin, too.
Another example would be, say, urushiol, which is the chemical on poison ivy that makes you itch. If it gets on your skin, you itch, it sucks, probably won't kill you unless something weird happens. But if you swallow it, it's exceedingly dangerous, but not because it gets in your blood. It hits your esophagus and causes it to itch and burn (just like your arm), and swell. Which can lead to suffocating! Or if you *burn* poison ivy (which you should never never never do) the urushiol gets into your **lungs**...and then the itching and swelling, and super bad things happen to your very delicate lungs.
Then there's snake venom: will kill the shit out of you if you get it [in your blood](_URL_0_), but it's actually mostly harmless to ingest. Mind, if your esophagus is cut, the venom can enter your blood stream that way, but if it gets into your stomach, your acid breaks it down so it can't actually hurt you.
There are some chemicals (that I can't think of at the moment) that affect your stomach acid chemistry, which can kill you. There are even some that kill you WITH your stomach acid by destroying your stomach lining so your own acid hurts your stomach.
So that's the long version. The short version is: everything is made of chemicals, different chemicals interact differently. Some things are only poisonous in large amounts that you won't get from a cut, or only kill you when interacting with your stomach.
|
[
"A recent double-blind crossover study suggests that hydrogen peroxide, which is released during the use of this product, may prevent or retard colonization and multiplication of anaerobic bacteria, such as those that inhabit oral wounds.\n",
"A 1979 double-blind crossover study suggests that hydrogen peroxide, which is released during the use of this product, may prevent or retard colonization and multiplication of anaerobic bacteria, such as those that inhabit oral wounds.\n",
"Historically hydrogen peroxide was used for disinfecting wounds, partly because of its low cost and prompt availability compared to other antiseptics. It is now thought to inhibit healing and to induce scarring because it destroys newly formed skin cells. Only a very low concentration of HO can induce healing, and only if not repeatedly applied. Surgical use can lead to gas embolism formation. Despite this, it is still used for wound treatment in many countries but is also prevalent as a major first aid antiseptic in the United States.\n",
"The most hazardous compound is hydrogen cyanide, which is a gas and kills by inhalation. For this reason, an air respirator supplied by an external oxygen source must be worn when working with hydrogen cyanide. Hydrogen cyanide is produced by adding acid to a solution containing a cyanide salt. Alkaline solutions of cyanide are safer to use because they do not evolve hydrogen cyanide gas. Hydrogen cyanide may be produced in the combustion of polyurethanes; for this reason, polyurethanes are not recommended for use in domestic and aircraft furniture. Oral ingestion of a small quantity of solid cyanide or a cyanide solution as little as 200 mg, or exposure to airborne cyanide of 270 ppm, is sufficient to cause death within minutes.\n",
"Hydrogen peroxide, either in pure or diluted form, can pose several risks, the main one being that it forms explosive mixtures upon contact with organic compounds. Highly concentrated hydrogen peroxide itself is unstable and can cause a boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE) of the remaining liquid. Distillation of hydrogen peroxide at normal pressures is thus highly dangerous. It is also corrosive, especially when concentrated, but even domestic-strength solutions can cause irritation to the eyes, mucous membranes and skin. Swallowing hydrogen peroxide solutions is particularly dangerous, as decomposition in the stomach releases large quantities of gas (10 times the volume of a 3% solution), leading to internal bloating. Inhaling over 10% can cause severe pulmonary irritation.\n",
"Hydrogen peroxide is an irritant and cytotoxic. Hydrogen peroxide with concentrations of 10% or higher can cause tissue damage, be corrosive to mucous membranes and cause burning sensation to the skin. Chemical burns can commonly occur whilst bleaching, irritation and discolouration of the mucous membranes may occur if a high concentration of oxidising agent comes in to contact with unprotected tissue. Poorly fitting bleaching trays are amongst the most common reasons to cause chemical burns.\n",
"Many chemical reactions can destroy tissue, and some are used routinely in medicine , most commonly to remove small skin lesions such as warts or necrotized tissue , or for hemostasis . Because chemicals can leach into areas not intended for cauterization, laser and electrical methods are preferable where practical . Some cauterizing agents are:\n"
] |
how is seo used to generate high website traffic?
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Basically makes your website show up better in search engines. Let's say you search for Socks on Google, the websites with better SEO are going to be showing higher up over websites with worst SEO
|
[
"Search engine optimization (SEO), is the ongoing practice of optimizing a website to help improve its rankings in the search engines. Several internal and external factors are involved which can help improve a site's listing within the search engines. The higher a site ranks within the search engines for a particular keyword, the more traffic they will receive.\n",
"As an Internet marketing strategy, SEO considers how search engines work, the computer programmed algorithms which dictate search engine behavior, what people search for, the actual search terms or keywords typed into search engines, and which search engines are preferred by their targeted audience. SEO is performed because a website will receive more visitors from a search engine the higher the website ranks in the search engine results page (SERP). These visitors can then be converted into customers. \n",
"Search engine optimization (SEO) is the practice of utilizing search engine best practices to improve the visibility of a website or a webpage by ranking higher in the search engine results (\"SERPS\") for keywords relevant to that particular website or webpage. There are several ways to improve a website or webpage's visibility:\n",
"Search engine optimization, or SEO, attempts to improve a website's organic search rankings in SERPs by increasing the website content's relevance to search terms. Search engines regularly update their algorithms to penalize poor quality sites that try to game their rankings, making optimization a moving target for advertisers. Many vendors offer SEO services.\n",
"BULLET::::- SEO. SEO, search engine optimization, strives to make a company's online content as visible as possible on Google, Bing and other search engines in organic results for search queries relevant to its products and services. Because Google withholds organic keyword data from webmasters, accurate conversion analysis has become more important than ever in the structuring of SEO campaign tracking, since it has far more meaning than ranking data.\n",
"Search engine optimization (SEO) for traditional web search engines such as Google has been popular for many years. For several years, SEO has also been applied to academic search engines such as Google Scholar. SEO for academic articles is also called \"academic search engine optimization\" (ASEO) and defined as \"the creation, publication, and modification of scholarly literature in a way that makes it easier for academic search engines to both crawl it and index it\". ASEO has been adopted by organizations such as Elsevier, OpenScience, Mendeley, and SAGE Publishing to optimize their articles' rankings in Google Scholar. ASEO has negatives.\n",
"SEO refers to the improvement of \"unpaid\" results (known as \"natural\" or \"organic\" results), and excludes direct traffic/visitors and the purchase of paid placement. Primarily SEO pertains to search engine. \n"
] |
what is i and how does i^2 = -1?
|
Why is i^2 = -1? Because that is exactly how we define i!
Your second question is more interesting. When your start working with squares, it isn't long before you realize that the square of any number is always a positive number. The question that follows is, then what happens when you take the square root of a negative number?
Well nothing happens, the square root of a negative number just doesn't exist. Then some old random greek dude said, imagine, there is some number i whose square is -1..
Now suddenly we have a way to express the square root of every negative number! square root of -25 is 5i . It turns out that the ability to express the square roots of negative numbers has very useful applications in engineering so we adopted i and kept it.
But it still remains that i has no clear significance when counting. for instance if I had i apples, what does it even mean?! For a long time, it was considered quite pointless and hence the name imaginary numbers as opposed to the other *real* numbers.
|
[
"1 (one, also called unit, unity, and (multiplicative) identity) is a number, and a numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals. It represents a single entity, the unit of counting or measurement. For example, a line segment of \"unit length\" is a line segment of length 1. It is also the first of the infinite sequence of natural numbers, followed by 2.\n",
"In the first example we start by adding the two 1s in the first column (the \"ones' column\"), giving 2. Then we add the two 3s in the second column (the \"2\"i\"s column\"), giving 6; 6 is greater than 3, so we subtract 4 (giving 2 as the result in the second column) and carry −1 into the fourth column. Adding the 0s in the third column gives 0; and finally adding the two 1s and the carried −1 in the fourth column gives 1.\n",
"In some texts, \"\"a\" is a submultiple of \"b\"\" has the meaning of \"\"b\" being an integer multiple of \"a\"\". This terminology is also used with units of measurement (for example by the BIPM and NIST), where a \"submultiple\" of a main unit is a unit, named by prefixing the main unit, defined as the quotient of the main unit by an integer, mostly a power of 10. For example, a millimetre is the 1000-fold submultiple of a metre. As another example, one inch may be considered as a 12-fold submultiple of a foot, or a 36-fold submultiple of a yard.\n",
"For each integer \"i\", Ext(\"A\", \"B\") is the cohomology of this complex at position \"i\". It is zero for \"i\" negative. For example, Ext(\"A\", \"B\") is the kernel of the map Hom(\"A\", \"I\") → Hom(\"A\", \"I\"), which is isomorphic to Hom(\"A\", \"B\").\n",
"which means \"1.1030402 times 1 followed by 5 zeroes\". We have a certain numeric value (1.1030402) known as a \"significand\", multiplied by a power of 10 (E5, meaning 10 or 100,000), known as an \"exponent\". \n",
"In mathematics, a zero, also sometimes called a root, of a real-, complex- or generally vector-valued function formula_1 is a member formula_2 of the domain of formula_1 such that formula_4 \"vanishes\" at formula_2; that is, formula_2 is a solution of the equation formula_7.\n",
"If \"i\" represents previously acquired linguistic competence and extra-linguistic knowledge, the hypothesis claims that we move from \"i\" to \"i+1\" by understanding input that contains \"i+1\". Extra-linguistic knowledge includes our knowledge of the world and of the situation, that is, the context. The \"+1\" represents 'the next increment' of new knowledge or language structure that will be within the learner's capacity to acquire.\n"
] |
What is the latest advancement/update that has been made on a 'Unified Field Theory' in physics? ie. The 'Exceptionally Simple Theory of Everything'?
|
It didn't really pan out; there are certain irreconcilable differences between it and the standard model that it tries to extend. Ultimately this theory made very little noise in the high energy physics community but a disproportionately large noise among science journalists, who jumped on the story without concern for the underlying science.
In terms of "theories of everything" developed by single people, the most notable one in recent years is called Horava-Lifschitz gravity, which has made a big splash in the physics community but no journalist has ever written about it.
|
[
"Since the 19th century, some physicists, notably Albert Einstein, have attempted to develop a single theoretical framework that can account for all the fundamental forces of nature – a unified field theory. Classical unified field theories are attempts to create a unified field theory based on classical physics. In particular, unification of gravitation and electromagnetism was actively pursued by several physicists and mathematicians in the years between the two World Wars. This work spurred the purely mathematical development of differential geometry.\n",
"In physics, an effective field theory is a type of approximation, or effective theory, for an underlying physical theory, such as a quantum field theory or a statistical mechanics model. An effective field theory includes the appropriate degrees of freedom to describe physical phenomena occurring at a chosen length scale or energy scale, while ignoring substructure and degrees of freedom at shorter distances (or, equivalently, at higher energies). Intuitively, one averages over the behavior of the underlying theory at shorter length scales to derive what is hoped to be a simplified model at longer length scales. Effective field theories typically work best when there is a large separation between length scale of interest and the length scale of the underlying dynamics. Effective field theories have found use in particle physics, statistical mechanics, condensed matter physics, general relativity, and hydrodynamics. They simplify calculations, and allow treatment of dissipation and radiation effects.\n",
"Thus, an effective field theory is a theory which describes phenomena in solid-state physics, notably the BCS theory of superconduction, which treats vibrations of the solid-state lattice as a \"field\" (i.e. without claiming that there is \"really\" a field), with its own field quanta, called phonons. Such \"effective particles\" derived from effective fields are also known as quasiparticles.\n",
"Due to its relation with the most intimate aspects of matter, field theory is the closest branch of theoretical physics to the frontiers of knowledge. Formalisms and other powerful mathematical methods have been developed, in order to solve its problems. The project consists on the application of such formalisms to other branches of physics and, eventually, to other sciences.\n",
"The early attempts at creating a unified field theory began with the Riemannian geometry of general relativity, and attempted to incorporate electromagnetic fields into a more general geometry, since ordinary Riemannian geometry seemed incapable of expressing the properties of the electromagnetic field. Einstein was not alone in his attempts to unify electromagnetism and gravity; a large number of mathematicians and physicists, including Hermann Weyl, Arthur Eddington, and Theodor Kaluza also attempted to develop approaches that could unify these interactions. These scientists pursued several avenues of generalization, including extending the foundations of geometry and adding an extra spatial dimension.\n",
"Classically, however, a duality of the fields is combined into a single physical field. For over a century, unified field theory remains an open line of research and the term was coined by Albert Einstein, who attempted to unify his general theory of relativity with electromagnetism. The \"Theory of Everything\" and Grand Unified Theory are closely related to unified field theory, but differ by not requiring the basis of nature to be fields, and often by attempting to explain physical constants of nature. Earlier attempts based on classical physics are described in the article on classical unified field theories.\n",
"Presently, effective field theories are discussed in the context of the renormalization group (RG) where the process of \"integrating out\" short distance degrees of freedom is made systematic. Although this method is not sufficiently concrete to allow the actual construction of effective field theories, the gross understanding of their usefulness becomes clear through an RG analysis. This method also lends credence to the main technique of constructing effective field theories, through the analysis of symmetries. If there is a single mass scale M in the \"microscopic\" theory, then the effective field theory can be seen as an expansion in 1/M. The construction of an effective field theory accurate to some power of 1/M requires a new set of free parameters at each order of the expansion in 1/M. This technique is useful for scattering or other processes where the maximum momentum scale k satisfies the condition k/M≪1. Since effective field theories are not valid at small length scales, they need not be renormalizable. Indeed, the ever expanding number of parameters at each order in 1/M required for an effective field theory means that they are generally not renormalizable in the same sense as quantum electrodynamics which requires only the renormalization of two parameters.\n"
] |
why do girls generally find it harder to achieve an orgasm despite having way more nerve ending than men in their privates?
|
It is hard to say exactly. They are still doing research into this. What we can say though, that when it comes to women having orgasms, there is a significant different between women of different orientations that we do not see in men. (heterosexual women 61.6%, lesbian women 74.7%, bisexual women 58.0%)
This seems to indicate to me that while there is probably a biological reason as well (even the higher orgasm rate among women is lower than the lowest orgasm rate among men - 74,7% vs 77,6% for bisexual men), there is probably also a very huge social component. Honestly, it may just come down to there being a lot of ignorance about female sexual pleasure. It is not something we pay attention to in sex-ed. In a lot of places, the clitoris is not even mentioned in diagrams. And when that is the main source of a woman's sexual pleasure, well... yeah. It seems to me that when it comes to heterosexual couples, there is either less of a focus on the sex acts that make it most likely for a woman to orgasm, there is less experience in performing these sex acts, or women feel less comfortable with asking for what they actually want which may be a result of certain sexual attitudes where women who are too vocal about what they want from sex are labelled as sluts.
Though as for the biological reasons why women may orgasm less, you have to keep in mind that women are far more likely to be on drugs that diminish sexual libido / pleasure namely anti-depressants (which women are two and a half times more likely to be on compared to men) and hormonal birth control. Those may also play a role in all of this.
[Source for the orgasm rates] (_URL_0_)
|
[
"Research has shown that as in women, the emotional centers of a man's brain also become deactivated during orgasm but to a lesser extent than in women. Brain scans of both sexes have shown that the pleasure centers of a man's brain show more intense activity than in women during orgasm.\n",
"With regard to the ease or difficulty of achieving orgasm, Hite's research (while subject to methodological limitations) showed that most women need clitoral (exterior) stimulation for orgasm, which can be \"easy and strong, given the right stimulation\" and that the need for clitoral stimulation in addition to knowing one's own body is the reason that most women reach orgasm more easily by masturbation. Replicating Kinsey's findings, studies by scholars such as Peplau, Fingerhut and Beals (2004) and Diamond (2006) indicate that lesbians have orgasms more often and more easily in sexual interactions than heterosexual women do.\n",
"During sexual intercourse, most women experience involuntary vaginal contractions. The contraction causes the pelvic muscles to tighten around the penis, which increases the level of her partner's arousal and sexual frenzy and results in the man increasing the pace and force of thrusts as he approaches orgasm, which in turn further increases the woman's vaginal contraction. After a man has achieved orgasm, he will normally collapse onto the woman and will normally not be capable of further thrusting. Some men try to control their orgasm until their female partner also orgasms, but this is not always achieved. At times, a woman can achieve orgasm after the man has ceased thrusting by contracting her vaginal muscles and with pelvic movements, or the couple may change to another position that enables the woman to continue thrusting until she has reached orgasm, such as a woman on top position.\n",
"The female sexual response is more varied than that of men, and women are capable of attaining additional or multiple orgasms through further sexual stimulation. However, there are many women who experience clitoral hypersensitivity after orgasm, which can effectively create a refractory period. These women may be capable of further orgasms, but the pain involved in getting there makes the prospect undesirable.\n",
"Regular difficulty reaching orgasm after ample sexual stimulation, known as anorgasmia, is significantly more common in women than in men (see below). In addition to sexual dysfunction being a cause for women's inability to reach orgasm, or the amount of time for sexual arousal needed to reach orgasm being variable and longer in women than in men, other factors include a lack of communication between sexual partners about what is needed for the woman to reach orgasm, feelings of sexual inadequacy in either partner, a focus on only penetration (vaginal or otherwise), and men generalizing women's trigger for orgasm based on their own sexual experiences with other women.\n",
"In both sexes, pleasure can be derived from the nerve endings around the anus and the anus itself, such as during anal sex. It is possible for men to achieve orgasms through prostate stimulation alone. The prostate is the male homologue (variation) to the Skene's glands (which are believed to be connected to the female G-spot), and can be sexually stimulated through anal sex, perineum massage or via a vibrator. Prostate stimulation can produce a deeper orgasm, described by some men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only. The practice of pegging (consisting of a woman penetrating a man's anus with a strap-on dildo) stimulates the prostate. It is also typical for a man to not reach orgasm as a receptive partner solely from anal sex.\n",
"Orgasm, or sexual climax, is the sudden discharge of accumulated sexual tension during the sexual response cycle, resulting in rhythmic muscular contractions in the pelvic region characterized by an intense sensation of pleasure. Women commonly find it difficult to experience orgasms during vaginal intercourse. Mayo Clinic states: \"Orgasms vary in intensity, and women vary in the frequency of their orgasms and the amount of stimulation necessary to trigger an orgasm.\" Additionally, some women may require more than one type of sexual stimulation in order to achieve orgasm. Clitoral stimulation in normal copulation happens when the thrusting of the penis moves the clitoral hood.\n"
] |
how can millionaire/billionaires have more influence on a presidential candidate than other donors that donate the same amount, if the maximum contribution is $2,800?
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There are limits, but they can contribute to multiple different groups (candidates, PACs, parties) with different limits. And they can host fundraisers which can generate large amount of donations. Or use their corporations to also donate.
|
[
"\"Big Political Donors Give Far and Wide, Influence Out-of-State Races and Issues\" is an analysis of contributions by wealthy individuals in seven states shows that their giving is greater than any one cause or race reveals—with millions flowing into state, federal and even local campaigns, parties and committees far and wide.\n",
"Many of the donors are also big-money donors to the Democratic Party. Others, including Haim Saban, Fred Eychaner, George Soros, Edith Wasserman, Louise Gund, Jack C. Bendheim, Kathryn Hall, and George M. Marcus also contributed between $25,000 up to $25 million to the William J. Clinton Foundation.\n",
"An intense public debate in the United States took place during the congressional review period. \"Some of the wealthiest and most powerful donors in American politics, those for and against the accord\", became involved in the public debate, although \"mega-donors\" opposing the agreement contributed substantially more money than those supporting it. From 2010 to early August 2015 the foundations of Sheldon Adelson, Paul Singer, and Haim Saban contributed a total of $13 million (at least $7.5 million, at least $2.6 million, and at least $2.9 million, respectively) to advocacy groups opposing an agreement with Iran. On the other side, three groups lobbying in support of the agreement received at least $803,000 from the Ploughshares Fund, at least $425,000 from the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, and at least $68,500 from George Soros and his foundation. Other philanthropists and donors supporting an agreement include S. Daniel Abraham, Tim Gill, Norman Lear, Margery Tabankin, and Arnold Hiatt.\n",
"A 2016 experimental study in the \"American Journal of Political Science\" found that politicians made themselves more available for meetings with individuals when they believed that the individuals had donated to their campaign. A 2011 study found that \"even after controlling for past contracts and other factors, companies that contributed more money to federal candidates subsequently received more contracts.\" A 2016 study in the \"Journal of Politics\" found that industries overseen by committees decreased their contributions to congresspeople who recently departed from the committees and that they immediately increase their contributions to new members of the committees, which is \"evidence that corporations and business PACs use donations to acquire immediate access and favor—suggesting they at least anticipate that the donations will influence policy.\" Research by University of Chicago political scientist Anthony Fowler and Northwestern University political scientists Haritz Garro and Jörg L. Spenkuch found no evidence that corporations that donated to a candidate received any monetary benefits from the candidate winning election.\n",
"In the 2012 election campaign, most of the money given to super PACs came from wealthy individuals, not corporations. According to data from the Center for Responsive Politics, the top 100 individual super PAC donors in 2011–2012 made up just 3.7% of contributors, but accounted for more than 80% of the total money raised, while less than 0.5% of the money given to \"the most active Super PACs\" was donated by publicly traded corporations. \n",
"According to McMaster University political scientist Henry Jacek, political contributions tend to come from the wealthy, and not the poor. It is also clear from other jurisdictions in the world that political donors typically are people that have more disposable income.\n",
"The Hillary Victory Fund let the Clinton 2016 presidential campaign ask big donors for over $350,000 apiece per calendar year, or $700,000 from married couples. American presidential campaigns have a history of working to reach the legal maximum donations from single donors. In 2008, Barack Obama's presidential campaign sought $30,000 in donations from big donors, which was the legal limit for donations to the campaign and related fundraising committees. In 2014, the Supreme Court case McCutcheon v. FEC built on the Citizens United decision by ruling that limitations to an individual's total political donations were unconstitutional. These unregulated contributions to political party committees is known as \"soft money\", and had led to corruption cases in both parties from malfeasance in the 1980s and 90s before Congress barred its use in 2002. The 2014 Congressional omnibus budget bill also raised political party donation limits.\n"
] |
what is a tupperware party? is it just women comparing their food containers? is it an euphemism for something nsfw?
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> Is it just women comparing their food containers?
No, it's people *buying* food containers. [In-home demonstrations](_URL_0_) are the main avenue for selling Tupperware-brand containers in most countries.
|
[
"Tupperware developed a direct marketing strategy to sell products known as the Tupperware party. The Tupperware party allowed women of the 1950s to work and enjoy the benefits of earning an income without completely taking away the independence granted to women during the Second World War, when women first began entering the labor market, all the while keeping their focus in the domestic domain. The \"party plan\" model builds on characteristics generally developed by being a housewife (e.g., party planning, hosting a party, sociable relations with friends and neighbors) and created an alternative choice for women who either needed or wanted to work. \n",
"Tupperware is still sold mostly through a party plan, with rewards for hosts and hostesses. A Tupperware party is run by a Tupperware \"consultant\" for a host or hostess who invites friends and neighbors into his or her home to see the product line. Tupperware hosts and hostesses are rewarded with free products based on the level of sales made at their party. Parties also take place in workplaces, schools, and other community groups.\n",
"Feminist views vary regarding the Tupperware format of sales through parties, and the social and economic role of women portrayed by the Tupperware model. Opposing views state that the intended gendered product and selling campaign further domesticates women, and keeps their predominant focus on homemaking. The positive feminist views consider that Tupperware provided work for women who were pregnant or otherwise not guaranteed their position at work due to the unequal gender laws in the workplace. The company promoted the betterment of women and the endless opportunities Tupperware offered to women; whereas, the negative view includes the restriction of women to the domestic sphere and limiting the real separation between running the household and a career. The emergence of Tupperware in the American market created a new kind of opportunity to an entirely underrepresented labor demographic; women, and especially suburban housewives.\n",
"Tupperware spread to Europe in 1960 when Mila Pond hosted a Tupperware party in Weybridge, England and subsequently around the world. At the time, a strict dress code was required for Tupperware ladies, with skirts and stockings (tights) worn at all times, and white gloves often accompanying the outfit. A technique called \"carrot calling\" helped promote the parties: representatives would travel door to door in a neighborhood and ask housewives to \"run an experiment\" in which carrots would be placed in a Tupperware container and compared with \"anything that you would ordinarily leave them in\"; it would often result in the scheduling of a Tupperware party.\n",
"In recent years, Tupperware in North America has moved to a new business model which includes more emphasis on direct marketing channels and eliminated its dependency on authorized distributorships. This transition included selling through Target stores in the U.S., and Superstores in Canada, with disappointing results. Tupperware states this hurt direct sales. In countries with a strong focus on marketing through parties (such as Germany, Australia, and New Zealand), Tupperware's market share and profitability continue to decline.\n",
"In most countries, Tupperware's sales force is organized in a tiered structure with consultants at the bottom, managers and star managers over them, and next various levels of directors, with Legacy Executive Directors at the top level. In recent years, Tupperware has done away with distributorships in the United States.\n",
"In order for the company to stay in touch with its sales force, early on Tupperware published the monthly magazine \"Tupperware Sparks\". The magazine was full of snapshots of sales women across the country posing with awards and recognitions for high sales. In order to avoid spending money on advertising, Tupperware created events that attracted free publicity.\n"
] |
when moving something back and forth quickly, why can the object be seen in every position at once?
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Your eyes refresh at a pretty constant rate and when your brain processes each image it keeps some of the information from the previous image or images that it saw. So if something is moving fast enough then your brain will retain some information of where it was before, creating the illusion that its in more than one place.
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[
"A second proposed explanation is that the visual system processes moving objects more quickly than flashed objects. This latency-difference hypothesis asserts that by the time the flashed object is processed, the moving object has already moved to a new position. The latency-difference proposal tacitly rests on the assumption that awareness (what the subject reports) is an on-line phenomenon, coming about as soon as a stimulus reaches its \"perceptual end-point\".\n",
"The same effect occurs if the object is viewed at 59 flashes per second, except that each flash illuminates it a little later in its rotational cycle and so, the object will seem to be rotating forwards.\n",
"It cannot move to where it is not, because no time elapses for it to move there; it cannot move to where it is, because it is already there. In other words, at every instant of time there is no motion occurring. If everything is motionless at every instant, and time is entirely composed of instants, then motion is impossible.\n",
"A proposed explanation for this effect is that the visual system is predictive, accounting for neural delays by extrapolating the trajectory of a moving stimulus into the future. In other words, when light from a moving object hits the retina, a certain amount of time is required before the object is perceived. In that time, the object has moved to a new location in the world. The motion extrapolation hypothesis asserts that the visual system will take care of such delays by extrapolating the position of moving objects forward in time. As such it is related to the flash lag illusion.\n",
"The first proposed explanation, called the 'motion extrapolation' hypothesis, is that the visual system extrapolates the position of moving objects but not flashing objects when accounting for neural delays (i.e., the lag time between the retinal image and the observer's perception of the flashing object). The second proposed explanation by David Eagleman and Sejnowski, called the 'latency difference' hypothesis, is that the visual system processes moving objects at a faster rate than flashed objects. In the attempt to disprove the first hypothesis, David Eagleman conducted an experiment in which the moving ring suddenly reverses direction to spin in the other way as the flashed object briefly appears. If the first hypothesis were correct, we would expect that, immediately following reversal, the moving object would be observed as lagging behind the flashed object. However, the experiment revealed the opposite — immediately following reversal, the flashed object was observed as lagging behind the moving object. This experimental result supports of the 'latency difference' hypothesis. A recent study tries to reconcile these different approaches by approaching perception as an inference mechanism aiming at describing what is happening at the present time.\n",
"Since the object's velocity vector is constantly changing direction, the moving object is undergoing acceleration by a centripetal force in the direction of the center of rotation. Without this acceleration, the object would move in a straight line, according to Newton's laws of motion.\n",
"Motion aftereffect occurs when one views moving stimuli for an extended period of time and then focus on a stationary object. The object will appear to move in the opposite direction of the moving stimuli.\n"
] |
Accuracy of 'Romance of The Three Kingdoms'
|
Note that the Romance of the Three Kingdom is different from simply Three Kingdoms. Luo's portrayal of the time period and accuracy of important events are right on the spot - it's other aspects of the novel that deserves the attention.
Easily the first thing you would spot is the author's bias in favour of Shu Han. I have mainly criticized the novel based on his favouritism, and not of historical accuracy, but there are things that are contested. For example, Guanyu's weapon the guandao wasn't invented during his time. In more accurate texts, Guanyu is described to have kill his opponents by 'piercing', which is a word attributed to halberds or spears. Halberds are more common among generals during the Late Han-Three Kingdoms. He also made up a significant amount of fictional characters that doesn't have any historical backgrounds. The obvious one is Diao Chan. Some of the personalities attributed to certain figures were completely skewered for Luo's own purposes. Such one would be Zhang Fei. In fact, the historical Zhang Fei came from a prestigious background. He was well educated and a brilliant thinker and is also an artist. He authored a piece of art depicting a peach garden which inspired Luo to come up with 'the oath of the brotherhood in the Peach Garden' although in reality the brotherhood was only shared between Guanyu and Zhang Fei. Luo was however correct about Zhang Fei's ill-temper. Many other more problems but I don't think this is what you're mainly asking for.
I fail to recognize any inaccuracy in terms of time and significant events.
Speaking of Water Margins, the first 36 characters were indeed inspired by people who may have existed, bu the following 72 are completely made up and never existed. Water Margin has no background context to support its story other than general facts, such as Song fighting against other rebellious states and that the government was highly corrupted. The novel was in fact authored by two persons - Shi Nai An and his student, well again, Luo Guanzhong. Shi wrote up to the amnesty of the bandits, and from then Luo wrote the rest.
I understand that these are huge influences of the Chinese culture, but its portrayal are far from accurate. Let's not get into the Wuxia genre or Monkey King.
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[
"The following is a list of media adaptations of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. The story has been adapted in numerous forms, including films, television series, manga and video games.\n",
"\"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" is a 14th-century historical novel which romanticises the historical figures and events before and during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Written by Luo Guanzhong more than 1,000 years after the Three Kingdoms period, the novel incorporates many popular folklore and opera scripts into the character of Liu Bei, portraying him as a compassionate and righteous leader, endowed with charismatic potency (called \"de\" 德 in Chinese) who builds his state on the basis of Confucian values. This is in line with the historical background of the times during which the novel was written. Furthermore, the novel emphasises that Liu Bei was related, however distantly, to the imperial family of the Han dynasty, thus favouring another argument for the legitimacy of Liu Bei's reign. In the novel, he wields a pair of double edged swords called \"shuang gu jian\" (雙股劍).\n",
"\"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" is traditionally attributed to Luo Guanzhong, a playwright who lived sometime between 1315 and 1400 (late Yuan to early Ming period) known for compiling historical plays in styles which were prevalent during the Yuan period. It was first printed in 1522 as \"Sanguozhi Tongsu Yanyi\" (三國志通俗演義/三国志通俗演义) in an edition which bore a perhaps spurious preface date 1494. The text may well have circulated before either date in handwritten manuscripts.\n",
"Romance of the Three Kingdoms () is a 14th-century historical novel attributed to Luo Guanzhong. It is set in the turbulent years towards the end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history, starting in 169 AD and ending with the reunification of the land in 280.\n",
"\"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" is acclaimed as one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature; it has a total of 800,000 words and nearly a thousand dramatic characters (mostly historical) in 120 chapters. The novel is among the most beloved works of literature in East Asia, and its literary influence in the region has been compared to that of the works of Shakespeare on English literature. It is arguably the most widely read historical novel in late imperial and modern China.\n",
"\"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" has been translated into English by numerous scholars. The first known translation was performed in 1907 by John G. Steele and consisted of a single chapter excerpt that was distributed in China to students learning English at Presbyterian missionary schools. Z. Q. Parker published a 1925 translation containing four episodes from the novel including the events of the Battle of Red Cliffs, while Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published excerpts in 1981, including chapters 43–50. A complete and faithful translation of the novel was published in two volumes in 1925 by Charles Henry Brewitt-Taylor, a long time official of the Chinese Maritime Customs Service. The translation was well written, but lacked any supplementary materials such as maps or character lists that would aid Western readers; a 1959 reprint was published that included maps and an introduction by Roy Andrew Miller to assist foreign readers.\n",
"One of the greatest achievements of \"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" is the extreme complexity of its stories and characters. The novel contains numerous subplots. The following consists of a summary of the central plot and some well-known highlights in the novel.\n"
] |
why does liquid cough medicine work better than the pill form with the same ingredients? once they start doing their thing shouldn't they, well, do the same thing?
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Speed is one aspect, when you swallow pills you're waiting for your stomach to break them down then for them to be absorbed and start working.
Liquids are able to be absorbed faster and also they will coat the throat on the way down.
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[
"This may be done for medically necessary reasons, such as to change the form of the medication from a solid pill to a liquid, to avoid a non-essential ingredient that the patient is allergic to, or to obtain the exact dose(s) needed or deemed best of particular active pharmaceutical ingredient(s). It may also be done for more optional reasons, such as adding flavors to a medication or otherwise altering taste or texture. \n",
"As with solid formulations, liquid formulations combine the drug product with a variety of compounds to ensure a stable active medication following storage. These include solubilizers, stabilizers, buffers, tonicity modifiers, bulking agents, viscosity enhancers/reducers, surfactants, chelating agents, and adjuvants.\n",
"A wide variety of drugs are injected. Among the most popular in many countries are morphine, heroin, cocaine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine. Prescription drugs—including tablets, capsules, and even liquids and suppositories—are also occasionally injected. This applies particularly to prescription opioids, since some opioid addicts already inject heroin. Injecting preparations which were not intended for this purpose is particularly dangerous because of the presence of excipients (fillers), which can cause blood clots. Injecting codeine into the bloodstream directly is dangerous because it causes a rapid histamine release, which can lead to potentially fatal anaphylaxis and pulmonary edema. Dihydrocodeine, hydrocodone, nicocodeine, and other codeine-based products carry similar risks. Codeine may instead be injected by the intramuscular or subcutaneous route. The effect will not be instant, but the dangerous and unpleasant massive histamine release from the intravenous injection of codeine is avoided. To minimize the amount of undissolved material in fluids prepared for injection, a filter of cotton or synthetic fiber is typically used, such as a cotton-swab tip or a small piece of cigarette filter.\n",
"In pharmacy, a formulation is a mixture or a structure such as a capsule, tablet, or an emulsion, prepared according to a specific procedure (called a “formula”). Formulations are a very important aspect of creating medicines, since they are essential to ensuring that the active part of the drug is delivered to the correct part of the body, in the right concentration, and at the right rate (not too fast and not too slowly). A good example is a drug delivery system that exploits supersaturation. They also need to have an acceptable taste (in the case of pills, tablets or syrups), last long enough in storage still to be safe and effective when used, and be sufficiently stable both physically and chemically to be transported from where they are manufactured to the eventual consumer. Competently designed formulations for particular applications are safer, more effective, and more economical than any of their components used singly.\n",
"By preventing the drug from dissolving into the stomach, enteric coating may protect gastric mucosa from the irritating effects of the medication itself. When the drug reaches the neutral or alkaline environment of the intestine, its active ingredients can then dissolve and become available for absorption into the bloodstream. Drugs that have an irritant effect on the stomach, such as aspirin or potassium chloride, can be coated with a substance that will dissolve only in the small intestine. However, it has been shown that enteric coated aspirin may lead to incomplete inhibition of platelets. Likewise, certain groups of proton pump inhibitors (esomeprazole, omeprazole, pantoprazole and all grouped azoles) are acid-activated. For such types of drugs, enteric coating added to the formulation tends to avoid activation in the mouth and esophagus.\n",
"An elixir is a clear, sweet-flavored liquid used for medical purposes, to be taken orally and intended to cure one's illness. When used as a pharmaceutical preparation, an elixir contains at least one active ingredient designed to be taken orally.\n",
"The oral route is generally the most convenient and costs the least. However, some drugs can cause gastrointestinal tract irritation. For drugs that come in delayed release or time-release formulations, breaking the tablets or capsules can lead to more rapid delivery of the drug than intended. The oral route is limited to formulations containing small molecules only while biopharmaceuticals (usually proteins) would be digested in the stomach and thereby become ineffective. Biopharmaceuticals have to be given by injection or infusion. However, recent research (2018) found an organic ionic liquid suitable for oral insulin delivery (a biopharmaceutical) into the blood stream.\n"
] |
if water is a incompressible fluid why does pressure increase when going under water? wouldn’t the pressure stay the same since the density of the water doesn’t change?
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First of all, water *is* compressible. Just not very easily. For most purposes, we can think of it as being incompressible. So let's do that.
Things work the opposite of what you are thinking. If the water was compressible, it would absorb the force (caused by its weight). That force would literally be used to overcome the repulsive forces between molecules.
But instead, that force doesn't get absorbed by the water molecules, and is instead passed on to everything in the water in the form of pressure.
Think of it like this. You and a buddy are holding opposite ends of a long sponge. Your buddy pushes on the sponge. Do you feel much force? No, because the sponge just gets compressed instead.
Now imagine that instead you and your buddy are holding opposite ends of a baseball bat. He pushes. Do you feel it? Yes, because the bat doesn't compress much.
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[
"On the other hand, liquids have little compressibility. Water, for example, will compress by only 46.4 parts per million for every unit increase in atmospheric pressure (bar). At around 4000 bar (400 megapascals or 58,000 psi) of pressure at room temperature water experiences only an 11% decrease in volume. Incompressibility makes liquids suitable for transmitting hydraulic power, because a change in pressure at one point in a liquid is transmitted undiminished to every other part of the liquid and very little energy is lost in the form of compression.\n",
"When pressure is applied on an incompressible fluid the velocity of the fluid will change. The fluid accelerates or deccelerates depending on the relative direction of pressure with respect to the flow direction. This is because applying pressure on the fluid has caused momentum diffusion in that direction. Understanding the exact nature of diffusion is a key aspect towards understanding momentum diffusion due to pressure.\n",
"The perception of water pressure is actually the speed of the water as it hits a surface, (the hands, in the case of hand washing). When an aerator is added to the faucet (or fluid stream), there is a region of high pressure created behind the aerator. Because of the higher pressure behind the aerator and the low pressure in front of it (outside the faucet), due to Bernoulli's Principle there is an increase in velocity of the fluid flow.\n",
"In contrast to other gas components, water content in air, or humidity, to a higher degree depends on vaporization and condensation from or into water, which, in turn, mainly depends on temperature. Therefore, when applying more pressure to a gas saturated with water, all components will initially decrease in volume approximately according to the ideal gas law. However, some of the water will condense until returning to almost the same humidity as before, giving the resulting total volume deviating from what the ideal gas law predicted. Conversely, decreasing temperature would also make some water condense, again making the final volume deviating from predicted by the ideal gas law.\n",
"When water vapor pressure is increased, the oxide growth rate is increased. According to the model of Deal and Grove[4], the growth rate of the oxide layer is directly related to the effective diffusion coefficient of the water molecules into the oxide layer and the equilibrium concentration in the immediate area. When a carrier gas is used to deliver water vapor, the carrier gas molecules generate a partial pressure. This partial pressure lowers the partial pressure of water vapor and slows the diffusion of water into the oxide film. The result is lower driving force and slower growth rate.\n",
"For liquids, and for supercritical fluids under high pressure, formula_8 increases as pressure increases. This is due to molecules being forced together, so that the volume can barely decrease due to higher pressure. Under such conditions, the Joule–Thomson coefficient is negative, as seen in the figure above.\n",
"Due to internal attractive forces of a liquid, air bubbles within the liquids are compressed. The resulting pressure (bubble pressure) rises at a decreasing bubble radius. The bubble pressure method makes use of this bubble pressure which is higher than in the surrounding environment (water). A gas stream is pumped into a capillary that is immersed in a fluid. The resulting bubble at the end of the capillary tip continually becomes bigger in surface; thereby, the bubble radius is decreasing.\n"
] |
. where is vegetable oil made of? i think it’s made from vegetables because of the name. but what vegetable?
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Seeds like canola, sunflower, peanut, sesame, even corn and coconut . When plants store oils it's typically in the seeds, which is supposed to be fuel for the growing seedling.
If you take peanuts and crush them you can separate the oil pretty easily.
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[
"Vegetable oil is a liquid derived from plants. These are triglyceride-based, and includes cooking oils like sunflower oil, solid oils like cocoa butter, oils used in paint like linseed oil and oils for industrial purposes, including as biofuels. \n",
"Vegetable fats and oils are what are most commonly called vegetable oils. These are triglyceride-based, and include cooking oils like canola oil, solid oils like cocoa butter, oils used in paint like linseed oil and oils used for industrial purposes. Pressed vegetable oils are extracted from the plant containing the oil (usually the seed), using one of two types of oil press. The most common is the \"screw press\", which consists of a large-diameter metal screw inside a metal housing. Oil seeds are fed into the housing, where the screws mash the seeds, and create pressure which forces the oil out through small holes in the side of the press. The remaining solids, called \"seed cake\", are either discarded or used for other purposes. Oil presses can be either manual or powered. The second type of oil press is the \"ram press\", where a piston is driven into a cylinder, crushing the seeds and forcing out the oil. Ram presses are generally more efficient than screw presses.\n",
"Vegetable oil is used in the production of some pet foods. AAFCO defines vegetable oil, in this context, as the product of vegetable origin obtained by extracting the oil from seeds or fruits which are processed for edible purposes.\n",
"Vegetable oils are produced by plants with the highest concentration being present in seeds and fruits. About 95% of each vegetable oil is primarily composed of triglycerides. Coconut oil and palm oil contain mainly saturated fatty acids, while other oils largely contain unsaturated fatty acids, for example oleic acid and linoleic acid. Accompanying substances in vegetable oils are, inter alia, phospholipids, glycolipids, sulfolipids, squalene, carotenoids, vitamen E, polyphenols and triterpene alcohols. To avoid rancidity, preservatives or antiocidants are added to baby oils based on vegetable oils. On cosmetic products, these oils are listed according to the International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients (INCI), e.g.:\n",
"Vegetable oils, or vegetable fats, are fats extracted from seeds, or less often, from other parts of fruits. Like animal fats, vegetable fats are \"mixtures\" of triglycerides. Soybean oil, rapeseed oil, and cocoa butter are examples of fats from seeds. Olive oil, palm oil, and rice bran oil are example of fats from other parts of fruits. In common usage, vegetable \"oil\" may refer exclusively to vegetable fats which are liquid at room temperature. Vegetable oils are usually edible; non-edible oils derived mainly from petroleum are termed mineral oils.\n",
"Vegetable oils are triglycerides extracted from plants. Some of these oils have been part of human culture for millennia. Edible vegetable oils are used in food, both in cooking and as supplements. Many oils, edible and otherwise, are burned as fuel, such as in oil lamps and as a substitute for petroleum-based fuels. Some of the many other uses include wood finishing, oil painting, and skin care./onlyinclude\n",
"Most vegetable oil used in the US is produced from GM crops canola, corn, cotton and soybeans. Vegetable oil is sold directly to consumers as cooking oil, shortening and margarine and is used in prepared foods. There is a vanishingly small amount of protein or DNA from the original crop in vegetable oil. Vegetable oil is made of triglycerides extracted from plants or seeds and then refined and may be further processed via hydrogenation to turn liquid oils into solids. The refining process removes all, or nearly all non-triglyceride ingredients. Medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) offer an alternative to conventional fats and oils. The length of a fatty acid influences its fat absorption during the digestive process. Fatty acids in the middle position on the glycerol molecules appear to be absorbed more easily and influence metabolism more than fatty acids on the end positions. Unlike ordinary fats, MCTs are metabolized like carbohydrates. They have exceptional oxidative stability, and prevent foods from turning rancid readily.\n"
] |
why did early color tv programming look so artificial like the color was added in later?
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Film ages, and with age, fades. I see it when I look at old still pictures of family from those days.
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[
"Color television as introduced in North America in 1954 is best described as being 'colored' television. The system used the existing black and white signal but with the addition of a component intended only for television receivers designed to show color. By careful application this 'colored' signal was ignored by ordinary TV sets and had negligible effect on the appearance of the black and white image. This meant that color programs were viewable on the many existing black and white receivers which fulfilled a requirement for 'compatibility' desired by the television industry. Once the so called 'composite' video signal containing the color component had been generated it could be handled just as if it were a black and white signal, eliminating the need to replace much of the existing TV infrastructure. Colorplexer was the RCA name for the equipment that created this 'composite' color signal from three separate images each created in the primary colors, Red, Green and Blue supplied by a color video camera. This process was by the standards of the day quite complex and demanded accurate control of all the various parameters involved if an acceptable color image was to be achieved. The simplification afforded by this 'head end' approach became evident and contributed to the gradual acceptance of color programming over the following decades.\n",
"Color television had been studied even before commercial broadcasting became common, but it was only in the late 1940s that the problem was seriously considered. At the time, a number of systems were being proposed that used separate red, green and blue signals (RGB), broadcast in succession. Most experimental systems broadcast entire frames in sequence, with a colored filter (or \"gel\") that rotated in front of an otherwise conventional black and white television tube. Each frame encoded one color of the picture, and the wheel spun in sync with the signal so the correct gel was in front of the screen when that colored frame was being displayed. Because they broadcast separate signals for the different colors, all of these systems were incompatible with existing black and white sets. Another problem was that the mechanical filter made them flicker unless very high refresh rates were used.\n",
"Color television had been studied even before commercial broadcasting became common, but it was not until the late 1940s that the problem was seriously considered. At the time, a number of systems were being proposed that used separate red, green and blue signals (RGB), broadcast in succession. Most experimental systems broadcast entire frames in sequence, with a colored filter (or \"gel\") that rotated in front of an otherwise conventional black and white television tube. Each frame encoded one color of the picture, and the wheel spun in sync with the signal so the correct gel was in front of the screen when that colored frame was being displayed. Because they broadcast separate signals for the different colors, all of these systems were incompatible with existing black and white sets. Another problem was that the mechanical filter made them flicker unless very high refresh rates were used. (This is conceptually similar to a DLP based projection display where a single DLP device is used for all three color channels.)\n",
"While early color television experiments were kept in the component domain of RGB, most color television broadcasting and post production was compromised in the 1960s and 1970s to simplify infrastructure and transmission by combining the color and luminance (composite). However, once the color and luminance information was combined, it could never truly be uncombined as cleanly as originated.\n",
"Color television had been studied even before commercial broadcasting became common, but it was only in the late 1940s that the problem was seriously considered. At the time, a number of systems were being proposed that used separate red, green and blue signals (RGB), broadcast in succession. Most systems broadcast entire frames in sequence, with a colored filter (or \"gel\") that rotated in front of an otherwise conventional black and white television tube. Because they broadcast separate signals for the different colors, all of these systems were incompatible with existing black and white sets. Another problem was that the mechanical filter made them flicker unless very high refresh rates were used. In spite of these problems, the US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) selected a sequential-frame 144 frame/s standard from CBS as their color broadcast in 1950.\n",
"Color television had been studied even before commercial broadcasting became common, but it was only in the late 1940s that the problem was seriously considered. At the time, a number of systems were being proposed that used separate red, green and blue signals (RGB), broadcast in succession. Most systems broadcast entire frames in sequence, with a colored filter (or \"gel\") that rotated in front of an otherwise conventional black and white television tube. Because they broadcast separate signals for the different colors, all of these systems were incompatible with existing black and white sets. Another problem was that the mechanical filter made them flicker unless very high refresh rates were used. In spite of these problems, the US Federal Communications Commission selected a sequential-frame 144 frame/s standard from CBS as their color broadcast in 1950.\n",
"Color television had been studied, but it was only in the late 1940s that the problem was seriously considered. At the time, a number of systems were being proposed that used separate red, green and blue signals (RGB), broadcast in succession. Most systems broadcast entire frames in sequence, with a colored filter (or \"gel\") that rotated in front of an otherwise conventional black and white television tube. Because they broadcast separate signals for the different colors, all of these systems were incompatible with existing black and white sets. Another problem was that the mechanical filter made them flicker unless very high refresh rates were used. In spite of these problems, the United States Federal Communication Commission selected a sequential-frame 144 frame/s standard from CBS as their color broadcast in 1950.\n"
] |
how touch lamps work.
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It detects changes in capacitance, just like the touch screen on most cellphones.
Capacitance is a fancy way of saying that since you and the lamp both contain electrons which can flow around free inside you but which don't transfer to the lamp, touching the lamp changes the amount of electrons that the lamp could hold. Since the lamp is connected to a source of electrons changes in capacitance cause electrons to flow in or out of the lamp when you touch it which triggers the electronic switch.
Anything that has some capacitance can change the equation and trigger the switch again which is why you can turn on the lights by poking your cat if your cat is touching the lamp.
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[
"A touch-sensitive lamp is one that is activated by human touch rather than a flip, pushbutton, or other mechanical switch. These lamps are popular as desk and nightstand lamps. They act on the principle of body capacitance. Touch-sensitive lamp switches may be dimmable, allowing the brightness of the lamp to be adjusted by multiple touches. Most stop at level 3, which is for the brightest use.\n",
"TouchLight is an imaging touch screen and 3D display for gesture-based interaction. It was developed by Microsoft Research employee Andrew D. Wilson and made known to the public in late 2005. The technology was licensed to Eon Reality in July 2006. \n",
"Light.Touch.Matters is a cooperation between product designers, material scientists and the industry. Light.Touch.Matters is to create smart materials that can sense touch and movement and respond with light. The base technologies for the Light.Touch.Matters. project are piezo plastics and flexible OLEDs. The consortium consist of 17 partners from 9 EU countries.\n",
"Optical touch technology functions when a finger or an object touches the surface, causing the light to scatter, the reflection is caught with sensors or cameras that send the data to software which dictates response to the touch, depending on the type of reflection measured.\n",
"A light pen is a computer input device used in conjunction with a computer's CRT display. It is used to select a displayed menu item. A light pen can also allow users draw on the screen with great positional accuracy. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU. The first light pen was created around 1952 as part of the Whirlwind project at MIT. Because the user was required to hold his/her arm in front of the screen for long periods of time, the light pen fell out of use as a general purpose input device.\n",
"Shader lamps is a computer graphic technique used to change the appearance of physical objects. The still or moving objects are illuminated, using one or more video projectors, by static or animated texture or video stream. The method was invented at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill by Ramesh Raskar, Greg Welch, Kok-lim Low and Deepak Bandyopadhyay in 1999 as a follow on to Spatial Augmented Reality also invented at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1998 by Ramesh Raskar, Greg Welch and Henry Fuchs.\n",
"An electric eye is a photodetector used for detecting obstruction of a light beam. An example is the door safety system used on garage door openers that use a light transmitter and receiver at the bottom of the door to prevent closing if there is any obstruction in the way that breaks the light beam. The device does not provide an image; only presence of light is detectable. Visible light may be used, but infrared radiation conceals the operation of the device and typically is used in modern systems. Originally, systems used lamps powered by direct current or the power line alternating current frequency, but modern photodetector systems use an infrared light-emitting diode modulated at a few kilohertz, which allows the detector to reject stray light and improves the range, sensitivity and security of the device.\n"
] |
Was it legal for a husband in medieval England to kill his wife and/or children? What social consequences, if any, would a man face for committing such an act?
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Cold-blooded murder was always illegal and carried with it legal punishment, from the earliest surviving medieval law code we have through the entirety of the medieval era. A person would be acquitted if the murder was found to be done in self-defence. One could also be found innocent on grounds of insanity and usually if the murder was ruled to have been committed by accident or through negligence. The legal concept of manslaughter developed quite a bit over the course of the medieval era, so as far as that goes, it really depends on what point in the Middle Ages you are considering.
The medieval period in England spanned around 1,000 years, and as one could expect, law codes and the legal system as a whole underwent significant changes and development over ten centuries. The consequences for being found guilty of murder were quite different in the early 7th century law code of King Æthelberht from those attendant to the laws which were in place when Henry Tudor (Henry VII) ascended the throne in the late 15th century.
In Æthelberht’s law code, a person would be fined a substantial amount of money, either 50 or 100 shillings, if found guilty of murder. Keep in mind, most day labourers were paid in what amounted to pennies per week. The law code uses the term ‘man’ ("If a man slay another…"), but ‘man’ is gender-neutral in Old English (see citation below of Anne Curzan’s book).
Up to the 13th century, a man accused of murder could face trial by jury or trial by ordeal, the latter of which could very well kill him in the process. After the 13th century in England, trials were conducted by a jury of twelve men. Women were not permitted to be jurors. Depending on the jury’s sympathy, a man convicted of murder could face the death penalty. If a woman were to murder her husband, however, she would be tried not for ‘simple murder’ (as would a man accused of murdering his wife) but for ‘petty treason’ after the enactment of the Treason Act of 1351.
& #x200B;
& #x200B;
Curzan, Anne (2003). *Gender Shifts in the History of English*. Cambridge University Press.
Oliver, Lisi. *The Laws of Æthelberht: A student edition*, Louisiana State University, at [_URL_1_](_URL_0_)
Briggs, John (1996), *Crime and Punishment in England: An introductory history*, London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Blackstone, William; Christian, Edward; Chitty, Joseph; Hovenden, John Eykyn; Ryland, Archer (1832). *Commentaries on the Laws of England*, vol. 2, (18th London ed.), New York: Collins and Hannay.
Green, Thomas A. (1976). *The Jury and the English Law of Homicide, 1200-1600*. University of Michigan Law School.
Green, Thomas A. (1972). *Societal Concepts of Criminal Liability for Homicide in Medieval England*. University of Michigan Law School.
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Edit: grammar
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[
"Killing due to adultery traditionally fell under the provocation defense. In 1707, English Lord Chief Justice John Holt described the act of a man having sexual relations with another man's wife as \"the highest invasion of property\" and claimed, in regard to the aggrieved husband, that \"a man cannot receive a higher provocation\". \n",
"Adultery involving a married woman and a man other than her husband was considered a very serious crime. In 1707, English Lord Chief Justice John Holt stated that a man having sexual relations with another man's wife was \"the highest invasion of property\" and claimed, in regard to the aggrieved husband, that \"a man cannot receive a higher provocation\" (in a case of murder or manslaughter).\n",
"In Anglo-Saxon England, there were many laws related to marriage. Some historians profess that the law that neither widow, nor maiden was forced to marry a man that she disliked as being a sign of equality; however, Aethelberht's law contradicts this in as much as a man is legally allowed to steal another man's wife as long as he pays him reparation. Once married, a woman was to situate herself as the object of her husband's subjectivity, she was to become the object of his protection and the property, although she still remained the owner of her property. The Church saw that married women had no authority and were to stand under the lordship of men. Therefore, under the church they were not able to teach, witness, take an oath, nor be a judge. In marriage, a male often developed his sphere of influence through his wife. Although women were seen as such under the church, there were laws that protected them in the public sphere when married. Divorce was rare, and the only documented ones were in times of adultery. A woman that commits adultery by sleeping with a man that was not her husband while he was still alive was subject to give what she owned to her husband. Æthelraed's 1008 code states that widows shall remain unmarried for 12 months after the death of her husband, at which point they have the freedom to choose. This was likely the case to allow for the widows have time to think and not make any rash decisions which may have led to relationships or commitments.\n",
"English jurist William Blackstone wrote in the late 1700s in his \"Commentaries on the Laws of England\" that by an \"old law\", a husband had formerly been justified in using \"moderate correction\" against his wife, but was barred from inflicting serious violence. According to Blackstone, by the late 1600s this custom was in doubt, and a woman was by then allowed \"security of the peace\" against an abusive husband (Blackstone did not mention either thumbs or sticks). Citing Blackstone, the twentieth-century legal scholar William L. Prosser wrote that there was \"probably no truth to the legend\" that a husband was allowed to beat his wife \"with a stick no thicker than his thumb\".\n",
"According to English Common Law, which developed from the 12th century onward, all property which a wife held at the time of marriage became a possession of her husband. Eventually English courts forbade a husband's transferring property without the consent of his wife, but he still retained the right to manage it and to receive the money which it produced. French married women suffered from restrictions on their legal capacity which were removed only in 1965. In the 16th century, the Reformation in Europe allowed more women to add their voices, including the English writers Jane Anger, Aemilia Lanyer, and the prophetess Anna Trapnell. English and American Quakers believed that men and women were equal. Many Quaker women were preachers. Despite relatively greater freedom for Anglo-Saxon women, until the mid-19th century, writers largely assumed that a patriarchal order was a natural order that had always existed. This perception was not seriously challenged until the 18th century when Jesuit missionaries found matrilineality in native North American peoples.\n",
"In England and Wales, marital rape was made illegal in 1991. The views of Sir Matthew Hale, a 17th-century jurist, published in \"The History of the Pleas of the Crown\" (1736), stated that a husband cannot be guilty of the rape of his wife because the wife \"hath given up herself in this kind to her husband, which she cannot retract\"; in England and Wales this would remain law for more than 250 years, until it was abolished by the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords, in the case of \"R v R\" in 1991. In the Netherlands marital rape was also made illegal in 1991. One of the last Western countries to criminalize marital rape was Germany, in 1997.\n",
"As such in the above case where a husband stabbed his pregnant wife, causing premature birth, and the baby died due to that premature birth, in English law no murder took place. \"Until she had been born alive and acquired a separate existence she could not be the victim of homicide\". The requirements for murder under English law, involving transfer of malice to a foetus, and then (notionally) from a foetus to the born child with legal personality, who died as a child at a later time despite never having suffered harm as a child (with legal personality), nor even as a foetus having suffered any fatal wound (the injury sustained as a fetus was not a contributory cause), nor having malice deliberately directed at it, was described as legally \"too far\" to support a murder charge.\n"
] |
Water that doesn't affect your thirst
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That's exactly what the IV fluid is. If there is not enough salt, the water will go into your red blood cells via osmosis and cause them to swell, and eventually explode. If there is too much salt, the fluid will absorb all the water from your red blood cells and cause you to be more dehydrated. This is why drinking saltwater is not a good idea.
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[
"Input of water is regulated mainly through ingested fluids, which, in turn, depends on thirst. An insufficiency of water results in an increased osmolarity in the extracellular fluid. This is sensed by osmoreceptors in the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis, which trigger thirst. Thirst can to some degree be voluntarily resisted, as during fluid restriction.\n",
"Thirst is the craving for potable fluids, resulting in the basic instinct of animals to drink. It is an essential mechanism involved in fluid balance. It arises from a lack of fluids or an increase in the concentration of certain osmolites, such as salt. If the water volume of the body falls below a certain threshold or the osmolite concentration becomes too high, the brain signals thirst.\n",
"Urinary water loss, when the body water homeostat is intact, is a \"compensatory\" water loss, \"correcting\" any water excess in the body. However, since the kidneys cannot generate water, the thirst reflex is the all-important second effector mechanism of the body water homeostat, \"correcting\" any water deficit in the body.\n",
"Compared to dehydration, hyponatremia is a relatively recently recognized danger, and there are different opinions about how much water to drink at each water stop. Some texts say that thirst is not a reliable indicator of the need in water, while other say that obligatory drinking at every opportunity without real need increases the danger of hyponatremia. \"If you hear sloshing in your stomach... you can by-pass that water stop\". (Jeff Galloway)\n",
"According to Kellogg, water provides remedial properties partly because of vital resistance and partly because of its physical properties. For Kellogg, the medical uses of water begin with its function as a refrigerant, a way to lower body heat by way of dissipating its production as well as by conduction. \"There is not a drug in the whole materia medica that will diminish the temperature of the body so readily and so efficiently as water.\" Water can also serve as a sedative. While other substances serve as sedatives by exerting their poisonous influences on the heart and nerves, water is a gentler and more efficient sedative without any of the negative side-effects seen in these other substances. Kellogg states that a cold bath can often reduce one's pulse by 20 to 40 beats per minute quickly, in a matter of a few minutes. Additionally, water can function as a tonic, increasing both the speed of circulation and the overall temperature of the body. A hot bath accelerates one's pulse from 70 to 150 beats per minute in 15 minutes. Water is also useful as an anodyne since it can lower nervous sensibility and reduce pain when applied in the form of hot fomentation. Kellogg argues that this procedure will often give one relief where every other drug has failed to do so. He also believed that no other treatment could function as well as an antispasmodic, reducing infantile convulsions and cramps, as water. Water can be an effective astringent as, when applied cold, it can arrest hemorrhages. Moreover, it can be very effective in producing bowel movements. Whereas purgatives would introduce \"violent and unpleasant symptoms\", water would not. Although it would not have much competition as an emetic at the time, Kellogg believed no other substance could induce vomiting as well as water did. Returning to one of Kellogg's most admired qualities of water, it can function as a \"most perfect eliminative\". Water can dissolve waste and foreign matter from the blood. These many uses of water led Kellogg to belief that \"the aim of the faithful physician should be to accomplish for his patient the greatest amount of good at the least expence of vitality; and it is an indisputable fact that in a large number of cases water is just the agent with which this desirable end can be obtained.\"\n",
"Water intoxication, also known as water poisoning, hyperhydration, overhydration, or water toxemia is a potentially fatal disturbance in brain functions that results when the normal balance of electrolytes in the body is pushed outside safe limits by excessive water intake. \n",
"In a published statement of the Third International Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia Consensus Development Conference, researchers concluded that drinking in accordance with the sensation of thirst is sufficient for preventing both dehydration and hyponatremia. This advice is contradicted by the American College of Sports Medicine, which has previously recommended athletes drink \"as much as tolerable. In October of 2015, ACSM President W. Larry Kenney stated that “[T]he clear and important health message should be that thirst alone is not the best indicator of dehydration or the body’s fluid needs.”\n"
] |
Do hot ( > 36.6) drinking water provide calories to organism?
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If you drink water at a temperature approximate to your body's then you will not have to spend energy in thermal regulation to compensate for the drop you would have when drinking cooler water, but it's almost negligible. That's about it. In nutritional terms, water is void of any calories.
Disregard Marsupial Mole and ihaveatoms.
|
[
"Indirect calorimetry calculates heat that living organisms produce by measuring either their production of carbon dioxide and nitrogen waste (frequently ammonia in aquatic organisms, or urea in terrestrial ones), or from their consumption of oxygen. \n",
"The elimination of micro-organisms by boiling follows first-order kinetics—at high temperatures, it is achieved in less time and at lower temperatures, in more time. The heat sensitivity of micro-organisms varies, at , Giardia species (causes Giardiasis) can take ten minutes for complete inactivation, most intestine affecting microbes and \"E. coli\" (gastroenteritis) take less than a minute; at boiling point, \"Vibrio cholerae\" (cholera) takes ten seconds and hepatitis A virus (causes the symptom of jaundice), one minute. Boiling does not ensure the elimination of all micro-organisms; the bacterial spores Clostridium can survive at but are not water-borne or intestine affecting. Thus for human health, complete sterilization of water is not required.\n",
"Temperature plays a key role in the ecology, physiology and metabolism of aquatic species. The rate of PCB metabolism was temperature dependent in yellow perch (\"Perca flavescens\"). In fall and winter, only 11 out of 72 introduced PCB congeners were excreted and had halflives of more than 1,000 days. During spring and summer when the average daily water temperature was above 20 °C, persistent PCBs had halflives of 67 days. The main excretion processes were fecal egestion, growth dilution and loss across respiratory surfaces. The excretion rate of PCBs matched with the perch's natural bioenergetics, where most of their consumption, respiration and growth rates occur during the late spring and summer. Since the perch is performing more functions in the warmer months, it naturally has a faster metabolism and has less PCB accumulation. However, multiple cold-water periods mixed with toxic PCBs with coplanar chlorine molecules can be detrimental to perch health.\n",
"Any living organism relies on an external source of energy – radiant energy from the Sun in the case of green plants, chemical energy in some form in the case of animals – to be able to grow and reproduce. The daily 1500–2000 Calories (6–8 MJ) recommended for a human adult are taken as a combination of oxygen and food molecules, the latter mostly carbohydrates and fats, of which glucose (CHO) and stearin (CHO) are convenient examples. The food molecules are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water in the mitochondria\n",
"Thermus aquaticus is a species of bacteria that can tolerate high temperatures, one of several thermophilic bacteria that belong to the Deinococcus–Thermus group. It is the source of the heat-resistant enzyme \"Taq\" DNA polymerase, one of the most important enzymes in molecular biology because of its use in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) DNA amplification technique.\n",
"\"A. russatus\" is also very good at conserving the little water it gets from its diet of insects and plants. It does this by producing extremely concentrated urine with urea content up to 4800 mM and chloride concentration up to 1500 mM. This means that it could survive drinking sea water, which is very rare in mammals.\n",
"Other research is being done on the effects of protein, pH, temperature, sodium chloride (NaCl), and sucrose on \"P. multocida\" development and survival in water. The research seems to show the bacteria survive better in 18 °C water compared to 2 °C water. The addition of 0.5% NaCl also aided bacterial survival, while the sucrose and pH levels had minor effects, as well. Research has also been done on the response of \"P. multocida\" to the host environment. These tests use DNA microarrays and proteomics techniques. \"P. multocida\"-directed mutants have been tested for their ability to produce disease. Findings seem to indicate the bacteria occupy host niches that force them to change their gene expression for energy metabolism, uptake of iron, amino acids, and other nutrients. \"In vitro\" experiments show the responses of the bacteria to low iron and different iron sources, such as transferrin and hemoglobin. \"P. multocida\" genes that are upregulated in times of infection are usually involved in nutrient uptake and metabolism. This shows true virulence genes may only be expressed during the early stages of infection.\n"
] |
why are 144hz monitors more popular than 120hz?
|
It's a mix of display connection limitations and marketing.
Before displayport and higher versions of HDMI, the display cable that could transfer the most data was Dual Link DVI. The initial 120 Hz refresh monitors were at 1080p resolution. 120 Hz made sense because it was double 60 Hz, the standard monitor refresh rate and divisible by 24, the movie frame rate.
Monitor manufacturers wanted to distinguish their monitors so they pushed the limits of Dual Link DVI. It turns out 144 Hz at 1080p was close to the maximum supported data rate for the cable. So monitors came out with 144 Hz refresh rate and 144 > 120. The number kinda got stuck as the new threshold so most high refresh monitors set that as the standard.
|
[
"On smaller CRT monitors (up to about ), few people notice any discomfort between 60–72 Hz. On larger CRT monitors ( or larger), most people experience mild discomfort unless the refresh is set to 72 Hz or higher. A rate of 100 Hz is comfortable at almost any size. However, this does not apply to LCD monitors. The closest equivalent to a refresh rate on an LCD monitor is its frame rate, which is often locked at 60 fps. But this is rarely a problem, because the only part of an LCD monitor that could produce CRT-like flicker—its backlight — typically operates at around a minimum of 200 Hz.\n",
"While common multisync CRT computer monitors have been capable of running at even multiples of 24 Hz since the early 1990s, recent \"120 Hz\" LCDs have been produced for the purpose of having smoother, more fluid motion, depending upon the source material, and any subsequent processing done to the signal. In the case of material shot on video, improvements in smoothness just from having a higher refresh rate may be barely noticeable.\n",
"Although the fact is now mainly of historical interest, most larger-tube CRT PC monitors had a maximum horizontal scan rate of 70 kHz or higher, which means they could have handled 2048x1152 at 60 Hz progressive if set to use a custom resolution (with slimmer vertical blanking margins than HD-MAC/Eu95 itself for those rated for less than 75 kHz). Monitors able to support the lower refresh rate, including smaller models incapable of 70 kHz but good for at least 58 kHz (preferably 62.5 kHz) and able to support the lower vertical refresh rate could instead be set to run 50 Hz progressive, or even 100 Hz interlace to avert the flicker that would otherwise cause.\n",
"The term is primarily used for CRTs, especially televisions in 50 Hz countries (PAL or SECAM) and computer monitors from the 1990s and early 2000s – the 50 Hz rate of PAL/SECAM video (compared with 60 Hz NTSC video) and the relatively large computer monitors and close viewing distances of 1990s/2000s computer monitors (hence making more of the screen in the viewer's peripheral vision) make flicker most noticeable on these devices.\n",
"At low refresh rates (60 Hz and below), the periodic scanning of the display may produce a flicker that some people perceive more easily than others, especially when viewed with peripheral vision. Flicker is commonly associated with CRT as most televisions run at 50 Hz (PAL) or 60 Hz (NTSC), although there are some 100 Hz PAL televisions that are flicker-free. Typically only low-end monitors run at such low frequencies, with most computer monitors supporting at least 75 Hz and high-end monitors capable of 100 Hz or more to eliminate any perception of flicker. Though the 100 Hz PAL was often achieved using interleaved scanning, dividing the circuit and scan into two beams of 50 Hz. Non-computer CRTs or CRT for sonar or radar may have long persistence phosphor and are thus flicker free. If the persistence is too long on a video display, moving images will be blurred.\n",
"On September 5, 2014, Dell unveiled the first monitor with a 5K resolution, the UltraSharp UP2715K. This monitor featured a 27-inch 51202880 display, giving it a pixel density of around 218 ppi. The monitor only supported DisplayPort version 1.2, which is limited to 51202880 at 30 Hz. To work around this, the UP2715K implemented a system by which the bandwidth of two DisplayPort connections could be combined to achieve 60 Hz, using a picture-by-picture mode to virtually treat the display as two smaller 25602880 monitors side-by-side and driving each half with a separate DisplayPort connection.\n",
"The 32×16 characters was the reason that the 6502 was clocked at 750 kHz. To get the circuitry to work at a (nearly) standard video rate meant that the pixel clock had to be 6 MHz. When the Microtan 65 was designed only a 1 MHz 6502 was available, and so 750 kHz was used (6 MHz divided by 8).\n"
] |
How did New Horizons get to Pluto?
|
It had a gravity assist at Jupiter; see [this](_URL_0_).
You can see the trajectory [here](_URL_1_).
|
[
"After an intense political battle, a revised mission to Pluto called \"New Horizons\" was granted funding from the US government in 2003. \"New Horizons\" was launched successfully on 19 January 2006. The mission leader, S. Alan Stern, confirmed that some of the ashes of Clyde Tombaugh, who died in 1997, had been placed aboard the spacecraft.\n",
"On January 19, 2006 the New Horizons spacecraft to Pluto was launched directly into a solar-escape trajectory at from Cape Canaveral using an Atlas V version with 5 of the these SRBs and Star 48B thirdstage . \"New Horizons\" passed the Moon's orbit in just nine hours.\n",
"\"New Horizons\" made its closest approach to Pluto on July 14, 2015, after a 3,462-day journey across the Solar System. Scientific observations of Pluto began five months before the closest approach and continued for at least a month after the encounter. Observations were conducted using a remote sensing package that included imaging instruments and a radio science investigation tool, as well as spectroscopic and other experiments. The scientific goals of \"New Horizons\" were to characterize the global geology and morphology of Pluto and its moon Charon, map their surface composition, and analyze Pluto's neutral atmosphere and its escape rate. On October 25, 2016, at 05:48 pm ET, the last bit of data (of a total of 50 billion bits of data; or 6.25 gigabytes) was received from \"New Horizons\" from its close encounter with Pluto.\n",
"\"New Horizons\" had its closest approach to Pluto on 14 July 2015—after a 3,462-day journey across the Solar System. Scientific observations of Pluto began five months before the closest approach and continued for at least a month after the encounter. \"New Horizons\" used a remote sensing package that includes imaging instruments and a radio science investigation tool, as well as spectroscopic and other experiments, to characterize the global geology and morphology of Pluto and its moon Charon, map their surface composition and analyze Pluto's neutral atmosphere and its escape rate. \"New Horizons\" also photographed the surfaces of Pluto and Charon.\n",
"On January 19, 2006 the \"New Horizons\" spacecraft to Pluto was launched directly into a solar-escape trajectory at from Cape Canaveral using an Atlas V version with 5 of the AJ-60A SRBs and the Common Core Booster, Centaur upper stage, and Star 48B third stage. \"New Horizons\" passed the Moon's orbit in just nine hours.\n",
"\"New Horizons\" Star 48B was calculated to arrive at planet Jupiter 6 hours before \"New Horizons\", and on Oct 15, 2015 would pass through Pluto's orbit at a distance of 213 million kilometers (over 1 AU) distant from Pluto. This was nearly four months after the \"New Horizons\" probe did.\n",
"\"New Horizons\" was originally planned as a voyage to the only unexplored planet in the SolarSystem. When the spacecraft was launched, Pluto was still classified as a planet, later to be reclassified as a dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). Some members of the \"New Horizons\" team, including Alan Stern, disagree with the IAU definition and still describe Pluto as the ninth planet. Pluto's satellites Nix and Hydra also have a connection with the spacecraft: the first letters of their names (N and H) are the initials of \"New Horizons\". The moons' discoverers chose these names for this reason, plus Nix and Hydra's relationship to the mythological Pluto.\n"
] |
It's 1925 and money is no object for me, I want to travel between America and Europe what are my options?
|
You're pretty much limited to traveling by ship. Daring individuals have starting making transatlantic flights, but you're still three years away from the first east-west non-stop transatlantic crossing, and also three years away from the first regular transatlantic travel by commercial airships, which will enjoy a brief period of popularity before being replaced by commercial airliners. Ironically, the airship that would make the first commercial passenger flight, the Graf Zeppelin, would also be the one to arguably spell the end of luxury airship travel when it comes crashing to earth in a fireball in 1937. You won't really be able to take a cross-Atlantic trip on an aircraft (A seaplane) until around 1937, when Imperial Airways will start making regular scheduled flights. Having said this, if you are just spectacularly wealthy, you might be able to simply purchase one of the new flying boats, have it fitted with extra fuel tanks, and just about make it from the west coast of Canada to the closest parts of Ireland.
& #x200B;
Your only realistic way of getting to Europe from America, or vice versa, is sea travel. You're in luck, however, because you're still in the heyday of luxury cruises! The crossing will take you a few days, maybe a week, but you'll be crossing in style, with your own state room and attendants, or if you want to slum it for some reason, you can buy a ticket on the lower decks and just wait to get there. The Titanic went down horribly in 1912, but that's in the distant past now, so you don't really need to worry about that, and the War to End all Wars ended in 1918, so you don't need to worry about the fate of the poor Lusitania, who was torpedoed off Ireland in 1915. All in all, you're relatively safe, relatively certain to make it to your destination, and you'll be doing so in style.
& #x200B;
I don't know much about passports at the time so someone else will have to answer that, but I hope this helps!
|
[
"During the 15 years from 1950 to 1965, American investments in Europe soared by 800% to $13.9 billion, and in the European Economic Community rose 10 times to $6.25 billion. Europe's share of American investments increased from 15% to 28%. The investments were of very high visibility and generated much talk of Americanization. Even so, American investments in Europe represented only 50% of the total European investment and American-owned companies in the European Economic Community employ only 2 or 3% of the total labor force. The basic reason for the U.S. investments is no longer lower production costs, faster economic growth, or higher profits in Europe, but the desire to maintain a competitive position based largely on American technological superiority. Opposition to U.S. investments, originally confined to France, later spread to other European countries. Public opinion began to resent American advertising and business methods, personnel policies, and the use of the English language by American companies. Criticism was also directed toward the international currency system which was blamed for inflationary tendencies as a result of the dominant position of the U.S. dollars. However, by the 1970s European investments in the U.S. increased even more rapidly than vice versa, and Geir Lundestad finds there was less talk of the Americans buying Europe.\n",
"On 5 June 1947, George C. Marshall, at the time Secretary of State of the United States of America, gave an address at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where he proposed a plan to aid European recovery after the events of World War II, in the form of financial and economic assistance from the United States. This assistance, however, was dependent on the co-operation of the European nations who would be the recipients of this aid. The countries involved would need to agree on their requirements, as well as to their own contributions to European recovery.\n",
"In the US edition's introduction it states that it is possible to survive a trip in Europe on less than twenty-five US dollars per week. The US edition also included such information as US dollar to other currency exchange rates (current as of January 1972), weight and measurement conversion charts, and brief lists of phrases and numbers for French, German, Spanish and Italian. \n",
"BULLET::::- The European Payments Union was created, for the benefit of fifteen Western European nations, to stabilize their currencies. The United States contributed $350,000,000 to the endowment fund.\n",
"In 1937, Culbertson published a book supporting the Hull reciprocal trade policy. According to a review by George H. E. Smith, Culbertson's thesis is that \"[The United States has] become a world state... Our overseas expansion will go on whether we like it or not... Our production, our finance, and our trade then must operate on a world stage. If they are confined within our political frontiers by a narrow nationalism, no amount of governmental regulation and of governmental generosity will bring about real prosperity... I have become convinced that we cannot possibly pay out nationally except through a tremendous revival in foreign trade, both imports and exports, which in turn will stimulate and enlarge domestic trade and enterprise.\" The book continues by discussing the evolution of tariffs and the mechanisms through which they are made, and concludes with suggestions for a permanent foreign trade policy.\n",
"BULLET::::- New York Times; March 16, 1931, Monday; Washington, March 15, 1931. Despite expansion of British loans to Latin America in 1930, American loans to all foreign nations last year exceeded those of Great Britain by more than $300,000,000, according to a survey by Iver C. Olsen of the Department of Commerce which was made public today.\n",
"Gano Dunn, the President of J. G. White Engineering since 1913, was in Italy at the outbreak of World War I. Americans stranded in Europe had fled from Austria, France, Spain, Switzerland and Serbia to Italy, trying to book passage back to the United States. With banks refusing to cash personal checks, Americans were short on funds. In Italy, a bank moratorium had been declared, with banks paying only \"limited and small amounts daily\".\n"
] |
why does my girlfriend's clit become super-sensitive after she has an orgasm?
|
Have you ever noticed how hyper sensitive your penis gets after orgasm? Same thing.
|
[
"While stroking the clitoris, the parts of the female brain responsible for processing fear, anxiety and behavioral control start to diminish in activity. This reaches a peak at orgasm when the female brain's emotion centers are effectively closed down to produce an almost trance-like state. Holstege is quoted as saying, at the 2005 meeting of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Development: \"At the moment of orgasm, women do not have any emotional feelings.\"\n",
"She says she lost her virginity aged 11 with her 15-year-old boyfriend. In first grade, an accident damaged her clitoris. She has stated it is \"always hard but I don't feel anything\". However, she is still able to orgasm through stimulation of her g-spot, which often involves inserting large, wide objects into her vagina, and she has stated \"the deeper the better\". She appeared in a controversial double-fisting scene with fellow porn actress Alisha Klass in Seymore Butts' video \"Tampa Tushy Fest 1\". The film won the \"Best All-Girl Sex Scene – Video\" award at the 2000 AVN Awards.\n",
"The clitoris has an abundance of nerve endings, and is the human female's most sensitive erogenous zone and generally the primary anatomical source of human female sexual pleasure. When sexually stimulated, it may incite female sexual arousal. Sexual stimulation, including arousal, may result from mental stimulation, foreplay with a sexual partner, or masturbation, and may lead to orgasm. The most effective sexual stimulation of the organ is usually manually or orally (cunnilingus), which is often referred to as direct clitoral stimulation; in cases involving sexual penetration, these activities may also be referred to as additional or assisted clitoral stimulation.\n",
"Sex educator Rebecca Chalker states that only one part of the clitoris, the urethral sponge, is in contact with the penis, fingers, or a dildo in the vagina. Hite and Chalker state that the tip of the clitoris and the inner lips, which are also very sensitive, are not receiving direct stimulation during penetrative intercourse. Because of this, some couples may engage in the woman on top position or the coital alignment technique to maximize clitoral stimulation. For some women, the clitoris is very sensitive after climax, making additional stimulation initially painful.\n",
"The orgasms that result from stimulation of the AFE zone are thought to be distinct from the orgasms that result from stimulation of the clitoris, but some women who have experienced them say that they are similar in sensation to orgasms achieved by G-spot stimulation, while others say that they are more \"intense\".\n",
"In a male receptive partner, being anally penetrated can produce a pleasurable sensation due to the inserted penis rubbing or brushing against the prostate through the anal wall. This can result in pleasurable sensations and can lead to an orgasm in some cases. Prostate stimulation can produce a deeper orgasm, sometimes described by men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only. The prostate is located next to the rectum and is the larger, more developed male homologue (variation) to the female Skene's glands. It is also typical for a man to not reach orgasm as a receptive partner solely from anal sex.\n",
"General statistics indicate that 70-80% of women require direct clitoral stimulation to achieve orgasm. Shere Hite's research on human female sexuality reports that, for most women, orgasm is easily achieved by cunnilingus because of the direct clitoral stimulation (including stimulation to other external parts of the vulva that are physically related to the clitoris) that may be involved during the act.\n"
] |
Does light experience time when traveling in a material?
|
Light doesn't *experience* anything. I don't mean that in a pedantic sense of it's not conscious. I mean that an observational frame *at c* makes no sense at all.
However, when you have a material, that material has an electromagnetic field *already* between all the various charged particles (electrons and nuclei). And given all those particles and how they can move and how they're bound, what we can often do is take *all* of that, and come up with an "effective" electromagnetic field for the material. It's not the "true" EM field of particles in free space, but it allows us to take account of all the material properties.
So in this *effective* EM field, energy is carried around not in photons but in other "quasi-particles." Since our EM field isn't "true" the particles it has aren't "true" (as in fundamental particles that make up all kinds of matter) either; they're just particles specific to the EM field in this specific material.
And *those* quasi-particles can have mass, and usually *do* pass through the material at speeds lower than c. This is the "speed of light in material." It's not really "light" like the kind of light that propagates through a vacuum. It's a cousin, a relative to light, that is specific to that material.
So yes, for these quasi-particles you can construct frames of rest for them in which an observer experiences time and distance.
|
[
"A human perceives the intensity of the sinusoidal disturbance as the brightness of the light and the frequency as the color. If a light is turned on or off at a specific time or otherwise modulated, then the amplitude of the sinusoidal disturbance is also time-dependent. The time-varying amplitude does not propagate at the phase velocity but rather at the group velocity. The group velocity depends not only on the refractive index of the material, but also the way in which the refractive index changes with frequency (i.e. the derivative of refractive index with respect to frequency).\n",
"Exposure to light also has a significant effect on materials. It is not only the light visible to humans that can cause damage, but also ultraviolet light and infrared radiation. Measured in lux or the amount of lumens/m, the generally accepted level of illumination with sensitive materials is limited to 50 lux per day. Materials receiving more lux than recommended can be placed in dark storage periodically to prolong the original appearance of the object.\n",
"The second postulate of Einstein's theory of special relativity states that the speed of light is invariant, regardless of the velocity of the source from which the light emanates. The extinction theorem (essentially) states that light passing through a transparent medium is simultaneously extinguished and re-emitted by the medium itself. This implies that information about the velocity of light from a moving source might be lost if the light passes through enough intervening transparent material before being measured. All measurements previous to the 1960s intending to verify the constancy of the speed of light from moving sources (primarily using moving mirrors, or extraterrestrial sources) were made only after the light had passed through such stationary material — that material being that of a glass lens, the terrestrial atmosphere, or even the incomplete vacuum of deep space. In 1961, Fox decided that there might not yet be any conclusive evidence for the second postulate: \"This is a surprising situation in which to find ourselves half a century after the inception of special relativity.\" Regardless, he remained fully confident in special relativity, noting that this created only a \"small gap\" in the experimental record.\n",
"In Fig. 4‑3, the time interval between the events A (the \"cause\") and B (the \"effect\") is 'time-like'; i.e., there is a frame of reference in which events A and B occur at the \"same location in space\", separated only by occurring at different times. If A precedes B in that frame, then A precedes B in all frames accessible by a Lorentz transformation. It is possible for matter (or information) to travel (below light speed) from the location of A, starting at the time of A, to the location of B, arriving at the time of B, so there can be a causal relationship (with A the cause and B the effect).\n",
"When light reflects off of a material with higher refractive index than the medium in which is traveling, it undergoes a 180° phase shift. In contrast, when light reflects off of a material with lower refractive index the reflected light is in phase with the incident light. This is an important principle in the field of thin-film optics.\n",
"According to simple emission theory, light thrown off by an object should move at a speed of formula_1 with respect to the emitting object. If there are no complicating dragging effects, the light would then be expected to move at this same speed until it eventually reached an observer. For an object moving directly towards (or away from) the observer at formula_2 metres per second, this light would then be expected to still be travelling at formula_3 ( or formula_4 ) metres per second at the time it reached us.\n",
"When light enters a material with higher refractive index, the angle of refraction will be smaller than the angle of incidence and the light will be refracted towards the normal of the surface. The higher the refractive index, the closer to the normal direction the light will travel. When passing into a medium with lower refractive index, the light will instead be refracted away from the normal, towards the surface.\n"
] |
How true the factoid you frequently hear that the atoms in your body are entirely replaced (albeit gradually) about every 5 ~ 7 years.
|
It's not really atoms, but cells as a whole. Cells can grow old and die off (called "senescence") and are replaced by new cells. So over a period of time (5-7 years as you say) you could say that all the cells currently existing in your body will have died off and been replaced by new ones.
|
[
"Metastable atoms are atoms that have been excited out of the ground state, but remain in an excited state for a significant period of time. Microscopy using metastable atoms has been shown to be possible, where the metastable atoms release stored internal energy into the surface, releasing electrons that provide information on the electronic structure\n",
"In \"L'individuation psychique et collective\", Gilbert Simondon developed a theory of individual and collective individuation in which the individual subject is considered as an effect of individuation rather than a cause. Thus, the individual atom is replaced by a never-ending ontological process of individuation.\n",
"A special case occurs where a system oscillates between two unstable levels that have the same life time formula_52 . If atoms are excited at a constant, say n/time, to the first state, some decay and the rest have a probability formula_53 to transition to the second state, so in the time interval between t and (t+dt) the number of atoms that jump to the second state from the first is formula_54, so at time t the number of atoms in the second state is\n",
"During the time period of the 2006 \"One Year Later\" storylines, Atom is revealed to be contained by the modern day Atomic Knights inside a secret S.H.A.D.E. facility in Blüdhaven, and used to administer radiation treatments to metahumans. Later in 2008's \"Countdown\", it was revealed that the changes that were to befall Captain Atom in this period were due to the actions of Solomon, one of the newly-born Monitors who attacks Captain Atom almost as soon as he arrives back to New Earth from the Wildstorm Universe and damages his alien metal shell, causing him to leak dangerous amounts of radiation.\n",
"Atom re-appears as the protagonist in the 2003 series; a robot with the ability to think and reason ('Kokoro', or Japanese for 'heart and soul'). Atom was created by Doctor Tenma as a ‘replacement’ for Tobio, his deceased son. Tenma, overcome with grief, decided to make an identical robot copy, which he will raise just like his own. Tenma, however, during the project lost the trust of his fellow scientists, who had thought that he has been overcome with grief and longing for his son and as a result went insane. Tenma, who was indeed displaying signs of insanity at that point, finished his project and named the robot after his son. Unfortunately, things got out of hand as soon as Astro was led into the basement full of broken robots (including Robita) and the robot Tobio (doing the same thing the original Tobio has done) asks for Tenma to fix it. After Tenma refuses, the robot Tobio rebels against him (the same thing the original Tobio has done) and as a result, Tenma shuts him down.\n",
"In single-molecule electronics, the bulk material is replaced by single molecules. Instead of forming structures by removing or applying material after a pattern scaffold, the atoms are put together in a chemistry lab. In this way, billions of billions of copies are made simultaneously (typically more than 10 molecules are made at once) while the composition of molecules are controlled down to the last atom. The molecules used have properties that resemble traditional electronic components such as a wire, transistor or rectifier.\n",
"Note that the xyz standard does not require that the number or chemical nature of atoms should be the same at subsequent snapshots, which allows for atoms disappearing from or coming into the field of view during the animation.\n"
] |
Why is the waste produced in a thorium fuel cycle need storage for only 300 years instead of thousands of years for uranium fuel cycle, even though U233 from Th232 had mostly similar fission products as U235?
|
This argument is mainly about transuranic isotopes. These are waste products which through neutron capture become heavier. They do not fission at all. To go from U238 to P239 all you need is one capture. To go from U233 to P239, you need a series of captures and there will be plenty of opportunity for fission instead of capture and less transuranic elements will be bred from Thorium.
The fission products are indeed very similar in composition. One notable exception with liquid fuel reactors is that xenon will not be transmuted in the reactor core (as a gas it will bubble out). In that case you get a lot more Cs135 which has a half life of 2.3Ma. But mostly the fission products are essentially the same.
Fission products are either very short lived and those are not a problem, or they are medium lived (10-100years half life) and those are a problem, or they are long lived and those are not that much of a problem (they have low radioactivity).
P239 has a half life of 20000 years and that means it is pretty radioactive and also pretty long lived. Also when P239 decays, it will go through a long chain of maybe a dozen decays before it becomes stable, whereas fission products usually become stable after a single decay.
|
[
"Another important benefit of removing the long half-life transuranics from the waste cycle is that the remaining waste becomes a much shorter-term hazard. After the actinides (reprocessed uranium, plutonium, and minor actinides) are recycled, the remaining radioactive waste isotopes are fission products, with half-life of 90 years (Sm-151) or less or 211,100 years (Tc-99) and more; plus any activation products from the non-fuel reactor components.\n",
"The radioactive waste from spent fuel rods consist primarily of cesium-137 and strontium-90, but it may also include plutonium, which can be considered a transuranic waste. The half-lives of these radioactive elements can differ quite extremely. Some elements, such as cesium-137 and strontium-90 have half-lives of approximately 30 years. Meanwhile, plutonium has a half-life of that can stretch to as long as 24,000 years.\n",
"During the first 40 years that nuclear waste was being created in the United States, no legislation was enacted to manage its disposal. Nuclear waste, some of which remains radioactive with a half-life of more than one million years, was kept in various types of temporary storage. Of particular concern during nuclear waste disposal are two long-lived fission products, Tc-99 (half-life 220,000 years) and I-129 (half-life 17 million years), which dominate spent fuel radioactivity after a few thousand years. The most troublesome transuranic elements in spent fuel are Np-237 (half-life two million years) and Pu-239 (half-life 24,000 years).\n",
"Every 8 years 160 tons of spent fuel travel to the recycling facility, consisting of about 75% thorium, with 95% of the balance uranium. Without separation (other than removing the salt), the total fuel waste stream averages about 2 m per year.\n",
"After \"spent nuclear fuel\" is removed from a light water reactor, it undergoes a complex decay profile as each nuclide decays at a different rate. Due to a physical oddity referenced below, there is a large gap in the decay half-lives of fission products compared to transuranic isotopes. If the transuranics are left in the spent fuel, after 1,000 to 100,000 years, the slow decay of these transuranics would generate most of the radioactivity in that spent fuel. Thus, removing the transuranics from the waste eliminates much of the long-term radioactivity of spent nuclear fuel.\n",
"While in the US, spent fuel is presently in its entirety, federally classified as a nuclear waste and is treated similarly, in other countries it is largely reprocessed to produce a partially recycled fuel, known as mixed oxide fuel or MOX. For spent fuel that does not undergo reprocessing, the most concerning isotopes are the medium-lived transuranic elements, which are led by reactor grade plutonium (half-life 24,000 years).\n",
"Reprocessing, which mainly takes the form of recycling reactor-grade plutonium back into the same or a more advanced fleet of reactors, was planned in the US in the 1960s. At that time the uranium market was anticipated to become crowded and supplies tight so together with recycling fuel, the more efficient fast breeder reactors were thereby seen as immediately needed to efficiently use the limited known uranium supplies. This became less urgent as time passed, with both reduced demand forecasts and increased uranium ore discoveries, for these economic reasons, fresh fuel and the reliance on solely fresh fuel remained cheaper in commercial terms than recycled. \n"
] |
Why was Bill Clinton's approval rating so low in the first few months of his presidency?
|
As you said, at this point of his presidency a few months in, in early May of 1993, Clinton was at a 45% approval rating. Clinton's lowest approval rating then actually slipped to 37% - a low-point mark I believe he reached in early June of 1993.
The reasons for these low ratings early on were largely tied to what many deemed to be Clinton's poor handling and implementation of his domestic agenda out of the gate. His initial attempts at implementing his early economic policies after taking office were quickly called out very effectively (largely by the Republicans of course) as being something that would raise taxes for the bulk of Americans, and that was deemed very troublesome by many of the population, as Clinton initially failed to counter those claims very efficiently or effectively.
Clinton's support of the "Brady Bill" (aka the *"Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act"*) early on into his presidency when it was initially introduced by Chuck Schumer in February of 1993 also hurt Clinton's numbers badly amongst 2nd Amendment advocates in the next few months.
The whole "gays in the military" and the plan for the *"Don't ask, don't tell"* Clinton/Democrat policy also is deemed to have hurt his polling numbers early on amongst a considerable number of the electorate (both Dems and Republicans). He also took some early flak for his health care reform ideas (championed in large part by the then First Lady Hillary Clinton), and his early plans and support for NAFTA (the *North American Free Trade Agreement*) brought him a lot of heat from both sides of the aisle (and from Ross Perot supporters as well).
Of course, there was also the crazy *"HairGate"* scandal in early May of 1993, where Bill Clinton infamously received an hour-long haircut aboard Air Force One while it was parked on the tarmac at LA International Airport, where the delay caused by him getting his haircut was said to have forced the closure of two runways at the airport for security reasons for about an hour (said to have resulted in huge delays for many passengers on other flights inbound and outbound from the airport). That did not play well in the media at all, and was made by many in the press to initially have Clinton look like an entitled ass who cared little for the average traveller, even with some press calling it *"the most expensive haircut in history"*. It was later revealed a couple months or so later that no flights were actually affected by Clinton's desire to get a trim that day aboard Air Force One on the tarmac at LAX, but the initial damage had been done and that hurt his May (and June) 1993 polling numbers as well.
Basically, it was a host of all those things that affected domestic policies that served to drop his early poll numbers quite low. As we know though, Clinton later rebounded quite well, and even survived the Monica Lewinsky affair and impeachment proceedings to emerge to be recognized as quite a popular President after his two terms in office were complete in 2001.
|
[
"While Bill Clinton's job-approval ratings were around 60%, an April 1999 study by the Pew Research Center for the People found that respondents suffered from \"Clinton fatigue\" where they were \"tired of all the problems associated with the Clinton administration\" including the Lewinsky scandal and impeachment. Texas Governor and likely Republican presidential nominee George W. Bush was leading Gore 54% to 41% in polls during that time. Gore's advisers believed that the \"Lewinsky scandal and Bill's past womanizing...alienated independent voters—especially the soccer moms, who stood for traditional values\". Consequently, Gore's presidential campaign \"veered too far in differentiating himself from Bill and his record and had difficulty taking advantage of the Clinton administration's legitimate successes\". In addition, Hillary's candidacy for the open Senate seat in New York exacerbated the \"three-way tensions evident in the White House since 1993\", as \"not only was Hillary unavailable as a campaigner, she was poaching top Democratic fund-raisers and donors who would normally concentrate on the vice president\". In one instance \"Hillary insisted on being invited [to a Los Angeles fundraiser for the vice president]—over the objections of the event's organizers\", where the First Lady \"shocked the vice president's supporters by soliciting donations for herself in front of Tipper\".\n",
"Throughout Clinton's first term, his job approval rating fluctuated in the 40s and 50s. In his second term, his rating consistently ranged from the high-50s to the high-60s. After his impeachment proceedings in 1998 and 1999, Clinton's rating reached its highest point. According to a CBS News/\"New York Times\" poll, Clinton left office with an approval rating of 68 percent, which matched those of Ronald Reagan and Franklin D. Roosevelt as the highest ratings for departing presidents in the modern era. Clinton's average Gallup poll approval rating for his last quarter in office was 61%, the highest final quarter rating any president has received for fifty years. Forty-seven percent of the respondents identified themselves as being Clinton supporters.\n",
"Bill Clinton benefited from one of the largest bumps in history after the Democratic National Convention in 1992, climbing by as many as 30 points in the polls, however this was assisted by Independent Ross Perot, who at the time was polling at 20%, withdrawing from the race during the Democratic convention. Then-President George H.W. Bush's convention bounce was weak by comparison, some party leaders blaming former primary challenger Pat Buchanan's fiery and divisive speech, which aired in primetime due to a scheduling delay. Four years later, Bob Dole got a big bounce after the Republican convention, but quickly fizzled. However, Al Gore's 2000 bounce endured for weeks. Prior to the Democratic convention, Gore was behind Texas Gov. George W. Bush by as many as 16 points, but was in a statistical tie with the Republican the weekend after his acceptance speech. To the bafflement of political pundits, Democratic candidate John Kerry did not get a convention bounce in 2004, despite the unpopularity of incumbent George W. Bush.\n",
"Clinton's job approval rating ranged from 36% in mid-1993 to 64% in late 1993 and early 1994. In his second term, his rating consistently ranged from the high-50s to the high-60s. After his impeachment proceedings in 1998 and 1999, Clinton's rating reached its highest point at 73% approval. He finished with a Gallup poll approval rating of 65%, higher than that of every other departing president measured since Harry Truman.\n",
"Clinton left office with high approval ratings, though his preferred successor, Vice President Al Gore, was narrowly defeated by Texas Governor George W. Bush in the 2000 presidential election. Since the end of Clinton's presidency, historians and political scientists have tended to rank Clinton as an average to above average president.\n",
"Following the success of the First Gulf War, George H. W. Bush enjoyed very high approval ratings as president. However, economic recession and a reneged campaign pledge dogged Bush, sinking his formerly high approval ratings from the high 80s to the lower 40s and upper 30s. In the wake of Bush's political problems, Bill Clinton won the 1992 contest with 43% of the vote in a three-way race against Bush's 38%. Independent candidate Ross Perot tapped the discontent of the electorate with both parties, drawing roughly evenly from both candidates to receive a record 19% of the popular vote, but no electoral votes. Perot's result qualified his Reform Party to receive Federal Election Commission matching funds for campaign contributions in the 1996 election, thus laying the groundwork for another three-way race during the 1996 presidential election.\n",
"In May 2006, a CNN poll comparing Clinton's job performance with that of his successor, George W. Bush, found that a strong majority of respondents said Clinton outperformed Bush in six different areas questioned. Gallup polls in 2007 and 2011 showed that Clinton was regarded by 13 percent of Americans as the greatest president in U.S. history.\n"
] |
Why don't mosquitoes die of malaria?
|
It would be detrimental for the plasmodium parasite to kill off the mosquitoes. It requires them for its reproduction.
So, the answer to your question would be that the parasite has evolved to avoid harming the mosquitoes.
|
[
"Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases it can cause yellow skin, seizures, coma, or death. Symptoms usually begin ten to fifteen days after being bitten by an infected mosquito. If not properly treated, people may have recurrences of the disease months later. In those who have recently survived an infection, reinfection usually causes milder symptoms. This partial resistance disappears over months to years if the person has no continuing exposure to malaria.\n",
"Malaria, a mosquito-borne infectious disease of humans and other animals, is a potentially deadly disease that causes fever, fatigue, nausea, muscular pain, coughing, and, in extreme cases, coma and death. Malaria is caused by parasitic protozoans transferred through mosquito saliva into a person’s circulatory system, where they travel to the liver to mature. Though eliminated in the U.S., there were an estimated 219 million documented cases of malaria in 2010 according to the World Health Organization.\n",
"Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to humans through the bites of infected mosquitoes. \"Plasmodium falciparum\" is the species of the malaria parasite that causes the vast majority of severe disease and death. In 2010, there were about 216 million cases of malaria globally, and about 655,000 deaths – mostly among children in Africa. Yet, malaria is preventable and treatable.\n",
"Exposure to malaria will become a greater risk to humans as the number of female \"Anopheles\" mosquitos infected with either the \"Plasmodium falciparum\" or \"Plasmodium vivax\" parasite increases. The mosquito will transmit the parasite to the human host through a bite, resulting in infection. Then, when an uninfected mosquito bites the now infected human host, the parasite will be transmitted to the mosquitoes which will then become an exposure to other uninfected human hosts. Individuals who are constantly exposed to the Malaria parasite due to multiple bites by mosquitoes that carry the parasite are at greater risk of dying. Infected humans can also transmit the disease to uninfected or healthy humans via contaminated blood.\n",
"Mosquito-borne diseases or mosquito-borne illnesses are diseases caused by bacteria, viruses or parasites transmitted by mosquitoes. They can transmit disease without being affected themselves. Nearly 700 million people get a mosquito-borne illness each year resulting in over one million deaths.\n",
"\"P. malariae\" can infect several species of mosquito and can cause malaria in humans. \"P. malariae\" can be maintained at very low infection rates among a sparse and mobile population because unlike the other \"Plasmodium\" parasites, it can remain in a human host for an extended period of time and still remain infectious to mosquitoes.\n",
"The female mosquito of the genus \"Anopheles\" carries the malaria parasite. Four different species of protozoa cause malaria: \"Plasmodium falciparum\", \"Plasmodium malariae\", \"Plasmodium\" ovale and \"Plasmodium\" vivax (see \"Plasmodium\"). Worldwide, malaria is a leading cause of premature mortality, particularly in children under the age of five, with an estimated 207 million cases and more than half a million deaths in 2012, according to the World Malaria Report 2013 published by WHO. The death toll increased to one million as of 2018 according to the American Mosquito Control Association.\n"
] |
why is food (and other things) preserved when it is frozen?
|
What makes food go bad is bacteria. Bacteria cant live in the cold very easily and even if they do they slow way way down. Thus freezing prevents the bacteria from spoiling the food and the food stays good for longer.
|
[
"Frozen food is food preserved by the process of freezing. Freezing food is a common method of food preservation which slows both food decay and, by turning water to ice, makes it unavailable for most bacterial growth and slows down most chemical reactions. Clarence Birdseye offered his quick-frozen foods to the public. Birdseye got the idea during fur-trapping expeditions to Labrador in 1912 and 1916, where he saw the natives use freezing to preserve foods.\n",
"Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below , which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product.\n",
"Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n",
"Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n",
"Freezing is an effective form of food preservation because the pathogens that cause food spoilage are killed or do not grow very rapidly at reduced temperatures. The process is less effective in food preservation than are thermal techniques, such as boiling, because pathogens are more likely to be able to survive cold temperatures rather than hot temperatures. One of the problems surrounding the use of freezing as a method of food preservation is the danger that pathogens deactivated (but not killed) by the process will once again become active when the frozen food thaws.\n",
"The food undergoes a process of cryogenic freezing with liquid nitrogen. After the food is placed on the conveyor belt, it is sprayed with liquid nitrogen that boils on contact with the freezing food. This method of flash-freezing fresh foods is used to retain natural quality of the food. When the food is chilled through cryogenic freezing, small ice crystals are formed throughout the food that, in theory, can preserve the food indefinitely if stored safely. Cryogenic freezing is widely used as it is a method for rapid freezing, requires almost no dehydration, excludes oxygen thus decreasing oxidative spoilage, and causes less damage to individual freezing pieces. Due to the fact that the cost of operating cryogenic freezing is high, it is commonly used for high value food products such as TV dinners, which is a $4.5 billion industry a year that is continuing to grow with the constant introduction of new technology.\n",
"Other than drying, other methods include salting, curing, canning, refrigeration, freezing, preservatives, irradiation, and high hydrostatic pressure: Refrigeration can increase the shelf life of certain foods and beverages, though with most items, it does not indefinitely expand it. Freezing can preserve food even longer, though even freezing has limitations. Canning of food can preserve food for a particularly long period of time, whether done at home or commercially. Canned food is vacuum packed in order to keep oxygen, which is needed by bacteria in aerobic spoilage, out of the can. Canning does have limitations, and does not preserve the food indefinitely. Lactic acid fermentation also preserves food and prevents spoilage.\n"
] |
Questions regarding Moses & Pharoah and the timeline
|
Check out our [FAQ](_URL_0_). Lots of threads there already.
|
[
"The presiding interest of the midrash is not ultimately the eulogization of Aaron, but is rather the psychological analysis of Moses's inner struggle upon being commanded to inform Aaron of his impending demise. In service of this theme, the midrash touches on various aspects of Moses's tense relationship with God and with the Children of Israel, and interweaves this psychological tension with other aggadic elements to create a more powerful drama\n",
"The midrash begins with the death of Miriam, sister of Moses, upon which occurrence expired the well that the Israelites through Miriam's merit had grown accustomed to rely on for water. Moses and Aaron mourn their sister's death, but the people grow impatient with Moses (significantly, not with Aharon) for his extended crying, and complain to him of the lack of water. Moses pleads for the privacy to mourn his sister in peace, and reminds the people that they have other officials and elders to whom they can appeal, but the people are implacable and threaten to stone Moses immediately if he does not produce water.\n",
"The text portrays Yahweh as telling Moses that he is sending him to the Pharaoh in order to bring the Israelites out of Egypt, an action that Yahweh is described as having decided upon as a result of noticing that the Israelites were being oppressed by the Egyptians. Yahweh tells Moses to tell the \"elders\" of the Israelites that Yahweh would lead them into the land of the Canaanites, Hittites, Amorites, Hivites, and Jebusites, a region generally referred to as a whole by the term \"Canaan\"; this is described as being a land of \"milk and honey\".\n",
"The Assumption of Moses (otherwise called the Testament of Moses) is a 1st century Jewish apocryphal pseudepigraphical work. It purports to contain secret prophecies Moses revealed to Joshua before passing leadership of the Israelites to him. It contains apocalyptic themes, but is characterized as a \"testament\", meaning it has the final speech of a dying person, Moses. \n",
"Julius Wellhausen's influential hypothesis regarding the formation of the Pentateuch suggests that Exodus 20-23 and 34 \"might be regarded as the document which formed the starting point of the religious history of Israel.\" Deuteronomy 5 then reflects King Josiah's attempt to link the document produced by his court to the older Mosaic tradition.\n",
"The documentary recounts Moses's encounter with the flaming bush and his involvement with the freeing of the Israelites from Egyptian bondage. the Exodus is where the great epic of Israel starts. According to William G. Dever, archeologist, the desert can only support a few thousand nomads, not the purported 3-million that legend tells us accompanied Moses. Furthermore, only 1 or 2 sites mentioned in Exodus have been identified. For the scribes to write an accurate historical account of what occurred 700 years earlier was improbable. What was probable was bringing to text the eternal lessons that the story of Moses taught.\n",
"Nehemiah is the central figure of the Book of Nehemiah, which describes his work in rebuilding Jerusalem during the Second Temple period. He was governor of Persian Judea under Artaxerxes I of Persia (c. 5th century BC). The name is pronounced or in English. It is in Hebrew , \"Nehemya\", \"Yahweh comforts\".\n"
] |
realism, modernism and postmodernism in literature.
|
All three are defined by an underlying philosophy (sort of, nowhere near as coherent as that sounds, really), a set of writers associated with them (and how they influence each other), a set of typical themes, a set of typical techniques, and a time period in which they were prevalent.
So it's not exactly very strictly defined. Asking 'What is modernism in literature?' is not like asking 'what is an antelope', but more like asking 'what is rock'n roll?' or 'what is classic cartoon?'
I'll take a stab at giving a rough impression of each.
Realism has the goal to describe the world as it really is. In practice, this can mean a focus on subjects that used to be 'beneath' literature or considered boring. The life of the working class, everday life, etc. The A-Team is low on realism, the Wire is high on realism.
Modernism goes, hold on, what do you mean 'what the world really is'? What with Darwin and Freud and Einstein, we are no longer so sure we can pin that down. You can pretend to describe the world all neat and precise and logical, but that's not how your life actually looks like.
Modernist stories tend to be disjointed, disgressive, open to interpretation, and often go against the establishment (political, religious, whatever you got). They often deal with the experiences of the late 19th and early 20th Century that freaked everybody out.
Blackadder Goes Forth would sort of be an example.
Postmodernism goes, let's not just ask what does reality mean, but also what does asking mean, and being mean, and meaning mean, man? Let's no longer try to figure out what 'reality' is, but just admit that nobody knows and point out that anybody who claims to know is full of it.
Modernism is all very well in its way, but it still is all about stories who come to some kind of resolution and make some kind of point and life doesn't actually work like that at all.
So you get stories who fall apart on you while reading them, that seem to aim towards an ending then take a sharp turn left and then explode into a big pile of confetti. (The deliberate refusal to hold to fixed definitions or make sense at all often makes post-modernism seem much more complex than it really is)
Postmodernist technique tend to be about playing around with the elements of the narrative, not taking it seriously in order to point out that there is nothing there in the first place, to be taken seriously or not. You get stories within stories, characters talking to the author, sudden genre shifts, self-contradictions, narrators who are not merely unrealiable, but just plain trolling etc.
TV example: Monty Python's Flying Circus.
TL;DR:
Realism -- > That's a good story. It has some interesting things to say about real life.
Modernism -- > That's a good story. It has some interesting questions about so-called real life.
Postmodernism -- > That's a very clever somewhat story-like text, but WTF?
|
[
"Postmodernism is a complex paradigm of different philosophies and artistic styles. The movement emerged as a reaction to high modernism. Modernism is a paradigm of thought and viewing the world characterized in specific ways that postmodernism reacted against. Modernism was interested in master and meta narratives of history of a teleological nature. Proponents of modernism suggested that sociopolitical and cultural progress was inevitable and important for society and art. Ideas of cultural unity (i.e. the narrative of the West or something similar) and the hierarchies of values of class that go along with such a conception of the world is another marker of modernism. In particular, modernism insisted upon a divide between \"low\" forms of art and \"high\" forms of art (creating more value judgments and hierarchies). This dichotomy is particularly focused on the divide between official culture and popular culture. Lastly but, by no means comprehensively, there was a faith in the \"real\" and the future and knowledge and the competence of expertise that pervades modernism. At heart, it contained a confidence about the world and humankind's place in it.\n",
"BULLET::::- Postmodernism refers to a point of departure for works of literature, drama, architecture, cinema, and design, as well as in marketing and business and in the interpretation of history, law, culture and religion in the late 20th century.\n",
"Postmodern literature is literature characterized by reliance on narrative techniques such as fragmentation, paradox, and the unreliable narrator; and is often (though not exclusively) defined as a style or a trend which emerged in the post–World War II era. Postmodern works are seen as a response against dogmatic following of Enlightenment thinking and Modernist approaches to literature.\n",
"The term Postmodern literature is used to describe certain tendencies in post-World War II literature. It is both a continuation of the experimentation championed by writers of the modernist period (relying heavily, for example, on fragmentation, paradox, questionable narrators, etc.) and a reaction against Enlightenment ideas implicit in Modernist literature. Postmodern literature, like postmodernism as a whole, is difficult to define and there is little agreement on the exact characteristics, scope, and importance of postmodern literature. Among postmodern writers are the Americans Henry Miller, William S. Burroughs, Joseph Heller, Kurt Vonnegut, Hunter S. Thompson, Truman Capote and Thomas Pynchon.\n",
"Postmodern literature is both a continuation of the experimentation championed by writers of the modernist period (relying heavily, for example, on fragmentation, paradox, questionable narrators, etc.) and a reaction against Enlightenment ideas implicit in Modernist literature. Postmodern literature, like postmodernism as a whole, is difficult to define and there is little agreement on the exact characteristics, scope, and importance of postmodern literature. Among postmodern writers are the Americans Henry Miller, William S. Burroughs, Joseph Heller, Kurt Vonnegut, Hunter S. Thompson, Truman Capote and Thomas Pynchon.\n",
"Modernism is an encompassing label for a wide variety of cultural movements. Postmodernism is essentially a centralized movement that named itself, based on sociopolitical theory, although the term is now used in a wider sense to refer to activities from the 20th century onwards which exhibit awareness of and reinterpret the modern.\n",
"Both modern and postmodern literature represent a break from 19th century realism. In character development, both modern and postmodern literature explore subjectivism, turning from external reality to examine inner states of consciousness, in many cases drawing on modernist examples in the \"stream of consciousness\" styles of James Joyce and Virginia Woolf, or explorative poems like \"The Waste Land\" by T. S. Eliot. In addition, both modern and postmodern literature explore fragmentariness in narrative- and character-construction. \"The Waste Land\" is often cited as a means of distinguishing modern and postmodern literature. The poem is fragmentary and employs pastiche like much postmodern literature, but the speaker in \"The Waste Land\" says, \"these fragments I have shored against my ruins\". Modernist literature sees fragmentation and extreme subjectivity as an existential crisis, or Freudian internal conflict, a problem that must be solved, and the artist is often cited as the one to solve it. Postmodernists, however, often demonstrate that this chaos is insurmountable; the artist is impotent, and the only recourse against \"ruin\" is to play within the chaos. Playfulness is present in many modernist works (Joyce's \"Finnegans Wake\" or Woolf's \"\", for example) and they may seem very similar to postmodern works, but with postmodernism playfulness becomes central and the actual achievement of order and meaning becomes unlikely. Gertrude Stein's playful experiment with metafiction and genre in \"The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas\" (1933) has been interpreted as postmodern.\n"
] |
How are each of the lobes in the brain differentiated on a biological level?
|
How are they differentiated? Well it's not simple. It's kinda like trying to decide where certain neighbourhoods in city begin and end. There are some areas that we are certain about, others where it gets a bit blurry. Let me explain.
To start with, the different areas of the brain were decided by looking down a microscope and seeing if the cells looked a little different. This was done most famously by a guy called Korbinian Brodmann in 1909. It's definitely the case that different areas of the brain look slightly different down the microscope, like [this](_URL_1_). But it's not very exact, though the so called "Brodmann areas" are still widely used, especially in humans. But since 1909, we've learnt a lot, and we generally do things differently now.
A simple question might be: Where is the primary visual cortex? It was decided that the primary visual cortex is where the visual inputs go to in the cortex. Any area that gets a lot of inputs from the eye is the primary visual cortex, and any area that doesn't, is NOT the primary visual cortex. So you can stick a dye into the pathway from the eye, and have a look. And if you do that, you get an image like [this](_URL_0_) (this is a mouse brain, but the concept still holds in humans) and where the brain is glowing yellow/green is primary visual cortex. You can do similar things for all the other primary sensory regions. But things start to get a little more complex outside of those regions. The question is not where the region is, but what defines that region? That is to say, what properties must a region have in order to be classified as region X? So a debate that I'm aware of is "Do mice even HAVE a prefrontal cortex?". And this debate exists because we don't have a great definition of the prefrontal cortex. If someone could say "well the prefrontal cortex is an area that has projections from this other region, and contains cells that look like this" then it would be easy to figure out if mice have an area that meets those conditions, and where it is. However, if that exact definition doesn't exist, then people have trouble deciding what counts.
\ > Certain areas have different functions, but how does that map to their individual clusters of neurons?
So I've said that most areas of the cortex are defined by what projections they received, and to a less extent what the neurons look like. But what does that mean functionally? By and large, this is still an unknown. Most areas of the cortex appear to do roughly the same thing. There are a few areas that are plainly very different (e.g. the periform cortex), but by and large the rest (especially primary sensory cortex) looks pretty similar when you look at it closely. These areas all have 6 layers, where the input from the senses goes mainly to layer 4. Layer 4 projects to layers 2 and 3, and layers 2 and 3 project down to layers 5 and 6. Layer 6 projects back to the sensory input, and layer 5 projects off to other regions. There are also similar inhibitory cells, that appear to be linked up in the same way. However, because we don't really know what the cortex does, or how it does it, we can't really answer whether there are important differences between cortical regions. There certainly ARE differences (layer 4 is quite different in different regions) but what that means in terms of how the cortex functions is not know.
|
[
"The lobes of the brain were originally a purely anatomical classification, but have been shown also to be related to different brain functions. The cerebrum, the largest portion of the human brain, is divided into lobes, but so is the cerebellum. If not specified, the expression \"lobes of the brain\" refers to the cerebrum.\n",
"The frontal lobe is the largest of the four major lobes of the brain in mammals, and is located at the front of each hemisphere (in front of the parietal lobe and the temporal lobe). It is separated from the parietal lobe by a groove between tissues called the central sulcus, and from the temporal lobe by a deeper groove called the lateral sulcus (Sylvian fissure). The most anterior rounded part of the frontal lobe (though not well-defined) is known as the frontal pole, one of the three poles of the cerebrum.\n",
"Due to the difference in brain processing and function as well as various surface anatomy landmarks, the frontal lobes have traditionally been divided into two major areas known as the precentral cortex and prefrontal cortex.\n",
"Based on the surface appearance, three lobes can be distinguished within the cerebellum: the anterior lobe (above the primary fissure), the posterior lobe (below the primary fissure), and the flocculonodular lobe (below the posterior fissure). These lobes divide the cerebellum from rostral to caudal (in humans, top to bottom). In terms of function, however, there is a more important distinction along the medial-to-lateral dimension. Leaving out the flocculonodular lobe, which has distinct connections and functions, the cerebellum can be parsed functionally into a medial sector called the spinocerebellum and a larger lateral sector called the cerebrocerebellum. A narrow strip of protruding tissue along the midline is called the cerebellar vermis. (\"Vermis\" is Latin for \"worm\".)\n",
"The frontal lobe is the largest lobe of the brain and makes up about a third of the surface area of each hemisphere. On the lateral surface of each hemisphere, the central sulcus separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe. The lateral sulcus separates the frontal lobe from the temporal lobe.\n",
"The two occipital lobes are the smallest of four paired lobes in the human brain. Located in the rearmost portion of the skull, the occipital lobes are part of the posterior cerebrum. The lobes of the brain are named from the overlying bone and the occipital bone overlies the occipital lobes.\n",
"On gross inspection, three lobes can be distinguished in the cerebellum: the flocculonodular lobe, the anterior lobe (rostral to the \"primary fissure\"), and the posterior lobe (dorsal to the \"primary fissure\"). The latter two can be further divided in a midline cerebellar vermis and lateral cerebellar hemispheres.\n"
] |
percentage of rain meaning
|
Ugh, it's kind of a mess.
So, a 20% chance of rain can mean there's a 20% chance that you will get rained on at some point that day.
But sometimes it can be used to mean things like 20% of the day will be raining.
Or that 20% of the land within an area will be rained on. This is the interpretation that the National Weather Service goes with -- if it rains at all, it will rain on 20% of the area.
Which can be confusing because it might not rain anywhere. Or it might rain constantly on that 20% of land area. It can also mean that forcasters are 100% sure that it's going to rain on you and 100% sure that it's not going to rain on me, but the percentage they come up with will depend on how large the area they're covering is and what they predict will happen in those places too.
And none of it indicates how much rain you'll get.
An 80% chance of rain could mean that it rains for 5 minutes over 80% chance of the area *or* that 80% of the day will be lightly misting *or* that there's an 80% chance it could rain at any point during the day *or* that there's an 80% chance that it could rain anywhere on the map *or* that 80% of land will see torrential downpours and flash flooding.
|
[
"Rain has a population () of 2,214, of which 5.1% are foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 30.9%. Most of the population () speaks German (96.5%), with Albanian being second most common ( 0.7%) and Portuguese being third ( 0.5%).\n",
"Rain is measured in units of length per unit time, typically in millimeters per hour, or in countries where imperial units are more common, inches per hour. The \"length\", or more accurately, \"depth\" being measured is the depth of rain water that would accumulate on a flat, horizontal and impermeable surface during a given amount of time, typically an hour. One millimeter of rainfall is the equivalent of one liter of water per square meter.\n",
"The phrase \"acid rain\" was first used by Scottish chemist Robert Augus Smith in 1852. The pH of rain varies, especially due to its origin. On America's East Coast, rain that is derived from the Atlantic Ocean typically has a pH of 5.0–5.6; rain that comes across the continental from the west has a pH of 3.8–4.8; and local thunderstorms can have a pH as low as 2.0. Rain becomes acidic primarily due to the presence of two strong acids, sulfuric acid (HSO) and nitric acid (HNO). Sulfuric acid is derived from natural sources such as volcanoes, and wetlands (sulfate reducing bacteria); and anthropogenic sources such as the combustion of fossil fuels, and mining where HS is present. Nitric acid is produced by natural sources such as lightning, soil bacteria, and natural fires; while also produced anthropogenically by the combustion of fossil fuels and from power plants. In the past 20 years the concentrations of nitric and sulfuric acid has decreased in presence of rainwater, which may be due to the significant increase in ammonium (most likely as ammonia from livestock production), which acts as a buffer in acid rain and raises the pH.\n",
"Most modern rain gauges generally measure the precipitation in millimetres in height collected on each square meter during a certain period, equivalent to litres per square metre. Previously rain was recorded as inches or points, where one point is equal to 0.254 mm or 0.01 of an inch.\n",
"The principal cause of basic rain is emissions from factories and waste deposits. Mineral dust containing large amounts of alkaline compounds such as calcium carbonate can also increase the pH of precipitation and contribute to basic rain. Basic rain can be viewed as opposite to acid rain.\n",
"Normal annual rainfall is spread over an average 95 days, but observed annual rainfall has ranged from in 1908 and 1998 to in 1989. The wettest month on record is January 1980 with , while the most rain to occur in a single calendar day is on December 21, 1955. The most recent month without measurable (≥) rain is October 2013 with trace amounts, and the last without any rain is June 1957. \n",
"\"Rain\" is a pop ballad with influence from trip hop and new-age music. Styled in adult contemporary format, the song is more \"friendly\" in its sound than the other singles released from \"Erotica\". According to the sheet music published by Alfred Music Publishing, the song is written in the key note of E major. The song's tempo is set in a moderate pace, but not too fast and has a metronome of 92 beats per minute. \"Rain\" begins with Madonna singing \"I feel it, it's coming\", and followed by the chord progression of E–A–B in the chorus and later A–B–E in the verse. A dark sounding C minor string and an echoing hi-hat accompanies Madonna's vocals, which are sung in her lowest register. The song's arrangement captures turbulent elements associated with rain (such as thunder), orchestral stabs that invokes crisp lightning bolts, and a surging bridge segue driven by what sounds like electric guitar snarls. A key change happens towards the end from B major to C major, followed by two spoken parts and a harmony alongside it. The coda has a different melody included with it, and the song ends in a group chorus without the harmonies.\n"
] |
what exactly happens to a dissolved/bankrupt company's debts?
|
As a former business owner who was owed tens of thousands by customers, I can confirm that when a company goes bankrupt, first the taxman, bankers and lawyers get paid. There usually isnt anything left after that so the remaining businesses get a couple of letters in the mail from the courts which, roughly translated, mean "You have been fucked hard in the ass with no lube. Have a nice day".
|
[
"Creditors who hold a certificate of unpaid debts against the debtor, or creditors in a bankruptcy, may file suit against third parties who have benefited from unfair preferences or fraudulent transfers by the debtor prior to a seizure of assets or a bankruptcy. If the challenge succeeds, the third party must return the assets formerly belonging to the debtor to the DBO or the BO, as the case may be, and the debtor may also be liable for criminal prosecution for bankruptcy fraud.\n",
"In the event of the bankruptcy of the debtor, the unsecured creditors usually obtain a \"pari passu\" distribution out of the assets of the insolvent company on a liquidation in accordance with the size of their debt after the secured creditors have enforced their security and the preferential creditors have exhausted their claims.\n",
"The formal bankruptcy process is rarely carried out for individuals. Creditors can claim money through the Enforcement Administration anyway, and creditors do not usually benefit from the bankruptcy of individuals because there are costs of a bankruptcy manager which has priority. Unpaid debts remain after bankruptcy for individuals. People who are deeply in debt can obtain a debt arrangement procedure (Swedish: skuldsanering). On application, they obtain a payment plan under which they pay as much as they can for five years, and then all remaining debts are cancelled. Debts that derive from a ban on business operations (issued by court, commonly for tax fraud or fraudulent business practices) or owed to a crime victim as compensation for damages, are exempted from this—and, as before this process was introduced in 2006, remain lifelong. Debts that have not been claimed during a 3-10 year period are cancelled. Often crime victims stop their claims after a few years since criminals often do not have job incomes and might be hard to locate, while banks make sure their claims are not cancelled. The most common reasons for personal insolvency in Sweden are illness, unemployment, divorce or company bankruptcy.\n",
"When a troubled business is unable to pay its creditors, it may file (or be forced by its creditors to file) for bankruptcy in a federal court under Chapter 7. A Chapter 7 filing means that the business ceases operations unless those operations are continued by the Chapter 7 Trustee. A Chapter 7 trustee is appointed almost immediately, with broad powers to examine the business's financial affairs. The Trustee generally liquidates the assets and distributes the proceeds to the creditors. This may or may not mean that all employees will lose their jobs. When a large company enters Chapter 7 bankruptcy, entire divisions of the company may be sold intact to other companies during the liquidation.\n",
"A debtor in possession in United States bankruptcy law is a person or corporation who has filed a bankruptcy petition, but remains in possession of property upon which a creditor has a lien or similar security interest. A corporation which continues to operate its business under Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings is a debtor in possession.\n",
"The dispute was based on principles of bankruptcy law. A company in bankruptcy generally does not pay its debts while courts determine which creditors should get paid. But if that applied to all debts, no one would extend further credit to the company and it would be less able to administer the bankruptcy and ensure fair payment to its existing creditors. Therefore, bankruptcy law gives priority to new debts, incurred after filing of the bankruptcy, as part of administering the bankruptcy.\n",
"The essence of bankruptcy is that the debtor's assets are transferred to an official who administers and realises them for the benefit of all creditors. The purpose is to release the bankrupt from an unsustainable debt burden and to distribute his assets amongst all creditors equally (although certain types of creditor enjoy priorities). The bankrupt person is subject to restrictions and disabilities on trading and on obtaining credit while a bankrupt but leaves the process with their debts forgiven.\n"
] |
a new pacific island has just formed from a volcano. presuming it's in international waters, who 'owns' it?
|
The short answer is whomever claims and can successfully defend it.
No one inherently "owns" any piece of property, so whomever wanted it would have to defend their claim either legally (get it recognized by other nations) and/or militarily (repel all invaders). Usually, the island will be part of a chain, so the most likely owner would be the nation that has claim to the rest of the island chain, but if it was truly in the middle of nowhere and still desirable, various nations would probably race to put a research station on it to lay a claim (I got here first) and from there, it would be legal wrangling and/or a small scale military conflict to retain/gain possession.
|
[
"In the middle of the Pacific, the country has sovereignty over several islands of volcanic origin, collectively known as Insular Chile. Of these, we highlight the archipelago of Juan Fernandez and Easter Island, which is located in the fracture zone between the Nazca plate and the Pacific plate known as East Pacific Rise.\n",
"The islands are remnants of an isolated extinct Pleistocene volcano with andesite rocks, one to two million years old. They lie on a bank with depths less than , but are separated from the continental shelf around Foveaux Strait by a narrow trough with depths in excess of (at least ). Therefore, the islands are included in the New Zealand Outlying Islands, despite their proximity to the mainland. The Solander Islands are the only New Zealand volcanic land features related to the subduction of the Australian Plate beneath the Pacific Plate.\n",
"The Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument is a group of unorganized, mostly unincorporated United States Pacific Island territories managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the United States Department of the Interior and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the United States Department of Commerce. These remote refuges are \"the most widespread collection of marine- and terrestrial-life protected areas on the planet under a single country's jurisdiction\". They protect many endemic species including corals, fish, shellfish, marine mammals, seabirds, water birds, land birds, insects, and vegetation not found elsewhere.\n",
"The Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands, commonly known as the Pitcairn Islands or just Pitcairn, are a group of four volcanic islands in the South Pacific Ocean. The islands are a British overseas territory (formerly a British colony), the last remaining in the Pacific. Only Pitcairn Island, the second largest island, is inhabited.\n",
"The Revillagigedo Islands (, ) or Revillagigedo Archipelago are a group of four volcanic islands in the Pacific Ocean, known for their unique ecosystem. They lie approximately southwest of Cabo San Lucas, the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula, and west of Manzanillo. They are located around . Technically part of the Mexican state of Colima, the islands are under Mexican federal jurisdiction.\n",
"The Pitcairn Islands (; Pitkern: '), officially Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands, are a group of four volcanic islands in the southern Pacific Ocean that form the sole British Overseas Territory in the Pacific Ocean. The four islands—Pitcairn proper, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno—are scattered across several hundred miles of ocean and have a combined land area of about . Henderson Island accounts for 86% of the land area, but only Pitcairn Island is inhabited. The nearest places are Mangareva (of French Polynesia) to the west and Easter Island to the east.\n",
"The Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument was proclaimed a national monument on January 6, 2009, by U.S. President George W. Bush and follows his June 6, 2006, creation of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It was expanded on September 25, 2014 by U.S. President Barack Obama. The monument covers , spanning areas to the far south and west of Hawaii: Kingman Reef, Palmyra Atoll, Howland Island, Baker Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, and Wake Island. At Howland Island, Baker Island, Jarvis Island, Palmyra Atoll, and Kingman Reef the terrestrial areas, reefs, and waters out to (radius) are part of the National Wildlife Refuge System. For Kingman Reef and Palmyra Atoll and Howland Island and Baker Island, fishery-related activities seaward from the refuge boundaries out to the NMM boundary (about square across) are managed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. For Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, and Wake Island fishery-related activities seaward from the refuge boundaries out to the NMM boundary (U.S. EEZ waters) are managed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The land areas at Wake and Johnston Atolls remain under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Air Force, but the waters from 0 to are protected as units of the National Wildlife Refuge System. The entire monument is closed to commercial fishing and other resource extraction activities, such as deep sea mining.\n"
] |
During the California gold rush, was selling shovels really a better way to make money than searching for gold?
|
The short answer is we really don't know.
& #x200B;
Outside of word of mouth and the strikes that were notable enough to make news, we don't have a good idea of how much gold was really found as the lack of law enforcement and the hardships in filing a claim meant that miners were tight lipped about the locations and size of any strikes they might have made. There are estimates based on assayers records when they purchased gold, but that is limited as gold in itself was a currency and not always exchanged for cash or credit. We don't have any accurate numbers on how many people made a fortune, or even just made enough to come out ahead outside of journals and newspaper articles.
& #x200B;
The second real problem in this question is that there wasn't just one California Gold Rush, there were multiple ones. By the standards of Gold rushes just few years later, Sutter's Mill (the first one,) is positively puny. In the first gold rushes most people definitely made money off mining. But a lot learned quickly that good money was made selling goods and services to miners and less than two years later merchants were setting up shops near major gold strikes within days of one being reported.
& #x200B;
Additionally, there are stories of farmers taking herds of cattle and sheep, wagons of wheat and even eggs from Oregon's Willamette Valley to the California gold fields and making lots of money that way. Later on timber was another big export, creating the Pacific Northwest's early Timber Industry. Lots of coastal towns exported fish and dairy products to the gold fields. Some people even made money off building wagons and ships to transport all these goods.
& #x200B;
Within a pretty short amount of time an industry sprung up around reselling claims. People would search one out, pan or mine them long enough to confirm it was a good place and then sell the claim to another miner or mining company. This is still an actual business methodology here in the United States BTW as the demand for gold in electronics keeps increasing.
& #x200B;
The other places to make real money in those days was in prostitution and taverns. Stories abound of both arriving before merchants were even able to setup shop near gold strikes. I even have family stories of an ancestor who made his "fortune" just sweeping up the town's two taverns early in the morning and then panning the dust for gold.
& #x200B;
Another place that people made money directly or indirectly off of mining in those days was selling land. People would make a land claim, hold and then sell it as little as a month later. Or they would sub-divide it to sell pieces to newcomers, or even incorporate a town on a portion of it. Many of these towns disappeared quickly, leaving only a place name, but the larger portion of cities in California and Oregon were built directly or indirectly off of gold mining. Early investors in successful town sites made money buying and selling town lots.
& #x200B;
To answer your question more directly, I think the real answer is the best way to make money is by identifying a niche and filling it.
|
[
"Because the gold in the California gravel beds was so richly concentrated, early forty-niners were able to retrieve loose gold flakes and nuggets with their hands, or simply \"pan\" for gold in rivers and streams. Panning cannot take place on a large scale, and industrious miners and groups of miners graduated to placer mining, using \"cradles\" and \"rockers\" or \"long-toms\" to process larger volumes of gravel. Miners would also engage in \"coyoteing\", a method that involved digging a shaft deep into placer deposits along a stream. Tunnels were then dug in all directions to reach the richest veins of pay dirt.\n",
"By the mid to late 1850s the easily accessible placer gold in California was gone, but much gold remained. The challenge of retrieving the gold took a professional mining approach to make it pay: giant machines and giant companies. Massive floating dredges scooped up millions of tons of river gravels, as steam and electrical power became available in the early 1900s. The last giant gold dredge in California was the Natomas Number 6 dredge operating in Folsom, California that ceased operations on 12 Feb 1962 as cost of operation began exceeding the value of the gold recovered. Many of these large dredges still exist today in state-sponsored heritage areas (Sumpter Valley Gold Dredge, this dredge was also an important part of the popular book series Skeleton Creek Written by Patrick Carmen in 2009, or tourist attractions (Dredge No. 4 National Historic Site of Canada).\n",
"Because the gold in the California gravel beds was so richly concentrated, the early forty-niners simply panned for gold in California's rivers and streams, a form of placer mining. However, panning cannot take place on a large scale, and industrious miners and groups of miners graduated to placer mining \"cradles\" and \"rockers\" or \"long-toms\" to process larger volumes of gravel. Miners would also engage in \"coyoteing\". This method involved digging a shaft deep into placer deposits along a stream. Tunnels were then dug in all directions to reach the richest veins of pay dirt.\n",
"In the early years of the California Gold Rush, placer mining methods were used, from panning to \"cradles\" and \"rockers\" or \"long-toms\", to diverting the water from an entire river into a sluice alongside the river, and then digging for gold in the gravel down to the rocky river bottom. This placer gold had been freed by the slow disintegration, over geological time, that freed the gold from its ore. This free gold was typically found in the cracks in the rocks found at the bottom of the gravel found in rivers or creeks, as the gold typically worked down through the gravel or collected in stream bends or bottom cracks. Some 12-million ounces (370 t) of gold were removed in the first five years of the Gold Rush. This gold greatly increased the available money in the United States, which was on the gold standard at that time—the more gold you had, the more you could buy.\n",
"Unlike the early days of the California Gold Rush, very few large nuggets were ever found in the Colorado diggings. A gold pan was adequate for finding \"pay dirt\", but to produce more than a small amount of gold, sluice boxes were built to separate the gold dust from the gravel. They were built on site from the material that was at hand and placed in the river current. The old sluice boxes were lined with raised obstructions that were placed in a vertical position to the flow of the current and when the gold-laden gravel was shoveled into the upper end of the sluice, the flow of water carried the material down the length of the box. The gravel was carried down the entire length of the sluice and then discharged, but the heavier flakes of gold settled and became trapped. Signs of placer mining up and down along the Arkansas river near Granite and the surrounding areas are in evidence by the many heaps of glacially rounded granite boulders, rocks that were once buried in the glacial gravel deposits.\n",
"Because the gold in the California gravel beds was so richly concentrated, the early forty-niners simply panned for gold in California's rivers and streams. However, panning cannot take place on a large scale, and miners and groups of miners graduated to more complex placer mining. Groups of prospectors would divert the water from an entire river into a sluice alongside the river, and then dig for gold in the newly exposed river bottom.\n",
"Early placer miners in California discovered that the more gravel they could process, the more gold they were likely to find. Instead of working with pans, sluice boxes, long toms, and rockers, miners collaborated to find ways to process larger quantities of gravel more rapidly. Hydraulic mining became the largest-scale, and most devastating, form of placer mining. Water was redirected into an ever-narrowing channel, through a large canvas hose, and out through a giant iron nozzle, called a \"monitor\". The extremely high pressure stream was used to wash entire hillsides through enormous sluices.\n"
] |
what would actually happen if someone paid off people's student loans via hacking?
|
because they're not hacking, they're doing a denial of service attack.
They dont get inside and get to find out information and change things.
They're just attempting to make so many connections at once the server can't handle it.
It's the difference between infiltrating a building like a spy (hacking), and forming a picket line (DDOS, taking a service down)
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[
"Such information, especially security questions and answers, could help hackers break into victims' other online accounts. Computer security experts cautioned that the incident could have far-reaching consequences involving privacy, potentially including finance and banking as well as personal information of people's lives, including information pulled from any other accounts that can be hacked with the gained account data. Experts also noted that there may be millions of people, as users of Flickr, Sky and BT who do not realize that they have a Yahoo! account as a result of past acquisitions and agreements made with Yahoo!. or Yahoo users who stopped using their accounts years earlier.\n",
"Victims can be enticed to borrow or embezzle money to pay the advance fees, believing that they will shortly be paid a much larger sum and be able to refund what they misappropriated. Crimes committed by victims include credit-card fraud, check kiting, and embezzlement. San Diego-based businessman James Adler lost over $5 million in a Nigeria-based advance-fee scam. While a court affirmed that various Nigerian government officials (including a governor of the Central Bank of Nigeria) were directly or indirectly involved, and that Nigerian government officials could be sued in U.S. courts under the \"commercial activity\" exception to the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act, Adler was unable to get his money back due to the doctrine of unclean hands because he had knowingly entered into a contract that was illegal.\n",
"Some users reported receiving extortion emails requesting 1.05 in bitcoins (approximately $225 at the time) to prevent the information from being shared with the user's significant other. Clinical psychologists argued that dealing with an affair in a particularly public way increases the hurt for spouses and children. On August 24 the Toronto Police Department spoke of \"two unconfirmed reports of suicides\" associated with the leak of customer profiles along with extortion attempts, offering a $500,000 reward for information leading to the arrest of the hackers. At least one suicide previously linked to Ashley Madison has since been reported as being due to \"stress entirely related to issues at work that had no connection to the data leak\".\n",
"In March 2019, German media reported that customers who had their account credentials stolen found it difficult to contact the bank and resolve the situation. Customer advocates reported that there was a growing number of complaints from phishing victims who were unable to access their accounts and found it difficult to contact the bank. In a widely reported case N26 took more than two weeks to restore access for a customer who had €80,000 stolen from their account. The reports raised the question if the rapid growth of the bank had left it ill equipped to deal with the increasing number of support cases.\n",
"The essential fact in all advance-fee fraud operations is the promised money transfer to the victim never happens, because the money does not exist. The perpetrators rely on the fact that, by the time the victim realizes this (often only after being confronted by a third party who has noticed the transactions or conversation and recognized the scam), the victim may have sent thousands of dollars of their own money, and sometimes thousands more that has been borrowed or stolen, to the scammer via an untraceable and/or irreversible means such as wire transfer. The scammer disappears, and the victim is left on the hook for the money sent to the scammer.\n",
"Once the victim's confidence has been gained, the scammer then introduces a delay or monetary hurdle that prevents the deal from occurring as planned, such as \"To transmit the money, we need to bribe a bank official. Could you help us with a loan?\" or \"For you to be a party to the transaction, you must have holdings at a Nigerian bank of $100,000 or more\" or similar. This is the money being stolen from the victim; the victim willingly transfers the money, usually through some irreversible channel such as a wire transfer, and the scammer receives and pockets it.\n",
"The hackers then used this information to take over the victims’ bank accounts and make unauthorized transfers of thousands of dollars at a time, often routing the funds to other accounts controlled by a network of money mules, paid a commission. Many of the U.S. money mules were recruited from overseas. They created bank accounts using fake documents and false names. Once the money was in the accounts, the mules would either wire it back to their bosses in Eastern Europe, or withdraw it in cash and smuggle it out of the country.\n"
] |
Just watched lindybeiges video about fire arrows, I have a small question
|
I actually wrote a little bit about fire arrows just a few days ago [here](_URL_0_). Like literally every historian I maintain that fire arrows are not meant for battlefield use. They are, as stated the, absolute last resort for a besieging force to set something on fire if you have nothing else available.
So what about a pitch ditches?
No. I have never ever heard of a pitch ditch used defensively. Why? Well... why would you ever do that? It would be *immediately* apparent to any attacker who could just throw a torch in it, wait for it to burn out and then step over it. Also you'd have to know almost exactly when an attack is going to come or whatever flammable substance you fill it with is just going to soak into the ground and even if you somehow managed to magically get tons and tons of flammable substance, undetected, into a trench just before an enemy attack and set it ablaze at just the right moment... then what? You'll burn at best a few dozen men at the cost of enormous quantities of flammable substance. A much more effective use of it would be to pour it from the walls already ablaze whenever someone tries to climb said walls or knock very forcefully on your gates.
|
[
"When an embrasure linked to more than one arrowslit (in the case of Dover Castle, defenders from three embrasures can shoot through the same arrowslit) it is called a \"multiple arrowslit\". Some arrowslits, such as those at Corfe Castle, had lockers nearby to store spare arrows and bolts; these were usually located on the right hand side of the slit for ease of access and to allow a rapid rate of fire.\n",
"BULLET::::- Dyrnwyn – Sword of Rhydderch Hael in Welsh legend; When drawn, it blazed with fire; if drawn by a worthy man, the fire would help him in his cause, but its fire would burn the man who drew it for an unworthy purpose.\n",
"Flaming arrows required the shooter to get quite close to their desired target and most will have extinguished themselves before reaching the target. In response, another form of fire arrow was developed which consisted of curved metal bars connecting a tip and hollow end for the shaft. The resulting cage was filled with hot coals or other solid object which could be fired from a much stronger bow or ballista without fear of extinguishing and would be used to ignite straw or thatch roofs from a safer distance.\n",
"Flamer is a spinning, circular, fire-shooting enemy that grants the Fire ability when inhaled. It tends to attach to surfaces and roll around on them. It first appeared in \"Kirby's Adventure\", and has appeared in multiple games since then.\n",
"BULLET::::- Directly after this sequence, the \"blasting-fire\" is used to breach the wall. It is turned into magical projectiles resembling comets coming from Isengard (Aragorn, seeing them, calls out \"Fire of Isengard!\"). While Tolkien does not give detailed descriptions, \"blasting fire\" is clearly different in the book (as Orcs are said to have \"brought\" it).\n",
"In its simplest form, an arrowslit was a narrow vertical opening; however, the different weapons used by defenders sometimes dictated the form of arrowslits. For example, openings for longbowmen were usually tall and high to allow the user to shoot standing up and make use of the bow, while those for crossbowmen were usually lower down as it was easier for the user to shoot whilst kneeling to support the weight of the weapon. It was common for arrowslits to widen to a triangle at the bottom, called a fishtail, to allow defenders a clearer view of the base of the wall. Immediately behind the slit there was a recess called an embrasure; this allowed a defender to get close to the slit without being too cramped. The width of the slit dictated the field of fire, but the field of vision could be enhanced by the addition of horizontal openings; they allowed defenders to view the target before it entered range.\n",
"The invention of the arrowslit is attributed to Archimedes during the siege of Syracuse in 214–212 BC (although archaeologic evidence supports their existence in Egyptian Middle Kingdom forts around 1860 BC). Slits \"of the height of a man and about a palm's width on the outside\" allowed defenders to shoot bows and scorpions (an ancient siege engine) from within the city walls. Although used in late Greek and Roman defences, arrowslits were not present in early Norman castles. They are only reintroduced to military architecture towards the end of the 12th century, with the castles of Dover and Framlingham in England, and Richard the Lionheart's Château Gaillard in France. In these early examples, arrowslits were positioned to protect sections of the castle wall, rather than all sides of the castle. In the 13th century, it became common for arrowslits to be placed all around a castle's defences.\n"
] |
How does communicating through radio waves in space between 2 bodies moving at constant relative velocity away from each other stil influence the perception of paradoxical slowness of time of the other under special relativity?
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> parties moving relatively to each other agrees to send out a signal in radio wave to the other person at 12.00 a.m.
There is your problem right there... if they have synchronized clocks, then they started in the same reference frame, and it is only through acceleration that one's clock would start moving more slowly than the others. In that way, the moving body will send their pulse after the ones that stayed at rest, and no paradox occurs.
If they do not start out in the same reference frame, how would they agree on what 12am is?
The answer resolving the paradox will depend on what method you pick to "synchronize" their clocks. Every strategy you come up with will have different parts of relativity that prevent this paradox from coming up, because there is no such thing as a simultaneous action in relativity.
For instance, lets say you have two light switches, both exactly 50m away from a switch. If you flip the switch, then you'll see them turn on at exactly the same moment, apparently simultaneous.
However to someone moving very quickly, they will see one of the lights turn on before the other. This is not some trick of perception, in their equally valid reference frame, it really did turn on earlier.
|
[
"According to Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity, \"instantaneous action at a distance\" violates the relativistic upper limit on speed of propagation of information. If one of the interacting objects were to suddenly be displaced from its position, the other object would feel its influence instantaneously, meaning information had been transmitted faster than the speed of light.\n",
"If one of the two events represents the sending of a signal from one location and the second event represents the reception of the same signal at another location, then as long as the signal is moving at the speed of light or slower, the mathematics of simultaneity ensures that all reference frames agree that the transmission-event happened before the reception-event. However, in the case of a hypothetical signal moving faster than light, there would always be some frames in which the signal was received before it was sent so that the signal could be said to have moved backward in time. Because one of the two fundamental postulates of special relativity says that the laws of physics should work the same way in every inertial frame, if it is possible for signals to move backward in time in any one frame, it must be possible in all frames. This means that if observer A sends a signal to observer B which moves faster than light in A's frame but backwards in time in B's frame, and then B sends a reply which moves faster than light in B's frame but backwards in time in A's frame, it could work out that A receives the reply before sending the original signal, challenging causality in \"every\" frame and opening the door to severe logical paradoxes. Mathematical details can be found in the tachyonic antitelephone article, and an illustration of such a scenario using spacetime diagrams can be found in \"Baker, R. (2003)\"\n",
"In Einstein's theory, two observable objects are localised, each within its own distinct spacetime region (\"frame\"), which regions are separated from each other in space, and effects pass from one object to the other at the speed of light or slower. This is a key property of spacetime flowing from the special theory of relativity.\n",
"Einstein showed in his thought experiments that people travelling at different speeds, while agreeing on cause and effect, measure different time separations between events, and can even observe different chronological orderings between non-causally related events. Though these effects are typically minute in the human experience, the effect becomes much more pronounced for objects moving at speeds approaching the speed of light. Subatomic particles exist for a well known average fraction of a second in a lab relatively at rest, but when travelling close to the speed of light they are measured to travel farther and exist for much longer than when at rest. According to the special theory of relativity, in the high-speed particle's frame of reference, it exists, on the average, for a standard amount of time known as its mean lifetime, and the distance it travels in that time is zero, because its velocity is zero. Relative to a frame of reference at rest, time seems to \"slow down\" for the particle. Relative to the high-speed particle, distances seem to shorten. Einstein showed how both temporal and spatial dimensions can be altered (or \"warped\") by high-speed motion.\n",
"Physically, traversed space and elapsed time are linked by velocity. Accordingly, several theories regarding the brain's expectations about stimulus velocity have been put forward to account for the kappa effect.\n",
"Faster-than-light communication is, according to relativity, equivalent to time travel. What we measure as the speed of light in a vacuum (or near vacuum) is actually the fundamental physical constant \"c\". This means that all inertial observers, regardless of their relative velocity, will always measure zero-mass particles such as photons traveling at \"c\" in a vacuum. This result means that measurements of time and velocity in different frames are no longer related simply by constant shifts, but are instead related by Poincaré transformations. These transformations have important implications:\n",
"This says that as we move along the worldline of each observer, their spatial triad is parallel-transported. Nonspinning inertial frames hold a special place in general relativity, because they are as close as we can get in a curved Lorentzian manifold to the Lorentz frames used in special relativity (these are special nonspinning inertial frames in the Minkowski vacuum).\n"
] |
Did ancient Romans have some kinf of pockets in their clothes? If not, how did they carry small things around?
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Not as such.
The garments of the Romans were generally loose fitting and simply sewn, both of which don’t work well with the concept of pockets as we know them. However, the looseness of the garments also meant that it was relatively effective to simply use the folds of these garments to carry small items. Indeed, this method was prevalent enough that such a fold was even given a name—*sinus*. The image here shows it in use by a slinger for slingstones: _URL_0_
Apart from this, pouches and sacks were typically used to carry things more securely. The *marsupium* _URL_2_ and *pera* _URL_1_ are relatively well known, but there were many other names and descriptions.
|
[
"In European clothing, fitchets, resembling modern day pockets, appeared in the 13th century. Vertical slits were cut in the super tunic, which did not have any side openings, to allow access to purse or keys slung from the girdle of the tunic. According to historian Rebecca Unsworth, it was in the late 15th century that pockets became more noticeable. During the 16th century, pockets increased in popularity and prevalence.\n",
"In slightly later European clothing, pockets began by being hung like purses from a belt, which could be concealed beneath a coat or jerkin to discourage pickpocketing and reached through a slit in the outer garment. \n",
"Fitchets, resembling modern day pockets, also appeared in the 13th century. Vertical slits were cut in the super tunic, which did not have any side openings, to allow access to purse or keys slung from the girdle of the tunic.\n",
"Indeed, at the time, pockets were not yet sewn to clothes, as they are today. This means that pockets were a little purse that people wore close to their body. This was especially true for women, since men's pockets were sewn \"into the linings of their coats\". Women's pockets were worn beneath a piece of clothing, and not \"as opposed to pouches or bags hanging outside their clothes\". These external pockets were still in fashion until the mid 19th century.\n",
"The men among the Greeks and Romans wore the girdle upon the loins, and it served them to confine the tunic, and hold the purse, instead of pockets, which were unknown; girls and women wore it under the bosom. The \"Strophium\", \"Taenia\", or \"Mitra\" occurs in many figures. In the small bronze Pallas of the Villa Albani, and in figures on the Hamilton Vases, are three \"cordons\" with a knot, detached from two ends of the girdle, which is fixed under the bosom. This girdle forms under the breast a knot of ribbon, sometimes in the form of a rose, as occur on the two handsomest daughters of Niobe. Upon the youngest the ends of the girdle pass over the shoulders, and upon the back, as they do upon four Caryatides found at Monte Portio. This part of the dress the ancients called, at least in the time of Isidore, \"Succinctorium\" or \"Bracile\". The girdle was omitted by both sexes in mourning. Often when the tunic was very long, and would otherwise be entangled by the feet, it was drawn over the girdle in such a way as to conceal the latter entirely underneath its folds. It is not uncommon to see two girdles of different widths worn together, one very high up, the other very low down, so as to form between the two in the tunic, a puckered interval; but this fashion was mostly applied to short tunics. The tunic of the Greek males was almost always confined by a girdle.\n",
"Probably the most significant item in the ancient Roman wardrobe was the toga, a one-piece woolen garment that draped loosely around the shoulders and down the body. Togas could be wrapped in different ways, and they became larger and more voluminous over the centuries. Some innovations were purely fashionable. Because it was not easy to wear a toga without tripping over it or trailing drapery, some variations in wrapping served a practical function. Other styles were required, for instance, for covering the head during ceremonies.\n",
"Probably the most significant item in the ancient Roman wardrobe was the toga, a one-piece woolen garment that draped loosely around the shoulders and down the body. Togas could be wrapped in different ways, and they became larger and more voluminous over the centuries. Some innovations were purely fashionable. Because it was not easy to wear a toga without tripping over it or trailing drapery, some variations in wrapping served a practical function. Other styles were required, for instance, for covering the head during ceremonies.\n"
] |
how do they make amputations in movies look real?
|
It depends on what movie you're talking about. In more recent movies, yes, you can digitally remove a limb from an actor. Typically you would shoot a scene without the actor, then the scene WITH the actor in the same set-up. They wear green tape over the limb and the limb is removed digitally, leaving the image without the actor behind it. This is how it was done in FORREST GUMP.
Earlier movies, more likely you would cast a body double that was an amputee. This was done for TERMINATOR 2 when the T-1000 is frozen by liquid nitrogen and his limbs begin cracking off. You never see Robert Patrick's face clearly in these shots because it is an amputee double. This was also done for the scene in MONTY PYTHON AND THE HOLY GRAIL when the Black Knight is chopped up. The character is wearing a full-bodied costume so it doesn't matter who is inside it - same goes for Darth Vader. It is also possible to hide arms inside costumes or to put an actor in a hole in the ground for close-ups, and use a body double for long shots.
|
[
"His work on the 2010 Danny Boyle film \"127 Hours\" received notoriety for the amputation sequences designed, engineered, and built to recreate the actual event in extreme closeup detail. The film's pre-release screenings at several film festivals have resulted in audience members requiring medical assistance. Gardner stresses though that the desired result was accuracy and an immersion in a recreation of the experience so that the audience experiences things through Aron Ralston's eyes.\n",
"This version of the film is shot in color and set in modern-day times. Sultanov adapted the screenplay, making the dialogue more fitting to today's speech. Sultanov chose actors with a dramatic, method acting approach to display the truthful effect of rheumatic pain.\n",
"Chaney refused to use trick camera angles in this film. Instead, he wore an apparatus to simulate amputated legs, which consisted primarily of two wooden buckets and multiple leather straps, was complex and incredibly painful. Chaney's knees sat in the buckets, while his lower legs were tied back. Studio doctors asked that Chaney not wear the device, but he insisted on doing so, so that his costume would be authentic.\n",
"The following disclaimer was later added to the official video on YouTube: \"\"This video is intended as a comedic parody. All surgery has risks. Plastic surgery should only be considered after extensive consultation with a qualified medical professional. The video is not meant to diagnose, treat or cure any medical condition. It is not intended to imply or guarantee surgical success or outcome. It is also not meant to condone or encourage teen bullying, anti-semitism, scissor throwing by cheerleaders, student-teacher relationships, jumping on Oprah's couch like Tom Cruise, piano playing, underage drinking on your neighbor's balcony, driving a Porsche with a guy wearing a wig and holding a threatening hammer, taping your nose to impress a girl, eating Fruit Loops, performing nasal surgery with circumcision instruments and rabbi present, walking into scissor shaped hedges, cutting peanut butter and jelly sandwiches with a giant steak knife, doing your boyfriend's math homework, or attending art class at 8AM on Monday...\"\"\n",
"For the opening scene in which Gene Clifford undergoes plastic surgery, director Guy Magar filmed an actual plastic surgery procedure, with no special effects used during the scene. The film was shot over the course of 25 days in Los Angeles with a budget of $1.8 million.\n",
"The film's stunts also created tension for the crew during shooting. Columbus said, \"Every time the stunt guys did one of those stunts it wasn't funny. We'd watch it, and I would just pray that the guys were alive.\" Stunts were originally prepared with safety harnesses, but because of their visibility on camera, the film's final stunts were performed without them. According to Buzzfeed, an injury had occurred between Pesci and Culkin during one of the rehearsals where \"Harry tries to bite off Kevin's finger.\" Culkin still has the scar.\n",
"The film also extensively used computer-generated imagery for the first time in the franchise. For example, instead of using a \"collapsing knife\", the knife's blade was added during post-production with CGI effects. Anderson's death scene in which he is stabbed in the forehead and walks a few feet while talking before finally falling to his death, was not in the script but was inspired by a \"real-life medical emergency\" Craven had seen in a documentary about a person being stabbed through their head and walked into an emergency room. He thought it was \"extraordinary if somebody was stabbed in the head and still be alive for a while\". Craven also did not tell the studio that he was taking this approach for the death scene, jokingly saying he hoped he would not be fired the next day.\n"
] |
why do two nuts on a bolt lock and stop spinning? why don't they just act as one longer nut?
|
pushing them up and down doesn't do anything you have to turn them, by turning one on top of another you actually just push down on the other.
It's friction, that's the fundamentals of how they work and why even single ones don't just fall off when you tighten them.
If you think about it, whatever you tighten it against is pushing back that's why they get tight.
|
[
"Specialized locking nuts exist to prevent this problem, but sometimes it is sufficient to add a second nut. For this technique to be reliable, each nut must be tightened to the correct torque. The inner nut is tightened to about a quarter to a half of the torque of the outer nut. It is then held in place by a wrench while the outer nut is tightened on top using the full torque. This arrangement causes the two nuts to push on each other, creating a tensile stress in the short section of the bolt that lies between them. Even when the main joint is vibrated, the stress between the two nuts remains constant, thus holding the nut threads in constant contact with the bolt threads and preventing self-loosening. When the joint is assembled correctly, the outer nut bears the full tension of the joint. The inner nut functions merely to add a small additional force to the outer nut and does not need to be as strong, so a thin nut (also called a jam nut) can be used.\n",
"A jam nut is often used when a nut needs to be locked in place without clamping against another object. The jam nut essentially acts as the \"other object\", as the two nuts are tightened against each other. They can also be used to secure an item on a fastener without applying force to that object. This is achieved by first tightening one of the nuts onto the item. Then the other nut is screwed down on top of the first nut. The inner nut is then slackened back and tightened against the outer nut.\n",
"In normal use, a nut-and-bolt joint holds together because the bolt is under a constant tensile stress called the \"preload\". The preload pulls the nut threads against the bolt threads, and the nut face against the bearing surface, with a constant force, so that the nut cannot rotate without overcoming the friction between these surfaces. If the joint is subjected to vibration, however, the preload increases and decreases with each cycle of movement. If the minimum preload during the vibration cycle is not enough to hold the nut firmly in contact with the bolt and the bearing surface, then the nut is likely to become loose.\n",
"The bolt has one or two holes drilled through its threaded end. The nut is torqued properly and then, if the slot is not aligned with the hole in the fastener, the nut is rotated forward to the nearest slot. The nut is then secured with a split pin/cotter pin, R-clip or safety wire. It is a positive locking device.\n",
"Because they avoid overhead from operating system process rescheduling or context switching, spinlocks are efficient if threads are likely to be blocked for only short periods. For this reason, operating-system kernels often use spinlocks. However, spinlocks become wasteful if held for longer durations, as they may prevent other threads from running and require rescheduling. The longer a thread holds a lock, the greater the risk that the thread will be interrupted by the OS scheduler while holding the lock. If this happens, other threads will be left \"spinning\" (repeatedly trying to acquire the lock), while the thread holding the lock is not making progress towards releasing it. The result is an indefinite postponement until the thread holding the lock can finish and release it. This is especially true on a single-processor system, where each waiting thread of the same priority is likely to waste its quantum (allocated time where a thread can run) spinning until the thread that holds the lock is finally finished.\n",
"Rotating bolts can be adapted to automatic or semi-automatic designs and lever or pump actions. In these cases, the bolt is held by a bolt carrier. With the breech locked, an initial rearward movement of the bolt carrier causes the bolt to rotate and unlock. Similarly, when closing the breech, the final forward movement of the carrier causes the bolt to rotate and lock the breech. This action is commonly achieved by a slot cut in the carrier that engages a pin through the bolt perpendicular to the axis of the barrel. It is a type of linear cam.\n",
"Jam nuts can be unreliable under significant loads. If the inner nut is torqued more than the outer nut, the outer nut may yield. If the outer nut is torqued more than the inner nut, the inner nut may loosen up.\n"
] |
What caused the Middle/Far East to use bowing as a greeting while the Western world chose the handshake?
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Could you give example of the Middle East using bowing as a greeting? I am familiar with the far east using bowing but I haven't experienced anyone from the Middle East doing the same.
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[
"Similarly to East Asia, bowing is the traditional form of greeting in many South Asian and Southeast Asian countries. A gesture known as the \"Añjali Mudrā\" is used as a sign of respect and greeting and involves a bow of varying degrees depending on whom one performs it to and hands pressed together generally at chest level. Practised throughout South Asia and Southeast Asia, the gesture is most commonly used in India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Indonesia. Gestures across the region are known by different names such as the \"wai\" in Thailand, \"sampeah\" in Cambodia and Laos, \"sembah\" in Indonesia, \"namaste\" in India and Nepal, and in Sri Lanka the gesture is used as a greeting with the word \"Ayubowan\".\n",
"Many different gestures are used throughout the world as simple greetings. In Western cultures the handshake is very common, though it has numerous subtle variations in the strength of grip, the vigour of the shake, the dominant position of one hand over the other, and whether or not the left hand is used. \n",
"Many different gestures are used throughout the world as simple greetings. In Western cultures the handshake is very common, though it has numerous subtle variations in the strength of grip, the vigour of the shake, the dominant position of one hand over the other, and whether or not the left hand is used.\n",
"When dealing with non-East Asians, many East Asians will shake hands. Since many non-East Asians are familiar with the custom of bowing, this often leads to an awkward combined bow and handshake. Bows may be combined with handshakes or performed before or after shaking hands.\n",
"Various sources have attributed the origin of the handshake, as an ancient sign of bravery and respect, to Lord Baden-Powell's encounter after battle with Prempeh I, or to earlier published works by Ernest Thompson Seton. There exist various versions of the Prempeh story, all centering on African warriors using the left hand to hold their shields and to lower it and shake the left hand of the person was to show they trusted each other.\n",
"Traditionally, there was not much hand-shaking in Chinese culture. However, this gesture is now widely practiced among men, especially when greeting Westerners or other foreigners. Many Westerners may find Chinese handshakes to be too long or too weak, but this is because a weaker handshake is a gesture of humility and respect.\n",
"BULLET::::- In some countries such as Turkey or the Arabic-speaking Middle East, handshakes are not as firm as in the West. Consequently, a grip which is too firm is rude. Hand shaking between men and women is not encouraged in the Arabic world. You should only use your right hand as well.\n"
] |
During beta decay, when a neutrino and a beta ray are created, where does it's mass come from?
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The binding energy of the daughter nucleus is larger than the binding energy of the parent. The extra energy is released as the masses and kinetic energies of the particles in the final state.
|
[
"The neutrinos emitted in beta decay will have a spectrum of energy ranges, because although momentum is conserved, the momentum can be shared in any way between the positron and neutrino, with either emitted at rest and the other taking away the full energy, or anything in between, so long as all the energy from the Q-value is used. The total momentum received by the electron and the neutrino is not great enough to cause a significant recoil of the much heavier daughter nucleus and hence, its contribution to kinetic energy of the products, for the precision of values given here, can be neglected. Thus the neutrino emitted during the decay of nitrogen-13 can have an energy from zero up to 1.20 MeV, and the neutrino emitted during the decay of oxygen-15 can have an energy from zero up to 1.73 MeV. On average, about 1.7 MeV of the total energy output is taken away by neutrinos for each loop of the cycle, leaving about 25 MeV available for producing luminosity.\n",
"The neutrino was postulated first by Wolfgang Pauli in 1930 to explain how beta decay could conserve energy, momentum, and angular momentum (spin). In contrast to Niels Bohr, who proposed a statistical version of the conservation laws to explain the observed continuous energy spectra in beta decay, Pauli hypothesized an undetected particle that he called a \"neutron\", using the same \"-on\" ending employed for naming both the proton and the electron. He considered that the new particle was emitted from the nucleus together with the electron or beta particle in the process of beta decay.\n",
"In the decay, an electron and an antineutrino are ejected at great speed from the tritium nucleus, changing one of the neutrons into a proton with the release of 18,600 electronvolts (eV) of energy. The neutrino escapes the system; the electron is generally captured within a short distance, but far enough away from the site of the decay that it can be considered lost from the molecule. Those two particles carry away most of the released energy, but their departure causes the nucleus to recoil, with about 1.6 eV of energy. This recoil energy is larger than the bond strength of the carbon–helium bond (about 1 eV), so this bond breaks. The helium atom almost always leaves as a neutral , leaving behind the carbocation .\n",
"In nuclear physics, beta decay (\"β\"-decay) is a type of radioactive decay in which a beta particle (fast energetic electron or positron) is emitted from an atomic nucleus. For example, beta decay of a neutron transforms it into a proton by the emission of an electron accompanied by an antineutrino, or conversely a proton is converted into a neutron by the emission of a positron (positron emission) with a neutrino, thus changing the nuclide type. Neither the beta particle nor its associated (anti-)neutrino exist within the nucleus prior to beta decay, but are created in the decay process. By this process, unstable atoms obtain a more stable ratio of protons to neutrons. The probability of a nuclide decaying due to beta and other forms of decay is determined by its nuclear binding energy. The binding energies of all existing nuclides form what is called the nuclear band or valley of stability. For either electron or positron emission to be energetically possible, the energy release (see below) or Q value must be positive.\n",
"A beta particle, also called beta ray or beta radiation (symbol β), is a high-energy, high-speed electron or positron emitted by the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus during the process of beta decay. There are two forms of beta decay, β decay and β decay, which produce electrons and positrons respectively.\n",
"A very small minority of free neutron decays (about four per million) are so-called \"two-body decays\", in which the proton, electron and antineutrino are produced, but the electron fails to gain the 13.6 eV energy necessary to escape the proton, and therefore simply remains bound to it, as a neutral hydrogen atom. In this type of beta decay, in essence all of the neutron decay energy is carried off by the antineutrino.\n",
"where \"m\" is the mass of the neutron, \"m\" is the mass of the proton, \"m\" is the mass of the electron antineutrino, and \"m\" is the mass of the electron; and the \"K\" are the corresponding kinetic energies. The neutron has no initial kinetic energy since it is at rest. In beta decay, a typical \"Q\" is around 1 MeV.\n"
] |
please explain radiation and exposure to me. i can't grasp the concept of it not being a gas/object/liquid etc.
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Actually, in this context radiation is the emission of particles, alpha, beta, etc. What that means to you is that some of these really little pieces of atoms "radiate" (escape from) from a source, strike your cells, and damage them like miniature canonballs.
Things that small can be described either by their electrical energy content or their kinetic (canonball) content. this leads to confusion about the terminology we use to describe them. In reality, standard english is not sufficient to accurately portray sub-atomic particles.
|
[
"Radiation exposure is a measure of the ionization of air due to ionizing radiation from photons; that is, gamma rays and X-rays. It is defined as the electric charge freed by such radiation in a specified volume of air divided by the mass of that air. \n",
"The human body cannot sense ionizing radiation except in very high doses, but the effects of ionization can be used to characterize the radiation. Parameters of interest include disintegration rate, particle flux, particle type, beam energy, kerma, dose rate, and radiation dose.\n",
"Radioactive contamination can be ingested into the human body if it is airborne or is taken in as contamination of food or drink, and will irradiate the body internally. The art and science of assessing internally generated radiation dose is Internal dosimetry.\n",
"Internal dose, due to the inhalation or ingestion of radioactive substances, can result in stochastic or deterministic effects, depending on the amount of radioactive material ingested and other biokinetic factors.\n",
"When radioactive compounds enter the human body, the effects are different from those resulting from exposure to an external radiation source. Especially in the case of alpha radiation, which normally does not penetrate the skin, the exposure can be much more damaging after ingestion or inhalation. The radiation exposure is normally expressed as a committed dose.\n",
"Some human-made radiation sources affect the body through direct radiation, known as effective dose (radiation) while others take the form of radioactive contamination and irradiate the body from within. The latter is known as committed dose.\n",
"Radioactive contamination, also called radiological contamination, is the deposition of, or presence of radioactive substances on surfaces or within solids, liquids or gases (including the human body), where their presence is unintended or undesirable (from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) definition).\n"
] |
why the nose of the concorde and the tupolev tu-144 angle downwards.
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Nothing complex here. It folds down for takeoff and landing to give the pilots a clearer view of the ground. Then it comes up into streamlined position for normal flight.
|
[
"Moving the elevons downward in a delta-wing aircraft increases the lift (force), but also pitches its nose downward. The canards cancel out this nose-downwards moment, thus reducing the landing speed of the production Tu-144s to , still faster than that of Concorde. The NASA study lists final approach speeds during Tu-144LL test flights as . An FAA circular lists Tu-144S approach speed as , as opposed to Concorde's approach speed of , based on the characteristics declared by the manufacturers to Western regulatory bodies. It is open to argument how stable the Tu-144S was at the listed airspeed. In any event, when NASA subcontracted Tupolev bureau in the 1990s to convert one of the remaining Tu-144D to a Tu-144LL standard, the procedure set by Tupolev for landing defined the Tu-144LL \"final approach speed... on the order of 360 km/h depending on fuel weight.\" Brian Calvert, Concorde's technical flight manager and its first commercial pilot in command for several inaugural flights, cites final approach speed of a typical Concorde landing to be . The lower landing speed compared to Tu-144 is due to Concorde's more refined design of the wing profile that provides higher lift at low speeds without degrading supersonic cruise performance – a feature often mentioned in Western publications on Concorde and acknowledged by Tupolev designers as well.\n",
"The droop-nose configuration is a distinctive feature of some supersonic aircraft, most notably both Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144. When these aircraft were in service, the pilot would lower the nose cone to improve visibility of the runway and taxiways. When in flight, the nose would be raised. Concorde also had a moving visor that would slide into and out of the nose. The Tu-144's visor was part of the nose and did not retract.\n",
"Concorde's drooping nose, developed by Marshall's of Cambridge at Cambridge Airport, enabled the aircraft to switch between being streamlined to reduce drag and achieve optimal aerodynamic efficiency without obstructing the pilot's view during taxi, take-off, and landing operations. Due to the high angle of attack, the long pointed nose obstructed the view and necessitated the capability to droop. The droop nose was accompanied by a moving visor that retracted into the nose prior to being lowered. When the nose was raised to horizontal, the visor would rise in front of the cockpit windscreen for aerodynamic streamlining.\n",
"The Concorde droop nose was designed and manufactured under sub contract by Marshall Aerospace in Cambridge, UK, by a team led by Norman Harry OBE. The nose can be drooped to one of two positions - 5 degrees (for taxiing and for take-off), and the fully drooped 12.5 degree position (used during landing, when the nose-high attitude of Concorde requires this lower nose position so the pilots can see the approaching runway). The nose and visor are hydraulically operated, by a small lever on the co-pilot's side of the cockpit. There is also a standby droop system if the main system fails (operated from the cockpit centre console), and as a last resort if both hydraulic systems fail, a lever can be pulled in the cockpit which releases the mechanical latches, allowing the nose to fall under gravity to the 12.5 degree position.\n",
"The delta-shaped wings required Concorde to adopt a higher angle of attack at low speeds than conventional aircraft, but it allowed the formation of large low pressure vortices over the entire upper wing surface, maintaining lift. The normal landing speed was . Because of this high angle, during a landing approach Concorde was on the \"back side\" of the drag force curve, where raising the nose would increase the rate of descent; the aircraft was thus largely flown on the throttle and was fitted with an autothrottle to reduce the pilot's workload.\n",
"Like a number of other delta-wing aircraft designed to cruise at very high speeds, the Valkyrie included a droop-nose that allowed the pilots to view the ground during the nose-high takeoff and landing. Both the Concorde and Tupolev Tu-144 used a design where the entire nose section was angled downward, including outer window panels, exposing interior windows that were more vertically angled. In the B-70 design, only the upper section of the nose moved down into a fixed lower section, and the outer window panels moved with it to become more vertical, at 24 degrees slope. With the nose raised into its high-speed position, the outer windows were almost horizontal. A system that blew air from the engines was used for both defogging and rain removal. The lower forward section included a radar bay, and production machines were to be equipped with a refueling receptacle on the upper surface of the nose.\n",
"Sideslip in the absence of rudder input causes incidence on the fuselage and empennage, thus creating a yawing moment counteracted only by the directional stiffness which would tend to point the aircraft's nose back into the wind in horizontal flight conditions. Under sideslip conditions at a given roll angle formula_112 will tend to point the nose into the sideslip direction even without rudder input, causing a downward spiraling flight.\n"
] |
Is there any link between how young you grow grey hair and how old you live?
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I am unaware of any link between canities and life span. The development of gray hair has the technical name canities. It is actually not the development of gray hair, but rather the growth of hair lacking any color pigment. These hairs appear white and when intermixed with pigmented hair gives the general appearance of gray hair.
Here's some information on canities from a medical article:
> The onset and progression of graying or canities correlate very closely with chronological aging (but not with photo-aging) and occur in varying degrees in all individuals eventually, regardless of gender or race. The age of onset is genetically controlled and heritable, such that on an average Caucasians begin to gray in their mid-30s; Asians, in their late-30s; and Africans, latest in their mid-40s. Indeed, hair is said to gray prematurely only if graying occurs before the age of 20 years in whites, before 25 years in Asians and before 30 years in Africans. Although not formally tested, a good rule of thumb is that by 50 years, 50% of people have 50% gray hair.
>
From [Aging of the Hair Follicle Pigmentation System](_URL_0_)
|
[
"BULLET::::- Gradual thinning of hair with age is a natural condition known as involutional alopecia. This is caused by an increasing number of hair follicles switching from the growth, or anagen, phase into a resting phase, or telogen phase, so that remaining hairs become shorter and fewer in number.\n",
"The growth problem is even worse in the simple virilizing forms of CAH which are detected when premature pubic hair appears in childhood, because the bone age is often several years advanced at the age of diagnosis. While a boy (or girl) with simple virilizing CAH is taller than peers at that point, he will have far fewer years remaining to grow, and may go from being a very tall 7-year-old to a 62-inch 13-year-old who has completed growth. Even with adrenal suppression, many of these children will have already had central precocious puberty triggered by the prolonged exposure of the hypothalamus to the adrenal androgens and estrogens. If this has begun, it may be advantageous to suppress puberty with a gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist such as leuprolide to slow continuing bone maturation.\n",
"Like much of the hair on the human body, leg, arm, chest, and back hair begin as vellus hair. As people age, the hair in these regions will often begin to grow darker and more abundantly. This will typically happen during or after puberty. Men will often have more abundant, coarser hair on the arms and back, while women tend to have a less drastic change in the hair growth in these areas but do experience a significant change in thickness of hairs. However, some women will grow darker, longer hair in one or more of these regions.\n",
"Children born with some hair colors may find it gradually darkens as they grow. Many blond, light brown, or red haired infants experience this. This is caused by genes being turned on and off during early childhood and puberty.\n",
"Although graying of hair increases with age, hair graying cannot be called a biomarker of ageing. Similarly, skin wrinkles and other common changes seen with aging are not better indicators of future functionality than chronological age. Biogerontologists have continued efforts to find and validate biomarkers of aging, but success thus far has been limited. Levels of CD4 and CD8 memory T cells and naive T cells have been used to give good predictions of the expected lifespan of middle-aged mice.\n",
"Premature greying of hair, also known as canities, can have negative effects on appearance, confidence, self-esteem, and social acceptance of the affected individual. Hair is said to have greyed prematurely if it occurs before the age of 20 years in Whites, before 25 years in Asians, and before 30 years in Africans.\n",
"BULLET::::- Hair usually becomes grayer and also might become thinner. As a rule of thumb, around age 50, about 50% of Europeans have 50% grey hair. Many men are affected by balding, and women enter menopause.\n"
] |
how do tv episodes, albums and scripts get leaked, and why does it seem to happen so often?
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Writer, publisher, .... Will send them to himself via email. Or friends and family. And from there someone will leak it.
Or grabs a USB stick. Leaves it at caffee. Noasy waiter who knows a studio is nearby grabs it..
Or as a part of marketing. Some speculate the Iphone[whatever number] wasn't leaked- But staged, so it ets publicity for example.
|
[
"BULLET::::- As with the \"Star Trek\" incident, major films or television productions frequently give out scripts to the cast and crew in which one or two lines are different in each individual version. Thus if the entire script is copied and leaked to the public, the producers can track down the specific person who leaked the script. In practice this does not prevent generalized information about the script from being leaked, but it does discourage leaking verbatim copies of the script itself.\n",
"The series' existence has not been confirmed. The possibility remains that most episodes were lost because of the wiping of videotapes. This remained a common practice as late as 1976, long after the invention of the videocassette, especially in syndication companies as opposed to networks; the fact that syndication practice at the time required tapes to be physically distributed to stations would suggest that episodes may have survived, but that they are not centralized in any archive.\n",
"As part of the series 8 leaks, both the script and a rough cut of the episode were leaked online from a server in Miami. Despite the fact that the initial online copy of the episode contained a glitch that prevented downloading, a workable version found its way online by the second week of August 2014.\n",
"The music that featured many popular bands was predominantly removed or replaced with stock music on the DVD releases, in order to avoid paying royalties to the artists involved (unlike the actual run of a series, where studios would only have to pay royalties to the artist for that single episode, and maybe for syndication). Episodes were also often edited to remove content by cutting out lines that were deemed to be inappropriate.\n",
"Each news server generally allocates a certain amount of storage space for post content in each newsgroup. When this storage has been filled, each time a new post arrives, old posts are deleted to make room for the new content. If the network bandwidth available to a server is high but the storage allocation is small, it is possible for a huge flood of incoming content to overflow the allocation and push out everything that was in the group before it. If the flood is large enough, the beginning of the flood will begin to be deleted even before the last part of the flood has been posted.\n",
"In the sleeve notes of the Series One audiobook, written in 2006, series writer Graham Duff asks for assistance in finding episodes \"currently missing from the BBC archive\". The article is a parody of when television and radio stations such as the BBC used to \"wipe\" episodes of TV and radio programmes, and record over them, especially the loss of many early \"Doctor Who\" and \"Dad's Army\" episodes. In the notes, Duff claims that as a result of wiping, \"many classic \"Nebulous\" episodes were destroyed, along with editions of iconic Radio 4 shows such as \"Gardeners' Question Time\" and \"Money Box Live\".\"\n",
"Most of the shows have since been erased by the BBC, after Shaw asked for them to put the film on videotape. Only two episodes (episodes 2 & 3) have survived, after being returned to the BBC from overseas in the early 1990s. Episode 2 was shown on BBC2 shortly after being recovered. The audio tracks to some episodes have survived and pirate versions can sometimes be found on the internet but are generally hard to find.\n"
] |
Is it possible to create a water molecule by combining 1 hydrogen atom and 2 oxygen atoms through fusion?
|
If I'm understanding your question correctly, the answer is "no" because water is defined by its formula of H2O. HOO would be an entirely different, unstable molecule.
If you're using the term fusion in the nuclear reaction sense, then I don't understand what you're getting at. I suppose that you could, through a series of high energy reactions, break one of the oxygen atoms down into daughter nuclides that includes hydrogen nuclei, and which could be further used to make a full H2O molecule, but that would be highly impractical.
|
[
"A single water molecule can participate in a maximum of four hydrogen bonds because it can accept two bonds using the lone pairs on oxygen and donate two hydrogen atoms. Other molecules like hydrogen fluoride, ammonia and methanol can also form hydrogen bonds. However, they do not show anomalous thermodynamic, kinetic or structural properties like those observed in water because none of them can form four hydrogen bonds: either they cannot donate or accept hydrogen atoms, or there are steric effects in bulky residues. In water, intermolecular tetrahedral structures form due to the four hydrogen bonds, thereby forming an open structure and a three-dimensional bonding network, resulting in the anomalous decrease in density when cooled below 4 °C. This repeated, constantly reorganizing unit defines a three-dimensional network extending throughout the liquid. This view is based upon neutron scattering studies and computer simulations, and it makes sense in the light of the unambiguously tetrahedral arrangement of water molecules in ice structures.\n",
"It just so happens that hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) are both diatomic molecules, thus we have H and O. To form water, one of the O atoms breaks off from the O molecule and react with the H compound to form HO. But, there is one oxygen atom left. It reacts with another H molecule. Since it took two of each atom to balance the compound, we put the coefficient 2 in front of HO:\n",
"The rules state each oxygen is covalently bonded to two hydrogen atoms, and that the oxygen atom in each water molecule forms two hydrogen bonds with other oxygens, so that there is precisely one hydrogen between each pair of oxygen atoms.\n",
"The formation of one water molecule requires the presence of two adjacent hydroxyl groups, or a cascade of successive reactions of one oxygen atom with two protons. This could constitute a limiting factor and decreases the probability of water production, if the proton density per surface unit is too low.\n",
"There are multiple ways for many transformations to occur. For example, hydrogen and oxygen can be combined to form water through a free-radical mechanism commonly referred to as combustion. Useful energy can be obtained from the thermal heat of this reaction through an internal combustion engine with an upper efficiency of 60% (for compression ratio of 10 and specific heat ratio of 1.4) based on the Otto thermodynamic cycle. It is also possible to combine the hydrogen and oxygen through redox mechanism as in the case of a fuel cell. In this process, the reaction is broken into two half-reactions which occur at separate electrodes. In this situation the reactant's energy is directly converted to electricity.\n",
"Liquid water can be split into the elements hydrogen and oxygen by passing an electric current through it—a process called electrolysis. The decomposition requires more energy input than the heat released by the inverse process (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg).\n",
"A ubiquitous example of a hydrogen bond is found between water molecules. In a discrete water molecule, there are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Two molecules of water can form a hydrogen bond between them that is to say oxygen-hydrogen bonding; the simplest case, when only two molecules are present, is called the water dimer and is often used as a model system. When more molecules are present, as is the case with liquid water, more bonds are possible because the oxygen of one water molecule has two lone pairs of electrons, each of which can form a hydrogen bond with a hydrogen on another water molecule. This can repeat such that every water molecule is H-bonded with up to four other molecules, as shown in the figure (two through its two lone pairs, and two through its two hydrogen atoms). Hydrogen bonding strongly affects the crystal structure of ice, helping to create an open hexagonal lattice. The density of ice is less than the density of water at the same temperature; thus, the solid phase of water floats on the liquid, unlike most other substances.\n"
] |
is heisenberg uncertainty principle just a theory at the moment or have we observed it?
|
Your understanding of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle might not be the issue here. "Theory" in scientific terminology refers to a model that works until disproven. "Theory" in common English refers to an idea or a thought process.
So the Heisenberg uncertainty principle is a model that works until it is disproven.
I hope this helped you.
|
[
"Hirschman showed, cf. Hirschman uncertainty, that Heisenberg's uncertainty principle can be expressed as a particular lower bound on the sum of the classical distribution entropies of the \"quantum observable\" probability distributions of a quantum mechanical state, the square of the wave-function, in coordinate, and also momentum space, when expressed in Planck units. The resulting inequalities provide a tighter bound on the uncertainty relations of Heisenberg.\n",
"In quantum mechanics, the uncertainty principle (also known as Heisenberg's uncertainty principle) is any of a variety of mathematical inequalities asserting a fundamental limit to the precision with which certain pairs of physical properties of a particle, known as complementary variables or canonically conjugate variables such as position \"x\" and momentum \"p\", can be known or, depending on interpretation, to what extent such conjugate properties maintain their approximate meaning, as the mathematical framework of quantum physics does not support the notion of simultaneously well-defined conjugate properties expressed by a single value.\n",
"In March 1927, working in Niels Bohr's institute, Werner Heisenberg formulated the principle of uncertainty thereby laying the foundation of what became known as the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. Heisenberg had been studying the papers of Paul Dirac and Pascual Jordan. He discovered a problem with measurement of basic variables in the equations. His analysis showed that uncertainties, or imprecisions, always turned up if one tried to measure the position and the momentum of a particle at the same time. Heisenberg concluded that these uncertainties or imprecisions in the measurements were not the fault of the experimenter, but fundamental in nature and are inherent mathematical properties of operators in quantum mechanics arising from definitions of these operators.\n",
"In quantum mechanics, information theory, and Fourier analysis, the entropic uncertainty or Hirschman uncertainty is defined as the sum of the temporal and spectral Shannon entropies. It turns out that Heisenberg's uncertainty principle can be expressed as a lower bound on the sum of these entropies. This is \"stronger\" than the usual statement of the uncertainty principle in terms of the product of standard deviations.\n",
"The term Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics was often used interchangeably with and as a synonym for Heisenberg's uncertainty principle by detractors (such as Einstein and the physicist Alfred Landé) who believed in determinism and saw the common features of the Bohr–Heisenberg theories as a threat. Within the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics the uncertainty principle was taken to mean that on an elementary level, the physical universe does not exist in a deterministic form, but rather as a collection of probabilities, or possible outcomes. For example, the pattern (probability distribution) produced by millions of photons passing through a diffraction slit can be calculated using quantum mechanics, but the exact path of each photon cannot be predicted by any known method. The Copenhagen interpretation holds that it cannot be predicted by any method, not even with theoretically infinitely precise measurements.\n",
"In the book, after briefly discussing various theories, including quantum theory, Heisenberg discusses the basis for the fundamental concepts of quantum theory. Also by this time Heisenberg has stated, \"the interaction between observer and object causes uncontrollable and large changes in the [atomic] system being observed...\". In this work Heisenberg also discusses his uncertainty principle or uncertainty relations.\n",
"Historically, the uncertainty principle has been confused with a related effect in physics, called the observer effect, which notes that measurements of certain systems cannot be made without affecting the systems, that is, without changing something in a system. Heisenberg utilized such an observer effect at the quantum level (see below) as a physical \"explanation\" of quantum uncertainty. It has since become clearer, however, that the uncertainty principle is inherent in the properties of all wave-like systems, and that it arises in quantum mechanics simply due to the matter wave nature of all quantum objects. Thus, \"the uncertainty principle actually states a fundamental property of quantum systems and is not a statement about the observational success of current technology\". It must be emphasized that \"measurement\" does not mean only a process in which a physicist-observer takes part, but rather any interaction between classical and quantum objects regardless of any observer.\n"
] |
collective bargaining
|
collective bargaining is the process of a group of employees negotiating employment benefits (pay, health care, vacation/sick time, etc.) as a single group as opposed to each employee negotiating with the employer at the time of hire.
the only way this is possible is with the creation of a union. if collective bargaining is ever legislated away then the entire usefulness of a union disappears.
|
[
"Collective bargaining is a process of negotiation between employers and a group of employees aimed at agreements to regulate working salaries, working conditions, benefits, and other aspects of workers' compensation and rights for workers. The interests of the employees are commonly presented by representatives of a trade union to which the employees belong. The collective agreements reached by these negotiations usually set out wage scales, working hours, training, health and safety, overtime, grievance mechanisms, and rights to participate in workplace or company affairs.\n",
"Collective bargaining is a process of negotiations between employers and a group of employees aimed at reaching agreements that regulate working conditions. The interests of the employees are commonly presented by representatives of a trade union to which the employees belong.\n",
"Collective bargaining regulates the terms under which employers hire employees and the future treatment of future employees. Collective bargaining is a mechanism which allows employees, employers and representation parties to express their objectives with respect to work.\n",
"Broadly, then, the collective-bargaining process may be defined as a process whereby employers (or employers’ organisations) bargain with employee representatives (trade unions) about terms and conditions of employment, and about other matters of mutual interest.\n",
"A collective bargaining agreement (i.e. a contract) is a set of bylaws that establishes a partnership agreement between two groups of people, where one group is management and the other group is employees. The collective bargaining agreement also provides the same protection for managers, except managers are not entitled to union representation during labor disputes.\n",
"Collective bargaining is performed by bargaining agents, namely trade unions and employers’ organisations. The LRA sets requirements for unions and organisations relating to registration. A trade union is defined as an association of employees whose principal purpose is to regulate the relations between employers or employers’ organisations and employees. Only employees may be members of a trade union. Job seekers and ex-employees may not be members of a trade union.\n",
"A collective agreement, collective labour agreement (CLA) or collective bargaining agreement (CBA) is a written contract negotiated through collective bargaining for employees by one or more trade unions with the management of a company (or with an employers' association) that regulates the terms and conditions of employees at work. This includes regulating the wages, benefits, and duties of the employees and the duties and responsibilities of the employer or employers and often includes rules for a dispute resolution process.\n"
] |
- why doesn't corn break down when you poop, and if it doesn't break down what sort of nutritional value am i getting?
|
You have to chew it.
|
[
"When drying corn kernels it is important to keep in mind that cracks and fractures in the corn can lead to many problems in both the storage and processing. The major problem that occurs from high temperature drying and then rapid cooling of the grain is stress-cracking. Stress-cracking is when fractures become present in the corn endosperm. Stress-cracked kernels often absorb water too quickly, are more likely to become broken, and are increasingly susceptible to insect and mold damage during dry storage. In order to reduce the amount of grain that is lost due to stress-cracking, medium temperature and slow cooling, or natural air and low temperature drying methods should be employed.\n",
"Because corn is a self-fertilizing plant, the prevention of inbreeding when producing hybrid seeds required time-consuming detasseling. In the 1940s and 50's, Jones collaborated with Paul Mangelsdorf of Harvard University to eliminate the need to remove the tassels from plants in seed production through utilizing a sterile plant and male restorer gene, making the production of corn more cost-efficient.\n",
"The hard part at the center of the corn resembles a barley seed, that is like a funnel with a broad raised top and a pointed bottom. Because of their shape, corns intensify the pressure at the tip and can cause deep tissue damage and ulceration. Hard corns are especially problematic for people with insensitive skin due to damaged nerves (e.g., in people with diabetes mellitus). The scientific name for a corn is \"heloma\" (plural \"helomata\"). A hard corn is called a \"heloma durum\", while a soft corn is called a \"heloma molle\".\n",
"The hard part at the center of the corn resembles a funnel with a broad raised top and a pointed bottom. Because of their shape, corns intensify the pressure at the tip and can cause deep tissue damage and ulceration. The scientific name for a corn is \"heloma\" (plural \"helomata\"). A hard corn is called a \"heloma durum\", while a soft corn is called a \"heloma molle\".\n",
"Previously, consuming untreated corn was thought to cause pellagra (niacin deficiency)—either from the corn itself or some infectious element in untreated corn. However, further advancements showed that it is a correlational, not causal, relationship. In the 1700s and 1800s, areas that depended highly on corn as a diet staple were more likely to have pellagra. This is because humans cannot absorb niacin in untreated corn. The nixtamalization process frees niacin into a state where the intestines can absorb it. This was discovered primarily by exploring why Mexican people who depended on maize did not develop pellagra. One reason was that Mayans treated corn in an alkaline solution to soften it, in the process now called nixtamalization. The earliest known use of nixtamalization was in what is present-day southern Mexico and Guatemala around 1500–1200 BC.\n",
"Corn Products suffered large losses in the early 1930s, when prices of its main raw material grain corn rose dramatically during droughts in the Midwest's Dust Bowl. As a result, it later engaged futures contracts to protect itself from such prices rises in the future.\n",
"BULLET::::- Most of the corn produced in the US is field corn, not sweet corn, and not digestible by humans in its raw form. Most corn is used for livestock feed and not human food, even the portion that is exported.\n"
] |
how can a geothermal system heat my house when it's 10 below zero and the system is 55 degrees?
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The answers here are wrong. The temperature a heat pump can warm a space is not limited to the temperature of the ground (55, in your example) or the outside air in the case of a traditional heat pump.
As long as the medium you're running through the ground (water, glycol, whatever) is a lower temp than ground itself, you'll transfer heat energy to the system. The compressor and refrigeration components of the system then essentially concentrates the heat you've transferred and uses it to warm your space.
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[
"Air at any temperature above absolute zero contains some energy. An air-source heat pump transfers ('pumps') some of this energy as heat from one place to another, for example between the outside and inside of a building. This can provide space heating and/or hot water. A single system can be designed to transfer heat in either direction, to heat or cool the interior of the building in winter and summer respectively. For simplicity, the description below focuses on use for interior heating.\n",
"The building replaces 100% outside air; no air is recirculated through the system. Two underground tubes exchange outside and inside air eight feet beneath the ground, passively warming or cooling the air to match the temperature of the ground (~55°F year round). The house transfers heat between the outgoing air and the incoming air before it reaches the rooms, resulting in a difference of less than 10°F between the incoming fresh air and the desired room temperature, even in the midst of Minnesotan winter.\n",
"When there is a high temperature differential (e.g., when an air-source heat pump is used to heat a house with an outside temperature of, say, 0 °C (32 °F)), it takes more work to move the same amount of heat to indoors than on a milder day. Ultimately, due to Carnot efficiency limits, the heat pump's performance will decrease as the outdoor-to-indoor temperature difference increases (outside temperature gets colder), reaching a theoretical limit of 1.0 at −273 °C. In practice, a COP of 1.0 will typically be reached at an outdoor temperature around −18 °C (0 °F) for air source heat pumps.\n",
"The heat drawn from ground-sourced systems is in most cases stored solar heat, and it should not be confused with direct geothermal heating, though the latter will contribute in some small measure to all heat in the ground. True geothermal heat, when used for heating, requires a circulation pump but no heat pump, since for this technology the ground temperature is higher than that of the space that is to be heated, so the technology relies only upon simple heat convection.\n",
"Heat exchangers – The heat exchangers take the heat from outgoing air and preheat the cold fresh incoming air, which is then sent around the building. It is calculated that the heat exchangers will maintain an average temperature of 11 degrees Celsius, which means that only a small use of the heating system is needed to top up the building's requirements.\n",
"Heating degree days are typical indicators of household energy consumption for space heating. The air temperature in a building is on average higher than that of the air outside. A temperature of indoors corresponds to an outside temperature of about . If the air temperature outside is below 15.5 °C, then heating is required to maintain a temperature of about 18 °C. If the outside temperature is below the average temperature it is accounted as 1 degree-day. The sum of the degree days over periods such as a month or an entire heating season is used in calculating the amount of heating required for a building. Degree Days are also used to estimate air conditioning usage during the warm season.\n",
"The earth absorbs the sun's energy and stores it as heat in the oceans and underground. The ground temperature remains constant at a point of all year round depending on where you live on earth. A geothermal heating system takes advantage of the consistent temperature found below the Earth's surface and uses it to heat and cool buildings. The system is made up of a series of pipes installed underground, connected to pipes in a building. A pump circulates liquid through the circuit. In the winter the fluid in the pipe absorbs the heat of the earth and uses it to heat the building. In the summer the fluid absorbs heat from the building and disposes of it in the earth.\n"
] |
what's the difference between a laser cutter and a plasma cutter?
|
Laser cutters use lasers, plasma cutters use plasma.
|
[
"The laser cutter is a machine that uses a laser to cut materials such as chip board, matte board, felt, wood, and acrylic up to 3/8 inch (1 cm) thickness. The laser cutter is often bundled with a driver software which interprets vector drawings produced by any number of CAD software platforms.\n",
"The Laser Cutter is a small tracked vehicle with a powerful front-mounted laser that can gain precise and rapid entry to secure buildings such as vaults and bunkers. The laser gun has a number of settings from single beams to pulsed energy bursts as well as an onboard timer and a high powered fan to blow away cuttings. The vehicle is seen in action in the episode \"30 Minutes After Noon\" (carried in Pod 5) but can be seen in the Pod in \"Sun Probe\". Numerous models of the vehicle exist including Konami and Bandai models. \n",
"CNC laser involves moving a lens assembly carrying a beam of laser light over the surface of the metal. Oxygen, nitrogen or air is fed through the same nozzle from which the laser beam exits. The metal is heated and burnt by the laser beam, cutting the metal sheet. The quality of the edge can be mirror smooth and a precision of around can be obtained. Cutting speeds on thin sheet can be as high as per minute. Most laser cutting systems use a CO2 based laser source with a wavelength of around 10 µm; some more recent systems use a YAG based laser with a wavelength of around 1 µm.\n",
"Laser cutting for metals has the advantages over plasma cutting of being more precise and using less energy when cutting sheet metal; however, most industrial lasers cannot cut through the greater metal thickness that plasma can. Newer laser machines operating at higher power (6000 watts, as contrasted with early laser cutting machines' 1500 watt ratings) are approaching plasma machines in their ability to cut through thick materials, but the capital cost of such machines is much higher than that of plasma cutting machines capable of cutting thick materials like steel plate.\n",
"A chemical laser is a laser that obtains its energy from a chemical reaction. Chemical lasers can reach continuous wave output with power reaching to megawatt levels. They are used in industry for cutting and drilling.\n",
"A \"laser microjet\" is a water-jet guided laser in which a pulsed laser beam is coupled into a low-pressure water jet. This is used to perform laser cutting functions while using the water jet to guide the laser beam, much like an optical fiber, through total internal reflection. The advantages of this are that the water also removes debris and cools the material. Additional advantages over traditional \"dry\" laser cutting are high dicing speeds, parallel kerf, and omnidirectional cutting.\n",
"Laser welding is advantageous in that it can weld at speeds of up to 100 mm/s as well as the ability to weld dissimilar metals. Laser cladding is used to coat cheap or weak parts with a harder material in order to improve the surface quality. Drilling and cutting with lasers is advantageous in that there is little to no wear on the cutting tool as there is no contact to cause damage.\n"
] |
how do microphones/speakers not echo the sound of a crowd
|
To an extent, they do. However, most microphones are more sensitive in the direction that they're pointed.
There are no microphones that are only pick up sound from one very specific direction - if someone makes a noise from behind the mic, it'll get picked up to some degree, the question is how much it'll get picked up. A typical mic will pick up in front of it very well, but because the capsule (the electronic thing inside that deals with converting sound to electrical signals) faces towards the singer or instrument, that's where the sound will have the greatest influence. Anything coming from behind will be tiny in comparison meaning that the crowd aren't amplified to any significant degree through the speaker system.
|
[
"A microphone is used to capture the input of sound waves created by people speaking into the device. The sounds are then turned into electrical energy; this energy then flows along a metal antenna. As the electrons in the electric current move back and forth up the antenna, the current creates an invisible electromagnetic radiation in the form of radio waves. The waves travel at the speed of light, taking the radio program (voices recorded) with them.\n",
"In some conferences, sound engineers have to provide microphones for a large number of people who are speaking, in the case of a panel conference or debate. In some cases, automatic mixers are used to control the levels of the microphones, and turn off the channels for microphones which are not being spoken into, to reduce unwanted background noise and reduce the likelihood of feedback.\n",
"In case the array consists of omnidirectional microphones they accept sound from all directions, so electrical signals of the microphones contain the information about the sounds coming from all directions. Joint processing of these sounds allows selecting the sound signal coming from the given direction. \n",
"Various standard techniques are used with microphones used in sound reinforcement at live performances, or for recording in a studio or on a motion picture set. By suitable arrangement of one or more microphones, desirable features of the sound to be collected can be kept, while rejecting unwanted sounds.\n",
"In most of these cases, direct sound from the loudspeaker (not the person at the far end, otherwise referred to as the Talker) enters the microphone almost unaltered. The difficulties in cancelling echo stem from the alteration of the original sound by the ambient space. These changes can include certain frequencies being absorbed by soft furnishings, and reflection of different frequencies at varying strength.\n",
"Microphones can be thought of as speakers in reverse. The sound waves strike the thin diaphragm, causing it to vibrate. Microphone diaphragms, unlike speaker diaphragms, tend to be thin and flexible, since they need to absorb as much sound as possible. In a condenser microphone, the diaphragm is placed in front of a plate and is charged. In a dynamic microphone, the diaphragm is glued to a magnetic coil, similar to the one in a dynamic loudspeaker. (In fact, a dynamic speaker can be used as a rudimentary microphone, and vice versa.)\n",
"Some microphones are designed \"not\" to have their impedance matched by the load they are connected to. Doing so can alter their frequency response and cause distortion, especially at high sound pressure levels. Certain ribbon and dynamic microphones are exceptions, due to the designers' assumption of a certain load impedance being part of the internal electro-acoustical damping circuit of the microphone.\n"
] |
why do texts only allow 160 bytes per message?
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The dirty secret of text messaging (and text fees) is that the message gets stuffed into the spare room of a data packet that was going to be sent anyway. Your phone says "I'm still here!" at regular intervals, but when you send a text it says "I'm still here, *and* I have something to say!" That message then gets routed to the recipient and is stuffed into the tower's reply: "I hear you, and somebody has a message for you."
160 bytes happens to be how much room is available to stuff a message into those packets.
|
[
"Note: this does not include the 12 bytes of flags indicating whether the next chunk of text is a pointer or a literal. Adding it, the text becomes 106 bytes long, which is still shorter than the original 177 bytes.\n",
"Messages can be of any type, and the data contained within is not restricted. Message bodies were initially limited to 8KB in size but was later raised to 64KB on 2010-07-01 and then 256KB on 2013-06-18. For larger messages, the user has a few options to get around this limitation. A large message can be split into multiple segments that are sent separately, or the message data can be stored using Amazon Simple Storage Service (Amazon S3) or Amazon DynamoDB with just a pointer to the data transmitted in the SQS message. Amazon has made an Extended Client Library available for this purpose An extension to the Amazon SQS client that enables sending and receiving messages up to 2GB via Amazon S3. : awslabs/amazon-sqs-java-extended-client-lib.\n",
"Arbitrary Messages enable the sending of encrypted or plain text, which can also function to send and store up to 1000 bytes of data permanently, or 42 kilobytes of data for a limited amount of time. As a result, it can be used to build file-sharing services, decentralized applications, and higher-level Nxt services.\n",
"A message of seven bytes or less is sent in a single frame, with the initial byte containing the type (0) and payload length (1-7 bytes). With the 0 in the type field, this can also pass as a simpler protocol with a length-data format and is often misinterpreted as such.\n",
"A single SMS message has a maximum size of 1120 bits. This is important because there are two types of character encodings, GSM and Unicode. Latin-based languages like English are GSM based encoding, which are 7 bits per character. This is where text messages typically get their 160 character per SMS limit. Long messages that exceed this limit are concatenated. They are split into smaller messages, which are recombined by the receiving phone.\n",
"A tremendous number of possible messages, N, can be generated using even this limited set of characters: N = 26, where L is the length of the message. However, only a smaller set of them is readable plaintext due to the rules of the language, perhaps M of them, where M is likely to be very much smaller than N. Moreover, M has a one-to-one relationship with the number of keys that work, so given K possible keys, only K × (M/N) of them will \"work\". One of these is the correct key, the rest are spurious.\n",
"Any bytes after the headers in the packet are considered the message body. The length of the message body is implied by the datagram length. When bound to UDP, the entire message MUST fit within a single datagram. When used with 6LoWPAN as defined in RFC 4944, messages SHOULD fit into a single IEEE 802.15.4 frame to minimize fragmentation.\n"
] |
What were the reasons that people of your time period and region believed one contracted various illnesses and diseases?
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Ohhh, I have a good one. One belief that arose in the last couple of centuries BCE in Judaism(s) is that various conditions - well, mainly *demonic possession* - were caused by the infiltration of the (evil) spirits of deceased giants from primeval times, themselves the [hybrid offspring of angels and humans](_URL_2_). Several texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls support this idea (which [originates in the Book of Enoch](_URL_3_)) - and myself and scholars like Archie Wright (among others) have [argued](_URL_1_) that this is the implied background to some of Jesus' exorcisms in the gospels.
This later becomes explicit in Christian sources like the [Testament of Solomon](_URL_0_).
|
[
"Notable diseases not originally known as present in Americas before 1492 include those such as smallpox, malaria, bubonic plague, typhus, influenza, measles, diphtheria, yellow fever, and whooping cough. During the Atlantic slave trade following the discovery of the New World, diseases such as these possessed the capability of obliterating populations such as the Natives by the masses as short amount of time as a few weeks or months.\n",
"Encounters between explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced new diseases, which sometimes caused local epidemics of extraordinary virulence. For example, smallpox, measles, malaria, yellow fever, and others were unknown in pre-Columbian America.\n",
"In Europe during the age of exploration, diseases such as smallpox, measles and tuberculosis (TB) had already been introduced centuries before through trade with Asia and Africa. People had developed some antibodies to these and other diseases from the Eurasian continent. When the Europeans traveled to new lands, they carried these diseases with them. (Note: Scholars believe TB was already endemic in the Americas.) When such diseases were introduced for the first time to new populations of humans, the effects on the native populations were widespread and deadly. The Columbian Exchange, referring to Christopher Columbus's first contact with the native peoples of the Caribbean, began the trade of animals, and plants, and unwittingly began an exchange of diseases.\n",
"Also, with modern advances in medicine, society had begun to believe that epidemics and incurable illnesses were a thing of the past. The advent of AIDS proved these conclusions to be wrong. The \"plague\" notion was revived, but when it had been previously used to conceptualize punishment of a society, it was adapted to be a punishment visited on an individual or small group.\n",
"In pre-columbian exchange times, a variety of diseases existed in the Americas. The limited populations and interactions between those populations (as compared to places like Europe), hampered the development of widespread, deadly diseases in the Americas. One notable disease of American origin is syphillis. The American era of limited disease would end with the arrival of Europeans in the Americas. European diseases and epidemics, while still present among Native American populations today, were especially influential in Native American life of the past. Diseases and epidemics can be chronicled from centuries ago when European settlers brought forth diseases that devastated entire tribes. Transitioning into more modern times, similar diseases still plague Native American populations. The current crises in diseases and epidemics are being addressed by many different groups, both governmental and independent, and are done through a multitude of programs.\n",
"The natives of the Americas were faced with several new diseases at once creating a situation where some who successfully resisted one disease might die from another. Multiple simultaneous infections (e.g., smallpox and typhus at the same time) or in close succession (e.g., smallpox in an individual who was still weak from a recent bout of typhus) are more deadly than just the sum of the individual diseases. In this scenario, death rates can also be elevated by combinations of new and familiar diseases: smallpox in combination with American strains of yaws, for example.\n",
"Health, or lack of health, was once merely attributed to biological or natural conditions. Sociologists have demonstrated that the spread of diseases is heavily influenced by the socioeconomic status of individuals, ethnic traditions or beliefs, and other cultural factors. Where medical research might gather statistics on a disease, a sociological perspective on an illness would provide insight on what external factors caused the demographics who contracted the disease to become ill.\n"
] |
when can police get accurate speed readings on a moving vehicle?
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When they have radar on and it is within a certain degree of head/tail-on. I think it's within 15 degrees, but can't remember the exact number. The further off it is, the less accurate. And when the radar is properly calibrated, which should be done a minimum of twice per shift.
When the are following the vehicle and pace it with their car.
When they use lidar, which is like radar, but with lasers. I think this follows the same requirements as radar.
When they calculate the speed from a known distance and time the vehicle traveled. The most common method is Using solid lines that run across the road at either 1/8 or 1/4 mile intervals.
I'm sure they have other ways, but those are the 4 most common.
|
[
"When used within a moving vehicle, the device measures the relative speed of the police and target vehicle. Police are required to follow the offending vehicle for 200 metres and have a certified speedometer, largely negating advantages of the device.\n",
"BULLET::::- Speed recognition device: Some police cars are fitted with devices to measure the speed of vehicles being followed, such as ProViDa, usually through a system of following the vehicle between two points a set distance apart. This is separate to any radar gun device which is likely to be handheld, and not attached to the vehicle.\n",
"Officers in some jurisdictions may also use pacing, particularly where a more convenient radar speed measuring device is not available—a police vehicle's speed is matched to that of a target vehicle, and the calibrated speedometer of the patrol car used to infer the other vehicle's speed.\n",
"By monitoring how long it takes a vehicle to pass two ANPR cameras and then dividing the time by the distance between the cameras, an average speed can be measured and used to inform motorists via VMS how long it will take them to reach a destination, or to set diversions.\n",
"One device law enforcement use to measure the expected speed of a moving vehicle is doppler radar, which uses the doppler effect to measure the relative speed of a vehicle. Doppler radar works by beaming a radio wave at a vehicle to then measure the expected change in frequency of the reflected wave (that bounces off the vehicle). Law enforcement often employs doppler radar via hand-held radar guns, from vehicles, or from fixed objects such as traffic signals.\n",
"BULLET::::- Speed cameras that identify vehicles traveling over the legal speed limit. Many such devices use radar to detect a vehicle's speed or electromagnetic loops buried in each lane of the road.\n",
"Going back to our auto. The rate we sample the street signs for information is going to be different from when we look at the speedometer. We may also change our sampling rate when certain outside influences introduce themselves into the feedback mix. If we have a police car behind us, odds are that we will be sampling the speedometer much more often than if a police car was not there.\n"
] |
At what point did Salt become so devalued, and why?
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All 4 of these r/AskHistorians posts will answer your question. Hope the mods will consider this an adequate response (I'm not from around here:)!
[Why was salt so scarce and valuable when it is in the ocean everywhere?](_URL_2_) (16 days ago, from /u/bucko9765)
[I'm given to understand that in the pre-modern world salt was a very valuable commodity. If you lived near a coast line what (if anything) was to stop you just making unlimited salt by boiling sea water?](_URL_1_) (8 months ago, from /u/grapp)
[How could a Polish salt miner become rich by getting a handfull of salt each day, while poorer people used salt by the kilo in producing food for the winter?](_URL_3_) (11 months ago, from /u/Toasterlad)
[Salt was once incredibly valuable. But when and how did salt go from an expensive commodity to a common appearance on our every day dinner tables.](_URL_0_) (3 years ago, from /u/Africa_Whale)
|
[
"For more than a thousand years, until the late 19th century, salt was extracted from brine at the saltworks by boiling. The brine was brought up from a deposit under the town. The breaking of the salt monopoly in the wake of annexation by Prussia in 1866 led to a fall in price, which in turn led to the industry’s end. The last salt was produced in 1906.\n",
"Vending of common salt (sodium chloride) was historically a natural monopoly. Until recently, a combination of strong sunshine and low humidity or an extension of peat marshes was necessary for producing salt from the sea, the most plentiful source. Changing sea levels periodically caused salt \"famines\" and communities were forced to depend upon those who controlled the scarce inland mines and salt springs, which were often in hostile areas (e.g. the Sahara desert) requiring well-organised security for transport, storage, and distribution.\n",
"Some of the earliest evidence of salt processing dates to around 6,000 BC, when people living in the area of present-day Romania boiled spring water to extract salts; a salt-works in China dates to approximately the same period. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites, Egyptians, and the Indians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, and across the Sahara on camel caravans. The scarcity and universal need for salt have led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in religious ceremonies and has other cultural and traditional significance.\n",
"In the 18th century salt was an essential and valuable commodity. At the time, salt was widely used for the preservation of foods such as meat or fish. The ubiquity of salt use caused the French government to impose the gabelle, a tax on salt consumption. The government mandated that all people over the age of 8 years buy an amount of salt per year at a price that the government had set. The \"Ferme Générale\" was responsible for collecting the \"gabelle\".\n",
"In the early 19th century salt was being produced in southern Illinois along the Ohio River, making salt production in La Saline decline. In 1822, some seventeen workers were still using 100-150 kettles to extract salt, but by 1825, all production had ceased. As a village without any economic base and with efforts to make it a district post having failed, La Saline depopulated.\n",
"Before the advent of the modern internal combustion engine and earth-moving equipment, mining salt was one of the most expensive and dangerous of operations, due to rapid dehydration caused by constant contact with the salt (both in the mine passages and scattered in the air as salt dust), among other problems borne of accidental excessive sodium intake. While salt is now plentiful, until the Industrial Revolution it was difficult to come by, and salt mining was often done by slave or prison labor and life expectancy among those sentenced was low.\n",
"Since World War I the salt production (due in part to the development of chillers as a more modern method for the conservation of food) started decreasing so the company's revenues were not as expected. Many inhabitants of Puerto Pirámides left the village because of the depression.\n"
] |
if roman numerals are written in order from greatest to least in quantity, such as xii (unless when subtracting like xiv), why is super bowl 48 labeled as xlviii instead of lxviii?
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XL would be 40. LX would be 60. It's exactly the subtractive principle you mentioned.
|
[
"For this year only, the Super Bowl decided not to use a Roman numeral (\"L\") and instead used the standard numerals \"50.\" According to Jaime Weston, the league's vice president of brand and creative, the primary reason was that the league's graphic designers had difficulty designing a suitable, aesthetically pleasing logo with only the Roman numeral \"L\".\n",
"This game set the record for most Roman numerals in a Super Bowl title (seven). This will not be matched until Super Bowl LXXVIII after the 2043 NFL season and Super Bowl LXXXVII after the 2052 season, and not surpassed until Super Bowl LXXXVIII after the 2053 season.\n",
"The most obvious similarity between the Roman numerals and those older number systems is the use of 10 as the base, instead of 60 (as had been in use in Mesopotamia for a millennium) or 20. That choice, however, seems to have been made through most of Eurasia, including in India and China.\n",
"A decimal system with 2 and 5 as a sub-bases is called biquinary, and is found in Wolof and Khmer. Roman numerals are a biquinary system. The numbers 1, 5, 10, and 50 are written as I, V, X, and L respectively. Eight is VIII and seventy is LXX.\n",
"Super Bowl 50 decided the 2015 NFL Champion and was played at Levi's Stadium in Santa Clara, California on Sunday, February 7, 2016. Instead of naming it Super Bowl L with Roman numerals like in previous Super Bowls, this game was marketed with the Arabic numeral \"50\". According to Jaime Weston, the league's vice president of brand and creative, the primary reason was that the league's graphic designers had difficulty designing a suitable, aesthetically pleasing logo with only the Roman numeral \"L\".\n",
"The Roman numerals, in particular, are directly derived from the Etruscan number symbols: \"𐌠\", \"𐌡\", \"𐌢\", \"𐌣\", and \"𐌟\" for 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 (They had more symbols for larger numbers, but it is unknown which symbol represents which number). As in the basic Roman system, the Etruscans wrote the symbols that added to the desired number, from higher to lower value. Thus the number 87, for example, would be written 50 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1 + 1 = 𐌣𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌡𐌠𐌠 (this would appear as 𐌠𐌠𐌡𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌣 since Etruscan was written from right to left.)\n",
"One of the drawbacks of the Roman numeral system is that it is not always immediately obvious which of two numbers is the smaller. On the other hand, with the positional notation of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, comparing numbers is easy, because the natural order on nonnegative integers is the same as the variant shortlex of the lexicographic order. In fact, with positional notation, a nonnegative integer is represented by a sequence of numerical digits, and an integer is larger than another one if either it has more digits (ignoring leading zeroes) or the number of digits is the same and the first digit which differs is larger.\n"
] |
It is often said that middle age era male English skeletons are deformed due to excessive archery practice, are examples of such deformities found in warrior cultures as well? (Mongols, Huns, Spartans, etc)
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To be clear before we start, "deformed" isn't exactly how I'd describe *os acromiale*, which is the condition you're describing. Very briefly, what happened to longbowmen (and current competitive archers, etc) was that the growing point (growth plate) on the scapula does not fuse with the bone itself; appearance of that in the left side seems to indicate that arm was taking strains consistent with holding a bow.
There's an interesting chapter on this in Fury (ed) *[The Social History of English Seamen, 1485-1649](_URL_0_)*, concerning the archaeology of the *Mary Rose*.
|
[
"Later in the Middle Ages, massed archery techniques were developed. English and Welsh longbowmen in particular were famed for the volume and accuracy of their shooting, to which cavalry and poorly armoured infantry were particularly vulnerable.\n",
"Longbows were very difficult to master because the force required to deliver an arrow through the improving armour of medieval Europe was very high by modern standards. Although the draw weight of a typical English longbow is disputed, it was at least and possibly more than . Considerable practice was required to produce the swift and effective combat shooting required. Skeletons of longbow archers are recognisably affected, with enlarged left arms and often osteophytes on left wrists, left shoulders and right fingers.\n",
"Archery was described by contemporaries as ineffective against plate armour in the Battle of Neville's Cross (1346), the siege of Bergerac (1345), and the Battle of Poitiers (1356); such armour became available to European knights and men at arms of fairly modest means by the middle of the 14th century, though never to all soldiers in any army. Longbowmen were, however, effective at Poitiers, and this success stimulated changes in armour manufacture partly intended to make armoured men less vulnerable to archery. Nevertheless, at the battle of Agincourt in 1415 and for some decades thereafter, English longbowmen continued to be an effective battlefield force.\n",
"There were also horse archers, who had the ability to shoot on horseback – the Parthians, Scythians, Mongols, and other various steppe people were especially fearsome with this tactic. By the 3rd–4th century AD, heavily armored cavalry became widely adopted by the Parthians, Sasanians, Byzantines, Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms, etc.\n",
"If the people practised archery, it would be that much easier for the king to recruit the proficient longbowmen he needed for his wars. Along with the improving ability of gunfire to penetrate plate armour, it was the long training needed by longbowmen that eventually led to their being replaced by musketeers.\n",
"Longbows as used by English Archers in the Middle Ages at such battles as Crecy and Agincourt were straight limb bows. Usually made of yew, these bows were used to great effect by many archers shooting together in massed volleys. The arrows were long and heavy ('clothyard shafts') with armour piercing 'bodkin' heads. Practice for such long range warfare survives today in a clout shoot, named after a type of shirt.\n",
"This feature was common in skeletons recovered from the Mary Rose shipwreck: it is thought that in those men, much archery practice from childhood on with the mediaeval war bow (which needs a pull three times as strong as the modern standard Olympic bow) pulled at the acromion so much that it prevented bony fusion of the acromion with the scapula.\n"
] |
what and where is "privilege"?
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How often are you followed around by sales clerks in a store, because they think you might steal things? As a white girl myself, I never had - but the first time I went shopping in those same stores with a black friend, I could tell that she was being followed around, regarded as untrustworthy. I asked her about it and she just sort of shrugged it off. "Yeah, that happens a lot", she said. And other black friends say the same thing.
I had no idea. That's what privilege is - me being treated differently because of how I look and having no idea that is happening.
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[
"In anthropology, privilege is a special right, advantage, or immunity granted or available only to a particular person or group. In sociology, privilege is the perceived rights or advantages that are assumed to be available only to a particular person or group of people. The term is commonly used in the context of social inequality, particularly in regard to age, disability, ethnic or racial category, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, religion, and social class. Two common examples involve having access to a higher education and housing. Under a newer usage of the term, privilege can also be emotional or psychological, regarding comfort and personal self-confidence, or having a sense of belonging or worth in society. It began as an academic concept, but has since been invoked more widely, outside of academia.\n",
"\"\"Privilege\" in this context denotes the legal exemption from some duty, burden, attendance or liability to which others are subject. It has long been accepted that in order to perform their functions, legislative bodies require certain privileges relating to the conduct of their business. It has also long been accepted that these privileges must be held absolutely and constitutionally if they are to be effective; the legislative branch of our government must enjoy a certain autonomy which even the Crown and the courts cannot touch.\n",
"A privilege is a certain entitlement to immunity granted by the state or another authority to a restricted group, either by birth or on a conditional basis. Land-titles and taxi medallions are pronounced examples of transferable privilege. These can be revoked in certain circumstances. In modern democratic states, a \"privilege\" is conditional and granted only after birth. By contrast, a \"right\" is an inherent, irrevocable entitlement held by all citizens or all human beings from the moment of birth. Various examples of old common law privilege still exist, to title deeds, for example. Etymologically, a privilege (\"privilegium\") means a \"private law\", or rule relating to a specific individual or institution.\n",
"Privilege is any circumstance that justifies or excuses a prima facie tort. It can be said that privilege recognizes a defendant's action stemmed from an interest of social importance – and that society wants to protect such interests by not punishing those who pursue them. Privilege can be argued whenever a defendant can show that he acted from a justifiable motive. While some privileges have long been recognized, the court may create a new privilege for particular circumstances – privilege as an affirmative defense is a potentially ever-evolving doctrine. Such newly created or circumstantially recognized privileges are referred to as residual justification privileges.\n",
"Privilege—note the Latin etymology of the word—refers to a personal right to refuse to give or disclose otherwise admissible evidence. A witness, otherwise compellable, is not obliged to answer certain questions. See \"Ferreira v Levin\".\n",
"Privilege is the modern term applied to those considerations which avoid liability where it might otherwise follow. As it is generally used, the term applies to any circumstance used to justify or excuse a prima facie tort, such as an assault, battery or trespass. It signifies that the defendant has acted to further an interest of such social importance that it is entitled to protection, even at the expense of damage to the plaintiff. The defendant is allowed freedom of action because his own interests, or those of the public, require it, and because social policy will best be served by permitting it. The privilege is bounded by current ideas of what will most effectively promote the general welfare. The question of \"privilege\" as a defense arises almost exclusively in connection with intentional torts. Negligence is a matter of risk and probability of harm; and where the likelihood of injury to the plaintiff is relatively slight, the defendant will necessarily be allowed greater latitude than where the harm is intended, or substantially certain to follow. It is the bare value of the respective interests involved and the extent of the harm from which the act is intended to protect the one as compared with that which it is intended to cause to the other which determines the existence or nonexistence of the privilege.\n",
"In the law of evidence, a privilege is a rule of evidence that allows the holder of the privilege to refuse to disclose information or provide evidence about a certain subject or to bar such evidence from being disclosed or used in a judicial or other proceeding.\n"
] |
From an evolutionist standpoint, if warmth is necessary for survival, why did humans evolve without fur?
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We lived in warm places and didn't need fur to live. Losing it made us cool down better when exercising, enabling us to endurance-hunt other animals who cannot exert themselves as much continuously over a long time.
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[
"With the evolution of hairless skin, abundant sweat glands, and skin rich in melanin, early humans could walk, run, and forage for food for long periods of time under the hot sun without brain damage due to overheating, giving them an evolutionary advantage over other species. By 1.2 million years ago, around the time of \"Homo ergaster\", archaic humans (including the ancestors of \"Homo sapiens\") had exactly the same receptor protein as modern sub-Saharan Africans.\n",
"Loss of fur occurred at least 2 million years ago, but possibly as early as 3.3 million years ago judging from the divergence of head and pubic lice, and aided persistence hunting (the ability to catch prey in very long distance chases) in the warm savannas where hominins first evolved. The two main advantages are felt to be bipedal locomotion and greater thermal load dissipation capacity due to better sweating and less hair.\n",
"Markus J. Rantala of the Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Finland, said humans evolved by \"natural selection\" to be hairless when the trade off of \"having fewer parasites\" became more important than having a \"warming, furry coat\".\n",
"The deliberate and conscious wearing of clothing is a behavioural adaptation, which among all known extant and extinct animals is a uniquely human characteristic arising from functional needs such as protection from the elements. Protection from the elements includes the sun (for depigmented human populations) and cold temperatures after the loss of body hair and the migration of humans to colder regions (around 100,000 years ago) in which they had not evolved and thus lacked the necessary physical adaptations.\n",
"Due to natural selection, people who lived in areas of intense sunlight developed dark skin colouration to protect against ultraviolet (UV) light and to protect their body mainly from folate depletion. Evolutionary pigmentation of the skin was caused by ultraviolet radiation of the sun. As hominids gradually lost their fur between 1.2 million to 4 million years ago, to allow for better cooling through sweating, their naked and lightly pigmented skin was exposed to sunlight. In the tropics, natural selection favoured dark-skinned human populations as high levels of skin pigmentation protected against the harmful effects of sunlight. Indigenous populations’ skin reflectance (the amount of sunlight the skin reflects) and the actual UV radiation in a particular geographic area is highly correlated, which supports this idea. Genetic evidence also supports this notion, demonstrating that around 1.2 million years ago there was a strong evolutionary pressure which acted on the development of dark skin pigmentation in early members of the genus Homo. The effect of sunlight on folic acid levels has been crucial in the development of dark skin.\n",
"As hominins adapted to bipedalism they would have lost some speed, becoming less able to catch prey with short, fast charges. They would, however, have gained endurance and become better adapted to persistence hunting. Although many mammals sweat, few have evolved to use sweating for effective thermoregulation, humans and horses being notable exceptions. This coupled with relative hairlessness would have given human hunters an additional advantage by keeping their bodies cool in the midday heat.\n",
"Thompson next investigated the insulating properties of various materials, including fur, wool and feathers. He correctly appreciated that the insulating properties of these natural materials arise from the fact that they inhibit the convection of air. He then made the somewhat reckless, and incorrect, inference that air and, in fact, all gases, were perfect non-conductors of heat. He further saw this as evidence of the argument from design, contending that divine providence had arranged for fur on animals in such a way as to guarantee their comfort. \n"
] |
Is energy always conserved? Are there exceptions ?
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You might find this blog post interesting:
_URL_0_
Outside of cosmology, energy is conserved in isolated systems. Within cosmology, one runs into an issue of concepts and semantics. Let's say, because of dark energy and a non-zero cosmological constant, "conventional" energy is definitely not conserved, and increases in time.
However, there is, in some sense, an energy that can be associated with the curvature of the universe itself. If one includes this, then there is still conservation. However, this "energy of curvature" is: a) negative, and b) cannot be formulated in terms of a local energy of a local "thing" like a field, rather you can only assign a number to the entire universe as a whole.
Thus, it doesn't really have many of the properties we would associated with an energy or energy density.
|
[
"In 1918 it was proved that the law of conservation of energy is the direct mathematical consequence of the translational symmetry of the quantity conjugate to energy, namely time. That is, energy is conserved because the laws of physics do not distinguish between different moments of time (see Noether's theorem).\n",
"Since many laws of physics express some kind of conservation, conserved quantities commonly exist in mathematical models of physical systems. For example, any classical mechanics model will have energy as a conserved quantity so long as the forces involved are conservative.\n",
"The conservation of energy is a common feature in many physical theories. From a mathematical point of view it is understood as a consequence of Noether's theorem, developed by Emmy Noether in 1915 and first published in 1918. The theorem states every continuous symmetry of a physical theory has an associated conserved quantity; if the theory's symmetry is time invariance then the conserved quantity is called \"energy\". The energy conservation law is a consequence of the shift symmetry of time; energy conservation is implied by the empirical fact that the laws of physics do not change with time itself. Philosophically this can be stated as \"nothing depends on time per se\".\n",
"Energy conservation is the effort made to reduce the consumption of energy by using less of an energy service. This can be achieved either by using energy more efficiently (using less energy for a constant service) or by reducing the amount of service used (for example, by driving less). Energy conservation is a part of the concept of eco-sufficiency. Energy conservation reduces the need for energy services and can result in increased environmental quality, national security, personal financial security and higher savings.\n",
"In other words, if the physical system is invariant under the continuous symmetry of time translation then its energy (which is canonical conjugate quantity to time) is conserved. Conversely, systems which are not invariant under shifts in time (an example, systems with time dependent potential energy) do not exhibit conservation of energy – unless we consider them to exchange energy with another, external system so that the theory of the enlarged system becomes time invariant again. Conservation of energy for finite systems is valid in such physical theories as special relativity and quantum theory (including QED) in the flat space-time.\n",
"In physics and chemistry, the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant; it is said to be \"conserved\" over time. This law means that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it can only be transformed or transferred from one form to another. For instance, chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy when a stick of dynamite explodes. If one adds up all the forms of energy that were released in the explosion, such as the kinetic energy and potential energy of the pieces, as well as heat and sound, one will get the exact decrease of chemical energy in the combustion of the dynamite. Classically, conservation of energy was distinct from conservation of mass; however, special relativity showed that mass is related to energy and vice versa by \"E = mc\", and science now takes the view that mass–energy is conserved.\n",
"Thus, the rule of \"conservation of energy\" over time in special relativity continues to hold, so long as the reference frame of the observer is unchanged. This applies to the total energy of systems, although different observers disagree as to the energy value. Also conserved, and invariant to all observers, is the invariant mass, which is the minimal system mass and energy that can be seen by any observer, and which is defined by the energy–momentum relation.\n"
] |
Is there any g-force felt by those in a space station?
|
> Is there any g-force felt by those in a space station?
Not much, that's why it's called micro-gravity.
You should be asking:
> Is there any gravitational force in a space station?
Yes.
The acceleration due to Earth's gravity at the ISS is [92%](_URL_0_) as strong as that on the surface
> Is there any ~~g-force~~ acceleration felt by those in a space station?
Not really.
> if there is a g-force caused by ~~rotating~~ orbiting the earth
No. The astronauts don't *feel* any acceleration because they are in free-fall. As mentioned earlier, this does not mean there is no force applied on them.
What the so called g-force (acceleration) does on, let's say a banking airplane, is it applies a force on your body through the seat, which presses your body.
Things in orbit don't have anything to press against to get crushed.
|
[
"The effects for negative g-force can be more dangerous producing hyperemia and also psychotic episodes. In space, G forces are almost zero, which is called microgravity, meaning that the person is floating in the interior of the vessel. This happens because the gravity acts on the spaceship and in the body equally, both are pulled with the same forces of acceleration and also in the same direction.\n",
"G-force induced loss of consciousness (abbreviated as G-LOC, pronounced 'JEE-lock') is a term generally used in aerospace physiology to describe a loss of consciousness occurring from excessive and sustained g-forces draining blood away from the brain causing cerebral hypoxia. The condition is most likely to affect pilots of high performance fighter and aerobatic aircraft or astronauts but is possible on some extreme amusement park rides. G-LOC incidents have caused fatal accidents in high performance aircraft capable of sustaining high \"g\" for extended periods. High-G training for pilots of high performance aircraft or spacecraft often includes ground training for G-LOC in special centrifuges, with some profiles exposing pilots to 9 \"g\"s for a sustained period.\n",
"During takeoff and reentry space travelers can experience several times normal gravity. An untrained person can usually withstand about 3g, but can blackout at 4 to 6g. G-force in the vertical direction is more difficult to tolerate than a force perpendicular to the spine because blood flows away from the brain and eyes. First the person experiences temporary loss of vision and then at higher g-forces loses consciousness. G-force training and a G-suit which constricts the body to keep more blood in the head can mitigate the effects. Most spacecraft are designed to keep g-forces within comfortable limits.\n",
"The g-force experienced by an object is due to the vector sum of all non-gravitational and non-electromagnetic forces acting on an object's freedom to move. In practice, as noted, these are surface-contact forces between objects. Such forces cause stresses and strains on objects, since they must be transmitted from an object surface. Because of these strains, large g-forces may be destructive.\n",
"Various simulators help visitors understand the spaceflight experience. Space Shot lets the rider experience launch-like 4 gs and 2–3 seconds of weightlessness. G-Force Accelerator offers 3 gs of acceleration for an extended period by means of a centrifuge. Several other simulators entertain and educate visitors.\n",
"Space motion sickness is an event that can occur within minutes of being in changing gravity environments (i.e. from 1g on Earth prior to launch to more than 1g during launch, and then from microgravity in space to hypergravity during re-entry and again to 1g after landing). The symptoms range from drowsiness and headaches, to nausea and vomiting. There are three general categories of space motion sickness:\n",
"Space neuroscience is the scientific study of the central nervous system (CNS) functions during spaceflight. Living systems can integrate the inputs from the senses to navigate in their environment and to coordinate posture, locomotion, and eye movements. Gravity has a fundamental role in controlling these functions. In weightlessness during spaceflight, integrating the sensory inputs and coordinating motor responses is harder to do because gravity is no longer sensed during free-fall. For example, the otolith organs of the vestibular system no longer signal head tilt relative to gravity when standing. However, they can still sense head translation during body motion. Ambiguities and changes in how the gravitational input is processed can lead to potential errors in perception, which affects spatial orientation and mental representation. Dysfunctions of the vestibular system are common during and immediately after spaceflight, such as space motion sickness in orbit and balance disorders after return to Earth.\n"
] |
How efficient is human power?
|
A 68 kg (150 lb) person walking at 4 km/h (2.5 mph) requires approximately 210 kilocalories (880 kJ) of food energy per hour, or 4.55 km/MJ. One 1 US gallon (~3.7854 liter) of gasoline contains about 114,000 BTU (120 MJ) of energy, so this converts to roughly 360 miles per US gallon (0.65 l/100 km).
A relatively light and slow vehicle with low-friction tires and an efficient chain-driven drivetrain, the bicycle is one of the most efficient forms of transport. A 140 lb (64 kg) cyclist riding at 16 km/h (10 mph) requires about half the energy per unit distance of walking: 43 kcal/mi or 3.1 kWh (11 MJ) per 100 km. This figure depends on the speed and mass of the rider: greater speeds give higher air drag and heavier riders consume more energy per unit distance. This converts to about 732 miles per US gallon (0.321 L/100 km; 879 mpg-imp).
_URL_0_
TL;DR: Biking > Walking > Car
|
[
"Human factors can also be significant. Rohloff demonstrates that overall efficiency can be improved in some cases by using a slightly less efficient gear ratio when this leads to greater human efficiency (in converting food to pedal power) because a more effective pedalling speed is being used.\n",
"Power efficiency is another important measurement in modern computers. A higher power efficiency can often be traded for lower speed or higher cost. The typical measurement when referring to power consumption in computer architecture is MIPS/W (millions of instructions per second per watt).\n",
"The efficiency of an entity (a device, component, or system) in electronics and electrical engineering is defined as useful power output divided by the total electrical power consumed (a fractional expression), typically denoted by the Greek small letter eta (η – ήτα).\n",
"The efficiency of human muscle has been measured (in the context of rowing and cycling) at 18% to 26%. The efficiency is defined as the ratio of mechanical work output to the total metabolic cost, as can be calculated from oxygen consumption. This low efficiency is the result of about 40% efficiency of generating ATP from food energy, losses in converting energy from ATP into mechanical work inside the muscle, and mechanical losses inside the body. The latter two losses are dependent on the type of exercise and the type of muscle fibers being used (fast-twitch or slow-twitch). For an overall efficiency of 20 percent, one watt of mechanical power is equivalent to 4.3 kcal per hour. For example, one manufacturer of rowing equipment calibrates its rowing ergometer to count burned calories as equal to four times the actual mechanical work, plus 300 kcal per hour, this amounts to about 20 percent efficiency at 250 watts of mechanical output. The mechanical energy output of a cyclic contraction can depend upon many factors, including activation timing, muscle strain trajectory, and rates of force rise & decay. These can be synthesized experimentally using work loop analysis.\n",
"World records of power performance by humans are of interest to work planners and work-process engineers. The average level of human power that can be maintained over a certain duration of time — say over the extent of one minute, or one hour — is interesting to engineers designing work operations in industry. Human power is occasionally used to generate, and sometimes to store, electrical energy in batteries for use in the wilderness.\n",
"The idea of power efficiency builds off the difference between energy (kWh) and power (kW). Energy efficiency focuses on reducing the amount of energy consumed while power efficiency focuses on reducing the rate at which energy is used, also known as peak demand.\n",
"BULLET::::- Energy efficiency: Using less power to perform the same tasks. This involves a permanent reduction of demand by using more efficient load-intensive appliances such as water heaters, refrigerators, or washing machines.\n"
] |
Why were medieval cities in England smaller than ancient Mesopotamian cities?
|
Apples and oranges, my friend.
If you look back to [Roman London in the 2nd century, the population was about 60,000](_URL_0_). After the fall of the Roman empire, London continued to function as an Anglo-Saxon city but it didn't have the benefit of a major empire controlling and trading from it. It was a relatively busy port, but it was repeatedly attacked by Vikings. By the time of the Norman Conquest, it was much smaller than it once was, but if you look forward about 200 years, the population of London was probably around 80,000 and continued to grow.
In comparison, you can look at [a city like Uruk](_URL_1_) which grew from a fairly small farming village into the center of government and society for a major civilization over about 800 years. The population grew exponentially as the city grew, because that is where the jobs and food and money were.
There were times when medieval cities were large and when Sumerian cities were small. If you want to compare both cities at the height of their prominence, Uruk had about 80,000 residents during the "Uruk Period" of Sumer when it was the most influential city. London in 1914 (I'm gonna call that the height of London's power, but feel free to dispute it) had about 4.5 million in the official city, but 7.1 in the "greater London area".
Edit: added some sources
|
[
"In the European Middle Ages, virtually all large cities had city walls—Dubrovnik in Dalmatia is a well-preserved example—and more important cities had citadels, forts, or castles. Great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege. In some cases, long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city. Complex systems of tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities like Tábor in Bohemia, similar to those used much later in Vietnam during the Vietnam War.\n",
"Urban sites were on the decline from the late Roman period and remained of very minor importance until around the 9th century. The largest cities in later Anglo-Saxon England however were Winchester, London and York, in that order, although London had eclipsed Winchester by the 11th century. Details of population size are however lacking.\n",
"The city is the most complete medieval city in the United Kingdom, including cobbled streets such as Elm Hill, Timber Hill and Tombland, ancient buildings such as St Andrew's Hall, half-timbered houses such as Dragon Hall, The Guildhall and Strangers' Hall, the Art Nouveau of the 1899 Royal Arcade, many medieval lanes and the winding River Wensum that flows through the city centre towards Norwich Castle. The city has two universities, the University of East Anglia and the Norwich University of the Arts, and two cathedrals, Norwich Cathedral and St John the Baptist Cathedral.\n",
"Between 1297 and 1344 a new defensive wall was constructed on the huge banks that surrounded the city, replacing the earlier palisade and gates. The area enclosed was the largest for any city in England, although inside was a considerable amount of pasture land, which was slowly absorbed as new monastic settlements, houses, markets and industrial sites appeared. By 1400 Norwich had grown to become a major city of perhaps 10,000 inhabitants.\n",
"The skylines of many important medieval cities had large numbers of high-rise urban towers, built by the wealthy for defense and status. The residential Towers of 12th century Bologna numbered between 80 and 100 at a time, the tallest of which is the high Asinelli Tower. A Florentine law of 1251 decreed that all urban buildings be immediately reduced to less than 26 m. Even medium-sized towns of the era are known to have proliferations of towers, such as the 72 up to 51 m height in San Gimignano.\n",
"The ancient medieval city of Norwich within the walls at one time had 57 parish churches, the largest collection of urban medieval buildings in any one city north of the Alps. Ten are still in use by the Church of England, while many are in use for other purposes.\n",
"In the Middle Ages, virtually all large cities had city walls – Dubrovnik in Dalmatia is an impressive and well-preserved example – and more important cities had citadels, forts or castles. Great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege. In some cases, long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city. In other cases, such as the Ottoman siege of Shkodra, Venetian engineers had designed and installed cisterns that were fed by rain water channeled by a system of conduits in the walls and buildings. Complex systems of underground tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities like Tábor in Bohemia. Against these would be matched the mining skills of teams of trained sappers, who were sometimes employed by besieging armies.\n"
] |
How long have humans been using knots?
|
The knots are definitely prehistoric, the oldest fish net is over 9000 years old. The net was practically modern – instead of nylon, it was made of willow bark – so the earliest knots are probably quite a bit older. Chimpanzees are known to make knots in wild, so a good guess is that humans have been using knots as long as there has been humans.
|
[
"Archaeologists have discovered that knot tying dates back to prehistoric times. Besides their uses such as recording information and tying objects together, knots have interested humans for their aesthetics and spiritual symbolism. Knots appear in various forms of Chinese artwork dating from several centuries BC (see Chinese knotting). The endless knot appears in Tibetan Buddhism, while the Borromean rings have made repeated appearances in different cultures, often representing strength in unity. The Celtic monks who created the Book of Kells lavished entire pages with intricate Celtic knotwork.\n",
"Archaeological studies indicate that the art of tying knots dates back to prehistoric times. Recent discoveries include 100,000-year-old bone needles used for sewing and bodkins, which were used to untie knots. However, due to the delicate nature of the medium, few examples of prehistoric Chinese knotting exist today. Some of the earliest evidence of knotting have been preserved on bronze vessels of the Warring States period (481–221 BCE), Buddhist carvings of the Northern Dynasties period (317–581) and on silk paintings during the Western Han period (206 BCE–6 CE).\n",
"Knots have been used for basic purposes such as recording information, fastening and tying objects together, for thousands of years. The early, significant stimulus in knot theory would arrive later with Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and his theory of vortex atoms.\n",
"The use of ropes for hunting, pulling, fastening, attaching, carrying, lifting, and climbing dates back to prehistoric times. It is likely that the earliest \"ropes\" were naturally occurring lengths of plant fibre, such as vines, followed soon by the first attempts at twisting and braiding these strands together to form the first proper ropes in the modern sense of the word. Impressions of cordage found on fired clay provide evidence of string and rope-making technology in Europe dating back 28,000 years. Fossilized fragments of \"probably two-ply laid rope of about 7 mm diameter\" were found in one of the caves at Lascaux, dating to approximately 15,000 BC.\n",
"In prehistoric times, Korean knots were used solely for practical purposes. They were tied around the waist and used to carry stone-axes, swords, and other tools used for hunting and food. Tools from the Stone Age exhibit holes where thread was looped through and then knotted. Similar evidence is found in relics of the Bronze Age. The knots were strengthened by twisting or weaving multiple strings.\n",
"The Indian rope trick is a magic trick said to have been performed in and around India during the 19th century. Sometimes described as \"the world’s greatest illusion\", it reputedly involved a magician, a length of rope, and one or more boy assistants.\n",
"During the period of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, people began to see aesthetic value in knots and started to use them as decorations on clothes, swords, and more. The Samguk Sagi, the oldest extant record of Korean history, describes knot usage in everyday life during the Silla dynasty, noting rulers enjoyed using knots to adorn horses.\n"
] |
what would happen if our solar system simply moved to another location?
|
Well, the entire solar system is moving at a fairly rapid clip through the galaxy; 7 km/sec, actually. So we move that distance about every 430 million years.
Unless there is something else where point B is (objects like another stellar system, stellar remnant, large planetary body), or it is in a different place in the galaxy (core, arm, void, halo, or outside it entirely), then very little should be different from an every day perspective.
|
[
"Thus, relative isolation is ultimately what a life-bearing system needs. If the Sun were crowded amongst other systems, the chance of being fatally close to dangerous radiation sources would increase significantly. Further, close neighbors might disrupt the stability of various orbiting bodies such as Oort cloud and Kuiper belt objects, which can bring catastrophe if knocked into the inner Solar System.\n",
"The migration of planets can lead to planets being captured in resonances and chains of resonances if their orbits converge. The orbits of the planets can converge if the migration of the inner planet is halted at the inner edge of the gas disk, resulting in a systems of tightly orbiting inner planets; or if migration is halted in a convergence zone where the torques driving Type I migration cancel, for example near the ice line, in a chain of more distant planets.\n",
"Astronomer Mike Brown notes that if this object's orbit were as described, it would only have remained in the Solar System for about a million years before Jupiter expelled it, and, even if such a planet existed, its magnetic field would have no effect on Earth's. Lieder's assertions that the approach of Nibiru would cause the Earth's rotation to stop or its axis to shift violate the laws of physics. In his rebuttal of Immanuel Velikovsky's \"Worlds in Collision\", which made the same claim that the Earth's rotation could be stopped and then restarted, Carl Sagan noted that, \"the energy required to brake the Earth is not enough to melt it, although it would result in a noticeable increase in temperature: The oceans would [be] raised to the boiling point of water ... [Also,] how does the Earth get started up again, rotating at approximately the same rate of spin? The Earth cannot do it by itself, because of the law of the conservation of angular momentum.\"\n",
"By this time, the collision of the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies should be underway. Although this could result in the Solar System being ejected from the newly combined galaxy, it is considered unlikely to have any adverse effect on the Sun or its planets.\n",
"These objects are \"leaving\" the Solar System because their velocity and direction are taking them away from the Sun, and at their distance from the Sun, its gravitational pull is not sufficient to pull these objects back or into orbit. They are not impervious to the gravitational pull of the Sun and are being slowed down, but they have enough velocity to coast into interstellar space, i.e. retaining sufficient escape velocity to leave the Solar System.\n",
"If Jupiter's core formed close to the Sun, its outward migration across the inner Solar System could have pushed material outward in its resonances, leaving the region inside Venus's orbit depleted. In a protoplanetary disk that was evolving via a disk wind, planetary embryos could have migrated outward before merging to form planets, leaving the Solar System without planets inside Mercury's orbit. An early generation of inner planets could have been lost due to catastrophic collisions during an instability, resulting in the debris being ground small enough to be lost due to Poynting-Robertson drag. If planetesimal formation only occurred early, the inner edge of the planetesimal disk might have been located at the silicate condensation line at this time. The formation of planetesimals closer than Mercury's orbit may have required that the magnetic field of the star be aligned with the rotation of the disk, enabling the depletion of the gas so that solid to gas ratios reached values sufficient for streaming instabilities to occur. The formation of super-Earths may require a higher flux of inward drifting pebbles than occurred in the early Solar System.\n",
"The Solar System is stable in human terms, and far beyond, given that it is unlikely any of the planets will collide with each other or be ejected from the system in the next few billion years, and the Earth's orbit will be relatively stable.\n"
] |
In Ancient Rome how difficult was it communicating with new tribes/kingdoms that spoke different languages? Would it take weeks, months or years to be able to understand each other enough to conduct trade, form alliances or negotiate peace?
|
I can only speak for the Roman Empire - and fortunately (since I answered a similar question last week) I can copy and paste an earlier reply:
In the eastern provinces, where knowledge of Greek was widespread, Roman generals and their staffs (who, as members of the elite, were usually conversant in Greek) had no problems. In the west, the Romans typically relied on bilingual locals.
During his conquest of Gaul, Caesar seems to have had a staff of interpreters (probably from Cisalpine Gaul), whom he supplemented with Romanized local notables:
"Therefore, before attempting anything in the matter, Caesar ordered Diviciacus to be summoned to his quarters, and, having removed the regular interpreters, conversed with him through the mouth of Gaius Valerius Procillus, a leading man in the Province of Gaul and his own intimate friend, in whom he had the utmost confidence upon all matters." (*BG* 1.19)
Procillus (who may have been the son of a Gallic chieftain) is representative of the class of men who tended to spring up on the margins of the Roman Empire. A complex array of sociopolitical motives encouraged local potentates on both sides of the border to learn Latin, or have their sons learn it. Sometimes, the process was actively encouraged by Rome, most famously by the general Agricola in Britain:
"\[Agricola\] likewise provided a liberal education for the sons of the chiefs, and showed such a preference for the natural powers of the Britons over the industry of the Gauls that they who lately disdained the tongue of Rome now coveted its eloquence. " (Tacitus, *Agricola* 21)
(Tacitus' reference to the "industry of Gauls" refers to the schools of Latin rhetoric already widespread in Gaul a century after Caesar's conquest. )
More generally, however, locals learned Latin on their own initiative, even beyond the Roman border. In the imperial era, the existence of large permanent garrisons on the frontiers created a thriving economic zone that drew in local populations on both sides of the border - and encouraged them to learn Latin, if only to profit from the legions. Extensive recruitment of auxiliaries from beyond the frontiers, likewise, spread a working knowledge of Latin far beyond the border zone.
When the Romans expanded into new territory, in short, they usually found locals fluent in their language already there.
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[
"The entire process was facilitated by the Indo-European origin of most of the languages and by the similarity of the gods of many ancient cultures. They also already had had trade relations and contacts with one another through the seafaring Mediterranean cultures like the Phoenicians and the Greeks.\n",
"The state communications in the Neo-Assyrian Empire allowed the Assyrian king and his officials to send and receive messages across the empire quickly and reliably. Messages were sent using a relay system (Assyrian: \"kalliu\") which was revolutionary for the early first millennium BCE. Messages were carried by military riders who travelled on mules. At intervals the riders stopped at purpose-built stations, and the messages were passed to other riders with fresh mounts. The stations were positioned at regular intervals along the imperial highway system. Because messages could be transmitted without delay or waiting for riders to rest the system provided unprecedented communication speed, which was not surpassed in the Middle East until the introduction of the telegraph.\n",
"The years 343 - 290 BC were dominated by a series of conflicts between Rome and the Samnites, a powerful coalition of Oscan-speaking peoples. Rome and the Samnites had concluded a treaty of alliance in 354 BC, but overlapping spheres of interest eventually brought them to war.\n",
"The system introduced by the Assyrians were adopted by later empires. The existing Assyrian network was considerably expanded by the Persian Empire. The system was also the basis of the nineteenth century Pony Express in the United States. The use of relays of anonymous messengersinstead of a trusted envoy who must travel the entire distancewas a practice that the Assyrians introduced and remains the basis of today's postal systems.\n",
"Because communication in ancient society was predominantly oral, it can be difficult to determine the extent to which regional or local languages continued to be spoken or used for other purposes under Roman rule. Some evidence exists in inscriptions, or in references in Greek and Roman texts to other languages and the need for interpreters. For Punic, Coptic, and Aramaic or Syriac, a significant amount of epigraphy or literature survives. The Celtic languages were widespread throughout much of western Europe, and while the orality of Celtic education left scant written records, Celtic epigraphy is limited in quantity but not rare. The Germanic languages of the Empire have left next to no inscriptions or texts, with the exception of Gothic. Multilingualism contributed to the \"cultural triangulation\" by means of which an individual who was neither Greek nor Roman might construct an identity through the processes of Romanization and Hellenization.\n",
"The Ancient Greek language would have become an important external influence on Illyrian-speakers who occupied lands adjacent to ancient Greek colonies, mainly on the Adriatic coast. The Taulantii and the Bylliones had, according to Strabo, become bilingual. Invading Celts who settled on lands occupied by Illyrians brought the Illyrians into contact with the Celtic languages and some tribes were Celticized especially those in Dalmatia and the Pannoni. Intensive contact may have happened in what is now Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia. Due to this intensive contact, and because of conflicting classical sources, it is unclear whether some ancient tribes were Illyrian or Celtic (ex: Scordisci) or mixed in varying degree. Thracians and Paeonians also occupied lands populated by Illyrians, bringing Illyrians into contact with the Thracian language and Paeonian language. Certainly, no serious linguistic study of Illyrian language could be made without the inclusion of Latin, in addition to ancient Greek, Thracian and Celtic languages, as the peoples that spoke those languages were recorded by both ancient and modern historians to have lived in lands inhabited by Illyrians at one period of time in history or another. Last, but certainly not least, any comprehensive study of Illyrian language must take into account the Indo-European glossary.\n",
"The Ancients' language is a precursor of Latin, but it is still distinct. There are many similarities between the two languages, and someone with a decent knowledge of Latin may, given time and practice, be able to understand Ancient as well. The Ancient language and writing system is also used by the Ori and their followers, who share the same ancestry. Since the Wraiths were created by the Iratus bug absorbing Ancient DNA, the Wraiths' language seems to be a derivative of the Ancient language, and the two use the same writing system. The Wraiths' language is therefore relatively easy to translate by experienced Ancient speakers.\n"
] |
What can you tell us about the formation of national identities?
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[Imagined Communities](_URL_0_), you can start there.
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[
"National identity can be thought as a collective product. Through socialization, a system of beliefs, values, assumptions and expectations is transmitted to group members. The collective elements of national identity may include national symbols, traditions, and memories of national experiences and achievements. These collective elements are rooted in the nation's history. Depending on how much the individual is exposed to the socialization of this system, people incorporate national identity to their personal identity to different degrees and in different ways, and the collective elements of national identity may become important parts of individual's definition of the self and how they view the world and their own place in it.\n",
"National identity requires the process of self-categorization and it involves both the identification of in-group (identifying with one's nation), and differentiation of out-groups (other nations). By recognizing commonalities such as having common descent and common destiny, people identify with a nation and form an in-group, and at the same time they view people that identify with a different nation as out-groups. Social identity theory suggests a positive relationship between identification of a nation and derogation of other nations. By identifying with one's nation, people involve in intergroup comparisons, and tend to derogate out-groups. However, several studies have investigated this relationship between national identity and derogating other countries, and found that identifying with national identity does not necessarily result in out-group derogation.\n",
"According to Hazony, national identity is based not on race or biological homogeneity, but on \"bonds of mutual loyalty\" to a shared culture and a shared history that bind diverse groups into a national unit. Hazony argues that the social cohesion enabled by a nation-state where a common language and history are shared by the majority of the population can produce a level of trust that enables the production of social and moral goods, such as civil and political liberties.\n",
"The role of national identification in mental structure or psychological role of national identity emanates from the ideology of identity formation, which in other cases, is referred to as individuation. Therefore, individuation is the development of dissimilar temperament of a person, which constitutes to a continuous entity and how a person is known or recognized. Thus, national identification is both a philosophical and ethical concept. It is where all citizens are alienated into nations delimited by specific geographical boundaries, thus sharing same social, cultural and political ideology. Members of a specific nation forming national identity share collective identity.\n",
"National identity is an ethical and philosophical concept whereby all humans are divided into groups called nations. Members of a \"nation\" share a common identity, and usually a common origin, in the sense of ancestry, parentage or descent.\n",
"Identity formation, also known as individuation, is the development of the distinct personality of an individual regarded as a persisting entity (known as personal continuity) in a particular stage of life in which individual characteristics are possessed and by which a person is recognized or known (such as the establishment of a reputation). This process defines individuals to others and themselves. Pieces of the person's actual identity include a sense of continuity, a sense of uniqueness from others, and a sense of affiliation. Identity formation leads to a number of issues of personal identity and an identity where the individual has some sort of comprehension of themselves as a discrete and separate entity. This may be through individuation whereby the undifferentiated individual tends to become unique, or undergoes stages through which differentiated facets of a person's life tend toward becoming a more indivisible whole.\n",
"National identity is not an inborn trait and it is essentially socially constructed. A person's national identity results directly from the presence of elements from the \"common points\" in people's daily lives: national symbols, language, colors, nation's history, blood ties, culture, music, cuisine, radio, television, and so on. Under various social influences, people incorporate national identity into their personal identities by adopting beliefs, values, assumptions and expectations which align with one's national identity. People with identification of their nation view national beliefs and values as personally meaningful, and translate these beliefs and values into daily practices.\n"
] |
what is epistemology and ontology?
|
Epistemology asks the question "What is knowledge?"
Ontology asks the question "What is existence?"
|
[
"Epistemology – philosophy of knowledge. It is the study of knowledge and justified belief. It questions what knowledge is and how it can be acquired, and the extent to which knowledge pertinent to any given subject or entity can be acquired. Much of the debate in this field has focused on the philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and how it relates to connected notions such as truth, belief, and justification.\n",
"Epistemology (from Greek ἐπιστήμη – \"episteme\"-, \"knowledge, science\" and λόγος, \"logos\") or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope (limitations) of knowledge. It addresses the questions \"What is knowledge?\", \"How is knowledge acquired?\", \"What do people know?\", \"How do we know what we know?\", and \"Why do we know what we know?\". Much of the debate in this field has focused on analyzing the nature of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions such as truth, belief, and justification. It also deals with the means of production of knowledge, as well as skepticism about different knowledge claims.\n",
"Epistemology or theory of knowledge – branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. The term was introduced into English by the Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier (1808–1864). Epistemology asks the questions: \"What is knowledge?\", \"How is knowledge acquired?\", and \"What do people know?\"\n",
"The role of epistemology is to show the history of the (scientific) production of concepts; those concepts are not just theoretical propositions: they are simultaneously abstract and concrete, pervading technical and pedagogical activity. This explains why \"The electric bulb is an object of scientific thought… an example of an abstract-concrete object.\" To understand the way it works, one has to take the detour of scientific knowledge. Epistemology is thus not a general philosophy that aims at justifying scientific reasoning. Instead it produces regional histories of science.\n",
"BULLET::::- Epistemology: (from the Greek words \"episteme\" (knowledge) and \"logos\" (word/speech)) The branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin and scope of knowledge. Historically, it has been one of the most investigated and most debated of all philosophical subjects. Much of this debate has focused on analysing the nature and variety of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions such as truth and belief. Much of this discussion concerns the justification of knowledge claims, that is the grounds on which one can claim to know a particular fact.\n",
"Epistemology is the study of the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief. Much debate in epistemology centers on four areas: (1) the philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and how it relates to such concepts as truth, belief, and justification, (2) various problems of skepticism, (3) the sources and scope of knowledge and justified belief, and (4) the criteria for knowledge and justification. Epistemology addresses such questions as: \"What makes justified beliefs justified?\", \"What does it mean to say that we know something?\", and fundamentally \"How do we know that we know?\"\n",
"Epistemology is the study of knowledge (Greek episteme). Epistemologists study the putative sources of knowledge, including intuition, a priori reason, memory, perceptual knowledge, self-knowledge and testimony. They also ask: What is truth? Is knowledge justified true belief? Are any beliefs justified? Putative knowledge includes propositional knowledge (knowledge that something is the case), know-how (knowledge of how to do something) and acquaintance (familiarity with someone or something). Epistemologists examine these and ask whether knowledge is really possible.\n"
] |
why is it, when i hear a song i havn't heard in years, i can feel like i'm in the same mood and state of mind from when last i heard it.
|
I know exactly what you are talking about. And one reason that this might happen is due to classical conditioning. Have you heard of Pavlov and his dogs? A biologist, I believe, discovered that his [dogs salivated whenever he rung a bell](_URL_1_). Pavlov would ring a bell, wait for a bit, and then feed his dogs. After a few tries, the dogs would salivate at the sound of the bell because they subconsciously expect their meal.
This is the very basic form of conditioning. The same thing can happen with music. Whenever you listened to a song (*unconditioned stimulus*) in high school, for example, you were probably also doing something at the same time whether it was reading a book, falling asleep, thinking about your current problems and situations in life, etc. Your brain associates those feelings/thoughts/experiences with whatever stimulus (in this case a song) was happening at the same time. This is called **acquisition.**
There is also the topic of **extinction** in classical conditioning. Without going into a lot of detail, if the stimulus stops being repeated over time, the connection will weaken. However, the connection has a high chance of spontaneously being made again. That is called **spontaneous recovery.** [This graph](_URL_0_) shows you what happens in the case with Pavlov and his dogs. As the graph shows, the dogs produced increasing amounts of saliva during **acquisition** for each time they were fed after the bell was rung. During **extinction,** the dogs still expected the food even though the bell was rung. But when no food was given to them, they quickly lost that connection as shown by the decrease in saliva production. After a while, the connection would return again for a short time (like when you listen to the song again after a few years) and the conditioned response (in this case the thoughts and feelings you had back then) would return. But if you were to continue to listen to the song without thinking of those thoughts you had before, your mind will slowly break that connection.
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[
"Sometimes you know something's coming. You can feel it. In the air. In your gut. And you don't sleep at night. The voice in your head is telling you that something is going to go terribly wrong and there's nothing you can do to stop it. That's how I felt when my brother came home.\n",
"I remember that day, even though it makes me sad thinking of it or when I'm questioned about it. I remember that night, well, that afternoon when I called Janko [Lehotský], I mean by phone, that I didn't feel well and [I] didn't want to go to the concert, if there's something [he] could do about it. Of course there wasn't, there was a concert in Brno, so we went. It was very bad weather, I can remember that. But after the concert, there was so much sadness in the dressing room, because then, well, Meky [Žbirka] announced, I mean, that he's done with Janko and is leaving with Laco [Lučenič] to make a solo band. And I, actually, didn't know who I belonged to. It was a very sad moment ... point in time. Well then, Janko didn't make a comment on anything and I, I didn't know, I mean, whether I'm staying with Janko or whom in fact. And that's how we actually split up, said good-byes and went home. And well then, what happened just happened. That's how I recall it. I don't know, guys, if they want to have their say. I see it like this.\n",
"\"I had just gone through an experience that made me write this song about like knowing the second you see someone like, 'Oh, this is going to be interesting. It's going to be dangerous, but look at me going in there anyway... I think that for me, it was the first time I ever kind of noticed that in myself, like when you are curious about something you know might be bad for you, but you know that you are going to go for it anyway because if you don't, you'll have greater regrets about not seeing where that would go, but I think that for me it all went along with this record that was pushing boundaries, like the sound of this record pushes boundaries, it was writing about something I hadn't written before.\"\n",
"In \"Déjà pensé\", a completely new thought sounds familiar to the person and he feels as he has thought the same thing before at some time.This feeling can be caused by seizures which occur in certain parts of the temporal lobe and possibly other areas of the brain as well.\n",
"\"I just felt like, [when] being gone for such a long time, you need to come back with something strong and shock people. Make them go, 'Wow, who is that? Oh my God, that's Brandy? I didn't' even know she can sound like that. Didn't know she would do a song like that?' Because It's completely different than anything I've ever done.\"\n",
"Yeah. He's heard this song. He's only seen us play once, and I played this song for him when we were in this club opening for Iggy Pop. I'll never forget it. He was standing in the back and he heard all the words and stuff. Of course, I was never in Vietnam and he won't talk about it, but when I wrote this it felt right...like these were things he might have felt or thought. And I remember when we played it he was back by the soundboard and I could see him. He was back there with his big gray Stetson and his cowboy boots — he's a total Oklahoma man — and at the end, he took his hat off and just held it in the air. And he was crying the whole time. This song means a lot to me. A lot.\n",
"He later clarified, \"I want every night to feel like those people saw something that only happened that night [...] I've been on stage a lot over my life and I probably feel more at home there than anywhere.\"\n"
] |
when a fly comes into my house, is it happy to be there or would it rather be outside in its "natural" environment?
|
Insects are attracted to light. The fly doesn't doesn't know it's inside your house because it doesn't have the concept of indoors/outdoors. Just light. If you closed all your windows, turned off the lights, and left the door open, the fly will happily let itself out. And put away your food.
|
[
"Their flight is delicate and they have a circling flight to avoid walls when they are trapped indoors. The long streamer is conspicuous when the insects are flying and these are the elongated and spatulate hindwings.\n",
"The lesser house fly or little house fly, Fannia canicularis, is somewhat smaller () than the common housefly. It is best known for its habit of entering buildings and circling near the center of rooms. It is slender, and the median vein in the wing is straight. Larvae feed on all manner of decaying organic matter, including carrion. Among the Fanniidae, this species is the one most frequently associated with myiasis.\n",
"The habitat of the fly is generally hardwood forest. It is nocturnal, resting during the day in dark, humid spots such as holes in trees or animal burrows. Oviposition and larval development take place in similar spots, often in crevices filled with organic debris. In the United States it is common in the hollows of tree species such as laurel oak (\"Quercus laurifolia\") and southern live oak (\"Q. virginiana\").\n",
"Disadvantages of flies include that a person is still exposed to the elements such as mosquitoes and cold weather and that it can be difficult to put a fly up if there are limited natural vertical structures such as trees in the camping area. Flies, however, can be put up using poles or jury-rigged, for example, using paddles.\n",
"They are not strong flyers and will fly distances only at night, presumably to avoid predators. They tend not to leave their home base if there is sufficient food. If disturbed they will dive and re-surface 10–15 metres away rather than fly.\n",
"The housefly is a very common and cosmopolitan species which transmits diseases to man. The organisms of both amoebic and bacillary dysenteries are picked up by flies from the faeces of infected people and transferred to clean food either on the fly's hairs or by the fly vomiting during feeding. Typhoid germs may be deposited on food with the fly's faeces. The house fly cause the spread of yaws germs by carrying them from a yaws ulcer to an ordinary sore. Houseflies also transmit poliomyelitis by carrying the virus from infected faeces to food or drink. Cholera and hepatitis are sometimes fly-borne. Other diseases carried by houseflies are Salmonella, tuberculosis, anthrax, and some forms of ophthalmia. They carry over 100 pathogens and transmit some parasitic worms. The flies in poorer and lower-hygiene areas usually carry more pathogens. Some strains have become immune to most common insecticides.\n",
"Flies are a nuisance, disturbing people at leisure and at work, but they are disliked principally because of their habits of contaminating foodstuffs. They alternate between breeding and feeding in dirty places with feeding on human foods, during which process they soften the food with saliva and deposit their faeces, creating a health hazard. However, fly larvae are as nutritious as fish meal, and could be used to convert waste to feed for fish and livestock.\n"
] |
how do bus stop buttons work?
|
Could it be that you had a button that never actually worked because they forgot to wire it up? :)
|
[
"Elevators often have a red two-way button on the control panel which is either marked \"Emergency Stop\" or \"Run/Stop\". Normally, the button is in the \"up\" or unpushed position, allowing the elevator to \"run\" in normal service. When the button is pushed, the elevator comes to an immediate stop. When the button is pulled back out, it resumes normal service, thus the reason for the use of the phrase \"Run/Stop\". Escalators will typically have a key-operated control that will turn the escalator off, or change its direction to up or down. Next to the key switch will be a red \"Emergency Stop\" button, which is used in the event of equipment failure, or where there is a potential for injury, such as when someone's shoe gets stuck in the \"comb\" at the top or bottom of the escalator and there is a risk of serious injury. The key switch is used to return the escalator to service after it has been stopped.\n",
"Sometimes, call buttons work only at some intersections, at certain times of day, or certain periods of the year, such as in New York City or in Boston, Massachusetts. In Boston, some busy intersections are programmed to give a pedestrian cycle during certain times of day (so pushing the button is not necessary) but at off-peak times a button push is required to get a pedestrian cycle. In neighboring Cambridge, a button press is always required if a button is available, though the city prefers to build signals where no button is present and the pedestrian cycle always happens between short car cycles. In both cases the light will not turn immediately, but will wait until the next available pedestrian slot in a pre-determined rotation.\n",
"Reports suggest that many walk buttons in some areas, such as New York City and the United Kingdom, may actually be either placebo buttons or nonworking call buttons that used to function correctly. In the former case, these buttons are designed to give pedestrians an illusion of control while the crossing signal continues its operation as programmed. However, in instances of the latter case, such as New York City's, the buttons were simply deactivated when traffic signals were updated to automatically include pedestrian phases as part of every signal cycle. In such instances these buttons may be removed during future updates to the pedestrian signals. In the United Kingdom, pressing a button at a standalone pedestrian crossing that is unconnected to a junction will turn a traffic light red immediately, but this is not necessarily the case at a junction.\n",
"Elevators have a car top inspection station that allows the car to be operated by a mechanic in order to move it through the hoistway. Generally, there are three buttons: UP, RUN, and DOWN. Both the RUN and a direction button must be held to move the car in that direction, and the elevator will stop moving as soon as the buttons are released. Most other elevators have an up/down toggle switch and a RUN button. The inspection panel also has standard power outlets for work lamps and powered tools.\n",
"Call buttons are installed at traffic lights with a dedicated pedestrian signal, and are used to bring up the pedestrian \"walk\" indication in locations where they function correctly. In the majority of locations where call buttons are installed, pushing the button does not light up the pedestrian walk sign immediately. One Portland State University researcher notes of call buttons in the US, \"Most [call] buttons don’t provide any feedback to the pedestrian that the traffic signal has received the input. It may appear at many locations that nothing happens.\" However, there are some locations where call buttons do provide confirmation feedback. At such locations, pedestrians are more likely to wait for the \"walk\" indications.\n",
"A pivoting arm equipped with a stop sign is a piece of equipment required by law on North American school buses. The sign normally stows flat on the left side of the bus, and is deployed by the driver while picking up or dropping off passengers. Some buses have two such stop arms, one near the front facing forwards, and one near the rear facing backwards. The stop sign is retroreflective and equipped either with red blinking lights above and below the legend or with a legend that is illuminated by LEDs. Unlike a normal stop sign, this sign requires other vehicles travelling in both directions to remain stopped until the sign is retracted.\n",
"Some transit buses, such as those in New York, have had, since at least the 1950s, turn signals activated by floor-mounted momentary-contact footswitches on the floor near the driver's left foot (on left-hand drive buses). The foot-activated signals allow bus drivers to keep both hands on the steering wheel while watching the road and scanning for passengers as they approach a bus stop. New York City Transit bus drivers, among others, are trained to step continuously on the right directional switch while servicing a bus stop, to signal other road users they are intentionally dwelling at the stop, allowing following buses to skip that stop. This method of signalling requires no special arrangements for self-cancellation or passing.\n"
] |
The extent of the roman empires trading influence.
|
We do know that Roman coins and Indian goods have been found in South India and Rome respectively.
Indian traders used to trade till Egypt directly and Roman traders would take over from there and this process worked in the reverse.
Indian export guilds actively traded in Indian luxuries AND Wootz Steel with Egypt, Rome and China to the east.
|
[
"Trade in the early Roman Empire allowed Rome to become as vast and great as it did. Emperor Augustus, despite his intense public and private spending, took control of trade from the government and expanded Roman influence by opening new trading markets in overseas areas such as Britain, Germany, and Africa. Rome dominated trade and influence over the world in the age of the Roman Empire but could not advance in their industrial and manufacturing processes. This ultimately threatened the expanding trading and commerce industries that Augustus brought about, as well as the strong standing of the Empire in the eyes of the Romans and the world.\n",
"Trade between different nations was an integral reason for travel. During the Roman Empire, trade was conducted with nations as disparate as China, India, and Tanzania. Generally, Roman and Chinese traders exchanged statues and other processed goods in exchange for Chinese silk. Trade in the city of Rome was focused around providing food for the city's massive population; as such, the trade of grain and other foods was subsidized by the government. Grain was brought into the city from all around empire: Egypt, Spain, Sardinia, and Sicily were all sources for the city.\n",
"Soon after the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE, regular communications and trade between China, Southeast Asia, India, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe blossomed on an unprecedented scale. The Roman Empire inherited eastern trade routes that were part of the Silk Road from the earlier Hellenistic powers and the Arabs. With control of these trade routes, citizens of the Roman Empire received new luxuries and greater prosperity for the Empire as a whole. The Roman-style glassware discovered in the archeological sites of Gyeongju, capital of the Silla kingdom (Korea) showed that Roman artifacts were traded as far as the Korean peninsula. The Greco-Roman trade with India started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE continued to increase, and according to Strabo (II.5.12), by the time of Augustus, up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos in Roman Egypt to India. The Roman Empire connected with the Central Asian Silk Road through their ports in Barygaza (known today as Bharuch ) and Barbaricum (known today as the city of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan ) and continued along the western coast of India. An ancient \"travel guide\" to this Indian Ocean trade route was the Greek Periplus of the Erythraean Sea written in 60 CE.\n",
"Rome played an important part in the Eastern oriental trade of antiquity, they imported many goods from India and at the same time set up their own trading stations in the country. According to Cobb, trading through land routes such as crossing the Arabian Peninsula and Mesopotamia, and through seaborne trade from the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean were used by the Romans.\n",
"After Rome's expansion during the First Punic War (263-241 BC), Roman imperialism around the Mediterranean Sea saw the beginnings of economic exploitations of newly formed provinces. This naval activity increased throughout the third century. The passage of the \"lex Claudia\", designed to restrict shipping, is indicative of this increased naval activity. For if there was no naval merchant activity, there would have been no need for such a law. The development of coinage and credit systems as well as the advancement in communication through roads, rivers and harbours, meant that long-distance trade became a significant aspect of the empire's economy. Imported goods included food, slaves, metals and luxury goods, while exports consisted largely of pottery, gold and silver. Rome's commercial interests were further expanded after Sicily and Sardinia become a province at the end of the First Punic War. Commercial ships were expensive and costly to maintain, meaning that only members of the upper classes (senators and equestrians) were able to invest in long-distance shipping. However, it should be noted that little is definitively known concerning the exact circumstances that led to the creation of the \"lex Claudia.\"\n",
"From the beginning of Greek civilization until the fall of the Roman empire in the 5th century, a financially lucrative trade brought valuable spice to Europe from the far east, including India and China. Roman commerce allowed its empire to flourish and endure. The latter Roman Republic and the Pax Romana of the Roman empire produced a stable and secure transportation network that enabled the shipment of trade goods without fear of significant piracy, as Rome had become the sole effective sea power in the Mediterranean with the conquest of Egypt and the near east.\n",
"This was a condition to permanent trade relations during the rise of Rome. It was during the 2nd century BC that the Roman praetors started using this principle, as commerce grew in the Mediterranean sea.\n"
] |
why was samsung sued by apple for ui patent infringements when they use a google ui?
|
They heavily modify the UI. They use googles underlying operating system, but install touch wiz on top of it, which changes many of the behaviors.
|
[
"Apple initially sued Samsung on grounds of patent infringement, specifically European patents 2.059.868, 2.098.948, and 1.964.022. On the 24th of October, 2011, a court in the Hague ruled only a photo gallery app in Android 2.3 was indeed infringing a patent (EP 2.059.868), resulting in an import ban of three Samsung telephones (the Galaxy S, Galaxy S II, and Ace) running the infringing software. Phones operating more recent versions of Android remained unaffected. This made the import and sale of the banned phone models with updated software still legal. This ruling was widely interpreted as a favourable one for Samsung, and an appeal by Apple may still be forthcoming.\n",
"Xerox did go to trial to protect the Star user interface. In 1989, after Apple sued Microsoft for copyright infringement of its Macintosh user interface in Windows, Xerox filed a similar lawsuit against Apple. However, this suit was thrown out on procedural grounds, not substantive, because a three-year statute of limitations had passed. In 1994, Apple lost its suit against Microsoft, not only the issues originally contested, but all claims to the user interface.\n",
"In late October 2011, the civil court in The Hague ruled for Apple in rejecting Samsung's infringement arguments and denied Samsung's motion made there; Samsung appealed the decision and in January 2012, the Dutch appeals court overruled the civil court decision, rejecting Apple's claim that Samsung's Galaxy Tab 10.1 infringed its design rights.\n",
"Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corporation, 35 F.3d 1435 (9th Cir. 1994), was a copyright infringement lawsuit in which Apple Computer, Inc. (now Apple Inc.) sought to prevent Microsoft and Hewlett-Packard from using visual graphical user interface (GUI) elements that were similar to those in Apple's Lisa and Macintosh operating systems. The court ruled that, \"Apple cannot get patent-like protection for the idea of a graphical user interface, or the idea of a desktop metaphor [under copyright law]...\". In the midst of the \"Apple v. Microsoft\" lawsuit, Xerox also sued Apple alleging that Mac's GUI was heavily based on Xerox's. The district court dismissed Xerox's claims without addressing whether Apple's GUI infringed Xerox's. Apple lost all claims in the \"Microsoft\" suit except for the ruling that the trash can icon and folder icons from Hewlett-Packard's NewWave windows application were infringing. The lawsuit was filed in 1988 and lasted four years; the decision was affirmed on appeal in 1994, and Apple's appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court was denied.\n",
"The court ruled that Samsung violated one of Apple's utility patents, over the so-called \"bounce-back\" effect in iOS, and that Apple was in violation of two of Samsung's wireless patents. Apple's claims that Samsung copied the designs of the iPhone and iPad were deemed invalid. The court also ruled that there was \"no possibility\" that consumers would confuse the smartphones of the two brands, and that Samsung's smartphone icons did not infringe upon Apple's patents.\n",
"On March 17, 1988, Apple Inc. filed a lawsuit against Microsoft and Hewlett-Packard, accusing them of violating copyrights Apple held on the Macintosh System Software. Apple claimed the \"look and feel\" of the Macintosh operating system, taken as a whole, was protected by copyright and that Windows 2.0 violated this copyright by having the same icons. The judge ruled in favor of Hewlett-Packard and Microsoft on all but 10 of the 189 graphical user interface elements that Apple sued on, and the court found the remaining 10 GUI elements could not be copyrighted.\n",
"On September 9, 2011, the German court ruled in favor of Apple, with a sales ban on the Galaxy Tab 10.1. The court found that Samsung had infringed Apple's patents. Presiding judge Johanna Brueckner-Hofmann said there was a \"clear impression of similarity\". Samsung would appeal the decision.\n"
] |
You hear often that is space you lose muscle mass because of atrophy from the 0 gravity. Is it actually possible to GAIN mass with enough exercise or is it always a losing battle?
|
I mean, you can work out and gain mass, but the statement about muscle is taking into account that you follow the same routine as in earth and were stabilized on not gainong/losing muscle.
What it means is that since you don't make work against gravity to walk, move things, etc. Doing the same workout with the same diet you would lose muscle, as you are doing less force and consequently your muscles are doing less work so they aren't as needed, so they reduce mass.
|
[
"In the first two weeks that the muscles are unloaded from carrying the weight of the human frame during space flight, whole muscle atrophy begins. Postural muscles contain more slow fibers, and are more prone to atrophy than non-postural muscle groups. The loss of muscle mass occurs because of imbalances in protein synthesis and breakdown. The loss of muscle mass is also accompanied by a loss of muscle strength, which was observed after only 2–5 days of spaceflight during the Soyuz-3 and Soyuz-8 missions. Decreases in the generation of contractile forces and whole muscle power have also been found in response to microgravity.\n",
"In humans, prolonged periods of immobilization, as in the cases of bed rest or astronauts flying in space, are known to result in muscle weakening and atrophy. Atrophy is of particular interest to the manned spaceflight community, because the weightlessness experienced in spaceflight results is a loss of as much as 30% of mass in some muscles. Such consequences are also noted in small hibernating mammals like the golden-mantled ground squirrels and brown bats.\n",
"The International Space Station developed exercise equipment, including treadmills and resistance devices to limit muscle atrophy in a low gravity environment. Weightlessness causes body fluids in astronauts to accumulate in the upper half of the body, leading to facial edema and unwelcome side effects. One problem may be the low gravity affecting the body in unforeseen ways and it can be hard detect the cause and effect of gravity on the body. Space seems to cause trouble for a number of body parts including bone, sometimes the eyes, and a classic problem is space sickness.\n",
"\"Disuse atrophy\" of muscles and bones, with loss of mass and strength, can occur after prolonged immobility, such as extended bedrest, or having a body part in a cast (living in darkness for the eye, bedridden for the legs etc.). This type of atrophy can usually be reversed with exercise unless severe. Astronauts in microgravity must exercise regularly to minimize atrophy of their limb muscles.\n",
"Adaptation to weightlessness involves not just the Sensory-motor coupling functions, but some autonomic nervous system functions as well. Sleep disorders and orthostatic intolerance are also common during and after spaceflight. There is no hydrostatic pressure in a weightless environment. As a result, the redistribution of body fluids toward the upper body causes a decrease in leg volume, which may affect muscle viscosity and compliance. An increase in intracranial pressure may also be responsible for a decrease in near visual acuity. In addition, muscle mass and strength both decrease as a result of the reduced loading in weightlessness. Moreover, approximately 70% of astronauts experience space motion sickness to some degree during the first days. The drugs commonly used to combat motion sickness, such as scopolamine and promethazine, have soporific effects. These factors can lead to chronic fatigue. The challenge of integrative space medicine and physiology is to investigate the adaptation of the human body to spaceflight as a whole, and not just as the sum of body parts because all body functions are connected and interact with each other.\n",
"A major effect of long-term weightlessness involves the loss of bone and muscle mass. Without the effects of gravity, skeletal muscle is no longer required to maintain posture and the muscle groups used in moving around in a weightless environment differ from those required in terrestrial locomotion. In a weightless environment, astronauts put almost no weight on the back muscles or leg muscles used for standing up. Those muscles then start to weaken and eventually get smaller. Consequently, some muscles atrophy rapidly, and without regular exercise astronauts can lose up to 20% of their muscle mass in just 5 to 11 days The types of muscle fibre prominent in muscles also change. Slow twitch endurance fibres used to maintain posture are replaced by fast twitch rapidly contracting fibres that are insufficient for any heavy labour. Advances in research on exercise, hormone supplements and medication may help maintain muscle and body mass.\n",
"The muscle volume can decrease up to 20% over a six-month mission, and the bone density can decrease at a rate of approximately 1.4% at the hip in a month's time. A study done by Fitts and Trappe examined the effects of prolonged space flight (defined as approximately 180 days) on human skeletal muscle using muscle biopsies. Prolonged weightlessness was shown to cause significant loss in the mass, force, and power production in the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles. Many countermeasures to these effects exist, but thus far they are not sufficient to compensate for the detrimental effects of space travel and astronauts need extensive rehabilitation upon their return to Earth.\n"
] |
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