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How long would it take a quantum computer (theoretically) to make as many computations as has been made in the entire history of computers?
|
Quantum computers aren't magical. They cannot perform arbitrary computations faster than classical computers can. They can solve *certain* problems faster (for example, [brute-force search](_URL_0_)). You might have gotten the wrong impression from pop science articles that claim that quantum computers somehow perform billions of simultaneous computations, etc., which is very misleading.
|
[
"In September 2012, Australian researchers at the University of New South Wales said the world's first quantum computer was just 5 to 10 years away, after announcing a global breakthrough enabling the manufacture of its memory building blocks. A research team led by Australian engineers created the first working qubit based on a single atom in silicon, invoking the same technological platform that forms the building blocks of modern-day computers.\n",
"The idea that quantum computers might be more powerful than classical computers originated in Richard Feynman's observation that classical computers seem to require exponential time to simulate many-particle quantum systems. Since then, the idea that quantum computers can simulate quantum physical processes exponentially faster than classical computers has been greatly fleshed out and elaborated. Efficient (that is, polynomial-time) quantum algorithms have been developed for simulating both Bosonic and Fermionic systems and in particular, the simulation of chemical reactions beyond the capabilities of current classical supercomputers requires only a few hundred qubits. Quantum computers can also efficiently simulate topological quantum field theories. In addition to its intrinsic interest, this result has led to efficient quantum algorithms for estimating quantum topological invariants such as Jones and HOMFLY polynomials, and the Turaev-Viro invariant of three-dimensional manifolds.\n",
"By 1971, the Illiac IV supercomputer was the fastest computer in the world, using about a quarter-million small-scale ECL logic gate integrated circuits to make up sixty-four parallel data processors.\n",
"The first quantum machine was created on August 4, 2009 by Aaron D. O'Connell while pursuing his Ph.D. under the direction of Andrew N. Cleland and John M. Martinis at the University of California, Santa Barbara. O'Connell and his colleagues coupled together a mechanical resonator, similar to a tiny springboard, and a qubit, a device that can be in a superposition of two quantum states at the same time. They were able to make the resonator vibrate a small amount and a large amount simultaneously—an effect which would be impossible in classical physics. The mechanical resonator was just large enough to see with the naked eye—about as long as the width of a human hair.\n",
"In 1994, Peter Shor, at AT&T's Bell Labs, discovered an important quantum algorithm, which allows a quantum computer to factor large integers exponentially much faster than the best known classical algorithm. Shor's algorithm can theoretically break many of the Public-key cryptography systems in use today, sparking a tremendous interest in quantum computers.\n",
"The CDC 6600, designed by Seymour Cray, was finished in 1964 and marked the transition from germanium to silicon transistors. Silicon transistors could run faster and the overheating problem was solved by introducing refrigeration to the supercomputer design. Thus the CDC6600 became the fastest computer in the world. Given that the 6600 outperformed all the other contemporary computers by about 10 times, it was dubbed a \"supercomputer\" and defined the supercomputing market, when one hundred computers were sold at $8 million each.\n",
"In 2007, a team of scientists led by Schoelkopf and Steven Girvin made a major breakthrough in quantum computing when it engineered a superconducting communication \"bus\" to store and transfer information between distant quantum bits, or qubits, on a chip. Their work is the first step to making the fundamentals of quantum computing useful. In 2009, their team demonstrated the first electronic quantum processor which could perform a quantum computation.\n"
] |
How were lances used before the invention of stirrups?
|
I'm not sure that your assumption is entirely correct (remember, the impact when hitting someone will come from in front): older books I've read, like Oman, tend to believe this, state that the development of the stirrup essentially lead to feudalism, and put a lot more significance on pictures like [this](_URL_0_) one from the Psalter of St Gall, with his stirrups and couched lance, than they probably deserve (for one thing, he's only transporting the lance). That idea is disputed now (and by the 'experimental archeology' types, fwtw) but I'll mainly just point out how pre-stirrup people depicted lance use (mostly visually, which of course has its problems, such as artists not usually being warriors). The most common pose by far is an overarm blow, which is also shown on the [Bayeux tapestry](_URL_9_) alongside couched lances. There's a certain amount of ambiguity in the tapestry, as it also shows spears being [thrown](_URL_8_), so it's not certain which is being represented, but there are [other](_URL_3_) works where the pose is clearly meant to depict an impact with the enemy. This pose is very old, and can be seen all the way back to [Assyrian](_URL_5_) art. The other common pose is underarm, with the hand at about the hip, as seen in the well-known [Alexander mosaic](_URL_2_) ([here](_URL_1_)'s a pot showing the same thing).
There was also a kind of very large lance used in antiquity, originating in the steppes before spreading to Persia, and then Europe. It was called the kontos by the Greeks ('oar' or 'barge-pole'), and it was used like one, two-handed, as seen in [this](_URL_4_) relief. This sounds rather precarious, however [Persian](_URL_7_) art [shows](_URL_10_) quite considerable impacts, which are backed up by written sources, such as Plutarch's [claim](_URL_6_) that the Parthian spear often had the impetus to pierce two men at once.
Finally, the (probably) 4th century novel 'Aethiopica' by Heliodorus describes the heavily armoured Persian cavalry attaching their lances directly to the horse, so that they only have to aim it, with the impact taken by their horse. Given that this is the only place this idea shows up, I don't find it particularly plausible.
|
[
"Stirrups were invented by steppe nomads in what is today Mongolia and northern China in the 4th century. They were introduced in Byzantium in the 6th century and in the Carolingian Empire in the 8th. They allowed a mounted knight to wield a sword and strike from a distance leading to a great advantage for mounted cavalry.\n",
"The best known usage of military lances was that of the full-gallop closed-ranks charge of a group of knights with underarm-couched lances, against lines of infantry, archery regiments, defensive embankments, and opposition cavalry. Two variants on the couched lance charge developed, the French method, \"en haie\", with lancers in a double line and the German method, with lancers drawn up in a deeper formation which was often wedge-shaped. It is commonly believed that this became the dominant European cavalry tactic in the 11th century after the development of the cantled saddle and stirrups (the Great Stirrup Controversy), and of rowel spurs (which enabled better control of the mount). Cavalry thus outfitted and deployed had a tremendous collective force in their charge, and could shatter most contemporary infantry lines. Recent evidence has suggested, however, that the lance charge was effective without the benefit of stirrups.\n",
"The lance is a pole weapon designed to be used by a mounted warrior or cavalry soldier (lancer). During the periods of classical and medieval warfare, it evolved into being the leading weapon in cavalry charges, and was unsuited for throwing or for repeated thrusting, unlike similar weapons of the javelin/pike family typically used by infantry. Lances were often equipped with a vamplate – a small circular plate to prevent the hand sliding up the shaft upon impact. Though best known as a military and sporting weapon carried by European knights, the use of lances was widespread throughout Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa wherever suitable mounts were available. As a secondary weapon, lancers of the medieval period also bore swords, axes, hammers, or maces for hand-to-hand combat, since the lance was often a one-use-per-engagement weapon; assuming the lance survived the initial impact intact, it was (depending on the lance) usually too long, heavy and slow to be effective against opponents in a melee.\n",
"An invention that made cavalry particularly effective was the stirrup. A toe loop that held the big toe was used in India possibly as early as 500 BC, and later a single stirrup was used as a mounting aid. The first set of paired stirrups appeared in China about 322 AD during the Jin Dynasty. Following the invention of paired stirrups, which allowed a rider greater leverage with weapons, as well as both increased stability and mobility while mounted, nomadic groups such as the Mongols adopted this technology and developed a decisive military advantage. By the 7th century, due primarily to invaders from Central Asia, stirrup technology spread from Asia to Europe. The Avar invaders are viewed as primarily responsible for spreading the use of the stirrup into central Europe. However, while stirrups were known in Europe in the 8th century, pictorial and literary references to their use date only from the 9th century. Widespread use in Northern Europe, including England, is credited to the Vikings, who spread the stirrup in the 9th and 10th centuries to those areas.\n",
"The mounted lancer experienced a renaissance in the 18th and especially in the 19th century. This followed on the demise of the pike and of body armor during the 17th century, with the reintroduction of lances coming from Poland and Hungary. In both countries formations of lance-armed cavalry had been retained when they disappeared elsewhere in Europe. Lancers became especially prevalent during and after the Napoleonic Wars: a period when almost all the major European powers reintroduced the lance into their respective cavalry arsenals. Formations of uhlans and later other types of cavalry used 2-3 m (6.5-10 ft) lances as their main weapons. The lance was usually employed in initial charges in close formation, with sabers being used in the melee that followed.\n",
"In Europe, a jousting lance was a variation of the knight's lance which was modified from its original war design. In jousting, the lance tips would usually be blunt, often spread out like a cup or furniture foot, to provide a wider impact surface designed to unseat the opposing rider without spearing him through. The centre of the shaft of such lances could be designed to be hollow, in order for it to break on impact, as a further safeguard against impalement. They were often at least 4m long, and had hand guards built into the lance, often tapering for a considerable portion of the weapon's length. These are the versions that can most often be seen at medieval reenactment festivals. In war, lances were much more like stout spears, long and balanced for one-handed use, and with sharpened tips.\n",
"Stirrups (\"abumi\") were used in Japan as early as the 5th century. They were flat bottomed rings of metal-covered wood, similar to European stirrups. The earliest known examples were excavated from tombs. Cup-shaped stirrups (\"tsuba abumi\") that enclosed the front half of the rider's foot eventually replaced the earlier design.\n"
] |
given the emphasis placed on the separation of the three pillars of the american government, how can the president grant pardons? is this not the executive messing with the judiciary?
|
If all that was said was "Congress makes laws; President enforces laws; Judges interpret laws," then maybe. But the President has the explicit power in the Constitution to pardon people. You might think that invades the province of the judiciary, but it's granted authority so no one has a real issue with it.
|
[
"Notwithstanding their executive power, the president cannot make treaties or appointments without the advice and consent of the Senate. Likewise, the president's pardon power is limited to offenses against the United States (federal crimes) and does not extend to impeachments or violations of state law. As treaties are by U.S. law official agreements with foreign governments recognized as such only after Senate ratification, the president obviously cannot make treaties unilaterally. However, the president does determine and decide U.S. foreign policy, and can enter into non-binding discussions and give conditional approval to agreements reached with foreign governments subject to Senate ratification at a future date.\n",
"Article II of the Constitution establishes the executive branch of the federal government. It vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The power includes the execution and enforcement of federal law, alongside the responsibility of appointing federal executive, diplomatic, regulatory and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the Senate. The president is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves, and to convene and adjourn either or both houses of Congress under extraordinary circumstances. The president directs the foreign and domestic policies of the United States, and takes an active role in promoting his policy priorities to members of Congress. In addition, as part of the system of checks and balances, of the Constitution gives the president the power to sign or veto federal legislation. The power of the presidency has grown substantially since its formation, as has the power of the federal government as a whole.\n",
"To refute the notion that the executive branch would become a monarchy, allowing the President to put a person in any office, Hamilton wrote, \"To nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of United States whose appointments are not in the Constitution otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law.\" What this statement means is that the President of the United States can only nominate members as ambassadors, public ministries and consuls, Supreme Court judges and any other member that is not directly named in the Constitution currently or that will be named in the future without first consulting the Senate and then getting the Senate's approval of his nomination.\n",
"The president, as noted above, appoints judges with the Senate's advice and consent. He also has the power to issue pardons and reprieves. Such pardons are not subject to confirmation by either the House of Representatives or the Senate, or even to acceptance by the recipient. The President is not mandated to carry out the orders of the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court does not have any enforcement power; the enforcement power lies solely with the executive branch. Thus, the executive branch can place a check on the Supreme Court through refusal to execute the orders of the court. For example, in \"Worcester v. Georgia\", President Jackson refused to execute the orders of the Supreme Court.\n",
"The Supreme Executive Power was commissioned to direct the former provinces, now Free States, to create the Federal Republic and also to call elections for a new constituent congress. The Executive had to overcome a series of political difficulties, such as the case of the Central American provinces that chose not to join Mexican Federation, and the provinces of Oaxaca, Yucatán, Jalisco and Zacatecas that declared themselves free and sovereign states. They also faced a conspiracy of supporters of Iturbide and an anti-Spanish rebellion.\n",
"Article 19 of the Federal Constitutional Law, the backbone of the constitution, empowers the National Council to enact incompatibility provisions that bar presidents, ministers, and members of provincial governments from holding positions in the private sector during their time in office. In its first sentence, Article 19 states that \"the supreme executive organs are the president, the ministers and state secretaries, and the members of the provincial governments\" (\"\").\n",
"In the 1926 case of \"Myers v. United States\", the United States Supreme Court decided that the President has the exclusive power to remove executive branch officials, and does not need the approval of the Senate or any other legislative body. The Court also wrote:\n"
] |
what do large corporation do with billions of dollars in revenue after expenses? do they spend it all on assets or can they get a bank account like people?
|
All of the above. After paying out expenses. And stockholders fees. And bonuses to management. They will invest in research and development. Donate to causes, mainly for tax write-off. Funnel money into politics through lobbyists, for power and control. They will buy smaller business, and newer technology and inventions so they can do hold the patents and collect money on that. Invest in upgrading and expanding properties that they own. And invest in accounts that will earn them money, and while they search for new acquisitions.
|
[
"The majority of company's income comes from management fees, dividends and revenue from part sales of businesses. To this day assets after loans owned by the company both directly and through its affiliates, related or associated companies are valued at nearly 120 million euros.\n",
"The company has reported annual profits since 2010. It can carry forward previous losses to reduce tax liability on future earnings. It earned $4.7 billion in 2010. The \"Wall Street Journal\" estimated the tax break, including credits for costs related to pensions and other expenses, can be worth as much as $45 billion over the next 20 years.\n",
"A company's taxable total profits are derived from a company's profit as shown in the profit and loss account in its accounts, with the addition of any disallowed expenditure, and the deduction of any expenditure that is allowed for tax purposes but that has not been deducted in the profit and loss account.\n",
"Money income from activities that is ordinary for a particular corporation, company, partnership, or sole-proprietorship. For some businesses, such as manufacturing or grocery, most revenue is from the sale of goods. Service businesses such as law firms and barber shops receive most of their revenue from rendering services. Lending businesses such as car rentals and banks receive most of their revenue from fees and interest generated by lending assets to other organizations or individuals.\n",
"In corporations that derive much of their profits from the information economy, such as banks, publishing houses, telecommunications companies and defence contractors, IT costs are a significant source of uncontrollable spending, which in size is often the greatest corporate cost after total compensation costs and property related costs. A function of management accounting in such organizations is to work closely with the IT department to provide IT cost transparency.\n",
"Interest earned is the income for the corporation, this should payments, the entire expenses and plough back requirement therefore, recovery of money is one of the major source of funds for the corporation. The health of the corporation is judged by the extent of recovery that it can affect. All source of funds carry cost, if the cost of borrowings is higher, it reduces the margin profit, further the profit are subject to payment of income tax as per applicable laws. The corporation also is bound by minimum dividend obligation irrespective, whether it makes profit or not out of the post tax and post dividend income. The memos are retained in the corporation by way of reserves. Plough back of funds into system is emerging as one of the very important sources of funds in the total resource mix, if the corporation has to retain sufficient money for the business operations; it has to generate more income. More income obviously improving the recovery. Therefore, systematic follow-up recovery of loan plays a significant role in our operations. In fact, is not exaggeration of the state that effective recovery of loans is the backbone\n",
"A company is normally subject to a company tax on the net income of the company in a financial year. The amount added to retained earnings is generally the after tax net income. In most cases in most jurisdictions no tax is payable on the accumulated earnings retained by a company. However, this creates a potential for tax avoidance, because the corporate tax rate is usually lower than the higher marginal rates for some individual taxpayers. Higher income taxpayers could \"park\" income inside a private company instead of being paid out as a dividend and then taxed at the individual rates. To remove this tax benefit, some jurisdictions impose an \"undistributed profits tax\" on retained earnings of private companies, usually at the highest individual marginal tax rate.\n"
] |
how is it possible that isp's can see what your up to online? i thought https encrypted your traffic so it can't be read?
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Sorta.
The ISP is your mailman. They need to get packages to where they need to go, Reddit for example is sending you a package containing this reply. You pay the mailman monthly for a rate at which they send packages from you and to you.
HTTPS encrypts the package’s contents, however the ISP’s responsibility is still to move the package from A to B, and therefore needs to know what these A and B are. Therefore the postage address cannot be encrypted, and your ISP can track who you are exchanging packages with, be it Reddit or YouTube or Netflix.
So your ISP can’t actually see what you are viewing on Reddit, YouTube, or Netflix, but they can see which sites you are accessing.
|
[
"An ISP cannot know the contents of properly-encrypted data passing between its consumers and the Internet. For encrypting web traffic, https has become the most popular and best-supported standard. Even if users encrypt the data, the ISP still knows the IP addresses of the sender and of the recipient. (However, see the IP addresses section for workarounds.)\n",
"HTTPS encrypts all message contents, including the HTTP headers and the request/response data. With the exception of the possible CCA cryptographic attack described in the limitations section below, an attacker should only be able to discover that a connection is taking place between the two parties and their domain names and IP addresses.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Security\": It is important to make sure that HTTPS is used when communicating with the web application server. Otherwise all data being sent would be readable by use of simple packet sniffers which could reveal sensitive information.\n",
"Web browsers typically use HTTP to communicate with web servers, sending and receiving information without encrypting it. For sensitive transactions, such as Internet e-commerce or online access to financial accounts, the browser and server must encrypt this information.\n",
"This issue can be resolved by securing the communication between the user's computer and the server by employing Transport Layer Security (HTTPS protocol) to encrypt the connection. A server can specify the codice_4 flag while setting a cookie, which will cause the browser to send the cookie only over an encrypted channel, such as an TLS connection.\n",
"BULLET::::- Public or Private tracker websites have selectively switched over to using HTTPS for the distribution of their web text and image content. By using HTTPS for the website content (versus tracker communications) many poisoning techniques are rendered impossible.\n",
"For encrypting WWW/HTTP connections, HTTPS is typically used, which requires strict encryption and has significant administrative costs, both in terms of initial setup and continued maintenance costs for the website operator. Most browsers verify the webserver's identity to make sure that an SSL certificate is signed by a trusted certificate authority and has not expired, usually requiring the website operator to manually change the certificate every one or two years. The easiest way to enable some sort of opportunistic website encryption is by using self-signed certificates, but this causes browsers to display a warning each time the website is visited unless the user manually marks the website's certificate as trusted. Because unencrypted websites do not currently display any such warnings, the use of self-signed certificates is not well received.\n"
] |
why does anybody in this day and age like the royal family? what good have they managed?
|
This is going to be mostly an opinionated thread; but there are three possible explanations:
1) They aren't- Taking this from the "Ask British people" threads that pop up, attitudes from even the Brits range from 'they suck' to 'who cares'.
2) They're figureheads for a strong nation- A lot of people respect Heads of States: they're your nations public face for the world. The Queen may not have a whole lot of actual power but she represents a nation that was once arguably the strongest in the world.
And this next caveat is important: Britain has been replaced in the "Evil Empire" light by Russia and the U.S. Enough time has passed since they were the predominant superpower that people still respect them for their might but forget a lot of the bad they did in that span of time.
3) It's romantic- Not in a bad way; but a lot of us grow up on fantasy stories about Knights and Kings and Queens. A lot of movies even use England as backdrop for these stories so there's a positive correlation there.
Again, your mileage may vary in this thread and each individual person will have a different answer, but I hope that clears some things up.
|
[
"The Royal Households of the United Kingdom are the collective departments which support members of the British royal family. Many members of the Royal Family who undertake public duties have separate households. They vary considerably in size, from the large Royal Household which supports the Sovereign to the household of the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge and the Duke and Duchess of Sussex, with fewer than ten members. The lesser households are funded from the Civil List annuities, paid to their respective royal employers for their public duties, and all reimbursed to HM Treasury by the Queen.\n",
"The family has many links to royal and aristocratic families across Europe as well as other powerful leading families within Europe. The family is considered to be one of the most historically important, old, and powerful aristocratic families in Europe. \n",
"The family has many links to royal and aristocratic families across Europe as well as other powerful leading families within Europe. The family is considered as one of the most historically important, old, and powerful aristocratic families in Europe. \n",
"One of the classic examples of family traditions of the modern era is the family traditions of the present royal family of Great Britain. One of such family traditions enjoin upon male members of the present British royal family to serve in the armed forces. A BBC report has announced on 12 June 2003 that “Prince Harry’s decision to join the Army means he will follow a long family tradition of serving the military.” Before him, his uncle, Prince Andrew, had joined the Navy in 1979. Prince Harry’s other uncle, Prince Edward had joined the Royal Marines as a second lieutenant in 1983. Prince Harry’s father, the Prince of Wales, was appointed in 1969 as colonel-in-chief of the Royal Regiment of Wales. Harry’s grandfather, the Duke of Edinburgh, had joined the Navy in 1939, and had also served in the World War II.\n",
"The family, originally small in number, grew considerably, which led to divisions of material wealth but enhanced political influence, due to having the support of more people in the Sejms, in the Senate, or at the royal court. Members of the family were able to count on the support of their relatives in political or court activities.\n",
"Family members are one of the most important careproviders in the life of an elderly. In fact, the majority of caregivers for the elderly are often members of their own family, most often a daughter or a granddaughter. Family and friends can provide a home (i.e. have elderly relatives live with them), help with money and meet social needs by visiting, taking them out on trips, etc.\n",
"The Royal Family traditionally had its members serve in the Armed Forces, usually with the Royal Navy though many have served with the Army. This occasionally warped operations in the field, for example at the Battle of Tel el-Kebir, where Wolseley was forced to leave an entire brigade of Guards in reserve to avoid harm coming to Queen Victoria's third son, the Duke of Connaught. The tradition has continued into the 21st century, with Prince Harry and Prince William both joining the Army as officers. However, Royals are no longer deliberately kept out of harm's way; Prince Harry saw active service in Afghanistan until the publicity posed a threat to the troops serving with him, while Prince Andrew served as a front-line helicopter pilot with the Royal Navy during the Falklands War.\n"
] |
what is happening in brazil, with all these big rallies taking place?
|
tldr, ex-President is involved in a giant corruption investigation and was just appointed the Chief of Staff by the current President in an attempt to shield him from prosecutions (in Brazil, ministers are to be judged by the Supreme Court, which comprise mostly of people picked by the acting party), thus the huge protests
Edit: fixed stuff in brackets
|
[
"Protests across Brazil have drawn millions to the streets in a wave of rolling fury that became the biggest demonstrations in decades. A young man was killed in Ribeirão Preto during the protest when a driver ploughed through a peaceful demonstration, also injuring 11 other people. President Dilma Rousseff addressed the nation, recognizing the demands of the protesters and calling a meeting of state governors and mayors of key cities to discuss the requests of the population and propose solutions to solve the issues.\n",
"On 31 March 2017, a series of protests began in Paraguay, during which demonstrators set fire to the Congress building. The demonstrations occurred in response to a constitutional amendment that would permit President Horacio Cartes to run for re-election, a move described by the opposition as \"a coup\". One protester was killed in Paraguay's capital, Asunción, after being hit by a shotgun blast by police. Several protesters, politicians and journalists, as well as police, were reported injured, including one lower-house deputy who had to undergo surgery after being injured by rubber bullets. On 17 April, President Cartes announced that he was resigning from any possible candidacy for a second presidential term. On 26 April, the Chamber of Deputies of Paraguay rejected the proposed constitutional amendment for presidential re-election.\n",
"The demonstrations were initially organized to protest against increases in bus, train, and metro ticket prices in some Brazilian cities, but grew to include other issues such as the high corruption in the government and police brutality used against some demonstrators. By mid-June, the movement had grown to become Brazil's largest since the 1992 protests against former President Fernando Collor de Mello.\n",
"The 2014 unrest in Bosnia and Herzegovina was a series of demonstrations and riots that began in the northern town of Tuzla on 4 February 2014, but quickly spread to multiple cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, including Sarajevo, Zenica, Mostar, Jajce, and Brčko, among others, for social reasons and with the aim of overthrowing the government. The riots were the most violent scenes the country had seen since the end of the Bosnian War in 1995. The rioting largely took place in the entity of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the same level of unrest or activism did not occur in Republika Srpska.\n",
"According to an article by Fabíola Ortiz on March 25 on the online magazine \"Upside Down World\", two small protests were organized in Brazil against the decision for military intervention in Libya. On March 18, during the visit of Barack Obama to Brazil, a protest of about 200 people from social movements, the Workers' Party, the Brazilian Communist Party and the Democratic Labour Party was held in Rio de Janeiro. The demonstration was peaceful until it reached the U.S. consulate, when two molotov cocktails were thrown (injuring the building's security guard). The Military Police reacted by firing rubber bullets into the gathering, hurting a Rádio CBN reporter. Fourteen protestors were arrested.\n",
"BULLET::::- 2014 – 2014 unrest in Bosnia and Herzegovina The 2014 unrest in Bosnia and Herzegovina is a series of demonstrations and riots that began in the northern town of Tuzla on February 4, 2014, but quickly spread to multiple cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, including Sarajevo, Zenica, Mostar.\n",
"The 2013 protests in Brazil (also known as the V for Vinegar Movement,[5] Salad Revolt, Vinegar Revolt, Come to the street and Brazilian Spring) are ongoing public demonstrations in several Brazilian cities, initiated mainly by the Movimento Passe Livre (Free Fare Movement), a local entity that advocates for free public transportation. The most recent movement being \"Ocupe Estelita\" in Recife, Pernambuco which is focused on the demolition of an historical part of the city to make way for high-priced housing and leisure facilities.\n"
] |
How mixable are different types of plastic? Like PET and HDPE?
|
Some polymers have an affinity for each other and mix well. Polycarbonate, some styrene copolymers, and PET Mix well. This is driven by the chemical structure. Think that some are more polar, water like and others are less polar or oil like.
However most polymers by themselves are typically not mixable. When mixed they form a blend that has poor adhesion and thus poor strength. it only takes a small amount of incompatible polymer in a mixture to make the material useless. Which is why it is important to have clean recycle streams.
The outcome of a good mixture is to get desirable properties of both materials in a single material. For example high temp stiffness with rubber impact resistance.
To make them mixable the two polymers are typically reacted to together to form a copolymer that acts as a soap allowing them to mix. ABS ( LEGO plastic) is a mixture of polybutadiene (rubber) and Styrene-acrylonitrile copolymers. The rubber provides break resistance while the styrene copolymers provide stiffness.
Super tough nylon ( weed whacker string) is a mixture of nylon with ethylene-propylene rubbers that contain an acid group that reacts with the nylon’s amino group to form the copolymer.
There is a whole industry that tries to figure this out.
|
[
"Some familiar household synthetic polymers include: Nylons in textiles and fabrics, Teflon in non-stick pans, Bakelite for electrical switches, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in pipes, etc. The common PET bottles are made of a synthetic polymer, polyethylene terephthalate. The plastic kits and covers are mostly made of synthetic polymers like polythene and tires are manufactured from Buna rubbers. However, due to the environmental issues created by these synthetic polymers which are mostly non-biodegradable and often synthesized from petroleum, alternatives like bioplastics are also being considered. They are however expensive when compared to the synthetic polymers.\n",
"Production of plastics for use in the industrial sector around the world makes up a very large market. PET (polyethylene terephthalate) is one of the dominant plastics within this market. It is commonly used for bottles because it makes a rigid container that is very lightweight. However, because of the stability of PET, it is also highly resistant to biodegradation, posing a significant environmental problem because of the amount of PET produced, sold, used and thrown away on a daily basis. An estimated 30% of the world production of PET goes into making these plastic bottles and only from 15% to 35% ends up being recycled; the rest usually end up in a landfill. This has stimulated research into polymers that function comparably to PET, but are biodegradable.\n",
"The majority of the world's PET production is for synthetic fibres (in excess of 60%), with bottle production accounting for about 30% of global demand. In the context of textile applications, PET is referred to by its common name, polyester, whereas the acronym \"PET\" is generally used in relation to packaging. Polyester makes up about 18% of world polymer production and is the fourth-most-produced polymer after polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).\n",
"Plastic pallets are produced and used widely in the U.S. and Europe, spurred by the adoption of the ISPM 15. A full comparison of wood vs plastic can be made by a life cycle analysis. Plastic pallets can cost 10 times as much as hardwood pallets and even more expensive compared to cheap expendable softwood pallets. RFID chips can be molded into the pallets to monitor locations and track inventory.\n",
"There are a variety of different discs, each with a specific plastic made with them. Plastics such as DX, J-Pro, Pro-D, X-Line, D-line, retro, and R-Pro from Innova discs, latitude 64, discmania, and Discraft are some of the less durable plastics, but good for beginners due to their lower prices, compared to the higher end plastics. Plastics such as Champion, Titanium, FLX, GStar, Gold Line, Tournament Plastic, Fuzion and Star plastics, which are the best offered from the same companies, offering the best quality, durability and flight compared to the other types available. There are also plastics that provide additional functionality, specifically glow in the dark plastic and plastic that allows the disc to float in water. Most companies also offer a line of plastic that is much lighter than the maximum throwing weight (normally filled with air bubbles) which is conducive to beginners or players with less arm speed. Players might prefer bright colored discs to contrast most green flora and recover their disc easier.\n",
"PET is used as a raw material for making packaging materials such as bottles and containers for packaging a wide range of food products and other consumer goods. Examples include soft drinks, alcoholic beverages, detergents, cosmetics, pharmaceutical products and edible oils. PET is one of the most common consumer plastics used. Polyethylene terephthalate can also be used as the main material in making water-resistant paper.\n",
"Plasticizers (UK: plasticisers) or dispersants are additives that increase the plasticity or decrease the viscosity of a material. These are the substances which are added in order to alter their physical properties. These are either liquids with low volatility or solids. They decrease the attraction between polymer chains to make them more flexible. Over the last 60 years more than 30,000 different substances have been evaluated for their plasticizing properties. Of these, only a small number – approximately 50 – are today in commercial use. The dominant applications are for plastics, especially polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The properties of other materials may also be modified when blended with plasticizers including concrete, clays, and related products. According to 2014 data, the total global market for plasticizers was 8.4 million metric tonnes including 1.3 million metric tonnes in Europe.\n"
] |
what force is stronger than electromagnetism, if any, and what makes it stronger?
|
The nuclear strong force is the strongest of the four fundamental forces. This is the force that holds quarks together inside protons and neutrons, and protons and neutrons together inside atomic nuclei. However, it has an extremely small range, and drops off to almost non existent levels over only the distance of a single proton.
In terms of *why* it's stronger, there's no fundamental physical reason for this that we're aware of. The strengths of the four forces are just physical constants of this Universe, and could quite easily have been different. It's just the way the proverbial cookie crumbled in the case of our Universe.
|
[
"Even though electrostatically induced forces seem to be rather weak, some electrostatic forces such as the one between an electron and a proton, that together make up a hydrogen atom, is about 36 orders of magnitude stronger than the gravitational force acting between them.\n",
"BULLET::::- It is already known that electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force are different manifestations of a single force called the electroweak force. The LHC may clarify whether the electroweak force and the strong nuclear force are similarly just different manifestations of one universal unified force, as predicted by various Grand Unification Theories.\n",
"The force acts on the charged particles themselves, hence charge has a tendency to spread itself as evenly as possible over a conducting surface. The magnitude of the electromagnetic force, whether attractive or repulsive, is given by Coulomb's law, which relates the force to the product of the charges and has an inverse-square relation to the distance between them. The electromagnetic force is very strong, second only in strength to the strong interaction, but unlike that force it operates over all distances. In comparison with the much weaker gravitational force, the electromagnetic force pushing two electrons apart is 10 times that of the gravitational attraction pulling them together.\n",
"In particle physics, the strong interaction is the mechanism responsible for the strong nuclear force (also called the strong force, nuclear strong force, or colour force), and is one of the four known fundamental interactions, with the others being electromagnetism, the weak interaction, and gravitation. At the range of 10 m (1 femtometer), the strong force is approximately 137 times as strong as electromagnetism, a million times as strong as the weak interaction, and 10 (100 undecillion) times as strong as gravitation. The strong nuclear force holds most ordinary matter together because it confines quarks into hadron particles such as the proton and neutron. In addition, the strong force binds neutrons and protons to create atomic nuclei. Most of the mass of a common proton or neutron is the result of the strong force field energy; the individual quarks provide only about 1% of the mass of a proton.\n",
"Electromagnetism and weak interaction appear to be very different at everyday low energies. They can be modelled using two different theories. However, above unification energy, on the order of 100 GeV, they would merge into a single electroweak force.\n",
"Even though electromagnetism is far stronger than gravitation, electrostatic attraction is not relevant for large celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies, simply because such bodies contain equal numbers of protons and electrons and so have a net electric charge of zero. Nothing \"cancels\" gravity, since it is only attractive, unlike electric forces which can be attractive or repulsive. On the other hand, all objects having mass are subject to the gravitational force, which only attracts. Therefore, only gravitation matters on the large-scale structure of the universe.\n",
"Although the weak and electromagnetic forces appear quite different to us at everyday energies, the two forces are theorized to unify as a single electroweak force at high energies. This prediction was clearly confirmed by measurements of cross-sections for high-energy electron-proton scattering at the HERA collider at DESY. The differences at low energies is a consequence of the high masses of the \"W\" and \"Z\" bosons, which in turn are a consequence of the Higgs mechanism. Through the process of spontaneous symmetry breaking, the Higgs selects a special direction in electroweak space that causes three electroweak particles to become very heavy (the weak bosons) and one to remain with an undefined rest mass as it is always in motion (the photon). On 4 July 2012, after many years of experimentally searching for evidence of its existence, the Higgs boson was announced to have been observed at CERN's Large Hadron Collider. Peter Higgs who first posited the existence of the Higgs boson was present at the announcement. The Higgs boson is believed to have a mass of approximately 125 GeV. The statistical significance of this discovery was reported as 5-sigma, which implies a certainty of roughly 99.99994%. In particle physics, this is the level of significance required to officially label experimental observations as a discovery. Research into the properties of the newly discovered particle continues.\n"
] |
What would happen if the superheated material inside a fusion reactor was exposed?
|
Essentially the same as with any superheated material breaking out of containment. The reactor and surrounding structure might be damaged or destroyed. The amount of damage will depend on the size of the reactor and the materials used. Depending on the type of fusion taking place, there may be free neutrons flying around that can be a source of radioactivity, but these neutrons won't travel far.
Once the containment is breached, the fusion plasma will lose its energy and pressure extremely rapidly. And with temperature and pressure falling, the fusion reaction will stop. Unlike many fission reactors, a fusion reactor will not have a chain reaction taking place.
|
[
"Once the fuel elements of a reactor begin to melt, the fuel cladding has been breached, and the nuclear fuel (such as uranium, plutonium, or thorium) and fission products (such as caesium-137, krypton-85, or iodine-131) within the fuel elements can leach out into the coolant. Subsequent failures can permit these radioisotopes to breach further layers of containment. Superheated steam and hot metal inside the core can lead to fuel-coolant interactions, hydrogen explosions, or water hammer, any of which could destroy parts of the containment. A meltdown is considered very serious because of the potential for radioactive materials to breach all containment and escape (or be released) into the environment, resulting in radioactive contamination and fallout, and potentially leading to radiation poisoning of people and animals nearby.\n",
"In the intense heat and pressure of the melting reactors, a reaction between the nuclear fuel metal cladding and the remaining water surrounding them produced explosive hydrogen gas. As workers struggled to cool and shut down the reactors, several hydrogen-air chemical explosions occurred.\n",
"In the intense heat and pressure of the melting reactors, a reaction between the nuclear fuel metal cladding and the remaining water surrounding them produced explosive hydrogen gas. As workers struggled to cool and shut down the reactors, several hydrogen-air chemical explosions occurred.\n",
"In the intense heat and pressure of the melting reactors, a reaction between the nuclear fuel metal cladding and the remaining water surrounding them produced explosive hydrogen gas. As workers struggled to cool and shut down the reactors, several hydrogen-air chemical explosions occurred.\n",
"In the intense heat and pressure of the melting reactors, a reaction between the nuclear fuel metal cladding and the remaining water surrounding them produced explosive hydrogen gas. As workers struggled to cool and shut down the reactors, several hydrogen-air chemical explosions occurred. \n",
"In the intense heat and pressure of the melting reactors, a reaction between the nuclear fuel metal cladding and the remaining water surrounding them produced explosive hydrogen gas. As workers struggled to cool and shut down the reactors, several hydrogen-air chemical explosions occurred.\n",
"Another problem seen in all fusion designs is the heat load that the plasma places on the wall of the confinement vessel. There are materials that can handle this load, but they are generally undesirable and expensive heavy metals. When such materials are sputtered in collisions with hot ions, their atoms mix with the fuel and rapidly cool it. A solution used on most tokamak designs is the \"limiter\", a small ring of light metal that projected into the chamber so that the plasma would hit it before hitting the walls. This eroded the limiter and caused its atoms to mix with the fuel, but these lighter materials cause less disruption than the wall materials.\n"
] |
how can humans instinctively know what angles to launch something make it go the farthest?
|
They learn it. From age 0 on you throw stuff around and observe the physics of the world. That is why people who don't throw things (like balls) as a kid suck at throwing and aiming. So it is not an instinct, it is more of a skill.
|
[
"Target angle is the relative bearing of the observing station from the vehicle being observed. It may be used to compute point-of-aim for a fire-control problem when vehicle range and speed can be estimated from other information. Target angle may be best explained from the example of a submarine preparing to launch a straight-run (non-homing) torpedo at a moving target ship. Since the torpedo travels relatively slowly, the torpedo course must be set not toward the target, but toward where the target will be when the torpedo reaches it. Target angle is used to estimate target course.\n",
"The technique is to start at the estimated position of the target, at a distance above the bottom to provide the best view, and to swim in a cardinal direction a distance roughly equal to or slightly greater than the visibility range. The estimate of distance is commonly by kick counts, so using a whole number of kicks is necessary, and preferably a number which can be mentally accumulated by the diver. Call this distance n kicks, where n is usually 2, 4, 5, 10 or 20 as these are easy numbers to multiply mentally. The direction of turn may be clockwise or anticlockwise as best suits the search.\n",
"Plotting the angle of the target was a simple process of taking the gonio reading and setting a rotating straightedge to that value. The problem was determining where along that straightedge the target lay; the radar measured the slant range straight-line distance to the target, not the distance over the ground. That distance was affected by the target's altitude, which had to be determined by taking the somewhat time-consuming altitude measurements. Additionally, that altitude was affected by the range, due to the curvature of the Earth, as well as any imperfections in the local environment, which caused the lobes to have different measurements depending on the target angle.\n",
"The earliest form of aiming point was a pair of aiming posts for each gun, almost in line with one another when viewed through the gun's sight, and placed about 50 meters from the gun. There were at least two ways of using these, but the simplest is to aim the sight midway between them.\n",
"The basic technique is to track a projectile for sufficient time to record a segment of the trajectory. This is usually done automatically, but some early and not so early radars required the operator to manually track the projectile. Once a trajectory segment is captured it can then be processed to determine its point of origin on the ground. Before digital terrain databases this involved manual iteration with a paper map to check the altitude at the coordinates, change the location altitude and recompute the coordinates until a satisfactory location was found.\n",
"In some special circumstances, such as when only one round or salvo was going to be fired (e.g. by nuclear artillery or a multiple rocket launcher), a director or aiming circle about 100 meters away could be used as an aiming point.\n",
"A launch technique was developed: approach the target gap at speed, line up onto alignment/ launch markers, drive over first marker then brake sharply at second marked point and fire the explosive bolts holding the travel hawsers so that the fascine, through inertia, rolled off the directly into the middle of the gap. When in position, they travel over it to level the road surface for other vehicles to cross. This whole process would take less than 1 minute, essential for an assault crossing possibly under fire.\n"
] |
What does the coronation of Charlemagne as Roman Emperor suggest about attitudes towards the Roman Empire at the time?
|
I partly answered your question [here](_URL_0_), although admittedly that answer focuses mostly on England in the period. Nonetheless, the answer isn't *radically* different in that early medieval political aspirations hinged on *Romanitas* less as an immediate continuation of Rome, but as a valid successor through the continuation of the facets of Rome which had been worthy of admiration.
It was well known that Rome had failed and there was no way for Charlemagne to claim that he was simply the *next* Roman Emperor, but there was tremendous prestige in resurrecting Rome, reforging the empire and being the *new* Roman Emperor. It's worth mentioning, of course, that Charlemagne crowning himself as Emperor was not taken well by the Byzantines, who had been maintaining the Roman Empire perfectly well all this time without him, thank you very much.
|
[
"Charlemagne was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day, 800. The clergy and nobles attending the ceremony proclaimed Charlemagne as \"Augustus\". In support of Charlemagne's coronation, some argued that the Imperial position was actually vacant, deeming a woman unfit to be Emperor. However, Charlemagne made no claim to the Eastern Roman Empire. Whether he actually desired a coronation at all, remains controversial – his biographer Einhard related that Charlemagne had been surprised by the Pope – but the Eastern Empire felt its role as the sole Roman Empire threatened and began to emphasize its superiority and its Roman identity. \n",
"The coronation of Charlemagne as \"Roman\" emperor by Pope Leo III in the year 800 was a deprived act of legitimate juridical profile: only the Roman emperor of the East (called \"Byzantine\" later by the Enlightenment in the eighteenth century) would be crowned a peer of him in the western part, which is why Constantinople was always suspicious of that act.\n",
"For this reason, Charlemagne, the King of the Franks and King of Italy, was crowned Emperor of the Romans (\"Imperator Romanorum\") by Pope Leo III, as the successor of Constantine VI as Roman Emperor under the concept of \"translatio imperii\". The Eastern Empire eventually relented to recognizing Charlemagne and his successors as emperors, but as \"Frankish\" and \"German emperors\", at no point referring to them as Roman, a label they reserved for themselves.\n",
"With Charlemagne's coronation, therefore, \"the Roman Empire remained, so far as either of them [Charlemagne and Leo] were concerned, one and indivisible, with Charles as its Emperor\", though there can have been \"little doubt that the coronation, with all that it implied, would be furiously contested in Constantinople\".\n",
"The reasons for the coronation of Charlemagne, the involvement beforehand of the Frankish court, and the relationship to the Eastern Roman Empire are matters of debate among historians. An effective administrator of the papal territories, Leo contributed to the beautification of Rome.\n",
"Charlemagne, crowned Roman Emperor in 800 AD, is sometimes considered as a forerunner of the Holy Roman Empire. Most historians today reject this view, arguing that the Holy Roman Empire had different antecedents and a different constitution, and the Holy Roman Emperor had a different status and role than Charlemagne and his successors. After the collapse of Charlemagne's empire, the Imperial crown was initially disputed among the Carolingian rulers of Western Francia (France) and Eastern Francia (Germany), with first the western king (Charles the Bald) and then the eastern (Charles the Fat) attaining the prize. However, after the death of Charles the Fat in 888, the empire broke asunder, never to be restored. According to Regino of Prüm, each part of the realm elected a \"kinglet\" from its own \"bowels\". After the death of Charles the Fat, those who were crowned Emperors by the Pope controlled only territories in Italy. The last of such Emperors was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924.\n",
"On Christmas Day, 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charles as \"Emperor of the Romans\" in Rome in a ceremony presented as a surprise (Charlemagne did not wish to be indebted to the bishop of Rome), a further papal move in the series of symbolic gestures that had been defining the mutual roles of papal \"auctoritas\" and imperial \"potestas.\" Though Charlemagne preferred the title \"Emperor, king of the Franks and Lombards\", the ceremony formally acknowledged the ruler of the Franks as the Roman Emperor, triggering disputes with the Byzantine Empire, which had maintained the title since the division of the Roman Empire into East and West. The pope's right to proclaim successors was based on the Donation of Constantine, a forged Roman imperial decree. After an initial protest at the usurpation, the Byzantine Emperor Michael I Rhangabes acknowledged in 812 Charlemagne as co-emperor, according to some. According to others, Michael I reopened negotiations with the Franks in 812 and recognized Charlemagne as \"basileus\" (emperor), but not as emperor of the Romans. The coronation gave permanent legitimacy to Carolingian primacy among the Franks. The Ottonians later resurrected this connection in 962.\n"
] |
if the cold temperatures of frozen food prevent them from going off, why do frozen foods not last forever? can bacteria suddenly survive at colder temperatures after a food has been frozen for a certain length of time?
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Even though it is frozen that doesn't mean that the food is static. The food will slowly dehydrate and with that it loses its taste and becomes inedible. The cells in the food also get damaged after long period of being frozen, which cause it to lose flavour
|
[
"Food frozen at 0 °F and below is preserved indefinitely. However, the quality of the food will deteriorate if it is frozen over a lengthy period. The United States Department of Agriculture, Food Safety and Inspection Service publishes a chart showing the suggested freezer storage time for common foods.\n",
"Freezing is an effective form of food preservation because the pathogens that cause food spoilage are killed or do not grow very rapidly at reduced temperatures. The process is less effective in food preservation than are thermal techniques, such as boiling, because pathogens are more likely to be able to survive cold temperatures rather than hot temperatures. One of the problems surrounding the use of freezing as a method of food preservation is the danger that pathogens deactivated (but not killed) by the process will once again become active when the frozen food thaws.\n",
"Freezing food to preserve its quality has been used since time immemorial. Freezing temperatures curb the spoiling effect of microorganisms in food, but can also preserve some pathogens unharmed for long periods of time. Freezing kills some microorganisms by physical trauma, others are sublethally injured by freezing, and may recover to become infectious.\n",
"Freezing is a common method of food preservation that slows both food decay and the growth of micro-organisms. Besides the effect of lower temperatures on reaction rates, freezing makes water less available for bacterial growth.\n",
"Throw out foods that have been warmer than for more than 2 hours. If there is any doubt at all about the length of time the food has been defrosted at room temperature, it should be thrown out. Freezing does not destroy microbes present in food. Freezing at 0 °F does inactivate microbes (bacteria, yeasts and molds). However, once food has been thawed, these microbes can again become active. Microbes in thawed food can multiply to levels that can lead to foodborne illness. Thawed food should be handled according to the same guidelines as perishable fresh food.\n",
"Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below , which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product.\n",
"Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n"
] |
how did iraq go from having the best army in the arab world, to being unable to maintain it's sovereignty?
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You may have noticed George Bush lied to the American people to get the US involved in a stupid and un-winnable war with no exit strategy. As a result the most powerful army in the world destroyed the most powerful army in the Arab world. He left them with no resources and no ability to govern themselves and then we pulled out making them likely to be invaded and controlled by a terror state. Another amazing plan courtesy of incredibly stupid US foreign policy.
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[
"After the 1973 Arab–Israeli War, Iraq decided to improve all aspects of its army. Iraqi General Ra'ad al-Hamdani stated that, in spite of careful analysis of the 1973 Arab–Israeli War, no clear progress in the Iraqi Army was achieved by the Ba'ath Party. In comparison to their Israeli counterparts, the Iraqi Army was faced with a significant deficit in technological expertise. In 1979, due to Saddam Hussein's policies as well as those of leading Ba'ath Party officials and senior military officers, the Iraqi Army underwent increasing politicization. There was a saying at the time, \"better a good Ba'athist than a good soldier\". During the early months of the Iran–Iraq War, Iraq attained successes because of Ba'ath Party interference and its attempts to improve the Iraqi Army, but the essential problem was that the military leaders did not have a clear strategy or operational aim for a war. \n",
"For the Arab states (and Egypt in particular), Arab successes during the war healed the psychological trauma of their defeat in the Six-Day War, allowing them to negotiate with the Israelis as equals. Because of the later setbacks in the war (which saw Israel gain a large salient on African soil and even more territory on the Syrian front), some believe that the war helped convince many in the Arab world that Israel could not be defeated militarily, thereby strengthening peace movements and delaying the Arab ambition of destroying Israel by force.\n",
"Even though Iraq was ruled by another branch of the Ba'ath Party, Assad's relations with Saddam Hussein were extremely strained, mainly because of Assad's support for Iran during the Iraq-Iran war, which Saddam was unable to forgive.However, Saddam had despatched Iraqi army tanks to Damascus in order to prevent the Israeli Defence Forces from taking control of the city. This entry of the Iraq, then considered the leading Arab nation both economically as well as militarily, into Syria marks the first and, to date, only time in Syrian history where a foreign Arab army has entered its land. Assad had supported Iran in the war, and Iran found another ally in the Kurds in Iraq, who assisted Iran's offensive at the northern Iraq.\n",
"Because Saddam Hussein rarely left Iraq, Tariq Aziz, one of Saddam's aides, traveled abroad extensively and represented Iraq at many diplomatic meetings. In foreign affairs, Saddam sought to have Iraq play a leading role in the Middle East. Iraq signed an aid pact with the Soviet Union in 1972, and arms were sent along with several thousand advisers. However, the 1978 crackdown on Iraqi Communists and a shift of trade toward the West strained Iraqi relations with the Soviet Union; Iraq then took on a more Western orientation until the Gulf War in 1991.\n",
"Saddam Hussein had also poured massive resources into regime protection agencies, like the Republican Guard (Iraq), that later took on a battlefield role. Losses during the Persian Gulf War from the United States-led coalition resulted in the reduction of Iraq's ground forces to 23 divisions and the air force to less than 300 aircraft. The Iraqi Popular Army was also disbanded. Military and economic sanctions prevented Iraq from rebuilding its military power. What rebuilding was done was concentrated on the Republican Guard and the new Special Republican Guard, created after the war ended. Iraq maintained a standing military of about 375,000 troops. Among the components of the military was the Directorate of General Military Intelligence.\n",
"Kenneth Pollack, a U.S. military analyst, wrote in c.2002 that 'from 1948 to 1956, the Arab Legion was far superior to any of the other Arab militaries. In battle, it generally gave as good as it got, and the Israelis considered it their most dangerous adversary. However, after 1956, the Jordanian capabilities began to decline. In 1967 they performed worse than in 1948, although the exceptional performance of the 40th Armoured Brigade and a number of Israeli mistakes helped disguise the deterioration somewhat. Thereafter Jordanian capabilities continued to gradually erode.'\n",
"Since 1980, the foreign relations of Iraq were influenced by a number of controversial decisions by the Saddam Hussein administration. Hussein had good relations with the Soviet Union and a number of western countries such as France and Germany, who provided him with advanced weapons systems. He also developed a tenuous relation with the United States, who supported him during the Iran–Iraq War. However, the Invasion of Kuwait that triggered the Gulf War brutally changed Iraq's relations with the Arab World and the West. Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria and others were among the countries that supported Kuwait in the UN coalition. After the Hussein administration was toppled by the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the governments that succeeded it have now tried to establish relations with various nations.\n"
] |
My understanding is that both Sodium and Chlorine by themselves are dangerous (explodes in water and is toxic, respectively). If that is true, why is dissolved sodium chloride (salt) perfectly safe? Why don't the dissolved ions have the same properties as sodium and chloride separately?
|
The form of chlorine which is dangers is [chlorine gas, (Cl2)](_URL_0_) which has very different properties from the [chloride ion. (Cl-)](_URL_1_)
|
[
"While sodium hypochlorite is non-toxic, its corrosive properties, common availability, and reaction products make it a significant safety risk. In particular, mixing liquid bleach with other cleaning products, such as acids or ammonia, may produce toxic fumes.\n",
"A disadvantage of sodium is its chemical reactivity, which requires special precautions to prevent and suppress fires. If sodium comes into contact with water it reacts to produce sodium hydroxide and hydrogen, and the hydrogen burns when in contact with air. This was the case at the Monju Nuclear Power Plant in a 1995 accident. In addition, neutrons cause it to become radioactive; however, activated sodium has a half-life of only 15 hours.\n",
"Sodium chlorite, like many oxidizing agents, should be protected from inadvertent contamination by organic materials to avoid the formation of an explosive mixture. The chemical is stable in pure form and does not explode on percussive impact, unless organic contaminants are present, such as on a greasy hammer striking the chemical on an anvil. It also easily ignites by friction if combined with a reducing agent like powdered sugar, sulphur or red phosphorus.\n",
"Sodium forms flammable hydrogen and caustic sodium hydroxide on contact with water; ingestion and contact with moisture on skin, eyes or mucous membranes can cause severe burns. Sodium spontaneously explodes in the presence of water due to the formation of hydrogen (highly explosive) and sodium hydroxide (which dissolves in the water, liberating more surface). However, sodium exposed to air and ignited or reaching autoignition (reported to occur when a molten pool of sodium reaches about 290 °C) displays a relatively mild fire. In the case of massive (non-molten) pieces of sodium, the reaction with oxygen eventually becomes slow due to formation of a protective layer. Fire extinguishers based on water accelerate sodium fires; those based on carbon dioxide and bromochlorodifluoromethane should not be used on sodium fire. Metal fires are Class D, but not all Class D extinguishers are workable with sodium. An effective extinguishing agent for sodium fires is Met-L-X. Other effective agents include Lith-X, which has graphite powder and an organophosphate flame retardant, and dry sand. Sodium fires are prevented in nuclear reactors by isolating sodium from oxygen by surrounding sodium pipes with inert gas. Pool-type sodium fires are prevented using different design measures called catch pan systems. They collect leaking sodium into a leak-recovery tank where it is isolated from oxygen.\n",
"Sodium cyanide is an inorganic compound with the formula NaCN. It is a white, water-soluble solid. Cyanide has a high affinity for metals, which leads to the high toxicity of this salt. Its main application, in gold mining, also exploits its high reactivity toward metals. It is a moderately strong base. When treated with acid, it forms the toxic gas hydrogen cyanide:\n",
"Sodium chlorate comes in dust, spray and granule formulations. There is a risk of fire and explosion in dry mixtures with other substances, especially organic materials, and other herbicides, sulfur, phosphorus, powdered metals, and strong acids. In particular, when mixed with sugar, it has explosive properties. If accidentally mixed with one of these substances it should not be stored in dwellings.\n",
"Sodium bromide can be used instead of sodium chloride, which produces a bromine pool. The benefits and downsides are the same as those of a salt system. It is not necessary to use a chloride-based acid to balance the pH. Also, bromine is only effective as a sanitizer, not as an oxidizer, leaving a need for adding a \"shock\" such as hydrogen peroxide or any chlorine-based shock to burn off inorganic waste and free up combined bromines. This extra step is not needed in a sodium chloride system, as chlorine is effective as both a sanitizer and an oxidizer. A user would only need to \"super chlorinate\" or increase chlorine production of the cell occasionally. That would normally be once a week or after heavy bather loads.\n"
] |
according to the bible, how did jesus's death save humanity?
|
ELI5:
Imagine you're in a courtroom, and you're guilty of a crime. You owe an exorbitant fine, and you can't pay it.
Then a man comes along and offers to pay it for you. This is the only man with enough money to pay that fine, and he pays it in your place, satisfying the legal requirement.
That's what Jesus did.
Every human who sins is guilty, and (according to the bible), deserves death. One of us cannot take on the death sentence for another, as we all have our own death sentence. In other words, I can't die for your sins because I have to die for mine.
Jesus is the only human who never sinned, being God in human flesh. Since He had no sin, he could take the place of others. He willingly was tortured and killed, and God placed our sins on Him. His physical death paid the 'fine' for us, freeing us from court and from everlasting death.
Jesus was a perfect scapegoat, without any spot or blemish, and by accepting him and respecting his wishes for what he did, we are saved by his payment.
TL;DR A perfect man died, so that he could pay for the sins of imperfect men. Read Romans 1-6 for the full explanation, as well as how to take advantage of the payment.
***
Edit: I am glad to see the interest, and thanks for the gold and the discussion! A lot of questions that people have are legitimate, and I'm glad to see that some other people helped out while I was sleeping. Since this is the very simple ELI5 version, I left a lot of the details and the whys out of my explanation.
Since the thread is locked, feel free to PM me or one of the others in this thread. I promise, I will respond with civility, and no question is a bad one.
Second edit: I've read the comments, and oh I wish I could respond! Circumcision, God's motives, justice, scapegoats, the possibility of being saved without Jesus, Spiritual death vs. Physical, etc. I'd be happy to answer any questions I can! And hopefully in as simple of terms as I can.
|
[
"Christians predominantly profess that through Jesus' life, death, and resurrection, he restored humanity's communion with God with the blood of the New Covenant. His death on a cross is understood as a redemptive sacrifice: the source of humanity's salvation and the atonement for sin which had entered human history through the sin of Adam.\n",
"Jesus sacrificed his life by freely accepting death on the cross and being put in a tomb. In experiencing death and overcoming it in resurrection, Christ assures us that we will have life everlasting with God as we too, through Christ's accomplishment as our representative, will triumph over death and pass into eternal life with the resurrection of the glorified body.\n",
"Jesus Christ said that He came to earth to seek and to save that which was lost (Luke 19:10). He accomplished salvation through the cross. By dying on the cross, He paid the penalty for sin and satisfied God’s wrath. According to Scripture, without the cross, there is no salvation, no forgiveness, and no hope; because of the cross, there is eternal life. The mission and message of Jesus surround the cross. “For the word of the cross is to those who are perishing foolishness, but to us who are being saved it is the power of God” (1 Cor 1:18).\n",
"Jesus really died in his humanity when being 'put to death in the flesh', so 'made alive in the spirit' does not mean that a \"part\" of Christ survived death, but that 'God raised Christ to a new life in the divine realm' (cf. ; ; ).\n",
"Most Christians believe Jesus did initially die, but was then resurrected from the dead by God, before being raised bodily to heaven to sit at the Right Hand of God with a promise to someday return to earth. The minority views that Jesus did not die are known as the swoon hypothesis and Docetism.\n",
"In Paul's view, \"Jesus’ death was not a defeat but was for the believers’ benefit,\" a sacrifice which substitutes for the lifes of others, and frees them from the bondage of sin. Believers participate in Christ's death and resurrection by their baptism. The resurrection of Jesus was of primary importance to Paul, bringing the promise of salvation to believers. Paul taught that, when Christ returned, those who had died believing in Christ as the saviour of mankind would be brought back to life, while those still alive would be \"caught up in the clouds together with them to meet the Lord in the air\" \n",
"According to the orthodox Christian view, Jesus saved humanity from final death and damnation by dying for them. Most Christians believe that Christ's sacrifice supernaturally reversed death's power over humanity, proved when he was resurrected, and abolished the power of sin on humanity. According to Paul, \"if the many died by the trespass of the one man, how much more did God's grace and the gift that came by the grace of the one man, Jesus Christ, overflow to the many\" (Romans 5:15). For many Christians, atonement doctrine leads naturally into the eschatological narratives of Christian people rising from the dead and living again, or immediately entering heaven to join Jesus.\n"
] |
Why is spit bubbly like soap bubbles?
|
Saliva has a lot of proteins in it, proteins can increase surface tension and lead to stronger bubbles like the lipids in soap.
|
[
"Just as soap bubbles, with air inside and air outside, have negative buoyancy and tend to sink towards the ground, so antibubbles, with water inside and air outside have positive buoyancy and tend to rise towards the water surface. But again, just as soap bubbles can be filled with a lighter gas to give them positive buoyancy, so antibubbles can be filled with a heavier liquid to give them negative buoyancy. Using a drinking straw to drop droplets of sugar solution onto soapy water will produce antibubbles that sink.\n",
"BULLET::::- Soap bubbles have very large surface areas with very little mass. Bubbles in pure water are unstable. The addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles (see Marangoni effect). Note that surfactants actually reduce the surface tension of water by a factor of three or more.\n",
"A soap bubble is an extremely thin film of soapy water enclosing air that forms a hollow sphere with an iridescent surface. Soap bubbles usually last for only a few seconds before bursting, either on their own or on contact with another object. They are often used for children's enjoyment, but they are also used in artistic performances. Assembling several bubbles results in foam.\n",
"In a normal soap bubble, surfactants reduce the surface tension of the water and allow the bubble to form. To create a colored bubble, dye molecules must bond to the surfactants. Each dye molecule in \"Zubbles\" is a structure known as a lactone ring. When the ring is closed, the molecule absorbs all visible light except for the color of the bubble. However, subjecting the lactone ring to air, water, or pressure causes the ring to open. This changes the molecule's structure to a straight chain which absorbs no visible light.\n",
"A bubble is made of transparent water enclosing transparent air. However the soap film is as thin as the visible light wavelength, resulting in interferences. This creates iridescence which, together with the bubble's spherical shape and fragility, contributes to its magical effect on children and adults alike. Each colour is the result of varying thicknesses of soap bubble film. Tom Noddy (who featured in the second episode of Marcus du Sautoy's \"The Code\") gave the analogy of looking at a contour map of the bubbles' surface. However, it has become a challenge to produce artificially coloured bubbles.\n",
"Spherical bubbles in soapy water in a fcc or hcp arrangement, when the water in the gaps between the bubbles drains out, also approach the rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb or trapezo-rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb. However, such fcc or hcp foams of very small liquid content are unstable, as they do not satisfy Plateau's laws. The Kelvin foam and the Weaire–Phelan foam are more stable, having smaller interfacial energy in the limit of a very small liquid content.\n",
"Zubbles is a commercial name for colored soap bubbles. Zubbles claim to fame is that they are the first colored soap bubbles that do not leave stains. Instead they fade away with exposure to air, pressure, and water. \n"
] |
it just hit me that there are no longer any wild cows. how/when did this happen?
|
Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs. As time went on, the aurochs were hunted, saw their available habitat shrink greatly, and contracted diseases from domesticated cattle. The last one died in the 17th century.
|
[
"The loss of livestock was not discovered until spring, when many cattle carcasses were spread across the fields and washed down streams. The few remaining cattle were in poor health, emaciated and suffering from frostbite. This resulted in the cattle being sold for much less, in some cases leading to bankruptcy.\n",
"In the early 1920s, there was an outbreak of a previously unrecognized cattle disease in the northern United States and Canada. Cattle were haemorrhaging after minor procedures and on some occasions, spontaneously. For example, 21 out of 22 cows died after dehorning and 12 out of 25 bulls died after castration. All of these animals had bled to death.\n",
"The native population declined in the 20th century due to a combination of factors, with the wild population in Mongolia dying out in the 1960s. The last herd was sighted in 1967, and the last individual horse in 1969. Expeditions after this failed to locate any horses, and the species had been designated \"extinct in the wild\" for over 30 years.\n",
"By 1968, the wild herd were concentrated mostly on BLM lands owing to previous roundups and construction of boundary fences. That year, the BLM again stated its intention to remove the herds, this time with the possibility of returning a small number (either 15 or 35) to the range. In response to the new announcement, the Pryor Mountain Wild Horse Association (PMWHA) was formed with the goal of preventing the roundup, and began working in concert with larger organizations such as the International Society for the Protection of Animals. The BLM argued that the horses were being removed because they were likely to starve, as they had overgrazed their environment, while the PMWHA argued the degradation of the range was not due to the horses and that in fact they were in no danger of starving. The organization further charged that the BLM was acting at the behest of other state and federal organizations who wished to see the horses removed, rather than acting in line with public opinion. The PMWHA was also concerned with the effect that the penning would have on the feral horses.\n",
"When the population departed they left a herd of beef cattle - 8 cows and 1 bull (Shorthorn - Aberdeen-Angus cross). Five generations later, in 2004, the herd which had turned feral was still going strong, and is now classified as a new breed in the \"World Dictionary of Livestock Breeds\". It then consisted of ten bulls, four cows, and two calves. Two calves are born each spring, although not all live to maturity. The herd gets no additional feed, although it is checked by a vet each year. The animals are self-selecting for hardiness, easy calving, and low-maintenance, feeding off the grass and seaweed. Having been separated from the mainland for so long, they are completely disease-free, and have reverted to wild behaviour. Because of this, DNA samples have been taken, from the ears of some of the cattle that died. In the summer the main herd is usually in the centre of the island.\n",
"In 1900, there were two to five million feral horses in the United States. However, their numbers were in steep decline as domestic cattle and sheep competed with them for resources. After the mid-1930s, their numbers fell even more drastically due to intervention by the U.S. government. The United States Forest Service and the U.S. Grazing Service (the predecessor to the Bureau of Land Management (BLM)) began to remove feral horses from federal land. The two agencies were concerned that there were too many horses on the land, which led to overgrazing and significant soil erosion. Ranchers wanted the feral horses removed because they were grazing on land ranchers wanted to use for their own livestock. Hunters were worried that as horses degraded range land, hunting species would also suffer. \n",
"After the first case of mad cow disease that was discovered, two more cases emerged. In 2005, the second instance was found in a cow in Texas, and the third was found in 2006 in a cow from Alabama. In 2012, this issue still remains a controversy. On April 24, 2012, the Department of Agriculture discovered a dairy cow in central California with mad cow disease. The USDA's chief veterinary officer, John Clifford, stated that the cow's meat did not enter the food supply. In addition to this, the carcass will be destroyed. The infected cow was found due to random sampling and is considered the fourth cow in the U.S. to be infected with BSE. This has caused the controversy to arise once again and speculation on whether the VSTA regulates testing for BSE in cows is still a hot topic to be discussed.\n"
] |
work, power, and energy (physics) and their differences
|
Work - When a **force** moves an **object**, **energy is transferred** and **work is done**. Work is measured in Joules. Whenever something moves, something else is providing some sort of **effort** to move it. The thing providing the effort needs some sort of **energy** (food, fuel, electricity etc.). It then does work by moving the object, and in doing so transfers the energy it receives as fuel into other forms. The formula for working out work is *work done = force x distance*.
Power - Power is the **rate** of doing work, i.e. how much per second. A powerful machine doesn't necessarily exert a strong force (it usually does though), a powerful machine is one which transfers a lot of energy in a short space of time. It is measured in Watts, which are 1 J/s. So, for example, if a bunch of hooligans drag a tractor tyre 5m over the ground in 10 seconds, and they pull with a force of 340 Newtons. You would do 340 x 5, or force x distance. This works out at them having done 1700J of **work**. Now, since it took them 10 seconds, we do1700/10, which gives 170 Watts, which is how much **power** they had.
Energy - energy can be defined as (according to Wikipedia) " the ability a physical system has to do work on other physical systems".
I hope this helps. Not quite ELI5, more like ELI15, sorry 'bout that.
|
[
"As a physical concept, power requires both a change in the physical system and a specified time in which the change occurs. This is distinct from the concept of work, which is only measured in terms of a net change in the state of the physical system. The same amount of work is done when carrying a load up a flight of stairs whether the person carrying it walks or runs, but more power is needed for running because the work is done in a shorter amount of time. \n",
"Energy – in physics, this is an indirectly observed quantity often understood as the ability of a physical system to do work on other physical systems. Since work is defined as a force acting through a distance (a length of space), energy is always equivalent to the ability to exert force (a pull or a push) against an object that is moving along a definite path of certain length.\n",
"In physics, power is the rate of doing work or of transferring heat, i.e. the amount of energy transferred or converted per unit time. Having no direction, it is a scalar quantity. In the International System of Units, the unit of power is the joule per second (J/s), known as the watt in honour of James Watt, the eighteenth-century developer of the condenser steam engine. Another common and traditional measure is horsepower (comparing to the power of a horse). Being the rate of work, the equation for power can be written:\n",
"The basic definition of \"energy\" is a measure of a body's (in thermodynamics, the system's) ability to cause change. For example, when a person pushes a heavy box a few meters forward, that person exerts mechanical energy, also known as work, on the box over a distance of a few meters forward. The mathematical definition of this form of energy is the product of the force exerted on the object and the distance by which the box moved (Work=Force x Distance). Because the person changed the stationary position of the box, that person exerted energy on that box. The work exerted can also be called \"useful energy\". Because energy was converted from one form into the intended purpose, i.e. mechanical utilisation. For the case of the person pushing the box, the energy in the form of internal (or potential) energy obtained through metabolism was converted into work in order to push the box. This energy conversion, however, was not straight-forward. In other words, while some internal energy went into pushing the box, some was diverted away (lost) in the form of heat (transferred thermal energy). For a reversible process, heat is the product of the absolute temperature \"T\" and the change in entropy \"S\" of a body (entropy is a measure of disorder in a system). The difference between the change in internal energy, which is ΔU, and the energy lost in the form of heat is what is called the \"useful energy\" of the body, or the work of the body performed on an object. In thermodynamics, this is what is known as \"free energy\". In other words, free energy is a measure of work (useful energy) a system can perform at constant temperature. Mathematically, free energy is expressed as:\n",
"In electrical engineering, power represents the rate of electrical energy flowing into or out of a given component or control volume. Power is a signed quantity; negative power just represents power flowing in the opposite direction from positive power. From the standpoint of power flow, electrical components in a circuit can be divided into two types: \n",
"Energy is a scalar quantity and the mechanical energy of a system is the sum of the potential energy (which is measured by the position of the parts of the system) and the kinetic energy (which is also called the energy of motion):\n",
"In physics, energy is the quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on, or to heat, the object. Energy is a conserved quantity; the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The SI unit of energy is the joule, which is the energy transferred to an object by the work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton.\n"
] |
In light of the recent growth of sightings of Tasmanian Tigers and possibility of a species coming back from what we thought was extinction... Has this happened with any other species in the last ~500 years?
|
Black footed ferrets from the US and Canada were declared extinct in 1979 due to farmers poisoning prairie dogs, their food supply. Lo and behold, a farmer's dog brought home a dead one 2 years later and they became endangered instead!
|
[
"BULLET::::- Tasmanian tiger – Despite the widely held view that the thylacine (or Tasmanian tiger) became extinct during the 1930s, accounts of alleged sightings in eastern Victoria and parts of Tasmania have persisted to the present day.\n",
"The eastern quoll likely became extinct on mainland Australia due to disease and predation by introduced predators (red fox and feral cat). The lack of foxes in Tasmania likely has contributed to the survival of the species there; however, unseasonal weather events and predation by feral cats are thought to have contributed to a possible recent decline in the Tasmanian population. The species is currently classified as Endangered by the IUCN.\n",
"The island of Tasmania was home to the thylacine, a marsupial which resembled a wild dog. Known colloquially as the Tasmanian tiger for the distinctive striping across its back, it became extinct in mainland Australia about 4,000 years ago because of competition by the introduced dingo. Owing to persecution by farmers, government-funded bounty hunters and, in the final years, collectors for overseas museums, it appears to have been exterminated in Tasmania.\n",
"Perhaps the saddest extinction of all, this depressing episode tells the story of how one gunshot in Wilfrid Batty's gun not only ended the life of one of the last Tasmanian tigers but sounded the death knell for the entire species. The program covers basic anatomy of the marsupial and shows it hunting in the wild. It also shows actual footage of the animal in zoos. It is explained that the tiger's disappearance was due to the bounty system, in which the government paid everyone who killed a Tasmanian tiger 1 pound. When it was realized that the animal was becoming extinct, there was a rush to catch every last one and put them in zoos. Most zoo specimens died by the 1930s. The last tiger ever seen was \"Ben\", in Hobart Zoo. There were two final twists to this tale: \"Ben\" wasn't a male thylacine and, when she died in September 1936, \"Ben\" had endured her last 59 days as a protected species.\n",
"This species is possibly extinct. In 2017, a statistical model assessed the extinction probability of 23 mammal species that have been missing since the 19th century. The Aru flying fox was one of the five species that the model determined was almost certainly extinct. There has not been a confirmed sighting of this species since 1877.\n",
"Far more recent possible or presumed extinctions of species which may turn out still to exist include the thylacine, or Tasmanian tiger (\"Thylacinus cynocephalus\"), the last known example of which died in Hobart Zoo in Tasmania in 1936; the Japanese wolf (\"Canis lupus hodophilax\"), last sighted over 100 years ago; the ivory-billed woodpecker (\"Campephilus principalis\"), last sighted for certain in 1944; and the slender-billed curlew (\"Numenius tenuirostris\"), not seen since 2007.\n",
"The island of Tasmania was home to the thylacine, a marsupial which resembled a fossa or some say a wild dog. Known colloquially as the Tasmanian tiger for the distinctive striping across its back, it became extinct in mainland Australia much earlier because of competition by the dingo, introduced in prehistoric times. Owing to persecution by farmers, government-funded bounty hunters and, in the final years, collectors for overseas museums, it appears to have been exterminated in Tasmania. The Tasmanian devil became the largest carnivorous marsupial in the world following the extinction of the thylacine in 1936, and is now found in the wild only in Tasmania. Tasmania was one of the last regions of Australia to be introduced to domesticated dogs. Dogs were brought from Britain in 1803 for hunting kangaroos and emus. This introduction completely transformed Aboriginal society, as it helped them to successfully compete with European hunters, and was more important than the introduction of guns for the Aboriginals.\n"
] |
Why galaxies have shape at all? (speed of light, correlation light scale, causality)
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Changes must not be faster than the speed of light, but existing fields are not changes. Gravity for example is traveling at the speed of light. By your thought, the sun shouldn't be capable to pull on earth, because it is so far away. But actually, the gravitational field already exists and we are moving in it, so there is no contradiction.
If the sun's mass was to disappear all of a sudden, the information would then propagate through space at the speed of light and reach us about 8 minutes later. The earth would be shot into space, because there is no force holding us at our place.
And it is the same for light. Truely, information can only travel at the speed of light. But the thing is, we don't see things in realtime but i a distorted way because of that. That doesn't matter much though, because the actual change is so insignificant even over galactic scales that we can't really tell a difference.
The stars in our galaxy are moving at about 250 km/s. If you have two reference star at two opposite points of the milky way (100,000 ly diameter) their actual position would differ only about 3 lightyears from their seen position, or a tiny fraction of a degree not even visible to the unaided eye. The appearance is maintained by "too insignificant changes".
|
[
"There are many galaxies visible in telescopes with red shift numbers of 1.4 or higher. All of these are currently traveling away from us at speeds greater than the speed of light. Because the Hubble parameter is decreasing with time, there can actually be cases where a galaxy that is receding from us faster than light does manage to emit a signal which reaches us eventually.\n",
"The majority of active galaxies are very distant and show large Doppler shifts. This suggests that active galaxies occurred in the early Universe and, due to cosmic inflation, are receding away from the Milky Way at very high speeds. Quasars are the furthest active galaxies, some of them being observed at distances 12 billion light years away. Seyfert galaxies are much closer than quasars. Because light has a finite speed, looking across large distances in the Universe is equivalent to looking back in time. Therefore, the observation of active galactic nuclei at large distances and their scarcity in the nearby Universe suggests that they were much more common in the early Universe, implying that active galactic nuclei could be early stages of galactic evolution. This leads to the question about what would be the local (modern-day) counterparts of AGNs found at large redshifts. It has been proposed that NLSy1s could be the small redshift counterparts of quasars found at large redshifts (z4). The two have many similar properties, for example: high metallicities or similar pattern of emission lines (strong Fe [II], weak O [III]). Some observations suggest that AGN emission from the nucleus is not spherically symmetric and that the nucleus often shows axial symmetry, with radiation escaping in a conical region. Based on these observations, models have been devised to explain the different classes of AGNs as due to their different orientations with respect to the observational line of sight. Such models are called unified models. Unified models explain the difference between Seyfert I and Seyfert II galaxies as being the result of Seyfert II galaxies being surrounded by obscuring toruses which prevent telescopes from seeing the broad line region. Quasars and blazars can be fit quite easily in this model. The main problem of such an unification scheme is trying to explain why some AGN are radio loud while others are radio quiet. It has been suggested that these differences may be due to differences in the spin of the central black hole.\n",
"In models of the expanding universe, the farther galaxies are from each other, the faster they drift apart. This receding is not due to motion \"through\" space, but rather to the expansion of space itself. For example, galaxies far away from Earth appear to be moving away from the Earth with a speed proportional to their distances. Beyond a boundary called the Hubble sphere, the rate at which their distance from Earth increases becomes greater than the speed of light.\n",
"Galaxies are categorized according to their visual morphology as elliptical, spiral, or irregular. Many galaxies are thought to have supermassive black holes at their centers. The Milky Way's central black hole, known as Sagittarius A*, has a mass four million times greater than the Sun. As of March 2016, GN-z11 is the oldest and most distant observed galaxy with a comoving distance of 32 billion light-years from Earth, and observed as it existed just 400 million years after the Big Bang.\n",
"Caution is required in describing structures on a cosmic scale because things are often different from how they appear. Gravitational lensing (bending of light by gravitation) can make an image appear to originate in a different direction from its real source. This is caused when foreground objects (such as galaxies) curve surrounding spacetime (as predicted by general relativity), and deflect passing light rays. Rather usefully, strong gravitational lensing can sometimes magnify distant galaxies, making them easier to detect. Weak lensing (gravitational shear) by the intervening universe in general also subtly changes the observed large-scale structure.\n",
"For relatively nearby galaxies (redshift \"z\" much less than unity), \"v\" and \"D\" will not have changed much, and \"v\" can be estimated using the formula formula_18 where \"c\" is the speed of light. This gives the empirical relation found by Hubble.\n",
"Since observations of galaxy rotation do not match the distribution expected from application of Kepler's laws, they do not match the distribution of luminous matter. This implies that spiral galaxies contain large amounts of dark matter or, in alternative, the existence of exotic physics in action on galactic scales. The additional invisible component becomes progressively more conspicuous in each galaxy at outer radii and among galaxies in the less luminous ones.\n"
] |
the difference between milk pasteurization in europe and america that lets european milk last so much longer and without refrigeration.
|
First off, let's understand why food or drink spoils. in our world, there are microscopic living things everywhere. We call them *microbes*. Bacteria and molds are the kind we're usually worried about when it comes to food, because they're usually what make it spoil. They eat the food and grow in it. We can't eat the food after that happens too much, because eating too much of those microbes will make us sick.
This is why we put food in the fridge. When it's colder, most microbes grow much more slowly. So it takes a lot longer for whatever microbes are in there to grow enough to make us sick.
Another way to make food last longer before it spoils is *pasteurization*. The way you pasteurize something is by heating it up to a certain temperature, keeping it at that temperature for a certain amount of time, and then cooling it back down. The idea here is that the heat kills off some of the microbes. Note that I didn't say it kills *all* of them -- this isn't the same thing as sterilization -- but it kills enough of them that it makes a difference.
And, by the way, remember that pasteurization doesn't matter as much after the food has been opened, because then other microbes get in it. That's why you can keep food in its container in the fridge for, say, three weeks, but then you have to finish it within one week after you open it.
Alright. Now, the thing is, there are different ways to pasteurize. You can use a higher temperature for less time, or a lower temperature for a longer time. Depending on how you do it, you can kill more or less of the microbes. The tradeoff is how much work it is to do it and how much it changes how the food tastes or looks, since heat changes proteins and vitamins and sugars and stuff.
Most milk in the United States is pasteurized using a technique called *high temperature short time pasteurization*, or HTST. The milk is held at about 160 degrees for about 30 seconds. This is pretty good -- after that, the milk will last a few weeks in a fridge before it starts to spoil.
In Europe, though, most milk is pasteurized using a technique called *ultra-high temperature pasteurization*, or UHT. It gets way hotter -- 280 degrees -- but it only keeps the milk that hot for just 2 seconds. UHT kills so many microbes that you can keep the milk unrefrigerated for many months.
The tradeoff is that the taste and smell and mouthfeel, and even the vitamin content, of UHT milk isn't quite as good as HTST milk. Neither is as good as fresh unpasteurized milk though.
And, of course, you could kill all the microbes by actually boiling the milk instead of just pasteurizing it, which would make it last a super-long time, but boiling changes milk's proteins so much that it could curdle.
|
[
"Developed countries adopted milk pasteurization to prevent such disease and loss of life, and as a result milk is now considered a safer food. A traditional form of pasteurization by scalding and straining of cream to increase the keeping qualities of butter was practiced in Great Britain in the 18th century and was introduced to Boston in the British Colonies by 1773, although it was not widely practiced in the United States for the next 20 years. Pasteurization of milk was suggested by Franz von Soxhlet in 1886. In the early 20th century, Milton Joseph Rosenau established the standards – i.e. low-temperature, slow heating at for 20 minutes – for the pasteurization of milk while at the United States Marine Hospital Service, notably in his publication of \"The Milk Question\" (1912). States in the U.S. soon began enacting mandatory dairy pasteurization laws, with the first in 1947, and in 1973 the U.S. federal government required pasteurization of milk used in any interstate commerce.\n",
"Pasteurization is a process for preservation of liquid food. It was originally applied to combat the souring of young local wines. Today, the process is mainly applied to dairy products. In this method, milk is heated at about for 15–30 seconds to kill the bacteria present in it and cooling it quickly to to prevent the remaining bacteria from growing. The milk is then stored in sterilized bottles or pouches in cold places. This method was invented by Louis Pasteur, a French chemist, in 1862.\n",
"Pasteurization is used to kill harmful pathogenic bacteria by heating the milk for a short time and then immediately cooling it. Types of pasteurized milk include full cream, reduced fat, skim milk, calcium enriched, flavored, and UHT. The standard high temperature short time (HTST) process of 72 °C for 15 seconds completely kills pathogenic bacteria in milk, rendering it safe to drink for up to three weeks if continually refrigerated. Dairies print best before dates on each container, after which stores remove any unsold milk from their shelves.\n",
"The shelf life of refrigerated pasteurized milk is greater than that of raw milk. For example, high-temperature, short-time (HTST) pasteurized milk typically has a refrigerated shelf life of two to three weeks, whereas ultra-pasteurized milk can last much longer, sometimes two to three months. When ultra-heat treatment (UHT) is combined with sterile handling and container technology (such as aseptic packaging), it can even be stored non-refrigerated for up to 9 months.\n",
"Pasteurization is widely accepted to improve the safety of milk products by reducing the exposure to pathogens. Opponents of pasteurization argue that unpasteurized milk has benefits associated with superior taste, nutritional qualities and certain health benefits over pasteurized milk. While pasteurization of milk kills off bacterial pathogens, other bacteria species with possible health benefits are also destroyed. Pasteurization of cow's milk destroys any potential pathogens and increases the shelf life. During pasteurization, however, these lactic acid bacteria are mostly destroyed. A 2009 systematic review of the food safety of unpasteurized milk concluded that science-based data to substantiate claims of health benefits \"are lacking or do not exist\" and the risks associated with disease outbreaks as a result of raw milk consumption are \"considerably higher\".\n",
"Pasteurisation is the process of heating a liquid for a period of time at a specified temperature, then immediately cooling. The process reduces the growth of microorganisms within the liquid, thereby increasing the time before spoilage. It is primarily used on milk, which prior to pasteurisation is commonly infected with pathogenic bacteria and therefore is more likely than any other part of the common diet in the developed world to cause illness.\n",
"Milk preserved by the UHT process does not need to be refrigerated before opening and has a much longer shelf life (six months) than milk in ordinary packaging. It is typically sold unrefrigerated in the UK, U.S., Europe, Latin America, and Australia.\n"
] |
What's the hottest and coldest temperatures insects can survive in?
|
Because of their ability to withstand desiccation (removal of moisture) insects can recover from extreme temperature events. Including being submerged in liquid helium.
From a cursory look, it appears +/- 55 C is the general range of temperatures.
References/further reading: [Cold](_URL_1_) and [Hot](_URL_0_).
|
[
"A number of insects have temperature and humidity sensors and insects being small, cool more quickly than larger animals. Insects are generally considered cold-blooded or ectothermic, their body temperature rising and falling with the environment. However, flying insects raise their body temperature through the action of flight, above environmental temperatures.\n",
"Among the psychrophile insects, the Grylloblattidae or icebugs, found on mountaintops, have optimal temperatures between 1-4 °C. The wingless midge (Chironomidae) \"Belgica antarctica\" can tolerate salt, being frozen and strong ultraviolet, and has the smallest known genome of any insect. The small genome, of 99 million base pairs, is thought to be adaptive to extreme environments.\n",
"BULLET::::- Temperature-based treatment- Since insects need specific temperatures to thrive, placing objects in a freezer that is -25 to -30 degrees Celsius for three days will kill off any remaining insects. Alternatively, placing objects in a space that is heated to 50 degrees Celius for an hour will also kill all stages of insect growth.\n",
"Insects range in their size, structure, and general appearance but most use hibernacula. All insects are primarily exothermic. For this reason, extremely cold temperatures, such as those experienced in the winter season, outside of tropical locations, cause their metabolic systems to shut down; long exposure may lead to death. Insects survive colder winters through the process of overwintering, which occurs at all stages of development and may include migration or hibernation for different insects, the latter of which must be done in hibernacula. Insects that do not migrate must halt their growth to avoid freezing to death, in a process called diapause. Insects prepare to overwinter through a variety of mechanisms, such as using anti-freeze proteins or cryoprotectants in freeze-avoidant insects, like soybean aphids. Cryoprotectants are toxic, with high concentrations only tolerated at low temperatures. Thus, hibernacula are used to avoid sporadic warming and the risk of death due high concentrations of cryoprotectants at warmer temperatures. Freeze-tolerant insects, like second-generation corn-borers, can survive being frozen and therefore, undergo inoculative freezing. Hibernacula range in size and structure depending on the insects using them.\n",
"Insect life-histories show adaptations to withstand cold and dry conditions. Some temperate region insects are capable of activity during winter, while some others migrate to a warmer climate or go into a state of torpor. Still other insects have evolved mechanisms of diapause that allow eggs or pupae to survive these conditions.\n",
"Some dragonflies, including libellulids and aeshnids, live in desert pools, for example in the Mojave Desert, where they are active in shade temperatures between 18 and 45 °C (64.4 to 113 °F); these insects were able to survive body temperatures above the thermal death point of insects of the same species in cooler places.\n",
"Insects are poikilothermic, but maintaining an adequate temperature range remains important. For example, mealworms thrive best when living close together, but this can lead to overheating if temperature is not controlled.\n"
] |
why are local positions like coroner, surveyor, recorder, etc elected by the people, and why should the average person care about them?
|
The theory is that these people's findings have (or used to have) a direct impact on tax collection, so the people should have a say in who gets the job to prevent abuse of power.
> Electing a coroner is a holdover from British Common Law, where the coroner’s job was to determine how and when people had died in order to collect taxes.
[source](_URL_0_)
|
[
"Career civil servants (not temporary workers or politicians) are hired only externally on the basis of entrance examinations (). It usually consists of a written test; some posts may require physical tests (such as policemen), or oral tests (such as professors, judges, prosecutors and attorneys). The rank according to the examination score is used for filling the vacancies.\n",
"Chartered surveyors in the core of the profession may offer mortgage valuations, homebuyer's survey and valuations, full building surveys, building surveyors' services, quantity surveying, land surveying, auctioneering, estate management and other forms of survey- and building-related advice. It is not usual for any individual member to have expertise in all areas, and hence partnerships or companies are established to create practices able to offer a wider spectrum of surveying services.\n",
"Chartered surveyors in the core of the profession may offer mortgage valuations, homebuyer's survey and valuations, full building surveys, building surveyors' services, quantity surveying, land surveying, auctioneering, estate management and other forms of survey- and building-related advice. It is not usual for any individual member to have expertise in all areas, and hence partnerships or companies are established to create general practices able to offer a wider spectrum of surveying services.\n",
"There is no qualifying examination, but appointees are required to be of good character and they are usually well established in the local community. People convicted of serious offences are considered unsuitable. Civil servants are usually only appointed where the performance of their official duties requires an appointment (i.e. ex-officio). Solicitors, people employed in legal offices, and members of the clergy are, as a matter of practice, not appointed because their occupation may cause a conflict of interest when exercising the duties of a peace commissioner. The fact that an applicant or nominee may be suitable for appointment does not, in itself, provide any entitlement to appointment as a peace commissioner because other factors, such as the need for appointments in particular areas, are taken into account.\n",
"For many years the description of the number of tiers in UK local government arrangements has routinely ignored any current or previous bodies at the lowest level of authorities elected by the voters within their area such as parish (in England and Wales) or community councils; such bodies do not exist or have not existed in all areas.\n",
"Local government consists of city and county officers, as well as people who are known as constitutional officers. The positions of these constitutional officers are provided for by the Virginia Constitution. Article 7, Section 4 of the Virginia constitution provides, \"There shall be elected by the qualified voters of each county and city a treasurer, a sheriff, an attorney for the Commonwealth, a clerk, who shall be clerk of the court in the office of which deeds are recorded, and a commissioner of revenue.\" The local constitutional offices are not appointed by the city or county. The Judges of the Circuit Court, the General District Court and the Juvenile and Domestic Relations District Court are appointed by the State legislature. The constitutional officers have salaries set by the state through its compensation board, although the locality may supplement the salaries. This structure allows those officers a measure of independence within the local government setting.\n",
"Each county has a county seat, often a populous or centrally located community, where the county's governmental offices are located. Some of the services provided by the county include: law enforcement, circuit courts, social services, vital records and deed registration, road maintenance, and snow removal. County officials include sheriffs, district attorneys, clerks, treasurers, coroners, surveyors, registers of deeds, and clerks of circuit court; these officers are elected for four-year terms. In most counties, elected coroners have been replaced by appointed medical examiners. State law permits counties to appoint a registered land surveyor in place of electing a surveyor.\n"
] |
why cant we cure genetic diseases with genetic engineering?
|
That's like saying "why can't we solve engineering problems with engineering?"
It's one thing to spot and identify a problem, but a whole different thing to find ways to understand it, solve it, get the tools you need at the precision you need.
For all things medical you also need extensive studies to rule out (or reign in) side effects, find ways to make treatments somewhat affordable and easy to administer and so on.
Science / knowledge isn't the end of problem solving. It's the start.
|
[
"Genetic engineering could potentially fix severe genetic disorders in humans by replacing the defective gene with a functioning one. It is an important tool in research that allows the function of specific genes to be studied. Drugs, vaccines and other products have been harvested from organisms engineered to produce them. Crops have been developed that aid food security by increasing yield, nutritional value and tolerance to environmental stresses.\n",
"The kind of technology used in genetic engineering is also being developed to treat people with genetic disorders in an experimental medical technique called gene therapy. However, here the new gene is put in after the person has grown up and become ill, so any new gene is not inherited by their children. Gene therapy works by trying to replace the allele that causes the disease with an allele that works properly.\n",
"Genetic engineering has been applied in numerous fields including research, medicine, industrial biotechnology and agriculture. In research GMOs are used to study gene function and expression through loss of function, gain of function, tracking and expression experiments. By knocking out genes responsible for certain conditions it is possible to create animal model organisms of human diseases. As well as producing hormones, vaccines and other drugs genetic engineering has the potential to cure genetic diseases through gene therapy. The same techniques that are used to produce drugs can also have industrial applications such as producing enzymes for laundry detergent, cheeses and other products.\n",
"Proponents of genetic engineering cite its ability to cure and prevent life-threatening diseases. Genetic engineering began in the 1970s when scientists began to clone and engineer genes. From this, scientists were able to create human insulin, the first-ever genetically-engineered drug. Because of this development, over the years scientists were able to create new drugs to treat devastating diseases. For example, in the early 1990s, a group of scientists were able to use a gene-drug to treat severe combined immunodeficiency in a young girl. \n",
"I do not think the main problem with enhancement and genetic engineering is that they undermine effort and erode human agency. The deeper danger is that they represent a kind of hyperagency—a Promethean aspiration to remake nature, including human nature, to serve our purposes and satisfy our desires\".\n",
"Genetic engineering could be used to cure diseases, but also to change physical appearance, metabolism, and even improve physical capabilities and mental faculties such as memory and intelligence. Ethical claims about germline engineering include beliefs that every fetus has a right to remain genetically unmodified, that parents hold the right to genetically modify their offspring, and that every child has the right to be born free of preventable diseases. For parents, genetic engineering could be seen as another child enhancement technique to add to diet, exercise, education, training, cosmetics, and plastic surgery. Another theorist claims that moral concerns limit but do not prohibit germline engineering.\n",
"For some people, the biggest issue with genetic engineering is whether or not to seek out nd act on knowledge about genetic flaws. Double Helix attempts to explore the life saving and life destroying aspects of genetic engineering. The book proposes that, while Eli’s life was saved by avoiding the Huntington’s disease gene, his concept of life and self were destroyed when he found out he was genetically engineered to be a certain way.\n"
] |
why are emergency services' two way radio systems so fuzzy and unclear? shouldn't emergency services have crisp audio more than anyone else?
|
They use big long radio waves that can go through almost anything. That has the drawback that that frequency has a lot of minor interference and distortion on it.
|
[
"Police radio and other public safety services such as fire departments and ambulances are generally found in the VHF and UHF parts of the spectrum. Trunking systems are often used to make most efficient use of the limited number of frequencies available. \n",
"Emergency radios are generally designed to cover the standard AM and FM broadcasting bands, and weather radio in countries that provide that service. Basic shortwave radio coverage (for situations where local radio is out or not available) is less-common.\n",
"BULLET::::- portable two-way radios, which transmit and receive on the same frequencies as the built in two-way radios, but are less powerful. Emergency workers can take these radios with them when they exit the vehicle. There are also systems (frequently referred to as mobile extenders or mobile repeaters) that allow the portable radios to be relayed through the vehicle's more powerful two way radio. Some emergency services encrypt their radio transmissions.\n",
"One element that separates some emergency radios from other types of radios, is the ability to broadcast alerts via the Emergency Alert System, even when the radio sound is turned off. This is especially useful in areas where sudden storms, tornadoes, tsunamis or other fast-breaking emergencies can occur. Some emergency radios are designed to also charge other devices, such as cell phones or mp3 players, but this can vary widely.\n",
"All officers also carry two-way radios registered to Airwave Solutions, a nationwide radio network in the UK on which police and other emergency rely. Based on the TETRA standard, the radio network is secure and fully protected against eavesdropping on transmissions, as well as allowing interoperability with other police services, fire brigades, as well as ambulance services. For the Lancashire Police, Motorola MTH800s are the radios of choice.\n",
"Some agencies use commercial two-way radio as an adjunct to their own communications networks. One professional engineering evaluation of public safety radio systems explains that commercial systems such as Nextel's are not built to the same standards of coverage and non-blocking as public safety trunked systems. Like toy walkie talkies marketed to children, they are usable and helpful for non-urgent communications but should not be considered reliable enough for life safety uses. It is also true that most trunked radio system users are likely to hear busy signals, (error tones showing no channels are available,) for the first time during a large disaster. All systems have a finite capacity.\n",
"BULLET::::- Two-way radio – One of the most important pieces of equipment in modern emergency medical services as it allows for the issuing of jobs to the ambulance, and can allow the crew to pass information back to control or to the hospital (for example a priority ASHICE message to alert the hospital of the impending arrival of a critical patient.) More recently many services worldwide have moved from traditional analog UHF/VHF sets, which can be monitored externally, to more secure digital systems, such as those working on a GSM system, such as TETRA.\n"
] |
How were large, dangerous animals like bears hunted in the Middle Ages?
|
Unfortunately there isn't a lot of source material on bear hunting as a lot of our late medieval 'hunting manuals' were produced in England...when the bear had been long extinct. However, the very famous 14th c hunting manual by [Gaston Fébus](_URL_0_), the [*Livre de chasse*](_URL_3_), features a chapter on hunting bear. In fact, Gaston is said to have died of stroke while washing his hands of bear blood; this would be a classic example of how we can't take the words of medieval writers about aristocracy at face value - they are always burnishing the image of the subject. As the count of Foix Gaston would have hunted in the Pyrenees where bears have roamed even until recently (and there is in fact a protest by farmers now against the planned re-introduction of bears). I don't know if his book has been translated to English - I've only seen editions of the various manuscript images with summaries.
Generally speaking, large animals were harried by horseback riders and hounds and driven into places that could be controlled: pits and traps. Hunters were on horseback and on foot, using weapons at a distance: bows and spears. It seems aristocrats were less interested in demonstrating strength than an ability to outwit their prey, whether bear, stag or wolf.
If you want to write about medieval hunting, try to find these two books:
* [John Cummins, The Art of Medieval Hunting: The Hound and the Hawk (Castle Books, 2003)](_URL_2_)
* [Richard Almond, Medieval Hunting (The History Press, 2011)](_URL_1_)
|
[
"Bear hunting is the act of hunting bears. Bears have been hunted since prehistoric times for their meat and fur. In modern times they have been favoured by big game hunters due to their size and ferocity. Bear hunting has a vast history throughout Europe and North America, and hunting practices have varied based on location and type of bear.\n",
"The Ainu usually hunted bear during the time of the spring thaw. At that time, bears were weak because they had not fed at all during long hibernation. Ainu hunters caught hibernating bears or bears that had just left hibernation dens. When they hunted bear in summer, they used a spring trap loaded with an arrow, called an \"amappo\". The Ainu usually used arrows to hunt deer. Also, they drove deer into a river or sea and shot them with arrows. For a large catch, a whole village would drive a herd of deer off a cliff and club them to death.\n",
"In many parts of North Africa and the Middle East, large stone corrals were constructed to drive herds of gazelle into, making for an easy ambush. This method of hunting started in prehistoric time, and continued into the early part of the 20th century.\n",
"Bears have been hunted since prehistoric times for their meat and fur; they have been used for bear-baiting and other forms of entertainment, such as being made to dance. With their powerful physical presence, they play a prominent role in the arts, mythology, and other cultural aspects of various human societies. In modern times, bears have come under pressure through encroachment on their habitats and illegal trade in bear parts, including the Asian bile bear market. The IUCN lists six bear species as vulnerable or endangered, and even least concern species, such as the brown bear, are at risk of extirpation in certain countries. The poaching and international trade of these most threatened populations are prohibited, but still ongoing.\n",
"In the 19th century, as the settlers began increasingly moving west in pursuit of more land for ranching, bears were becoming increasingly more hunted as threats to livestock. In 1818, a “War of Extermination” against wolves and bears was declared in Ohio. Bear pelts were usually sold for 220 dollars in the 1860s. \n",
"Bear hunts were ceremonial. Black bears were usually hunted in winter, where lighted poles were used to drive them from their dens. Grizzlies that lived on the valley floor were greatly feared and rarely hunted. \n",
"In the first half of the 20th century, mechanized and overpoweringly efficient methods of hunting and trapping came into use in North America as well. Polar bears were chased from snowmobiles, icebreakers, and airplanes, the latter practice described in a 1965 \"New York Times\" editorial as being \"about as sporting as machine gunning a cow.\" Norwegians used \"self-killing guns\", comprising a loaded rifle in a baited box that was placed at the level of a bear's head, and which fired when the string attached to the bait was pulled. The numbers taken grew rapidly in the 1960s, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1,250 bears that year.\n"
] |
why doesn't facial hair get greasy?
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not as much oil secreted by the face as the top of the head
|
[
"Greasy hair is a hair condition which is common in humans, one of four main types of hair conditioning— normal, greasy, dry and greasy dry. It is primarily caused by build-up of the natural secretion from the sebaceous glands in the scalp and is characterised by the continuous development of natural grease on the scalp. A chronic condition of greasy hair may often accompany chronic greasy skin conditions on the face and body and oily skin and acne. Excessive carbohydrate, fat and starch consumption can increase the likelihood of developing greasy hair and also poor personal hygiene and not washing the hair for a long duration will lead to a buildup of sebum in the hair follicles. Hair conditioners can decrease the likelihood of developing greasy hair after shampooing. Some cosmetics companies produce shampoos and conditioners specifically to deal with greasy hair and for oily or dry hair problems. Massaging the scalp and exposure to the sun can reduce the problem of greasy hair.\n",
"After a hair has been shaved, it begins to grow back. Curly hair tends to curl into the skin instead of straight out the follicle, leading to an inflammation reaction. PFB can make the skin look itchy and red, and in some cases, it can even look like pimples. These inflamed papules or pustules can form especially if the area becomes infected.\n",
"Hair coloring products are commonly used to cover gray, look more attractive or keep up with fashion, yet they pose a challenge for many women. Because of the length of time the hair dye must be on the hair to achieve deep, even results, it often seeps or drips down onto the hairline, ears or neck, causing unsightly and irritating stains on the skin. Dye users are not universally affected—some persons have a tendency to get stains while others do not—most likely due to the variations in lipid or natural oil composition on the skin surface from one person to the next.\n",
"Malnutrition is also known to cause hair to become lighter, thinner, and more brittle. Dark hair may turn reddish or blondish due to the decreased production of melanin. The condition is reversible with proper nutrition.\n",
"This condition can cause single or, less commonly, multiple white patches on the hair. Some mistake these white patches for simple birth marks. In poliosis there is decreased or absent melanin in the hair bulbs of affected hair follicles; the melanocytes of the skin are usually not affected. \n",
"White piedra (or tinea blanca) is a mycosis of the hair caused by several species of fungi in the genus \"Trichosporon\". It is characterized by soft nodules composed of yeast cells and arthroconidia that encompass hair shafts.\n",
"In some cases, gray hair may be caused by thyroid deficiencies, Waardenburg syndrome or a vitamin B deficiency. At some point in the human life cycle, cells that are located in the base of the hair's follicles slow, and eventually stop producing pigment. Piebaldism is a rare autosomal dominant disorder of melanocyte development, which may cause a congenital white forelock.\n"
] |
why did ronda rousey look like a complete amateur tonight who had never stepped foot into an octagon?
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She was not THAT great of a fighter, just a dominant one in a growing sport (Women's MMA). As it got bigger, the fighters got better. And she took a long break and had just not improved in the time.
|
[
"Ronda Rousey began the Women's Bantamweight bout aggressively. Holly Holm, with her boxing ability, and from her southpaw stance, tagged Rousey repeatedly with her left hand while controlling the distance. Rousey attempted several clinches through the round, including an attempted armbar, but none had a decisive outcome. By the end of the first round, Rousey was bloodied and breathing heavily, with commentators describing the round as the first she had ever lost in her MMA career.\n",
"After the interview, Roberts staggered to the ring with his trademark snake. However, upon reaching the ring, Roberts put the snake down and attempted to return backstage; he then reversed course, returned to ringside, and began greeting fans. Before entering the ring, Roberts grabbed a female fan and had her rub her hands on his bare chest. Later, Roberts removed the snake from its bag and simulated masturbation with it. The event's producers cut to wide-shots of the crowd during the incident, so that at-home viewers were unaware what was happening in the ring. Roberts eventually collapsed in the middle of the ring with the snake draped over his body; the prone Roberts then began to attempt to kiss the snake.\n",
"The show is nominally remembered for its conclusion, originally slated to be a double-main event pitting Jake Roberts against Jim Neidhart, and King Kong Bundy against Yokozuna. Roberts' problems with drug and alcohol addiction had been well publicized in the preceding years, and his booking in the main event was meant to capitalize on the resurgence in popularity he had enjoyed as a result of his attempts at sobriety. Roberts' return to the ring was meant to be the high point of the evening, and the match responsible for generating the most publicity. However, Roberts suffered a relapse prior to the show and consumed a significant amount of alcohol before arriving. Prior to his match with Neidhart, Roberts had been scheduled to cut a promo in which he would taunt Neidhart. Due to his level of intoxication, Roberts' promo instead consisted of a slurred, incoherent rant consisting largely of wordplay based on the event's casino setting. One particular segment of the rant would go viral after it was posted on WrestleCrap:\n",
"On the March 5 episode of \"Raw\", it was announced that Rousey will make her in–ring debut WrestleMania 34, WWE's flagship event, in a mixed tag team match pitting Rousey and Kurt Angle as her partner against Stephanie McMahon and Triple H. At the event, Rousey submitted McMahon with her trademark armbar submission hold to secure the win for her team. Her debut performance was widely praised by both fans and wrestling critics, with Dave Meltzer of the \"Wrestling Observer\" noting that she \"at no point looked out of her element, she was crisp in just about everything\", calling her performance \"one of the better pro wrestling debuts I've ever seen\". \"The Washington Post\" noted the positive fan reaction, stating \"The match exceeded expectations, with fans firmly behind Rousey\" and \"[fans were] surprised [at her] high–level coordination and quality of wrestling. Even those who were not agreed the match was entertaining.\"\n",
"By 1983, Jones had largely retired from in-ring competition due to accumulated back injuries. That year, Jones developed a gimmick of wearing tuxedos, and created an angle in which he held a contest in which a large poster of himself dressed in a white tuxedo would be awarded as a prize to the winner. This led to a memorable episode of \"Mid-Atlantic Championship Wrestling\", in which the winner of the poster was revealed to be a young, attractive woman. As she walked onto the ringside set to claim her prize, she attempted to embrace Jones with a kiss as her way of thanking him; but Jones backed away quickly and proceeded to berate her violently. Rufus R. Jones then came to the lady's rescue, and was attacked by Paul. Paul then shoved the terrified young lady between himself and Rufus to block Rufus' defensive attack. This angle led to a brief feud between Paul Jones and Rufus R. Jones.\n",
"In 1956 Arnova created a controversy when she appeared on the RAI television variety show \"La piazzetta\" wearing a tight leotard that made her appear semi-nude because of the lighting effects and the black-and-white system. The show was suspended and she was subsequently fired and banned from Italian television. She subsequently chose to leave showbusiness. \n",
"As Rousey predicted, her bout with Tate was highly publicized in the months preceding it. Rousey had made her MMA debut in early 2011 and defeated all four of her opponents by first-round armbar submission. However, Tate did not believe that Rousey had earned a title shot, and felt that Rousey was largely gaining the opportunity due to being \"pretty.\" The two engaged in a variety of trash-talk, with Rousey stating that she was \"bored\" while watching Tate's win over Coenen. Ultimately, Tate and Rousey headlined a on March 3, 2012. This marked a then-rare occurrence of women being placed in the main event of an MMA card. The bout was televised on Showtime and introduced by Jimmy Lennon, Jr. Shortly after the fight began, Tate escaped Rousey's first armbar attempt and retaliated with strikes. After a back-and-forth session of grappling, Tate lost the title when Rousey secured a second armbar near the end of the first round, forcing her to submit.\n"
] |
hot weather the cause of higher violence rates?
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Climate changes how people live, which affects decisions made and indirectly affects violence. I seriously doubt you will find any evidence that heat directly affects the mind. The research has long shown that it is a indirect relationship. I have never heard of a direct correlation with weather affecting the mind in my studies. Source: Masters in Human Relations (not claiming expert, just these type studies were read and written about during my studies)
|
[
"Heat waves are the most lethal type of weather phenomenon in the United States. Between 1992 and 2001, deaths from excessive heat in the United States numbered 2,190, compared with 880 deaths from floods and 150 from hurricanes. The average annual number of fatalities directly attributed to heat in the United States is about 400. The 1995 Chicago heat wave, one of the worst in US history, led to approximately 739 heat-related deaths over a period of five days. Eric Klinenberg has noted that in the United States, the loss of human life in hot spells in summer exceeds that caused by all other weather events combined, including lightning, rain, floods, hurricanes, and tornadoes. Despite the dangers, Scott Sheridan, professor of geography at Kent State University, found that less than half of people 65 and older abide by heat-emergency recommendations like drinking lots of water. In his study of heat-wave behavior, focusing particularly on seniors in Philadelphia, Phoenix, Toronto, and Dayton, Ohio, he found that people over 65 \"don't consider themselves seniors.\" One of his older respondents said: \"Heat doesn't bother me much, but I worry about my neighbors.\"\n",
"Although comparatively little reporting is made about the health effects of extraordinarily hot conditions, heat waves are responsible for more deaths annually than more energetic natural disasters such as lightning, rain, floods, hurricanes, and tornadoes. Supporting this conclusion, Karl Swanberg, a forecaster with the National Weather Service, reported that between 1936 and 1975, about 20,000 U.S. residents died of heat. \"Heat and solar radiation on average kill more U.S. residents each year than lightning, tornadoes, hurricanes, floods or earthquakes,\" said Karl Swanberg. This finding is also referenced in a publication of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, giving guidance on how to avoid health problems due to heat.\n",
"In addition to physical stress, excessive heat causes psychological stress, to a degree which affects performance, and is also associated with an increase in violent crime. High temperatures are associated with increased conflict both at the interpersonal level and at the societal level. In every society, crime rates go up when temperatures go up, particularly violent crimes such as assault, murder, and rape. Furthermore, in politically unstable countries, high temperatures are an aggravating factor that lead toward civil wars.\n",
"In the last 30–40 years, heat waves with high humidity have became more frequent and severe. Extremely hot nights have doubled in frequency. The area in which extremely hot summers are observed, has increased 50-100 fold. These changes are not explained by natural variability, and attributed by climate scientists to the influence of anthropogenic climate change. Heat waves with high humidity pose a big risk to human health while heat waves with low humidity lead to dry conditions that increase wildfires. The mortality from extreme heat is larger than the mortality from hurricanes, lightning, tornadoes, floods, and earthquakes together See also 2018 heat wave.\n",
"Extreme weather events, such as heat waves, droughts and floods, are expected to increase in their frequency and intensity in the next hundred years due to climate change. Low socioeconomic status groups and racial and ethnic minorities are affected by heat-related illness at greater rates due to factors such as lack of access to air conditioning, lack of transportation, occupations that require outdoor work and the heat-island effect in urban neighborhoods.\n",
"Although official definitions vary, a heat wave is generally defined as a prolonged period with excessive heat. Although heat waves do not cause as much economic damage as other types of severe weather, they are extremely dangerous to humans and animals: according to the United States National Weather Service, the average total number of heat-related fatalities each year is higher than the combined total fatalities for floods, tornadoes, lightning strikes, and hurricanes. In Australia, heat waves cause more fatalities than any other type of severe weather. As in droughts, plants can also be severely affected by heat waves (which are often accompanied by dry conditions) can cause plants to lose their moisture and die. Heat waves are often more severe when combined with high humidity.\n",
"Pain and discomfort also increase aggression. Even the simple act of placing one's hands in hot water can cause an aggressive response. Hot temperatures have been implicated as a factor in a number of studies. One study completed in the midst of the civil rights movement found that riots were more likely on hotter days than cooler ones (Carlsmith & Anderson 1979). Students were found to be more aggressive and irritable after taking a test in a hot classroom (Anderson et al. 1996, Rule, et al. 1987). Drivers in cars without air conditioning were also found to be more likely to honk their horns (Kenrick & MacFarlane 1986), which is used as a measure of aggression and has shown links to other factors such as generic symbols of aggression or the visibility of other drivers.\n"
] |
Why is there an absolute reference for rotation?
|
The discussion about no preferred reference frames is in the context of special relativity, which only considers unaccelerated motion. A rotation is always an accelerated motion, i.e. you need a centripetal force to "bend" the path of an object. This force makes different reference frames different.
Note that you could still make the change of reference frame if you wanted to. People made quite accurate models with the sun revolving around the earth, they only became hugely complicated when all the other planets had to be taken into account as well.
Also note that our solar system is revolving at incredible speeds around the center of the Milky Way. We don't notice this in everyday life, because you can also picture this as that we are in a free fall in the gravitational potential of the Milky Way: Einstein's equivalence principle.
|
[
"A common situation in which noninertial reference frames are useful is when the reference frame is rotating. Because such rotational motion is non-inertial, due to the acceleration present in any rotational motion, a fictitious force can always be invoked by using a rotational frame of reference. Despite this complication, the use of fictitious forces often simplifies the calculations involved.\n",
"An inertial reference frame (or inertial frame in short) is a frame in which all the physical laws hold. For instance, in a rotating reference frame, Newton's laws have to be modified because there is an extra Coriolis force (such frame is an example of non-inertial frame). Here, \"rotating\" means \"rotating with respect to some inertial frame\". Therefore, although it is true that a reference frame can always be chosen to be any physical system for convenience, any system has to be eventually described by an inertial frame, directly or indirectly. Finally, one may ask how an inertial frame can be found, and the answer lies in the Newton's laws, at least in Newtonian mechanics: the first law guarantees the existence of an inertial frame while the second and third law are used to examine whether a given reference frame is an inertial one or not.\n",
"That a given frame is non-inertial can be detected by its need for fictitious forces to explain observed motions. For example, the rotation of the Earth can be observed using a Foucault pendulum. The rotation of the Earth seemingly causes the pendulum to change its plane of oscillation because the surroundings of the pendulum move with the Earth. As seen from an Earth-bound (non-inertial) frame of reference, the explanation of this apparent change in orientation requires the introduction of the fictitious Coriolis force.\n",
"A rotating frame of reference is a special case of a non-inertial reference frame that is rotating relative to an inertial reference frame. An everyday example of a rotating reference frame is the surface of the Earth. (This article considers only frames rotating about a fixed axis. For more general rotations, see Euler angles.)\n",
"For the concept of absolute rotation to be scientifically meaningful, it must be measurable. In other words, can an observer distinguish between the rotation of an observed object and their own rotation? Newton suggested two experiments to resolve this problem. One is the effects of centrifugal force upon the shape of the surface of water rotating in a bucket, equivalent to the phenomenon of rotational gravity used in proposals for manned spaceflight.\n",
"Rotation formalisms are focused on proper (orientation-preserving) motions of the Euclidean space with one fixed point, that a \"rotation\" refers to. Although physical motions with a fixed point are an important case (such as ones described in the center-of-mass frame, or motions of a joint), this approach creates a knowledge about all motions. Any proper motion of the Euclidean space decomposes to a rotation around the origin and a translation. Whichever the order of their composition will be, the \"pure\" rotation component wouldn't change, uniquely determined by the complete motion.\n",
"For the following formalism, the rotating frame of reference is regarded as a special case of a non-inertial reference frame that is rotating relative to an inertial reference frame denoted the stationary frame.\n"
] |
how was the stuxnet virus created, and why was it so successful?
|
There's a youtube video on this by an a channel called "The Hungry Beast" or something similar, try looking it up.
I'm in China atm and it's blocked for me, =/
_URL_0_ - Someone linked it in another thread
|
[
"\"Stuxnet\" is a computer worm discovered in June 2010 that is believed to have been created by the United States and Israel to attack Iran's nuclear facilities. It switched off safety devices, causing centrifuges to spin out of control. Stuxnet initially spreads via Microsoft Windows, and targets Siemens industrial control systems. While it is not the first time that hackers have targeted industrial systems, it is the first discovered malware that spies on and subverts industrial systems, and the first to include a programmable logic controller (PLC) rootkit.\n",
"Stuxnet, discovered by Sergey Ulasen, initially spread via Microsoft Windows, and targeted Siemens industrial control systems. While it is not the first time that hackers have targeted industrial systems, nor the first publicly known intentional act of cyberwarfare to be implemented, it is the first discovered malware that spies on and subverts industrial systems, and the first to include a programmable logic controller (PLC) rootkit.\n",
"Stuxnet is a computer worm discovered in June 2010. It initially spreads via Microsoft Windows, and targets Siemens industrial software and equipment. While it is not the first time that hackers have targeted industrial systems, it is the first discovered malware that spies on and subverts industrial systems, and the first to include a programmable logic controller (PLC) rootkit.\n",
"Stuxnet is typically introduced into the supply network via an infected USB flash drive with persons with physical access to the system. The worm then travels across the cyber network, scanning software on computers controlling a programmable logic controller (PLC). Stuxnet introduces the infected rootkit onto the PLC modifying the codes and giving unexpected commands to the PLC while returning a loop of normal operation value feedback to the users.\n",
"Kaspersky Lab experts at first estimated that Stuxnet started spreading around March or April 2010, but the first variant of the worm appeared in June 2009. On 15 July 2010, the day the worm's existence became widely known, a distributed denial-of-service attack was made on the servers for two leading mailing lists on industrial-systems security. This attack, from an unknown source but likely related to Stuxnet, disabled one of the lists and thereby interrupted an important source of information for power plants and factories. On the other hand, researchers at Symantec have uncovered a version of the Stuxnet computer virus that was used to attack Iran's nuclear program in November 2007, being developed as early as 2005, when Iran was still setting up its uranium enrichment facility.\n",
"Stuxnet is typically introduced to the target environment via an infected USB flash drive. The worm then propagates across the network, scanning for Siemens Step7 software on computers controlling a PLC. In the absence of either criterion, Stuxnet becomes dormant inside the computer. If both the conditions are fulfilled, Stuxnet introduces the infected rootkit onto the PLC and Step7 software, modifying the codes and giving unexpected commands to the PLC while returning a loop of normal operations system values feedback to the users.\n",
"Stuxnet is a malicious computer worm believed to be a jointly built American-Israeli cyber weapon. Although neither state has confirmed this openly, anonymous US officials speaking to \"The Washington Post\" claimed the worm was developed during the Obama administration to sabotage Iran’s nuclear program with what would seem like a long series of unfortunate accidents.\n"
] |
why are ssds sold in 240 gb, 480 gb, etc. whereas hdds are sold in 250 gb, 500 gb, etc.?
|
tl;dr: Marketing, false advertising, GB as used by computer geek vs GB as used by rest of the world, and hidden reserve to make the drive run faster and have a safety buffer in case of failure. Also, lost track of what sub I was in and made this not very ELI5. Sorry.
Internal computer memory (RAM or Random Access Memory) is built and accessed in multiples and powers of two (binary). You still buy computer memory sticks in capacities like 512 MB or 2 GB. These aren't really "real" mega- and giga-bytes because in the old days computer people borrowed some metric terms like kilo that meant exactly 1000 and used them as a shorthand to refer to 1024. Even today, some operating systems and programs (and programmers) still use the "wrong" 1024 value when calculating both computer memory and storage.
When computer hard disk drives were invented, they weren't electronic structures built on powers of two, so the marketing people used the "correct" multiples of 1000 when talking about storage capacity (decimal). If nothing else, it makes the capacity look slightly bigger, and marketing always likes bigger. Marketing also really likes round numbers. So hard disk drives are advertised in terms like 250 GB or 2 TB.
Solid state drives are internally more structured like computer memory (built in binary) than mechanical hard disks (measured in decimal for convenience). A 240 GB SSD probably has a "raw" storage capacity more like 256x1024x1024x1024 bytes (and 8x that many bits). So why not call it 256 GB (using the old binary method) or even 275 GB (using the newer decimal method) SSD? Again, marketing people like round numbers. Also, the buying public (as opposed to just computer geeks) has figured out that hard drives never seem to have the full storage capacity that is advertised. With old mechanical disks, this was mostly due to the binary/decimal measuring difference. With SSDs, it's mostly due to something called over-provisioning. So, the marketing people pick a smaller round number that more or less reasonably reflects the actual usable space.
Over-provisioning is when some of the SSD storage capacity is marked as off limits right from the get go. Your 256 GB SSD has 16 GB set aside for future use, leaving 240. If the SSD internal control electronics notices that sector 18 (for example) is developing a fault, it will copy the information to a new sector in the 16 GB. Old sector 18 will be permanently disabled. The new sector 18 will be marked as in use. The SSD's total amount of storage, as reported to the end user, remains the same at 240. A 480 GB SSD is probably a 512 GB SSD with 32 GB of over-provisioning.
I just did a quick search on Amazon and I see 240 GB, 250 GB, 256 GB, and 275 GB SSDs from different manufacturers which I'm pretty sure all have the same amount of actual storage, so it's not like the marketing people are consistent.
edit: some numbers formatting
|
[
"Consumer flash storage devices typically are advertised with usable sizes expressed as a small integer power of two (2, 4, 8, etc.) and a designation of megabytes (MB) or gigabytes (GB); e.g., 512 MB, 8 GB. This includes SSDs marketed as hard drive replacements, in accordance with traditional hard drives, which use decimal prefixes. Thus, an SSD marked as \"64 GB\" is at least bytes (64 GB). Most users will have slightly less capacity than this available for their files, due to the space taken by file system metadata.\n",
"HDDs are being superseded by SSDs in markets where their higher speed (up to 3500 megabytes per second for m.2 SSDs or 2500 megabytes per second for PCIe drives), ruggedness and lower power are more important than price since SSDs are still twice as expensive than an HDD of the same capacity. They also have a relatively short lifespan (Enterprise HDDs can be rated for up to 550TB of read and/or write endurance per year of warranty where as SSDs are usually not) and their performance drops over time, because NAND flash memory, on which most SSDs are based, degrades with every write operation. The lifespan or write endurance of SSDs is measured by either Terabytes Written (TBW) or Drive Writes Per Day (DWPD). In the case of the latter, if a 1 TB drive is rated for 1 DWPD, and the drive has a 1-year warranty, the Terabytes Written will be equal to 365. Some SSDs offer larger capacities (up to 100 TB) than the largest HDD and/or higher storage densities (100 TB and 30 TB SSDs are housed in 2.5 inch HDD cases but with the same height as a 3.5-inch HDD), although their cost remains prohibitive.\n",
"In 2016, Seagate demonstrated 10GB/S transfer speeds from a 16-lane PCIe SSD and also demonstrated a 60TB SSD in a 3.5-inch form factor. Samsung also launched to market a 15.36TB SSD with a price tag of US$10,000 using a SAS interface, using a 2.5-inch form factor but with the thickness of 3.5-inch drives. This was the first time a commercially available SSD had more capacity than the largest currently available HDD. \n",
"The SSD version is identical to the Q1 except that the 40 GB hard disk drive has been replaced by Samsung's 32 GB solid-state drive. At release, the SSD version was about twice as expensive as the normal Q1.\n",
"As with HDDs, there is a tradeoff between cost and performance of different SSDs. Single-level cell (SLC) SSDs, while significantly more expensive than multi-level (MLC) SSDs, offer a significant speed advantage. At the same time, DRAM-based solid-state storage is currently considered the fastest and most costly, with average response times of 10 microseconds instead of the average 100 microseconds of other SSDs. Enterprise flash devices (EFDs) are designed to handle the demands of tier-1 application with performance and response times similar to less-expensive SSDs.\n",
"The A110 model ships with an 8 GB or 16 GB solid-state drive (SSD), although some models do not come with one. Early 8 GB models come with the Intel Z-P230, model SSDPAMM0008G1. This SSD has been criticized for its slow read and write speed. Intel lists the drive's maximum speeds as 38 MB/s read and 10 MB/s write. Later models come with the slightly faster Samsung P-SSD 1800.\n",
"In 1976 the first Solid State Device or SSD was made by Dataram and could store up to 2 MB. The SSD did not become popular until 2001 when SSD the SSD industry its revenues reached $25 million a year and was listed on INC 500 fastest growing private companies. The reason for this slow growth was that SSD were expensive. In 1978 1 GB would have cost $1 million. Even in 2001, Adtron’s S35PC 3.5” SSD drive which had 14 GB storage cost $42,000.\n"
] |
why do girls do the "duck face?"
|
The ‘duck face’ started back when MySpace was still thriving, around the year of 2005. The face is also attributed to the ‘MySpace pics’ tren, which I think are now called ‘selfies’. Usually teenagers would set their profile picture to something they took in the bathroom mirror, or with their arm extended in front of them. The ‘duck face’ is similar to the ‘fish pout’ lip design that a lot of celebrities have, one of the more noted ones being [Angelina Jolie](_URL_0_). Girls thought this was cute, or cool, and tried to replicate it. Instead it usually comes off looking a little silly, as opposed to the cute/sexy effect they’re going for.
It’s basically the result of people trying to ‘fit in’ to trends. Not a lot of people realize that people like Angelina Jolie and Lindsay Lohan are made up to look the way they do. It became a thing because young women were trying to emulate something they thought was stylish, unaware of how the people they got it from actually made themselves look that way.
|
[
"Duck face is a photographic pose, which is well known on profile pictures in social networks. Lips are pressed together as in a pout and often with simultaneously sucked in cheeks. The pose is most often seen as an attempt to appear alluring, but also as a self-deprecating, ironic gesture making fun of the pose. It may be associated with sympathy, attractiveness, friendliness or stupidity.\n",
"Groening thought that it would be funny to have a baby character that did not talk and never grew up, but was scripted to show any emotions that the scene required. Maggie's comedic hallmarks include her tendency to stumble and land on her face while attempting to walk, and a penchant for sucking on her pacifier, the sound of which has become the equivalent of her catchphrase and was originally created by Groening during the Tracey Ullman period. In the early seasons of the show, Maggie would suck her pacifier over other characters' dialogue, but this was discontinued because the producers found it too distracting.\n",
"BULLET::::- Duck (voiced by Tracy Ryan) is a female duck with yellow feathers, an orange beak and a long neck. Slow and smart at the same time, Duck is one who gets herself into comical situations. She lives in a nest, although in one episode, she expressed longing for a house and tried to live in a house boat. It floated downriver filled with frogs and Duck lived happily in her nest. She loves playing \"princess\" and pretend. She was hatched in a nest of chicks, because \"some eggs got mixed up\", and Little Bear taught her to fly when she was a duckling. She never has any ducklings of her own, but she is sometimes seen babysitting a group of them.\n",
"Plucky Duck (voiced by Joe Alaskey at his \"normal\" age and Nathan Ruegger as a baby) is a young, green male duck in a white tank top. Much like his \"Looney Tunes\" mentor Daffy Duck, he is portrayed as greedy, selfish, and egotistical, often engaging in various schemes with the goal of personal glory. However, Plucky does have moments of heroism and goodwill and is more often than not shown to care about his friends and value their feelings. Plucky is friends with Hamton J. Pig and Buster Bunny (although he frequently annoys Buster, again much like Daffy does with Bugs). Plucky constantly pines for the love of Shirley McLoon though she has extremely little patience for him. Also like Daffy Duck, Plucky is capable of flying with his wings but very rarely does so.\n",
"The three ducklings are noted for their identical appearances and personalities. A running joke involves the three sometimes even finishing each other's sentences. In the theatrical shorts, Huey, Dewey, and Louie often behave in a rambunctious and mischievous manner, and they sometimes commit retaliation or revenge on their uncle Donald Duck. In the comics, however, as developed by Al Taliaferro and Carl Barks, the young ducks are more usually portrayed as well-behaved, preferring to assist their uncle Donald Duck and great-uncle Scrooge McDuck in the adventure at hand. In the early Barks comics, the ducklings were still wild and unruly, but their character improved considerably due to their membership in the Junior Woodchucks and the good influence of their wise old great-grandmother Elvira Coot \"Grandma\" Duck. According to Don Rosa, Huey, Dewey and Louie became members of the Junior Woodchucks when they were around 11 years old.\n",
"Queer Duck has cyan-colored feathers, a little spiky fringe, and may wear purple eye shadow. He wears a sleeveless rainbow top and, like almost everyone else in the series, does not wear trousers. This follows the tradition of semi-nudity of cartoon animals exemplified by Porky Pig, Donald Duck, Top Cat, etc. He is often shown to have two fingers and one thumb on each hand, though on occasion he has the three fingers and one thumb per hand that is typical of many contemporary cartoons.\n",
"The drawings of Boston represent a duck's eye view of the city. Each of the individual ducklings is \"bored, inquisitive, sleepy, or they are scratching, talking over their backs one to another, running to catch up with the line\". Children identify with the ducklings because they behave as children do. The comforting message shows parents as caretakers, protectors, and teachers.\n"
] |
Do cardiac muscle cells die?
|
[We used to think of cardiomyocytes as nondividing and persistent cells](_URL_0_):
> For nearly a century, the general belief has been that the heart is a terminally differentiated post-mitotic organ in which the number of cardiomyocytes is established at birth with these cells persisting throughout the lifespan of the organ and organism. [...] Cardiomyocytes were deemed to live and function for nearly 100 years, or longer. Although unstated, the inevitable implication was that cardiomyocytes were judged to be immortal and to be killed only by pathologic processes occurring during the course of individuals’ lifespan.
But now that view is changing in light of new research:
> A recent study, based on retrospective [14C] birth dating of cardiac cells, has suggested that ~1% and ~0.45% replacement of myocytes occurs annually in the adult human heart at 25 and 75 years of age, respectively. [...] In contrast to the [14C] study in which only 12 pathologic hearts were examined, we have analyzed 74 normal human hearts from 19 to 104 years of age and documented that myocyte turnover in the female heart occurs at a rate of 10%, 14%, and 40% per year at 20, 60 and 100 years of age, respectively.85 Corresponding values in the male heart are 7%, 12%, and 32% per year, demonstrating that cardiomyogenesis involves a large and progressively increasing number of cells with aging. From 20 to 100 years of age, the myocyte compartment is replaced 15 times in women and 11 times in men.
TL;DR: Yes, cardiac muscle cells die, and get replaced by progenitor cells and cardiac stem cells. However, that replacement potential is limited, which is why cardiac disease such as myocardial infarctions have such severe consequences.
|
[
"After a myocardial infarction (MI), cardiac myocyte death can be triggered by necrosis, apoptosis, or autophagy, leading to thinning of the cardiac wall. The surviving cardiac myocytes either arrange in parallel or in series to each other, contributing to ventricular dilatation or ventricular hypertrophy, depending on the loading stress on the ventricular wall. Besides, reduced expression of V1 mysoin and L-type calcium channels on cardiac myocytes are also thought to cause cardiac remodelling. Under normal body conditions, fatty acid accounts for 60 to 90% of the energy supply of the heart. Post MI, as fatty acid oxidation decreases, it leads to reduced energy supply for the cardiac myocytes, accumulation of fatty acids to toxic levels, and dysfunction of mitochondria. These consequences also led to the increase in oxidative stress on the heart, causing the proliferation of fibroblasts, activation of metalloproteinases, and induction of apoptosis, which would be explained below. Besides, inflammatory immune response after MI also contributes to the above changes.\n",
"Cardiac muscle cells or cardiomyocytes are the contracting cells which allow the heart to pump. Each cardiomyocyte needs to contract in coordination with its neighbouring cells - known as a functional syncytium - working to efficiently pump blood from the heart, and if this coordination breaks down then – despite individual cells contracting – the heart may not pump at all, such as may occur during abnormal heart rhythms such as ventricular fibrillation.\n",
"Until recently, it was commonly believed that cardiac muscle cells could not be regenerated. However, a study reported in the April 3, 2009 issue of \"Science\" contradicts that belief. Olaf Bergmann and his colleagues at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm tested samples of heart muscle from people born before 1955 who had very little cardiac muscle around their heart, many showing with disabilities from this abnormality. By using DNA samples from many hearts, the researchers estimated that a 4-year-old renews about 20% of heart muscle cells per year, and about 69 percent of the heart muscle cells of a 50-year-old were generated after he or she was born.\n",
"Martin A. Samuels, MD, elaborates further on still another process of death, stating that with the release of adrenaline and an increased heart rate, sometimes catecholamines, stress hormones, will build up, leading to calcium channels opening and remaining open, resulting in an overflow of calcium into the system, killing off cells.\n",
"Aged muscle cells in mammalian hearts constantly regenerate, albeit at a very low rate. Within 18 months around five percent of the heart muscle cells regenerated themselves originating from Sca-1 stem cells\n",
"Cardiac fibroblasts make up more than half of all heart cells and are usually not able to conduct contractions (are not cardiogenic), but those reprogrammed were able to contract spontaneously. The significance is that fibroblasts from the damaged heart or from elsewhere, may be a source of functional cardiomyocytes for regeneration.\n",
"Skeletal muscle is able to regenerate far better than cardiac muscle due to satellite cells, which are dormant in all healthy skeletal muscle tissue. There are three phases to the regeneration process. These phases include the inflammatory response, the activation, differentiation, and fusion of satellite cells, and the maturation and remodeling of newly formed myofibrils. This process begins with the necrosis of damaged muscle fibers, which in turn induces the inflammatory response. Macrophages induce phagocytosis of the cell debris. They will eventually secrete anti-inflammatory cytokines, which results in the termination of inflammation. These macrophages can also facilitate the proliferation and differentiation of satellite cells. The satellite cells re-enter the cell cycle to multiply. They then leave the cell cycle to self-renew or differentiate as myoblasts.\n"
] |
Movies always make out ancient warriors to be these huge guys with huge muscles that you'd have to get in gyms. Basically what I'm asking is, on average how buff or big were spartan warriors or a knight in the crusades?
|
They were indeed strong, but not with the sort of big bulky muscles Ahnold and his ilk have. Big muscles are developed through short movements such as lifting weights, which would have been seen as quite strange for a soldier of the past. Warriors had to be able to march for long distances bearing their combat load and then some, and still be able to fight at the end of the day. That sort of activity makes a body strong, but not with huge bulging muscles. Think of the difference between football and futbol players. The former can perform powerful actions, but typically over a shorter time span, while the latter can run around a field for 90 minutes straight. Both are powerful in their own right, but the wiry guy with the endurance is a closer somatotype to historical warriors.
The Greeks, since you mention the Spartans, have helpfully provided us with many examples of their warriors' body shape in the form of [statues](_URL_0_) and [muscle cuirasses](_URL_2_). As you can see in those examples, Grecian warriors were muscular, yet quite lean.
The Crusaders would have likely been primarily of the same body type, though I'm sure certain nobles and wealthy folk that were able to afford horses and didn't spend all of their free time fighting and training would be exceptions. Forensic analysis of medieval remains like [this poor chap here](_URL_3_) tells us that medieval knights were indeed quite strong. However, effigies like [these](_URL_1_), and there's hundreds more just like them, show us that the average knight was equally as lean as his ancient counterparts.
|
[
"As Robert Rushing defines it, peplum, \"in its most stereotypical form, [...] depicts muscle-bound heroes (professional bodybuilders, athletes, wrestlers, or brawny actors) in mythological antiquity, fighting fantastic monsters and saving scantily clad beauties. Rather than lavish epics set in the classical world, they are low-budget films that focus on the hero's extraordinary body.\" Thus, most sword-and-sandal films featured a superhumanly strong man as the protagonist, such as Hercules, Samson, Goliath, Ursus or Italy's own popular folk hero Maciste. In addition, the plots typically involved two women vying for the affection of the bodybuilder hero: the good love interest (a damsel in distress needing rescue), and an evil femme fatale queen who sought to dominate the hero.\n",
"BULLET::::7. His physical powers are the result of extremely rigorous workouts in gym, unlike other super-heroes who have special superpowers ( for example- Parmanu, who relies on advanced science for his atomic superpower or Shakti who has goddess-like superpowers). He has even fought Kobi, a wolf-like superhero, who is much taller and stronger than him. He is the strongest superhero, if special powers aren't considered.\n",
"The average grippli stands two and a half feet high and weighs 25–30 pounds, although particularly ancient warriors may have twice that height, with an equivalent increase in mass. Their bodies are essentially identical to frogs, but they have humanoid hands and prehensile feet.\n",
"In the world of martial arts, there have been legends of many powerful warriors. The strongest to ever walk the Earth are West Side Principal, Chou Da Tong, Tian Shan Tong Lao, and the villain Dongfang Bu Bai, who engaged in a sex change in order to enhance his martial arts skills.\n",
"The origin of strength athletics lies within prehistory. Testing each other in feats of physical prowess has been something humans have done throughout their existence. This is encapsulated in the modern Olympic motto of \"Swifter, higher, stronger\". There are records in many civilizations of feats of strength performed by great heroes, mythological or otherwise. In ancient western culture Greek heroes such as Heracles are blessed with great strength. In the Bible, figures with exceptional physical strength are described such as Samson and Goliath. Man's obsession with those who possess extraordinary strength is an ancient and persistent one.\n",
"BULLET::::- Enforcers - A group of non super powered thugs who originally are enemies of Spider-Man. Although they technically have no super powers, they are formidable fighters, so athletic and skilled that their fighting prowess is almost as good as if they had super powers.\n",
"The fighter, as part of the \"warrior\" group, was one of the standard character classes available in the second edition \"Player's Handbook\". The second edition \"Player's Handbook\" gives several examples of famous fighters from legend: Hercules, Perseus, Hiawatha, Beowulf, Siegfried, Cuchulain, Little John, Tristan, and Sinbad. The book also cites a number of great generals and warriors: El Cid, Hannibal, Alexander the Great, Charlemagne, Spartacus, Richard the Lionheart, and Belisarius.\n"
] |
what income groups does a sales tax impact more?
|
Sales tax influences the poor people more.
An item worth $100 is 10% month's salary of a person earning $1,000/month; it is 1% of someone earning $10,000.
Raising the price by $1 (however that is done, in this case a 1% sales tax), and the added cost is 1% of the former, but only 0.1% of the latter person.
An income tax of 1% otoh would cost both that 1% of their income; that is $1 for the former, and $10 for the latter. That is what is usually considered "taxed the same rate".
|
[
"The top 1 percent of income-earners accounted for 52 percent of the income gains from 2009 to 2015, where income is defined as market income excluding government transfers, while their share of total income has more than doubled from 9 percent in 1976 to 20 percent in 2011. According to a 2014 OECD report, 80% of total pre-tax market income income growth went to the top 10% from 1975 to 2007.\n",
"Tax expenditures (i.e., deductions, exemptions, and preferential tax rates) represent a major driver of inequality, as the top 20% get roughly 50% of the benefit from them, with the top 1% getting 17% of the benefit. For example, a 2011 Congressional Research Service report stated, \"Changes in capital gains and dividends were the largest contributor to the increase in the overall income inequality.\" CBO estimated tax expenditures would be $1.5 trillion in fiscal year 2017, approximately 8% GDP; for scale, the budget deficit historically has averaged around 3% GDP.\n",
"CBO reported in November 2018 that all income groups significantly increased both their pre-tax and after-tax income from 1979 to 2015 in real terms (i.e., adjusted for inflation). For example, income after transfers and taxes was up 103% for the highest income quintile, 79% for the lowest income quintile, and 46% for the middle three quintiles measured together (21st to 80th percentiles). CBO also reported that the middle quintile (40th to 60th percentile) households, a proxy for the middle-class, earned an average of $58,500 in market income during 2015, representing a 12% share of the total market income. At the 1979 share of 16%, this figure would be $78,000 or $19,500 higher. After taxes and transfers, these middle-class households earned an average of $64,700, a 15% share. At the 1979 share of 16%, this figure would be $69,000 or $4,300 higher.\n",
"CBO reported in January 2016 that: \"Tax expenditures are distributed unevenly across the income scale. When measured in dollars, much more of the tax expenditures go to higher-income households than to lower-income households. As a percentage of people’s income, tax expenditures are greater for the highest-income and lowest-income households than for\n",
"Sales and income taxes behave differently due to differing definitions of tax base, which can make comparisons between the two confusing. Under the existing individual income plus employment (Social Security; Medicare; Medicaid) tax formula, taxes to be paid are included in the base on which the tax rate is imposed (known as \"tax-inclusive\"). If an individual's gross income is $100 and the sum of their income plus employment tax rate is 23%, taxes owed equals $23. Traditional state sales taxes are imposed on a tax base equal to the pre-tax portion of a good's price (known as \"tax-exclusive\"). A good priced at $77 with a 30% sales tax rate yields $23 in taxes owed. To adjust an inclusive rate to an exclusive rate, divide the given rate by one minus that rate (i.e. formula_1).\n",
"The middle income worker's tax wedge is 46% and effective marginal tax rates are very high. Value-added tax is 24% for most items. Capital gains tax is 30-34% and corporate tax is 20%, about the EU median. Property taxes are low, but there is a transfer tax (1.6% for apartments or 4% for individual houses) for home buyers. There are high excise taxes on alcoholic beverages, tobacco, automobiles and motorcycles, motor fuels, lotteries, sweets and insurances. For instance, McKinsey estimates that a worker has to pay around 1600 euro for another's 400 euro service - restricting service supply and demand - though some taxation is avoided in the black market and self-service culture. Another study by Karlson, Johansson & Johnsson estimates that the percentage of the buyer’s income entering the service vendor’s wallet (inverted tax wedge) is slightly over 15%, compared to 10% in Belgium, 25% in France, 40% in Switzerland and 50% in the United States. Tax cuts have been in every post-depression government's agenda and the overall tax burden is now around 43% of GDP compared to 51.1% in Sweden, 34.7% in Germany, 33.5% in Canada, and 30.5% in Ireland.\n",
"The subject of individual income tax is the real people. The meaning of income is the net amount of revenues derived by a person within a year. According to Income Tax Law, incomes may be listed such as:\n"
] |
Why were the Germans in WWII so much more scared to surrender to the Soviets?
|
They were taught, brainwashed, in to believing that the soviets were sub-human savages. Barbarians. They put out a lot of propaganda about Russian soldiers raping and pillaging and ignoring laws in order to improve the moral while fighting them.
But it worked so well that many of them genuinely believed it. Maybe they were right in some cases, too. They thought they'd be tortured and executed by the Soviets immediately.
|
[
"There were several reasons some Germans decided to end their lives in the last months of the war. First, by 1945, Nazi propaganda had created fear among some sections of the population about the impending military invasion of their country by the Soviets or Western Allies. Information films from the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda repeatedly chided audiences about why Germany must not surrender, telling the people they faced the threat of torture, rape, and death in defeat. These fears were not groundless, as many Germans were raped, mostly by Soviet soldiers, although many by Western Allied soldiers also. The number of rapes is disputed, but was certainly considerable – hundreds of thousands of incidents, according to most Western historians.\n",
"One reason for the policy was that the Allies wished to avoid a repetition of the stab-in-the-back myth that arose in Germany after World War I, which attributed Germany's loss to betrayal by Jews, Bolsheviks, and Socialists. The myth was used by the Nazis in their propaganda. It was felt that an unconditional surrender would ensure that the Germans knew that they had lost the war themselves.\n",
"On 9 May 1945 (Moscow time), Germany surrendered, meaning that if the Soviets were to honour the Yalta agreement, they would need to enter war with Japan by 9 August 1945. The situation continued to deteriorate for the Japanese, and they were now the only Axis power left in the war. They were keen to remain at peace with the Soviets and extend the Neutrality Pact, and they were also keen to achieve an end to the war. Since Yalta they had repeatedly approached, or tried to approach, the Soviets in order to extend the Neutrality Pact, and to enlist the Soviets in negotiating peace with the Allies. The Soviets did nothing to discourage these Japanese hopes, and drew the process out as long as possible (whilst continuing to prepare their invasion forces.) One of the roles of the Cabinet of Admiral Baron Suzuki, which took office in April 1945, was to try to secure any peace terms short of unconditional surrender. In late June, they approached the Soviets (the Neutrality Pact was still in place), inviting them to negotiate peace with the Allies in support of Japan, providing them with specific proposals and in return they offered the Soviets very attractive territorial concessions. Stalin expressed interest, and the Japanese awaited the Soviet response. The Soviets continued to avoid providing a response. The Potsdam Conference was held from 16 July to 2 August 1945. On 24 July the Soviet Union recalled all embassy staff and families from Japan. On 26 July the conference produced the Potsdam Declaration whereby Churchill, Harry S. Truman and Chiang Kai-shek (the Soviet Union was not officially at war with Japan) demanded the unconditional surrender of Japan. The Japanese continued to wait for the Soviet response, and avoided responding to the declaration.\n",
"The Soviet Union lived in significant fear of a possible World War Three, and because of this, tended to have a hair trigger when it came to reacting to an event. Hence, the threat of a nuclear war was a very real possibility, even if the reasons behind it are misunderstood. The Soviet Union was ready to go at any time, especially after being scared many times for smaller reasons. On the night of September 1, 1983, a civilian Boeing 747 en route to South Korea passed into Soviet airspace near the Siberian coast. A Sukhoi Su-15 interceptor aircraft piloted by Gennadi Osipovich targeted the civilian aircraft and shot it down with two missiles. The Soviets claimed that they knew it was a civilian aircraft, however, they said it would be very easy to convert a civilian aircraft into an intelligence gathering platform. The Soviets claimed they believed they had a justification to shoot down this aircraft because they perceived it to be a hostile intruder. There was one American on board, Larry McDonald who was a United States House of Representative member. Oleg Gordievsky believes that the Soviet Union mistook the civilian airliner to be a United States Boeing RC-135, which is a reconnaissance gathering aircraft which looks very similar to a Boeing 747 due to the fact that it has four engines and a wide body similar to the airliner. This is refuted by the pilots of the attacking Soviet aircraft claiming that he knew it was a civilian jet, but he shot it down anyway because it could have been easily converted for reconnaissance. The attitude of the Soviets towards anything that might be perceived as a threat was devolving more and more towards a 'shoot first, ask questions later' mentality. While it may have been uncalled for, Soviets were on edge about everything at this point. This would prove to be incredibly dangerous in the impending strategic nuclear war exercises about to be conducted by the United States and its NATO allies.\n",
"In February 1945 during the Yalta Conference the Soviet Union had agreed to enter the war against Japan 90 days after the surrender of Germany. At the time Soviet participation was seen as crucial to tie down the large number Japanese forces in Manchuria and Korea, keeping them from being transferred to the Home Islands to mount a defense to an invasion.\n",
"The Germans were now not only starving, but running out of ammunition. Nevertheless, they continued to resist, in part because they believed the Soviets would execute any who surrendered. In particular, the so-called \"HiWis\", Soviet citizens fighting for the Germans, had no illusions about their fate if captured. The Soviets were initially surprised by the number of Germans they had trapped, and had to reinforce their encircling troops. Bloody urban warfare began again in Stalingrad, but this time it was the Germans who were pushed back to the banks of the Volga. The Germans adopted a simple defense of fixing wire nets over all windows to protect themselves from grenades. The Soviets responded by fixing fish hooks to the grenades so they stuck to the nets when thrown. The Germans had no usable tanks in the city, and those that still functioned could, at best, be used as makeshift pillboxes. The Soviets did not bother employing tanks in areas where the urban destruction restricted their mobility.\n",
"The chiefs of staff were concerned that given the enormous size of Soviet forces deployed in Europe at the end of the war, and the perception that the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin was unreliable, there existed a Soviet threat to Western Europe. The Soviet Union had yet to launch its attack on Japanese forces, and so one assumption in the report was that the Soviet Union would instead ally with Japan if the Western Allies commenced hostilities.\n"
] |
why can't people remember correct spellings of common words?
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I type reasonably fast, frequently my misspellings are when I am thinking of the right word but I type a homonym or I start to type one word like pay and then swap what I want to say to use paid mid-word and just add the typical past tens suffix.
Edit: I've been a fast reader for several decades and read mostly from context so I'm terrible at proof reading.
|
[
"At the other extreme are languages such as English, where the pronunciations of many words simply have to be memorized as they do not correspond to the spelling in a consistent way. For English, this is partly because the Great Vowel Shift occurred after the orthography was established, and because English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times, retaining their original spelling at varying levels. Even English has general, albeit complex, rules that predict pronunciation from spelling, and these rules are successful most of the time; rules to predict spelling from the pronunciation have a higher failure rate.\n",
"One of the most effective ways to memorize spellings is to make up mnemonics to help remember them. A mnemonic is a memory trick which associates the thing that is to be remembered with something else to make it easier. For spelling, it can be the exaggerated pronunciation of a word, like \"indepenDENT\". Or it might be a silly sentence or visual image to help remember the word, like \"the independents all dented their cars with sledgehammers\". Or it might describe a key aspect of a word to help remember it, like \"all the vowels in \"cemetery\" are the same: three little \"e's\", each on its own little tombstone.\"\n",
"People who use non-standard spelling often suffer from adverse opinions, as a person's mastery of standard spelling is often equated to his or her level of formal education or intelligence. Spelling is easier in languages with more or less consistent spelling systems such as Finnish, Serbian, Italian and Spanish, owing to the fact that, either, pronunciation in these languages has changed relatively little since the initial establishment of their spellings systems, or else that \"non-phonemic etymological\" spellings have been replaced with \"phonemic unetymological\" spellings as pronunciation changes. Predicting spelling is more difficult in languages in which pronunciation has changed significantly since the spelling was fixed, thus yielding a \"non-phonetic etymological\" spelling system such as Irish or French. These spelling systems are still 'phonemic' (rather than 'phonetic') since the pronunciation of a word can be systematically derived from the spelling, although the converse (i.e. spelling from pronunciation) may not be possible. English is an extreme example of a defective orthography in which the spelling cannot be systematically derived from pronunciation but also has the more unusual problem that pronunciation cannot be systematically derived from spelling.\n",
"In some cases controlled vocabulary can enhance recall as well, because unlike natural language schemes, once the correct authorized term is searched, there is no need to search for other terms that might be synonyms of that term.\n",
"A large number of easily noticeable spelling pronunciations occurs only in languages such as French and English in which spelling tends to not indicate the current pronunciation. Because all languages have at least some words which are not spelled as pronounced, even those such as Finnish with most words being written phonetically, spelling pronunciations can arise in any language in which most people obtain only enough education to learn how to read and write but not enough to understand when the spelling fails to indicate the modern pronunciation. In other words, when many people do not clearly understand the relationship between spelling and pronunciation, spelling pronunciations are common.\n",
"Unlike spelling reforms, we can actually keep a word's original spelling intact but add pronunciation information to it, e.g. using diacritics. Phonetically Intuitive English is a Chrome browser extension that automatically adds such a pronunciation guide to English words on Web pages, for English-speaking children to recognize a written word's pronunciation and therefore map the written word to the mental word in his mind.\n",
"Pronunciation respelling systems for English have been developed primarily for use in dictionaries. They are used there because it is not possible to predict with certainty the sound of a written English word from its spelling or the spelling of a spoken English word from its sound. So readers looking up an unfamiliar word in a dictionary may find, on seeing the pronunciation respelling, that the word is in fact already known to them orally. By the same token, those who hear an unfamiliar spoken word may see several possible matches in a dictionary and must rely on the pronunciation respellings to find the correct match.\n"
] |
How do we know that physical constants such as G, C, etc. have not slowly change over time?
|
Because if they did it would have measureable effects that we can observe. We know, for example, that the gravitational constant varies by less than a few parts per trillion yearly. [link](_URL_0_)
|
[
"In 1937, Paul Dirac and others began investigating the consequences of natural constants changing with time. For example, Dirac proposed a change of only 5 parts in 10 per year of Newton's constant \"G\" to explain the relative weakness of the gravitational force compared to other fundamental forces. This has become known as the Dirac large numbers hypothesis.\n",
"Physicists have pondered whether the fine-structure constant is in fact constant, or whether its value differs by location and over time. A varying has been proposed as a way of solving problems in cosmology and astrophysics. String theory and other proposals for going beyond the Standard Model of particle physics have led to theoretical interest in whether the accepted physical constants (not just ) actually vary.\n",
"Paul Dirac in 1937 speculated that physical constants such as the gravitational constant or the fine-structure constant might be subject to change over time in proportion of the age of the universe. Experiments can in principle only put an upper bound on the relative change per year. For the fine-structure constant, this upper bound is comparatively low, at\n",
"Physical constant in the sense under discussion in this article should not be confused with other quantities called \"constants\" that are assumed to be constant in a given context without the implication that they are fundamental, such as the \"time constant\" characteristic of a given system, or material constants, such as the Madelung constant, electrical resistivity, and heat capacity.\n",
"Some theorists (such as Dirac and Milne) have proposed cosmologies that conjecture that physical \"constants\" might actually change over time (e.g. a variable speed of light or Dirac varying-\"G\" theory). Such cosmologies have not gained mainstream acceptance and yet there is still considerable scientific interest in the possibility that physical \"constants\" might change, although such propositions introduce difficult questions. Perhaps the first question to address is: How would such a change make a noticeable operational difference in physical measurement or, more fundamentally, our perception of reality? If some particular physical constant had changed, how would we notice it, or how would physical reality be different? Which changed constants result in a meaningful and measurable difference in physical reality? If a physical constant that is not dimensionless, such as the speed of light, \"did\" in fact change, would we be able to notice it or measure it unambiguously? – a question examined by Michael Duff in his paper \"Comment on time-variation of fundamental constants\".\n",
"By definition, fundamental physical constants are subject to measurement, so that their being constant (independent on both the time and position of the performance of the measurement) is necessarily an experimental result and subject to verification.\n",
"The value of the constant \"G\" was first accurately determined from the results of the Cavendish experiment conducted by the British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798, although Cavendish did not himself calculate a numerical value for \"G\". This experiment was also the first test of Newton's theory of gravitation between masses in the laboratory. It took place 111 years after the publication of Newton's \"Principia\" and 71 years after Newton's death, so none of Newton's calculations could use the value of \"G\"; instead he could only calculate a force relative to another force.\n"
] |
why is a bullet so deadly?
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The bullet moves very fast, and though it only leaves a small hole, the shockwave disrupts and destroys a lot of tissue.
Look at the various films where people shoot melons. These melons explode in all directions. Imagine flesh being subjected to those forces.
|
[
"BULLET::::- Is presumed to be toxic to humans because it falls within any one of the following categories when tested on laboratory animals (whenever possible, animal test data that has been reported in the chemical literature should be used):\n",
"The bullet design can produce deep wounds while failing to pass through structural barriers thicker than drywall or sheet metal. These qualities make it less likely to strike unintended targets, such as people in another room during an indoor shooting. Also, when it strikes a hard surface from which a solid bullet would glance off, it fragments into tiny, light pieces and creates much less ricochet danger.\n",
"BULLET::::- Several people share an intent to do serious harm, and the victim dies because of the action of \"any\" of those involved (for example, if another person goes \"further than expected\" or performs an unexpectedly lethal action).\n",
"BULLET::::6. Lethal force/Deadly force – a force with a high probability of causing death or serious bodily injury. Serious bodily injury includes unconsciousness, protracted or obvious physical disfigurement, or protracted loss of or impairment to the function of a bodily member, organ, or the mental faculty. A firearm is the most widely recognized lethal or deadly force weapon, however, an automobile or weapon of opportunity could also be defined as a deadly force utility.\n",
"BULLET::::2. In the absence of adequate data on human toxicity, is presumed to be toxic to humans because when tested on laboratory animals it has an LC value of not more than 5000 ml/m³. See 49CFR 173.116(a) for assignment of Hazard Zones A, B, C or D. LC values for mixtures may be determined using the formula in 49 CFR 173.133(b)(1)(i)\n",
"Trauma from a gunshot wound varies widely based on the bullet, velocity, entry point, trajectory, and affected anatomy. Gunshot wounds can be particularly devastating compared to other penetrating injuries because the trajectory and fragmentation of bullets can be unpredictable after entry. Additionally, gunshot wounds typically involve a large degree of nearby tissue disruption and destruction due to the physical effects of the projectile correlated with the bullet velocity classification.\n",
"Despite the ban on military use, hollow-point bullets are one of the most common types of bullets used by civilians and police, which is due largely to the reduced risk of bystanders being hit by over-penetrating or ricocheted bullets, and the increased speed of incapacitation.\n"
] |
Did Arian Christians accuse "Orthodox" Christians of heresy?
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In short, yes.
Remember, "Arian" is two sorts of label used to describe a number of groups in the fourth century. Firstly, it's a label used by Athanasius from the 360s onwards to describe a number of groups that he opposes, and to attempt to *taint* them through guilt by association with Arius, who had already been condemned. "Arians" by this measure did not consider themselves "Arian".
Secondly, it's a label used by later historians to name a number of these same groupings, but it's largely falling out of disfavour in recent years since it is problematic.
That said, groups that we call "Arian", considered themselves to be "orthodox" (though they did not necessarily use that word in the way that we do), and when they held sway they would bring ecclesiastical power to bear on 'orthodox' believers.
I'll give some links to translated creedal documents to illustrate. At the Council of Antioch in 341, mostly composed of non-Nicenes, they swore til they were blue in the face that they were not disciples of Arius. ([First Creed](_URL_2_)). They also describe their faith as in conformity to the "evangelical and apostolic tradition", which is the kind of language marker we mean by "orthodox" ([Second Creed](_URL_1_)).
[Sirmium 357](_URL_0_) very explicitly speaks *against* using the language of 'essence' to talk about the Father and Son, and is aimed squarely at rendering the Nicene creed and its adherents as unorthodox.
Coupled with these credal statements, councils dominated by non-Nicenes would regularly depose bishops of other theological persuasions, exiling them or otherwise punishing them. This explains, for instance, why Athanasius is continually deposed from Alexandria and goes into exile so often. His case is not isolated.
Remember, 'heresy' is, from a historical perspective, a post-factum description of the losing side. 'Heretics' didn't think they were heretical, but that they were right and the other guys were wrong.
|
[
"Other allegations of heresy have emerged among conservative Christians, such as that White has denied the Trinity, partly as a result of a video shared by Christian author Erick Erickson that shows White assenting to the viewpoint that Jesus Christ was not the only son of God, in contravention of the Nicene Creed. Erickson has stated:\n",
"The Greek Orthodox Church and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople were considered by the Ottoman governments as the ruling authorities of the entire Orthodox Christian population of the Ottoman Empire, whether ethnically Greek or not. Although the Ottoman state did not force non-Muslims to convert to Islam, Christians faced several types of discrimination intended to highlight their inferior status in the Ottoman Empire. Discrimination against Christians, particularly when combined with harsh treatment by local Ottoman authorities, led to conversions to Islam, if only superficially. In the 19th century, many \"crypto-Christians\" returned to their old religious allegiance.\n",
"In Eastern Orthodox Christianity heresy most commonly refers to those beliefs declared heretical by the first seven Ecumenical Councils. Since the Great Schism and the Protestant Reformation, various Christian churches have also used the concept in proceedings against individuals and groups those churches deemed heretical. The Orthodox Church also rejects the early Christian heresies such as Arianism, Gnosticism, Origenism, Montanism, Judaizers, Marcionism, Docetism, Adoptionism, Nestorianism, Monophysitism, Monothelitism and Iconoclasm.\n",
"Already in the 2nd century, Christians denounced teachings that they saw as heresies, especially Gnosticism but also Montanism. Ignatius of Antioch at the beginning of that century and Irenaeus at the end saw union with the bishops as the test of correct Christian faith. After legalization of the Church in the 4th century, the debate between Arianism and Trinitarianism, with the emperors favouring now one side now the other, was a major controversy.\n",
"Nestorians held that the Council of Chalcedon proved the orthodoxy of their faith and had started persecuting non-Chalcedonian or monophysite Syrian Christians during the reign of Peroz I. In response to pleas for assistance from the Syrian Church, Armenian prelates issued a letter addressed to Persian Christians reaffirming their condemnation of the Nestorianism as heresy. \n",
"With the adoption of Christianity by Constantine I (after Battle of Milvian Bridge, 312), heresy had become a political issue in the late Roman empire. Adherents of unconventional Christian beliefs not covered by the Nicene Creed like Novatianism and Gnosticism were banned from holding meetings, but the Roman emperor intervened especially in the conflict between orthodox and Arian Christianity, which resulted in the burning of Arian books.\n",
"Most Arian creeds were written in the fourth century during the Arian controversy. Arian creeds generally represent the beliefs of those Christians opposed to the Nicene Creed. The Arian controversy began when Alexander of Alexandria accused a local presbyter, Arius, of heresy, in the late 310s and early 320s. It lasted until the proclamation of the Creed of Constantinople in 381. The opponents of Arius expressed their beliefs in the Nicene Creed. Arians expressed their beliefs in their own, Arian creeds. Advocates of Nicene Christianity and Arian Christianity debated and competed throughout the fourth century, each claiming to be the orthodox variant. Nicene Christians called their opponents, as a group, Arians although many of them differed significantly from the original doctrines of Arius, and many opponents of the Nicene Creed did not identify as Arians.\n"
] |
USSR Causing Ukrainian Genocide, Mao Responsible for Famine, and Stalin Creating Consideration Camps: Did Any of These Happen?
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They aren't fabrications.
The Soviet Famine of 32-33 (what you refer to as the Ukrainian Genocide) was an actual famine caused by a massive drought throughout the major wheat production centers in the Ukraine and North Caucuses. The debate lies in whether or not the drought was deliberate or not and the extent to which the Soviet government knew about it/was slow to react. More modern evidence points to poor relations between the Party and the peasants, and a total hatch job by Soviet scientists on actually studying the soil conditions, as central to understanding why the drought occured. Calling it solely a Ukrainian genocide would mean ignoring the affected regions of the North Caucuses, and the general impact on the country as a whole as a result of having much less wheat output.
I know there is a book that some like to cite which claims the famine was made up by Nazi's and Harvard as anti-soviet propaganda, but that argument hold little to no water. As an aside, especially with soviet history, stay far away from one Grover Furr. He isn't an historian, he's a nut who cares more about trying to protect the image of Stalin than actual research.
Further reading: [jstor link to paper on party-peasant relations](_URL_1_)
[paper on soil conditions and harvest statistics during the famine years](_URL_2_)
The Chinese Famine that resulted from Mao's Great Leap Forward had similar issues. Local party members lied about how much grain the villages could produce and vastly over estimated the yields. This lead to grain requisition quotas that had devastating effects, as the higher members were unaware of how little was left after taking the amount of grain that was proportional to the amount that had been reported. This was coupled by a large drought. In short, people had less food due to faulty reporting, and not enough water to grow food even to just feed themselves.
Further reading: [Jstor paper on grain quotas and procurements](_URL_0_)
Stalin and the camps. I think you meant to say concentration camps, not consideration camps. I admittedly am not an authority on the GULAG system, but it has been covered here before.
|
[
"In 1932, under the rule of the USSR, Ukraine experienced one of its largest famines when between 2.4 and 7.5 million peasants died as a result of a state sponsored famine. It was termed the Holodomor, suggesting that it was a deliberate campaign of repression designed to eliminate resistance to collectivization. Forced grain quotas imposed upon the rural peasants and a brutal reign of terror contributed to the widespread famine. The Soviet government continued to deny the problem and it did not provide aid to the victims nor did it accept foreign aid. Several contemporary scholars dispute the notion that the famine was deliberately inflicted by the Soviet government.\n",
"The Soviet famine of 1932–33, called Holodomor in Ukrainian, claimed up to 10 million Ukrainian lives as peasants' food stocks were forcibly removed by Stalin's regime by the NKVD secret police. As elsewhere, the precise number of deaths by starvation in Ukraine may never be precisely known. That said, the most recent demographic studies suggest that over 4 million Ukrainians perished in the first six months of 1933 alone, a figure that increases if population losses from 1931, 1932 and 1934 are also included, along with those from adjacent territories inhabited primarily by Ukrainians (but politically part of the Russian Federated Soviet Socialist Republic), such as the Kuban.\n",
"Within the Soviet Union, forced changes in agricultural policies (collectivization), confiscations of grain and droughts caused the Soviet famine of 1932–1933 in Ukraine, Northern Caucasus, Volga Region and Kazakhstan. The famine was most severe in the Ukrainian SSR, where it is often referenced as the Holodomor. A significant portion of the famine victims (3.3 to 7.5 million) were Ukrainians. Another part of the famine was known as Kazakh catastrophe, when more than 1.3 million ethnic Kazakhs (38% of all indigenous population) died. Many scholars say that the Stalinist policies that caused the famine may have been designed as an attack on the rise of Ukrainian nationalism and thus may fall under the legal definition of genocide (see Holodomor genocide question).\n",
"The Holodomor famine has been frequently described as a deliberate \"Terror-Famine\" campaign organized by the Soviet authorities against the Ukrainian population. It resulted in deaths of millions of ethnic Ukrainians of starvation in peacetime. Entire nations and ethnic groups were collectively punished by the Soviet government under the guise of “alleged collaboration” with the enemy during World War II. At least nine distinct ethnic-linguistic groups, including Poles, Germans, Romanians, Hungarians, Greeks, Chechens, Koreans, and Kalmyks, were deported to remote unpopulated areas of Siberia and Kazakhstan. Population transfer in the Soviet Union led to millions of deaths from the inflicted hardships. Mass operations of the NKVD were needed to deport hundreds of thousands of people.\n",
"In the former Soviet Union millions of men, women and children fell victims to the cruel actions and policies of the totalitarian regime. The Great Famine of 1932–1933 in Ukraine (Holodomor), took from 7 million to 10 million innocent lives and became a national tragedy for the Ukrainian people. In this regard, we note activities in observance of the seventieth anniversary of this Famine, in particular organized by the Government of Ukraine.\n",
"Timothy D. Snyder, professor of history at Yale University, asserts that in 1933 \"Joseph Stalin was deliberately starving Ukraine\" through a \"heartless campaign of requisitions that began Europe's era of mass killing\". He argues the Soviets themselves \"made sure that the term \"genocide\", contrary to Lemkin's intentions, excluded political and economic groups\". Thus the Ukrainian famine can be presented as \"somehow less genocidal because it targeted a class, kulaks, as well as a nation, Ukraine\".\n",
"According to several Western historians, Stalinist agricultural policies were a key factor in causing the Soviet famine of 1932–1933, which the Ukrainian government now calls the Holodomor, recognizing it as an act of genocide. Some scholars dispute the intentionality of the famine.\n"
] |
eau de toilette, eau de perfume, eau de cologne
|
The major distinction between the three is the concentration of the actual fragrance that is dissolved in alcohol.
Eau de toilette, toilet water, has anywhere from 5-15% concentration of the fragrance.
Eau de perfume has anywhere from 10 to 20%.
It's worth noting, that Parfum du Toilette and Eau du Parfum are usually used synonymously while Parfum du toilette and eau du toilette are distinct from each other.
Eau du cologne is kind of a special case. When someone says eau du cologne, they usually just mean a perfume with a concentration between 3 and 8%.
Perfume mist also has a concentration of 3-8%.
The the current distinction between eau du cologne and perfume mist is that cologne is, in English speaking countries, typically for men and perfume is typically for women.
Previously, in the.. Like.. 18th to 19th century, I think.. Eau du cologne specifically referred to perfume (with 3-8% concentration) that was a blend of citrus fruit notes that also happened to come from Cologne, Germany. Now, Classical Cologne is used to refer to this stuff.
All of these concentrations are lower than perfume extract, which is usually 15-40%.
Perfume extract is the stuff that comes in a tiny little bottle that costs like.. 150 dollars. Generally, it's worth the price because you don't use nearly as much to get a scent that's usually stronger while on your skin.
The previous concentrations, as far as my experience goes, all come in some sort of spray bottle. The only social rules that I'm aware of, specifically in English speaking countries - there could be different ones in other places, are:
1) perfume extract is not really acceptable as a gift to men.
2) don't put too much on. Less is more. You can get away with putting on more eau du cologne than you can eau du perfume, since the concentrations are different.
Disclaimer: as a previously avid cologne junkie, this is all information that I have been familiar with in the past, is probably still pretty close, and I think I've plagiarized most of it from the Wikipedia article on perfume. So.. Look there if you want to be sure.
|
[
"Eau de Cologne (; German: Kölnisch Wasser ; meaning \"Water from Cologne\"), or simply cologne, is a perfume originating from Cologne, Germany. Originally mixed by Johann Maria Farina (Giovanni Maria Farina) in 1709, it has since come to be a generic term for scented formulations in typical concentration of 2–5% and also more depending upon its type essential oils or a blend of extracts, alcohol, and water. \n",
"The original \"Eau de Cologne\" is a spirit-citrus perfume launched in Cologne in 1709 by Giovanni Maria Farina (1685–1766), an Italian perfume maker from Santa Maria Maggiore Valle Vigezzo. In 1708, Farina wrote to his brother Jean Baptiste: \"I have found a fragrance that reminds me of an Italian spring morning, of mountain daffodils and orange blossoms after the rain\". He named his fragrance \"Eau de Cologne\", in honour of his new hometown.\n",
"\"Demeter\" was founded by ex-Kiehl's perfumer Christopher Brosius, in 1993, as a project 'bottle' everyday odors into wearable personal colognes. The first three colognes that were created – Dirt, Grass and Tomato – were launched at New York department stores, Bergdorf Goodman and Henri Bendel, in 1996. The three scents sold well, which led to further introductions to the range and unusual fragrances such as Gin & Tonic, Baby Powder and Play-Doh joined the portfolio. \n",
"Classical colognes first appeared in Europe in the 17th century. The first fragrance labeled a \"parfum\" extract with a high concentration of aromatic compounds was Guerlain's \"Jicky\" in 1889. Eau de Toilette appeared alongside parfum around the turn of the century. The EdP concentration and terminology is the most recent. Parfum de toilette and EdP began to appear in the 1970s and gained popularity in the 1980s.\n",
"In the early 18th century, Johann Maria Farina (1685–1766), an Italian living in Cologne, Germany, created a fragrance. He named it \"Eau de Cologne\" (\"water from Cologne\") after his new home. Over the next century, the fragrance became increasingly popular.\n",
"Cologne is also famous for Eau de Cologne (German: \"Kölnisch Wasser\"; lit: \"Water of Cologne\"), a perfume created by Italian expatriate Johann Maria Farina at the beginning of the 18th century. During the 18th century, this perfume became increasingly popular, was exported all over Europe by the Farina family and \"Farina\" became a household name for \"Eau de Cologne\". In 1803 Wilhelm Mülhens entered into a contract with an unrelated person from Italy named Carlo Francesco Farina who granted him the right to use his family name and Mühlens opened a small factory at Cologne's Glockengasse. In later years, and after various court battles, his grandson Ferdinand Mülhens was forced to abandon the name \"Farina\" for the company and their product. He decided to use the house number given to the factory at Glockengasse during the French occupation in the early 19th century, 4711. Today, original Eau de Cologne is still produced in Cologne by both the Farina family, currently in the eighth generation, and by Mäurer & Wirtz who bought the 4711 brand in 2006.\n",
"The \"Eau de Cologne\" composed by Farina was used only as a perfume and delivered to \"nearly all royal houses in Europe\". His ability to produce a constantly homogeneous fragrance consisting of dozens of monoessences was seen as a sensation at the time. A single vial of this \"aqua mirabilis\" (Latin for miracle water) cost half the annual salary of a civil servant. When free trade was established in Cologne by the French in 1797, the success of \"Eau de Cologne\" prompted countless other businessmen to sell their own fragrances under the name of \"Eau de Cologne\". Giovanni Maria Farina's formula has been produced in Cologne since 1709 by Farina opposite the Jülichplatz and to this day remains a secret. His shop at Obenmarspforten opened in 1709 and is today the world's oldest fragrance factory.\n"
] |
How did marsupials spread from the Americas to Australia if they evolved way after South America separated from Gondwana?
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This seems to be a difficult question to answer, in part because Antarctica is difficult to study: fossil records are scarce, as are geological samples. There were apparently many active volcanoes along the Antarctic peninsula during the late cretaceous and early tertiary times, which, combined with the discovery of a [marsupial fossil on Seymour Island](_URL_2_), makes it plausible that there was a connection from South America to Antarctica.
Keep in mind that the date for marsupial divergence is still fairly up in the air (I'm seeing numbers from [125 MYA](_URL_0_) to [65 MYA](_URL_1_)), and that their fossil records are fairly spotty.
|
[
"Marsupials reached Australia via Antarctica about 50 mya, shortly after Australia had split off. This suggests a single dispersion event of just one species, most likely a relative to South America's monito del monte (a microbiothere, the only New World australidelphian). This progenitor may have rafted across the widening, but still narrow, gap between Australia and Antarctica. In Australia, they radiated into the wide variety seen today. Modern marsupials appear to have reached the islands of New Guinea and Sulawesi relatively recently via Australia. A 2010 analysis of retroposon insertion sites in the nuclear DNA of a variety of marsupials has confirmed all living marsupials have South American ancestors. The branching sequence of marsupial orders indicated by the study puts Didelphimorphia in the most basal position, followed by Paucituberculata, then Microbiotheria, and ending with the radiation of Australian marsupials. This indicates that Australidelphia arose in South America, and reached Australia after Microbiotheria split off.\n",
"South American marsupials have long been suspected to be ancestral to those of Australia, consistent with the fact that the two continents were connected via Antarctica in the early Cenozoic. Australia’s earliest known marsupial is \"Djarthia\", a primitive mouse-like animal that lived in the early Eocene about 55 million years ago (mya). \"Djarthia\" had been identified as the earliest known australidelphian, and this research suggested that the monito del monte was the last of a clade that included \"Djarthia\". This relationship suggests that the ancestors of the monito del monte might have reached South America by back-migration from Australia. The time of divergence between the monito del monte and Australian marsupials was estimated to have been 46 mya.\n",
"Fossils found at Lightning Ridge, New South Wales, suggest that 110 million years ago (Ma), Australia supported a number of different monotremes, but did not support any marsupials. Marsupials appear to have evolved during the Cretaceous in the contemporary northern hemisphere, to judge from a 100-million-year-old marsupial fossil, \"Kokopellia\", found in the badlands of Utah. Marsupials would then have spread to South America and Gondwana. The first evidence of mammals (both marsupials and placental) in Australia comes from the Tertiary, and was found at a 55-million-year-old fossil site at Murgon, in southern Queensland. As Zealanded had rifted away at this time it explains the lack of ground dwelling marsupials and placental mammals in New Zealand's fossil record.\n",
"Marsupials appear to have traveled via Gondwanan land connections from South America through Antarctica to Australia in the late Cretaceous or early Tertiary. One living South American marsupial, the monito del monte, has been shown to be more closely related to Australian marsupials than to other South American marsupials; however, it is the most basal australidelphian, meaning that this superorder arose in South America and then colonized Australia after the monito del monte split off. A 61-Ma-old platypus-like monotreme fossil from Patagonia may represent an Australian immigrant. Paleognath birds (ratites and South American tinamous) may have migrated by this route around the same time, more likely in the direction from South America to Australia/New Zealand. Other taxa that may have dispersed by the same route (if not by flying or floating across the ocean) are parrots, chelid turtles and (extinct) meiolaniid turtles.\n",
"In Australia, terrestrial placental mammals disappeared early in the Cenozoic (their most recent known fossils being 55 million-year-old teeth resembling those of condylarths) for reasons that are not clear, allowing marsupials to dominate the Australian ecosystem. Extant native Australian terrestrial placental mammals (such as hopping mice) are relatively recent immigrants, arriving via island hopping from Southeast Asia.\n",
"Furthermore, molecular data suggests that Notoryctemorphia separated from other marsupials around 64 million years ago. Although at this time South America, Antarctica and Australia were still joined the order evolved in Australia for at least 40-50 million years. The Riversleigh fossil material suggests that \"Notoryctes\" was already well adapted for burrowing and probably lived in the rainforest that covered much of Australia at that time. The increase in aridity at the end of Tertiary was likely one of the key contributing factors to the development of the current highly specialized form of marsupial mole. The marsupial mole had been burrowing long before the Australian deserts came into being.\n",
"The roots of Australian marsupials are thought to trace back tens of millions of years to when much of the current Southern Hemisphere was part of the supercontinent of Gondwana; marsupials are believed to have originated in what is now South America and migrated across Antarctica, which had a temperate climate at the time. As soil degradation took hold, it is believed that the marsupials adapted to the more basic flora of Australia. According to Pemberton, the possible ancestors of the devil may have needed to climb trees to acquire food, leading to a growth in size and the hopping gait of many marsupials. He speculated that these adaptations may have caused the contemporary devil's peculiar gait. The specific lineage of the Tasmanian devil is theorised to have emerged during the Miocene, molecular evidence suggesting a split from the ancestors of quolls between 10 and 15 million years ago, when severe climate change came to bear in Australia, transforming the climate from warm and moist to an arid, dry ice age, resulting in mass extinctions. As most of their prey died of the cold, only a few carnivores survived, including the ancestors of the quoll and thylacine. It is speculated that the devil lineage may have arisen at this time to fill a niche in the ecosystem, as a scavenger that disposed of carrion left behind by the selective-eating thylacine. The extinct \"Glaucodon ballaratensis\" of the Pliocene age has been dubbed an intermediate species between the quoll and devil. Fossil deposits in limestone caves at Naracoorte, South Australia, dating to the Miocene include specimens of \"S. laniarius\", which were around 15% larger and 50% heavier than modern devils. Older specimens believed to be 50–70,000 years old were found in Darling Downs in Queensland and in Western Australia. It is not clear whether the modern devil evolved from \"S. laniarius\", or whether they coexisted at the time. Richard Owen argued for the latter hypothesis in the 19th century, based on fossils found in 1877 in New South Wales. Large bones attributed to \"S. moornaensis\" have been found in New South Wales, and it has been conjectured that these two extinct larger species may have hunted and scavenged. It is known that there were several genera of thylacine millions of years ago, and that they ranged in size, the smaller being more reliant on foraging. As the devil and thylacine are similar, the extinction of the co-existing thylacine genera has been cited as evidence for an analogous history for the devils. It has been speculated that the smaller size of \"S. laniarius\" and \"S. moornaensis\" allowed them to adapt to the changing conditions more effectively and survive longer than the corresponding thylacines. As the extinction of these two species came at a similar time to human habitation of Australia, hunting by humans and land clearance have been mooted as possible causes. Critics of this theory point out that as indigenous Australians only developed boomerangs and spears for hunting around 10,000 years ago, a critical fall in numbers due to systematic hunting is unlikely. They also point out that caves inhabited by Aborigines have a low proportion of bones and rock paintings of devils, and suggest that this is an indication that it was not a large part of indigenous lifestyle. A scientific report in 1910 claimed that Aborigines preferred the meat of herbivores rather than carnivores. The other main theory for the extinction was that it was due to the climate change brought on by the most recent ice age.\n"
] |
can somebody please explain two of the federalist papers to me, specifically #10 and #51?
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Here's my breakdown of 10 Federalist, which I posted back in the spring, the last time this question was asked on ELI5. I'll get to 51 Federalist in a little while.
**The Situation:** The new constitution has just been written (mostly based on Madison's ideas), and now the states have to ratify it. Each of the Federalist essays is an attempt to work out, from the very basics of human nature up to high political theory, how the new Constitution will make everything better. When you read it, it sounds circuitous and vague, but the point is that the Constitution is great and should be adopted.
**Problem:** The new-born USA is the first really large Republic. The largest past model is Rome, which was tossed by the whims of plebian mob AND had entrenched hereditary aristocracy. All the city-state direct democracies depended on common, local identity of the citizens. Even in 1787, the USA was diverse. So how is this going to work?
**So what's a "Faction"?** Faction: a number of citizens who are united by some common impulse of passion or interest *adverse* to the rights of other citizens or to the overall interests of the community. Note Madison included in the definition a harmful aspect – not just an interest group, but one setting out to harm others, either out of malice or self-interest. *Examples:* Theocratic fundamentalists who want to oppress minority religions (anti-Catholic, anti-Quaker, anti-Jewish were all issues in 1787); state-patriots who want to hurt other states for their own gain; economic radicals -- there were no Socialists or Communists in 1787, but there were land reformers who wanted to redistribute property from the rich few who owned most of it (like Madison!).
**Madison's Blind Spot showing, #1:** Madison doesn't mention slavery, but it meets his definition of a majority faction -- the confluence of racism and self-interest against a minority.
**Madison's Approach:**
1- We could brainwash people to be uniform in their desires and political thinking. Oops, not really possible in 1787.
2- We could suppress liberties like free speech and voting rights. Bad idea.
So we're stuck with the *impulse* to form factions. But maybe we can keep factions from getting *power*. Republics make minority factions irrelevant -- they can't win. Note Madison didn't think about log-rolling or vote-trading in legislatures, because those ideas were invented after 1787.
So *Majority* factions are the real problem – tyranny of the majority. Madison is thinking of the trial of Socrates by the Athenians, the French Revolution under the Committee of Public Safety, etc.
**Federal government to the rescue:** It's harder for a faction to form in a big population spread across an entire continent. Differences should average out, so that in the Federal government, the state-level factions are powerless. The House will be elected frequently -- every two years -- so the representatives will have to actually go out and meet their voters. And the districts are (were in 1787, not anymore) small enough that it's a personal relationship, but not so small that local faction will win elections. And the Congressmen will all be together, away from their constituents for the sessions, so they won't have the mob breathing down their neck and forcing them to vote maliciously.
**Madison's Blind Spot showing, #2:** Madison is talking about elections like "the people" will get a voice. Elections in 1787 are by white male property owners only -- guys like Madison. The first Congress had one Representative for every 30,000 people, including slaves, women, and children, and non-voting white men. Maybe 5% could vote -- it's pretty easy for ~1000 rich white guys to find a common ground. Seriously: [South Carolina's first congressional election](_URL_0_) had 3 out of 5 districts with one candidate running unopposed, and only one district had more than 1000 votes cast. In democratic [Pennsylvania](_URL_3_), the top candidate got 8,707 votes. In all of [New York](_URL_2_) about 11,000 votes were cast to pick 5 congressmen. We're talking the size of [Athenian juries](_URL_1_) here -- not a lot of faction-diffusing diversity.
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[
"Federalist No. 73 is an essay by the 18th-century American statesman Alexander Hamilton. It is the seventy-third of \"The Federalist Papers\", a collection of articles written to promote the ratification of the United States Constitution. It was published on March 21, 1788 under the pseudonym Publius, the name under which all \"The Federalist\" papers were published. Its title is \"The Provision For The Support of the Executive, and the Veto Power\", and it is the seventh in a series of 11 essays discussing the powers and limitations of the Executive branch of the United States government.\n",
"The Federalist Papers is a collection of 85 articles and essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay under the pseudonym \"Publius\" to promote the ratification of the United States Constitution. The collection was commonly known as The Federalist until the name \"The Federalist Papers\" emerged in the 20th century.\n",
"Federalist No. 40 is an essay by James Madison, the fortieth of \"The Federalist Papers\". It was published on January 18, 1788 under the pseudonym Publius, the name under which all \"The Federalist\" papers were published. This is the last of four papers by Madison examining the authority of the constitutional convention that had produced the proposed United States Constitution. It is titled \"The Powers of the Convention to Form a Mixed Government Examined and Sustained\".\n",
"Federalist No. 82 is an essay by Alexander Hamilton, the eighty-second of \"The Federalist Papers\". It was published on July 2, 1788 under the pseudonym Publius, the name under which all \"The Federalist\" papers were published. Its title is \"The Judiciary Continued\", and it is the fifth in a series of six essays discussing the powers and limitations of the judicial branch of government.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The Federalist Papers\", published anonymously at the time, now known to be written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay. Considered the third most important document in the development of the United States government, after the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution / Bill of Rights.\n",
"Federalist No. 49 is an essay by James Madison, the forty-ninth of \"The Federalist Papers\". It was published on February 2, 1788 under the pseudonym \"Publius\", the name under which all \"The Federalist\" papers were published. It is titled \"Method of Guarding Against the Encroachments of Any One Department of Government by Appealing to the People Through a Convention\".\n",
"The Federalist Papers are 85 individual articles written by John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison and were intended for the people of New York. The purpose of these papers was to convince the states to ratify the United States Constitution by pointing out the flaws in the Articles of Confederation. Jay, Hamilton, and Madison all addressed various issues in the articles, mainly Hamilton writing the majority of them.\n"
] |
why fort knox has so much gold stored within it.
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The US dollar, like most currencies, used to be based on gold. So the government had to have a lot of gold stuck in its vaults to back up its currency.
This isn't true anymore, but there's no good way to get rid of all that gold. If it were all dumped on the open market, the price would crash.
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[
"The United States Bullion Depository, often known as Fort Knox, is a fortified vault building located next to the United States Army post of Fort Knox, Kentucky. It is operated by the United States Department of the Treasury. The vault is used to store a large portion of the United States' gold reserves as well as other precious items belonging to or in custody of the federal government. It currently holds roughly of gold bullion, over half of the Treasury’s stored gold. The depository is protected by the United States Mint Police.\n",
"The United States Bullion Depository, often known as Fort Knox, is a fortified vault building located adjacent to the Fort Knox Army Post. It is operated by the Department of the Treasury. The vault currently stores over half of the United States' gold reserves. It is protected by the United States Mint Police, and is well known for it's physical security. \n",
", Fort Knox holds of gold reserves with a market value of US $1413.200*147341858.382/1000000000 round 1 billion. This represents of the gold reserves of the United States. As of 2017, the U.S. gold reserves of 8,133.5 metric tons was nearly as much as the next three countries combined. The next highest holdings were Germany's, whose gold reserves were 3,371.0 metric tons.\n",
"The Fort Knox Gold Mine operates a single large pit. From 2001 - 2004 the True North Mine, a small satellite deposit was operated and the ore was processed through the Fort Knox mill. Production from Fort Knox is up to per day of low grade ore (1 gram per tonne), with two mineral processing streams (carbon in pulp for higher grade ore and heap leaching for lower grade ore). The mine is located from the city of Fairbanks via a combination of paved and unpaved roads. Surpassing 6 million ounces in 2011, Fort Knox is the single largest producer of gold in the history of the state of Alaska. Expected to run out of ore in 2021, the mine's life has been extended to 2027 following Kinross' $100 million expansion investment announced in 2018, increasing life-of-mine production by about 1.5 million gold equivalent ounces.\n",
"The depository was built by the Treasury in 1936 on land transferred to it from Fort Knox. Early shipments of gold totaling almost 13,000 metric tons were escorted by combat cars of the 1st U.S. Cavalry Regiment to the depository. It has in the past safeguarded other precious items such as the Constitution of the United States and Declaration of Independence, as well as enough opium and morphine to meet the needs of the entire nation for one year.\n",
"In 1974, Beter publicly stated that most of the gold in Fort Knox had been sold to European interests, at prices vastly below market rates. According to him, international speculators had dishonestly obtained the gold.\n",
"In June 1935, the U.S. Treasury announced its intention to quickly build a gold depository on the grounds of Fort Knox, Kentucky. It's purpose was to store gold then kept being kept in the New York City Assay office and Philadelphia Mint. This was in keeping with a policy previously announced to move gold reserves away from coastal cities to areas less vulnerable to foreign military invasion. This policy had already led to the shipment of nearly of of gold from San Francisco to Denver. The initial plans were to be completed by August, and called for a building costing no more than $450,000 ().\n"
] |
why can't we identify someone if we can't see their eyes?
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We can identify people without seeing their eyes just fine if we know them well. Haven't you ever recognized someone with their back turned or semi-profile if their hair has partially fallen over their face so you can't see their eyes? Or how about someone asleep? You can't see their eyes then.
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[
"Face recognition can be used not just to identify an individual, but also to unearth other personal data associated with an individual – such as other photos featuring the individual, blog posts, social networking profiles, Internet behavior, travel patterns, etc. – all through facial features alone. Concerns have been raised over who would have access to the knowledge of one's whereabouts and people with them at any given time. Moreover, individuals have limited ability to avoid or thwart face recognition tracking unless they hide their faces. This fundamentally changes the dynamic of day-to-day privacy by enabling any marketer, government agency, or random stranger to secretly collect the identities and associated personal information of any individual captured by the face recognition system. Consumers may not understand or be aware of what their data is being used for, which denies them the ability to consent to how their personal information gets shared.\n",
"An individual is 'identified' if distinguished from other members of a group. In most cases an individual's name, together with some other information, will be sufficient to identify them, but a person can be identified even if their name is not known. Start by looking at the means available to identify an individual and the extent to which such means are readily available to you.\n",
"The face is the feature which best distinguishes a person. Specialized regions of the human brain, such as the fusiform face area (FFA), enable facial recognition; when these are damaged, it may be impossible to recognize faces even of intimate family members. The pattern of specific organs, such as the eyes, or of parts of them, is used in biometric identification to uniquely identify individuals.\n",
"When we see people, we recognise individuals, we make judgements about them, we draw conclusions about their age, their sex, their personality, their mood and their intentions. And, deliberately or not, we send signals to others - through our expressions, the way we dress and the way we modify our bodies.\n",
"The ability to visually identify previous social partners is essential for successful interactions because it aids in recognizing which partners can and cannot be trusted. In humans, this is accomplished by facial recognition. Research suggests that humans are born with an innate ability to process other human faces. In one study, Pascalis, et al. (1995) found that four-day-old neonates (infants) prefer to look at their mothers' faces rather than at a stranger's. This finding suggests that neonates are able to remember, recognize, and differentiate between faces. Further research suggests that humans prefer to attend to faces rather than non-face alternatives. Such specialized processing for faces aids in the encoding of memory for people. This preference is one explanation for why humans are more proficient at memorizing faces than non-faces.\n",
"There is an exception, however, in certain circumstances when it is needed to identify the girl or woman, such as taking a photo of her for an ID card or passport, or when there is an exam and it is feared that a girl may secretly replace another. In such cases, she has to show her face for identification\n",
"Recognizing faces is one of the most common forms of pattern recognition. Humans are incredibly effective at remembering faces, but this ease and automaticity belies a very challenging problem. All faces are physically similar. Faces have two eyes, one mouth, and one nose all in predictable locations, yet humans can recognize a face from several different angles and in various lighting conditions. \n"
] |
when a company offers a direct listing for a new stock, how is the initial price point determined?
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In the case of a direct listing, the original share holders put up their shares and determine the value themselves (no underwriters involved). It is much cheaper for the company but it is also considered extremely unsafe. There are no protections against the price swinging violently.
This can lead to your shares not being purchased; low demand = no value and your stock tanks.
Doing an IPO comes with the backing of security. In certain cases, where your product/offerings have an extremely solid future, or an already established market presence, you can do a direct listing and basically pop bottles because your product is the tits.
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[
"To induce the shareholders of the target company to sell, the acquirer's offer price is usually at a premium over the current market price of the target company's shares. For example, if a target corporation's stock were trading at $10 per share, an acquirer might offer $11.50 per share to shareholders on the condition that 51% of shareholders agree. Cash or securities may be offered to the target company's shareholders, although a tender offer in which securities are offered as consideration is generally referred to as an \"exchange offer.\"\n",
"The acquiring company essentially uses its own stock as cash to purchase the business. Each shareholder of the acquired company will receive a pre-determined number of shares from the acquiring company. Before the swap occurs each party must accurately value their company so that a fair swap ratio can be calculated. Valuation of a company is quite complicated. Not only does fair market value have to be determined, but the investment and intrinsic value needs to be determined as well.\n",
"BULLET::::- Sale Price – The sale price is finalized through negotiations between the issuing company & the purchaser which is influenced by reputation of the promoters, project evaluation, prevailing market sentiment, prospects of off-loading these shares at a future date, etc.\n",
"In certain circumstances, it may be possible for the management and the original owner of the company to agree a deal whereby the seller finances the buyout. The price paid at the time of sale will be nominal, with the real price being paid over the following years out of the profits of the company. The timescale for the payment is typically 3–7 years.\n",
"If the market price of the stock falls below the mini-tender price before the offer closes, the bidder can cancel the offer or reduce the offer price. While a price change allows investors to withdraw their shares, this process is not automatic. The \"onus is on the investor\", as they (and not the bidder or broker) are responsible for acquiring the revised offer information and withdrawing their shares by the deadline.\n",
"In a stock merger, the acquirer offers to purchase the target by exchanging its own stock for the target's stock at a specified ratio. To initiate a position, the arbitrageur will buy the target's stock and short sell the acquirer's stock. This process is called \"setting a spread\". The size of the spread positively correlates to the perceived risk that the deal will not be consummated at its original terms. The arbitrageur makes a profit when the spread narrows, which occurs when deal consummation appears more likely. Upon deal completion, the target's stock will be converted into stock of the acquirer based on the exchange ratio determined by the merger agreement. At this point in time, the spread will close. The arbitrageur delivers the converted stock into his short position to close his position.\n",
"The initial share price is determined on the trade date. The final valuation of the shares is based on the closing price of the reference shares determined four days prior to maturity. If the investor is delivered physical shares, their value will be less than the initial investment.\n"
] |
Are there any people alive today that can trace their ancestry back to ancient history?
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There are plenty of people/dynasties that claim they "descend from antiquity" but there are no 'Western' claims that are accepted by historians and genealogists.
There are a number of 'Eastern' claims that might one-day be accepted, the oldest of which is Kung Tsui-chang who claims to be the 79th-generation male descendant of Confucius (though, probably with some adoption involved).
The Japanese imperial family also has a reasonably strong claim, though their surviving records don't go back as far as their claim does.
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[
"A 2013 study in \"Nature\" reported that DNA found in the 24,000-year-old remains of a young boy from the archaeological Mal'ta-Buret' culture suggest that up to one-third of the indigenous Americans may have ancestry that can be traced back to western Eurasians, who may have \"had a more north-easterly distribution 24,000 years ago than commonly thought\". \"We estimate that 14 to 38 percent of Native American ancestry may originate through gene flow from this ancient population\", the authors wrote. Professor Kelly Graf said,\n",
"A 2013 study in \"Nature\" reported that DNA found in the 24,000-year-old remains of a young boy from the archaeological Mal'ta-Buret' culture suggest that up to one-third of indigenous Americans' ancestry can be traced back to western Eurasians, who may have \"had a more north-easterly distribution 24,000 years ago than commonly thought\" \"We estimate that 14 to 38 percent of Amerindian ancestry may originate through gene flow from this ancient population,\" the authors wrote. Professor Kelly Graf said,\n",
"With advances in science able to trace individuals' ancestry via their DNA, according to a widely publicised study (December 2008) in the \"American Journal of Human Genetics\", modern Spaniards (and Portuguese) have an average admixture of 19.8 percent from ancestors originating in the Near East during historic times (i.e. Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Jews and Levantine Arabs) – compared to 10.6 percent of North African – Berber admixture. This proportion could be as high as 23% in the case of Latin Americans, however, according to a study published in Nature Communications. The possibly higher proportion of significant Jewish ancestry in the Latin American population could stem from increased emigration of Conversos to the New World to avoid persecution by the Spanish Inquisition.\n",
"Another study, focused on the mtDNA (that which is inherited only through the maternal line), revealed that the indigenous people of the Americas have their maternal ancestry traced back to a few founding lineages from East Asia, which would have arrived via the Bering strait. According to this study, it is probable that the ancestors of the Native Americans would have remained for a time in the region of the Bering Strait, after which there would have been a rapid movement of settling of the Americas, taking the founding lineages to South America.\n",
"Available genetic data show that the Clovis people are the direct ancestors of roughly 80% of all living Native American populations in North and South America, with the remainder descended from ancestors who entered in later waves of migration. As reported in February 2014, DNA from the 12,600-year-old remains of Anzick boy, found in Montana, has affirmed this connection to the peoples of the Americas. In addition, this DNA analysis affirmed genetic connections back to ancestral peoples of northeast Asia. This adds weight to the theory that peoples migrated across a land bridge from Siberia to North America.\n",
"Another study, also focused on the mtDNA (that which is inherited through only the maternal line), revealed that the indigenous people of the Americas have their maternal ancestry traced back to a few founding lineages from East Asia, which would have arrived via the Bering strait. According to this study, it is probable that the ancestors of the Native Americans would have remained for a time in the region of the Bering Strait, after which there would have been a rapid movement of settling of the Americas, taking the founding lineages to South America.\n",
"According to self-reported ancestry figures recorded by the ACS, the five largest ancestral groups in Starrucca in 2013 were Germans (28.8%), English (19.9%), Poles (10.5%), Irish (9.9%), and Dutch (6.8%). Those reporting American ancestry made up 2.6% of the population.\n"
] |
Why were Quakers banned from the Massachussetts Bay Colony in the mid-1600s?
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Quakers were a persecuted group even back in the UK- they emphasized a more personal, direct relationship with God, unmediated by clergy, which was viewed as blasphemous and a threat to the established power of the Church of England. Because the monarch was the head of the church, denying one's allegiance to the church was akin to disloyalty to the state, and so 'nonconformists' like the Quakers were heavily proscribed.
Now, whereas 17th-century England was a state in which political and religious authority were heavily entwined, the Massachusetts Bay Colony was essentially a theocracy- although it was organized on republican lines, the franchise was limited to freemen, and one of the requirements for being a freeman was being a member of a Puritan church. This, too, was in the days when becoming a church member was a very serious business that involved an interrogation by the pastor to hunt down any hints of heterodoxy.
Because of the religious dominance of the government, the code of laws was heavily based off of Puritan beliefs. People could be prosecuted for crimes as various as playing dice or breaking the Sabbath (to say nothing of people executed for 'witchcraft'). Christmas and May Day were banned.
Back in England, the Quakers had been persecuted for their beliefs because blasphemy was seen as a threat to the social order. However, in the environment of Puritan New England, blasphemy was not just a religious injunction, but a civil offense. Simply by being within the colony and holding beliefs that were at odds with the established doctrine there, one was actively committing a crime, and it was on this basis that Quakers were banned.
They took no half measures, either. Any Quakers found on a ship coming into the colony were immediately imprisoned before being banished. There were a number of individuals who persisted in coming into the colony over a period of years in the middle of the 1600s, and four of them were eventually publicly hanged for their beliefs. This was seen as the last straw by the authorities in England, who revoked the ban on Quakers and, not long afterwards, ended the colony's de facto independence by sending over a royal governor to enforce the Crown's laws.
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[
"Of all the New England colonies, Massachusetts was the most active in persecuting the Quakers, but the Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven colonies also shared in their persecution. When the first Quakers arrived in Boston in 1656 there were no laws yet enacted against them, but this quickly changed, and punishments were meted out with or without the law. It was primarily the ministers and the magistrates who opposed the Quakers and their evangelistic efforts. A particularly vehement persecutor, the Reverend John Norton of the Boston church, clamored for the law of banishment upon pain of death. He is the one who later wrote the vindication to England, justifying the execution of the first two Quakers in 1659.\n",
"Small numbers of Quakers started arriving in New England by 1656. The Puritan-dominated General Court immediately enacted laws to discourage their activities. The new laws provided for harsh punishment to anyone who professed the \"heretical opinions\" of Quakers. They even punished ship captains who knowingly carried Quakers as passengers. However, these new measures brought heated debate within the General Court, as their passage was far from unanimous. The Deputies of the General Court, including Robert Pike, who represented the outlying areas, were much more likely to be sensitive to the issue of religious freedom and probably voted against the new laws. Nonetheless, numerous Quaker missionaries were punished by public whippings, banishment, and the threat of death if they returned to Massachusetts Bay Colony. Between 1659 and 1661, five Quakers, all of whom had returned to Boston to continue preaching publicly, were hanged.\n",
"On 11 July 1656 they became the first Quakers to visit the English North American colonies, arriving at Boston in the Massachusetts Bay Colony on the \"Swallow\". There they met with fierce hostility from the Puritan population and the Deputy Governor of the colony, Richard Bellingham, as news of the heretical views of the Quakers had preceded them.\n",
"On 11 July 1656 they became the first Quakers to visit the English North American colonies, arriving at Boston in the Massachusetts Bay Colony on the \"Swallow\". There they met with fierce hostility from the Puritan population and the Deputy Governor of the colony, Richard Bellingham, as news of the heretical views of the Quakers had preceded them.\n",
"Despite those arguments a major factor is agreed to be that the Quakers were initially discouraged or forbidden to go to the major law or humanities schools in Britain due to the Test Act. They also at times faced similar discriminations in the United States, as many of the colonial universities had a Puritan or Anglican orientation. This led them to attend \"Godless\" institutions or forced them to rely on hands-on scientific experimentation rather than academia.\n",
"Despite those arguments a major factor is agreed to be that the Quakers were initially discouraged or forbidden to go to the major law or humanities schools in Britain due to the Test Act. They also at times faced similar discriminations in the United States, as many of the colonial universities had a Puritan or Anglican orientation. This led them to attend \"Godless\" institutions or forced them to rely on hands-on scientific experimentation rather than academia.\n",
"In 1656, not long before Prence became governor, Quakers began to arrive in New England in substantial numbers. The conservative leaders of the Puritan colonies were alarmed by what they saw as their heretical religious views. Massachusetts issued a call to the United Colonies for concerted action against them, and would ultimately take the hardest line against them, hanging four of them for repeated violations of banishment.\n"
] |
how do torrent websites keep track of the seeds/peers of each torrent?
|
So a torrent has seeders (people who have the whole file and are actively sharing it) and leechers (typically people who download more than they upload). The collection of the seeders and leechers is called a swarm. Different torrent sites use a tracker to organise the swarm. The tracker is what detects the number of people seeding and leeching. So when you open a torrent your computer talks to the tracker and tells it which torrent you're after (downloading), or you tell it that you're ready to upload for someone (seeding).
|
[
"The algorithm applies to a scenario in which there is only one seed in the swarm. By permitting each downloader to download only specific parts of the files listed in a torrent, it equips peers to begin seeding sooner. Peers attached to a seed with super-seeding enabled therefore distribute pieces of the torrent file much more readily before they have completed download themselves. \n",
"Users find a torrent of interest on a torrent index site or by using a search engine built into the client, download it, and open it with a BitTorrent client. The client connects to the tracker(s) or seeds specified in the torrent file, from which it receives a list of seeds and peers currently transferring pieces of the file(s). The client connects to those peers to obtain the various pieces. If the swarm contains only the initial seeder, the client connects directly to it, and begins to request pieces. Clients incorporate mechanisms to optimize their download and upload rates.\n",
"Web \"seeding\" was implemented in 2006 as the ability of BitTorrent clients to download torrent pieces from an HTTP source in addition to the \"swarm\". The advantage of this feature is that a website may distribute a torrent for a particular file or batch of files and make those files available for download from that same web server; this can simplify long-term seeding and load balancing through the use of existing, cheap, web hosting setups. In theory, this would make using BitTorrent almost as easy for a web publisher as creating a direct HTTP download. In addition, it would allow the \"web seed\" to be disabled if the swarm becomes too popular while still allowing the file to be readily available. This feature has two distinct specifications, both of which are supported by Libtorrent and the 26+ clients that use it.\n",
"The eXeem network used super-peers that were used to track torrents (as ordinary bittorrent trackers). These super-peers were also responsible for maintaining file lists, comments and ratings for part of the files in the network. When a peer that was tracking a torrent was closed or went down, a new peer was assigned to be the tracker for that particular torrent.\n",
"Selecting a torrent from the search results list would take the user to another page listing the websites currently hosting the specified torrent (with which users would download files). As Torrentz used meta-search engines, users would be redirected to other torrent sites to download content (commonly KickassTorrents, which was considered safe to use).\n",
"Web search engines allow the discovery of torrent files that are hosted and tracked on other sites; examples include The Pirate Bay, Torrentz, isoHunt and BTDigg. These sites allow the user to ask for content meeting specific criteria (such as containing a given word or phrase) and retrieve a list of links to torrent files matching those criteria. This list can often be sorted with respect to several criteria, relevance (seeders-leechers ratio) being one of the most popular and useful (due to the way the protocol behaves, the download bandwidth achievable is very sensitive to this value). Metasearch engines allow one to search several BitTorrent indices and search engines at once. DHT search engines monitors the DHT network, and indexes torrents via metadata exchange from peers. \n",
"Users wishing to obtain a copy of a file typically first download a torrent file that describes the file(s) to be shared, as well as the URLs of one or more central computers called trackers that maintain a list of peers currently sharing the file(s) described in the .torrent file. In the original BitTorrent design, peers then depended on this central tracker to find each other and maintain the swarm. Later development of distributed hash tables (DHTs) meant that partial lists of peers could be held by other computers in the swarm and the load on the central tracker computer could be reduced. PEX allows peers in a swarm to exchange information about the swarm directly without asking (polling) a tracker computer or a DHT. By doing so, PEX leverages the knowledge of peers that a user is connected to by asking them for the addresses of peers that they are connected to. This is faster and more efficient than relying solely on one tracker and reduces the processing load on the tracker. It also keep swarms together when the tracker is down.\n"
] |
Did the concept of zero exist in the Roman era?
|
The Romans didn't have a _number_ for zero. They definitely had the _concept_ though.
They just used the word "nulla" to mean nothing. Either you had something, or it wasn't worth counting.
Roman numerals are almost useless when doing math. Even simple addition and subtraction is clumsy and slow. I've heard it speculated (but don't have a source) that they did most calculations with abacus-like frames, where the numbers remained abstract, and then wrote down the result of their math in the traditional Roman numerals. That is, the numerals were for records, not arithmetic, making a numeral for "zero" even more useless. Why record the transaction if nothing happened?
In modern systems, zero can be an important placeholder (think "100") but practical, day-to-day situations involving a true zero are pretty rare and most of those cases can be covered with nulla or maybe "free."
As in all things, the Romans were also heavily influenced by Greek thinking and the Greeks liked to debate the
philosophical nature of zero ("how can anything truly be nothing?"), which again shows that everyone was aware of the concept, just not sure of its utility.
I've never heard anything about the Romans fearing pagan mathematical concepts. Until Constantine and Christianity, Romans wouldn't have even thought of other people as "pagans." Barbarians, certainly, but when you live in a polytheistic culture, pagan doesn't mean much.
P.S. If someone has an example of a Roman source working out a sum, I'd really like to see it.
|
[
"Neither the concept nor a symbol for zero existed in the system of Roman numerals. The Babylonian system of the BC era had used the idea of \"nothingness\" without considering it a number, and the Romans enumerated in much the same way. Wherever a modern zero would have been used, Bede and Dionysius Exiguus did use Latin number words, or the word \"nulla\" (meaning \"nothing\") alongside Roman numerals. Zero was invented in India in the sixth century, and was either transferred or reinvented by the Arabs by about the eighth century. The Arabic numeral for zero (0) did not enter Europe until the thirteenth century. Even then, it was known only to very few, and only entered widespread use in Europe by the seventeenth century.\n",
"Another true zero was used in tables alongside Roman numerals by 525 (first known use by Dionysius Exiguus), but as a word, meaning \"nothing\", not as a symbol. When division produced 0 as a remainder, , also meaning \"nothing\", was used. These medieval zeros were used by all future medieval computists (calculators of Easter). An isolated use of their initial, N, was used in a table of Roman numerals by Bede or a colleague about 725, a true zero symbol.\n",
"Another zero was used in tables alongside Roman numerals by 525 (first known use by Dionysius Exiguus), but as a word, \"nulla\" meaning \"nothing\", not as a symbol. When division produced zero as a remainder, \"nihil\", also meaning \"nothing\", was used. These medieval zeros were used by all future medieval calculators of Easter. The initial \"N\" was used as a zero symbol in a table of Roman numerals by Bede or his colleagues around 725.\n",
"By 130 AD, Ptolemy, influenced by Hipparchus and the Babylonians, was using a symbol for 0 (a small circle with a long overbar) within a sexagesimal numeral system otherwise using alphabetic Greek numerals. Because it was used alone, not as just a placeholder, this Hellenistic zero was the first \"documented\" use of a true zero in the Old World. In later Byzantine manuscripts of his \"Syntaxis Mathematica\" (\"Almagest\"), the Hellenistic zero had morphed into the Greek letter Omicron (otherwise meaning 70).\n",
"The ancient Greeks had no symbol for zero (μηδέν), and did not use a digit placeholder for it. They seemed unsure about the status of zero as a number. They asked themselves, \"How can nothing \"be\" something?\", leading to philosophical and, by the medieval period, religious arguments about the nature and existence of zero and the vacuum. The paradoxes of Zeno of Elea depend in large part on the uncertain interpretation of zero.\n",
"BULLET::::- The Roman number system was very cumbersome because there was no concept of zero (or empty space). The concept of zero (which was also called \"cipher\"), which is now common knowledge, was alien to medieval Europe, so confusing and ambiguous to common Europeans that in arguments people would say \"talk clearly and not so far fetched as a cipher\". Cipher came to mean concealment of clear messages or encryption.\n",
"The development of zero as a number is one of the most important developments in early mathematics. It was used as a placeholder by the Babylonians and Greek Egyptians, and then as an integer by the Mayans, Indians and Arabs. (See The history of zero for more information.)\n"
] |
Was there any actual proof of genocide in Srebrenica and Zepa?
|
Discovery and excavation of mass graves in the region has been [going on for years.]( _URL_0_)
|
[
"On 12 July 2010, at the 15th anniversary of the Srebrenica Massacre, Dodik declared that he acknowledges the killings that happened on the site, but does not regard what happened at Srebrenica as genocide, differing from the conclusions of the ICTY and of the International Court of Justice. \"If a genocide happened then it was committed against Serb people of this region where women, children and the elderly were killed en masse,\" Dodik said, in reference to eastern Bosnia.\n",
"In 2001, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) judged that the 1995 Srebrenica massacre was an act of genocide. On 26 February 2007, the International Court of Justice (ICJ), in the \"Bosnian Genocide Case\" upheld the ICTY's earlier finding that the massacre in Srebrenica and Zepa constituted genocide, but found that the Serbian government had not participated in a wider genocide on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war, as the Bosnian government had claimed.\n",
"In the case of Tolimir, in the first degree verdict, the International Criminal Tribunal has concluded that genocide was committed in the enclave of Žepa, outside of Srebrenica. However, that conviction was overturned by the appeals chamber, which narrowed the crime of genocide only to Srebrenica.\n",
"On 26 September 1997, Nikola Jorgić was found guilty by the Düsseldorf Oberlandesgericht (Higher Regional Court) on 11 counts of genocide involving the murder of 30 persons in the Doboj region, making it the first Bosnian Genocide prosecution. However, ICTY ruled out that genocide did not occur . Jorgić's appeal was rejected by the German Bundesgerichtshof (Federal Supreme Court) on 30 April 1999. The Oberlandesgericht found that Jorgić, a Bosnian Serb, had been the leader of a paramilitary group in the Doboj region that had taken part in acts of terror against the local Bosniak population carried out with the backing of the Serb leaders and intended to contribute to their policy of \"ethnic cleansing\".\n",
"In addition, the Srebrenica massacre was the core issue of the landmark court case Bosnian Genocide case at the International Court of Justice through which Bosnia and Herzegovina accused Serbia and Montenegro of genocide. The ICJ presented its judgement on 26 February 2007, which concurred with ICTY's recognition of the Srebrenica massacre as genocide. It cleared Serbia of direct involvement in genocide during the Bosnian war, but ruled that Belgrade did breach international law by failing to prevent the 1995 Srebrenica genocide, and for failing to try or transfer the persons accused of genocide to the ICTY, in order to comply with its obligations under Articles I and VI of the Genocide Convention, in particular in respect of General Ratko Mladić. Citing national security, Serbia obtained permission from the ICTY to keep parts of its military archives out of the public eye during its trial of Slobodan Milošević, which may have decisively affected the ICJ's judgement in the lawsuit brought against Serbia by Bosnia-Herzegovina, as the archives were hence not on the ICTY's public record – although the ICJ could have, but did not, subpoena the documents themselves. Chief prosecutor's office, OTP, rejects allegations that there was a deal with Belgrade to conceal documents from the ICJ Bosnia genocide case.\n",
"International Tribunal findings, have addressed two allegations of genocidal events, including the 1992 Ethnic Cleansing Campaign in municipalities throughout Bosnia, as well as the convictions found in regards to the Srebrenica Massacre of 1995 in which the tribunal found, \"Bosnian Serb forces committed genocide, they targeted for extinction, the 40,000 Bosnian Muslims of Srebrenica ... the trial chamber refers to the crimes by their appropriate name, genocide ...\". Individual convictions applicable to the 1992 Ethnic Cleansings have not been secured however. A number domestic courts and legislatures have found these events to have met the criteria of genocide, and the ICTY found the acts of, and intent to destroy to have been satisfied, the \"Dolus Specialis\" still in question and before the MICT, UN war crimes court. but ruled that Belgrade did breach international law by failing to prevent the 1995 Srebrenica genocide, and for failing to try or transfer the persons accused of genocide to the ICTY, in order to comply with its obligations under Articles I and VI of the Genocide Convention, in particular in respect of General Ratko Mladić.\n",
"According to a 2013 study of the Srebrenica genocide, Geller \"is among the most vociferous revisionists\" of the genocide. She denies the genocide of Bosnians in Srebrenica, describing it as the \"Srebrenica Genocide Myth.\" She has defended Slobodan Milošević, who died while standing trial for war crimes in the Bosnian War, and denied the existence of Serbian concentration camps. She claimed that the 1999 NATO intervention in Kosovo was \"in order to pave the way for an Islamic state in the heart of Europe – Kosovo.\" \n"
] |
What does the wobble of the earth's axis have on the weather?
|
You are on the correct trail in researching Milankovitch cycles. The question of does it effect weather is really one of time-scales. The characteristic time scale of Axial precession (wobble) is 26,000 years so any effect on our 'weather' would be on similar time-scales. It is basically impossible for something which varies once every 26,000 years to effect weather which changes on a daily basis. Milankovitch cycles are relevant for climate-changes of 10,000s of years, but not weather.
|
[
"Retrograde motion, or retrogression, within the Earth's atmosphere is seen in weather systems whose motion is opposite the general direction of airflow, i.e. from east to west against the westerlies or from west to east through the trade wind easterlies.\n",
"Surface friction allows the atmosphere to 'pick up' angular momentum from Earth in the case of retrograde rotation or release it to Earth in the case of superrotation. Averaging over longer time scales, no exchange of AAM with the solid Earth takes place. Earth and atmosphere are decoupled. This implies that the ground level zonal wind-component responsible for rigid rotation must be zero on the average. Indeed, the observed meridional structure of the climatic mean zonal wind on the ground shows westerly winds (from the west) in middle latitudes beyond about ± 30 latitude and easterly winds (from the east) in low latitudes—the trade winds—as well as near the poles\n",
"BULLET::::- Does the internal mantle structure provide the resonance for the Chandler wobble of the earth's axis or is it some other external mechanism? No available motions seem to be coherent drivers for the wobble period of 433 days.\n",
"The Coriolis effect causes Coriolis drift in a direction perpendicular to the Earth's axis; for most locations on Earth and firing directions, this deflection includes horizontal and vertical components. The deflection is to the right of the trajectory in the northern hemisphere, to the left in the southern hemisphere, upward for eastward shots, and downward for westward shots. The vertical Coriolis deflection is also known as the Eötvös effect. Coriolis drift is not an aerodynamic effect; it is a consequence of the rotation of the Earth.\n",
"The common explanation for this celestial phenomenon is precession, the ‘wobbling’ rotating movement of the earth axis. Research into Sri Yukteswar’s explanation is being conducted by the Binary Research Institute.\n",
"While it has to be maintained by changes in the mass distribution or angular momentum of the Earth's outer core, atmosphere, oceans, or crust (from earthquakes), for a long time the actual source was unclear, since no available motions seemed to be coherent with what was driving the wobble.\n",
"The Earth's axis of rotation – and hence the position of the North Pole – was commonly believed to be fixed (relative to the surface of the Earth) until, in the 18th century, the mathematician Leonhard Euler predicted that the axis might \"wobble\" slightly. Around the beginning of the 20th century astronomers noticed a small apparent \"variation of latitude,\" as determined for a fixed point on Earth from the observation of stars. Part of this variation could be attributed to a wandering of the Pole across the Earth's surface, by a range of a few metres. The wandering has several periodic components and an irregular component. The component with a period of about 435 days is identified with the eight-month wandering predicted by Euler and is now called the Chandler wobble after its discoverer. The exact point of intersection of the Earth's axis and the Earth's surface, at any given moment, is called the \"instantaneous pole\", but because of the \"wobble\" this cannot be used as a definition of a fixed North Pole (or South Pole) when metre-scale precision is required.\n"
] |
why does mitch mcconnell have so much power?
|
He is the Senate Majority Leader.
& #x200B;
The political party that he belongs to, the Republicans, have the majority of the seats in the Senate. According to the Senate's rules (which they get to make up themselves), the majority party gets to vote to elect a leader. That leader is given the power to schedule bills for votes.
& #x200B;
The senate could vote to change those rules if they wanted, but they typically don't because whoever has the majority of the seats will also have the most votes against changing the rules.
|
[
"McConnell has gained a reputation as a skilled political strategist and tactician. However, this reputation dimmed after Republicans failed to repeal the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) in 2017 during consolidated Republican control of government.\n",
"McConnell was elected to the Senate in 1984 and has been re-elected five times since. During the 1998 and 2000 election cycles, he was chairman of the National Republican Senatorial Committee. McConnell was elected as Majority Whip in the 108th Congress and was re-elected to the post in 2004. In November 2006, he was elected Senate Minority Leader; he held that post until 2015, when Republicans took control of the Senate and he became Senate Majority Leader.\n",
"In 2018, McConnell called for entitlement cuts and raised concern about government deficits. He blamed the deficit on government spending, and dismissed criticisms of the tax cuts bill he passed the year prior, which added more than $1 trillion in debt.\n",
"McConnell's role as Chief of Staff of the Air Force, as well as that of the other members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff during the Vietnam War, specifically under the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson and Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, has recently been the subject of significant historical research in the area of the relationships between senior military leaders (e.g., the JCS) and the civilian political leadership (e.g., the National Command Authority) and has increasingly become a topical discussion issue and object lesson for officers attending the nation's senior service colleges (i.e., Air War College, Army War College, Naval War College and National War College).\n",
"McConnell was the second person to hold the position of Director of National Intelligence. He was nominated by President George W. Bush on January 5, 2007, and was sworn in at Bolling Air Force Base in Washington, D.C. on February 20, 2007. McConnell's appointment to the post was initially greeted with broad bipartisan support, although he has since attracted criticism for advocating some of the Bush administration's more controversial policies.\n",
"McConnell was known as a pragmatist and a moderate Republican early in his political career but veered to the right over time. He led opposition to stricter campaign finance laws, culminating in the Supreme Court ruling that partially overturned the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (McCain-Feingold) in 2009. During the Obama presidency, McConnell worked to withhold Republican support for major presidential initiatives, made frequent use of the filibuster, and blocked many of Obama's judicial nominees, including Supreme Court nominee Merrick Garland. McConnell later described his decision to block the Garland nomination as \"the most consequential decision I've made in my entire public career\". Under McConnell's leadership of the Senate, Obama saw the fewest judicial nominees confirmed in the final two years of a presidency since 1951-1952. McConnell was included in the \"Time\" 100 list of the most influential people in the world in 2015.\n",
"Scholars have also characterized Mitch McConnell's tenure as Senate Minority Leader and Senate Majority Leader during the Obama presidency as one where obstructionism reached all-time highs. Political scientists have referred to McConnell's use of the filibuster as \"constitutional hardball\", referring to the misuse of procedural tools in a way that undermines democracy. McConnell delayed and obstructed health care reform and banking reform, which were two landmark pieces of legislation that Democrats sought to pass (and in fact did pass) early in Obama's tenure. By delaying Democratic priority legislation, McConnell stymied the output of Congress. Political scientists Eric Schickler and Gregory J. Wawro write, \"by slowing action even on measures supported by many Republicans, McConnell capitalized on the scarcity of floor time, forcing Democratic leaders into difficult trade-offs concerning which measures were worth pursuing. That is, given that Democrats had just two years with sizeable majorities to enact as much of their agenda as possible, slowing the Senate’s ability to process even routine measures limited the sheer volume of liberal bills that could be adopted.\"\n"
] |
Was Ludwig van Beethoven black?
|
My vote is for "this is bullshit."
Beethoven was well known in his life. After his death, he was pretty much considered the model of what the composer should be and his music became gospel. He was pretty much canonized in the 19th century, and his image is still VERY strong in the world of classical music. His music was used by the nazis for several reasons, it was still a symbol and they tried to use it for their agenda.
He was an extremely well respected musician, during and after his life people tried to be associated with him. As far as I can tell, this theory is just another example of somebody with an agenda.
Beethoven was apparently nicknamed The Spaniard as a boy. There is a case of description of him as an adult telling us he was "short in stature, broad in the shoulders, short neck, large head, round nose, dark brown complexion; he always bent forward slightly when he walked." He lived at this house people have called Das Schwarzspanierhaus (literally "house of the Black Spaniards," which I think arises comes from some association of this place with some Spanish friars who wore black robes).
That is what I know that is related to dark-coloured and Spanish. I don't know of solid evidence that could indicate he was black, a moor, or from Spain. The Beethoven Center at San José State University [agrees there is no evidence supporting this](_URL_1_).
Do you want to know about a black musician who lived in Europe during Beethoven's life? [Joseph Antonio Emidy (1775 – 1835)](_URL_0_).
There's no conspiracy here, this is something we would know for sure. The academic world would have no reason to force the idea of a "white" Beethoven, we would just not care now... Classical music made it to a hell of a lot of countries, we (non-Europeans) have assimilated it, it is no longer an exclusively European thing. We wouldn't care to find out he was a black transexual Mexican woman who was formerly a shaman and ended in Europe because of alien experiments. But you can be sure we would be VERY interested in evidence for such a discovery.
A lot has been discussed about Beethoven, probably more than about any other famous musician. I remember reading this theory that "he wasn't actually that good," that his fame was just the product of a bunch of situations...
What's next, "was Beethoven an alien with 2 brains"? (Like Bach)
|
[
"Ludwig van (full title: \"Ludwig van: A report\"; German: \"Ludwig van: ein Bericht\") is a black-and-white German film by Mauricio Kagel. Filmed in 1969, it was first screened the following year. The work was commissioned by Westdeutscher Rundfunk for the bicentennial celebrations of the birth of Ludwig van Beethoven in 1970. The film examines the reception of the composer and his works and how he has become a consumer product of the culture industry. The soundtrack is an arrangement of fragments of Beethoven's works, modified as if heard by the deaf composer himself; it is distinct from Kagel's 1970 composition \"Ludwig van\". Prominent contemporary artists including Dieter Roth, Stefan Wewerka (), Robert Filliou, and Joseph Beuys were involved in the design. According to \"Gramophone\", \"at first it’s a laugh a minute ... then Kagel's film turns dark\".\n",
"Beethoven was One-Sixteenth Black is a book of short stories by Nadine Gordimer, published by Bloomsbury. Reviewing the collection in \"The New York Times\", Siddhartha Deb said: \"As she always has, Gordimer offers her readers a rare combination of intimacy and transcendence\". Jonathan Gibbs wrote in \"The Independent\": \"In her 84th year, Nadine Gordimer has produced a remarkable 10th collection. They show none of the \"audacity\" Richard Ford called for in his recent anthology of American short stories. Instead, what they show is tact: a quality that seems bound up in Gordimer's decades of experience. There are stories here that a 30-year-old could not have thought to write, let alone written.\"\n",
"Ludwig van Beethoven, a German composer, died in his apartment in the , Vienna, on 26 March 1827 at the age of 56, following a prolonged illness. It was witnessed by his sister-in-law and by his close friend Anselm Hüttenbrenner, who provided a vivid description of the event. Beethoven's funeral was held three days later, and the procession was witnessed by a large crowd. He was buried in the cemetery at Währing, although his remains were moved in 1888 to the Vienna Central Cemetery.\n",
"Johann van Beethoven (c. 1739 or 1740 – 18 December 1792) was a Flemish-German musician, teacher, and singer who sang in the chapel of the Archbishop of Cologne, whose court was at Bonn. He is best known as the father of the celebrated composer Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827). Johann was an alcoholic and an abusive father who often beat Ludwig. At 18, Ludwig had to obtain an order to force Johann to support his family. Johann died soon after Ludwig moved to Vienna to study with Joseph Haydn.\n",
"Ludwig van Beethoven (; ; baptised 17 December 177026 March 1827) was a German composer and pianist. A crucial figure in the transition between the classical and romantic eras in classical music, he remains one of the most recognized and influential musicians of this period, and is considered to be one of the greatest composers of all time.\n",
"Between 1815 and 1817 Beethoven's output dropped again. He attributed part of this to a lengthy illness (he called it an \"inflammatory fever\") that he had for more than a year, starting in October 1816. Biographers have speculated on a variety of other reasons that also contributed to the decline, including the difficulties in the personal lives of his would-be paramours and the harsh censorship policies of the Austrian government. The illness and death of his brother Kaspar from tuberculosis may also have played a role.\n",
"Ludwig van Beethoven the Elder, also Ludovicus van Beethoven, born Lodewijk van Beethoven (; January 5, 1712 – December 24, 1773) was a professional singer and music director, best known as the grandfather of the composer Ludwig van Beethoven.\n"
] |
what is a good and simple analogy for the big freeze theory?
|
Imagine you put 1000 ants randomly onto a little patch of soil 1 foot square. They're close together, they can work together to achieve things, maybe they'll even establish a new colony. It's thriving with activity.
But now imagine you can magically grow that square foot of soil at an ever-expanding rate.
After an hour it's now 10ft square. The ants can still cross the distance and cooperate, it just takes them longer and uses more energy.
After two hours it's a mile square. Maybe some ants are still working together here and there but most just got separated by distance and are wandering around alone.
After three hours it's a thousand miles square. Now each ant is so far apart from it's neighbors that they'll likely never meet except in rare circumstances.
After four hours it's a million miles square. The possibility that any two ants will ever meet and be able to do work together is vanishingly small.
After five hours it's a hundred billion miles square. Each ant couldn't even cross the distance to the next ant if it walked for an entire lifetime.
After six hours, all the ants are dead. Each one ran out of energy and just lay down on their separate, lonely, vast islands of isolation and expired.
The whole scene is still. What was once thriving activity is now completely static and lifeless.
|
[
"The Big Freeze is a 1993 featurette-length film written and directed by Eric Sykes. The action centres on mishaps involving a father and son plumbing team attending to business in sub-zero temperatures at a retirement home in Finland. Like other Sykes directorial vehicles, the piece is a silent comedy with a star cast - here including Bob Hoskins, John Mills, Donald Pleasence and Spike Milligan.\n",
"BULLET::::- Flexible Freeze is a budgeting approach pioneered by President George H. W. Bush as a means to cut government spending. Under this approach, certain programs would be affected by changes in population growth and inflation.\n",
"Specifically, the Freeze's goal was to get the U.S. and the Soviet Union to simultaneously adopt a mutual freeze on the testing, production, and deployment of nuclear weapons and of missiles, as well as new aircraft designed primarily to deliver nuclear weapons. Much emphasis was put on the MX and Pershing II missiles. Randall Forsberg was the organizer who initiated this idea of the \"mutual, verifiable\" Freeze.\n",
"In software engineering, a freeze is a point in time in the development process after which the rules for making changes to the source code or related resources become more strict, or the period during which those rules are applied. A freeze helps move the project forward towards a release or the end of an iteration by reducing the scale or frequency of changes, and may be used to help meet a roadmap.\n",
"The Big Freeze is a scenario under which continued expansion results in a universe that asymptotically approaches absolute zero temperature. This scenario, in combination with the Big Rip scenario, is currently gaining ground as the most important hypothesis. It could, in the absence of dark energy, occur only under a flat or hyperbolic geometry. With a positive cosmological constant, it could also occur in a closed universe. In this scenario, stars are expected to form normally for 10 to 10 (1–100 trillion) years, but eventually the supply of gas needed for star formation will be exhausted. As existing stars run out of fuel and cease to shine, the universe will slowly and inexorably grow darker. Eventually black holes will dominate the universe, which themselves will disappear over time as they emit Hawking radiation. Over infinite time, there would be a spontaneous entropy decrease by the Poincaré recurrence theorem, thermal fluctuations, and the fluctuation theorem.\n",
"The Big Freeze is a scenario under which continued expansion results in a universe that asymptotically approaches absolute zero temperature. This scenario, in combination with the Big Rip scenario, is currently gaining ground as the most important hypothesis. It could, in the absence of dark energy, occur only under a flat or hyperbolic geometry. With a positive cosmological constant, it could also occur in a closed universe. In this scenario, stars are expected to form normally for 10 to 10 (1–100 trillion) years, but eventually the supply of gas needed for star formation will be exhausted. As existing stars run out of fuel and cease to shine, the universe will slowly and inexorably grow darker. Eventually black holes will dominate the universe, which themselves will disappear over time as they emit Hawking radiation. Over infinite time, there would be a spontaneous entropy decrease by the Poincaré recurrence theorem, thermal fluctuations, and the fluctuation theorem.\n",
"The Freeze was an Edinburgh punk band that lasted from 1976–1981. Wanting to do something darker and noisier, Gordon Sharp and David Clancy took ideas from The Freeze to a greater extreme; the result was the formation of Cindytalk in 1982.\n"
] |
Hypothetical Exoplanet Analysis
|
Off the top of my head, the simplest example in that image of a mistake that I think would stand up is that it shows a star in the sky that is either very large or pretty close - and the brightness from it would certainly drown out the other stars in the black sky there.
Even the moon photos with their lack of atmosphere have the stars basically invisible as the brightness of the foreground totally overwhelms them.
Some of it seems plausible - the star is quite large or close, so it would be potentially possible to have some liquid water perhaps, the rocks and terrain, meh, why not.
It does look like the "camera" is sitting on a moon orbiting the gas giant. I could be wrong, but I think that if a gas giant was that close to a star, it would be quite warm indeed, which I think would then lead to a much faster moving atmosphere - meaning that the nice cloud bands wouldn't appear, but rather it would be more of a single color or smear at best, but I am happy to stand corrected if that is wrong.
|
[
"NICMOS observed the exoplanet XO-2b at star XO-2, and a spectroscopy result was obtained for this exoplanet in 2012. This uses the spectroscopic abilities of the instrument, and in astronomy spectroscopy during a planetary transit (an exoplanet passes in front of star from the perspective of Earth) is a way to study that exoplanet's possible atmosphere.\n",
"The discovery of the exoplanet (along with Kepler-62e) was announced in April 2013 by NASA as part of the \"Kepler\" spacecraft data release. The exoplanet was found by using the transit method, in which the dimming effect that a planet causes as it crosses in front of its star is measured. According to scientists, it is a potential candidate to search for extraterrestrial life, and was chosen as one of the targets to study by the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) program.\n",
"The Habitable Exoplanet Imaging Mission (HabEx) is a space telescope concept that would be optimized to search for and image Earth-size habitable exoplanets in the habitable zones of their stars, where liquid water can exist. HabEx would aim to understand how common terrestrial worlds beyond the Solar System may be and the range of their characteristics. It would be an optical, UV and infrared telescope that would also use spectrographs to study planetary atmospheres and eclipse starlight with either an internal coronagraph or an external starshade.\n",
"Present day searches for exoplanets are insensitive to exoplanets located at the distances from their host star comparable to the semi-major axes of the gas giants in the Solar System, greater than about 5 AU. Surveys using the radial velocity method require observing a star over at least one period of revolution, which is roughly 30 years for a planet at the distance of Saturn. Existing adaptive optics instruments become ineffective at small angular separations, limiting them to semi-major axes larger than about 30 astronomical units. The high contrast of the Gemini Planet Imager at small angular separations will allow it to detect gas giants with semi-major axes of 5–30 astronomical units.\n",
"Exoplanetology, or exoplanetary science, is an integrated field of astronomical science dedicated to the search for and study of exoplanets (extrasolar planets). It employs an interdisciplinary approach which includes astrobiology, astrophysics, astronomy, astrochemistry, astrogeology, geochemistry, and planetary science.\n",
"The Exoplanet Archive serves photometric time-series data from surveys that aim to discover transiting exoplanets, such as the Kepler Mission and CoRoT. The database provides access to over 22 million light curves from space and ground-based exoplanet transit survey programs, including:\n",
"Studies of exoplanets have measured atmospheric escape as a means of determining atmospheric composition and habitability. The most common method is Lyman-alpha line absorption. Much as exoplanets are discovered using the dimming of a distant star's brightness (transit), looking specifically at wavelengths corresponding to hydrogen absorption describes the amount of hydrogen present in a sphere around the exoplanet. This method indicates that the hot Jupiters HD209458b and HD189733b and Hot Neptune GJ436b are experiencing significant atmospheric escape.\n"
] |
how do companies get away with badmouthing each other?
|
There is nothing illegal about using your competitor's name in an advertisement. But...you open yourself up to false advertisement claims (not to mention mounds of legal costs) when piss off a competitor. The use of the "compared to the leading brand" is often chosen to avoid hassle, but also because you don't want to give increased recognition to a competitor's brand. Typically only underdog brands engage in this strategy since it is perceived as risky for your brand (being a whiny bitch isn't always a good strategy).
Typically suits come up under false advertisement. The affected brand says that the advertisement is misleading or factually inaccurate (e.g. the add suggests that coke will make you get laid more than pepsi but no evidence exists to back that up). Companies make these false claims all the time and they _could be_ regarded as false advertising, but...if you're using a competitor's name you're just that much more likely to get called out on it.
It _was_ once illegal. it is no longer. still is in some countries.
|
[
"This type occurs whereby a dominant firm using dominant position to exploit consumers without losing them through conduct like price increase and production limitation. There is no legal definition of ‘exploitative abuse’ under Article 102 but it can be taken as ‘any conduct that directly causes harm to the customers of the dominant undertaking’. Without barriers to entry, the market is likely to be self-corrected by competition because monopoly profits will attract new competitors to enter the market. However, the Guidance does suggest that the Commission will intervene where the conduct is directly exploitative of consumers (for example, charging excessively high prices). Some examples of exploitative conduct include:\n",
"A company engaging in corporate cannibalism is effectively competing against itself. There are two main reasons companies do this. Firstly, the company wants to increase its market share and is taking a gamble that introducing the new product will harm other competitors more than the company itself. Secondly, the company may believe that the new product will sell better than the first, or will sell to a different sort of buyer. For example, a company may manufacture cars, and later begin manufacturing trucks. While both products appeal to the same general market (drivers) one may fit an individual's needs better than the other. However, corporate cannibalism often has negative effects: the car manufacturer's customer base may begin buying trucks instead of cars, resulting in good truck sales, but not increasing the company's market share. There may even be a decrease. This is also called market cannibalization.\n",
"Under \"Sec. 15 of RA 10667\", the entities (whether companies or individuals) are prohibited from abusing their dominant position by engaging in conduct that would substantially prevent, restrict or lessen competition. Such conduct includes predatory pricing, imposing barriers to entry in an anti-competitive manner, unfair exercise of monopsony power, among others\n",
"Monopolies and oligopolies are often accused of, and sometimes found guilty of, anti-competitive practices. For this reason, company mergers are often examined closely by government regulators to avoid reducing competition in an industry. Although anti-competitive practices often enrich those who practice them, they are generally believed to have a negative effect on the economy as a whole, and to disadvantage competing firms and consumers who are not able to avoid their effects, generating a significant social cost. For these reasons, most countries have competition laws to prevent anti-competitive practices, and government regulators to aid the enforcement of these laws.\n",
"The problem manifests itself in the ways middle managers discriminate against employees who they deem to be \"overqualified\" in hiring, assignment, and promotion, and repress or terminate \"whistleblowers\" who want to make senior management aware of fraud or illegal activity. This may be done for the benefit of the middle manager and against the best interest of the shareholders (or members of a non-profit organization).\n",
"The legislation gives private companies the authority to go on the counter-offensive against hackers, meaning a company that was hacked could perform more assertive defensive measures than are currently allowed under the law. However, companies would not be allowed to hack back into other systems or manipulate systems for which they do not have consent to control.\n",
"BULLET::::2. The company may wish to tie up lower-end competitors who might otherwise try to move up-market. If the company has been attacked by a low-end competitor, it often decides to counterattack by entering the low end of the market.\n"
] |
How did the Russians manage the logistics of redeploying their Baltic fleet to the Far East in 1905?
|
Expanded [from an earlier answer of mine](_URL_0_)
The process of coaling was an arduous and backbreaking task in the early twentieth century. This was doubly true for the fleets commanded by Zinovy Rozhestvensky and Dmitry von Fölkersam which had to make a long journey to Asian waters. The journey was a logistical nightmare for a Russian navy that was largely designed to fight in European waters. The inexperience of the fleet, coupled with panic over Japanese sneak attack led to various scares during the travel that the fleet was under attack. But the Russians were able to take advantage of the emerging international maritime law that allowed belligerent warships to coal and take on water in neutral ports.
The Russian fleet mostly sought shelter in friendly French ports like Dakar, Madagascar, and Camn Ranh Bay. International maritime law allowed for belligerent warships to stay 24 hours in neutral ports for coaling, but the Franco-Russian alliance meant that the French officials often turned a blind eye to the Russians overstaying their limit, much to the chagrin of Japanese diplomats. The Russians also contracted out to private French and German civilian companies for colliers. In the latter case, the Hamburg-Amerika line's colliers further strained Anglo-German relations, and Chancellor von Bülow wanted the company to cancel the contract, but Kaiser Wilhelm II sided with Hamburg-Amerika as it fit into his conception of using German support for Russia as a wedge against the Franco-Russian alliance. In this instance, the French desire to keep the alliance alive and the German desire to undermine it actually both worked in the Russians' favor, making the fleet's voyage possible after the Dogger Bank incident alienated an already cold Britain.
Rear Admiral Fölkersam's newly-christened Third Pacific Squadron though had a slightly-shorter trip than the main force as it made the transit via the Canal. One rationale was that Fölkersam's ships were both lighter and unable to carry as much coal as the main battle line under Rozhestvenskii's flag. There was a fear that these smaller ships would hamper the already complicated logistics of the voyage. Moreover, there was also a fear that the heavily-laden battleline might also find itself aground in the narrow waters off Suez because the amount of coal taken aboard had increased their draft.
But it was more than just practical matters of logistics that underlay the division of the fleet. The same fears that inspired the Dogger Bank incident were still at play and there was a fear that the Japanese could have naval forces in the restricted waters of the Mediterranean. Fölkersam's ships were not only a tad more maneuverable, they were also expendable for the whole fleet. His ships were either older ones or auxiliaries.
The expendable nature of Third Pacific Squadron also reflected the fear that Britain could prevent the whole enterprise. Rozhestvensky was afraid that the British control over the Canal meant they could use whatever pretext to detain or even seize the battlefleet. The 1888 Convention of Constantinople sanctified the Canal as an international waterway and guaranteed rights of access. But the Convention also had provisions governing the transit of warships and ships of belligerent powers that limited their loiter times in the Canal or coaling at Canal ports. The British, as the *de facto* controlling power of the Canal, had the power to interpret the Convention's provisions. They had already done so during the Spanish-American War when they narrowly interpreted the Convention to minimize the time Spain's warships spent coaling and refitting while making a transit to the Philippines. The Dogger Bank incident certainly did not endear the Russian fleet to the British and there was a fear that the British could interpret the Convention against Russia's interests. Moreover, the Convention was still a relatively untested treaty and it was unclear from Rozhestvensky's perspective whether or not the British would abide by it or if the Egyptian government would alter the rules for coaling.
So even if Dogger Bank did not alter the Convention, the bad blood the incident created between Britain and Russia had the *potential* for British to use the Convention against Russia. This, coupled with the already severe logistical problems of the fleet, meant that sending Fölkersam's more expendable and lighter ships to transit the Canal was a calculated risk on the part of Rozhestvensky and one that paid off. The Third Pacific Squadron was able to rendezvous with its colliers and then link up with the main force after the Canal transit. The British did not unduly delay or pester Fölkersam's detachment and the transit showed Britain's commitment to the Convention. Unfortunately, the subsequent Japanese triumph at Tsushima negated the herculean effort that had gone into supplying the fleet for its transoceanic voyage.
|
[
"The Baltic Fleet took a prominent part in the Russo-Japanese War. After the defeat of earlier Siberian Military Flotilla vessels, in September 1904, a squadron under the command of Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky was sent on a famous high-speed dash around South Africa – stopping in French, German and Portuguese colonial ports: Tangier in Morocco, Dakar in Senegal, Gabon, Baía dos Tigres, Lüderitz Bay, and Nossi Be (Madagascar), then across the Indian Ocean to Cam Ranh Bay in French Indochina and then northward to its doomed encounter with the Japanese fleet at the Battle of Tsushima off the east coast of Korea in 1905, ending the Russo-Japanese War. The Imperial German civilian passenger Hamburg-Amerika Line provided 60 colliers to supply the Baltic Fleet on its epic journey. During its passage through the North Sea the Fleet mistook a fleet of British fishing boats for Japanese torpedo boats and opened fire, killing three sailors in what is known as the \"Dogger Bank incident\". The decision to send the Fleet to the Pacific was made after Russia had suffered a string of naval defeats in the East China Sea and the Sea of Japan off the coast of China and Korea near its Far East naval base and colony, at the hands of the newly emergent Imperial Japanese Navy and Army in Manchuria. The Tsushima naval battle broke Russian strength in East Asia. It set the stage for the unsuccessful uprising in the abortive Russian Revolution of 1905. That propelled the decline that would see the Romanov dynasty monarchy eventually brought down with the strains of World War I, in the Russian Revolutions of 1917.\n",
"With the inactivity of the First Pacific Squadron after the death of Admiral Makarov and the tightening of the Japanese noose around Port Arthur, the Russians considered sending part of their Baltic Fleet to the Far East. The plan was to relieve Port Arthur by sea, link up with the First Pacific Squadron, overwhelm the Imperial Japanese Navy, and then delay the Japanese advance into Manchuria until Russian reinforcements could arrive via the Trans-Siberian railroad and overwhelm the Japanese land forces in Manchuria. As the situation in the Far East deteriorated, the Tsar (encouraged by his cousin Kaiser Wilhelm II), agreed to the formation of the \"Second Pacific Squadron\". This would consist of five divisions of the Baltic Fleet, including 11 of its 13 battleships. The squadron departed the Baltic ports of Reval (Tallinn) and Libau (Liepāja) on 15–16 October 1904, numbering 42 ships and auxiliaries under the command of Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky.\n",
"Meanwhile, the Russians were preparing to reinforce their Far East Fleet by sending the Baltic Fleet, under the command of Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky. After a false start caused by engine problems and other mishaps, the squadron finally departed on 15 October 1904, and sailed halfway around the world from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific via the Cape Route around the Cape of Good Hope in the course of a seven-month odyssey that was to attract worldwide attention. The Dogger Bank incident on 21 October 1904, where the Russian fleet fired on British fishing boats that they mistook for enemy torpedo boats, nearly sparked a war with the United Kingdom (an ally of Japan, but neutral, unless provoked). During the voyage, the fleet separated into a portion that went through the Suez Canal while the larger battleships went around the Cape of Good Hope.\n",
"The Soviet Baltic Fleet was the largest of the four fleets which made up the Soviet Navy during World War II, and was commanded by Vladimir Tributs throughout the war. Though initially having bases only in the eastern corner of the Gulf of Finland, the Red Banner Baltic Fleet was the largest naval power in the Baltic Sea. As World War II progressed, it was able to make use of naval bases in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, first under the terms of agreements forced by the Soviet Union in autumn 1939, then by direct access to the bases following the occupation of the Baltic states in spring, 1940. \n",
"The Imperial Russian Baltic Fleet was created during the Great Northern War at the initiative of Czar Peter the Great, who ordered the first ships for the Baltic Fleet to be constructed at Lodeynoye Pole in 1702 and 1703. The first commander was a recruited Dutch admiral, Cornelius Cruys, who in 1723 was succeeded by Count Fyodor Apraksin. In 1703, the main base of the fleet was established in Kronshtadt. One of the fleet's first actions was the taking of Shlisselburg. In 1701 Peter the Great established a special school, the School of Mathematics and Navigation (Russian: Школа математических и навигацких наук), situated in the Sukharev Tower in Moscow. As the territory to the west around the Gulf of Finland was acquired by Russia for a \"warm-water\" port giving access for its merchantmen and the buildup of a naval force, the city of St. Petersburg was built and developed an extensive port. The School of Mathematics and Navigation was moved to St. Petersburg and in 1752 it was renamed the Naval Cadet Corps. Today it is the St. Petersburg Naval Institute – Peter the Great Naval Corps.\n",
"Also operating in the eastern Baltic Sea was a Royal Navy detachment of light cruisers and destroyers under Admiral Sir Walter Cowan. Though technically not connected, Agar regularly reported to Cowan and received assistance from him. Cowan's mission was to keep the sea lanes open to the new republics of Finland, Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania, which were under threat of being overrun by Soviet Russia.\n",
"The Russians wanted to break out and sail to Vladivostok (relocating the fleet to there would have left the Japanese needing to mount a new campaign if it wanted to besiege the Russian fleet again and such a campaign would have overtaxed the resources of Field Marshal Ōyama). The Japanese had an underlying objective to destroy the Russian fleet while minimising their own losses. Once the Russian fleet left Port Arthur the Japanese initially sought to prevent it returning there. When the Japanese realised the Russians were not returning to Port Arthur they also sought to prevent the Russians reaching an alternative port. The Japanese prevented the Russians from reaching Vladivostok but failed to stop most of the fleet returning to Port Arthur. Neither side achieved its tactical goals. The Japanese, however, were successful to prevent the breakout, and returning Russian ships were later eliminated in the course of the Siege of Port Arthur.\n"
] |
why do cops use numbers like 10-4 to talk to each other instead of saying what’s actually happening?
|
Because there are multiple officers all trying to talk on the same frequency so it's good to be brief. Also in case someone is listening it isn't immediately obvious what's going on
|
[
"Ten-codes, officially known as ten signals, are brevity codes used to represent common phrases in voice communication, particularly by law enforcement and in Citizens Band (CB) radio transmissions. The police version of ten-codes is officially known as the APCO Project 14 Aural Brevity Code.\n",
"In the United States and Canada, ten-digit dialing is the practice of including the area code of a telephone number when dialing to initiate a telephone call. When necessary, a ten-digit number may be prefixed with the trunk code \"1\", which is often referred to as \"11-digit dialing\" or \"national format\".\n",
"Call signs with two (or more) digits in them can arise a number of ways. When the digits abut one another, it is important to distinguish which digit belongs to the prefix, which is the separating numeral, and which may belong to the suffix.\n",
"The ten-codes are used only for voice communications, usually radio transmissions and denote commonly used phrases; for example 10-16 means \"domestic disturbance\" for some agencies. Use of ten-codes is intended for the clear, quick, and concise communication between law enforcement officers.\n",
"Ten-codes, especially \"10-4\" (meaning \"understood\") first reached public recognition in the mid- to late-1950s through the popular television series \"Highway Patrol\", with Broderick Crawford. Crawford would reach into his patrol car to use the microphone to answer a call and precede his response with \"10-4\".\n",
"A one or two digit number denotes a Sergeant (except in larger boroughs like Southwark where some sergeants are allocated three digit numbers), a three digit number denotes a Constable, a four digit number beginning with 5 denotes an officer of the Metropolitan Special Constabulary, unless they're attached to a 'Roads & Transport Policing Command' (RTPC) team, in which case the number will begin with an 8 and a four digit number beginning with 7 denotes a PCSO again unless they are attached to RTPC and they will start with a 6. Confusingly, MPS epaulettes display the letters \"over\" the digits, i.e. 81FH (a Sergeant based at Hammersmith) would show FH over 81 on their shoulder, which reads more like FH81 (the call sign of a panda car based there). Ranks above Sergeant do not have collar numbers - officers are identified by name (e.g. Inspector Smith, who may once have been PC 123 kg Smith).\n",
"Because call whisper settings are specific to a particular non-geographic telephone number, the feature can allow the called party to identify which telephone number the caller has dialed. For instance, ten separate numbers can all be routing their inbound calls to a single destination number. However, each of the ten numbers could have their own customized call whisper message on them relating to the nature of the call i.e. the function of the number that has been dialed. Therefore, the agent answering will know the number that has been dialed and thus the appropriate way to answer the call.\n"
] |
why the new star wars movie still isn't rated this close to it's release date?
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In this case I believe it is because they have not released the movie to critics so as to avoid leaking plot details. Current rumor is there is some big reveal regarding Luke they don't want to give away in advance.
|
[
"All six \"Star Wars\" films were released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on Blu-ray Disc on September 16, 2011 in three different editions, with \"A New Hope\" available in both a box set of the original trilogy and with all six films on \"Star Wars: The Complete Saga\", which includes nine discs and over 40 hours of special features. The original theatrical versions of the films were not included in the box set; however, the new 2011 revisions of the trilogy were leaked a month prior to release, inciting controversy the new changes made to these movies and causing an online uproar against Lucas.\n",
"While initially only being released in a limited theatrical run, \"Star Wars\" was an unprecedented success for 20th Century Fox, soon becoming a blockbuster hit and expanding to a much wider release. It would eventually see many theatrical and home video re-releases.\n",
"Worried that \"Star Wars\" would be beaten out by other summer films, such as \"Smokey and the Bandit\", 20th Century Fox moved the release date to May 25, the Wednesday before Memorial Day. However, fewer than 40 theaters ordered the film to be shown. In response, the studio demanded that theaters order \"Star Wars\" if they wanted the eagerly anticipated \"The Other Side of Midnight\" based on the novel by the same name.\n",
"Roger Ebert gave the film two-and-a-half out of four stars, stating that while the actors were good, \"The Last Starfighter\" was \"not a terrifically original movie,\" but was nonetheless \"well-made\". \"Halliwell's Film Guide\" described the film as \"a surprisingly pleasant variation on the \"Star Wars\" boom, with sharp and witty performances from two reliable character actors and some elegant gadgetry to offset the teenage mooning.\" Gene Siskel included the film on his list of \"Guilty Pleasures\", describing it as \"a \"Star Wars\" rip-off, but the best one\". Over time it has developed a cult following.\n",
"The release on May 19, 1999 of the first new \"Star Wars\" film in 16 years was accompanied by a considerable amount of attention. Few film studios released films during the same week: DreamWorks and Universal Studios released \"The Love Letter\" on May 21 and \"Notting Hill\" on May 28, respectively. \"The Love Letter\" was a commercial failure but \"Notting Hill\" fared better and followed \"The Phantom Menace\" closely in second place. Employment consultant firm Challenger, Gray & Christmas estimated that 2.2 million full-time employees missed work to attend the film, resulting in a loss of productivity. According to \"The Wall Street Journal\", so many workers announced plans to view the premiere that many companies closed on the opening day. Queue areas formed outside cinema theaters over a month before ticket sales began.\n",
"In the opinion of several critics, the release of \"Star Wars\" marked a distinctive demographic shift among the audiences as well as altered trends in movie industry drastically which at the same time attributed to \"Sorcerer\"s financial and critical fiasco. Sean Macaulay notes that \"Star Wars\" changed the movie-going demography, considerably \"reset[ting] American cinema back to comforting fantasy\" According to reviewer Pauline Kael, \"Star Wars\" contributed to \"infantilizing the audience\" as well as \"obliterating irony, self-consciousness, and critical reflection\" and to Tom Shone, who drew from Kael, was impossible to compete with by Friedkin and \"Sorcerer\". Biskind also thought American movie-going demographic changed considerably since \"The French Connection\" and \"Sorcerer\" was \"too episodic, dark, and star challenged\" to achieve mainstream appreciation. RH Greene argues that \"Star Wars\", which in his opinion was \"pure escapism\", made intellectually demanding films like \"Sorcerer\" obsolete.\n",
"\"\" is the seventh film in the \"Star Wars\" franchise, released ten years after . Co-written and directed by J. J. Abrams, the film stars Adam Driver, Daisy Ridley, John Boyega and Oscar Isaac in new roles, with Harrison Ford, Mark Hamill, and Carrie Fisher reprising their roles from the original trilogy which concluded in 1983. Prior to its release, the film was predicted by box office analysts to break records, citing the relative lack of competition owing to its date of release, being released in large formats such as IMAX in a high number of venues, and multi-generational appeal to both fans of the previous movies and children as success factors.\n"
] |
What is "foaming at the mouth" and what exactly causes it?
|
Rabies causes, amongst other things "hydrophobia" which counter to what its name suggests isn't a literal fear of water but more an inability to swallow effectively. Many patients when afflicted by rabies experience laryngospasm, pharyngeal or diaphramatic spasms. The end result is the inability to effectively swallow even your own saliva leading to drooling, spitting, and as it progresses and you become increasingly dehydrated and decreasingly lucid, foam starts to form in your now thick saliva as you attempt to spit.
Source: work in healthcare, also _URL_0_
|
[
"In cuisine, foam is a gelling or stabilizing agent in which air is suspended. Foams have been present in many forms over the history of cooking, such as whipped cream, meringue and mousse. In these cases, the incorporation of air or another gas creates a lighter texture and a different mouth feel. Foams add flavor without significant substance, and thus allow cooks to integrate new flavors without changing the physical composition of a dish.\n",
"\"Sea foam\", ocean foam, beach foam, or spume is a type of foam created by the agitation of seawater, particularly when it contains higher concentrations of dissolved organic matter (including proteins, lignins, and lipids) derived from sources such as the offshore breakdown of algal blooms. These compounds can act as surfactants or foaming agents. As the seawater is churned by breaking waves in the surf zone adjacent to the shore, the surfactants under these turbulent conditions trap air, forming persistent bubbles that stick to each other through surface tension. Sea foam is a global phenomenon and it varies depending on location and the potential influence of the surrounding marine, freshwater, and/or terrestrial environments. Due to its low density and persistence, foam can be blown by strong on-shore winds from the beach face inland.\n",
"Oromandibular dystonia (OMD) is a form of focal dystonia that affects varying areas of the head and neck including the lower face, jaw, tongue and larynx. The spasms may cause the mouth to pull open, shut tight, or move repetitively. Speech and swallowing may be distorted. It is often associated with dystonia of the cervical muscles (Spasmodic Torticollis), eyelids (Blepharospasm), or larynx (Spasmodic Dysphonia).\n",
"Foams consist of two phases, an aqueous phase and a gaseous (air) phase. Foams have been used in many forms in the history of cooking, for example: whipped cream, ice cream, cakes, meringue, soufflés, mousse and marshmallow. It has a unique light texture because of the tiny air bubbles and/or a different mouthfeel. In most of these products, proteins are the main surface active agents that help in the formation and stabilization of the dispersed gas phase. To create a protein-stabilized foam, it usually involves bubbling, whipping or shaking a protein solution and its foaming properties refers to its capacity to form a thin tenacious film at the gas-liquid interface for large amounts of gas bubbles to become incorporated and stabilized.\n",
"A foaming agent is a material that facilitates formation of foam such as a surfactant or a blowing agent. A surfactant, when present in small amounts, reduces surface tension of a liquid (reduces the work needed to create the foam) or increases its colloidal stability by inhibiting coalescence of bubbles. A blowing agent is a gas that forms the gaseous part of the foam.\n",
"Foam destabilization occurs for several reasons. First, gravitation causes drainage of liquid to the foam base, which Rybczynski and Hadamar include in their theory; however, foam also destabilizes due to osmotic pressure causes drainage from the lamellas to the Plateau borders due to internal concentration differences in the foam, and Laplace pressure causes diffusion of gas from small to large bubbles due to pressure difference. In addition, films can break under disjoining pressure, These effects can lead to rearrangement of the foam structure at scales larger than the bubbles, which may be individual (T1 process) or collective (even of the \"avalanche\" type).\n",
"The name foamy virus can be attributed to the foamy appearance of the cells upon rapid lysation and syncytium formation, vacuolization and cellular death, which is also known as a cytopathic effect (CPE).\n"
] |
Are trees from different families examples of convergent evolution? Or do many families of plants come from a tree-like ancestor?
|
So I've heard of arboresence (or tree-ness) considered a convergent phenotype in George McGhee's book "Convergent Evolution: Limited forms most beautifu"l. In fact, he argues that arboresence has evolved independently in 9 plant lineages. One example is Ferns which evolved tree-ness in 3 groups throughout history (only one is group is still extant), each with different types of trunks!
The main reason touted for the convergence of this trait is functional constraint. It just turns out that 'growing upward' is rather important so many lineages will leverage their genetic or morphological resources to achieve that goal. This variety of mechanical mechanisms to realize the trait suggest that the tree form was likely independently selected upon numerous times.
To answer your question more specifically, it depends on the taxanomic level we're talking about. I think that trees in the Fabacea and Rosaceae might not really be convergence because they share a common tree form. However the tree form of Cycad palms compared to angiosperm trees would be an instance of convergence since they are truly independent and distinct.
Edit: Upon re-reading, I realize some of my language is very teleological. I don't want to ascribe any teleology to these evolutionary processes, I'm just speaking in rhetorical short hand. Please don't crucify me
|
[
"Genome-wide analysis of 11 clumps of \"P. trichocarpa\" trees reveals significant genetic differences between the roots and the leaves and branches of the same tree. The variation within a specimen is as much as found between unrelated trees. These results may be important in resolving debate in evolutionary biology regarding somatic mutation (that evolution can occur within individuals, not solely among populations), with a variety of implications.\n",
"An evolutionary tree (of Amniota, for example, the last common ancestor of mammals and reptiles, and all its descendants) illustrates the initial conditions causing evolutionary patterns of similarity (e.g., all Amniotes produce an egg that possesses the amnios) and the patterns of divergence amongst lineages (e.g., mammals and reptiles branching from the common ancestry in Amniota). Evolutionary trees provide conceptual models of evolving systems once thought limited in the domain of making predictions out of the theory. However, the method of phylogenetic bracketing is used to infer predictions with far greater probability than raw speculation. For example, paleontologists use this technique to make predictions about nonpreservable traits in fossil organisms, such as feathered dinosaurs, and molecular biologists use the technique to posit predictions about RNA metabolism and protein functions. Thus evolutionary trees are evolutionary hypotheses that refer to specific facts, such as the characteristics of organisms (e.g., scales, feathers, fur), providing evidence for the patterns of descent, and a causal explanation for modification (i.e., natural selection or neutral drift) in any given lineage (e.g., Amniota). Evolutionary biologists test evolutionary theory using phylogenetic systematic methods that measure how much the hypothesis (a particular branching pattern in an evolutionary tree) increases the likelihood of the evidence (the distribution of characters among lineages). The severity of tests for a theory increases if the predictions \"are the least probable of being observed if the causal event did not occur.\" \"Testability is a measure of how much the hypothesis increases the likelihood of the evidence.\"\n",
"The phylogenetic tree has the most recent common ancestor at the root, all the current species as the leaves, and intermediate nodes at each point of branching divergence. The branches are divided into segments (between one node and another node, a leaf, or the root). Each segment is assigned an ED score defined as the timespan it covers (in millions of years) divided by the number of species at the end of the subtree it forms. The ED of a species is the sum of the ED of the segments connecting it to the root. Thus, a long branch which produces few species will have a high ED, as the corresponding species are relatively distinctive, with few close relatives. ED metrics are not exact, because of uncertainties in both the ordering of nodes and the length of segments.\n",
"Phylogenetic trees generated by computational phylogenetics can be either \"rooted\" or \"unrooted\" depending on the input data and the algorithm used. A rooted tree is a directed graph that explicitly identifies a most recent common ancestor (MRCA), usually an imputed sequence that is not represented in the input. Genetic distance measures can be used to plot a tree with the input sequences as leaf nodes and their distances from the root proportional to their genetic distance from the hypothesized MRCA. Identification of a root usually requires the inclusion in the input data of at least one \"outgroup\" known to be only distantly related to the sequences of interest.\n",
"Phylogenetic trees are limited by the set of closely related genomes that are available, and results are dependent on BLAST search criteria. Because it is based on sequence similarity, it is often difficult for phylostratigraphy to determine whether a novel gene has emerged \"de novo\" or has diverged from an ancestral gene beyond recognition, for instance following a duplication event. This was pointed out by a study that simulated the evolution of genes of equal age and found that distant orthologs can be undetectable for the most rapidly evolving genes. When accounting for changes in the rate of evolution to portions of young genes that acquire selected functions, a phylostratigraphic approach was much more accurate at assigning gene ages in simulated data. A subsequent pair of studies using simulated evolution found that phylostratigraphy failed to detect an ortholog in the most distantly related species for 13.9% of \"D. melanogaster\" genes and 11.4% of \"S. cerevisiae\" genes. Similarly, a spurious relationship between a gene’s age and its likelihood to be involved in a disease process was claimed to be detected in the simulated data. However, a reanalysis of studies that used phylostratigraphy in yeast, fruit flies and humans found that even when accounting for such error rates and excluding difficult-to-stratify genes from the analyses, the qualitative conclusions were unaffected for all three studies. The impact of phylostratigraphic bias on studies examining various features of \"de novo\" genes (see below) remains debated.\n",
"However, this classification was only slightly better supported than certain alternative interpretations. A phylogenetic analysis constructs thousands of family trees, each of which include hundreds of \"steps\" in evolution where analyzed traits are evolved, lost, or reacquired. The family tree with the fewest \"steps\", known as the most parsimonius tree (MPT), is generally considered to be the most accurate under the principle of Occam's razor. In the case of this analysis, the MPT considered \"Colobops\" to be a basal rhynchosaur. However, some family trees look completely different from the MPT despite only a being few evolutionary steps more complex. If new data is incorporated into the analysis, one of these alternative trees may become a new MPT, rewriting our knowledge of reptile classification in the process. The MPT given by Pritchard \"et al\". (2018) is given below:\n",
"Phylogenetic trees were created to show the divergence of variants from their ancestors. The divergence of variant, H2A.X, from H2A occurred at multiple origins in a phylogenetic tree. Acquisition of the phosphorylation motif was consistent with the many origins of H2A that arose from an ancestral H2A.X. Finally, the presence of H2A.X and absence of H2A in fungi leads researchers to believe that H2A.X was the original ancestor of the histone protein H2A \n"
] |
if i were able to attain enough money to hire a team capable of sending me into space, and buy the spacecraft itself, would anyone be legally allowed to stop me?
|
Goodness no! In fact, you'd probably get a prize, if you were able to do something novel up there. We're actively encouraging civilian spaceflight through a number of initiatives, including SpaceX Prizes and general tax breaks for corporations even attempting it.
Mind you you'd have to schedule your launch past air traffic control.
|
[
"It's possible to equip your space shuttle with cargo, crew, and energy. Then you will launch, pilot, and land it on a carrier. While orbiting the Earth you will deploy and maintain satellites, or build and visit a space station.\n",
"Furthermore, if such services were unavailable by the end of 2010, NASA would've been forced to purchase orbital transportation services on foreign spacecraft such as the Russian Federal Space Agency's Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, the European Space Agency's Automated Transfer Vehicle, or the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's H-II Transfer Vehicle since NASA's own Crew Exploration Vehicle, since refocused, would not have been ready until 2014. NASA asserted that once COTS was operational, it would no longer procure Russian cargo delivery services. On May 22, 2012, Bill Gerstenmaier confirmed that NASA was no longer purchasing any cargo resupply services from Russia and would rely solely on the American CRS vehicles, the SpaceX Dragon and Orbital Sciences' Cygnus; with the exception of a few vehicle-specific payloads delivered on the European ATV and the Japanese HTV.\n",
"Bruce F. Webster reviewed \"Rescue at Rigel\" in \"The Space Gamer\" No. 34. Webster commented that \"if you've got the money and the interest, buy it. In fact, if you've only got either the money or the interest, buy it - you'll be glad you did.\"\n",
"A further option for rescue would be to use Russian Soyuz spacecraft. Nikolay Sevastyanov, director of the Russian Space Corporation Energia, was reported by \"Pravda\" as saying: \"If necessary, we will be able to bring home nine astronauts on board three Soyuz spacecraft in January and February of the next year\".\n",
"By using modernised, tried-and-tested equipment rather than developing technology from scratch, the project is reportedly saving around $2 billion in development costs. The Russian Proton rocket, launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, is intended to be used to launch one of the spacecraft into space, where it will remain. Astronauts will use the Excalibur Almaz RRVs to get to and from the spacecraft.\n",
"One question of special importance was whether NASA could have saved the astronauts had they known of the danger. This would have to involve either rescue or repair – docking at the International Space Station for use as a haven while awaiting rescue (or to use the Soyuz to systematically ferry the crew to safety) would have been impossible due to the different orbital inclination of the vehicles.\n",
"The players now just sign a contract, and then gain access to Corp Inc. Warehouse. The player can build their own space ship from the available prefabricated materials and fly it to the Periphery (edge of the Galaxy). The player may lose money, but any gains made are theirs to keep, and Corporation Incorporated will pay a bonus for quick delivery.\n"
] |
Regarding classical conditioning and using it to influence your sexual preferences..
|
I'm no psychologist, but preferences for women's body types vary markedly by culture, and even over time within the same culture. That suggests that they aren't all hardwired at least, and that there is a fair amount of conditioning that goes into it, whether it's social reinforcement or whatever. There are probably limits to what conditioning can accomplish, though, as some of it is almost certainly hardwired. There's probably a point where your brain will just give up and say "I can't fap to this", so Bea Arthur fetishism might not be as likely to take hold.
|
[
"Some explanations invoke classical conditioning. In several experiments, men have been conditioned to show arousal to stimuli like boots, geometric shapes or penny jars by pairing these cues with conventional erotica. According to John Bancroft, conditioning alone cannot explain fetishism, because it does not result in fetishism for most people. He suggests that conditioning combines with some other factor, such as an abnormality in the sexual learning process.\n",
"Classical conditioning is a theory of learning discovered by physiologist, Ivan Pavlov. It supports assumptions that form the foundation of behaviorism. These basic ideas suggest that all learning occurs through interactions within the environment, and that environment shapes behavior.\n",
"Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (e.g. food) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell). It also refers to the learning process that results from this pairing, through which the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response (e.g. salivation) that is usually similar to the one elicited by the potent stimulus.\n",
"Together with operant conditioning, classical conditioning became the foundation of behaviorism, a school of psychology which was dominant in the mid-20th century and is still an important influence on the practice of psychological therapy and the study of animal behavior. Classical conditioning is a basic learning process, and its neural substrates are now beginning to be understood. Though it is sometimes hard to distinguish classical conditioning from other forms of associative learning (e.g. instrumental learning and human associative memory), a number of observations differentiate them, especially the contingencies whereby learning occurs. \n",
"Classical conditioning focuses on using preceding conditions to alter behavioral reactions. The principles underlying classical conditioning have influenced preventative antecedent control strategies used in the classroom. Classical conditioning set the groundwork for the present day behavior modification practices, such as antecedent control. Antecedent events and conditions are defined as those conditions occurring before the behavior. Pavlov's early experiments used manipulation of events or stimuli preceding behavior (i.e., a tone) to produce salivation in dogs much like teachers manipulate instruction and learning environments to produce positive behaviors or decrease maladaptive behaviors. Although he did not refer to the tone as an antecedent, Pavlov was one of the first scientists to demonstrate the relationship between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses. Pavlov systematically presented and withdrew stimuli to determine the antecedents that were eliciting responses, which is similar to the ways in which educational professionals conduct functional behavior assessments. Antecedent strategies are supported by empirical evidence to operate implicitly within classroom environments. Antecedent-based interventions are supported by research to be preventative, and to produce immediate reductions in problem behaviors.\n",
"In contrast, classical conditioning involves involuntary behavior based on the pairing of stimuli with biologically significant events. For example, sight of sweets may cause a child to salivate, or the sound of a door slam may signal an angry parent, causing a child to tremble. Salivation and trembling are not operants; they are not reinforced by their consequences, and they are not voluntarily \"chosen\".\n",
"The influence of classical conditioning can be seen in emotional responses such as phobia, disgust, nausea, anger, and sexual arousal. A familiar example is conditioned nausea, in which the CS is the sight or smell of a particular food that in the past has resulted in an unconditioned stomach upset. Similarly, when the CS is the sight of a dog and the US is the pain of being bitten, the result may be a conditioned fear of dogs. An example of conditioned emotional response is conditioned suppression.\n"
] |
kobe was accused of rape — the victim was battered, he was charged with a felony, they settled after a civil case, he issued an apology — but no one seems to care. why?
|
I think people have generally accepted that Kobe was *likely* guilty of adultery and but that it was consensual sex and not rape. Rationale:
1.) Authorities chose not to pursue criminal charges of rape against him
2.) He publicly admitted to adultery but not rape
3.) Civil case against him for rape was settled out of court with neither side admitting guilt or innocence.
4.)(this is probably the biggest thing...) There was not a string of similar allegations from other women or similar shady behavior
I think most people are about 95% sure but there's just no way to know for certain at this point so people will always have doubts.
|
[
"The Kobe Bryant sexual assault case began in July 2003 when the news media reported that the sheriff's office in Eagle, Colorado, had arrested professional basketball player Kobe Bryant in connection with an investigation of a sexual assault complaint filed by a 19-year-old hotel employee. Bryant had checked into The Lodge and Spa at Cordillera, a hotel in Edwards, Colorado, on June 30 in advance of having surgery near there on July 2 under Richard Steadman. The woman accused Bryant of raping her in his hotel room on July 1, the night before the surgery. \n",
"After testimony from two experts, and new arguments about the case, the lawyers voted with a unanimous \"Not guilty\" verdict for all defendants. Among other deciding factors was the defense's evidence that the five men accused of the rape had been involved in violence on the other side of Honolulu (the near collision with the Peeples's car) near the time of the alleged attack on Massie and would not have been able to reach Waikiki in time to have also raped Massie as she described.\n",
"The \"Los Angeles Times\" described Wood's role in the Kobe Bryant case: \"The woman allegedly raped by Kobe Bryant has hired renowned attorney L. Lin Wood, a libel specialist who has represented such clients as the family of JonBenet Ramsey, former Rep. Gary Condit and Richard Jewell in lawsuits against the media.\"\n",
"On July 9, 2010 the Seattle City Attorney's office charged Rep. Simpson with one count of assault stemming from an alleged incident of domestic violence at Seattle Children's Hospital on May 22, 2010. According to news sources, \"A social worker told police she saw Simpson \"barrel\" into the room, push the former wife and shut the door. He 'closed the blinds and barricaded himself inside using his body' and was yelling inside, according to the report. Once he came out, he left the property, witnesses said.\"\n",
"The nature of the case led to accusations that coaches and school officials knew about the rape and failed to report it. For example, several texts entered into evidence during the trial implied that Steubenville head coach Reno Saccoccia was trying to cover for the players, which led to nationwide outrage after he received a new contract as the district's administrative services director. In response, shortly after the sentences were handed down Ohio Attorney General Mike DeWine announced he would empanel a special grand jury to determine whether other crimes were committed—specifically, whether coaches and other school officials failed to report the rape even though Ohio law makes them mandated reporters.\n",
"In January 2015, a victim was hospitalized following allegations of sexual assault at a party at a SAE Iowa State University party. The incident is under investigation by police and the chapter suspended the member suspected of the assault.\n",
"Court records also detailed acts of physical abuse in which the girl reported Uaiyue “punished her by binding her to roof hooks in the garage with hay bailing twine and left her tied up for several days as punishment.”\n"
] |
is the us going to war with iran?
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You think the people in charge of our government have a cogent plan they're going to stick to? The Joint Chiefs of Staff probably know the answer to this as well as I do. But we do have some world-class warmongers making some high-level decisions right now
|
[
"Muravchik argued in the Washington Post that the United States should attack Iran, stating: \"Does this mean that our only option is war? Yes, although an air campaign targeting Iran's nuclear infrastructure would entail less need for boots on the ground than the war Obama is waging against the Islamic State, which poses far smaller a threat than Iran does.\"\n",
"as well as U.S. involvement in a potential war between Israel and Iran over Iran’s nuclear program. The experience of wars in Iraq and Afghanistan is likely related to this declining desire to use force.\" Still as the report notes later 64% say Iran's nuclear problem is a critical threat to the United States and that \"Americans are...willing to take measures to counter the nuclear threat in both Iran and North Korea, but are much more guarded, stopping short of supporting military strikes.\"\n",
"A document found in Zarqawi's safe house indicates that the group was trying to provoke the U.S. to attack Iran in order to reinvigorate the insurgency in Iraq and to weaken American forces in Iraq. \"The question remains, how to draw the Americans into fighting a war against Iran? It is not known whether America is serious in its animosity towards Iran, because of the big support Iran is offering to America in its war in Afghanistan and in Iraq. Hence, it is necessary first to exaggerate the Iranian danger and to convince America, and the West in general, of the real danger coming from Iran...\" The document then outlines six ways to incite war between the two nations. Some experts questioned the authenticity of the document.\n",
"Military tensions between Iran and the United States escalated in 2019 as President Donald Trump deployed substantial military assets to the Persian Gulf based on alleged intelligence suggesting a planned \"campaign\" by Iran and allies against US forces and interests in the Persian Gulf and Iraq. This followed a between the two countries during Donald Trump's presidency, which included the withdrawal of the United States from the nuclear deal, the imposition of new sanctions against Iran, and the American designation of the IRGC as a terrorist organization.\n",
"According to 2012 polls, a majority of Americans supported United States or Israeli military action against Iran. More recent polls report that Americans \"back a newly brokered nuclear deal with Iran by a 2-to-1 margin and are very wary of the United States resorting to military action against Tehran even if the historic diplomatic effort falls\". Organised opposition to a possible future military attack against Iran by the United States (US) and/or Israel is known to have started during 2005–2006. Beginning in early 2005, journalists, activists and academics such as Seymour Hersh, Scott Ritter, Joseph Cirincione and Jorge E. Hirsch began publishing claims that United States' concerns over the allege threat posed by the possibility that Iran may have a nuclear weapons program might lead the US government to take military action against that country. These reports, and the concurrent escalation of tensions between Iran and some Western governments, prompted the formation of grassroots organisations, including Campaign Against Sanctions and Military Intervention in Iran in the US and the United Kingdom, to advocate against potential military strikes on Iran. Additionally, several individuals, grassroots organisations and international governmental organisations, including the Director-General of the International Atomic Energy Agency, Mohamed ElBaradei, a former United Nations weapons inspector in Iraq, Scott Ritter, Nobel Prize winners including Shirin Ebadi, Mairead Corrigan-Maguire and Betty Williams, Harold Pinter and Jody Williams, Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Code Pink, the Non-Aligned Movement of 118 states, and the Arab League, have publicly stated their opposition to such an attack.\n",
"In March 2012, a Reuters/Ipsos poll revealed that a majority of Americans, 56%, would support military action against Iran, even if it led to increased gas prices, if there was evidence demonstrating that Tehran was building nuclear weapons. 39% said that they opposed a military strike, while 62% of Americans said that they'd support Israel striking Iran over its nuclear program.\n",
"In March 2012, a Reuters/Ipsos poll revealed that a majority of Americans, 56%, would support military action against Iran, even if it led to increased gas prices, if there was evidence demonstrating that Tehran was building nuclear weapons. 39% said that they opposed a military strike, while 62% of Americans said that they'd support Israel striking Iran over its nuclear program.\n"
] |
The FDA says that "residual quantities of formaldehyde may be found in some current vaccines" How is that even remotely possible when formaldehyde is a gas?
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Gases can be dissolved in liquids.
Formaldehyde exists in equilibrium with methylene glycol when dissolved in water. [The equilibrium constant at standard conditions is on the order of 10^3](_URL_0_), so most of it will become methylene glycol, but not all of it.
|
[
"In June 2011, the twelfth edition of the National Toxicology Program (NTP) Report on Carcinogens (RoC) changed the listing status of formaldehyde from \"reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen\" to \"known to be a human carcinogen.\" Concurrently, a National Academy of Sciences (NAS) committee was convened and issued an independent review of the draft United States Environmental Protection Agency IRIS assessment of formaldehyde, providing a comprehensive health effects assessment and quantitative estimates of human risks of adverse effects.\n",
"The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announced on October 8, 2010 that it \"was working with state and local organizations, as well as OSHA, to determine whether the products or ingredients would be likely to cause health problems under the intended conditions of use. The composition of the products and the labeling, including use instructions and any warning statements, will be factors in this determination. One safety issue we’ll be evaluating is whether formaldehyde may be released into the air after the product is applied to the hair and heated.\"\n",
"FDA spokesman Mike Herndon says that, \"At this point, FDA sees no compelling need to analyze any more samples for acetaminophen.\" A third, independent lab also did not detect acetaminophen. It is not clear whether the FDA checked samples of the same brands of food in which acetaminophen was allegedly found because the initial laboratory could not initiate contact with the FDA or publicly identify the manufacturer because of client confidentiality. Only if the FDA contacted the lab could information be shared, and the FDA did not do this until June 12.\n",
"Some manufacturers of products containing formaldehyde and methylene glycol have complained that the method of testing for formaldehyde—which does not distinguish between formaldehyde and methylene glycol—is not a reliable indicator of the toxicity of the product.\n",
"There has been a reluctance for modern drug discovery programs to consider covalent inhibitors due to toxicity concerns. An important contributor has been the drug toxicities of several high-profile drugs believed to be caused by metabolic activation of reversible drugs For example, high dose acetaminophen can lead to the formation of the reactive metabolite N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine. Also, covalent inhibitors such as beta lactam antibiotics which contain weak electrophiles can lead to idiosyncratic toxicities (IDT) in some patients. It has been noted that many approved covalent inhibitors have been used safely for decades with no observed idiosyncratic toxicity. Also, that IDTs are not limited to proteins with a covalent mechanism of action. A recent analysis has noted that the risk of idiosyncratic toxicities may be mitigated through lower doses of administered drug. Doses of less than 10 mg per day rarely lead to IDT irrespective of the drug mechanism.\n",
"An aqueous solution of formaldehyde can be useful as a disinfectant as it kills most bacteria and fungi (including their spores). It is used to produce killed vaccines. Formaldehyde releasers are used as biocides in personal care products such as cosmetics. Although present at levels not normally considered harmful, they are known to cause allergic contact dermatitis in certain sensitised individuals.\n",
"2015 revisions added oxidizing materials to the existing 'Flammables' classification. The other major change allowed and encouraged labels to incorporate the GHS signal word, hazard pictograms, and hazard statements. This addition helped identify additional dangers when dealing with materials that fit into multiple categories, like Hydrogen sulfide, which is both flammable and toxic.\n"
] |
How does the majority of historians view Julius Caesar? A great leader or an evil one?
|
The issue with this question is that it is completely variant on a subjective viewpoint. Judging whether or not a person as famous as Caesar was "good" or "evil" is a truly impossible task, not only because of the differences in morality between the ancient era and the modern one, but also because of the different nuances of character that an individual has. Julius Caesar was undoubtedly a great man who left his mark on history. Whether or not "great" means "good" or "evil" is, again, up to individual interpretation.
Starting off that examination, I'll suggest you go ahead and read [this excellent introduction](_URL_1_) to *Life of a Colossus*. Honestly, I recommend you read the whole book, but for our purposes here, the introduction answers your question perfectly, and far better than I can, myself. To know more about Caesar as a person, read the entire book - it's the best biography I've found of the man, and gives an excellent accounting with a neutral viewpoint on the person himself.
The long story short is that Caesar was as amoral as anyone else has ever been. He wasn't good or evil; he was simultaneously neither and both. He did great things for Rome, for the poor, and when it benefited him. He also was in charge of the hugely destructive Gallic War, which was incredibly popular with the Roman people, who considered it a good thing. The modern eye would consider it less so, with a (probably exaggerated) total of one million people killed and another million enslaved. Again, whether or not the Gallic Wars made Caesar a "good person" or "bad person" is entirely subjective. For the Romans, he offered civil peace and a pretty good deal for the common people, even if the aristocrats couldn't stand him. To our modern view, he made himself an autocrat in all but name. While he wasn't emperor, he consolidated power and kept people he didn't like from getting anywhere; but his reforms were good ones, and some of them lasted for centuries, despite Caesar's extremely short rule.
He was ruthless in his own way, but he also offered clemency when it suited him. He offered friendship when he saw it to be beneficial, but he also offered enmity when that was more in his favour. So the answer to your question, I suppose, would be "both and neither." He was a person, and no person is black or white - we're all shades of grey.
[I actually examined a rather similar question to this one a bit ago](_URL_0_); I'll paste what I wrote then in the comments below :)
|
[
"Although Sextus Pompeius remained at large, after Munda there were no more conservative armies challenging Caesar's dominion. Upon his return to Rome, according to Plutarch, the \"triumph which he celebrated for this victory displeased the Romans beyond any thing. For he had not defeated foreign generals, or barbarian kings, but had destroyed the children and family of one of the greatest men of Rome.\" Caesar was made dictator for life, though his success was short-lived; Caesar was murdered on March 15 of the following year (44 BC) by the next generation of statesmen, led by Brutus and Cassius.\n",
"A modern historian of ancient Rome echoes the rough, current consensus of academics about this great and controversial figure, as he concludes his well-regarded biography of Julius Caesar: \"When they killed him his assassins did not realise that they had eliminated the best and most far-sighted mind of their class.\"\n",
"Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 or 13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), known by his nomen and cognomen Julius Caesar, was a populist Roman dictator, politician, military general, and historian who played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire. He also wrote Latin prose.\n",
"Julius Caesar is seen as the main example of \"Caesarism\", a form of political rule led by a charismatic strongman whose rule is based upon a cult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violent social order, and being a regime involving prominence of the military in the government. Other people in history, such as the French Napoleon Bonaparte and the Italian Benito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists. Bonaparte did not focus only on Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor to populism. The word is also used in a pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule.\n",
"During his lifetime, Caesar was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors in Latin—even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style. Only Caesar's war commentaries have survived. A few sentences from other works are quoted by other authors. Among his lost works are his funeral oration for his paternal aunt Julia and his \"Anticato\", a document written to defame Cato in response to Cicero's published praise. Poems by Julius Caesar are also mentioned in ancient sources.\n",
"One of the more controversial aspects of the series is Iggulden's attribution of other people's achievements to Caesar. For example, Caesar is portrayed as having defeated the Catiline Conspiracy, which was actually the work of Cicero, who was a significant politician throughout Caesar's life, and is only a minor character in later books such as \"The Field of Swords\" and \"The Gods of War\".\n",
"Julius Caesar and Sallust were outstanding historical writers of Cicero's time. Caesar wrote commentaries on the Gallic and civil wars in a straightforward style to justify his actions as a general. Sallust adopted an abrupt, pointed style in his historical works. He wrote brilliant descriptions of people and their motives.\n"
] |
How do bacteria get their energy?
|
[Metabolism](_URL_0_), like every other living creature.
The two common sources of energy are light and molecular bonds in food matter.
Different bacteria have evolved to capitalize on both sources.
The variations are fascinating.
Wood is a sugar molecule with lots of energy, but humans can't unlock it so we call it "fiber."
Termites can't digest it either, but they thrive on it because they harbor bacteria in their guts that CAN digest wood fiber and the bacteria's waste products feed the termite.
|
[
"Some species of bacteria obtain their energy by oxidizing various fuels while reducing arsenate to arsenite. Under oxidative environmental conditions some bacteria oxidize arsenite to arsenate as fuel for their metabolism. The enzymes involved are known as arsenate reductases (Arr).\n",
"In respiring bacteria under physiological conditions, ATP synthase, in general, runs in the opposite direction, creating ATP while using the proton motive force created by the electron transport chain as a source of energy. The overall process of creating energy in this fashion is termed oxidative phosphorylation.\n",
"The bacterial symbionts are chemosynthetic, gaining energy by oxidizing sulfide from the environment, and producing biomass by fixing carbon dioxide through the Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle. The bacteria benefit from the symbiosis because the host animal can migrate between sulfide- and oxygen-rich regions of the sediment habitat, and the bacteria require both these chemical substances to produce energy. The hosts are believed to consume the bacteria as a food source, based on evidence from their stable carbon isotope ratios.\n",
"Bacteria are responsible for the process of nitrogen fixation, which is the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogen-containing compounds (such as ammonia) that can be used by plants. Autotrophic bacteria derive their energy by making their own food through oxidation, like the \"Nitrobacters\" species, rather than feeding on plants or other organisms. These bacteria are responsible for nitrogen fixation. The amount of autotrophic bacteria is small compared to heterotrophic bacteria (the opposite of autotrophic bacteria, heterotrophic bacteria acquire energy by consuming plants or other microorganisms), but are very important because almost every plant and organism requires nitrogen in some way.\n",
"Microbial fuel cells can create energy when bacteria breaks down organic material, this process a charge that is transferred to the anode. Taking something like human saliva, which has lots of organic material, can be used to power a micro-sized microbial fuel cell. This can produce a small amount of energy to run on-chip applications. This application can be used in things like biomedical devices and cell phones.\n",
"Bacteria either derive energy from light using photosynthesis (called phototrophy), or by breaking down chemical compounds using oxidation (called chemotrophy). Chemotrophs use chemical compounds as a source of energy by transferring electrons from a given electron donor to a terminal electron acceptor in a redox reaction. This reaction releases energy that can be used to drive metabolism. Chemotrophs are further divided by the types of compounds they use to transfer electrons. Bacteria that use inorganic compounds such as hydrogren, carbon monoxide, or ammonia as sources of electrons are called lithotrophs, while those that use organic compounds are called organotrophs. The compounds used to receive electrons are also used to classify bacteria: aerobic organisms use oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor, while anaerobic organisms use other compounds such as nitrate, sulfate, or carbon dioxide.\n",
"Many cellulolytic bacteria use cellodextrins as their primary source of energy. The energy is obtained through the phosphorolytic cleavage of glycosidic bonds as well as the anaerobic glycolysis of the glucose monomers. Transport of cellodextrins across the cell membrane is usually an active process, requiring ATP.\n"
] |
Is it possible that scientific constants exist because of the way we define units?
|
Dimensionful constants, like the speed of light or Planck's constant, are indeed dependent on the units we choose, and we can set them to 1 in some appropriate unit system (this is commonly done, for example, in quantum field theory or in relativity). But dimensionless constants, like the fine-structure constant, have the same value no matter which units we choose, so these can't be eliminated by choosing a certain unit system.
|
[
"While there are several other physical constants, these three are given special consideration, because they can be used to define all Planck units and thus all physical quantities. The three constants are therefore used sometimes as a framework for philosophical study and as one of pedagogical patterns.\n",
"Using dimensional analysis, it is possible to combine dimensional universal physical constants to define a system of units of measurement that has no reference to any human construct. Depending on the choice and arrangement of constants used, the resulting natural units may have useful physical meaning. For example, Planck units, shown in the table below, use \"c\", \"G\", \"ħ\", \"ε\", and \"k\" in such a manner to derive units relevant to unified theories such as quantum gravity.\n",
"The question as to which constants are \"fundamental\" is neither straightforward nor meaningless, but a question of interpretation of the physical theory regarded as fundamental; as pointed out by , not all physical constants are of the same importance, with some having a deeper role than others.\n",
"By definition, fundamental physical constants are subject to measurement, so that their being constant (independent on both the time and position of the performance of the measurement) is necessarily an experimental result and subject to verification.\n",
"In the physical sciences, most physical constants such as the universal gravitational constant, and physical variables, such as position, mass, speed, and electric charge, are modeled using real numbers. In fact, the fundamental physical theories such as classical mechanics, electromagnetism, quantum mechanics, general relativity and the standard model are described using mathematical structures, typically smooth manifolds or Hilbert spaces, that are based on the real numbers, although actual measurements of physical quantities are of finite accuracy and precision.\n",
"Certain universal dimensioned physical constants, such as the speed of light in a vacuum, the universal gravitational constant, Planck's constant, Coulomb's constant, and Boltzmann's constant can be normalized to 1 if appropriate units for time, length, mass, charge, and temperature are chosen. The resulting system of units is known as the natural units, specifically regarding these five constants, Planck units. However, not all physical constants can be normalized in this fashion. For example, the values of the following constants are independent of the system of units, cannot be defined, and can only be determined experimentally:\n",
"Table 2 clearly defines Planck units in terms of the fundamental constants. Yet relative to other units of measurement such as SI, the values of the Planck units, other than the Planck charge, are only known \"approximately.\" This is due to uncertainty in the value of the gravitational constant \"G\" as measured relative to SI unit definitions.\n"
] |
3 good questions about the derivatives of position. 1. can we perceive any besides velocity and acceleration?....
|
> you go from velocity to acceleration by squaring the t in d/t
Well, given a function v(t), you differentiate with respect to time to get a(t). Ok, a perfectly valid function is v(t)=d/t with some constant d, which would mean a velocity that gradually approaches zero, but I doubt this is what you mean by d/t.
> Are humans aware of any of the derivatives beyond just velocity and acceleration? What do they feel like?
The derivative of acceleration is called [jerk](_URL_0_). So this, multiplied by the mass, is the rate of change of applied force. It's used in various engineering applications, as detailed in the article.
> In partial response to my own first question, I imagine that it would get very hard to distinguish between each derivative. So if there are some that we're not aware of, are THESE the "tiny dimensions" that I hear physicists talking about?
Not at all. The "tiny dimensions" are something else completely. With regards to the first part of your question, it's true for certain classes of functions that if you take loads and loads of derivatives you'll end up with zero in the end, but this is not true for all functions. For example, you can differentiate e^x as many times as you like and still get e^x.
> Are there any other forces that are equivalent to one of the derivatives, such as with gravity & amp; acceleration?
Yep, jerk.
|
[
"If represents the position of an object at time , then the higher-order derivatives of have specific interpretations in physics. The first derivative of is the object's velocity. The second derivative of is the acceleration. The third derivative of is the jerk. And finally, the fourth derivative of is the jounce.\n",
"BULLET::::2. An analysis of point-motion leads us to the conceptions of velocity and acceleration. Velocity is a proper measure of the manner in which position is instantaeously changing. Acceleration is a proper measure of how velocity itself is an increased change. It is found that a motion is fully determined. Theoretically, a complete description of the path and position at each instant of time may be deduced when the velocity in any one position and the acceleration for all positions is given.\n",
"Notice that velocity always points in the direction of motion, in other words for a curved path it is the tangent vector. Loosely speaking, first order derivatives are related to tangents of curves. Still for curved paths, the acceleration is directed towards the center of curvature of the path. Again, loosely speaking, second order derivatives are related to curvature.\n",
"For a position vector r that is a function of time \"t\", the time derivatives can be computed with respect to \"t\". These derivatives have common utility in the study of kinematics, control theory, engineering and other sciences.\n",
"Time derivatives are a key concept in physics. For example, for a changing position formula_8, its time derivative formula_3 is its velocity, and its second derivative with respect to time, formula_5, is its acceleration. Even higher derivatives are sometimes also used: the third derivative of position with respect to time is known as the jerk. See motion graphs and derivatives.\n",
"BULLET::::- Equate first and second derivatives to 0 to find the stationary points and inflection points respectively. If the equation of the curve cannot be solved explicitly for \"x\" or \"y\", finding these derivatives requires implicit differentiation.\n",
"is the coordinate velocity, the derivative of position r with respect to coordinate time \"t\". (Throughout this article, overdots are with respect to coordinate time, not proper time). It is possible to transform the position coordinates to generalized coordinates exactly as in non-relativistic mechanics, r = r(q, \"t\"). Taking the total differential of r obtains the transformation of velocity v to the generalized coordinates, generalized velocities, and coordinate time\n"
] |
what does cold/flu medicine do if you don't have a cold or flu?
|
The most commonly used decongestant is **guafenesin**. It increases the blood flow to your nose. Many opera singers use it daily to clear their sinuses. If you take too much you'll throw up, but it's not deadly.
**Guafenesin** is also an expectorant, but maybe your medicine uses **pseudoephedrine**. That will make your heart beat a little faster, almost like caffeine or something.
A lot of cough syrup contains **acetaminophen/paracetamol** (different names, same drug). It's Tylenol, a mild pain reliever, and will also destroy your liver if you take too much or drink with it.
**Dextromethorphan** is the cough suppresant, and there's no slightly about it, that stuff will *fuck* you up. But not nearly as badly as...
**Dyphenhydramine**. This is what Benadryl is, and it will make you go full retard for a day. You will lose the ability to form coherent sentences, talk to people that aren't there, and just generally be completely delirious (the drug is actually called a deliriant).
Source: I take cough syrup recreationally (unadvisable), and knowing what you're putting in your body is a necessity.
|
[
"There is little evidence to support that Cold-fx is effective in the common cold. All trials have been done by the manufacturer and there has been poor data reporting. According to Health Canada's Natural Health Product Directorate records, the company claims that it may \"help reduce the frequency, severity and duration of cold and flu symptoms by boosting the immune system\".\n",
"A number of methods have been recommended to help ease symptoms, including adequate liquid intake and rest. Over-the-counter pain medications such as acetaminophen and ibuprofen do not kill the virus; however, they may be useful to reduce symptoms. Aspirin and other salicylate products should not be used by people under 16 with any flu-type symptoms because of the risk of developing Reye's Syndrome.\n",
"Current evidence does not support its use for the prevention of the common cold. There is, however, some evidence that regular use may shorten the length of colds. It is unclear whether supplementation affects the risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease, or dementia. It may be taken by mouth or by injection.\n",
"Scientists have argued that the product has not been tested for its ability to treat a cold after an individual has been infected. No studies have yet been performed to assess the possible long term side effects of taking the pills every day during the cold and flu season.\n",
"There is no vaccine for the common cold. The primary methods of prevention are hand washing; not touching the eyes, nose or mouth with unwashed hands; and staying away from sick people. Some evidence supports the use of face masks. There is also no cure, but the symptoms can be treated. Zinc may reduce the duration and severity of symptoms if started shortly after the onset of symptoms. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen may help with pain. Antibiotics, however, should not be used and there is no good evidence for cough medicines.\n",
"People with the flu are advised to get plenty of rest, drink plenty of liquids, avoid using alcohol and tobacco and, if necessary, take medications such as acetaminophen (paracetamol) to relieve the fever and muscle aches associated with the flu. In contrast, there is no enough evidence to support corticosteroids as add on therapy for influenza. It is advised to avoid close contact with others to prevent spread of infection. Children and teenagers with flu symptoms (particularly fever) should avoid taking aspirin during an influenza infection (especially influenza type B), because doing so can lead to Reye's syndrome, a rare but potentially fatal disease of the liver. Since influenza is caused by a virus, antibiotics have no effect on the infection; unless prescribed for secondary infections such as bacterial pneumonia. Antiviral medication may be effective, if given early (within 48 hours to first symptoms), but some strains of influenza can show resistance to the standard antiviral drugs and there is concern about the quality of the research. High-risk individuals such as young children, pregnant women, the elderly, and those with compromised immune systems should visit the doctor for antiviral drugs. Those with the emergency warning signs should visit the emergency room at once.\n",
"Antibiotics have no effect against viral infections or against the viruses that cause the common cold. Due to their side effects, antibiotics cause overall harm but are still frequently prescribed. Some of the reasons that antibiotics are so commonly prescribed include people's expectations for them, physicians' desire to help, and the difficulty in excluding complications that may be amenable to antibiotics. There are no effective antiviral drugs for the common cold even though some preliminary research has shown benefits.\n"
] |
how can something like a cellphone or computer possibly have any effect on a plane during takeoff?
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800 megahertz communications can interfere with instrument landing systems as well as other navigation systems.
|
[
"\"The aircraft manufacturer's avionics representative advised that there was no likelihood that the operation of a computer, other electronic device or a cell phone would have affected the aircraft's flight instruments.\"\n",
"Initial analysis from David Learmount, a \"Flight International\" editor, was that \"The aircraft had either a total or severe power loss and this occurred very late in the final approach because the pilot did not have time to tell air traffic control or passengers.\" Learmount went on to say that to land in just , the aircraft must have been near stalling when it touched down. The captain also reported the aircraft's stall warning system had sounded.\n",
"With the loss of all power to the lights and flight altitude instruments, flying at night in instrument conditions, the pilots quickly became spatially disorientated and unable to know which inputs to the flight controls were necessary to keep the plane flying normally. Consequently, the crew lost complete control of the aircraft and crashed into the ocean in a steep nose-down angle, killing everyone on board. The flight-control system would not have been affected by the loss of electrical power, since it relied on hydraulic and mechanical lines, so it was concluded that loss of control was the result of the crew's inability to see around the cockpit. It was theorized that the backup electrical system had not been activated because the crew could not locate the switch for it in darkness.\n",
"The most dangerous pilot-induced oscillations can occur during landing. Too much up elevator during the flare can result in the plane getting dangerously slow and threatening to stall. A natural reaction to this is to push the nose down harder than one pulled it up, but then the pilot ends up staring at the ground. An even larger amount of up elevator starts the cycle over again.\n",
"Electromagnetic interference to aircraft systems is a common argument offered for banning mobile phones (and other passenger electronic devices) on planes. Theoretically, active radio transmitters such as mobile phones, walkie–talkies, portable computers or gaming devices may interfere with the aircraft. Non-transmitting electronic devices also emit electromagnetic radiation, although typically at a lower power level, and could also theoretically affect the aircraft electronics. Collectively, any of these may be referred to as portable electronic devices (PEDs).\n",
"BULLET::::- Receiving aircraft typically have the probe in the front which present problems such as: sensitive avionics equipment (pitot static and angle of attack probes, etc.), can easily be damaged by the drogue, and FOD, including fuel or probe/drogue parts can be ingested into the plane's engines.\n",
"The investigation did look at the possibility of electromagnetic interference and tested a similar aircraft using mobile phones. It concluded that there were \"no indications that aircraft systems were negatively affected by electromagnetic interference (EMI)\".\n"
] |
How did the four Sunni Islamic school of thoughts settle to the current geography? Could this change in the future?
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Mod mote to OP and potential respondents: just a reminder that this sub *does not permit speculation*, so discussion here will have to exclude the last question (re possible futures) .
|
[
"After its beginnings in the 8th century based on Hellenistic geography, Islamic geography was patronized by the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. Various Islamic scholars contributed to its development, and the most notable include Al-Khwārizmī, Abū Zayd al-Balkhī (founder of the \"Balkhi school\"), and Abu Rayhan Biruni. \n",
"The genesis of Shi’a Islam is rooted in the idea that the charismatic and politico-religious authority possessed by the prophet Muhammad was transferred to his biological descendants after his death in 632 CE. The resulting claim to the rightful leadership of the Muslim community (the ummah) was thus supposed to pass, in the form of the Imamate, to the descendants of Muhammad’s daughter Fatima (606–632) and her husband Ali b. Abi Talib (600–661). Yet the political reality in the decades after the Prophet’s death diverged from that vision. After the death of the prophet Mohammad in the year 632, a disagreement arose between the followers of Mohammad as to who should be appointed as the prophet's successor. The Muslims were split between two groups, those who supported Abu Bakr, a companion of the prophet, and those who supported Ali, the prophet's cousin and son-in law. Ultimately, Abu Bakr became the first caliph, and his followers are today known as Sunni Muslims. The followers of Ali are known as Shia Muslims. Abu Bakr served for two years, and appointed Umar as his successor in 634. Umar served as caliph for ten years, during which he was responsible for the rapid spread of Islam through military and territorial gains. Upon his death in 644, a council of Islamic leaders elected a new Caliph, Uthman ibn Affan, of the Umayyad family. However, in 656 supporters of Ali, who believed that a descendant of the prophet should lead the Muslim community, assassinated Uthman and installed Ali as the fourth caliph. Ali's reign was marred by numerous violent struggles between his supporters and the supporters of Muawiyah I, a relative of Uthman and the governor of Syria. When Ali was murdered in the year 661 by a supporter of Muawiyah, he became the first martyr of the Shia faith. Ali had two sons, Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn, who the Shia believe continued their father's struggle in different ways. Hasan renounced his right to the caliphate in a compromise with Mu'awiya, which the Shi'a view as Hasan's rational recognition of his own constraints at the time, but Husayn sought to restore the caliphate to the family of Ali by military means. When Muawiyah died in the 680 and his son Yazid I assumed the caliphate, Husayn renewed his efforts to regain the caliphate. On the advice of supporters in Kufa, a supposed stronghold of Shia support, Husayn and a small numbers of his family and supporters traveled to Kufa, camping out in nearby Karbala. However, the governor of Kufa was aware of Husayn's presence and sent close to 4000 troops to Karbala. After several days of failed negotiations, as Husayn refused to recognize Yazid as caliph, the governor's soldiers massacred Husayn and 72 of his men. This massacre, which occurred on the 10th day of the month of Muharram, elevated the martyrdom of Husayn to almost mythical levels in Shia belief.\n",
"Much of this learning and development can be linked to geography. Even prior to Islam's presence, the city of Mecca had served as a centre of trade in Arabia, and the Islamic prophet Muhammad himself was a merchant. With the new Islamic tradition of the \"Hajj\", the pilgrimage to Mecca, the city became even more a centre for exchanging goods and ideas. The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to the Europeans, Indians, and Chinese, who based their societies on an agricultural landholding nobility. Merchants brought goods and their Islamic faith to China, India, Southeast Asia, and the kingdoms of western Africa, and returned with new discoveries and inventions.\n",
"Since the Al Saud succeeded in annexing Mecca in 1926 and the discovery of oil, Hanbali school of theology has benefited from the sponsorship of the Saudi state. Theology students from all over the world are educated in Saudi Arabia following this school of theology and Saudi-funded Dawah succeeded in attracting new followers all over the world. Since the beginning of the 20th-century, the school has therefore gained more acceptance and diffusion in the Islamic world.\n",
"There is concern that Islamic fundamentalism is increasing as young citizens return to the country following Islamic theological studies abroad and seek to impose a stricter adherence to Islamic religious law on their family members and associates; in response, the Union Government has established a university to give young citizens the option of pursuing university studies in the country.\n",
"Three years after his arrival in the city, Ibn Taymiyyah became involved in efforts to deal with the increasing Shia influence amongst Sunni Muslims. An agreement had been made in 1316 between the amir of Mecca and the Ilkhanate ruler Öljaitü, brother of Ghazan Khan, to allow a favourable policy towards Shi'ism in Mecca, a city that houses the holiest site in Islam, the Kaaba. Around the same time the Shia theologian Al-Hilli, who had played a crucial role in the Mongol rulers decision to make Shi'ism the state religion of Persia, wrote the book, \"Minhaj al-Karamah\"\" (\"The Way of Charisma'), which dealt with the Shia doctrine of the Imamate and also served as a refutation of the Sunni doctrine of the caliphate. To counter this Ibn Taymiyyah wrote his famous book, \"Minhaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah\", as a refutation of Al-Hilli's work.\n",
"By the 11th century, the Muslim world had developed four major Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence (or \"fiqh\"), each with its own interpretations of Sharia: Hanbali, Maliki, Shafi and Hanafi. In Arabia, a preference for the Hanbali school was advocated by the Wahhabi movement, founded in the 18th century. Wahhabism, a strict form of Sunni Islam, was supported by the Saudi royal family (the Al Saud) and is now dominant in Saudi Arabia. From the 18th century, the Hanbali school therefore predominated in Nejd and central Arabia, the heartland of Wahhabi Islam. In the more cosmopolitan Hejaz, in the west of the peninsula, both the Hanafi and Shafi schools were followed.\n"
] |
Were there Prisoner of War camps in the American Civil War? If so, what were they like? How were the prisoners treated?
|
It was bad in the South as the war dragged on. The North was very effective at limiting the South's ability to supply their troops and civilians. PoWs are pretty low on the list when you're rationing.
Andersonville, by far the most notorious Civil War prison, housed nearly 33,000 men at its peak—one of the largest "cities" of the Confederacy. Inmates crowded into 26.5 acres (11 hectares) of muddy land, constructing "shebangs," or primitive shelters, from whatever material they could find. Lacking sewer or sanitation facilities, camp inmates turned "Stockade Creek" into a massive, disease-ridden latrine. Summer rainstorms would flood the open sewer, spreading filth. Visitors approaching the camp for the first time often retched from the stench. The prison's oppressive conditions claimed 13,000 lives by the war's end.
That's not to say that the North was much better:
Prisons often engendered conditions more horrible than those on the battlefield. The Union's Fort Delaware was dubbed "The Fort Delaware Death Pen," while Elmira prison in New York saw nearly a 25 percent mortality rate. The South's infamous Camp Sumter, or Andersonville prison, claimed the lives of 29 percent of its inmates.
_URL_0_
It's a good article.
|
[
"In the early years of the Civil War, the north barracks were used to hold Confederate officers taken as prisoners of war pending transfer to other Union prisons such as Camp Johnson in Ohio, Fort Delaware or Fort Warren in Boston Harbor. Fort Columbus and Castle Williams also served as a temporary prisoner of war camp and confinement hospital for Confederate prisoners during the war. Major General William H. C. Whiting (CSA) died of dysentery in February 1865 in the post hospital shortly after his surrender at the Battle of Fort Fisher, North Carolina. He was the highest ranking Confederate officer to die as a prisoner of war.\n",
"The first Confederate prisoners of war arrived at Camp Douglas on February 20, 1862 to find a camp but no real prison. They were housed for their first few days at the camp in the White Oak Square section along with newly–trained Union soldiers about to depart for service at the front. The army sent sick prisoners to the camp, where there were no medical facilities at the time, even though army staff were specifically warned not to do so. On February 23, 1862, the Union troops vacated the camp except for an inadequate force of about 40 officers and 469 enlisted men left to guard the prisoners. About 77 escapes were recorded at Camp Douglas by June 1862.\n",
"In 1861, Camp Rathbun, near the town of Elmira, was established as a training camp at the beginning of the Civil War. As the Union troops who trained there were sent to their respective assignments, the camp emptied and in 1864 it was turned into the Elmira Prison prisoner-of-war camp. The facilities were not adequate to house the thousands of Confederate prisoners, and many succumbed to exposure, malnutrition, and smallpox and were subsequently interred at the cemetery.\n",
"Lacking a means for dealing with large numbers of captured troops early in the American Civil War, the Union and Confederate governments relied on the traditional European system of parole and exchange of prisoners. While awaiting exchange, prisoners were confined to permanent camps.\n",
"During and after the American Civil War, concentration camps located in Natchez, Mississippi were used to corral freed slaves. \"As slaves were being emancipated from the plantations, their route to freedom usually took them in the vicinity of the Union army forces. Unhappy with the slaves being freed, the army began recapturing the slaves and forced the men back into hard labor camps. The most notorious of the several concentration camps that were established was located in Natchez, MS.\"\n",
"During the war, Fort McClellan became the temporary home for many captured enemy soldiers; a 3,000-capacity Prison Internment Camp for prisoners of war (POWs) was built in 1943. The camp also served to receive prisoners who would go on to three other POW camps in Alabama. At the end of the war in Europe, the camp at Fort McClellan held 2,546 men. A cemetery on the reservation marks 26 German and 3 Italian prisoners of war who died while in captivity.\n",
"At the time of the Civil War, the concept of a prisoner of war camp was still new. It was as late as 1863 when President Lincoln demanded a code of conduct be instituted to guarantee prisoners of war the entitlement to food and medical treatment and to protect them from enslavement, torture, and murder. Andersonville did not provide its occupants with these guarantees; therefore, the prisoners at Andersonville, without any sort of law enforcement or protections, functioned more closely to a primitive society than a civil one. As such, survival often depended on the strength of a prisoner's social network within the prison. A prisoner with friends inside Andersonville was more likely to survive than a lonesome prisoner. Social networks provided prisoners with food, clothes, shelter, moral support, trading opportunities, and protection against other prisoners. One study found that a prisoner having a strong social network within Andersonville \"had a statistically significant positive effect on survival probabilities, and that the closer the ties between friends as measured by such identifiers as ethnicity, kinship, and the same hometown, the bigger the effect.\"\n"
] |
Are there any theories which try to explain where the very first matter, mass, or "stuff" came from?
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Current cosmological/physics theories can trace the universe back rather accurately to about 10^(-12) seconds or so after the big bang. All of our theories before that are speculative to some degree or another, so we can't say anything definitive about the universe at those points (let alone make sense of "before the big bang").
|
[
"All these theories imply that matter is a continuous substance. Two Greek philosophers, Leucippus (first half of the 5th century BC) and Democritus of Abdera (lived about 410 BC) came up with the notion that there were two real entities: atoms, which were small indivisible particles of matter, and the void, which was the empty space in which matter was located. Although all the explanations from Thales to Democritus involve matter, what is more important is the fact that these rival explanations suggest an ongoing process of debate in which alternate theories were put forth and criticized.\n",
"However, the Newtonian picture was not the whole story. In the 19th century, the term \"matter\" was actively discussed by a host of scientists and philosophers, and a brief outline can be found in Levere. A textbook discussion from 1870 suggests matter is what is made up of atoms:Three divisions of matter are recognized in science: masses, molecules and atoms. A Mass of matter is any portion of matter appreciable by the senses. A Molecule is the smallest particle of matter into which a body can be divided without losing its identity. An Atom is a still smaller particle produced by division of a molecule. \n",
"The idea that all matter is composed of elementary particles dates to at least the 6th century BC. The Jains in ancient India were the earliest to advocate the particular nature of material objects between 9th and 5th century BCE. According to Jain leaders like Parshvanatha and Mahavira, the ajiva (non living part of universe) consists of matter or \"pudgala\", of definite or indefinite shape which is made up tiny uncountable and invisible particles called \"permanu\". \"Permanu\" occupies space-point and each \"permanu\" has definite colour, smell, taste and texture. Infinite varieties of \"permanu\" unite and form \"pudgala\". The philosophical doctrine of atomism and the nature of elementary particles were also studied by ancient Greek philosophers such as Leucippus, Democritus, and Epicurus; ancient Indian philosophers such as Kanada, Dignāga, and Dharmakirti; Muslim scientists such as Ibn al-Haytham, Ibn Sina, and Mohammad al-Ghazali; and in early modern Europe by physicists such as Pierre Gassendi, Robert Boyle, and Isaac Newton. The particle theory of light was also proposed by Ibn al-Haytham, Ibn Sina, Gassendi, and Newton.\n",
"For much of the history of the natural sciences people have contemplated the exact nature of matter. The idea that matter was built of discrete building blocks, the so-called particulate theory of matter, was first put forward in ancient India by Jains (~900–500 BC), followed by the Greek philosophers Leucippus (~490 BC) and Democritus (~470–380 BC).\n",
"One challenge to the traditional concept of matter as tangible \"stuff\" came with the rise of field physics in the 19th century. Relativity shows that matter and energy (including the spatially distributed energy of fields) are interchangeable. This enables the ontological view that energy is prima materia and matter is one of its forms. On the other hand, the Standard Model of particle physics uses quantum field theory to describe all interactions. On this view it could be said that fields are prima materia and the energy is a property of the field.\n",
"Bernard argued that matter, although caused by God, existed from all eternity. In the beginning, before its union with the Ideas, it was in a chaotic condition. It was by means of the native forms, which penetrate matter, that distinction, order, regularity, and number were introduced into the universe.\n",
"BULLET::::- Search for a new state of matter called the quark–gluon plasma, which is believed to be the state of matter existing in the universe shortly after the Big Bang. PHENIX data suggest that a new form of matter has indeed been discovered, and that it behaves like a perfect fluid. PHENIX scientists are now working to study its properties.\n"
] |
what is stockholm’s syndrome and can children have it due to abusive parents?
|
Stockholm Syndrome is when a captive person grows an attachment to their captor. For example, it has been debated that dogs only love their owners because their owners feed and shelter them.
I think children can develop Stockholm Syndrome with/to abusive parents. Depending on their age, they probably do feel like prisoners.
|
[
"Stockholm syndrome is a \"contested illness\" due to doubt about the legitimacy of the condition. It has also come to describe the reactions of some abuse victims beyond the context of kidnappings or hostage-taking. Actions and attitudes similar to those suffering from Stockholm syndrome have also been found in victims of sexual abuse, human trafficking, terror, and political and religious oppression.\n",
"Victims of the formal definition of Stockholm syndrome develop \"positive feelings toward their captors and sympathy for their causes and goals, and negative feelings toward the police or authorities\". These symptoms often follow escaped victims back into their previously ordinary lives.\n",
"A research group led by Namnyak has found that although there is a lot of media coverage of Stockholm syndrome, there has not been a lot of professional research into the phenomenon. What little research has been done is often contradictory and does not always agree on what Stockholm syndrome is. The term has grown beyond kidnappings to all kinds of abuse. There is no clear definition of symptoms to diagnose the syndrome.\n",
"Psychiatrist Frank Ochberg, who was responsible for defining the term \"Stockholm syndrome\", said he does not think Belle exhibits the trauma symptoms of prisoners suffering from the syndrome because she does not go through a period of feeling that she is going to die. Some therapists, while acknowledging that the pairing's relationship does not meet the clinical definition of Stockholm syndrome, argue that the relationship depicted is dysfunctional and abusive and does not model healthy romantic relationships for young viewers. Following this viewpoint, Constance Grady of Vox wrote that Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont's \"Beauty and the Beast\" was a fairy tale originally written to prepare young girls in 18th-century France for arranged marriages, and that the power disparity is amplified in the Disney version. Additionally, Anna Menta of \"Elite Daily\" argued that the Beast does not apologize to Belle for imprisoning, hurting, or manipulating her, and that his treatment of Belle is not painted as wrong.\n",
"Stockholm syndrome is a condition which causes hostages to develop a psychological alliance with their captors during captivity. These alliances result from a bond formed between captor and captives during intimate time together, but they are generally considered irrational in light of the danger or risk endured by the victims. The FBI's Hostage Barricade Database System and Law Enforcement Bulletin indicate that roughly 8% of victims show evidence of Stockholm syndrome.\n",
"The term \"stockholm syndrome\" refers to a psychological phenomenon in which hostages express empathy and sympathy and have positive feelings toward their captors, sometimes to the point of defending them. These feelings are generally considered irrational in light of the danger or risk endured by the victims, who essentially mistake a lack of abuse from their captors for an act of kindness.\n",
"Typically, Stockholm syndrome develops in captives when they engage in \"face-to-face contact\" with their captors, and when captors make captives doubt the likelihood of their survival by terrorizing them into \"helpless, powerless, and submissive\" states. This enables captors to appear merciful when they perform acts of kindness or fail to \"beat, abuse, or rape\" the victims. Ideas like \"dominance hierarchies and submission strategies\" assist in devising explanations for the illogical reasoning behind the symptoms of those suffering from Stockholm syndrome as a result of any oppressive relationship. Partial activation of the capture-bonding psychological trait may lie behind battered woman syndrome, military basic training, fraternity hazing, and sex practices such as sadism/masochism or bondage/discipline.\n"
] |
will the united states debt to china ever affect the us government in a negative way?
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To China specifically? No. Owing money to China is no different from the US government owing money to me for money I've lent to it. The US government owes about $1.25 trillion to China and about $6.2 trillion to foreign sources overall. It doesn't really offer China any influence over the US.
Can debt overall effect the US government negatively if it takes out so much debt people lose faith in its ability to pay it back/defaults on a loan? Yeah, totally, because then people won't lend it money as cheaply anymore.
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[
"A significant number of economists and analysts dismiss any and all concerns over foreign holdings of United States government debt denominated in U.S. Dollars, including China's holdings. Critics of the \"excessive\" amount of US debt held by China acknowledge that the \"biggest effect of a broad-scale dump of US Treasuries by China would be that China would actually export fewer goods to the United States.\"\n",
"The 112th United States Congress introduced legislation whose aim was the assessment of the implications of China’s ownership of U.S. debt. The subsequent Congressional Report of 2013 claimed that \"[a] potentially serious short-term problem would emerge if China decided to \"suddenly\" reduce their liquid U.S. financial assets significantly\" [emphasis in the original text], noting also that Federal Reserve System Chairman Ben Bernanke had, in 2007, stated that “because foreign holdings of U.S. Treasury securities represent only a small part of total U.S. credit market debt outstanding, U.S. credit markets should be able to absorb without great difficulty any shift of foreign allocations.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- The government of the People's Republic of China is said to be nervous about the effect a Democrat-led Congress might have on its exports to the United States market and the possible controversy that could result because of the country's human rights record. Nancy Pelosi, who became the Speaker of the House, is a noted critic of Chinese policy. Concerns likely to be raised include the undervalued Chinese currency, blamed by some for the recent losses in the American manufacturing industry, and issues such as internet censorship, piracy, limited market access within China itself for companies based in the U.S., and religious freedom. The Chinese Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Jiang Yu stated that she hoped the United States would play a \"constructive role\" in maintaining \"sound, healthy and stable relations between China and the U.S.\".\n",
"Since 2016, the US has executed multiple actions towards China in response to the above issues. First, the government has implemented economic tariffs on a variety of imports, such as photographic films. Also, it has heavily scrutinized Chinese-based companies that have committed economic offenses against its interests. For example, the US Commerce Department was extremely close to handing a large fine to the Chinese telecom company ZTE for violating US-Iranian sanctions. However, President Trump blocked this decision because he thought it would cause too many Chinese jobs to be lost, and severely decrease US-China relations. While this instance displays the American government's ability to tackle any economic issues that may arise with China, it also exemplifies how inconsistent such reactions might be. On a related note, the US has exited from some multilateral approaches related to handling Chinese economic expansion, such as the TPP (Trans-Pacific Partnership). In order for the US to successfully achieve economic diplomacy with China, it must collaborate with Beijing and other nations to ensure certain conditions exist, such as low trade/investment barriers and respect of property rights for all companies interacting with China. The US-China economic diplomacy approach may been seen by some as not fully encouraging this progress so far. However, this is subject to change depending on what future political/economic decisions are made.\n",
"In 2010, the United States had a $270 billion trade deficit with China (Chinese imports totalling $360 billion compared to only $90 billion in American exports) in part to what most U.S. economists warn as an undervaluation of the Chinese currency, Yuan, which in turn gives its exporters a significant advantage in the global economy.\n",
"BULLET::::2. The trade dispute with the U.S., caused by the undervalued \"renminbi\", damages China’s most important bilateral relationship. New tariffs aimed at retaliating the undervalued currency are possible in the new United States Congress, as the U.S. House of Representatives passed legislation that would impose economic sanctions on China. “Chinese officials do not understand the intensity of anger in Washington and could face a backlash if they fail to mollify their critics,” according to analyst Jason Kindopp at the Eurasia Group.\n",
"China is a major creditor and the second largest foreign holder of US public debt and has been critical of US deficits and fiscal policy, advising for policies that maintain the purchasing value of the dollar although it had little few options other than to continue to buy United States Treasury bonds. China condemned the US monetary policy of quantitative easing, responding to S&P's downgrade of U.S. credit rating, and advised the United States not to continue with the accumulation of debt, concluding with the statement that America cannot continue to borrow to solve financial problems.\n"
] |
What were the consequences of Athens’ decisions, and how did their downfall effect Greece and ultimately leave it open for Phillip II to conquer.
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There is a significant amount of time between the dissolution of the Delian League (404 BC) and the conquest of Greece by Philip II (338 BC). In fact, there was time enough for the Athenians to start a Second Delian League (probably in 378 BC) *and for that League to fall too* (after the Social War of 357-355 BC).
However, Athenian decisions certainly did play into Philip II's hand. Firstly, from 368 BC onward, the Athenians waged a costly war to recover the strategic city of Amphipolis in Thrace, which they had lost in 424 BC. They failed to take it, but antagonised the Macedonians in the process, and Philip eventually did conquer the town (and its mines and vast resouces of timber).
Secondly, the Athenian attempt to recover their power in the Aeagen was initially successful, but their continued campaigning against Amphipolis made their new allies feel used for the sake of Athens' interests, leading to the Social War I just mentioned. This war was extremely costly for Athens, and decisively ruined its chances of uniting the Aegean in a new Athenian empire.
Thirdly, Athens spent a great deal of resources trying to set up a pro-Athenian government on the island of Euboia, which brought it into conflict with the Thebans through most of the 340s BC. The Thebans themselves were already extremely weakened by the ongoing Third Sacred War (356-346 BC) against Phokis, in which Philip II became more and more involved after he conquered Thessaly.
All of these wars and alliances are very complex, but the main point is that only major states like Thebes and Athens had the strength to form an alliance capable of stopping Philip, and thanks to their constant warring no one trusted them to have the interests of Greece at heart. Meanwhile, Philip encroached on Central Greek affairs more and more, while also expanding into the Hellespont, which was a direct threat to Athenian interests. In the war that followed, Athens' only major ally was actually Thebes, but their joined army was defeated at Chaironeia in 338 BC, and Philip made the mainland Greek subject to Macedon.
|
[
"The Greek victories at Plataea and contemporaneous naval battle at Mycale had the result that never again would the Persian Empire launch an attack on mainland Greece. Afterwards, Persia pursued its policies by diplomacy, bribery and cajolement, playing one city state against another. But, by these victories, and through the Delian League, Athens was able to consolidate its power in the flowering of Athenian democracy in 5th century Athens, under the leadership of Pericles, son of Xanthippus.\n",
"The final steps in the shift to empire may have been triggered by Athens' defeat in Egypt, which challenged the city's dominance in the Aegean and led to the revolt of several allies, such as Miletus and Erythrae. Either because of a genuine fear for its safety after the defeat in Egypt and the revolts of the allies, or as a pretext to gain control of the League's finances, Athens transferred the treasury of the alliance from Delos to Athens in 454–453 BC.\n",
"After her eventual defeat by Sparta in 404 BC, Athens soon recovered and re-established her hegemony over Euboea, which was an essential source of grain for the urban population. The Eretrians rebelled again in 349 BC and this time the Athenians could not recover control. In 343 BC supporters of Philip II of Macedon gained control of the city, but the Athenians under Demosthenes recaptured it in 341 BC.\n",
"Athens in fact partially recovered from this setback between 410-406 BC, but a further act of economic war finally forced her defeat. Having developed a navy that was capable of taking on the much-weakened Athenian navy, the Spartan general Lysander seized the Hellespont, the source of Athens' grain. The remaining Athenian fleet was thereby forced to confront the Spartans, and were decisively defeated. Athens had little choice but to surrender; and was stripped of her city walls, overseas possessions and navy. In the aftermath, the Spartans were able to establish themselves as the dominant force in Greece for three decades.\n",
"The Athenians had been unable to conquer Amphipolis, which commanded the gold mines of Mount Pangaion. So Philip reached an agreement with Athens to lease the city to them after its conquest, in exchange for Pydna (lost by Macedon in 363). However, after conquering Amphipolis, Philip kept both cities (357). As Athens had declared war against him, he allied Macedon with the Chalkidian League of Olynthus. He subsequently conquered Potidaea, this time keeping his word and ceding it to the League in 356.\n",
"The economic resources of the Athenian State were not excessive. All the glory of Athens in the Age of Pericles, its constructions, public works, religious buildings, sculptures, etc. would not have been possible without the treasury of the Delian League. The treasury was originally held on the island of Delos but Pericles moved it to Athens under the pretext that Delos wasn't safe enough. This resulted in internal friction within the league and the rebellion of some city-states that were members. Athens retaliated quickly and some scholars believe this to be the period wherein it would be more appropriate to discuss an Athenian Empire instead of a league.\n",
"The main reasons for the eventual failure were structural. This alliance was only valued out of fear of Sparta, which evaporated after Sparta's fall in 371 BC, losing the alliance its sole 'raison d'etre'. The Athenians no longer had the means to fulfill their ambitions, and found it difficult merely to finance their own navy, let alone that of an entire alliance, and so could not properly defend their allies. Thus, the tyrant of Pherae was able to destroy a number of cities with impunity. From 360 BC, Athens lost its reputation for invincibility and a number of allies (such as Byzantium and Naxos in 364 BC) decided to secede.\n"
] |
Why do galaxies appear as consistent objects, given their sheer scale?
|
Hundreds of thousands of years is actually quite a short period of time in astronomy. Even very short-lived stars last for millions of years.
The distance to other galaxies is also much larger than their size. Andromeda, the closest large galaxy to us, is millions of light-years away. We can say many other objects that are *billions* of light-years away. On that scale, we definitely notice that closer galaxies are more evolved than more distant galaxies. But on the scale of an individual galaxy, a hundred thousand years is almost too small to notice.
|
[
"Current models also predict that the majority of mass in galaxies is made up of dark matter, a substance which is not directly observable, and might not interact through any means except gravity. This observation arises because galaxies could not have formed as they have, or rotate as they are seen to, unless they contain far more mass than can be directly observed.\n",
"However, due to the existence of long-range correlations, it is known that structures can be found in the distribution of galaxies in the universe that extend over scales larger than the homogeneity scale.\n",
"The largest galaxies are giant ellipticals. Many elliptical galaxies are believed to form due to the interaction of galaxies, resulting in a collision and merger. They can grow to enormous sizes (compared to spiral galaxies, for example), and giant elliptical galaxies are often found near the core of large galaxy clusters.\n",
"Populations of stars have been aging and evolving, so that distant galaxies (which are observed as they were in the early universe) appear very different from nearby galaxies (observed in a more recent state). Moreover, galaxies that formed relatively recently, appear markedly different from galaxies formed at similar distances but shortly after the Big Bang. These observations are strong arguments against the steady-state model. Observations of star formation, galaxy and quasar distributions and larger structures, agree well with Big Bang simulations of the formation of structure in the universe, and are helping to complete details of the theory.\n",
"These are objects that appear to be a series of irregular clumps with no coherent structure. Many of these objects are simply nearby dwarf galaxies. Some of these objects are interacting galaxies, while others are small groups of galaxies. In both cases, many of the constituent galaxies are irregular galaxies. The superposition of two or more such irregular galaxies can easily look like a single larger irregular galaxy, which is why the Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies (and other catalogs) often classify these pairs and groups as single objects.\n",
"Currently, astronomers know little about the shape and size of our galaxy relative to what they know about other galaxies; it is difficult to observe the entire Milky Way from the inside. A good analogy is trying to observe a marching band as a member of the band. Observing other galaxies is much easier because humans are outside those galaxies. Steven Majewski and his team planned to use SIM Lite to help determine not only the shape and size of the Galaxy but also the distribution of its mass and the motion of its stars.\n",
"This structure is not only incredibly large, but also very dense; the galaxies located in each of the filaments are four times closer to each other than the universe's average. Before its discovery, astronomers had predicted the existence of a structure like this one. According to computer models, several of the most massive galaxies originated in structures like this. These galaxies are believed to have formed as a result of blobs like those constituent to this structure collapsing under their own gravity. Since the densest areas in the universe are thought to be the places where galaxies formed first, this structure may be one of the earliest to have formed. This structure may reveal when and how the first galaxies formed and could help us better understand how our own galaxy came to be.\n"
] |
If space is ever so expanding, do we seen new/farther everyday we take photos of the outer edges of space? Do we add on to “observable universe” everyday too?
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Kind of.
So, the universe as a whole does not have a boundary. The expansion of the universe is not the expansion of the *edge* of the universe, but rather everything getting further away from everything else - it's not expanding at the edges, it's expanding *everywhere*. In fact, the evidence is somewhat pointing towards the universe being *infinite* in size.
However, the *observable* universe *is* expanding. The edge of the observable universe represents the distance that light could have travelled since the beginning of the universe. The universe is about 13 billion years old, so the light from the edge of the observable universe is the light that has travelled about 13 billion light years (although the universe has continued to expand since the light was emitted and the images we see from this light are from objects that are now much more than 13 billion light years away).
This means that the images we see of the very edge of the observable universe are images of the very very young universe. This is the universe before there was any structure - it was a dense, uniform, opaque fluid of energy and particles. Because the universe was opaque, we can't actually see the light from the very beginning of the universe. Instead, we see the light that was emitted just as the universe got cool enough and sparse enough to become transparent. This light forms a background behind everything else in the universe. It has been redshifted over billions of years into microwave frequencies, which is why we call it the Cosmic Microwave Background, or the CMB.
So, as the observable universe expands, what happens is that the CMB radiation that we see is from slightly further away. What's happening is that the CMB radiation was emitted *everywhere*, but because it takes time for light to reach us, every second we're seeing CMB radiation that was emitted from gas about a light-second more distant than what we received the previous second.
This means we are technically seeing new parts of the observable universe, but it's not like we're seeing new galaxies turn up - we're just seeing slightly more distant "slices" of the CMB. The CMB is far too uniform over time for us to really see any change over decades though.
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[
"Trivia questions and urban legends often claim certain constructed objects or effects are so large they are visible from outer space. For example, a giant beaver dam in Canada was described as \"so large it is visible from outer space.\" \"Field and Stream\", a Canadian Magazine, wrote, \"How big? Big enough to be visible ... from outer space.\"\n",
"Regardless of the overall shape of the universe, the question of what the universe is expanding into is one which does not require an answer according to the theories which describe the expansion; the way we define space in our universe in no way requires additional exterior space into which it can expand since an expansion of an infinite expanse can happen without changing the infinite extent of the expanse. All that is certain is that the manifold of space in which we live simply has the property that the distances between objects are getting larger as time goes on. This only implies the simple observational consequences associated with the metric expansion explored below. No \"outside\" or embedding in hyperspace is required for an expansion to occur. The visualizations often seen of the universe growing as a bubble into nothingness are misleading in that respect. There is no reason to believe there is anything \"outside\" of the expanding universe into which the universe expands.\n",
"Big Picture’s first 21 issues have been firmly grounded on planet Earth. Now we’d like to look at an even bigger picture – the universe. Space biology looks at life in space from several perspectives: how it began, where it might be, and the effects of space as a rather extreme habitat.\n",
"The size of the Universe is somewhat difficult to define. According to the general theory of relativity, far regions of space may never interact with ours even in the lifetime of the Universe due to the finite speed of light and the ongoing expansion of space. For example, radio messages sent from Earth may never reach some regions of space, even if the Universe were to exist forever: space may expand faster than light can traverse it.\n",
"Even if the overall spatial extent is infinite and thus the universe cannot get any \"larger\", we still say that space is expanding because, locally, the characteristic distance between objects is increasing. As an infinite space grows, it remains infinite.\n",
"Because we cannot observe space beyond the edge of the observable universe, it is unknown whether the size of the Universe in its totality is finite or infinite. Estimates for the total size of the universe, if finite, reach as high as formula_1 megaparsecs, implied by one resolution of the No-Boundary Proposal.\n",
"In his introduction Boeke says that the essay originated with a school project at his Werkplaats Children's Community in Bilthoven. The idea was to draw pictures that would include ever-growing areas of space, to show how the earth is located in an unfathomably enormous universe. Boeke then writes that he realized the reverse process—creating graphics of tinier and tinier bits of reality—would reveal a world \"as full of marvels\" as the most gigantic reaches of outer space.\n"
] |
Any good non-Roman sources on the Roman military? Talking about tactics, formations, appearance, etc.
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Polybius is a Greek writing to Greeks trying to explain how Rome came to dominate the Mediterranean. His 6th book is an analysis of Rome's political and military practices systematically including the structure of the legion, recruitment, provisioning, layout of the camp etc.
The rest of it is a military history starting with the 1st Punic War down to 146, the year in which Rome destroyed Carthage and Corinth.
Polybius lived for years in Rome as a hostage in the house of Paulus and apparently traveled widely in Italy and was friends with Scipio Aemelianus, so he probably has a fairly good idea what he's talking about.
[LacusCurtius](_URL_0_) has the Loeb translation up.
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[
"The focus below is primarily on Roman tactics – the \"how\" of their approach to battle, and how it stacked up against a variety of opponents over time. It does not attempt detailed coverage of things like army structure or equipment. Various battles are summarized to illustrate Roman methods with links to detailed articles on individual encounters. \n",
"BULLET::::- Ross Cowan, \"Roman Battle Tactics, 109 BC - AD 313\". Osprey, Oxford 2007. — The book clearly explains and illustrates the mechanics of how Roman commanders — at every level — drew up and committed their different types of troops for open-field battles.\n",
"BULLET::::- — One volume history covering the Roman Army, which was the biggest most important part of its military. Goldsworthy covers the early Republican days down to the final Imperial era demise, tracing changes in tactics, equipment, strategy, organization etc. He notes the details of the military system such as training and battlefield tactics, as well as bigger picture strategy, and changes that impacted Roman arms. He assesses what made the Romans effective, and ineffective in each of the various eras.\n",
"This article contains the summaries of the detailed linked articles on the historical phases above, Readers seeking discussion of the Roman army by theme, rather than by chronological phase, should consult the following articles:\n",
"Roman armies of the Republic and early empire worked from a set tactical 'handbook', a military tradition of deploying forces that provided for few variations and was ignored or elaborated only on occasion.\n",
"The tactics of the Roman military depended on the discipline of the soldiers, the equipment of the soldiers, the formation of the cohorts of a legion on the battlefield, and the terrain of the battlefield.\n",
"The figures given by ancient historians for the size of the Roman army engaged in the battle are unlikely, as they are notorious for exaggerating figures. Contrary to Berresford Ellis's assertion, at the time, the Romans had only two legions. The number of legions was not increased to four until later in the century, during the Second Samnite War (326-304 BC), and the first record of four legions is for 311 BC. At that point, the Romans also had additional military commanders: the praetor, who had been instituted in 366 BC, and the proconsul, who was a consul who received an extension of his term of military command (the practice started in 327 BC). The first historical hints of the consuls leading more than one legion were for 299 BC (during a war with the Etruscans) and 297 BC, during the Third Samnite War (298-290 BC). The first explicit mention of a consul with two legions is for 296 BC. In 295 BC, the Romans deployed six legions; four led by the two consuls, fought a coalition of four peoples (the Samnites, Etruscans, Umbrians and Senone Gauls) in the huge Battle of Sentinum. Two were led to another front by a praetor. The battle of the Allia took place in the early days of Rome, when the Roman army was much smaller and its command structure was much simpler. The Roman army had only two legions, and the two consuls were the sole military commanders; each headed one legion. In addition, the battle occurred in the early history of the Roman Republic, while the consulship alternated with years when Rome was headed by military tribunes with consular power, often referred to as consular tribunes, instead, and 390 BC was a year in which six consular tribunes were in charge. Therefore, Berresford Ellis's assertion that the Romans at the battle of Allia had four legions, two for each of the two consuls, is doubly anachronistic. Moreover, the Roman legions had 6,000 men in only a few exceptional occasions. In the early days of the Republic, when the Battle of the Allia took place, it was 4,200. Later, it was 5,200 when at full strength (the legions were often under-strength). Accordingly, the Roman force at the battle was likely substantially smaller than estimated.\n"
] |
why do cuts get white when you take a shower?
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It's a bodily fluid that mostly contains white blood cells and vitamins. It's to help speed the process of tissue/skin repair.
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[
"Another common problem is color bleeding. For example, washing a red shirt with white underwear can result in pink underwear. Often only similar colors are washed together to avoid this problem, which is lessened by cold water and repeated washings. Sometimes this blending of colors is seen as a selling point, as with madras cloth.\n",
"This is a set of designs printed in special ink that evaporates from liquid that is absorbed from the wearer-specifically urine, near the area that is most commonly urinated. When the child does wet the pants, these designs smudge to the point that they fade completely to white. This is intended to be an incentive for staying dry and a way to discourage wetting, and to identify when he or she is wet. Such a feature was first sold to consumers in 2000.\n",
"After scouring and bleaching, optical brightening agents (OBAs) are applied to make the textile material appear a more brilliant white. These OBAs are available in different tints such as blue, violet and red.\n",
"Well done cuts, in addition to being brown, are drier and contain few or no juices. Note that searing (cooking the exterior at a high temperature) in no way \"seals in the juices\" – water evaporates at the same or higher rates as unseared meat. Searing does play an important role, however, in browning, a crucial contributor to flavor and texture.\n",
"Bleaching improves whiteness by removing natural coloration and remaining trace impurities from the cotton; the degree of bleaching necessary is determined by the required whiteness and absorbency. Being a vegetable fiber, cotton will be bleached using an oxidizing agent, such as dilute sodium hypochlorite or dilute hydrogen peroxide. If the fabric is to be dyed a deep shade, then lower levels of bleaching are acceptable. However, for white bed sheets and medical applications, the highest levels of whiteness and absorbency are essential.\n",
"White fabrics acquire a slight color cast after use (usually grey or yellow). Since blue and yellow are complementary colors in the subtractive color model of color perception, adding a trace of blue color to the slightly off-white color of these fabrics makes them appear whiter. Laundry detergents may also use fluorescing agents to similar effect. Many white fabrics are blued during manufacturing. Bluing is not permanent and rinses out over time leaving dingy or yellowed whites. A commercial bluing product allows the consumer to add the bluing back into the fabric to restore whiteness.\n",
"Bleaching improves whiteness by removing natural coloration and remaining trace impurities from the cotton; the degree of bleaching necessary is determined by the required whiteness and absorbency. Cotton being a vegetable fibre will be bleached using an oxidizing agent, such as dilute sodium hypochlorite or dilute hydrogen peroxide. If the fabric is to be dyed a deep shade, then lower levels of bleaching are acceptable, for example. However, for white bed sheetings and medical applications, the highest levels of whiteness and absorbency are essential.\n"
] |
why are firefighters called to the scene of an emergency even if there is no fire involved?
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You could almost call firefighters the engineers of the emergency services. They carry ladders, lifting gear, cutting tools, winches etc...
|
[
"Firefighters work closely with other emergency response agencies such as the police and emergency medical service. A firefighter's role may overlap with both. Fire investigators or fire marshals investigate the cause of a fire. If the fire was caused by arson or negligence, their work will overlap with law enforcement. Firefighters also frequently provide some degree of emergency medical service, in addition to working with full-time paramedics.\n",
"Firefighting is the act of attempting to prevent the spread of and extinguish significant unwanted fires in buildings, vehicles, woodlands, etc. A firefighter suppresses fires to protect lives, property and the environment. \n",
"Operating in the U.S. within the context of fire use, firefighters may only suppress fire that has become uncontrollable. Conversely, fires or portions of a fire that have previously been engaged by firefighters may be treated as fire use situation and be left to burn.\n",
"Some fire stations are not regularly occupied, with the firefighting carried out by volunteer or retained firefighters. In this case, the firefighters are summoned to the fire station by siren, radio or pagers, where they will then deploy the fire engine. These fire stations may still have office space for the firefighters, a library of reference and other materials, and a \"trophy wall\" or case where the firefighters display memorabilia.\n",
"Firefighters have sometimes been assaulted by members of the public while responding to calls. These kinds of attacks can cause firefighters to fear for their safety and may cause them to not have full focus on the situation which could result in injury to their selves or the patient.\n",
"Firefighting is the act of extinguishing destructive fires. A firefighter fights these fires with the intent to prevent destruction of life, property and the environment. Firefighting is a highly technical profession, which requires years of training and education in order to become proficient. A fire can rapidly spread and endanger many lives; however, with modern firefighting techniques, catastrophe can usually be avoided. To help prevent fires from starting, a firefighter's duties include public education and conducting fire inspections. Because firefighters are often the first responders to victims in critical conditions, firefighters often also provide basic life support as emergency medical technicians or advanced life support as licensed paramedics. Firefighters make up one of the major emergency services, along with the emergency medical service, the police, and many others.\n",
"Many areas had to be evacuated due to the fire as it approached populated areas. The fire was also fought by thousands of firefighters and some groups of specialized firefighters, called hot shotshot shots. Hot Shots are groups brought into an area to contain a wildfire. Eight helicopters with buckets attached filled with water mixed with a retardant were used to contain the fire, along with helitankers, helicopters with a built in container for water. Humans fighting the fire tried to contain the fire and prevent \"slop over\", where the fire crosses a control line to an unburned side. Lines of trees were cleared or \"sawcut\" so the fire had less fuel and by digging a fire line down into the mineral soil to stop the fire whenever it reached the ditch helped with containment. Firefighters even used the paths of past wildfires to help slow down the Beaver Creek Fire. They accomplished this by forcing the fire towards the boundary of the past fire and into a natural barrier. The last resort to stop the fire implemented by humans was the Governor of Idaho, Butch Otter, who declared the Beaver Creek Fire a state disaster area on August 14. This allowed the area more financial funds to fight the fire and more human resources, such as firefighters. The fire entered the Wood River Valley through Greenhorn Gulch, a canyon halfway between the towns of Hailey and Ketchum, and to some extent, through Deer Creek Canyon, just to the south. One home in Greenhorn was destroyed by the fire but more than 25 other homes were saved by the efforts of firefighting crews.\n"
] |
How much of an impact did the ending of slavery have for the emancipation of women and women's rights in general? (USA)
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Well, the idea of giving black *men* the vote gained traction pretty quickly; this was actually used to try and suppress the Women's Rights groups by telling them that they should be quiet and wait as this was "the Negro's hour." Elizabeth Cady Stanton took a somewhat dim view of this idea on the grounds that black *women* were going to be denied their rights, and expressed her views on the matter in [a letter to the National Anti-Slavery Standard](_URL_0_) (scroll down; it's the third document in the PDF.)
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[
"Even as women played crucial roles in abolitionism, the movement simultaneously helped stimulate women's-rights efforts. A full 10 years before the Seneca Falls Convention, the Grimkés were travelling and lecturing about their experiences with slavery. As Gerda Lerner says, the Grimkés understood their actions' great impact. \"In working for the liberation of the slave,\" Lerner writes, \"Sarah and Angelina Grimké found the key to their own liberation. And the consciousness of the significance of their actions was clearly before them. 'We Abolition Women are turning the world upside down.\n",
"Other luminaries such as Lydia Maria Child, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Harriet Tubman, and Sojourner Truth all played important roles in abolitionism. But even beyond these well-known women, abolitionism maintained impressive support from white middle-class and some black women. It was these women who performed many of the logistical, day-to-day tasks that made the movement successful. They raised money, wrote and distributed propaganda pieces, drafted and signed petitions, and lobbied the legislatures. Though abolitionism sowed the seeds of the women's rights movement, most women became involved in abolitionism because of a gendered religious worldview, and the idea that they had feminine, moral responsibilities. For example, in the winter of 1831–1832, three women's petitions were written to the Virginia legislature, advocating emancipation of the state's slave population. The only precedent for such action was Catharine Beecher's organization of a petition protesting the Cherokee removal. The Virginia petitions, while the first of their kind, were by no means the last. Similar backing increased leading up to the Civil War.\n",
"Women continued to be active in reform movements in the second half of the 19th century. In 1851, former slave Sojourner Truth gave a famous speech, called \"Ain't I a Woman?,\" at the Women's Convention in Akron, Ohio. In this speech she condemned the attitude that women were too weak to have equal rights with men, noting the hardships she herself had endured as a slave. In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote the abolitionist book \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\". Begun as a serial for the Washington anti-slavery weekly, the National Era, the book focused public interest on the issue of slavery, and was deeply controversial for its strong anti-slavery stance at the time it was written. In writing the book, Stowe drew on her personal experience: she was familiar with slavery, the antislavery movement, and the Underground Railroad because Kentucky, across the Ohio River from Cincinnati, Ohio, where Stowe had lived, was a slave state. \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\" was a best-seller, selling 10,000 copies in the United States in its first week; 300,000 in the first year; and in Great Britain, 1.5 million copies in one year. Following publication of the book, Harriet Beecher Stowe became a celebrity, speaking against slavery both in America and Europe. She wrote \"A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin\" in 1853, extensively documenting the realities on which the book was based, to refute critics who tried to argue that it was inauthentic; and published a second anti-slavery novel, \"Dred\", in 1856. Later, when she visited President Abraham Lincoln, the family's oral tradition states that he greeted her as \"the little lady who made this big war.\" Campaigners for other social changes, such as Caroline Norton who campaigned for women's rights, respected and drew upon Stowe's work.\n",
"The relatively small women's rights movement of that time was closely associated with the American Anti-Slavery Society led by William Lloyd Garrison. The women's movement depended heavily on abolitionist resources, with its articles published in their newspapers and some of its funding provided by abolitionists. There was tension, however, between leaders of the women's movement and male abolitionists who, although supporters of increased women's rights, believed that a vigorous campaign for women's rights would interfere with the campaign against slavery. In 1860, when Anthony sheltered a woman who had fled an abusive husband, Garrison insisted that the woman give up the child she had brought with her, pointing out that the law gave husbands complete control of children. Anthony reminded Garrison that he helped slaves escape to Canada in violation of the law and said, \"Well, the law which gives the father ownership of the children is just as wicked and I'll break it just as quickly.\"\n",
"The coming of the American Civil War ended the annual National Women's Rights Convention and focused women's activism on the issue of emancipation for slaves. The New York state legislature repealed in 1862 much of the gain women had made in 1860. Susan B. Anthony was \"sick at heart\" but could not convince women activists to hold another convention focusing solely on women's rights.\n",
"Throughout the early 20th century, states enacted labor rights to advance social and economic progress. But despite the Clayton Act, and abuses of employers documented by the \"Commission on Industrial Relations\" from 1915, the Supreme Court struck labor rights down as unconstitutional, leaving management powers virtually unaccountable. In this \"Lochner era\", the Courts held that employers could force workers to not belong to labor unions, that a minimum wage for women and children was void, that states could not ban employment agencies charging fees for work, that workers could not strike in solidarity with colleagues of other firms, and even that the federal government could not ban child labor. It also imprisoned socialist activists, who opposed the fighting in World War One, meaning that Eugene Debs ran as the Socialist Party's candidate for President in 1920 from prison. Critically, the courts held state and federal attempts to create social security to be unconstitutional. Because they were unable to save in safe public pensions, millions of people bought shares in corporations, causing massive growth in the stock market. Because the Supreme Court precluded regulation for good information on what people were buying, corporate promoters tricked people into paying more than stocks were really worth. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 wiped out millions of people's savings. Business lost investment and fired millions of workers. Unemployed people had less to spend with businesses. Business fired more people. There was a downward spiral into the Great Depression. This led to the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt for President in 1932, who promised a \"New Deal\". Government committed to create full employment and a system of social and economic rights enshrined in federal law. But despite the Democratic Party's overwhelming electoral victory, the Supreme Court continued to strike down legislation, particularly the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933, which regulated enterprise in an attempt to ensure fair wages and prevent unfair competition. Finally, after Roosevelt's second overwhelming victory in 1936, and Roosevelt's threat to create more judicial positions if his laws were not upheld, one Supreme Court judge switched positions. In \"West Coast Hotel Co v Parrish\" the Supreme Court found that minimum wage legislation was constitutional, letting the New Deal go on. In labor law, the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 guaranteed every employee the right to unionize, collectively bargain for fair wages, and take collective action, including in solidarity with employees of other firms. The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 created the right to a minimum wage, and time-and-a-half overtime pay if employers asked people to work over 40 hours a week. The Social Security Act of 1935 gave everyone the right to a basic pension and to receive insurance if they were unemployed, while the Securities Act of 1933 and the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 ensured buyers of securities on the stock market had good information. The Davis–Bacon Act of 1931 and Walsh–Healey Public Contracts Act of 1936 required that in federal government contracts, all employers would pay their workers fair wages, beyond the minimum, at prevailing local rates. To reach full employment and out of depression, the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935 enabled the federal government to spend huge sums of money on building and creating jobs. This accelerated as World War II began. In 1944, his health waning, Roosevelt urged Congress to work towards a \"Second Bill of Rights\" through legislative action, because \"unless there is security here at home there cannot be lasting peace in the world\" and \"we shall have yielded to the spirit of Fascism here at home.\"\n",
"Women had increasingly played a larger role in the anti-slavery movement but could not take a direct role in Parliament. They sometimes formed their own anti-slavery societies. Many women were horrified that, under slavery, women and children were taken away from their families. In 1824, Elizabeth Heyrick published a pamphlet titled \"Immediate not Gradual Abolition\", in which she urged the immediate emancipation of slaves in the British colonies.\n"
] |
how does a strong currency affect a country's economy?
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a strong currency makes your exports comparably more expensive. and vice versa.
Consider this. The canadian dollar is currently in the shitter. but canadians have not all had their annual salary adjusted. So their product cost in canadian dollars is the same. But to americans, due to the favorable exchange, you can buy a canadian product for less US dollars.
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[
"BULLET::::7. Economic strength of a country: In general, high economic growth rates are not conducive to the local currency's performance in the foreign exchange market in the short term, but in the long run, they strongly support the strong momentum of the local currency.\n",
"A strong currency helps domestic importers as their currency buys more, benefits foreign exporters as their exports garner more, hurts domestic exporters as there are not as many foreign buyers, and harms foreign importers as they cannot buy as much. A weak currency does the opposite of the above. They are summed up in the tables below.\n",
"BULLET::::- Monetary dumping: a currency undergoes a devaluation when monetary authorities decide to intervene in the foreign exchange market to lower the value of the currency against other currencies. This makes local products more competitive and imported products more expensive (Marshall Lerner Condition), increasing exports and decreasing imports, and thus improving the trade balance. Countries with a weak currency cause trade imbalances: they have large external surpluses while their competitors have large deficits.\n",
"Mainly in export-oriented economies, the effects of monetary policy transmission operating through exchange rate effects has been a major concern of their central banks. Expansionary monetary policy will cause the interest rate in a country to fall and deposits that are denominated in that domestic currency become less attractive than their foreign equivalents. As a result, the value of domestic deposits will fall compared to foreign deposits, which leads to a depreciation of the domestic currency. Since the value of the domestic currency is falling compared to foreign currencies, it now takes more of the domestic currency to buy a same amount in the foreign currency, and thus a depreciation of a currency is denoted be ↑e. As a result of this depreciation (domestic products become cheaper), net exports will rise and consequently so will aggregate spending. \n",
"A currency that is naturally tied to a country’s major commodities can be beneficial if global demand for a commodity increases, naturally strengthening the value of the currency. As seen in Figure 1, as the demand for a commodity shifts out (higher demand) the price increases to p’. This increased demand also is likely to increase GDP, as more exports take place as demonstrated by the equation for GDP below.\n",
"Other nations, including Iceland, Japan, Brazil, and so on have had a policy of maintaining a low value of their currencies in the hope of reducing the cost of exports and thus bolstering their economies. A lower exchange rate lowers the price of a country's goods for consumers in other countries, but raises the price of imported goods and services for consumers in the low value currency country.\n",
"However, when a country is suffering from high unemployment or wishes to pursue a policy of export-led growth, a lower exchange rate can be seen as advantageous. From the early 1980s the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has proposed devaluation as a potential solution for developing nations that are consistently spending more on imports than they earn on exports. A lower value for the home currency will raise the price for imports while making exports cheaper. This tends to encourage more domestic production, which raises employment and gross domestic product (GDP). Such a positive impact is not guaranteed however, due for example to effects from the Marshall–Lerner condition. Devaluation can be seen as an attractive solution to unemployment when other options, like increased public spending, are ruled out due to high public debt, or when a country has a balance of payments deficit which a devaluation would help correct. A reason for preferring devaluation common among emerging economies is that maintaining a relatively low exchange rate helps them build up foreign exchange reserves, which can protect against future financial crises.\n"
] |
What did the ancient people that built Stonehenge do when it was cloudy on the Solstices?
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Since this involves a time before written records, this may not be the best subreddit for the question. At the same time, since it is involves a time before written records, it is largely impossible to answer your question. I can say that with my experience involving winter in Britain and Ireland, the average day was indeed cloudy, but the sun more often than not appeared on the horizon as it rose, shined for a few minutes, and then rose into the bank of clouds. Stonehenge only "works" at the solstices at the moments of sunrise and sunset; not later when the sun is behind the clouds.
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[
"The prehistoric monument of Stonehenge has long been studied for its possible connections with ancient astronomy. The site is aligned in the direction of the sunrise of the summer solstice and the sunset of the winter solstice. Archaeoastronomers have made a range of further claims about the site's connection to astronomy, its meaning, and its use.\n",
"Although Stonehenge has become an increasingly popular destination during the summer solstice, with 20,000 people visiting in 2005, scholars have developed growing evidence that indicates prehistoric people visited the site only during the winter solstice. The only megalithic monuments in the British Isles to contain a clear, compelling solar alignment are Newgrange and Maeshowe, which both famously face the winter solstice sunrise.\n",
"This is attested by physical remains in the layouts of late Neolithic and Bronze Age archaeological sites, such as Stonehenge in England and Newgrange in Ireland. The primary axes of both of these monuments seem to have been carefully aligned on a sight-line pointing to the winter solstice sunrise (Newgrange) and the winter solstice sunset (Stonehenge). It is significant that at Stonehenge the Great Trilithon was oriented outwards from the middle of the monument, i.e. its smooth flat face was turned towards the midwinter Sun.\n",
"The first stone phase at Stonehenge has been dated to about 2600 BCE. Stone circles are still being made in Wales as part of the Eisteddfod movement, which incorporates this among other elements from the Druidic revival. Desert kites were used possibly by 3000 BCE; they fell out of use in the Neolithic as prey populations declined and the human population rose.\n",
"Many ancient monuments were constructed with the passing of the solar year in mind; for example, stone megaliths accurately mark the summer or winter solstice (some of the most prominent megaliths are in Nabta Playa, Egypt; Mnajdra, Malta and at Stonehenge, England); Newgrange, a prehistoric human-built mount in Ireland, was designed to detect the winter solstice; the pyramid of El Castillo at Chichén Itzá in Mexico is designed to cast shadows in the shape of serpents climbing the pyramid at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes.\n",
"At Stonehenge on midsummer morning, a phallic shadow is cast from the \"Heel\" stone; this penetrates to the centre of the monument where its tip touches the \"Goddess\" stone. In his book, \"Stonehenge, Avebury and Drombeg Stone Circle Deciphered\", he wrote that most stone circles were planned as sunrise fertility monuments, and so need to be studied at sunrise.\n",
"Early efforts to date Stonehenge exploited changes in astronomical declinations and led to efforts such as H. Broome’s 1864 theory that the monument was built in 977 BC, when the star Sirius would have risen over Stonehenge's Avenue. Sir Norman Lockyer proposed a date of 1680 BC based entirely on an incorrect sunrise azimuth for the Avenue, aligning it on a nearby Ordnance Survey trig point, a modern feature. Petrie preferred a later date of 730 AD. The relevant stones were leaning considerably during his survey, and it was not considered accurate.\n"
] |
if pets require protective collars to allow wounds to heal properly how do wild animals repair wounds?
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They die a lot of the time from those types of wounds. The cones are generally used so the animal won't pick out the sutures. Any animal in the wild would probably die from a wound that needed sutures anyway.
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[
"In order to prevent the animal from irritating a wound or removing stitches while self grooming, Elizabethan collars are used to either prevent the animal from licking/biting its wound or using its limbs to scratch their head or ears. The collar can also be used to restrain animals with self destructing habits, either from poor training or mental illness.\n",
"As with the licking of wounds by people, wound licking by animals carries a risk of infection. Allowing pet cats to lick open wounds can cause cellulitis and sepsis due to bacterial infections. Licking of open wounds by dogs could transmit rabies if the dog is infected with rabies, although this is said by the CDC to be rare. Dog saliva has been reported to complicate the healing of ulcers. Another issue is the possibility of an allergy to proteins in the saliva of pets, such as Fel d 1 in cat allergy and Can f 1 in dog allergy. Cases of serious infection following the licking of wounds by pets include:\n",
"Animals may chew on the wires and remove some of the insulation. In any of these cases if the damage is not noticed and the cord is not repaired or taken out of service, the damage can lead to arcing or a short circuit between the wires, which can ignite nearby materials. The exposed wires of an extension cord with damaged insulation can also present a shock hazard to people and animals.\n",
"Cairn terriers shed very little, but should always be hand stripped. Using scissors or shears can ruin the dog's rugged outer coat after one grooming. Hand stripping involves pulling the old dead hair out by the roots. If done incorrectly, this can cause discomfort to the dog, causing it to shy away from future hand stripping. Removing the dead hair in this manner allows new growth to come in. This new growth helps protect the dog from water and dirt.\n",
"Collars can be dangerous for pets that live in crates or which might get stuck in tree branches and that is why safety collars have been developed. There is a particular type of safety collar which is intended for both dogs and cats. Breakaway collars are especially designed to prevent the pet from choking or getting stuck because of their collar. They feature a clever design that releases quickly when a small amount of pressure is applied, such as the cat hanging from a tree branch. The clasp will release, which quickly gets the pet out of a possibly desperate situation. However, it is recommended that pets have their collar removed before sleeping in a wired crate.\n",
"Antibiotics to prevent infection are recommended for dog and cat bites of the hand, and human bites if they are more than superficial. They are also recommended in those who have poor immune function. Evidence for antibiotics to prevent infection in bites in other areas is not clear.\n",
"Wound licking is beneficial but too much licking can be harmful. An Elizabethan collar may be used on pet animals to prevent them from biting an injury or excessively licking it, which can cause a lick granuloma. These lesions are often infected by pathogenic bacteria such as \"Staphylococcus intermedius\". Horses that lick wounds may become infected by a stomach parasite, \"Habronema\", a type of nematode worm. The rabies virus may be transmitted between animals, such as the kudu antelopes by wound licking of wounds with residual infectious saliva.\n"
] |
Why did the crafters of the various U.S. State Constitutions (except Nebraska) choose to create bicameral legislatures? Was this simply a matter of mirroring the federal Congress, or was there a prevailing political theory that suggested bicameralism was better than unicameralism?
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Political Science major, worked in my college's Political Science Department performing spatial analyses of electoral data for professors studying electoral malapportionment.
Originally state legislatures were designed similarly to the federal legislature, with lower house districts based on population while upper house district based on territory. For example, the 1901 Alabama State Constitution divided the Alabama state legislature as such:
> The legislature consisted of 106 representatives and 35 senators for the State's 67 counties and senatorial districts; each county was entitled to at least one representative; each senate district could have only one member; and no county could be divided between two senate districts.
This setup eventually led to some pretty egregious cases of malapportionment as rural areas depopulated and legislators proved unwilling to update electoral boundaries. In Alabama the most populous district was 41 times larger than the smallest district. These levels of malapportionment were by no means unique to Alabama, in an October 14, 1964 report to his constituents, Congressman Morris K. Udall of Arizona wrote of other outrageous cases of electoral malapportionment in other state legislatures:
> \*\* In Connecticut one House district has 191 people; another, 81,000.
>
> \*\* In New Hampshire one township with 3 (three!) people has a state assemblyman; this is the same representation given another district with 3,244. The vote of a resident of the first town is 108,000 percent more powerful at the Capitol.
>
> \*\* In Utah the smallest district has 164 people, the largest 32,280 (28 times the population of the other). But each has one vote in the House.
>
> \*\* In Vermont the smallest district has 36 people, the largest 35,000 a ratio of almost 1,000 to 1.
>
> \*\* In California the 14,000 people of one small county have one State senator to speak for them; so do the 6 million people of Los Angeles County. It takes 430 Los Angelenos to muster the same influence on a State senator that one person wields in the smaller district.
>
> \*\* In Idaho the smallest Senate district has 951 people; the largest, 93,400.
>
> \*\* Nevada's 17 State senators represent as many as 127,000 or as few as 568 people -- a ratio of 224 to 1.
>
> \*\* In Arizona, Mohave County's 7,700 people have two State senators; so do the 663,000 people of Maricopa. The ratio is 86 to 1
These state legislative districts were eventually overturned by the Supreme Court in *Reynolds v. Sims, 1964*. Following the principal of "one man one vote" previously established under *Baker v. Carr, 1962*, the Court found that "legislators represent people, not trees or acres," and deemed that state legislative districts should be constructed to be roughly equal in population.
[_URL_0_](_URL_0_) (Reynolds v. Sims, 1964)
[_URL_1_](_URL_1_) (Rep. Morris K. Udall's report to his constituents)
[_URL_3_](_URL_3_) (1901 Alabama State Constitution, Article IX concerns representation of the state legislature)
[_URL_2_](_URL_2_) (A nice little summary of Reynolds v. Sims, 1964)
Edit: Deleted the second instance of ‘egregious’
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[
"Government powerlessness led to the Convention of 1787 which proposed a revised constitution with a two–chamber or \"bicameral\" congress. Smaller states argued for equal representation for each state. The two-chamber structure had functioned well in state governments. A compromise plan, the Connecticut Compromise, was adopted with representatives chosen by population (benefiting larger states) and exactly two senators chosen by state governments (benefiting smaller states). The ratified constitution created a federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen \"as an individual\" was subjected to both the power of state government and the national government. To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government—executive, legislative, and judicial—had a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers. Furthermore, there were checks and balances \"within\" the legislature since there were two separate chambers. The new government became active in 1789.\n",
"The drafters of the Constitution created a bicameral Congress primarily as a compromise between those who felt that each state, since it was sovereign, should be equally represented, and those who felt the legislature must directly represent the people, as the House of Commons did in Great Britain. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise. There was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a \"People's House\" directly elected by the people, and with short terms obliging the representatives to remain close to their constituents. The other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally. The Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation.\n",
"During the 1930s, the Legislature of the State of Nebraska was reduced from bicameral to unicameral with the 43 members that once comprised that state's Senate. One of the arguments used to sell the idea at the time to Nebraska voters was that by adopting a unicameral system, the perceived evils of the \"conference committee\" process would be eliminated.\n",
"With the exception of Nebraska, all American state legislatures are bicameral, meaning there is one legislative body separated into two units. Nebraska eliminated its lower house with a referendum during the 1936 elections. Also, some systems, such as New York's, have two legislative bodies while never technically referring to them in the state constitution as a single body. These dual systems are generally considered bicameral.\n",
"In May 1787, a Convention met in the Philadelphia State House for the purpose of resolving problems with the Articles of Confederation. Instead, the Articles were scrapped entirely and a new Constitution was drafted. All states agreed to send delegates, except Rhode Island. One of the most divisive issues facing the Convention was the way which structure of Congress would be defined. The practice of having \"two-house\" bicameral legislatures (bicameral from the Latin \"camera\" meaning chamber) was well established in state governments by 1787. Edmund Randolph's Virginia Plan argued for a bicameral Congress; the lower house would be elected directly by the people whereas the upper house would be elected by the lower house. The plan attracted support of delegates from large states as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, which had a unicameral Congress with equal representation for the states. Arguments between federalists and anti-federalists about congressional scope, power, role, and authority happened before ratification of the Constitution and continue, to varying extents, to the present day. Generally, the Constitution gave more powers to the federal government, such as regulating interstate commerce , managing foreign affairs and the military, and establishing a national currency. These were seen as essential for the success of the new nation and to resolve the disputes that had arisen under the Articles of Confederation, but the states retained sovereignty over other affairs. Eventually, a \"compromise\", known as the Connecticut Compromise or the Great Compromise was settled; one house of Congress would provide proportional representation, whereas the other would provide equal representation.To preserve further the authority of the states, the compromise proposed that state legislatures, rather than the people, would elect senators.\n",
"There have been a number of rationales put forward in favour of bicameralism. Federal states have often adopted it, and the solution remains popular when regional differences or sensitivities require more explicit representation, with the second chamber representing the constituent states. Nevertheless, the older justification for second chambers—providing opportunities for second thoughts about legislation—has survived. For states considering a different constitutional arrangement that may shift power to new groupings, bicameralism could be demanded by currently hegemonic groups who would otherwise prevent any structural shift (e.g. military dictatorships, aristocracies).\n",
"Nebraska originally had a bicameral legislature like the other states, but the lower house was abolished following a referendum, effective with the 1936 elections. The remaining unicameral (one-chamber) legislature is called the Nebraska Legislature, but its members continue to be called senators.\n"
] |
If time is nonexistent for a photon, how can it be emitted from something and never be absorbed?
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Time isn't quite non-existent for a photon. A photon simply has no perspective in the first place; there's no way of putting a coordinate system on the Universe to describe things as a photon would see it. In Science-Speak, there's no such thing as a photon's frame of reference, because there's no such thing as a frame in which a photon can be at rest. Photons are only able to exist in other observers' reference frames and in those frames, photons travel at a definitive speed, the speed of light.
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[
"The process of emission and absorption of photons seemed to demand that the conservation of energy will hold at best on average. If a wave containing exactly one photon passes over some atoms, and one of them absorbs it, that atom needs to tell the others that they can't absorb the photon anymore. But if the atoms are far apart, any signal cannot reach the other atoms in time, and they might end up absorbing the same photon anyway and dissipating the energy to the environment. When the signal reached them, the other atoms would have to somehow recall that energy. This paradox led Bohr, Kramers and Slater to abandon exact conservation of energy. Heisenberg's formalism, when extended to include the electromagnetic field, was obviously going to sidestep this problem, a hint that the interpretation of the theory will involve wavefunction collapse.\n",
"When a photon is absorbed, the electromagnetic field of the photon disappears as it initiates a change in the state of the system that absorbs the photon. Energy, momentum, angular momentum, magnetic dipole moment and electric dipole moment are transported from the photon to the system. Because there are conservation laws, that have to be satisfied, the transition has to meet a series of constraints. This results in a series of selection rules. It is not possible to make any transition that lies within the energy or frequency range that is observed.\n",
"If a single photon approaches an atom which is receptive to it, the photon can be absorbed by the atom in a manner very similar to a radio wave being picked up by an aerial. At the moment of absorption the photon ceases to exist and the total energy contained within the atom increases. This increase in energy is usually described symbolically by saying that one of the outermost electrons \"jumps\" to a \"higher orbit\". This new atomic configuration is unstable and the tendency is for the electron to fall back to its lower orbit or energy level, emitting a new photon as it goes. The entire process may take no more than 1 x 10 seconds. The result is much the same as with reflective colour, but because of the process of absorption and emission, the substance emits a glow. According to Planck, the energy of each photon is given by multiplying its frequency in cycles per second by a constant (Planck’s constant, 6.626 x 10 erg seconds). It follows that the wavelength of a photon emitted from a luminescent system is directly related to the difference between the energy of the two atomic levels involved.\n",
"In the case of photons, photons are bosons and can very easily and rapidly appear or disappear. Therefore, the chemical potential of photons is always and everywhere zero. The reason is, if the chemical potential somewhere was higher than zero, photons would spontaneously disappear from that area until the chemical potential went back to zero; likewise if the chemical potential somewhere was less than zero, photons would spontaneously appear until the chemical potential went back to zero. Since this process occurs extremely rapidly (at least, it occurs rapidly in the presence of dense charged matter), it is safe to assume that the photon chemical potential is never different from zero.\n",
"An electron entering an electric field is accelerated, and therefore must lose part of its energy in the form of a photon via the Bremsstrahlung effect - the process by which a charged particle emits electromagnetic radiation when being decelerated upon passing an atom, for instance in a solid material. By exploiting the relativistic phenomena of time dilatation and length contraction, the NA63 experiment has shown that this process of photon emission is not instantaneous, but rather, takes time. Because the process takes time, the photon production can be influenced experimentally. For non-relativistic particles this time is so short that investigations are very difficult, if not excluded. But for the relativistic particles used by NA63, their time is ‘slowed’ by a factor of about half a million due to the relativistic effect of time dilatation, making investigations possible.\n",
"If light (photons) of frequency ν passes through the group of atoms, there is a possibility of the light being absorbed by electrons which are in the ground state, which will cause them to be excited to the higher energy state. The rate of absorption is proportional to the radiation intensity of the light, and also to the number of atoms currently in the ground state, \"N\".\n",
"In a process in which a photon is annihilated (absorbed), we can think of the photon as making a transition into the vacuum state. Similarly, when a photon is created (emitted), it is occasionally useful to imagine that the photon has made a transition out of the vacuum state. An atom, for instance, can be considered to be \"dressed\" by emission and reabsorption of \"virtual photons\" from the vacuum. The vacuum state energy described by is infinite. We can make the replacement:\n"
] |
Coin from 1919; can somebody identify?
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That's a British 3 pence coin featuring king George V. It appears to be of fine condition and could probably fetch anything from a pound up to 3-4 pounds at the most. An uncirculated version of the same coin would have been worth around 10 pounds.
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[
"Coins were first issued in 1952 in denominations of 1, 3, 5, 10, 25, and 50 bani, with aluminum bronze for 1, 3, and 5 bani, and cupronickel for 10, 25, and 50 bani. These coins featured the state arms and name \"Republica Populara Româna\".\n",
"Coins were issued in 1934 in denominations of 1-, 2, 3-, 5-, 10-, 15 and 20 kɵpejek, a Tuvanized name for the Russian kopeck, with banknotes issued in 1935 and 1940 in denominations of 1 to 25 akşa. The names \"kɵpejek\" and \"akşa\" are spelled in Jaꞑalif.\n",
"The Maine State Museum website favors the view that the coin was found at the site and is therefore evidence of Norse presence on the North American continent, although the Museum states \"the most likely explanation for the coin's presence is that it was obtained by natives somewhere else, perhaps in Newfoundland where the only known New World Norse settlement has been found at L’Anse aux Meadows, and that it eventually reached the Goddard site through native trade channels\". The Maine State Museum describes it as \"the only pre-Columbian Norse artifact generally regarded as genuine found within the United States\".\n",
"The Nova Constellatio coins are the first coins struck under the authority of the United States of America. These pattern coins were struck in early 1783, and are known in three silver denominations (1,000-Units, 500-Units, 100-Units), and one copper denomination (5-Units). All known examples bear the legend \"NOVA CONSTELLATIO\" with the exception of a unique silver 500-Unit piece.\n",
"The first group of these coins reviewed by numismatists were 10 silver pieces and one bronze piece found in the mid-nineteenth century. By 1881 the number of coins had grown to 43, and many more have been found since. These coins were first attributed to Bar Kokhba by Moritz Abraham Levy in 1862 and Frederic Madden in 1864.\n",
"In 1818, after acquiring permission from the Spanish government, he created the first coin that existed in Texas. On one side of the coin, Garza used his initials \"JAG\" (José Antonio de la Garza) along to the year of creation (1818). On the other side of the coin, he fixed a drawing of one star. \n",
"The Half union (separate varieties known as J-1546 through J-1549) was a United States coin minted as a pattern, or a coin not approved for release, with a face value of fifty U.S. Dollars. It is often thought of as one of the most significant and well-known patterns in the history of the U.S. Mint. The basic design, featuring Liberty on the obverse, was slightly modified from the similar $20 \"Liberty Head\" Double Eagle, which was designed by James B. Longacre and minted from 1849 to 1907. \n"
] |
A question about how colonization affected the languages of Africa.
|
This is in reference to the "how the languages are faring" question only, and is currentish info; if it's violating the 20-year rule too badly, my apologies (I trust it will meet a speedy end in that case!):
There are many, *many* languages in Africa; some of them are thriving (e.g., Yoruba, Kinyarwanda), others not. For *basic* information about current language situation, you might find the [Ethnologue section for Africa](_URL_1_) useful -- while the specific population figures for many of the languages will be off a bit (because of sampling error, the agenda of the organization (missionaries), and some out-of-date-ness in some cases etc.), it'll give you a general idea. If you move the cursor over regions of the map, it'll give you pop-up boxes with relative "vitality" counts for languages, and you can drill down to individual countries, etc. The [World Atlas of Languages](_URL_0_) may be useful as well, although it's focused more on specific linguistic characteristics.
|
[
"Throughout the long multilingual history of the African continent, African languages have been subject to phenomena like language contact, language expansion, language shift and language death. A case in point is the Bantu expansion, in which Bantu-speaking peoples expanded over most of Sub-Equatorial Africa, displacing Khoi-San speaking peoples from much of Southeast Africa and Southern Africa and other peoples from Central Africa. Another example is the Arab expansion in the 7th century, which led to the extension of Arabic from its homeland in Asia, into much of North Africa and the Horn of Africa.\n",
"Linguistic, archeological and genetic evidence also indicates that during the course of the Bantu expansion, \"independent waves of migration of western African and East African Bantu-speakers into southern Africa occurred.\" In some places, Bantu language, genetic evidence suggests that Bantu language expansion was largely a result of substantial population replacement. In other places, Bantu language expansion, like many other languages, has been documented with population genetic evidence to have occurred by means other than complete or predominant population replacement (e.g. via language shift and admixture of incoming and existing populations). For example, one study found this to be the case in Bantu language speakers who are African Pygmies or are in Mozambique, while another population genetic study found this to be the case in the Bantu language speaking Lemba of Zimbabwe. Where Bantu was adopted via language shift of existing populations, prior African languages were spoken, probably from African language families that are now lost, except as substrate influences of local Bantu languages (such as click sounds in local Bantu languages).\n",
"Scholars including Dellal (2013), Miraftab (2012) and Bamgbose (2011) have argued that Africa’s linguistic diversity has been eroded. Language has been used by western colonial powers to divide territories and create new identities which has led to conflicts and tensions between African nations.\n",
"In trying to assess the legacy of colonization, some researchers have focused on the type of political and economic institutions that existed before the arrival of Europeans. Heldring and Robinson conclude that while colonization in Africa had overall negative consequences for political and economic development in areas that had previous centralized institutions or that hosted white settlements, it possibly had a positive impact in areas that were virtually stateless, like South Sudan or Somalia. In a complementary analysis, Gerner Hariri observed that areas outside Europe which had State-like institutions before 1500 tend to have less open political systems today. According to the scholar, this is due to the fact that during the colonization, European liberal institutions were not easily implemented. Beyond the military and political advantages, it is possible to explain the domination of European countries over non-European areas by the fact that capitalism did not emerge as the dominant economic institution elsewhere. As Ugo Pipitone argues, prosperous economic institutions that sustain growth and innovation did not prevail in areas like China, the Arab world, or Mesoamerica because of the excessive control of these proto-States on private matters.\n",
"European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of quinine, the first effective treatment for malaria. Europeans suffered from this disease, but some indigenous populations had developed at least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes among sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which can cause sickle-cell disease. In fact, the resistance of sub-Saharan Africans to malaria in the Southern United States contributed to the development of slavery in those regions.\n",
"The primary evidence for this expansion is linguistic - a great many of the languages spoken across Sub-Equatorial Africa are remarkably similar to each other, suggesting the common cultural origin of their original speakers. The linguistic core of the Bantu languages, which comprise a branch of the Niger–Congo family, was located in the adjoining regions of Cameroon and Nigeria. However, attempts to trace the exact route of the expansion, to correlate it with archaeological evidence and genetic evidence, have not been conclusive; thus although the expansion is widely accepted as having taken place, many aspects of it remain in doubt or are highly contested.\n",
"Because Indigenous nations were deemed to be \"uncivilized,\" European powers declared the territorial sovereignty of Africa as openly available, which initiated the Scramble for Africa in the late nineteenth century. With the continent of Africa conceptualized as effectively \"ownerless\" territory, Europeans positioned themselves as its redeemers and rightful colonial rulers. In the European colonial mindset, Africans were inferior and incapable of being \"civilized\" because they had failed to properly manage or exploit the natural resources available to them. As a result, they were deemed to be obstacles to capitalist investment, extraction, and production of natural resources in the construction of a new colonial empire and built environment. The immense diversity of the Indigenous peoples of Africa was flattened by this colonial perception, which labeled them instead as an \"unrepresentable nomadic horde of apprehensions that ran across European territories.\"\n"
] |
how do people find out who a reddit user is in real life?
|
Probably not unless you mention doing something very illegal that warrants notifying authorities who can seize ip logs & shit.
|
[
"When various users answer a question they are awarded a certain number of points, the person who asked the question can then select the best answer and will be awarded points. This user can then ask questions on the website using the points that he/she was awarded. The users with most points are ranked daily with the option to display their real identities, if they choose to do so.\n",
"To verify a profile, users must take multiple selfies which are then approved by a team of 5,000 moderators. The actual profile is generated with information from other social media sites including Facebook, Foursquare and Instagram. The user chooses whether they are looking for a date or a friend as well as ideal age range and how many places matches must have in contact before they can contact the user.\n",
"Acquaintances of a celebrity (friends, managers, parents, siblings, etc.) are invited to answer a quiz about the celebrity to see if they know him/her as well as they think they do. For instance, they will have to watch videos of the celebrity and predict his/her next actions.\n",
"The website allows users to create a profile with personal, faith-based, educational, and professional information, and upload pictures. Users can send instant messages to members of the opposite gender, and send them virtual gifts. Users can perform searches of the member database based on criteria such as age, religious sect, location, country of origin, piety, citizenship, language(s), marital status, education, and profession. The website also has a real time live chat feature.\n",
"The users themselves determine their name, birthday, contacts, and address, and can choose who may see this information: everyone, registered users, only their contacts, or nobody. The username (first name and nickname) is for \"everyone\", \"contacts\" or \"nobody\" visible. Each user is informed about who has visited their profile. Anonymous visits are not possible.\n",
"BULLET::::- Ones that reveal personality directly, often seen as quizzes like \"What kind of person are you?\", \"What kind of boy\" or \"boyfriend are you?\", \"What kind of girl\" or \"girlfriend are you?\", \"What\" (insert popular entertainment series here) \"character are you?\" (series such as Star Wars, Gilmore Girls, Pokémon, Metroid, or South Park)\n",
"People tend to disclose more personal information about themselves (e.g. birthday, e-mail, address, hometown and relationship status) in their social networking profiles (Hew 2011). This personally identifiable information could be used by fraudsters to steal users' identities, and posting this information on social media makes it a lot easier for fraudsters to take control of it. \n"
] |
Do Coronal Mass Ejections have a significant impact on the life of a star?
|
I assume you mean in terms of mass lost, and the answer is a resounding "NO". The mass lost in a typical CME from our Sun is [of the order of 10^15 grams](_URL_0_), while the mass of our Sun is of the order 10^33 grams. So every CME from our Sun releases approx 0.000000000000000001% of the Sun's mass.
In human terms, if you weigh 100Kg (220lbs) then it would be like losing 1^-13 grams in mass... which, if my math is correct, is about 0.00000000015% the mass of the average human hair.
|
[
"The ultra-fast coronal mass ejection of August 1972 is suspected of triggering magnetic fuses on naval mines during the Vietnam War, and would have been a life-threatening event to Apollo astronauts if it had occurred during a mission to the Moon.\n",
"The first detection of a Coronal mass ejection (CME) as such was made on Dec 1 1971 by R. Tousey of the US Naval Research Laboratory using the 7th Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO 7). Earlier observations of coronal transients or even phenomena observed visually during solar eclipses are now understood as essentially the same thing.\n",
"The following contains a list of coronal mass ejections. A coronal mass ejection (CME) is a massive burst of solar wind and magnetic fields rising above the solar corona or being released into space. Most ejections originate from active regions on the Sun's surface, such as groupings of sunspots associated with frequent flares.\n",
"The first detection of a Coronal mass ejection (CME) as such was made on December 1, 1971 by R. Tousey of the US Naval Research Laboratory using OSO 7. Earlier observations of coronal transients or even phenomena observed visually during solar eclipses are now understood as essentially the same thing.\n",
"Although scientists previously announced that the magnetic fields of close-in exoplanets may cause increased stellar flares and starspots on their host stars, in 2019 this claim was demonstrated to be false in the HD 189733 system. The failure to detect \"star-planet interactions\" in the well-studied HD 189733 system calls other related claims of the effect into question.\n",
"These stars are large enough to produce gamma rays with enough energy to create electron-positron pairs, but the resulting net reduction in counter-gravitational pressure is insufficient to cause the core-overpressure required for supernova. Instead, the contraction caused by pair-creation provokes increased thermonuclear activity within the star that repulses the inward pressure and returns the star to equilibrium. It is thought that stars of this size undergo a series of these pulses until they shed sufficient mass to drop below 100 solar masses, at which point they are no longer hot enough to support pair-creation. Pulsing of this nature may have been responsible for the variations in brightness experienced by Eta Carinae in 1843, though this explanation is not universally accepted.\n",
"Stars already lose a small flow of mass via solar wind, coronal mass ejections, and other natural processes. Over the course of a star's life on the main sequence this loss is usually negligible compared to the star's total mass; only at the end of a star's life when it becomes a red giant or a supernova is a large proportion of material ejected. The star lifting techniques that have been proposed would operate by increasing this natural plasma flow and manipulating it with magnetic fields.\n"
] |
What did the diet of North American 19th century lumberjacks consist of?
|
from Roy B. Clarkson's description of a logging camp in West Virginia circa 1909:
> A typical evening meal consisted of boiled or roast beef or pork or steak, turnips, hanovers, tomatoes, potatoes, beans, hash, "light" bread or corn bread, and two different kinds of pie ( quartered) and cake and cookies. The men were encouraged to eat all they wanted, and at the end o a hard day's work their appetites were prodigious...
>
> A typical breakfast consisted of hot biscuits, steak ( well done or rare) fried eggs, fried potatoes, oatmeal, cake, donuts, prunes or other fruit, and coffee. It was not uncommon for a man to eat half a dozen eggs along with generous helps of other "vittles"...
>
> One of the ways the men had of relieving the boredom of their existence was to invent nicknames for each other and for the objects around them. Thus, biscuits were "cat-heads", donuts were "fried holes" or "doorknobs", meat was "sow-belly" or "long-hog", light bread was "punk", milk was "cow" or "white line", sugar was "sand train", prunes were "Rocky Mt. Huckleberries", coffee was "java or "Arbuckles", apple butter was "Pennsylvania Salve", cooks were called "boilers", women cooks were rare but were called "she-boilers" or "Open bottom cooks".
>
> *Tumult on the Mountains* (1964) p.63-65
Clarkson said nothing about lunch, but you suspect that there was enough consumed in two meals to equal three, and that if a man stuffed something into his pocket at breakfast for a noon break nothing would be said.. He also noted that a good cook made about $3.00 a day, and the loggers $1.75 to $2.00: but the cook worked seven days a week.
& #x200B;
|
[
"The original Oʼodham diet consisted of regionally available wild game, insects, and plants. Through foraging, Oʼodham ate a variety of regional plants, such as: ironwood seed, honey mesquite, hog potato, and organ-pipe cactus fruit. While the Southwestern United States did not have an ideal climate for cultivating crops, Oʼodham cultivated crops of white tepary beans, papago peas, and Spanish watermelons. They hunted pronghorn antelope, gathered hornworm larvae, and trapped pack rats for sources of meat. Preparation of foods included steaming plants in pits and roasting meat on an open fire.\n",
"This section of the country has some of the oldest known foodways in the land, with some recipes almost 400 years old. Native American influences are still quite visible in the use of cornmeal as an essential staple and found in the Southern predilection for hunting wild game, in particular wild turkey, deer, woodcock, and various kinds of waterfowl; for example, coastal North Carolina is a place where hunters will seek tundra swan as a part of Christmas dinner; the original English and Scottish settlers would have rejoiced at this revelation owing to the fact that such was banned amongst the commoner class in what is now the United Kingdom, and naturally, their descendants have not forgotten. Native Americans also consumed turtles and catfish, specifically the snapping turtle and blue catfish. Catfish are often caught with one's bare hands, gutted, breaded, and fried to make a Southern variation on English fish and chips and turtles are turned into stews and soups. Native American tribes of the region such as the Cherokee or Choctaw often cultivated or gathered local plants like pawpaw, maypop and several sorts of squashes and corn as food and spicebush, sassafras as spices, and the aforementioned fruits are still cultivated as food in the South. Maize is to this day found in dishes for breakfast, lunch and dinner in the form of grits, hoecakes, baked cornbread, and spoonbread, and nuts like the hickory, black walnut and pecan are commonly included in desserts and pastries as varied as mince pies, pecan pie, pecan rolls and honey buns (both are types of sticky bun), and quick breads, which were themselves invented in the South during the American Civil War. Peaches have been grown in this region since the 17th century and are a staple crop as well as a favorite fruit, with peach cobbler being a signature dessert.\n",
"The traditional wild food is supplemented by store-bought items, most notably black loose leaf tea, which was introduced to the Athabaskan by traders in the 1800s and remains a staple among present day potlatches. Bannock, also known as fry bread, rolls, and salads are also served.\n",
"The agave, especially \"Agave murpheyi\", was a major food source for the prehistoric indigenous people of the Southwestern United States. The Hohokam of southern Arizona cultivated large areas of agave.\n",
"Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains and Canadian Prairies or Plains Indians relied heavily on American bison (American buffalo) as a food source. The meat was cut in thin slices and dried, either over a slow fire or in the hot sun, until it was hard and brittle which could last for months, making it a main ingredient to be combined with other foods, or eaten on its own. One such use could be pemmican, a concentrated mixture of fat and protein, and fruits such as cranberries, Saskatoon berries, blueberries, cherries, chokeberries, chokecherries, and currants were sometimes added. When asked to state traditional staple foods, a group of Plains elders identified \"prairie turnips, fruits (chokecherries, June berries, plums, blueberries, cranberries, strawberries, buffalo berries, gooseberries), potatoes, squash, dried meats (venison, buffalo, jack rabbit, pheasant, and prairie chicken), and wild rice\" as being these staple foods. Bison was a staple of Plains Indians' diets. Many parts were utilized and prepared in numerous ways, including: \"boiled meat, tripe soup perhaps thickened with brains, roasted intestines, jerked/smoked meat, and raw kidneys, liver, tongue sprinkled with gall or bile were eaten immediately after a kill. The animals that Great Plains Indians consumed, like bison, deer, and antelope, were grazing animals. Due to this, they were high in omega-3 fatty acids, an essential acid that many diets lack.\n",
"Pemmican became the main source of food throughout the Bison trade nearing the end of the eighteenth century. The Hudson’s Bay Company relied on the food to provide a source of energy for their fur-traders who had relocated to areas that had a scarce food supply but plenty of fur. By the mid-1790s the first systems of small wintering posts had become massive food depots, with Montreal companies organizing depots in the Red River Valley. The Hudson’s Bay Company grew concerned during the turn of the century because their rival, the North West Company, was providing trappers in the north with enough Pemmican to allow them to specialize their hunting patterns to cater to the English trading posts rather than the HBC.\n",
"South American cultures began domesticating llamas and alpacas in the highlands of the Andes circa 3500 BCE. These animals were used for both transportation and meat; their fur was shorn or collected to use to make clothing. Guinea pigs were also domesticated as a food source at this time.\n"
] |
If I was in the center between two planets with the exact same gravity, would I be ripped apart? Or would I experience weightlessness?
|
Whether or not gravity can rip you apart depends on the tidal forces or differences in gravitational attraction across a body's length. So the answer is "it depends." If you [make a graph](_URL_0_) of -1/(r+1)^2 - 1/(r-1)^2 you'd see the potential does have a maximum in between the two point sources which means you'd be safe if you were small enough.
For a single attractive source, the tidal force (for a target body of length L) is approximately L/r^3 and it would be interesting to see what modification to this you'd need for a body balanced in the center. Of course the center is unstable so a push or shove in any direction will make you fall one way or the other, then you can use the L/r^3 equation to figure it out ignoring the source you didn't fall into.
|
[
"The pull of gravity in LEO is only slightly less than on the Earth's surface. This is because the distance to LEO from the Earth's surface is far less than the Earth's radius. However, an object in orbit is, by definition, in free fall, since there is no force holding it up. As a result objects in orbit, including people, experience a sense of weightlessness, even though they are not actually without weight.\n",
"A more basic manifestation of the same effect involves two bodies that are falling side by side towards the Earth. In a reference frame that is in free fall alongside these bodies, they appear to hover weightlessly – but not exactly so. These bodies are not falling in precisely the same direction, but towards a single point in space: namely, the Earth's center of gravity. Consequently, there is a component of each body's motion towards the other (see the figure). In a small environment such as a freely falling lift, this relative acceleration is minuscule, while for skydivers on opposite sides of the Earth, the effect is large. Such differences in force are also responsible for the tides in the Earth's oceans, so the term \"tidal effect\" is used for this phenomenon.\n",
"Gravity at the altitude of the ISS is approximately 90% as strong as at Earth's surface, but objects in orbit are in a continuous state of freefall, resulting in an apparent state of weightlessness. This perceived weightlessness is disturbed by five separate effects:\n",
"That is, being on the surface of the Earth is equivalent to being inside a spaceship (far from any sources of gravity) that is being accelerated by its engines. The direction or vector of acceleration equivalence on the surface of the earth is \"up\" or directly opposite the center of the planet while the vector of acceleration in a spaceship is directly opposite from the mass ejected by its thrusters. From this principle, Einstein deduced that free-fall is inertial motion. Objects in free-fall do not experience being accelerated downward (e.g. toward the earth or other massive body) but rather weightlessness and no acceleration. In an inertial frame of reference bodies (and photons, or light) obey Newton's first law, moving at constant velocity in straight lines. Analogously, in a curved spacetime the world line of an inertial particle or pulse of light is \"as straight as possible\" (in space \"and\" time). Such a world line is called a geodesic and from the point of view of the inertial frame is a straight line. This is why an accelerometer in free-fall doesn't register any acceleration; there isn't any.\n",
"A body in free fall (which by definition entails no aerodynamic forces) near the surface of the earth has an acceleration approximately equal to 9.8 m s with respect to a coordinate frame tied to the earth. If the body is in a freely falling lift and subject to no pushes or pulls from the lift or its contents, the acceleration with respect to the lift would be zero. If on the other hand, the body is subject to forces exerted by other bodies within the lift, it will have an acceleration with respect to the freely falling lift. This acceleration which is not due to gravity is called \"proper acceleration\". On this approach, weightlessness holds when proper acceleration is zero.\n",
"At a distance relatively close to Earth (less than 3000 km), gravity is only slightly reduced. As an object orbits a body such as the Earth, gravity is still attracting objects towards the Earth and the object is accelerated downward at almost 1g. Because the objects are typically moving laterally with respect to the surface at such immense speeds, the object will not lose altitude because of the curvature of the Earth. When viewed from an orbiting observer, other close objects in space appear to be floating because everything is being pulled towards Earth at the same speed, but also moving forward as the Earth's surface \"falls\" away below. All these objects are in free fall, not zero gravity.\n",
"When the gravitational field is non-uniform, a body in free fall experiences tidal effects and is not stress-free. Near a black hole, such tidal effects can be very strong. In the case of the Earth, the effects are minor, especially on objects of relatively small dimensions (such as the human body or a spacecraft) and the overall sensation of weightlessness in these cases is preserved. This condition is known as microgravity, and it prevails in orbiting spacecraft.\n"
] |
why are some corn fields allowed to go brown before they are harvested?
|
Don't worry, you're not seeing waste, its perfectly normal. You're seeing the corn plant, not the corn ear. The plant dries down and turns brown before the grain moisture gets low enough to harvest and store. If you harvest corn while its wet and store it, it will rot. What you're seeing is perfectly normal. Most corn for cattle actually gets harvested early, while there's still some green on the plant.
|
[
"Field corn primarily grown for livestock feed and ethanol production is allowed to mature fully before being shelled off the cob before being stored in silos, pits, bins or grain \"flats\". Field corn can also be harvested as high-moisture corn, shelled off the cob and piled and packed like silage for fermentation; or the entire plant may be chopped while still very high in moisture with the resulting silage either loaded and packed in plastic bags, piled and packed in pits, or blown into and stored in vertical silos. \n",
"In North America, field corn also known as \"grain\" corn, is corn (\"Zea mays\") grown for livestock fodder (silage), ethanol, cereal and processed food products. The principal field corn varieties are dent corn, flint corn, flour corn (also known as soft corn) which includes blue corn (\"Zea mays amylacea\"), and waxy corn.\n",
"Often, green manure crops are grown for a specific period, and then plowed under before reaching full maturity in order to improve soil fertility and quality. Also the stalks left block the soil from being eroded.\n",
"Maize kernels naturally occur in many colors, depending on the cultivar: from pale white, to yellow, to red and bluish purple. Likewise, corn meal and the tortillas made from it may be similarly colored. White and yellow tortillas are by far the most common, however.\n",
"Varieties of blue corn cultivated in the Southwestern United States vary in their respective contents of anthocyanins, the polyphenol pigment giving the corn its unique color. Anthocyanins having the highest contents are cyanidin 3-glucoside (most abundant), pelargonidin and peonidin 3-glucoside.\n",
"Black walnut is primarily a pioneer species similar to red and silver maple and black cherry. Because of this, black walnut is a common weed tree found along roadsides, fields, and forest edges in the eastern US. It will grow in closed forests, but is classified as shade intolerant, this means it requires full sun for optimal growth and nut production.\n",
"To the Nahua, corn is known not only as a physical life sustainer, but also a spiritual sustainer. It is used at every meal and also feeds domesticated animals. It is the main source of income and is therefore an inevitable constituent in community *politics. Corn can be divided, by color, into four groups. White is superior for human consumption and is sold at the market. Yellow is resilient, thus grown in the dry season and is the corn of choice for domesticated animals. Black and red corns are grown in lesser amounts and are not preferred for eating.\n"
] |
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