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Did other nations have a similar "Manifest Destiny" period where huge numbers of settlers expanded the frontiers of the country?
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Japan comes to mind with their expansion into the Northern region of Hokkaido. That period of history in Japan has many parallels to Western expansion in the states. Right down to the subjugation of the native people who lived in the region. In Japan's case the native people were the Ainu instead of Native Americans.
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[
"The first westward migrations occurred as representatives of the Thirteen Colonies sought to open up new lands for their respective colonies westward. Those whose original royal charters did not specify a western limit simply extended their lands directly and indefinitely westward. \n",
"There were conflicts between colonizing states and revolutions from colonized areas shaping areas of control and establishing independent nations. During the 20th century, the colonies of the defeated central powers in World War I were distributed amongst the victors as mandates, but it was not until the end of World War II that the second phase of decolonization began in earnest.\n",
"However, the greatest impact for the policy for restricting movement for First Nations people would be the incoming Liberal Government of Wilfrid Laurier in 1886. Laurier put in place Clifford Sifton as Minister of the Interior. From that point on the settlement of the West took a turning point. During this time the world was experiencing a surge in the economy and this gave Sifton greater reason to bring Canadian and American farmers to the Prairies. He felt that these farmers were best suited and more desirable as the new settlers. Europeans he felt were not suitable because they did not like the hard work and they were likely to give up on farming. Further, Sifton had little simply for First Nations as he made plans to settle the West. Sifton \"left Indian policy in the hands of an \"Indians Affairs\" bureaucracy with little sympathy for the aspirations of First Nations\". The major concern for Sifton was the settlement of the West. The Laurier Government and Cabinet told Sifton that a railroad to the West was not possible. The Liberal Government of the day told him \"No money, no Railways, no settlement of the West\". Sifton saw that the only way the settlement of West was possible was through the building of the railway. He knew that the construction of the rail system had to be paid by the Canadian government. But the Liberal government said this was not possible, they had accepted the railway was out of the question. But Sifton would not give up and he saw his chance when the Americans said they would attempt to build a railroad into British Columbia. With the Liberals not wanting the Americans to come into B.C. the government agreed to build a railroad through the Crow's Nest Pass.\n",
"In the mid-19th century, the newly independent nations of Argentina and Chile began an aggressive phase of expansion into the south, increasing confrontation with the Indians of the region. In 1860, French adventurer Orelie-Antoine de Tounens proclaimed himself king of the Kingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia of the Mapuche.\n",
"BULLET::::- Volume 3: \"Covenant and Constitutionalism: The Great Frontier and the Matrix of Federal Democracy\": \"The great frontier\" that began at the end of the 15th century, whereby Europe embarked on an expansion that made Europeans and their descendants the rulers of the world for 500 years, was seen as a great opportunity for beginning again, launching an unprecedented movement of migration and colonization.\n",
"The completion of colonial conquest of much of the world (see the Scramble for Africa), the devastation of World War I and World War II, and the alignment of both the United States and the Soviet Union with the principle of self-determination led to the abandonment of the right of conquest in formal international law. The 1928 Kellogg–Briand Pact, the post-1945 Nuremberg Trials, the UN Charter, and the UN role in decolonization saw the progressive dismantling of this principle. Simultaneously, the UN Charter's guarantee of the \"territorial integrity\" of member states effectively froze out claims against prior conquests from this process.\n",
"In 1438 AD, under the command of the Sapa Inca (paramount leader) \"Pachacuti\" (world-shaker), the Incas began a far-reaching expansion. The land which Pachacuti conquered was about the size of the Thirteen Colonies at the outbreak of the American Revolution of 1776, and consisted of nearly the entire territory of the Andes mountain range.\n"
] |
if your neurones make a new connection when you learn something new, would it be possible to run out of space in your brain for new connections to form.
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No, basically a neuron is capable of thousands of potential connection to other neurons, your brain is formed of trillions of these neural pathways (synapses) and they do strengthen and weaken over time. Your brain cleans out old or unused pathways as it develops more. The potential for creating new pathways is always extremely high in our brain and we don't really know the upper limit capacity, but even if you could prolong human life by a significant factor, your brain would never reach full capacity as it would be losing connections as well as creating new ones.
Sometimes when you try to remember something and can't do it right away, then it comes back to you later, it's in essence your brain found a new pathway to old information because the old pathway to it was lost. This is an example of how you lose connections, but because there's trillions of connections there is almost always a backdoor to certain information.
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[
"At the beginning of the connectome project, it was thought that the connections between neurons were unchangeable once established and that only individual synapses could be altered. However, recent evidence suggests that connectivity is also subject to change, termed neuroplasticity. There are two ways that the brain can rewire: formation and removal of synapses in an established connection or formation or removal of entire connections between neurons. Both mechanisms of rewiring are useful for learning completely novel tasks that may require entirely new connections between regions of the brain. However, the ability of the brain to gain or lose entire connections poses an issue for mapping a universal species connectome.\n",
"Konorski asked how pre-existing connections between neurons in the brain could be changed by conditioning. He suggested an idea similar to Hebb in which coincidental activation in time causes the potential connections to be transformed into actual excitatory connections. Inhibitory connections arise when the excitation of one input coincides in time with a decease in its associated connection. He described the process: \"The plastic changes would be related to the formation and multiplication of new synaptic junctions between the axon terminals of one nerve cell and the soma (i.e. the body and the dendrites) of the other\" This idea that synapses strengthen with use was also proposed in the West in the theory of Hebbian synapses by Donald Hebb.\n",
"One also can use a series of independent neural networks moderated by some intermediary, a similar behavior that happens in brain. These neurons can perform separably and handle a large task, and the results can be finally combined. \n",
"Neuroanatomical connectivity is inherently difficult to define given the fact that at the microscopic scale of neurons, new synaptic connections or elimination of existing ones are formed dynamically and are largely dependent on the function executed, but may be considered as pathways extending over regions of the brain, which are in accordance with general anatomical knowledge. DTI can be used to provide such information. \n",
"Ideally it would be possible to record and stimulate from a single or a few neurons at a time. Indeed, companies such as Axion Biosystems are working to provide MEAs with much higher spatial resolution to this end (a maximum of 768 input/output electrodes). Another study investigates establishing a stable one-to-one connection between neurons and electrodes. The goal was to meet the ideal interface situation by establishing a correspondence with every neuron in the network. They do so by caging individual neurons while still allowing the axons and dendrites to extend and make connections. Neurons are contained within \"neurocages\" or other sorts of containers, and the device itself could be referred to as the caged neuron MEA or neurochip.\n",
"For example, it has become possible to understand, in much detail, the complex processes occurring within a single neuron. Neurons are cells specialized for communication. They are able to communicate with neurons and other cell types through specialized junctions called synapses, at which electrical or electrochemical signals can be transmitted from one cell to another. Many neurons extrude a long thin filament of axoplasm called an axon, which may extend to distant parts of the body and are capable of rapidly carrying electrical signals, influencing the activity of other neurons, muscles, or glands at their termination points. A nervous \"system\" emerges from the assemblage of neurons that are connected to each other.\n",
"In some areas of the brain, such as the hippocampus, neurons are arranged in such a way that they all receive synaptic inputs in the same area. Because these neurons are in the same orientation, the extracellular signals from the generation of action potentials don't cancel out, but rather add up to give a signal that can easily be recorded with a field electrode.\n"
] |
Is racism due to society or biology? -Social/Psychology-
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The three most common classifications of people are age, gender, and race. Evolutionary psychologists have provided some evolutionary reasons for thinking that the first two ways of classifying are more "innate" but that race is not. This is because in what evolutionary psychologists call "The Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness" (EEA), i.e. the Pleistocene, everyone would've been the same race. They predicted that race is actually used as a proxy for coalition membership. [This](_URL_0_) study confirms the prediction. At least according to evo-psych, racism can be overcome, sexism is harder. From the abstract: "More importantly, when cues of coalitional affiliation no longer track or correspond to race, subjects markedly reduce the extent to which they categorize others by race, and indeed may cease doing so entirely."
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[
"Despite support for evolutionary theories relating to an innate origin of racism, various studies have suggested racism is associated with lower intelligence and less diverse peer groups during childhood. A neuroimaging study on amygdala activity during racial matching activities found increased activity to be associated with adolescent age as well as less racially diverse peer groups, which the author conclude suggest a learned aspect of racism. A meta analysis of neuroimaging studies found amygdala activity correlated to increased scores on implicit measures of racial bias. It was also argued amygdala activity in response to racial stimuli represents increased threat perception rather than the traditional theory of the amygdala activity represented ingroup-outgroup processing. Racism has also been associated with lower childhood IQ in an analysis of 15,000 people in the UK.\n",
"Theorists have put forward three main arguments as to why they deem the term \"racism\" appropriate for hostility and prejudice on the basis of cultural differences. The first is the argument that a belief in fundamental cultural differences between human groups can lead to the same harmful acts as a belief in fundamental biological differences, namely exploitation and oppression or exclusion and extermination. As the academics Hans Siebers and Marjolein H. J Dennissen noted, this claim has yet to be empirically demonstrated.\n",
"Because of the subtle and varied nature of these biases, aversive racism not only systematically influences decision making but can also fundamentally impact everyday social relations in ways that contribute substantially to misunderstandings and mistrust in intergroup relations.\n",
"Sociologists, in general, recognize \"race\" as a social construct. This means that, although the concepts of race and racism are based on observable biological characteristics, any conclusions drawn about race on the basis of those observations are heavily influenced by cultural ideologies. Racism, as an ideology, exists in a society at both the individual and institutional level.\n",
"Dovidio and Gaertner introduced three psychological supports for aversive racism. As humans, people are predisposed to cognitive categorization. By categorizing people into different groups, it allows us to see the differences that exist between other groups compared to the groups we've put ourselves in. By recognizing these differences, we are then motivated to control our environment around us when we interact with outgroups. This motivation is desirable because we want our interactions to be positive, especially when interacting with minorities. The most influential psychological support is the socialization of two sets of incompatible values. Americans, as children, are brought up being taught to have an egalitarian belief system. They want justice and equality for all minorities. They are also taught about the racial traditions that symbolize American history. These two sets of incompatible values conflict with one another, resulting in inconsistent behavior towards members of outgroups. They feel the internal negative affect based on these two sets of values and it comes out in their behaviors and attitudes on other people. Prejudice has been a wide phenomenon while racism is a broader topic that connects individual beliefs and behavior to broader social norms and practices that disadvantage particular groups. \n",
"The cycle of poverty that structural racism imposes on minorities has adverse effects on their overall health, among other things. Health inequities can manifest as disparities in several aspects of health such as obesity, heart disease, life span, infant mortality, sexual education, exercise, drug use, and cancer. Furthermore, racism itself is thought to have a negative impact on both mental and physical health. According to a paper that analyzed published research, on PubMed from the years 2005-2007, on the connection between discrimination and health there is an inverse relationship between the two; furthermore, the pattern is becoming more apparent across a greater variety of issues and data. The fact that a pattern has emerged from the study of this published research data shows that these health inequities are being maintained and reinforced by structural racism. Although this study relies on data from 2005-2007 to support it and show the pattern,this pattern was noticed as far back as 1985 and since then healthcare has come an even longer way. According to the 1985 Report of the Secretary's Task Force on Black and Minority Health by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services in general Americans were getting healthier and had increased longevity but there is a persisting inequality between Blacks and other minority groups in the rate of death and illness contrasting to the overall population; furthermore, the report notes that this inequality has been around for more than a generation at this point or since better, more factual federal records have been kept. This is definitive proof that the federal government noticed these racial inequalities in health long before the 2005-2007 study of research data that revealed a pattern. More importantly it shows structural racism has maintained these health inequalities across decades even though the in general Americans have become more healthy and have increased lifespans. Based on the studies they reviewed it became apparent that regardless of socioeconomic status there are racial inequalities in health were present between minority groups for several health issues such as diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, and obesity. This shows the health inequities caused by structural racism can be alleviated by increasing socioeconomic status but they still persist at all levels, showing the overarching power and cycle that structural racism submits minorities too. In addition, there is data that supports the fact that as health care has advanced worldwide overall there are more increases in health inequalities between races. One such study that supports this is The Progress Toward the Healthy People 2010 Goals and Objectives which is a review, done by members of the National Center for Health Statistics of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Center of Excellence on Health Disparities, Morehouse School of Medicine, that explores progress towards improving the overall health quality and longevity of Americans and the health disparities between ethnic groups. To accomplish this they used a system of 31 measures to analyze the progress and disparities; which consisted of 10 leading health indicators (LHI), created by the Department of Health and Human Services, with a few objectives each for twenty two total and the remaining measures were formulated by the group who did the review. The ten leading health indicators are: Physical activity, overweight and obesity, tobacco use, substance abuse, responsible sexual behavior, mental health, injury and violence, environmental quality, immunization, and access to healthcare; the group who did the review supplemented the leading health indicators with 7 more objectives and 2 more measures, infant mortality and life expectancy to give 31 in total. They used these measures to track the disparities be tween Asians, Hispanic or Latino, Black Non-Hispanics, white non-Hispanic, American Indian or Alaskan Natives, and Native Hawaiians or Pacific Islanders; However it is important to note that data is not available for every ethnic group for all 31 measures. However using the available data for the objectives they have more than one time period on they found 6 objectives showed a decrease in disparity between ethnic groups and the national average while they found 18 disparity increases across 11 objectives. This confirms that even as healthcare is advancing and new scientific discoveries are being made overall the disparities between ethnic groups are increasing. This is a trend that was noticed in the 1985 report and has continued through the time worsening its effects and contributing to greater health inequalities. Therefore it can be said that structural racism acts in such a way that it actively hinders the health and longevity of minorities.\n",
"Racism consists of both prejudice and discrimination based in social perceptions of observable biological differences between peoples. It often takes the form of social actions, practices or beliefs, or political systems in which different races are perceived to be ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities. In a given society, those who share racial characteristics socially perceived as undesirable are typically under-represented in positions of social power, i.e., they become a minority category in that society. Minority members in such a society are often subjected to discriminatory actions resulting from majority policies, including assimilation, exclusion, oppression, expulsion, and extermination. Overt racism usually feeds directly into a stratification system through its effect on social status. For example, members associated with a particular race may be assigned a slave status, a form of oppression in which the majority refuses to grant basic rights to a minority that are granted to other members of the society. More covert racism, such as that which many scholars posit is practiced in more contemporary societies, is socially hidden and less easily detectable. Covert racism often feeds into stratification systems as an intervening variable affecting income, educational opportunities, and housing. Both overt and covert racism can take the form of structural inequality in a society in which racism has become institutionalized.\n"
] |
What is used as nutrition to cultivated cell meat? And how much antibiotics is used?
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You can avoid antibiotics, but most tissue culture uses some. It is really difficult to do industry-sized cell culture without antibiotics.
Also, they use fetal bovine serum as a nutrient, which is essentially baby cow blood, so it isn’t vegan and isn’t very sustainable at this point. Maybe someday they can avoid this.
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[
"The basic nutrients required are crude protein, metabolizable energy, minerals, vitamins and water. The formulation procedure has both fixed and variable portions. Swine rations are generally based on a ground cereal grain as a carbohydrate source, soybean meal as a protein source, minerals like calcium and phosphorus are added, and vitamins. The feed can be fortified with byproducts of milk, meat by-products, cereal grains; and \"specialty products.\" Antibiotics may also be added to fortify the feed and help the animal’s health and growth.\n",
"In 2007, a University of Minnesota study indicated that foods such as corn, lettuce, and potatoes have been found to accumulate antibiotics from soils spread with animal manure that contains these drugs.\n",
"The use of antibiotics in livestock can bring antibiotic-resistant bacteria to humans via consumption of meat and ingestion through airborne bacteria. Manure from food-producing animals can also contain antibiotic-resistant bacteria and is sometimes stored in lagoons. This waste is often sprayed as fertilizer and can thus contaminate crops and water with the bacteria.\n",
"Macrobiotics emphasizes locally grown whole grain cereals, pulses (legumes), vegetables, edible seaweed, fermented soy products and fruit, combined into meals according to the ancient Chinese principle of balance known as yin and yang. Whole grains and whole-grain products such as brown rice and buckwheat pasta (soba), a variety of cooked and raw vegetables, beans and bean products, mild natural seasonings, fish, nuts and seeds, mild (non-stimulating) beverages such as bancha twig tea and fruit are recommended.\n",
"Antibiotics are commonly used in commercial swine production in the United States and around the world. They are used for disease treatment, disease prevention and control, and growth promotion. When used for growth promoting purposes, antibiotics are given at low concentrations for long periods of time. Low concentration of antibiotics, also referred to as subtherapeutic (STA), are given as feed and water additives which improve daily weight gain and feed efficiency through alterations in digestion and disease suppression. Additionally, the use of STA in swine results in healthier animals and reduces the “microbial load” on meat resulting in an assumed decrease in potential Foodborne illness risk. While the benefits of subtherapeutic antibiotic administration are well-documented, there is much concern and debate regarding the development of bacterial antibiotic resistance associated with their use.\n",
"Organic foods may be much more or much less likely to contain antibiotics, depending on their sources and treatment of manure. For instance, by Soil Association Standard 4.7.38, most organic arable farmers either have their own supply of manure (which would, therefore, not normally contain drug residues) or else rely on green manure crops for the extra fertility (if any nonorganic manure is used by organic farmers, then it usually has to be rotted or composted to degrade any residues of drugs and eliminate any pathogenic bacteria—Standard 4.7.38, Soil Association organic farming standards). On the other hand, as found in the University of Minnesota study, the non-usage of artificial fertilizers, and resulting exclusive use of manure as fertilizer, by organic farmers can result in significantly greater accumulations of antibiotics in organic foods.\n",
"Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils have been an increasingly significant part of the human diet for about 100 years (in particular, since the later half of the 20th century and where more processed foods are consumed), and some deleterious effects of trans fat consumption are scientifically accepted, forming the basis of the health guidelines discussed above.\n"
] |
why do some sites require credit card ccv numbers, and others (like amazon) do not?
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The CVV2 number isn't *required* to charge the card, but it reduces the risk of fraud. If the transaction is fraudulent, the merchant might end up having to pay fees or fines to their payment processor, so merchants have an incentive to check CVV2s. But if they don't want to and are willing to risk more chargebacks, they can decide not to require it (which is what Amazon's done).
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[
"The AVS system was meant to legally protect the companies from laws against disseminating pornography to minors, as the credit card was used to verify that the user attempting to access a particular website was of legal age to view the website's content. Users could sign up with their credit cards to access affiliated sites, which received 65% of the sign-up fee, while Landslide took the remainder and handled the transactions with the credit card companies.\n",
"BULLET::::- Web sites offer prepaid Personal identification numbers (PINs) for calling; thus there is no physical phone card. Prepaid online calling cards are more convenient to use, because most of the companies provide the option of registering the phone and avoiding using PINs at all. Rates vary from provider to provider, but the customer should be aware that cards with cheaper rates usually have hidden maintenance and/or connection fees.\n",
"Some have asserted that Real ID will turn state driver’s licenses into a national identity card and impose numerous new burdens on taxpayers, citizens, immigrants, and state governments – while doing nothing to protect against terrorism. As a result, it is stirring intense opposition from many groups across the political spectrum. Critics have claimed that ITAA supports the national ID card because its member companies would benefit from financially from implementing the card.\n",
"In countries with no national identification card (like the United States), driver's licenses have often become the \"de facto\" identification card for many purposes, and DMV agencies have effectively become the agency responsible for verifying identity in their respective states, even the identity of non-drivers. The REAL ID Act of 2005 is an attempt to provide a national standard for identification cards in the United States as identification cards are commonly used in everyday life.\n",
"Other account types like PayPal, Uber, Netflix and loyalty card points may be sold alongside card details. Logins to many sites may also be sold such a site backdoor access apparently for major institutions such as banks, universities and even industrial control systems.\n",
"The mail and the Internet are major routes for fraud against merchants who sell and ship products and affect legitimate mail-order and Internet merchants. If the card is not physically present (called CNP, card not present) the merchant must rely on the holder (or someone purporting to be so) presenting the information indirectly, whether by mail, telephone or over the Internet. The credit card holder can be tracked by mail or phone. While there are safeguards to this, it is still more risky than presenting in person, and indeed card issuers tend to charge a greater transaction rate for CNP, because of the greater risk.\n",
"Multiple user identifiers – Employees can be recorded in an ECRS so that they may have an unlimited number of identifiers that are used with third-party systems to associate them with transactions and/or types of transactions. Identifiers may include telephone extensions, photocopy IDs, cell phone numbers, calling card codes, service account codes, login IDs, and credit card numbers.\n"
] |
Why are the Planck Length, Time and Temperature so unbelievably minuscule or enormous while the Planck Mass is close to being on our scale, being the mass of a flea's egg or an eyelash?
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That's an interesting misconception that seems to be rather common. Not everything with the name "Planck" behind is unbelievably small.
We physicists are lazy, and we don't like keep tracking of dimensions, so we use a system of units in which there is only one to measure things: in length and inverse length. (or inverse energy and energy). So time is a length. And also, mass is energy, temperature is energy, momentum is energy. And these quantities have their corresponding length scale, which is just the inverse of them.
In these units, Newton's constant has dimension of inverse mass squared, and this mass - the Planck mass - is HUGE. When I say huge, I mean huge in particle physicist's sense, as in 10^16 times bigger than the Higgs. The Planck temperature is actually also very very big, even in the scale of a non-particle-physicist, around 10^32 K.
Do you remember the uncertainty principle? It says that dx*dp is bigger than a number. What this tells you is that in order to probe very short length scales, you need very big momenta. So when you build an accelerator that can probe energy scales at the order of the Planck mass, effectively you are probing an enormously short length: the Planck length.
So yes, you have a huge energy scale - and this energy scale corresponds to very short length and time scales.
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[
"The Planck time is the unique combination of the gravitational constant , the special-relativistic constant , and the quantum constant , to produce a constant with dimension of time. Because the Planck time comes from dimensional analysis, which ignores constant factors, there is no reason to believe that exactly one unit of Planck time has any special physical significance. Rather, the Planck time represents a rough time scale at which quantum gravitational effects are likely to become important. This essentially means that while smaller units of time can exist, they are so small their effect on our existence is negligible. The nature of those effects, and the exact time scale at which they would occur, would need to be derived from an actual theory of quantum gravity.\n",
"The Planck constant is one of the smallest constants used in physics. This reflects the fact that on a scale adapted to humans, where energies are typically of the order of kilojoules and times are typically of the order of seconds or minutes, the Planck constant (the quantum of action) is very small. One can regard the Planck constant to be only relevant to the microscopic scale instead of the macroscopic scale in our everyday experience.\n",
"Planck time (~ 5.4 × 10 seconds) is the unit of time in the system of natural units known as Planck units. Current established physical theories are believed to fail at this time scale, and many physicists expect that the Planck time might be the smallest unit of time that could ever be measured, even in principle. Tentative physical theories that describe this time scale exist; see for instance loop quantum gravity.\n",
"The term \"Planck scale\" refers to the magnitudes of space, time, energy and other units, below which (or beyond which) the predictions of the Standard Model, quantum field theory and general relativity are no longer reconcilable, and quantum effects of gravity are expected to dominate. This region may be characterized by energies around (the Planck energy), time intervals around (the Planck time) and lengths around (the Planck length). At the Planck scale, current models are not expected to be a useful guide to the cosmos, and physicists have no scientific model to suggest how the physical universe behaves. The best known example is represented by the conditions in the first 10 seconds of our universe after the Big Bang, approximately 13.8 billion years ago.\n",
"The Planck time (also known as Planck second) was first suggested by Max Planck in 1899. He suggested that there existed some fundamental natural units for length, mass, time and energy. Planck derived these using dimensional analysis only using what he considered the most fundamental universal constants: the speed of light, the Newton gravitational constant and the Planck constant. The Planck time is considered by many physicists to be the shortest possible measurable time interval; however, this is still a matter of debate.\n",
"In physics, the Planck length, denoted , is a unit of length, equal to . It is a base unit in the system of Planck units, developed by physicist Max Planck. The Planck length can be defined from three fundamental physical constants: the speed of light in a vacuum, the Planck constant, and the gravitational constant. According to the generalized uncertainty principle (a concept from speculative models of quantum gravity), the Planck length is, in principle, within a factor of 10, the shortest measurable length – and no theoretically known improvement in measurement instruments could change that. By contrast, the largest measurable thing is the observable universe. The proper distance – the distance as would be measured at a specific time, including the present – between Earth and the edge of the observable universe is , making the diameter of the observable universe about .\n",
"The Planck length is the scale at which quantum gravitational effects are believed to begin to be apparent, where interactions require a working theory of quantum gravity to be analyzed. The Planck area is the area by which the surface of a spherical black hole increases when the black hole swallows one bit of information. To measure anything the size of Planck length, the photon momentum needs to be very large due to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and so much energy in such a small space would create a tiny black hole with the diameter of its event horizon equal to a Planck length.\n"
] |
AM modulation - What are sidebands?
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Sidebands are just your actual signal, before modulation. They are the exact identical signal to what you transmited, represented in frequency domain obviously, just located in a new spot.
Say we have sound, music or voice. It will have frequencies, tones, anywhere from about 20 Hz to 20 kHz. At any given instance in time, each frequency in here is at some amplitude. And as the sound changes over time, the amplitude of each of these changes. There may be frequencies present below or above this, but we can't hear them so they don't matter.
Next we use a microphone to turn the sound an electrical signal, but the excatly same frequencies are preserved.
Next, we modulate that on a carrier frequency. Assuming AM, all that happens is we shift them upward. Say our carrier is 1000 kHz. If we had 20 Hz sound in our signal, we know have amplitude in the sideband at 1000.02 kHz. If we had sound at 1 kHz, we now have amplitude in the sideband at 1001 kHz. If we had 15 kHz sound, we have amplitude in the side band 1015 kHz. All that happened is rather than our sound being based on DC/0 Hz, we now just shifted it to 1000 kHz, our carrier frequency. Sidebands *are* your signal. The carrier itself contains nothing, it's just there as a reference point rather than 0.
So if that's the upper side band, what about the lower? Well, in regular sound in 0 to 20 kHz, we could technically also say there is a mirror of it about 0 Hz to -20 Hz. Has no meaning normally, as it's bandwidth just mirror the real half and doesn't matter. If we now shift it from being about 1000 kHz rather than 0 Hz, that negative mirror is now occupying real positive frequencies. There's still another mirror of both sidebands around -1000 kHz technically, but again it doesn't matter. Any frequency there is, always has its negative mirror doing nothing. AM modulation just reveals the original negative half right below DC now right below the carrier.
Do we need the lower sideband? No, it's just duplicate mirrored information. It's only 50% bandwidth efficient. We can use a filter to chop off the lower, or upper, sideband and still transmit the signal with half the bandwidth usage.
Or we can use quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) and transmit two different signals, both complete with both sidebands, at the same carrier frequency. So long as one signal is transmitted on a carrier delayed by quarter cycle (aka one on a cosine and one on a sine wave), they can be kept seperate from each other. They each have duplicate sidebands still, but the double stacking gets us back to 100% bandwidth efficiency, in a easier way than filtering a sideband out.
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[
"In radio communications, a sideband is a band of frequencies higher than or lower than the carrier frequency, that are the result of the modulation process. The sidebands carry the information transmitted by the radio signal. The sidebands consist of all the spectral components of the modulated signal except the carrier. All forms of modulation produce sidebands.\n",
"In radio communications, single-sideband modulation (SSB) or single-sideband suppressed-carrier modulation (SSB-SC) is a type of modulation, used to transmit information, such as an audio signal, by radio waves. A refinement of amplitude modulation, it uses transmitter power and bandwidth more efficiently. Amplitude modulation produces an output signal the bandwidth of which is twice the maximum frequency of the original baseband signal. Single-sideband modulation avoids this bandwidth increase, and the power wasted on a carrier, at the cost of increased device complexity and more difficult tuning at the receiver.\n",
"A Compatible sideband transmission, also known as amplitude modulation equivalent (AME) or Single sideband-reduced carrier (SSB-RC), is a type of single sideband RF modulation in which the carrier is deliberately reinserted at a lower level after its normal suppression to permit reception by conventional AM receivers. \n",
"Amplitude-companded single-sideband (ACSSB) is a narrowband modulation method using a single-sideband with a pilot tone, allowing an expander in the receiver to restore the amplitude that was severely compressed by the transmitter. It offers improved effective range over standard SSB modulation while simultaneously retaining backwards compatibility with standard SSB radios. ACSSB also offers reduced bandwidth and improved range for a given power level compared with narrow band FM modulation.\n",
"A signal at baseband is often used to modulate a higher frequency carrier signal in order that it may be transmitted via radio. Modulation results in shifting the signal up to much higher frequencies (radio frequencies, or RF) than it originally spanned. A key consequence of the usual double-sideband amplitude modulation (AM) is that the range of frequencies the signal spans (its spectral bandwidth) is doubled. Thus, the RF bandwidth of a signal (measured from the lowest frequency as opposed to 0 Hz) is twice its baseband bandwidth. Steps may be taken to reduce this effect, such as single-sideband modulation. Some transmission schemes such as frequency modulation use even more bandwidth.\n",
"Amplitude-companded single sideband (ACSSB) is a narrowband modulation method using a single sideband with a pilot tone, allowing an expander in the receiver to restore the amplitude that was severely compressed by the transmitter. It offers improved effective range over standard SSB modulation while simultaneously retaining backwards compatibility with standard SSB radios. ACSSB also offers reduced bandwidth and improved range for a given power level compared with narrow band FM modulation.\n",
"In FMS, the light is modulated at a much higher frequency but with a lower modulation index. As a result, a pair of sidebands separated from the carrier by the modulation frequency appears, giving rise to a so-called FM-triplet. The signal at the modulation frequency is a sum of the beat signals of the carrier with each of the two sidebands. Since these two sidebands are fully out of phase with each other, the two beat signals cancel in the absence of absorbers. However, an alteration of any of the sidebands, either by absorption or dispersion, or a phase shift of the carrier, will give rise to an unbalance between the two beat signals, and therefore a net-signal.\n"
] |
how do viral test kits work?
|
A technique called qPCR. You use an enzyme called Reverse transcriptase to convert viral RNA into DNA. Then followed by another enzyme called DNA polymerase to clone it multiple times.
Mix that with fluorescent DNA primers (short glowing chunks) that are used by the enzyme to build the target DNA, and you can count how much viral DNA there is based on how much fluorescence is given off under UV light.
There are other techniques but this is the easiest and most common.
|
[
"Antibody testing has become widely available. It can be done for individual viruses (e.g. using an ELISA assay) but inautomated panels that can screen for many viruses at once are becoming increasingly common.\n",
"Various viral load tests might be used. One way to classify tests is by whether it is a nucleic acid test or non-nucleic acid test. Variation in cost and the time it takes to get a result may be factors in selecting the type of test used.\n",
"Progress in testing methodology has enabled detection of viral genetic material, antigens, and the virus itself in bodily fluids and cells. While not widely used for routine testing due to high cost and requirements in laboratory equipment, these direct testing techniques have confirmed the validity of the antibody tests.\n",
"Unlike other HIV tests that measures HIV virus or HIV antigens from blood, OraQuick measures the HIV antibodies in saliva. The test kit contains an oral swab attached to the reader, and a fluid-filled test tube. The test results can either be invalid, positive, or negative.\n",
"The tests, called assays, for detection of virus infection involve serum or blood tests that detect either viral antigens (proteins produced by the virus) or antibodies produced by the host. Interpretation of these assays is complex.\n",
"Commercial DFA testing kits are available, which contain fluorescently labelled antibodies, designed to specifically target unique antigens present in the bacteria or virus, but not present in mammals (Eukaryotes). This technique can be used to quickly determine if a subject has a specific viral or bacterial infection.\n",
"Post-testing employs many of the same techniques as pre-testing, usually with a focus on understanding the change in awareness or attitude attributable to the advertisement. With the emergence of digital advertising technologies, many firms have begun to continuously post-test ads using real-time data. This may take the form of A/B split-testing or multivariate testing.\n"
] |
how did ancient people find/define constellations when there was no light pollution?
|
The pictures you see are long exposure photos, which don't accurately represent what you see when you look at the night sky without any light pollution. [This photo](_URL_0_) much more accurately represents what you see with your own eyes than [this photo](_URL_1_). As you can see, it's very easy to discern specific stars in the first photo.
I suggest going out on an actual stargazing tour, it can be mind blowing.
|
[
"There are no markings on the night sky, though there exist many sky maps to aid stargazers in identifying constellations and other celestial objects. Constellations are prominent because their stars tend to be brighter than other nearby stars in the sky. Different cultures have created different groupings of constellations based on differing interpretations of the more-or-less random patterns of dots in the sky. Constellations were identified without regard to distance to each star, but instead as if they were all dots on a dome.\n",
"The concept of a constellation was known to exist during the Babylonian period. Ancient sky watchers imagined that prominent arrangements of stars formed patterns, and they associated these with particular aspects of nature or their myths. Twelve of these formations lay along the band of the ecliptic and these became the basis of astrology. Many of the more prominent individual stars were also given names, particularly with Arabic or Latin designations.\n",
"Constellations and stars are also often observed, and have been used in the past for navigation, especially by ships at sea. One of the most recognizable constellations is the Big Dipper, which is part of the constellation Ursa Major. Constellations also serve to help describe the location of other objects in the sky.\n",
"In many early civilizations, it was already common to associate groups of stars in connect-the-dots stick-figure patterns; some of the earliest records are those of the Babylonians. This process was essentially arbitrary, and different cultures have identified different constellations, although a few of the more obvious patterns tend to appear in the constellations of multiple cultures, such as those of Orion and Scorpius. As anyone could arrange and name a grouping of stars there was no distinct difference between a \"constellation\" and an \"asterism\". e.g. Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) in his book Naturalis Historia refers and mentions 72 asterisms.\n",
"A few of the constellation names in use in modern astronomy can be traced to Babylonian sources via Greek astronomy. Among the most ancient constellations are those that marked the four cardinal points of the year in the Middle Bronze Age, i.e.\n",
"Some of the early constellations were never universally adopted. Stars were often grouped into constellations differently by different observers, and the arbitrary constellation boundaries often led to confusion as to which constellation a celestial object belonged. Before astronomers delineated precise boundaries (starting in the 19th century), constellations generally appeared as ill-defined regions of the sky. Today they now follow officially accepted designated lines of Right Ascension and Declination based on those defined by Benjamin Gould in epoch 1875.0 in his star catalogue \"Uranometria Argentina\".\n",
"Other star patterns or groups called asterisms are not constellations per se but are used by observers to navigate the night sky. Asterisms may be several stars within a constellation, or they may share stars with more than one constellation. Examples of asterisms include the Pleiades and Hyades within the constellation Taurus and the False Cross split between the southern constellations Carina and Vela, or Venus' Mirror in the constellation of Orion.\n"
] |
are vegetables alive?
|
Yes they are alive. The carrot you have in your refrigerator may not sprout given the best care possible. The top was taken off. It was washed repeatedly, and is at the end of its life cycle.
The sweet potato I bought last Thanksgiving and left on the counter sprouted a week ago. I threw it out today. It was probably still good to eat.
Most potatoes can be coaxed to grow if they have not been peeled. Watch The Martian.
Your canned vegetables are not alive anymore.
The more processed your vegetables are the less likely they are to sprout.
Apple seeds will probably sprout. Maybe orange seeds. Everyone is always growing avocado seeds.
|
[
"Many cultures have developed innovative ways of preserving vegetables so that they can be stored for several months between harvest seasons. Techniques include pickling, home canning, food dehydration, or storage in a root cellar.\n",
"The ability of some vegetables and fruit to keep for months in favorable cellar conditions stems in part from the fact that they are not entirely inanimate even after picking. Although they may no longer qualify as living, the plant cells continue to respire in some impaired but nonzero way, resisting bacterial decomposition for a time. The effect can be compared to the way that cut flowers in a vase of water last much longer than cut flowers lying on a table: the flowers in the vase are not entirely dead yet and continue to respire. The analogy is not exact, but the high humidity that supports many cellared crops is involved in this residual respiration.\n",
"Vegetables are not found often in the archaeological record and it is difficult to determine the role that they played, because plant foods were often eaten raw or were simply boiled, without requiring special equipment for preparation, and thus barely leaving any trace other than the type of food itself. Vegetables also are not mentioned often in the written record, and when the Bible does mention them, the attitude is mixed: sometimes they are regarded as a delicacy, but more often, they were held in low esteem (for example, (, ). Vegetables were perhaps a more important food at the extremes in society: the wealthy who could afford to dedicate land and resources to grow them, and the poor who depended on gathering them in the wild to supplement their meager supplies. More people may have gathered wild plants during famine conditions.\n",
"Vegetables are a second type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables (potatoes and carrots), bulbs (onion family), leaf vegetables (spinach and lettuce), (bamboo shoots and asparagus), and (globe artichokes and broccoli and other vegetables such as cabbage or cauliflower).\n",
"The use of vegetables as crops that are of high worth is important in the Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations Development Program and the World Vegetable Center. The vegetables bred by the Center can be used in poorer areas, where they can serve as an important source of income and can help fight micronutrient deficiencies.\n",
"There has been low level gamma irradiation that has been attempted on arugula, spinach, cauliflower, ash gourd, bamboo shoots, coriander, parsley, and watercress. There has been limited information, however, regarding the physical, chemical and/or bioactive properties and the shelf life on these minimally processed vegetables.\n",
"Originally, vegetables were collected from the wild by hunter-gatherers and entered cultivation in several parts of the world, probably during the period 10,000 BC to 7,000 BC, when a new agricultural way of life developed. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, but as time went on, trade brought exotic crops from elsewhere to add to domestic types. Nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits. \n"
] |
why do i always wake up from a dream immediately before i suffer some kind of fatal physical harm (ex. someone shoots me, stabs me, hits me etc.)
|
It's because your brain is reacting to the fear of the situation. It's like "Oh! Bad situation. Done!" so you wake up. Your mind doesn't want to go through that, and you've never experienced it, so you also don't know how to react. :)
|
[
"BULLET::::- \"I'm starting to think that I'm dead. | Doesn't it make sense that death too would be wrapped in dream? That after death, your conscious life would continue in what might be called a dream body? It would be the same dream body you experience in your everyday dream life. Except that in the post-mortal state, you could never again wake up.\"\n",
"Victims may have been experiencing waking dreams or sleep paralysis. The phenomenon of sleep paralysis is well-established. During the fourth phase of sleep (also known as REM sleep), motor centers in the brain are inhibited, producing paralysis. The reason for this is ultimately unknown but the most common explanation is that this prevents one from acting out one's dreams. Malfunctions of this process can either result in somnambulism (sleepwalking) or, conversely, sleep paralysis—where one remains partially or wholly paralysed for a short time after waking.\n",
"The lucid dream experience, which may arise as a by-product of Rigpa awareness or spontaneously due to karmic causes, assists in understanding the unreality of phenomena, which otherwise, during dream or the death experience, might be overwhelming. In the same way, we believe a nightmare to be real, but if we were to watch a similar scene within a movie, we would not necessarily be frightened.\" \n",
"Additionally, a person may sometimes encounter nightmares in dreams. There are two reasons why nightmares occur, the first is when the \"kakambal\" soul encounters a terrifying event while travelling from the body, or when a \"bangungot\" creature sits on top of the sleeping person in a bid of vengeance due to the cutting of her tree home. Majority of the nightmares are said to be due to the \"kakambal\" soul encountering terrifying events while travelling.\n",
"Additionally, a person may sometimes encounter nightmares in dreams. There are two reasons why nightmares occur, the first is when the \"kakambal\" soul encounters a terrifying event while travelling from the body, or when a \"bangungot\" creature sits on top of the sleeping person in a bid of vengeance due to the cutting of her tree home. Majority of the nightmares are said to be due to the \"kakambal\" soul encountering terrifying events while travelling.\n",
"During the nightmare, the sleeper may scream and yell out things. The nightmare sufferer is often awakened by these threatening, frightening dreams and can often vividly remember their experience. Upon awakening, the sleeper is usually alert and oriented within their surroundings, but may have an increased heart rate and symptoms of anxiety, like sweating. They may have trouble falling back to sleep for fear they will experience another nightmare.\n",
"During sleep, especially REM sleep, people tend to have dreams: elusive first-person experiences which seem realistic while in progress, despite their frequently bizarre qualities. Dreams can seamlessly incorporate elements within a person's mind that would not normally go together. They can include apparent sensations of all types, especially vision and movement.\n"
] |
Do we have any evidence that the Azores were inhabited by humans at any point prior to their discovery by the Portuguese?
|
We might!
It's very possible that sharp-eyed observers could have gained clues that the Azores were out there long before their official discovery; many migratory bird species stop there, and anyone watching birds moving northeast from the Azores could have deduced they were coming from islands to the southwest.
There is a tale from the 18th century that a hoard of Carthaginian coins displayed in Portugal was discovered in the Azores, but the supposed site was never charted and the coins themselves lost.
Mice in the Azores are largely descended from ancestors in Iberia; however, [mice on some islands have DNA from ancestors in Scandinavia](_URL_1_). This hints that Norse explorers may have visited the islands centuries before the Portuguese.
Many medieval maps contain [islands in the general vicinity of the Azores](_URL_0_), but there is very little consensus on whether this reflects actual knowledge (passed down from Norse explorations or Iberian fishermen who guarded the location of their most lucrative fishing spots and secluded beaches) or inflated legends which happened to match up with the location.
Most intriguingly, there may be a series of *hypogea*, or underground tombs, on the islands. A team led by Nuno Ribiero excavated there about ten years back and claimed they'd found several sites in natural caves, including Paleolithic rock art. As far as I can tell, though, these claims either haven't stood up to closer examination or are at the very least too preliminary to confirm the findings.
|
[
"This is a list of the mammal species recorded in the Azores Islands, Portugal. Except for marine mammals and two species of bats, the Azores were completely devoid of mammals prior to their discovery in the early 15th century. All other mammals in the islands are therefore introduced species.\n",
"One (unproven) hypothesis is that the Azores were discovered in the course of a mapping expedition in 1341 to the Canary Islands, sponsored by King Afonso IV of Portugal, and commanded by the Florentine Angiolino del Tegghia de Corbizzi and the Genoese Nicoloso da Recco. Although not quite described in the 1341 report, Madeira and the Azores might nonetheless have been seen from a distance on the expedition's return via a long sailing arc (\"volta do mar\") from the Canary islands. \n",
"The Azores were uninhabited when Portuguese navigators arrived in the early 15th century; settlement began in 1439 with migrants from several regions of mainland Portugal and from Madeira. The islands were populated mainly by Portuguese immigrants from the Algarve, Alentejo, and Minho; in an effort to escape the dangers of the Portuguese inquisition on mainland Portugal, however, many Portuguese Sephardic Jews settled on the islands in large numbers. Azorean Jews had surnames such as: Rodrigues, Pacheco, Oliveira, Pereira, Pimentel, Nunes, Mendes, Pinto, Álvares, Henriques, Cardozo, Teixeira, Vasconcelos etc. The islands were also settled by Moorish prisoners, and African slaves from Guinea, Cape Verde and São Tomé; Flemish, French and Galicians also contributed to the initial settlement. Thus the Azorean population received a significant contribution from people with genetic backgrounds other than Portuguese.\n",
"Diogo Gomes de Sintra discovered the islands by chance in 1438. Although the Canary Islands had been inhabited by the Guanches, humans are not known to ever have set foot on the Madeira archipelago or the Savage Islands before the Portuguese discoveries and expansion. Consequently, this island group presented itself to Portuguese navigators uninhabited.\n",
"In \"A History of the Azores\", written by Thomas Ashe in 1813, the author talks of the discovery of the islands by Joshua Vander Berg of Bruges, who landed there during a storm on his way to Lisbon. This claim is generally discredited among academics today. As were local stories of a mysterious equestrian statue and coins with Carthaginian writing that were purportedly discovered on island of Corvo, or the strange inscriptions found along the coast of Quatro Ribeiras (on Terceira): all unsubstantiated stories that supported the claims of human visitation to the islands before the official record.\n",
"None of the Azores islands will be officially discovered until nearly a century later, in the 1430s and 1440s. They could simply be purely legendary, possibly of Andalusian Arab origin (e.g. al-Idrisi speaks of an Atlantic island of wild goats (the Cabras) and another of \"cormorants\", a scavenger bird, possibly the \"sea crows\" of Corvis Marinis?). But outside their erroneous axis tilt, the Azores do seem clustered with reasonable accuracy on the Medici atlas. One (unproven) possibility is that the Azores were indeed discovered, or at least seen from a distance, quite by accident, by the aforementioned 1341 mapping expedition on their return via a long sailing arc (\"volta do mar\") from the Canary islands.\n",
"The history of the Azores is linked to non-official exploration during the period of the late 13th century in maps, such as the Genoese Atlas Medici (1351). Although it did not specify an island of Corvo, the Medici Atlas did refer to an \"Insula Corvi Marini\" (\"Island of the Marine Crow\"), in a seven-island archipelago. A later \"Mapa Catalão\" (\"Catalan Map\"), from Spain, referred to two islands of Corvo and Flores in 1375.\n"
] |
How does deionized water stay deionized?
|
Deionized water still autodisassociates just like all other water. The 'deionized' part refers to the fact that the protons and hydroxides are (nominally) the only ions in solution.
A deionizer works by passing normal water (from the tap, usually) through a series of filters and ion exchangers. All of the cations in the tap water are exchanged with protons. All of the anions are exchanged with hydroxides. The net changes yield a solution of nothing but protons, hydroxides, and water molecules. The autodissociation equilibrium will have the proton and hydroxide concentrations at 10^-7 M at 298 K.
|
[
"Deionized water (\"DI water\", \"DIW\" or \"de-ionized water\"), often synonymous with \"demineralized water / DM water\", is water that has had almost all of its mineral ions removed, such as cations like sodium, calcium, iron, and copper, and anions such as chloride and sulfate. Deionization is a chemical process that uses specially manufactured ion-exchange resins, which exchange hydrogen and hydroxide ions for dissolved minerals, and then recombine to form water. Because most non-particulate water impurities are dissolved salts, deionization produces highly pure water that is generally similar to distilled water, with the advantage that the process is quicker and does not build up scale. \n",
"Capacitive deionization (CDI) is a technology to deionize water by applying an electrical potential difference over two electrodes, which are often made of porous carbon. Anions, ions with a negative charge, are removed from the water and are stored in the positively polarized electrode. Likewise, cations (positive charge) are stored in the cathode, which is the negatively polarized electrode.\n",
"Using deionised or distilled water in appliances that evaporate water, such as steam irons and humidifiers, can reduce the build-up of mineral scale, which shortens appliance life. Some appliance manufacturers say that deionised water is no longer necessary.\n",
"Deionised and Distilled water are used in lead-acid batteries to prevent erosion of the cells, although Deionised water is the better choice as more impurities are removed from the water in the creation process.\n",
"Deionizers or demineralizers use resins exchange to remove ions from the stream of water and are most commonly twin-bed or mixed-bed deionizers. It is often used in sterile manufacturing environments such as computer chips, where deionized water is a poor conductor of electricity.\n",
"Demineralization is often a term used interchangeably with deionization. Demineralization is essentially removing all the minerals that can be found in natural water. This process is usually done when the water will be used for chemical processes and the minerals present may interfere with the other chemicals. All chemistic and beauty products have to be made with demineralized water for this reason. With the demineralization process, the water is \"softened\" replacing the undesired minerals with different salts. Demineralized water has a higher conductivity than deionized water.\n",
"A water ionizer (also known as an alkaline ionizer) is a home appliance which claims to raise the pH of drinking water by using electrolysis to separate the incoming water stream into acidic and alkaline components. The alkaline stream of the treated water is called alkaline water. Proponents claim that consumption of alkaline water results in a variety of health benefits, making it similar to the alternative health practice of alkaline diets. Such claims violate basic principles of chemistry and physiology. There is no medical evidence for any health benefits of alkaline water.\n"
] |
Did any of the ancient civilizations know they were one of the first human civilizations or have any understanding of the significance of that?
|
In the case of ancient Egypt, the answer is yes. Their mythology and history expressly stated that they were the first civilization. They believed that the universe was created on a "mound of creation" (as it's called by Egyptologists), which rose out of the receding flood waters of the Nile. There are various versions of the creation story, but in the most exciting one [Atum or Re-Atum](_URL_2_) created the first pantheon of deities by masturbating them into existence: "Atum is the one who came into being as one who came [(with penis) extended](_URL_1_) in Heliopolis. He put his penis in his fist so that he might make orgasm with it, and the two twins were born, Shu and Tefnut."^1 This mound of creation is called Benben by Egyptologists (Egyptian 𓃀𓈖𓃀𓈖𓉴), and it was a common feature of temples for millennia of Egyptian history, demonstrating the incredible longevity of this idea.^2
Most cultures have a creation myth that puts them at the center, so that doesn't completely answer your question. In Egypt, however, they kept written records of their history, which referenced their understanding of creation. There are frequent allusions to the "original time" (𓅮𓏏𓏖) in Egyptian texts, including the Pyramid Texts, and a glimpse of what they understood this to mean is found in the [Turin Royal Canon](_URL_4_).^3 That document records the reigns of kings from the New Kingdom back to the reigns of well-known Egyptian deities, including Seth, Horus, and Thoth. The tomb of the First Dynasty king [Djer](_URL_0_) (also in the Turin Canon, II.13 in the facsimile) was later venerated as the tomb of the god Osiris.
So not only did they believe that they were the first civilization, created ex nihilo by the gods, they had places where they could go and see those gods' tombs in person. Their official history recorded the descent of their living kings from ancient deities, and they continually referred to these deities in contemporary texts. When they found old things, they knew that those things belonged to their civilization, and that they were directly descended from the people who made them.
Sources:
1. Translation from: Allen, James P. 2015. *The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts*. See the original texts [here](_URL_3_). This quote is in *PT IV (422-538)*, p. 279.
2. Obviously there is more to be said here. Representations of the mound of creation changed over time, but the central idea was always present. There's a great deal on this in: Kemp, Barry J. 2005. *Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization*.
3. The Wikipedia page is actually a great source for this. It has the original text, a transcription, and translation.
Edit: Thanks for the 𓋞!
|
[
"The first known civilization were the Subarian-Hurrians who were then succeeded in 3000 BCE by the Hurrians. The Elamites gained control around 2230 BCE and were followed by the Babylonians, Hittites, Assyrians, Romans and Byzantines.\n",
"The earliest prehistoric culture have roots in the mesolithic sites as evidenced by the rock paintings of Bhimbetka rock shelters dating to a period of 30,000 BCE or older, as well as neolithic times. According to anthropologist Possehl, the Indus Valley Civilization provides a logical, if somewhat arbitrary, starting point for South Asian religions, but these links from the Indus religion to later-day South Asian traditions are subject to scholarly dispute.\n",
"Sumerians were the first people to develop complex systems as to be called \"Civilization\", starting as far back as the 5th millennium BC. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh. Mesopotamia was home to several powerful empires that came to rule almost the entire Middle East—particularly the Assyrian Empires of 1365–1076 BC and the Neo-Assyrian Empire of 911–609 BC. From the early 7th century BC and onwards, the Iranian Medes followed by Achaemenid Persia and other subsequent Iranian states empires dominated the region. In the 1st century BC, the expanding Roman Republic absorbed the whole Eastern Mediterranean, which included much of the Near East. The Eastern Roman Empire, today commonly known as the Byzantine Empire, ruling from the Balkans to the Euphrates, became increasingly defined by and dogmatic about Christianity, gradually creating religious rifts between the doctrines dictated by the establishment in Constantinople and believers in many parts of the Middle East. From the 3rd up to the course of the 7th century AD, the entire Middle East was dominated by the Byzantines and Sassanid Persia. From the 7th century, a new power was rising in the Middle East, that of Islam. The dominance of the Arabs came to a sudden end in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuq Turks. In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the armies of the Mongol Empire, mainly Turkic, swept through the region. By the early 15th century, a new power had arisen in western Anatolia, the Ottoman emirs, linguistically Turkic and religiously Islamic, who in 1453 captured the Christian Byzantine capital of Constantinople and made themselves sultans.\n",
"While he said ancient societies engaged in ancestor worship before this date, non-ancient societies also engaged in it after that date; very advanced societies like the Aztecs and Egyptians mummified and deified rulers (see Pyramids and the philosopher Nezahualcoyotl). The Aztecs and Incans did so all the way up to their conquest by the Spanish.\n",
"Ancient Andean Civilization began with the rise or organized fishing communities from 3,500 BC onwards. Along with a sophisticated maritime society came the construction of large monuments, which likely existed as community centers.. The large ceremonial structures predated the Measoamerican Olmecs by 2,000 years making Norte Chico the first civilization in the western hemisphere.\n",
"The last known major civilization to have a partnership society, the Minoan civilization of Crete, flourished during the Bronze Age over 3500 years ago. Having existed even before Archaic Greece, it is one of the earliest known civilizations in Europe and is vital to recreating the timeline of Europe’s history. First discovered by Sir Arthur Evans, numerous artifacts have since been uncovered documenting the way of life of this ancient civilization. The Minoans had constructed enormous courts at four different palace sites which are believed to be centers for trade and other large social, political and religious activities. The Minoans also built religious tombs and cemeteries, staircases and extensive store areas showing a highly sophisticated standard of living most impressive for their time.\n",
"The oldest known civilization of the Americas was established in the Norte Chico region of modern Peru. Complex society emerged in the group of coastal valleys, between 3000 and 1800 BCE. The Quipu, a distinctive recording device among Andean civilizations, apparently dates from the era of Norte Chico's prominence.\n"
] |
how can we show child sexuality in movies, books, and other media formats, but not in pornography?
|
> In movies, like The Virgin Suicides and White Oleander, we're allowed to hear about children having sex. We even see a fourteen-year-old girl (in TVS), played by a minor, "grab" a boy.
And none of that is pornography. It's not sexually exploiting children.
> Books can get even more explicit.
Because they're fictional, and don't involve any actual children.
> Yet child pornography is illegal
Because child pornography often involves **actual sexual abuse of actual children.**
It's the same reason that you can have a movie or book about a murderer, but you can't murder people in real life.
|
[
"Child pornography under federal law is defined as any visual depiction of sexually explicit conduct involving a minor (someone under 18 years of age). Visual depictions include photographs, videos, digital or computer generated images indistinguishable from an actual minor, and images created, adapted, or modified, but appear to depict an identifiable, actual minor. Undeveloped film, undeveloped videotape, and electronically stored data that can be converted into a visual image of child pornography are also deemed illegal visual depictions under federal law. The United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit has held that images created by superimposing the face of a child on sexually explicit photographs of legal adults is not protected speech under the First Amendment.\n",
"Any images or videos that depict children in a pornographic context are to be considered child pornography in Sweden, even if they are drawings. A \"child\" is defined as a “person” who is either under the age of 18 or who has not passed puberty.\n",
"Child pornography, sometimes referred to as 'child abuse images', refers to images or films depicting sexually explicit activities involving a child. As such, child pornography is often a visual record of child sexual abuse. Abuse of the child occurs during the sexual acts which are photographed in the production of child pornography, and the effects of the abuse on the child (and continuing into maturity) are compounded by the wide distribution and lasting availability of the photographs of the abuse.\n",
"Child pornography is prevalent on the international, national, regional, and local levels. The differences of production, distribution, producers, evasion techniques, and status are explained in figure one. Child pornography is a multibillion-dollar enterprise that includes photographs, books, audiotapes, videos and more. These images depict children performing sexual acts with other children, adults, and other objects. The children are subjected to exploitation, rape, pedophilia, and in extreme cases, murder. \n",
"Manga artists and anime directors have argued that it is dangerous to try to define child pornography when it comes to artwork, drawings, and animation when regarding hentai due to it being highly ambiguous, and have cited freedom of expression to prevent it from being abused. For example, they argued that even in the anime and manga series \"Doraemon\", the scene of the schoolgirl Shizuka Minamoto taking a bath might be mis-construed as \"child pornography\". Arts depicting underage characters (lolicon and shotacon) and photography of underage models (junior idol) remain controversial in Japan.\n",
"Sweden has clarified its interpretation of child pornography as applying only to the visual representation of sexual acts with a child or minor persons, and not applying to adults acting, posing, or dressing, as a child.\n",
"Child pornography is pornography that exploits children for sexual stimulation. It may be produced with the direct involvement or sexual assault of a child (also known as child sexual abuse images) or it may be simulated child pornography. Abuse of the child occurs during the sexual acts or lascivious exhibitions of genitals or pubic areas which are recorded in the production of child pornography. Child pornography may use a variety of media, including writings, magazines, photos, sculpture, drawing, cartoon, painting, animation, sound recording, film, video, and video games.\n"
] |
Has a wholly or mainly guerrilla opposition ever driven out a large conventional force, without the aid of another country?
|
There might be a few anti-colonial conflicts worth looking at here. The FNLA in Algeria didn't (AFAIK) receive any substantive aid from other countries, nor did the major revolutionary movements in Rhodesia/Zimbabwe.
I'm pretty sure FRELIMO in Mozambique drove out the Portuguese without assistance, whilst the MPLA in Angola only received limited support from Cuba.
Finally, a case might be made for the RPF in Rwanda, although I don't think they could easily be categorised as guerillas in the way the other groups could, as they were largely composed of deserting Rwandan units from the Ugandan army.
Of course, guerilla tactics are ideal for combating colonialism precisely because they stall - by making colonialism economically untenable, they could make granting independence a more attractive choice than staying in control.
|
[
"There are many unsuccessful examples of guerrilla warfare against local or native regimes. These include Portuguese Africa (Angola, Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau), Malaysia (then Malaya) during the Malayan Emergency, Bolivia, Argentina, and the Philippines. It was even able to use these tactics effectively against the Indian Peace Keeping Force sent by India in the mid-1980s, which were later withdrawn for varied reasons, primarily political. The Tigers are fighting to create a separate homeland for Sri Lankan Tamils, many of whom complain of marginalisation by successive governments led by the Sinhalese majority since independence from Britain in 1948.\n",
"Examples of successful guerrilla warfare against a native regime include the Cuban Revolution and the Chinese Civil War, as well as the Sandinista Revolution which overthrew a military dictatorship in Nicaragua. The many coups and rebellions of Africa often reflect guerrilla warfare, with various groups having clear political objectives and using guerrilla tactics. Examples include the overthrow of regimes in Uganda, Liberia and other places. In Asia, native or local regimes have been overthrown by guerrilla warfare, most notably in Vietnam, China and Cambodia.\n",
"While these movements did destabilize governments, such as Argentina, Uruguay, Guatemala, and Peru to the point of military intervention, the military generally proceeded to completely wipe out the guerrilla movements, usually committing several atrocities among both civilians and armed insurgents in the process.\n",
"These national liberation movements were informed by the successful guerrilla warfare doctrine used in the Indonesian National Revolution (1945–1949) and the First Indochina War (1946–1954). The insurgents' goal was thus not to win the war — and no colonial army was ever defeated — but simply not to lose, thus making the conduct of the war unbearable for the colonial power over the long term.\n",
"In addition to traditional military methods, guerrilla groups may rely also on destroying infrastructure, using improvised explosive devices, for example. They typically also rely on logistical and political support from the local population and foreign backers, are often embedded within it (thereby using the population as a human shield), and many guerrilla groups are adept at public persuasion through propaganda. Many guerrilla movements today also rely heavily on children as combatants, scouts, porters, spies, informants, and in other roles, which has drawn international condemnation (although many states also recruit children into their armed forces).\n",
"In the 20th century, a number of groups engaged in guerrilla warfare in their fight to gain independence from the colonial powers, such as the Maji Maji Rebellion (1905–1907) against the Germans in Tanganyika (later Tanzania), and the Mau Mau Uprising (1952–1960) against the British in Kenya.\n",
"In 1971, Army units discovered the location of the guerrilla nucleus and were deployed to cordon off the area, preventing it from spreading its operations to the north of the Amazon. The repression of guerrilla operations began in 1972, with three military expeditions that mobilized 25,000 soldiers. While the first two were repelled, the third expedition defeated the last pockets of resistance. Most of the guerillas died in clash with Army forces, including Osvaldão Grabois and Maurice, who died in confrontation with the Army on December 25, 1973. In the 3rd campaign of annihilation, the Army used \"dirty tactics\", including torture of civilians, and execution and beheading of prisoners, hiding the bodies where they would remain unknown for decades.\n"
] |
is sleeping in a fetal position (curled-up back) as bad for your posture as slouching for 8 hrs a day?
|
I would assume that it is *not as bad* simply because you don't have the same downward pressure on the arch when you are lying down as when you are slouching in a seated position. That said, it probably isn't great for your posture to sleep in a fetal position (I do the same thing, and slouch, and have horrible posture myself).
|
[
"A study by Professor Chris Idzikowski, director of the Sleep Assessment and Advisory Service found that people who consistently sleep in the fetal position tend to have a shy and sensitive personality.\n",
"BULLET::::- Encouraging prone playtime (tummy time). Although the Back to Sleep campaign promotes infants sleeping on their backs to avoid sudden infant death syndrome during sleep, parents should still ensure that their infants spend some waking hours on their stomachs.\n",
"Placing an infant to sleep while lying on the stomach or the side increases the risk. This increased risk is greatest at two to three months of age. Elevated or reduced room temperature also increases the risk, as does excessive bedding, clothing, soft sleep surfaces, and stuffed animals. Bumper pads may increase the risk of SIDS due to the risk of suffocation. They are not recommended for children under one year of age as this risk of suffocation greatly outweighs the risk of head bumping or limbs getting stuck in the bars of the crib.\n",
"In 1992, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommended babies sleep on their backs to prevent Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS). Although the rate of SIDS decreased by 50% since the Safe to Sleep campaign started in 1994, an unintended consequence was that babies missed out on the twelve or so hours they used to spend in the prone position and there was a sharp increase in skull deformations in infants. Along with tummy time, rotating the direction infants lie in their crib as well as avoiding too much time in car seats, carriers, and bouncers are behaviors recommended to alleviate the associated risks of infants sleeping in a supine position.\n",
"Co-sleeping also increases the risks of suffocation and strangulation. The soft quality of the mattresses, comforters, and pillows may suffocate the infants. Some experts, then, recommend that the bed should be firm, and should not be a waterbed or couch; and that heavy quilts, comforters, and pillows should not be used. Another common advice given to prevent suffocation is to keep a baby on its back, not its stomach. Parents who roll over during their sleep could inadvertently crush and/or suffocate their child, especially if they are heavy sleepers, over-tired or over-exhausted and/or obese. There is also the risk of the baby falling to a hard floor, or getting wedged between the bed and the wall or headboard. A proposed solution to these problems is the bedside bassinet, in which, rather than bed-sharing, the baby's bed is placed next to the parent's bed.\n",
"Lastly, temperament also seems to yield correlations with sleep patterns. Researchers believe that infants classified as “difficult,” as well as those who are very sensitive to changes in the environment, tend to have a harder time sleeping through the night. Parents whose infants sleep through the night generally rate their infant’s temperaments more favorably than parents whose infant continue to wake; however, it is hard to determine if a given temperament causes sleep problems or if sleep problems promote specific temperaments or behaviors.\n",
"Since 1998 there have been several studies published which report that infants placed to sleep in the supine position lag in motor skills, social skills, and cognitive ability development when compared to infants who sleep in the prone position. In a 1998 article entitled \"Effects of Sleep Position on Infant Motor Development\" by Davis, Moon, Sachs, and Ottolini, the authors state \"We found that sleep position significantly impacts early motor development.\" The prone (stomach) sleeping infants in this study slept an average of 225.2 hours (8.3%) more in their first 6 months of life than the supine (back) sleeping infants.\n"
] |
Good Holocaust books dealing with holocaust denial?
|
Michael Shermer and Alex Grobman's *Denying History: Who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and Why Do They Say It?* is a survey of deniers.
Good luck engaging Deniers though, it's equivalent to yelling at a brick wall. Denialism thrives off of ahistorical arguments and although many deniers style themselves as historians or skeptics, they are not playing by the evidentiary rules of either.
|
[
"Holocaust denial is also considered an antisemitic conspiracy theory because of its position that the Holocaust is a hoax designed to advance the interests of Jews and justify the creation of the State of Israel. Notable Holocaust deniers include former Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmedinejad, the convicted chemist Germar Rudolf and the discredited author David Irving.\n",
"A number of public figures and scholars have spoken out against Holocaust denial, with some – such as literary theorist Jean Baudrillard – likening Holocaust denial to \"part of the extermination itself\". The American Historical Association, the oldest and largest society of historians and teachers of history in the United States, states that Holocaust denial is \"at best, a form of academic fraud\". In 2006, UN Secretary General Kofi Annan said: \"Remembering is a necessary rebuke to those who say the Holocaust never happened or has been exaggerated. Holocaust denial is the work of bigots; we must reject their false claims whenever, wherever and by whomever they are made.\" Holocaust survivor and Nobel Prize winner Elie Wiesel, during a 1999 discussion at the White House in Washington D.C., called the Holocaust \"the most documented tragedy in recorded history. Never before has a tragedy elicited so much witness from the killers, from the victims and even from the bystanders—millions of pieces here in the museum what you have, all other museums, archives in the thousands, in the millions.\"\n",
"Scholarly response to Holocaust denial can be roughly divided into three categories. Some academics refuse to engage Holocaust deniers or their arguments at all, on grounds that doing so lends them unwarranted legitimacy. A second group of scholars, typified by the American historian Deborah Lipstadt, have tried to raise awareness of the methods and motivations of Holocaust denial without legitimizing the deniers themselves. \"We need not waste time or effort answering the deniers' contentions,\" Lipstadt wrote. \"It would be never-ending... Their commitment is to an ideology and their 'findings' are shaped to support it.\" A third group, typified by the Nizkor Project, responds to arguments and claims made by Holocaust denial groups by pointing out inaccuracies and errors in their evidence.\n",
"Holocaust denial is generally viewed as antisemitic. Walter Reich, professor of international affairs at George Washington University and former director of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, stated, \"The primary motivation for most deniers is anti-Semitism.\" The \"Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity\" describes Holocaust denial as \"a new form of anti-Semitism, but one that hinges on age-old motifs.\" According to the Anti-Defamation League, \"Holocaust denial is a contemporary form of the classic anti-Semitic doctrine of the evil, manipulative and threatening world Jewish conspiracy.\" French historian Valérie Igounet wrote, \"Holocaust denial is a convenient polemical substitute for anti-semitism.\" In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia published a working definition of antisemitism that included \"denying the fact, scope, mechanisms (e.g. gas chambers) or intentionality of the genocide of the Jewish people at the hands of National Socialist Germany and its supporters and accomplices during World War II (the Holocaust)\".\n",
"In August 2018, Unz made use of Holocaust denial arguments, writing \"I think it far more likely than not that the standard Holocaust narrative is at least substantially false, and quite possibly, almost entirely so.\" That same year, \"The Unz Review\" published material by the Holocaust deniers Kevin Barrett and David Irving, and Unz himself implied Mossad was involved in the murders of President John F. Kennedy and his brother Robert.\n",
"The \"Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity\" defines Holocaust denial as \"a new form of anti-Semitism, but one that hinges on age-old motifs\". The Anti-Defamation League has stated that \"Holocaust denial is a contemporary form of the classic anti-Semitic doctrine of the evil, manipulative and threatening world Jewish conspiracy\" and French historian Valérie Igounet has written that \"Holocaust denial is a convenient polemical substitute for anti-semitism.\"\n",
"Holocaust denial is widely viewed as failing to adhere to principles for the treatment of evidence that mainstream historians (as well as scholars in other fields) regard as basic to rational inquiry.\n"
] |
why are people hiding ebola victims?
|
A person you've never met before, dressed in a spacesuit, walks into your home and tells you that your sick child must go with them. You have to walk miles to the hospital where they've taken her. They tell you she died. They won't let you see her. They won't let you have a funeral. They bury her in a plastic bag.
And if you do go to a hospital this is what you find:
> **There was blood on the walls, starving patients and hygienists using water that was “brown like mud.” Health workers moved from high-risk to low-risk areas without changing clothes;** “you never knew who was next to you,” Chenard says. “It could be a patient, suspected or confirmed … it could be hospital personnel.”
The President of Doctors Without Borders, Joanne Liu, said:
> **“Ebola treatment centres are reduced to places where people go to die alone, ..."**
It's a desperate situation and I guess they would rather die at home.
|
[
"African conservation refugees, some sources numbering them somewhere around 14 million, have long been displaced due to transnational efforts to preserve select areas of biota that are believed to be critical from a historical and environmental perspective. What purpose do protected areas serve and why are they established? According to the article \"Parks and Peoples: the social impact of protected areas\" protected areas are a way of \"seeing, understanding, and reproducing the world around us\" as well as serving as a place of social interaction and production. In short protected areas are established to preserve an area in its natural state in an increasingly globalized world. Although the traditional residential grounds of millions of native peoples have existed for hundreds of years, conservation efforts continually encroach upon these areas in an effort to preserve biological diversity in both flora and fauna.\n",
"Many governments across the world have put measures in place which are aimed at preventing the possible spread of Ebola into their countries, and to prepare an appropriate response in order to protect their populations from Ebola. These include:\n",
"In terms of prognosis, aside from the possible effects of post-Ebola syndrome, there is also the reality of survivors returning to communities where they might be shunned due to the fear many have in the respective areas of the Ebola virus, hence psychosocial assistance is needed.\n",
"Afgan refugees are Afghanistan nationals who have fled their country as a result of the ongoing Afghan conflict. About six million people have fled the country, most to neighbouring Pakistan and Iran, making it the largest producer of refugees in the world.\n",
"Resistance to Western medicine is considered to be a significant barrier to battling the Ebola virus. The Wesley Medical Center claims that the interference with West African burial rituals caused by Western medical practices has prohibited them from properly honoring their loved ones. They believe that this may have been a reason for heightened distrust in medical professionals, and that the mistrust enhances each time family members of infected persons are prohibited from participating in the funeral or seeing the dead body in person. Due to the mistrust, Ebola-stricken communities in Liberia reportedly hid family members with Ebola from health care providers and held secret burials. In Sierra Leone, health workers made more progress because health measures were implemented according to WHO guidance, which advises health workers to heed the traditions of the threatened communities when attending to the dead. Therefore, funerals were held in agreement with the wishes of the families, but also gave health workers an opportunity to disinfect the bodies. In many of the Ebola infected areas in Africa, Western medicine is also believed either to be ineffective or to be the actual origin of the virus. In other words, there is a belief among the African community that Western doctors are intentionally killing their patients with their treatments. A conspiracy theory also says that the medical professionals are planning to harvest the organs of those dying from Ebola.\n",
"Refugees are often more susceptible to illness for several reasons, including a lack of immunity to local strains of malaria and other diseases. Displacement of a people can create favorable conditions for disease transmission. Refugee camps are typically heavily populated with poor sanitary conditions. The removal of vegetation for space, building materials or firewood also deprives mosquitoes of their natural habitats, leading them to more closely interact with humans. In the 1970s, Afghani refugees that were relocated to Pakistan were going from a country with an effective malaria control strategy, to a country with a less effective system.\n",
"Slums have been historically linked to epidemics, and this trend has continued in modern times. For example, the slums of West African nations such as Liberia were crippled by as well as contributed to the outbreak and spread of Ebola in 2014. Slums are considered a major public health concern and potential breeding grounds of drug resistant diseases for the entire city, the nation, as well as the global community.\n"
] |
what are the main differences between hydraulics and pneumatics?
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Air can move far more quickly than hydraulics. If you want something to move fast, air is the answer.
Air is also compressible, if you want shock absorption (like air ride suspension in cars and trucks), again, air is the answer.
Hydraulics use an oil instead of air, but the way they work is almost identical. Hydraulic fluid moves slower, but can be compressed to far higher pressures. When you need to move big and heavy loads, and don't have to do it fast, hydraulic is the answer. This is why you see it on all those big machines (dump trucks, bull dozers, front loaders).
Since fluid doesn't compress, there is no shock absorption, but that also means there is no "bounce". When something needs to be held steady (like an electric company bucket, or a fork lift balancing a load), again, hydraulic is the answer.
Thanks to these two properties, hydraulic is also more precise than pnumatic. When high accuracy is needed, you're probably going to see hydraulic. Believe it or not, even with a huge excavator, a good operator can pick up a coin or fold a napkin thanks to the incredibly accuracy a hydraulic system can provide.
|
[
"Both pneumatics and hydraulics are applications of fluid power. Pneumatics uses an easily compressible gas such as air or a suitable pure gas—while hydraulics uses relatively incompressible liquid media such as oil. Most industrial pneumatic applications use pressures of about . Hydraulics applications commonly use from , but specialized applications may exceed . \n",
"Hydraulics (from Greek: Υδραυλική) is a technology and applied science using engineering, chemistry, and other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the liquid counterpart of pneumatics, which concerns gases. Fluid mechanics provides the theoretical foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on the applied engineering using the properties of fluids. In its fluid power applications, hydraulics is used for the generation, control, and transmission of power by the use of pressurized liquids. Hydraulic topics range through some parts of science and most of engineering modules, and cover concepts such as pipe flow, dam design, fluidics and fluid control circuitry. The principles of hydraulics are in use naturally in the human body within the vascular system and erectile tissue.\n",
"Pneumatic actuators, or pneumatic cylinders, are similar to hydraulic actuators except they use compressed gas to generate force instead of a liquid. They work similarly to a piston in which air is pumped inside a chamber and pushed out of the other side of the chamber. Air actuators are not necessarily used for heavy duty machinery and instances where large amounts of weight are present. One of the reasons pneumatic linear actuators are preferred to other types is the fact that the power source is simply an air compressor. Because air is the input source, pneumatic actuators are able to be used in many places of mechanical activity. The downside is, most air compressors are large, bulky, and loud. They are hard to transport to other areas once installed. Pneumatic linear actuators are likely to leak and this makes them less efficient than mechanical linear actuators.\n",
"Hydraulic systems, like pneumatic systems, are based on Pascal’s law which states that any pressure applied to a fluid inside a closed system will transmit that pressure equally everywhere and in all directions. A hydraulic system uses an incompressible liquid as its fluid, rather than a compressible gas.\n",
"Moreover, mechanical advantage is possible by use of electrostatic-pneumatic actuation. Since the cavity is filled with air, mechanical amplification is lower than hydraulic machinery with a non-compressible fluid.\n",
"A hydraulic cylinder (also called a linear hydraulic motor) is a mechanical actuator that is used to give a unidirectional force through a unidirectional stroke. It has many applications, notably in construction equipment (engineering vehicles), manufacturing machinery, and civil engineering.\n",
"Like hydraulic cylinders, something forces a piston to move in the desired direction. The piston is a disc or cylinder, and the piston rod transfers the force it develops to the object to be moved. Engineers sometimes prefer to use pneumatics because they are quieter, cleaner, and do not require large amounts of space for fluid storage.\n"
] |
why are non-real ids still available in the us?
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State governments just refusing to implement the new documentation requirements in a timely manner. Plus the process also involves some individuals having to physically visit an office to present documents before their current IDs expire.
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[
"On December 17, 2018, H.R. 3398 amended the Real ID Act of 2005 to clarify that a citizen of the Freely Associated States (FAS) when admitted in the US on a non-immigrant basis is eligible for a driver's license or ID card. This was in order to resolve an outdated term in the original REAL ID Act. The Freely Associated States includes the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, or the Republic of Palau.\n",
"Some have asserted that Real ID will turn state driver’s licenses into a national identity card and impose numerous new burdens on taxpayers, citizens, immigrants, and state governments – while doing nothing to protect against terrorism. As a result, it is stirring intense opposition from many groups across the political spectrum. Critics have claimed that ITAA supports the national ID card because its member companies would benefit from financially from implementing the card.\n",
"Many advocacy groups and individual opponents of the Real ID Act believe that having a Real ID-compliant license may become a requirement for various basic tasks. Thus a January 2008 statement by ACLU of Maryland says: \"The law places no limits on potential required uses for Real IDs. In time, Real IDs could be required to vote, collect a Social Security check, access Medicaid, open a bank account, go to an Orioles game, or buy a gun. The private sector could begin mandating a Real ID to perform countless commercial and financial activities, such as renting a DVD or buying car insurance. Real ID cards would become a necessity, making them de facto national IDs\". However, in order to perform some tasks, government-issued identification is already required (e.g., two forms of ID – usually a driver's license, passport, or Social Security card – are required by the Patriot Act in order to open a bank account).\n",
"Organizations on both sides of the immigration issue have found fault with Real ID's immigration policy. No strategy introduced by the Real ID Act has been found to create relevant changes in illegal human trafficking, pecuniary employment of undocumented aliens, or their establishing residence in the U.S.\n",
"BULLET::::- Rather than relying on government-issued ID cards, US federal policy has the alternative to encourage the variety of identification systems that already exist, such as driver's or firearms licences or private cards.\n",
"The Real ID will be vulnerable to insider and outsider fraud because The Real ID Act requires States to connect their drivers license data to the data of all 55 other states and territories. Thousands of false driver's licenses are already being issued by bribed state employees, and the Federal Government has exposed the personal information of as many as 40 million Americans to potential theft. The Real ID database will certainly be a target for identity thieves.\n",
"Law enforcement officials claim that identity cards make surveillance and the search for criminals easier and therefore support the universal adoption of identity cards. In countries that don't have a national identity card, there is, however, concern about the projected large costs and potential abuse of high-tech smartcards.\n"
] |
What was the average number of children a Christian family had around 0 - 100 A.D.?
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This is an interesting, but extremely difficult question to answer. The reason for this is that the question transcends more than just a religious group. We have evidence that by 50 to 60 AD, Christianity had spread (although it was incredibly small at this time) to cities all over the Levant, ancient Greece and all the way to Rome itself. We also know, by the quality of the writing, especially in the seven letters of Paul that we know are authentic, and by the style of the Gospels, that the writers were all fairly well-educated. This is significant because it shows that By the time Paul started writing his letters (around 50-55 c.e.) until the time the Gospels started being written (70-90 ce) Christianity had gone from being a small Jewish sect of peasants to having a diverse demographical make up. (For more on this I recommend reading, Ramsay MacMullen's (a Roman Social Historian) book [Christianizing the Roman Empire: A.D. 100-400](_URL_0_) which explains this in quite a bit more detail.
That said, numbers mean a lot and Christianity needed to spread an awful lot and quickly to go from between 20-30 people (which I recently discovered is the mainstream belief for Early Christianity Historians) at around the time of Jesus' death (around 30 ce, plus/minus 5 years) to being 5% of the population by the early fourth century, which would have been 3 million people. Rodney Stark's book [The Rise of Christianity](_URL_1_) although incredibly controversial and disputed by many scholars, did make one assertion that many scholars either agreed with or didn't oppose. That is, that he believed that, on average, Christianity needed to gain about 40% more followers per decade until the year 300.
So why do I mention all these numbers? Well, because it shows that A: Christianity started out incredibly small and remained small for quite some time. But B) it did get more progressively popular over the course of the first three centuries CE and that it wasn't limited to just the area around the Levant so again, we aren't just dealing with a specific group of people -- we are talking about different cultures from all over the Mediterranean, most of which had different practices for bearing children.
However, it's safe to say a few things demographics wise. On average, typical Jewish peasant who lived an agrarian type of life-style could typically have up to 4-8 children, of course not all would live to be adults. Those who lived in cities or were more wealthy probably had fewer children, but again, we have no exact numbers on this. I am not qualified to answer how many children people in Ancient Greece or Rome would have had, so I digress from answering that aspect of the question.
TLDR: Ancient Hebrew peasant families typically had 4-8 children, yet Christianity had spread to multiple cities and states over those first few decades, so individual studies would be needed to answer the question in more detail.
Sorry if this wasn't the exact answer you were hoping for.
|
[
"Various statistics of population were published during the year. Among other significant features, it was stated that the number of children under five years of age, in the whole of the territories of the former Hohenzollern empire, had sunk from 8,000,000 in 1911 to 5,000,000 in 1919.\n",
"By 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion. Christians have 2.7 children per woman, which is above replacement level (2.1). According to Pew Research Center study, by 2050 the number of Christians in absolute number is expected to grow to more than double in the next few decades, from 517 million to 1.1 billion in Sub Saharan Africa, from 531 million to 665 million in Latin America and Caribbean, from 287 million to 381 million in Asia, and from 266 million to 287 million in North America.\n",
"As per the data available, Christians constituted 63.83% (232,189 individuals), whereas Hindus comprised just 35.42% (128,824 individuals) in the 1851 census. The next census was carried out in 1881, according to which Christians were 58%, while Hindus were 42% of the population.\n",
"(100%: 6,981,381, registered resident population age 15 years and older). From the same 2016 survey, of 15 to 24 year olds 65.4% were Christian (36.3% Roman Catholic, 22.6% Reformed, 6.6% other), 23.0% unaffiliated, 0.3% Jewish, 8.3% Muslim, 1.7% other religions. Those aged 25 to 44 were 58.4% Christian (33.1% Roman Catholic, 18.7% Reformed, 6.7% other), 31.0% unaffiliated, 0.2% Jewish, 7.5% Muslim, 1.7% other religions. Older adults (45 to 64 years old) were 67.0% Christian (37.7% Roman Catholic, 23.9% Reformed, 5.5% other), 25.9% unaffiliated, 0.2% Jewish, 4.2% Muslim, 1.5% other religions. Senior citizens (over 65) were 81.3% Christian (40.3% Roman Catholic, 36.2% Reformed, 4.8% other), 14.9% unaffiliated, 0.3% Jewish, 1.1% Muslim, 0.5% other religions.\n",
"Christian fertility rate is 2.7 children per woman, which is higher than the global average fertility rate of 2.5. Globally, Christians were only slightly older (median age of 30) than the global average median age of 28 in 2010. According to Pew Research religious switching is projected to have a modest impact on changes in the Christian population.\n",
"The next largest group are Seventh-day Adventists, 5.9% of the population, followed by Methodists (4.2%). 3.8% of the population are Roman Catholics. Other Christians include Wesleyans (3.4%), Nazarenes (3.2%), Church of God (2.4%), Jehovah's Witnesses (2.0%), Baptists (1.8), Moravians (1.2%), Brethren Christian (0.5%), the Salvationists (0.4%) and Latter-day Saints ( 0.1%).\n",
"The 1932 census stated that Christians made up 50% of the resident population. Maronites, largest among the Christian denomination and then largely in control of the state apparatus, accounted for 29% of the total resident population.\n"
] |
Is it possible to create a sonic boom by waving a stick really fast?
|
Actually, I wouldn't be surprised if this was totally possible. In fact, this is basically the mechanism for making a whip crack - it's just a sonic boom - [these guys have a good high speed video and discuss the exact physics at play in a whip](_URL_0_).
|
[
"A sonic boom does not occur only at the moment an object crosses the speed of sound; and neither is it heard in all directions emanating from the speeding object. Rather the boom is a continuous effect that occurs while the object is travelling at supersonic speeds. But it affects only observers that are positioned at a point that intersects a region in the shape of a geometrical cone behind the object. As the object moves, this conical region also moves behind it and when the cone passes over the observer, they will briefly experience the \"boom\".\n",
"The tip of a bullwhip is thought to be the first man-made object to break the sound barrier, resulting in the telltale \"crack\" (actually a small sonic boom). The wave motion traveling through the bullwhip is what makes it capable of achieving supersonic speeds.\n",
"A sonic boom is the sound associated with the shock waves created whenever an object travelling through the air travels faster than the speed of sound. Sonic booms generate enormous amounts of sound energy, sounding similar to an explosion or a thunderclap to the human ear. The crack of a supersonic bullet passing overhead or the crack of a bullwhip are examples of a sonic boom in miniature.\n",
"A sonic boom is the sound associated with the shock waves created whenever an object traveling through the air travels faster than the speed of sound. Sonic booms generate significant amounts of sound energy, sounding similar to an explosion or a thunderclap to the human ear. The crack of a supersonic bullet passing overhead or the crack of a bullwhip are examples of a sonic boom in miniature.\n",
"\"Boom Blox\" has been described as Jenga meets \"Tetris Blast\", \"Breakout\", \"Duck Hunt\", and Lego. Gameplay emphasises reflexes, dexterity, and problem-solving skills. It features a physics model that ensures the blocks collapse realistically, and also measures the velocity at which an object is thrown, recognising four distinct speeds. In the game, players use the Wii Remote to manipulate bowling balls, baseballs, laser guns, and water hoses in order to knock over structures made of blocks. Alternately, they use the Wii Remote to grab blocks in Jenga-style gameplay, taking care to remove a maximum number of blocks without toppling the precariously stacked tower.\n",
"\"Sonic Boom\" is an action-adventure game with a stronger emphasis on exploration and combat compared to previous \"Sonic the Hedgehog\" installments, featuring four main characters whom players control: Sonic, Tails, Knuckles, and Amy. Each character has their own unique abilities and gameplay mechanics: Sonic can use his speed and homing attacks, Tails can fly and use various gadgets, Knuckles can burrow underground and climb on walls, and Amy can use her hammer to swing on poles. Each character also possesses a whip-like weapon called the Enerbeam, which allows them to perform various actions such as hanging from speeding rails, removing enemy shields, and solving puzzles. There is also a focus on collaboration, with player's switching control between multiple characters and using their abilities to progress. The game will support local co-operative multiplayer for two players, with additional modes for up to four players locally.\n",
"BULLET::::- Sonic 1 Boomed is a hack of \"Sonic the Hedgehog\" that implements Sonic's redesign from the \"Sonic Boom\" animated series, and additionally gives Sonic voice clips that play when the player simply jumps or collects rings. The hack was created as a joke to respond to the poor reception of \"\".\n"
] |
Did the early-modern developers of the physical/chemical atomic theory explicitly credit ancient philosophical Atomism?
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By the late-18th/early-19th century the idea of Atomism had been hashed over for literally centuries. They weren't going back to the Ancients at that point. Dalton's own discussions of Atomism were rooted more in the work of Newton (who made various corpuscular assumptions in his work) than they were in Democritus or Epicurus.
If you go back to the earlier discussions, e.g. Robert Boyle, you get a much more complicated picture. Boyle's Atomism was certainly done with knowledge of the Ancient philosophers on the subject, but his more immediate inspiration were discussions within alchemical theory about the nature of matter (which are more Aristotelian than Democritus/Epicurus; e.g. "what is matter made of that allows it to be X sometimes and Y another?").
The sort of place where I've seen explicit invocations of Democritus and Epicurus has been in discussions about the vacuum and Plenism (Atomism's antagonist philosophy, which argues for a continuum of matter, and lack of vacuum). The line between the philosophical and the empirical in this discussion, in the 17th century anyway (again, over a century before Dalton), is completely fuzzy. Hence one of the biggest arguments was between Boyle (a "chemist" in a modern framing) and Thomas Hobbes (a "philosopher"), who both saw themselves as doing semi-empirical, semi-philosophical work. Hobbes deployed Democritus and Epicurus to argue _against_ Boyle's conception of the vacuum, and thus against Boyle's interpretation of his late 17th-century air-pump experiments. Which is just to say: everyone in that time would have recognized that these figures were involved in putting out philosophies of Atomism, but even by the 17th century it wasn't required to go back to them to get the ideas, there were plenty of other sources.
Dalton's accomplishment was not in re-inventing or even re-invoking Atomism. It was in trying to give it a strong physical basis and tie that into its possible chemical implications. It is very much the project of someone who has already stopped caring about what the Ancients said about such a matter, which itself is a very late-Enlightenment, post-chemical revolution sort of move. An earlier figure, like Boyle, cared a bit about the Ancients — not so much because he thought everything they said was accurate, but because they formed sort of a bedrock of understanding that he could push back against or build off of. And because he did think that ultimately what he was doing was a form of philosophy, even if he made an argument that new machines (like the air-pump) could serve as a run-around to philosophical quandaries. And the influence of alchemical theorizing on Boyle cannot be overstated — it was core to his understanding of what might have been going on in _all_ of his experimental work.
This is a big topic and I don't claim to know every in and out of it (I am not an early modernist in the slightest, though I dip a toe into these readings sometimes for teaching purposes, and find the Boyle stuff pretty interesting for its strangeness). On Boyle v. Hobbes, Shapin and Schaffer's _Leviathan and the Air-Pump_ (1985) is the classic text. On Dalton's Atomism, I found this article very useful a little while back: Alan J. Rocke, "In Search of El Dorado: John Dalton and the Origins of the Atomic Theory," _Social Research_ 72, no. 1 (Spring 2005), 125-158. Rocke does a great job of situating Dalton's Newtonism and what exactly he was trying to accomplish. On Boyle's (and others') alchemical atomism (and various other Atomisms at the time), see esp. William R. Newman, "The Significance of 'Chymical Atomism,'" _Early Science and Medicine_ 14, no. 1/3 (2009), 248-264. Newman is one of the great scholars of Boyle and alchemy. It is a difficult world to translate into modern physical/chemical terms on the whole — that is just not how they saw it working, and you sort of have to dive in on their own terms.
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[
"A basic chemical hypothesis first emerged in Classical Greece with the theory of four elements as propounded definitively by Aristotle stating that fire, air, earth and water were the fundamental elements from which everything is formed as a combination. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by philosophers such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BCE, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book \"De rerum natura\" (On The Nature of Things). Unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments.\n",
"With the rise of scholasticism and the decline of the Roman Empire, the atomic theory was abandoned for many ages in favor of the various four element theories and later alchemical theories. The 17th century, however, saw a resurgence in the atomic theory primarily through the works of Gassendi, and Newton. Among other scientists of that time Gassendi deeply studied ancient history, wrote major works about Epicurus natural philosophy and was a persuasive propagandist of it. He reasoned that to account for the size and shape of atoms moving in a void could account for the properties of matter. Heat was due to small, round atoms; cold, to pyramidal atoms with sharp points, which accounted for the pricking sensation of severe cold; and solids were held together by interlacing hooks. Newton, though he acknowledged the various atom attachment theories in vogue at the time, i.e. \"hooked atoms\", \"glued atoms\" (bodies at rest), and the \"stick together by conspiring motions\" theory, rather believed, as famously stated in \"Query 31\" of his 1704 \"Opticks\", that particles attract one another by some force, which \"in immediate contact is extremely strong, at small distances performs the chemical operations, and reaches not far from particles with any sensible effect.\" \n",
"Atomism is a central part of today's relationship between thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. Ancient thinkers such as Leucippus and Democritus, and later the Epicureans, by advancing atomism, laid the foundations for the later atomic theory. Until experimental proof of atoms was later provided in the 20th century, the atomic theory was driven largely by philosophical considerations and scientific intuition.\n",
"\"Aristotle and Theophrastos certainly made him [Leucippus] the originator of the atomic theory, and they can hardly have been mistaken on such a point.\" An authoritative quote by Burnet in the fourth edition of \"Early Greek Philosophy\" (1930), Chapter IX 'Leuikippos of Miletos', pg. 330.\n",
"References to the concept of atomism and its atoms appeared in both ancient Greek and ancient Indian philosophical traditions. The ancient Greek atomists theorized that nature consists of two fundamental principles: \"atom\" and \"void\". Unlike their modern scientific namesake in atomic theory, philosophical atoms come in an infinite variety of shapes and sizes, each indestructible, immutable and surrounded by a void where they collide with the others or hook together forming a cluster. Clusters of different shapes, arrangements, and positions give rise to the various macroscopic substances in the world.\n",
"While Aristotelian philosophy eclipsed the importance of the atomists in late Roman and medieval Europe, their work was still preserved and exposited through commentaries on the works of Aristotle. In the 2nd century, Galen (AD 129–216) presented extensive discussions of the Greek atomists, especially Epicurus, in his Aristotle commentaries. According to historian of atomism Joshua Gregory, there was no serious work done with atomism from the time of Galen until Gassendi and Descartes resurrected it in the 17th century; \"the gap between these two 'modern naturalists' and the ancient Atomists marked \"the exile of the atom\" and \"it is universally admitted that the Middle Ages had abandoned Atomism, and virtually lost it.\"\n",
"Ancient philosophy posited a set of classical elements to explain observed patterns in nature. These \"elements\" originally referred to \"earth\", \"water\", \"air\" and \"fire\" rather than the chemical elements of modern science.\n"
] |
Why didn't slaves in ancient times just run away? and how were they distinguished from free men?
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First off, many slaves in the ancient world *did* run away and the possibility was always there. There were also numerous large-scale slave revolts, most famously the one led by Spartacus that had to be put down by a Roman army. To prevent mass escapes, Roman slave owners used either the carrot or the stick. Branding, shackling, abuse, and torture were used to keep many slaves in check, while others in more favored positions were given a stipend (Lat. *peculium*) and much more independence. The most-favored slaves were those belonging to the emperor, who, along with his freedmen, had a hand in administering the empire.
Harper, Slavery in the Late Roman World, AD 275-425 is excellent recent study on the subject. [Here](_URL_2_) he discusses different types of incentives offered to slaves.
To give just one example of a fugitive slave from a documentary source, [P.Cair.Preis. 1](_URL_1_) (148 CE) ([image](_URL_0_)) is a report of judicial proceedings from the province of Egypt concerning an enslaved woman named Eutychia, who was purchased for 1,160 drachmas (a hefty sum, enough to employ some 40 men for a month). According to the report, "after she stayed with him (the new owner) for a short time, she ran away taking with her the sale contracts and much of his belongings."
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[
"In Ancient Egypt, slaves were mainly obtained through prisoners of war. Other ways people could become slaves was by inheriting the status from their parents. One could also become a slave on account of his inability to pay his debts. Slavery was the direct result of poverty. People also sold themselves into slavery because they were poor peasants and needed food and shelter. The lives of slaves were normally better than that of peasants. Slaves only attempted escape when their treatment was unusually harsh. For many, being a slave in Egypt made them better off than a freeman elsewhere. Young slaves could not be put to hard work, and had to be brought up by the mistress of the household. Not all slaves went to houses. Some also sold themselves to temples, or were assigned to temples by the king. Slave trading was not very popular until later in Ancient Egypt. Afterwards, slave trades sprang up all over Egypt. However, there was barely any worldwide trade. Rather, the individual dealers seem to have approached their customers personally. Only slaves with special traits were traded worldwide. Prices of slaves changed with time. Slaves with a special skill were more valuable than those without one. Slaves had plenty of jobs that they could be assigned to. Some had domestic jobs, like taking care of children, cooking, brewing, or cleaning. Some were gardeners or field hands in stables. They could be craftsmen or even get a higher status. For example, if they could write, they could become a manager of the master's estate. Captive slaves were mostly assigned to the temples or a king, and they had to do manual labor. The worst thing that could happen to a slave was being assigned to the quarries and mines. Private ownership of slaves, captured in war and given by the king to their captor, certainly occurred at the beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty (1550–1295 BCE). Sales of slaves occurred in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (732–656 BCE), and contracts of servitude survive from the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (c. 672 – 525 BCE) and from the reign of Darius: apparently such a contract then required the consent of the slave.\n",
"\"A History of Ancient Greece\" explains that in the context of Ancient Greece, affranchisement came in many forms. A master choosing to free his slave would most likely do so only \"at his death, specifying his desire in his will\". In rare cases, slaves who were able to earn enough money in their labour were able to buy their own freedom and were known as \"choris oikointes\". Two 4th-century bankers, Pasion and Phormio, had been slaves before they bought their freedom. A slave could also be sold fictitiously to a sanctuary from where a god could enfranchise him. In very rare circumstances, the city could affranchise a slave. A notable example is that Athens liberated everyone who was present at the Battle of Arginusae (406 BCE).\n",
"Ancient Egyptians were able to sell themselves and children into slavery in a form of bonded labor. Self-sale into servitude was not always a choice made by the individuals’ free will, but rather a result of individuals who were unable to pay off their debts. The creditor would wipe the debt by acquiring the individual who was in debt as a slave, along with his children and wife. The debtor would also have to give up all that was owned. Peasants were also able to sell themselves into slavery for food or shelter.\n",
"Most families owned slaves as household servants and laborers, and even poor families might have owned a few slaves. Owners were not allowed to beat or kill their slaves. Owners often promised to free slaves in the future to encourage slaves to work hard. Unlike in Rome, freedmen did not become citizens. Instead, they were mixed into the population of \"metics\", which included people from foreign countries or other city-states who were officially allowed to live in the state.\n",
"A major source of slaves had been Roman military expansion during the Republic. The use of former soldiers as slaves led perhaps inevitably to a series of \"en masse\" armed rebellions, the Servile Wars, the last of which was led by Spartacus. During the \"Pax Romana\" of the early Roman Empire (1st–2nd centuries AD), emphasis was placed on maintaining stability, and the lack of new territorial conquests dried up this supply line of human trafficking. To maintain an enslaved work force, increased legal restrictions on freeing slaves were put into place. Escaped slaves would be hunted down and returned (often for a reward). There were also many cases of poor people selling their children to richer neighbors as slaves in times of hardship.\n",
"Slaves were simultaneously family members and family property. They could be bought, sold, acquired through warfare, or born and raised within their master's household. They could also buy their freedom with money saved or the offer of future services as a freedman or woman, and their sons could be eligible for citizenship; this degree of social mobility was unusual in the ancient world. Freed slaves and the master who freed them retained certain legal and moral mutual obligations. This was the bottom rung of one of Rome's fundamental social and economic institutions, the client-patron relationship. At the top rung were the senatorial families of the landowning nobility, both patrician and plebeian, bound by shifting allegiances and mutual competition. A plebiscite of 218 forbade senators and their sons to engage in substantial trade or money-lending. A wealthy equestrian class emerged, not subject to the same trading constraints as the senate.\n",
"Freeborn Romans who fell into slavery were supposed to be protected from sexual exploitation, as indicated by two different stories recorded by ancient historians. Before the abolition of debt bondage in the 4th century BC, free Romans were sometimes driven to sell themselves or their children into slavery when they were overwhelmed by debt. According to Livy, debt slavery (\"nexum\") was abolished as a direct result of the attempted sexual abuse of a freeborn youth who served as surety for his father's debt with the usurer Lucius Papirius. The boy, Gaius Publilius, was notably beautiful, and Papirius insisted that as a bond slave he was required to provide sexual services. When Publilius refused, Papirius had him stripped and whipped. The youth then took to the streets to display his injuries, and an outcry among the people led the consuls to convene the senate. The political process eventually led to the \"Lex Poetelia Papiria\", which prohibited holding debtors in bondage for their debt and required instead that the debtor’s property be used as collateral. The law thus established that the integrity of a Roman citizen's body was fundamental to the concept of \"libertas\", political liberty, in contrast to the uses to which a slave's body was subject. In this and a similar incident reported by Valerius Maximus, corporal punishment and sexual abuse are seen as similar violations of the citizen's freedom from physical compulsion, in contrast to the slave's physical vulnerability.\n"
] |
how did obamacre kill jobs, if it really did?
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I believe that arguments comes from one of the articles of the bill that requires employers that have a staff of certain size must provide insurance for their employees. If an employer might have trouble affording this cost, they might have to lay off workers or cut back hours in order to compensate.
Of course, the counter-argument to this is that one of the main goals of Obamacare is to push down rising health care costs, so that offering it to your employees won't hit the bottom line so hard. As well there are tax breaks and incentives to help ease the costs. Other arguments for it include the cost savings of having a work force that is healthy. With health insurance, small health problems can be taken care of before they become large health problems. A person who comes down with influenza without health care may have to just tough it out, costing them weeks of missed work shifts or the chance of infecting their coworkers. With health insurance, he'd be more likely to see a doctor and get treatment, turning a long sick leave into a relatively shorter one.
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[
"A Zogby International August 2004 poll found that 71% of American voters believed \"outsourcing jobs overseas\" hurt the economy while another 62% believed that the U.S. government should impose some legislative action against these companies, possibly in the form of increased taxes. President Obama promoted the 'Bring Jobs Home Act' to help reshore jobs by using tax cuts and credits for moving operations back to the USA. The same bill was reintroduced in the 113th United States Congress as the Bring Jobs Home Act (S. 2569; 113th Congress).\n",
"President Barack Obama proposed the American Jobs Act in September 2011, which included a variety of tax cuts and spending programs to stimulate job creation. The White House provided a fact sheet which summarized the key provisions of the $447 billion bill. However, neither the House nor the Senate has passed the legislation as of December 2012. President Obama stated in October 2011: \"In the coming days, members of Congress will have to take a stand on whether they believe we should put teachers, construction workers, police officers and firefighters back on the job...They'll get a vote on whether they believe we should protect tax breaks for small business owners and middle-class Americans, or whether we should protect tax breaks for millionaires and billionaires.\"\n",
"In 2010, he founded WPA 2010 as a response to the US Government’s failure in the face of the 2008 economic crisis. WPA 2010 was a functional but illegitimate Work Projects Administration, in which US citizens took over the US Government’s WPA brand to pay unemployed people to complete public works projects.\n",
"While at a monthly breakfast meeting of the Madison County Republican Men's Club, Brooks referred to the jobs bill proposed by President Obama as the \"Obama 'kill jobs' bill.\" He told the crowd that it adds to the debt, promotes \"frivolous lawsuits,\" and creates new government agencies. He challenged the president's promotion of the bill saying, \"If Barack Obama is serious about jobs, how about repealing Obamacare, dealing with illegal immigration and urging the Democratic-controlled Senate to pass pro-jobs bills that have already cleared in the House.\" At the same meeting, Brooks compared the recession of 2008 (and its after effects) with the Great Depression, saying that the problems associated with the Great Depression are \"a cakewalk compared to what can happen to our country if we don't start acting responsibly in Washington, D.C., to try to get this deficit under control.\" Brooks believes that if the national debt of the United States continues to grow, the damage done to the nation will be catastrophic.\n",
"The American Jobs Creation Act of 2004 () was a federal tax act that repealed the export tax incentive (ETI), which had been declared illegal by the World Trade Organization several times and sparked retaliatory tariffs by the European Union. It also contained numerous tax credits for agricultural and business institutions as well as the repeal of excise taxes on both fuel and alcohol and the creation of tax credits for biofuels.\n",
"On April 23, 2013, the AP's Twitter account was hacked to release a hoax tweet about fictional attacks in the White House that left President Obama injured. This erroneous tweet resulted in a brief plunge of 130 points from the Dow Jones Industrial Average, removal of $136 billion from S&P 500 index, and the temporary suspension of their Twitter account. Although all executed trades were considered final, the Dow Jones later restored its session gains.\n",
"President Obama campaigned under the promise of creating 5 million new green jobs in the United States. President Obamas plan included the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 (ACES) proposed a cap and trade system which would bring in revenue that would used to invest in clean energy technology creating 5 million new jobs The bill was passed through the house but never made it to the senate floor and therefore was never written into law. Secondly, due to the 2013 Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act the federal government \"discontinued measuring all green jobs\" which makes tracking job growth extremely difficult.\n"
] |
How will Climate Change affect the the level of the Caspian Sea?
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The Caspian Sea is in it's own drainage basin (also known as a [endorheic basin](_URL_1_)) so it is isolated from the rest of the worlds' oceans. As global sea levels rise, they won't directly effect the Caspian since it is not connected. The water levels in the Caspian vary based on the balance of rainfall and evaporation over the basin. So it's fate depends on how climate change alters the precipitation patterns in the region and predictions of how climate change will alter precipitation are still not all that well known - there are so many factors in the freshwater budget. There are other important human impacts, specifically dams on the Volga River (a major tributary) and diversion of water for agriculture. The nearby Aral Sea has mostly disappeared due to water diversion projects.
More information at [This article in Natural History Magazine](_URL_0_).
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[
"Climate change is likely to have an effect on the country's biodiversity, with the treeline moving further north and to higher altitudes, and forests replacing tundra. The melting of ice will increase runoff, affecting wetlands. With a rise in sea level, the Baltic Sea will receive greater inflow of saline water.\n",
"Thermal expansion of water and increased melting of oceanic glaciers from an increase in temperature gives way to a rise in sea level. This can affect the fresh water supply to coastal areas as well. As river mouths and deltas with higher salinity get pushed further inland, an intrusion of saltwater results in an increase of salinity in reservoirs and aquifers. Sea-level rise may also consequently be caused by a depletion of groundwater, as climate change can affect the hydrologic cycle in a number of ways. Uneven distributions of increased temperatures and increased precipitation around the globe results in water surpluses and deficits, but a global decrease in groundwater suggests a rise in sea level, even after meltwater and thermal expansion were accounted for, which can provide a positive feedback to the problems sea-level rise causes to fresh-water supply.\n",
"Recent rise in sea levels has been monitored by tide gauges and satellite altimetry (e.g. TOPEX/Poseidon). As well as the addition of melted ice water from glaciers and ice sheets, recent sea level changes are affected by the thermal expansion of sea water due to global warming, sea level change due to deglaciation of the last glacial maximum (postglacial sea level change), deformation of the land and ocean floor and other factors. Thus, to understand global warming from sea level change, one must be able to separate all these factors, especially postglacial rebound, since it is one of the leading factors.\n",
"Over the centuries, Caspian Sea levels have changed in synchrony with the estimated discharge of the Volga, which in turn depends on rainfall levels in its vast catchment basin. Precipitation is related to variations in the amount of North Atlantic depressions that reach the interior, and they in turn are affected by cycles of the North Atlantic oscillation. Thus levels in the Caspian Sea relate to atmospheric conditions in the North Atlantic, thousands of miles to the northwest.\n",
"By contrast, the water level of the Caspian Sea has been rising steadily since 1978 for reasons that scientists have not been able to explain fully. At the northern end of the sea, more than 10,000 square kilometres of land in Atyrau Province have been flooded. Experts estimate that if current rates of increase persist, the coastal city of Atyrau, eighty-eight other population centers, and many of Kazakhstan's Caspian oil fields could be submerged by 2020.\n",
"The surface temperature of the Baltic Sea will increase as the air temperature increases. Some models predict up to 4 °C increases in surface water temperature. Sea ice cover is expected to decrease and be localized to the northern Gulf of Bothnia by the end on the century. The salinity of the Baltic Sea is predicted to fall in some climate models as a result of increased influx of freshwater from the mainland, though other models differ significantly with some even showing an increase in salinity.\n",
"Arctic sea ice decline, sea level rise, retreat of glaciers: global warming has led to decades of shrinking and thinning of the Arctic sea ice, making it vulnerable to atmospheric anomalies. Projections of declines in Arctic sea ice vary. Recent projections suggest that Arctic summers could be ice-free (defined as an ice extent of less than 1 million square km) as early as 2025–2030. Between 1993 and 2017, sea level rose on average with 3.1 ± 0.3 mm per year, with an acceleration detected as well. Over the 21st century, the IPCC projects (for a high emissions scenario) that global mean sea level could rise by 52–98 cm. The rate of ice loss from glaciers and ice sheets in the Antarctic is a key area of uncertainty since Antarctica contains 90% of potential sea level rise. Polar amplification and increased ocean warmth are undermining and threatening to unplug Antarctic glacier outlets, potentially resulting in more rapid sea level rise.\n"
] |
how does type i diabetes develop so quickly in a seemingly healthy person, and how does this differ to the development of type ii?
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Type 1A diabetes is an autoimmune disorder. It occurs when you have a genetic predisposition for the condition and then something triggers the onset (most likely suspect is a virus). So you can have the genetic predisposition but never be exposed to the triggering event, and therefore never develop the condition.
Generally speaking, the average age of onset is 8, but you can be diagnosed with T1 diabetes at any age. If your father has T1, you have a 1 in 17 chance of developing T1 yourself. If a sibling has it, you have a 1 in 10 chance of developing it. Interestingly, it does not always occur concurrently in identical twins, which indicates that it’s partially an environmental issue.
As for the onset, it’s not believed to be as rapid as people think. TrialNet is a longitudinal study looking at people who have an immediate family member with T1 and are therefore at risk of developing the disease themselves. One thing that has been found through this study is that people who eventually go on to develop T1 diabetes have signs of it starting for upwards of several years (increases in their A1C, poor response to glucose tolerance testing, fluctuations in insulin production). Symptoms will only appear when blood sugar reach very high levels.
The term “diabetes mellitus” actually encompasses a number of distinct medical conditions, each with their own etiology. T2 diabetes is a completely different condition, one that has nothing to do with T1 other than increases in blood glucose levels. While T1 diabetes results in a complete inability to produce insulin (and the condition is imminently fatal if the missing insulin is not replaced), T2 diabetes is a metabolic disorder wherein people make insulin but are resistant to it (so their blood sugar rises). While there are lifestyle factors that increase one’s risk of developing T2 diabetes (being overweight, poor diet, lack of exercise), it also has a significant genetic component. This is why there are many T2s who are not overweight and why there are plenty of overweight people who never develop T2.
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[
"Type 1 diabetes can occur at any age, and a significant proportion is diagnosed during adulthood. Latent autoimmune diabetes of adults (LADA) is the diagnostic term applied when type 1 diabetes develops in adults; it has a slower onset than the same condition in children. Given this difference, some use the unofficial term \"type 1.5 diabetes\" for this condition. Adults with LADA are frequently initially misdiagnosed as having type 2 diabetes, based on age rather than cause\n",
"Rates of type 2 diabetes have increased markedly since 1960 in parallel with obesity. As of 2015 there were approximately 392 million people diagnosed with the disease compared to around 30 million in 1985. Typically it begins in middle or older age, although rates of type 2 diabetes are increasing in young people. Type 2 diabetes is associated with a ten-year-shorter life expectancy. Diabetes was one of the first diseases described. The importance of insulin in the disease was determined in the 1920s.\n",
"The degree of insulin deficiency is variable. Diabetes can develop from infancy through middle adult life, and some family members who carry the gene remain free of diabetes into later adult life. Most of those who develop diabetes show atrophy of the entire pancreas, with mild or subclincal deficiency of exocrine as well as endocrine function.\n",
"BULLET::::- 1980s: Basic research at Joslin shows that type 1 diabetes evolves over a period of years, presenting hope that a means may be found to prevent autoimmune destruction of the pancreas’ beta cells before they stop producing insulin.\n",
"Type 1 diabetes, also known as juvenile diabetes, is a condition in which the body does not produce insulin, resulting in high levels of sugar in the bloodstream. Whereas type 2 diabetes is typically diagnosed in middle age and treated via diet, oral medication and/or insulin therapy, type 1 diabetes tends to be diagnosed earlier in life, and people with type 1 diabetes require insulin therapy for survival. It is significantly less common than type 2 diabetes, accounting for 5 percent of all diabetes diagnoses.\n",
"Type 1 diabetes makes up an estimated 5–10% of all diabetes cases or 11–22 million worldwide. In 2006 it affected 440,000 children under 14 years of age and was the primary cause of diabetes in those less than 10 years of age. The incidence of type 1 diabetes has been increasing by about 3% per year.\n",
"Type 1 diabetes is a disease which strikes in childhood, adolescence, or adulthood, but lasts a lifetime. It requires multiple injections of insulin daily or a continuous infusion of insulin through a pump. Insulin, however, is not a cure for diabetes, nor does it prevent its eventual and devastating complications which may include kidney failure, blindness, heart disease, stroke, and amputation. Ten percent of diabetics are type 1, the rest are type 2 (90%).\n"
] |
What did Germany hope to achieve strategically with the invasion of Russia in WWII and how was this war sold to the public?
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Initially, one of the main reasons for the German invasion of Russia was food. The Nazi regime wanted to Germany to be able to support itself agriculturally, without having to rely on imports from the Soviet Union. The German administration had perceived the vast plains of Ukraine and southern Russia as the perfect solution to Germany's food issues. The ground was fertile and full of minerals, so crops could be brought back in surplus to the German people (obviously with the sacrifice of the rest of the Russian people, who would be seen as a deficit.) In fact, Hitler envisioned the invading German forces as being able to supply their own food from the lands they captured, meaning less supplies were needed to be sent to the eastern front. Of course Operation Barbarossa was a failure, and the crop yields of the captured lands supplied one third of the food that Germany needed, let alone hoped for.
From what I know, the German government sold the idea of an invasion of the Soviet Union through the notion of a 'self-sufficient Germany.' Hitler stated that there would be no food shortages like in the first world war, and some day in the future, people could travel to the new German frontiers in their 'people's cars' (Volkswagons) and spend holidays in the new lands.
Source: The Silk Roads: A New History of the World by Peter Frankopan.
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[
"The plans were never fulfilled as the German military's plans to capture Moscow and central Russia in the Operation Typhoon failed. The transfer of conquered territories to Nazi civilian rule was therefore never completed.\n",
"exploitation of conquered countries for the material benefit of Germany. Partial realization of these plans was reflected in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, where guarantees of economic and military domination over Ukraine by Germany were laid out. The plan was viewed as a threat by the British Empire, which concluded it would destroy British continental trade, and, as a consequence, the source of its military power.\n",
"One of Hitler's sub-goals for the invasion of Russia was to win over Britain to the German side. He believed that after the military collapse of the USSR, \"within a few weeks\" Britain would be forced either into a surrender or else come to join Germany as a \"junior partner\" in the Axis. Britain's role in this alliance was reserved to support German naval and aerial military actions against the USA in a fight for world supremacy conducted from the Axis power bases of Europe, Africa and the Atlantic. On August 8, 1941, Hitler stated that he looked forward to the eventual day when \"England and Germany [march] together against America\" and on January 7, 1942, he daydreamed that it was \"not impossible\" for Britain to quit the war and join the Axis side, leading to a situation where \"it will be a German-British army that will chase the Americans from Iceland\". National Socialist ideologist Alfred Rosenberg hoped that after the victorious conclusion of the war against the USSR, Englishmen, along with other Germanic nationalities, would join the German settlers in colonizing the conquered eastern territories.\n",
"This strategy is exemplified in then-U. S. Senator Harry Truman's statement in 1941 regarding the invasion of Nazi-Germany and its Allies, Italy, Hungary, Finland, Romania of Russia, \"If we see that Germany is winning we ought to help Russia, and if Russia is winning we ought to help Germany, and that way let them kill as many as possible, I don't want to see Hitler victorious under any circumstances.\"\n",
"During the war, as Germany acquired new territories (either by direct annexation or by installing puppet governments in defeated countries), these new territories were forced to sell raw materials and agricultural products to German buyers at extremely low prices. Hitler's policy of lebensraum strongly emphasized the conquest of new lands in the East, and the exploitation of these lands to provide cheap goods to Germany. In practice, however, the intensity of the fighting on the Eastern Front and the Soviet scorched earth policy meant that the Germans found little they could use, and, on the other hand, a large quantity of goods flowed into Germany from conquered lands in the West. For example, two-thirds of all French trains in 1941 were used to carry goods to Germany. Norway lost 20% of its national income in 1940 and 40% in 1943.\n",
"The war in Europe spawns early triumphs for the Entente. In Ukraine, the local soldiers and population welcome the arriving Russians as liberators, ensuring that most of the German satellite nation is lost. Elsewhere, the manpower-swarming tactics of the Russians, unchanged from the last war, ensure that they suffer heavy losses for small gains. The Kaiser's army, particularly its panzers and 88mm flak cannons, prove instrumental in preventing the loss of East Prussia and the satellite kingdom of Poland.\n",
"The German war effort against the Soviet Union was supported by raw materials that Germany had obtained from the Soviets through the 1940 agreement. In particular, the German stocks of rubber and grain would have been insufficient to support the invasion of the USSR if the Soviets had not already exported these products to Germany.\n"
] |
what are neural networks? specifically rnns.
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The little league team you coach just won the big game, and you ask them if they want to go out for pizza or for burgers. Each kid starts screaming their preference, and you go with whatever was the loudest.
This is basically how a neural net works but on multiple levels. The top-level nodes get some input, each detects a certain property and screams when it sees it...the more intense the property, the louder they scream.
Now you have a bunch of nodes screaming "it's dark!", "it's has red!", "it's roundish!" as various volumes. The next level listens and based on what they hear they start screaming about more complex features. "It has a face!", "It has fur", until finally get to a level where it is screaming "It's a kitty!".
The magic part is no one tells them when to scream, it is based on feedback. Your little league team went for burgers, and some of them got sick. Next week, they might not scream for burgers, or might not scream as loudly. They have collectively learned that burgers might not have been a great choice, and are more likely to lean away from the option.
A neural net gets training in much the same way. You feed it a bunch of kitty and non-kitty pictures. If the net gets it right, the nodes are reinforced so they are more likely to do the same thing in similar situations. If it is wrong, they get disincentivized. Initially, its results will be near random, but if you have designed it correctly, it will get better and better as the nodes adjust. You often have neural nets that work without any human understanding exactly how.
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[
"A recurrent neural network (RNN) is a class of artificial neural networks where connections between nodes form a directed graph along a temporal sequence. This allows it to exhibit temporal dynamic behavior. Unlike feedforward neural networks, RNNs can use their internal state (memory) to process sequences of inputs. This makes them applicable to tasks such as unsegmented, connected handwriting recognition or speech recognition.\n",
"Recurrent neural networks are a type of ANN that are designed to process sequences of data in order, one part at a time rather than all at once. An RNN runs over each part of a sequence, using the current part of the sequence along with memory of previous parts of the current sequence to produce an output. These types of ANN are highly effective at tasks such as speech recognition and other problems that depend heavily on temporal order. There are several types of RNNs with different internal configurations; the basic implementation suffers from a lack of long term memory due to the vanishing gradient problem, thus it is rarely used over newer implementations.\n",
"RNNs are also related to artificial neural networks, which (like the random neural network) have gradient-based learning algorithms. The learning algorithm for an n-node random neural network that includes feedback loops (it is also a recurrent neural network) is of computational complexity O(n^3) (the number of computations is proportional to the cube of n, the number of neurons). The random neural network can also be used with other learning algorithms such as reinforcement learning. The RNN has been shown to be a universal approximator for bounded and continuous functions.\n",
"The random neural network (RNN) is a mathematical representation of an interconnected network of neurons or cells which exchange spiking signals. It was invented by Erol Gelenbe and is linked to the G-network model of queueing networks as well as to Gene Regulatory Network models. Each cell state is represented by an integer whose value rises when the cell receives an excitatory spike and drops when it receives an inhibitory spike. The spikes can originate outside the network itself, or they can come from other cells in the networks. Cells whose internal excitatory state has a positive value are allowed to send out spikes of either kind to other cells in the network according to specific cell-dependent spiking rates. The model has a mathematical solution in steady-state which provides the joint probability distribution of the network in terms of the individual probabilities that each cell is excited and able to send out spikes. Computing this solution is based on solving a set of non-linear algebraic equations whose parameters are related to the spiking rates of individual cells and their connectivity to other cells, as well as the arrival rates of spikes from outside the network. The RNN is a recurrent model, i.e. a neural network that is allowed to have complex feedback loops.\n",
"SNNs have proved useful in neuroscience, but not in engineering. While large neural networks have been designed that take advantage of pulse coding, they mostly rely on the principles of reservoir computing. \n",
"A deep neural network (DNN) is an artificial neural network (ANN) with multiple layers between the input and output layers. The DNN finds the correct mathematical manipulation to turn the input into the output, whether it be a linear relationship or a non-linear relationship. The network moves through the layers calculating the probability of each output. For example, a DNN that is trained to recognize dog breeds will go over the given image and calculate the probability that the dog in the image is a certain breed. The user can review the results and select which probabilities the network should display (above a certain threshold, etc.) and return the proposed label. Each mathematical manipulation as such is considered a layer, and complex DNN have many layers, hence the name \"deep\" networks.\n",
"A recursive neural network is a kind of deep neural network created by applying the same set of weights recursively over a structured input, to produce a structured prediction over variable-size input structures, or a scalar prediction on it, by traversing a given structure in topological order. RNNs have been successful, for instance, in learning sequence and tree structures in natural language processing, mainly phrase and sentence continuous representations based on word embedding. RNNs have first been introduced to learn distributed representations of structure, such as logical terms.\n"
] |
Why has Linear B been deciphered but not Linear A?
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You must understand both the writing system and the language(s) in order to claim a decipherment. Most successful decipherments are based on bilingual or trilingual inscriptions (e.g. cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and the Cypriot Syllabary) or knowledge of the underlying language(s) (e.g. Linear B and Maya hieroglyphs). In cases where one has neither, such as Linear A, Cypro-Minoan, and the Indus script, decipherment may prove impossible.
Linear B has been deciphered successfully because the language was identified (Mycenaean Greek), and scholars were able to understand words based on their knowledge of Greek. For example, a-ku-ro corresponds to Greek ἄργυρος ("silver") and pa-te is instantly recognizable as Greek πατήρ ("father").
The language of Linear A, however, has not yet been identified, and the grammar and lexicon therefore remains elusive. It's as if someone who speaks French picked up a book written in Hungarian. Since Hungarian uses a modified version of the Latin alphabet, the French speaker would understand the letters of each word and perhaps even be able to read them out loud more or less accurately. The meaning of the text, however, would be incomprehensible without learning Hungarian.
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[
"In the 1950s, Linear B was largely deciphered by Michael Ventris and found to encode an early form of Greek. Although the two systems share many symbols, this did not lead to a subsequent decipherment of Linear A. Using the values associated with Linear B in Linear A mainly produces unintelligible words. If Linear A uses the same or similar syllabic values as Linear B, then its associated language, dubbed \"Minoan\", appears unrelated to any known language.\n",
"Michael Ventris and John Chadwick performed the bulk of the decipherment of Linear B between 1951 and 1953. At first Ventris chose his own numbering method, but later switched to Bennett's system. His initial decipherment was achieved using Kober's classification tables, to which he applied his own theories. Some Linear B tablets had been discovered on the Greek mainland. Noticing that certain symbol combinations appeared only on the tablets found in Crete, he conjectured that these might be names of places on the island. This proved to be correct. Working with the symbols he could decipher from this, Ventris soon unlocked much text and determined that the underlying language of Linear B was in fact Greek. This contradicted general scientific views of the time, and indeed Ventris himself had previously agreed with Evans' hypothesis that Linear B was not Greek.\n",
"It is difficult to evaluate a given analysis of Linear A as there is little point of reference for reading its inscriptions. The simplest approach to decipherment may be to presume that the values of Linear A match more or less the values given to the deciphered Linear B script, used for Mycenaean Greek. However, recently, Peter Z. Revesz identified the Cretan Hieroglyphs, Linear A, Linear B, the Cypriot syllabary, and the Greek, Old Hungarian, Phoenician, South Arabic and Tifinagh alphabets as members of an unknown writing system from western Anatolia.\n",
"Evans had no better luck with Linear B, which turned out to be Greek. Despite decades of theories, Linear A has not been convincingly deciphered, nor even the language group identified. His classifications and careful transcriptions have been of great value to Mycenaean scholars.\n",
"Linear A is a writing system used by the Minoans (Cretans) from 1800 to 1450 BCE. It belongs to an independent group of scripts that is distinct from Egyptian and Mesopotamian systems. During the second millennium BCE, there were four major branches: Linear A, Linear B, Cypro-Minoan and Cretan hieroglyphic. All but Linear B remain undeciphered. Linear A was the primary script used in palace and religious writings of the Minoan civilization. It was discovered by archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans. It was succeeded by Linear B, which was used by the Mycenaean civilization.\n",
"Linear B is a syllabic script that was used for writing Mycenaean Greek, the earliest attested form of Greek. The script predates the Greek alphabet by several centuries. The oldest Mycenaean writing dates to about 1450 BC. It is descended from the older Linear A, an undeciphered earlier script used for writing the Minoan language, as is the later Cypriot syllabary, which also recorded Greek. Linear B, found mainly in the palace archives at Knossos, Cydonia, Pylos, Thebes and Mycenae, disappeared with the fall of Mycenaean civilization during the Late Bronze Age collapse. The succeeding period, known as the Greek Dark Ages, provides no evidence of the use of writing. It is also the only one of the Bronze Age Aegean scripts to have been deciphered, by English architect and self-taught linguist Michael Ventris.\n",
"In 1945, E. Pugliese Carratelli first introduced the classification of Linear A and Linear B parallels. However, in 1961 W.C. Brice modified the Carratelli system that was based on a wider range of Linear A sources, but Brice did not suggest Linear B equivalents to the Linear A signs. Louis Godart and Jean-Pierre Olivier introduced in the 1985 \"Recueil des inscriptions en linéaire A (GORILA),\" based on E.L Bennett's standard numeration of the signs of Linear B, introduced a joint numeration of the Linear A and B signs. The Egyptian exercise in writing the names keftiu even informs us of another Minoan ethnic identity in the form of mÈd|d|m whose first element cannot be associated with the name Midas, since it was already labeled by a linearly inscribed Hagia Triada (or HT 41.4) dating to c. 1350 BC. This Egyptian evidence of Keftius' language essentially indicate that the words of the vocabulary are Semitic, but in the language predominantly of the Luwians. One might conclude from this that the Semitic in Minoan Crete is used as a lingua franca for a largely Luwian population. \n"
] |
how do people spend billions of dollars on water?
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That is incredibly cheap, $4 for a whole year of clean water. How could it be cheaper?
The costs are mainly for digging wells and installing pumps -- and then filters if the water isn't clean.
If you don't mind your water dirty and 50 feet underground, can have it for free.
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[
"It has been estimated that between 1975 and 2000 a total of more than US$100bn has been invested in water supply and sanitation, and that a further US$130bn will be needed between 2002 and 2022, corresponding to US$6.5 billion per year or more than US$200 per capita and year. This level of investment in water per capita is among the highest in the world, higher than in the US, the UK or Germany, due to the high cost of desalination and the need to transport water over long distances. It corresponds to about 1.5% of GDP.\n",
"According to a 2008 national survey by Radio RPP, respondents indicated that, on average, they paid 44 Soles (close to US$ 15) per month and per household for water. 44% of respondents said that they paid \"much or too much\" for water.\n",
"The United Nations (UN) estimates that, of 1.4 billion cubic kilometers (1 quadrillion acre-feet) of water on Earth, just 200,000 cubic kilometers (162.1 billion acre-feet) represent fresh water available for human consumption.\n",
"Per capita water use figures are difficult to compare over time, because sources typically do not indicate if water losses are included in the figures or not. The National Statistical Institute gives water use in the Federal District at 223 liter/day in 1999 (probably after losses), including 164 liter of residential use and 59 liter for industrial and commercial uses. This is only about one third of average water use in the United States, which is 603 liter/capita/day. However, it is still one third higher than water use in France, which is only 165 liter/capita/day.\n",
"In 2008, 4.56 billion m3 of water was abstracted by municipalities or bought by them in order to be distributed by them. Of this amount, 40% was abstracted from dams, 28% from wells, 23% from springs, 4% from rivers, and 5% from lakes. 111.4 billion m3 of drinking water was sold to 20 million subscribers, and 4.8 billion Turkish Lira revenue was obtained. This implies that the average level of non-revenue water – water produced that was not billed – was 48% ((4.56-2.4)x100/4.56) and that the average tariff was 2 Turkish Lira per cubic meter (1.10 Euro/m3). According to the results of the 2008 Municipal Water Statistics Survey, water abstraction per capita was 215 liters per day in 2008. Actual billed consumption taking into account non-revenue water was 52% of that level, or 112 liters per day.\n",
"The overall expenditure in the water sector approached US$3.9 billion in 2004, or 0.5% of the GDP. Of this amount, the public sector spent over US$3.5 billion, which is close to 2.5% of Mexico's budget, while the private sector accounted for the rest. A significant share of resources spent in the sector, including both investment and recurrent expenditures, comes directly or indirectly from water users. CONAGUA accounts for 30% of total expenditures in the water sector.\n",
"Water use in 2009 was 1.91 billion cubic meters of which fresh water use was 1.26 billion cubic meters. Water use was 100 million cubic meters (5.2%) to Jordan and the Palestinian Authority, 1016 million cubic meters for agriculture(53.2%), 684 million cubic meters (35.8%) for domestic and public uses and 110 million cubic meters (5.7%) for industrial use. According to one estimate, average domestic water consumption in Israel is 137 litres per person per day on average, about half of indoor water use in the United States. However, according to another estimate water use per person per year is 90 cubic meter, corresponding to 247 litres per day. The latter estimate includes losses and probably also water use by offices that may not have been included in the former figures.\n"
] |
why do people who are going to be executed not put up a fight when they know they are going to die either way?
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By the same logic, why would you fight? It's not going to change the outcome. Might as well make your own death quick and painless instead of making it a struggle by fighting.
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[
"Despite the fact that the weapons are deadly, fights are rarely fatal. Combat ceases when one man is obviously defeated, either because he cannot defend himself or because he has left the circle, voluntarily or otherwise.\n",
"To fight on because there was no other choice, even if winning was not possible, then to salvage what we could – and at the very end our self respect... Why go on resisting? Quite simply because we knew what capitulation would mean.\n",
"Combat ends when all combatants from one side or the other have either been rendered unconscious or dead (usually by having their hit points reduced to zero), or fled from combat. The player can also lose at combat by allowing all members of the party to succumb to sleep or paralysis effects.\n",
"That is ridiculous. It is a lie. I had nothing to do with the executions. For three weeks after the 4 June event, questions were constantly raised about executing people. I always stood against it. Surprisingly, the only person who also stood against it was Rawlings. The young boys wanted blood and I used to tell \"you cannot resurrect the man once you've killed him. If you have any case against people, try them. Let everybody hear what they have done wrong against the country.\" And that even, they could not do. \n",
"If a side in a war is willing enough, as through religious zeal, nationalism or ideological belief, defeat or surrender to the enemy can be seen as worse than death and thus being rejected. Humiliation and war honor are a common reason, but also fear of torture, pillaging, enslaving or other crimes might convince that fighting to the end is a better result than surrendering. Military forces fighting fanatically has also been documented moreso after reports of brutal treatment, such as murder and rape, against the civilians of that nation - so that they might have a better chance of escape.\n",
"Although there is the option to turn off TKO based stoppages, this option has no effect. If a fighter's face is beaten into enough of a bloody mess, fights will be stopped regardless of whether it is selected or not. However, regardless of whether the option is turned on or not, the game does not consider other factors when judging whether to stop a fight. As a result, it is possible for one boxer to pummel another for 15 rounds with no punches being thrown in response. Subsequently, unlike in real boxing matches, it is not uncommon to have rounds scored 10-6 or lower. By knocking an opponent down around 10 times, it is even possible to win rounds by a 10-0 margin.\n",
"If a fight is stopped due to a cut resulting from a legal punch, the other participant is awarded a technical knockout win. For this reason, fighters often employ cutmen, whose job is to treat cuts between rounds so that the boxer is able to continue despite the cut.\n"
] |
Did dinosaurs actually roar or is it just a construct of movies to make them scarier?
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You're on the right track in looking at living species to infer what extinct dinosaurs may have sounded like. We can explore traits that wouldn't preserve in the fossil record using [phylogenetic bracketing](_URL_12_). However, you're off on which species to look at.
Basically, we look at related animals on [either side of the tree](_URL_0_) from the organism we're interested in, and if those animals possess a trait then it was probably present in the common ancestor of all those animals, so the organism we're interested in most likely does as well. This works pretty well for extinct dinosaurs, because [birds are living theropod dinosaurs](_URL_7_) and crocs are [archosaurs](_URL_3_) that fall outside of Dinosauria. Traits that both crocs and birds possess are likely ancestral to all archosaurs and therefore would be present in dinosaurs unless they were secondarily lost.
Crocodylians are surprisingly [vocal](_URL_6_) - and social, in fact. Just like we've made assumptions about dinosaurs, we've made assumptions about crocs. They are more like birds than we give them credit for. But I digress! Crocs do roar and [bellow](_URL_11_) using their larynx. They also hiss, and their bellows actually have a subaudible component to them. The wavelength of these subaudible sounds corresponds to the distance between the keels on their scutes, creating the "water dance" they use in their mating ritual (and the dancing water is made up of [Faraday waves](_URL_1_)).
Most of birds' unique vocal abilities are due to a [syrinx](_URL_10_), which is an organ that sits at the base of the trachea. It's not the same thing as a larynx; it's a different organ. Birds do have a larynx, but the degree to which they can vocalize with it is limited (and poorly understood). Not all birds have a syrinx. No New World vultures (like turkey vultures) do, so they're limited to grunts and hisses.
The syrinx of songbirds is extremely complex, allowing for the wide variety of sounds. Birds make [a ton of vocalizations](_URL_2_), from hisses to warbles to squawks. Some [can haz cheeseburger](_URL_4_).
We know that not all dinosaurs had a syrinx; it evolved at some point in theropods. It's present in all bird groups, so it was likely present in their common ancestor. It seems to rely on the [presence of an airsac in the clavicle or collarbone](_URL_5_) (sorry, paywall), which is part of a system of air sacs connected to the lungs of many reptiles. As far as we can tell that clavicular airsac first arises in [enantiornithines](_URL_8_), which are dinosaurs that are so birdlike that they're generally just called birds.
Earlier non-avian dinosaurs probably vocalized more like crocs than birds, but of course their morphology was quite different. Some animals like *Parasaurolophus* had weird hollow chambers that might have [been used for vocalizations](_URL_9_). Given the amount of diversity we see in the sounds modern archosaurs can make, and the variation we have in extinct dinosaurs, there was probably a great variety in vocalizations. However, we have no way to test for that in most fossil species.
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[
"In 2016 she speculated that based on her research she felt it was unlikely that dinosaurs roared. She proposed that it was much more likely that they made noises that were similar to those made by a modern pigeon.\n",
"The dinosaurs' behavior was based on behavior that was featured in the film. Dinosaurs that were not featured in the film were added into the game for variety. A scene featured earlier in the game's development depicted Grant being eaten by a \"Tyrannosaurus rex\", accompanied by the sound of his bones being crushed. Nintendo requested that the bone-crushing sound effect be removed as it was considered too realistic. The game includes inspiration from the novel, including a mission objective to prevent dinosaurs from escaping to the mainland on a supply ship. The game was mastered in surround sound (Dolby Pro Logic), and its music was composed by Jon Dunn.\n",
"Films of the time typically used dinosaurs as monsters, with the added element of atomic fears in the early Cold War. Thus, \"The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms\" (1953) and \"Godzilla\" (1954; American release 1956) portray monstrous dinosaur-like prehistoric reptiles that go on rampages after being awakened by atomic bomb tests. An alternative appears in Disney's animated \"Fantasia\" (1940), in its \"The Rite of Spring\" sequence, which attempted to portray dinosaurs with some scientific accuracy (although it has the common error of showing prehistoric animals from many different time periods living at the same time) and also in Karel Zeman's \"Cesta do praveku\" (1955; \"Journey to the Beginning of Time\"), a Czechoslovakian children's science fiction movie inspired by Zdeněk Burian's work.\n",
"As late as the 1970s, \"Stegosaurus\", along with other dinosaurs, was depicted in fiction as a slow-moving, dim-witted creature. The \"dinosaur renaissance\" changed the prevailing image of dinosaurs as sluggish and cold-blooded and this reevaluation has been reflected in popular media.\n",
"The dinosaurs' behavior was based on the behavior of present-day animals, as well as dinosaur behavior featured in the \"Jurassic Park\" films. A paleontologist also advised the development team on possible dinosaur behavior. The gameplay was heavily influenced by the 2010 video game \"Heavy Rain\". It is the first game by Telltale in which the player's character can be killed. The first images from the game were released in January 2011.\n",
"The dinosaurs were created with groundbreaking computer-generated imagery by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) and with life-sized animatronic dinosaurs built by Stan Winston's team. To showcase the film's sound design, which included a mixture of various animal noises for the dinosaur roars, Spielberg invested in the creation of DTS, a company specializing in digital surround sound formats. The film also underwent an extensive $65 million marketing campaign, which included licensing deals with over 100 companies. \n",
"IGN criticized the game's dinosaurs for their lack of size disparity: \"The T-Rex is a dwarf, while raptors have become mega-raptors of roughly the same size as the beast who bit regular raptors in half in the film.\" IGN also criticized the game's AI, bad collision detection, and noted that each dinosaur played similarly to one another. However, IGN praised the game's graphics and levels.\n"
] |
why is it socially acceptable to make as much noise as possible while riding a motorcycle?
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It's not generally acceptable, if a bike is loud it's because the owner made it that way.
Some m/c groups like to think its a safety device, but in reality it's because they think it sounds cool.
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[
"Because the fairing is attached to the vehicle via the front axle, it is prone to clunky vibrations at low speeds and on turbulent surfaces. The nature and position of the motor produce a constant, loud mechanical sound much like a motorcycle. The weight limit for the vehicle, including the driver and all carried cargo, is 200 pounds.\n",
"Electric vehicles are far quieter than gas powered ones, so silent they may sneak up on unwary pedestrians. Some are equipped to emit artificial noise. Popular Mechanics called the comparative quiet of electric motorcycles the greatest difference between them and their gas counterparts, and a safety bonus because the rider can hear danger approaching. Whether a loud motorcycle is more noticeable and thus more safe than a quiet one is contested. At high speed the whine of an electric motorcycle is said to sound \"like a spaceship.\"\n",
"Traffic operations noise is affected significantly by vehicle speeds, since sound energy roughly doubles for each increment of ten miles an hour in vehicle velocity; an exception to this rule occurs at very low speeds where braking and acceleration noise dominate over aerodynamic noise. Small reductions in vehicle noise occurred in the 1970s as states and provinces enforced unmuffled vehicle ordinances. The vehicle fleet noise has not changed very much over the last three decades; however, if the trend in hybrid vehicle use continues, substantial noise reduction will occur, especially in the regime of traffic flow below 35 miles per hour. Hybrid vehicles are so quiet at low speeds that they create a pedestrian safety issue when reversing or maneuvering when parking etc. (but not when travelling forward), and so are typically fitted with electric vehicle warning sounds.\n",
"The word \"bōsōzoku\" is also applied to motorcycle subculture with an interest in motorcycle customizing, often illegal, and making noise by removing the mufflers on their vehicles so that more noise is produced. These \"bōsōzoku\" groups sometimes ride without motorcycle helmets (which in Japan is illegal), also engage in dangerous or reckless driving, such as weaving in traffic, and running red lights. Another activity is speeding in city streets, not usually for street racing but more for thrills. With many bikes involved, the leading one is driven by the leader, who is responsible for the event and is not allowed to be overtaken. Japanese police call them \"Maru-Sō\" (police code マル走 or 丸走) and occasionally dispatch police vehicles to trail the groups of bikes for the reason of preventing possible incidents, which may include: riding very slowly through suburbs at speeds of 10-15 km/h, creating a loud disturbance while waving imperial Japanese flags, and starting fights that may include weapons (such as wooden swords, metal pipes, baseball bats and Molotov cocktails). These \"bōsōzoku\" gang members are generally between 16 and 19 years old.\n",
"Reduced noise emissions resulting from substantial use of the electric motor at idling and low speeds, leading to roadway noise reduction, in comparison to conventional gasoline or diesel powered engine vehicles, resulting in beneficial noise health effects (although road noise from tires and wind, the loudest noises at highway speeds from the interior of most vehicles, are not affected by the hybrid design alone). Reduced noise may not be beneficial for all road users, as blind people or the visually impaired consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets and feel quiet hybrids could pose an unexpected hazard. Tests have shown that vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below .\n",
"In addition to the road surface, vibrations in a motorcycle can be caused by the engine and wheels, if unbalanced. Manufacturers employ a variety of technologies to reduce or damp these vibrations, such as engine balance shafts, rubber engine mounts, and tire weights. The problems that vibration causes have also spawned an industry of after-market parts and systems designed to reduce it. Add-ons include handlebar weights, isolated foot pegs, and engine counterweights. At high speeds, motorcycles and their riders may also experience aerodynamic flutter or buffeting. This can be abated by changing the air flow over key parts, such as the windshield.\n",
"BULLET::::- When asked for suggestions to deal with the potential danger from the low noise at low speeds, more than half (56%) said that instead of an artificial noise, the driver should pay more attention. However just over a quarter (28%) said they’d like to have a warning noise below .\n"
] |
how does renting a property with option to buy work? does your rent go towards the down payment?
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Usually these are case by case basis, whatever the renter/buyer and the landlord/seller agree to, there must be some legal contract with the terms spelled out and everybody signs or somebody is going to get screwed and it will probably be the renter. Normally it is the case though.
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[
"Renting, also known as hiring or letting, is an agreement where a payment is made for the temporary use of a good, service or property owned by another. A gross lease is when the tenant pays a flat rental amount and the landlord pays for all property charges regularly incurred by the ownership. An example of renting is equipment rental. Renting can be an example of the sharing economy.\n",
"A rent-to-own transaction differs from a traditional lease, in that the lessee can purchase the leased item at any time during the agreement (in a traditional lease the lessee has no such right), and from a hire purchase/installment plan, in that the lessee can terminate the agreement by simply returning the property (in a hire purchase the buyer has a limited time, if any, to cancel the agreement).\n",
"Renting is an agreement where a payment is made for the temporary use of a good, service or property owned by another. A gross lease is when the tenant pays a flat rental amount and the landlord pays for all property charges regularly incurred by the ownership. Things that can be rented or leased include land, buildings, vehicles, tools, equipment, furniture, etc.\n",
"Rent-to-own, also known as rental-purchase, is a type of legally documented transaction under which tangible property, such as furniture, consumer electronics, motor vehicles, home appliances, real property, and engagement rings, is leased in exchange for a weekly or monthly payment, with the option to purchase at some point during the agreement.\n",
"Occupation is an outward sign to prospective purchasers that there is a lease. If the lessee does not take up occupation when he has an opportunity to do so, he has himself to blame if a purchaser is persuaded to pay the price appropriate for the property which he (the purchaser) thinks he will be able to occupy.\n",
"If the tenant does not exercise the option to purchase the property by the end of the lease, then generally any up front option money along with any monies that the tenant paid in addition to the market rental rate for this option may be retained by the owner depending on the agreement. This might occur if the tenant no longer wishes to purchase the property, or if the tenant wishes to purchase the property but is unable to obtain the financing required to do so.\n",
"A rental agreement may provide for the renter or lessee to become the owner of the asset at the end of the rental period, usually at the renter's option on payment of a nominal fee. Such arrangements may be known as\n"
] |
why do some speakers have "mini" speakers around the large ones?
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Loudspeakers (the whole box) often have several *drivers* in them...which are those parts that vibrate and make sound. The larger ones are called *woofers* and are used for low-range sounds, while the small ("mini') are called *tweeters* and are used to make the higher frequency sounds. Inside the loudspeaker there is an electrical circuit called a *cross over* that takes the input signal and "splits" it into high and low frequencies.
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[
"While a large loudspeaker is naturally more directional because of its large size, a source with equivalent directivity can be made by utilizing an array of traditional small loudspeakers, all driven together in-phase. Acoustically equal to a large speaker, this creates a larger source size compared to wavelength, and the resulting sound field is narrowed compared to a single small speaker. Large speaker arrays have been used in hundreds of arena sound systems to mitigate noise that would ordinarily travel to adjoining neighborhoods, as well as limited applications in other applications where some degree of directivity is helpful, such as museums or similar display applications that can tolerate large speaker dimensions.\n",
"Other types of large speaker panels, such as electrostatic loudspeakers, tend to be more directional than small speakers, for the same reasons as above; they are somewhat more directional only because they tend to be physically larger than most common loudspeakers. Correspondingly, an electrostatic loudspeaker the size of a small traditional speaker would be non-directional. \n",
"Often, large speakers such as those used in clubs and in professional audio actually allow little cone excursion and/or they have fairly stiff surrounds which do not allow them to fluctuate greatly without high power. This is because they would otherwise overdrive and have a much shorter lifetime because it doesn't take much power at very low frequencies to cause even a large and \"powerful\" loudspeaker to overfluctuate.\n",
"Cabinets with mixed-size speakers are less common, but they are used (e.g., a bass amplifier cabinet with a 15\" loudspeaker for lower frequencies and a smaller speaker for mid- to high-range frequencies. A cabinet is usually mono, but may have two inputs for a \"stereo\" amplifier. Two speakers in a cabinet may be wired in parallel (lowering the impedance) or in series (increasing the impedance). Larger multiples will usually be series/parallel to maintain an impedance of 4 to 8 ohms. \n",
"Horn loudspeakers are used in many audio applications. The drivers in horn loudspeakers can be very small, even for bass frequencies where conventional loudspeakers would need to be very large for equivalent performance. Horn loudspeakers can be designed to reproduce a wide range of frequencies using a single, small driver; to some extent these can be designed without requiring a crossover.\n",
"Slim Array Technology (SAT) was developed to confront issues using large line array elements by substituting the big enclosures with slim boxes. Whereas a big air volume inside a large speaker box in a standard line array is necessary to maximize the speaker efficiency in the mid-low frequency range, a slim box allows sound to exit instantaneously without resonance, generating a significant amount of sound pressure in the low and low-mid range with a fast transient response. Therefore, all sounds characterized by fast transients, like percussion instruments, are reproduced in a more natural way.\n",
"Coaxial speakers in automobiles are 2- or 3-way loudspeakers in which the tweeter, or the tweeter and a mid-range driver, are mounted in front of the woofer, partially obscuring it. The advantage of this design is the ability to use a smaller area, hence their popularity in car audio. The low frequency sound waves from the woofer are not reduced too much by the drivers in their path. Without time-alignment correction, the sound from the tweeter may arrive slightly before the sound from the woofer; this misalignment is not generally addressed in automobile sound systems.\n"
] |
how do electronics spin in full circles without getting their wires tangled? (example in text)
|
The rotating portion receives electricity through a device like a "rotary electrical connector" or a "brush slip ring". They allow current to pass through two concentric rings, one inside the other, separated by an insulator, and depending on how fast it's intended to rotate, possibly sealed and lubricated.
|
[
"Twist-on wire connectors are available in a variety of sizes and shapes. While their exterior covering is typically made from insulating plastic, their means of connection is a tapered coiled metal insert, which threads onto the wires and holds them securely. When such a connector is twisted onto the stripped and twisted-together ends of wires, the wires are drawn into the connector's metal insert and squeezed together inside it. Electrical continuity is maintained by both the direct twisted wire-to-wire contact and by contact with the metal insert. \n",
"A twisted pair has two wires of a cable twisted around each other. This can be demonstrated by putting one end of a pair of wires in a hand drill and turning while maintaining moderate tension on the line. Where the interfering signal has a wavelength that is long compared to the pitch of the twisted pair, alternate lengths of wires develop opposing voltages, tending to cancel the effect of the interference.\n",
"The wires are also twisted together, to reduce interference from electromagnetic induction. A twisted pair makes the loop area between the conductors as small as possible, and ensures that a magnetic field that passes equally through adjacent loops will induce equal levels of noise on both lines, which is canceled out by the differential amplifier. If the noise source is extremely close to the cable, then it is possible it will be induced on one of the lines more than the other, and it won't be canceled as well, but canceling will still occur to the extent of the amount of noise that is equal on both lines.\n",
"BULLET::::5. Twisted pair wiring – Twisting wires in a circuit will reduce electromagnetic noise. Twisting the wires decreases the loop size in which a magnetic field can run through to produce a current between the wires. Small loops may exist between wires twisted together, but the magnetic field going through these loops induces a current flowing in opposite directions in alternate loops on each wire and so there is no net noise current.\n",
"Flat braids made of many copper wires can also be used for flexible electrical connections between large components. The numerous smaller wires comprising the braid are much more resistant to breaking under repeated motion and vibration than is a cable of larger wires. A common example of this may be found connecting a car battery's negative terminal to the metal chassis.\n",
"Typically the wire is threaded through existing holes in the associated equipment, using a single strand loop, and a single crossover, such that the closure is secured without impedance to the normal functioning of the equipment. The single crossover provides the appropriate friction such that the wire cannot fall completely free of the equipment when broken. The loose ends of the strand may be twisted in a pigtail fashion, or crimped with a lead seal, securing both strands as close to the closure as practical. In each case, the loose ends of the strands should be tucked neatly away from inadvertent impact.\n",
"The winding is made of two separate wires wound in opposing directions along an insulating form and connected in parallel at the ends. Since there are the same number of turns of wire in either direction, the magnetic fields of the two wires cancel each other out, so the coil has little inductance; and since adjacent turns of the two wires are at approximately the same voltage, there is little parasitic capacitance between the turns. \n"
] |
whats going on with the racial motivated rape gangs going on in europe?
|
Im guessing you mean Rotherham (UK), not Rotterdam. At least that's what it says in the article you linked. The stories are still floating about, but the main bulk of the interest from the public is more relating to how the police and child protective services made systematic failures, many resulting from not wanting to come off as racist.
|
[
"The number of assault gang rapes were significantly higher in periods prior to 2015 and the European migrant crisis, with the exception of 2016 where the New Year's Eve sexual assaults in Germany nearly doubled the number of cases. In 2017 there were 122 cases, the fewest since the German reunification in 1990. The sexual assaults in Cologne on New Year's Eve 2016 nevertheless ended the atmosphere of euphoria earlier in the year when hundreds of thousands of migrants had arrived in Germay.\n",
"After the gang rapes where immigrants were suspect in Freiburg, Munich and Velbert, an overview of police gang rape statistics in the 2010s was published by Tagesschau in 2018. The profile of the suspects and convicted fit that of sex crime in general as they were almost all male. Additionally foreign perpetrators were overrepresented compared to their share of the overall population in Germany. The absolute number of gang rapes were not increasing, but the proportion of foreign suspects rose and the proportion of Syrian, Afghan and Iraqi suspects rose. One reason cited for the increase was that these demographics have larger proportions of young males, which are inherently overrepresented for crime.\n",
"The Sydney gang rapes were a series of gang rape attacks committed by a group of up to fourteen Lebanese Australian youths led by Bilal Skaf against Anglo-Celtic Australian women and teenage girls, as young as 14, in Sydney Australia in 2000. The crimes, described as ethnically motivated hate crimes by officials and commentators, were covered extensively by the news media, and prompted the passing of new laws. The nine men convicted of the gang rapes were sentenced to a total of more than 240 years in jail. According to court transcripts Judge Michael Finnane described the rapes as events that \"you hear about or read about only in the context of wartime atrocities\".\n",
"In banlieues organised gang-rapes are referred to as , or \"pass-arounds\"). One of the first people to bring public attention to the culture of gang rape was Samira Bellil, who published a book called \"Dans l'enfer des tournantes\" (\"In Gang Rape Hell\").\n",
"In February 2017, UKIP British politician Nigel Farage defined the Swedish city of Malmö as the \"rape capital of Europe\", and linked the high number of rapes in Sweden to the immigrants and asylum seekers from Africa and the Middle East; he was subsequently criticized by the BBC because, at the time, there were no data available on the ethnicity of the attackers. One year later, in August 2018 the BBC itself reported that rape statistics in Sweden show that 58% of men convicted of rape and attempted rape over the past five years were refugees and immigrants\n",
"In October 2012, two girls in Fontenay-sous-Bois on the outskirts of Paris reported experiencing daily gang rapes in the high-rise tower blocks, sometimes by scores of boys. One witness described 50 boys \"queuing\" to rape her. 10 of the 14 defendants who were minors at the time of gang rape were acquitted, while the remaining 4 adults found guilty were given 0 to 12 months in prison. This case shocked the country. In 2014, the case of a Canadian tourist allegedly gang raped by four police officers in Paris received international attention.\n",
"The gang rapes led to the passage of new legislation through the Parliament of New South Wales, increasing the sentences for gang rapists by creating a new category of crime known as \"aggravated sexual assault in company\".\n"
] |
how to move out of my parents house (aka. downpayments, interest rates, credit)
|
Unless you are in no hurry and already have a lucrative job you expect to keep for many years, I would not try to buy a place just to leave your parents house.
Save up a few months worth of income and then rent something. If you rent small, close to work/school, avoid car ownership, and always - every month - spend less than you earn, you'll be fine. One day when you have that lucrative job you can look at buying if it makes sense.
Don't get sucked into the myth that renting = poverty and buying = easy street.
Good luck
|
[
"How to Live with Your Parents (For the Rest of Your Life) is an American single-camera sitcom created by Claudia Lonow that aired on ABC from April 3 to June 26, 2013. The series was produced by 20th Century Fox Television and stars Sarah Chalke as Polly who—along with her daughter—ends up moving into her parents' house because of the financial crisis and her divorce.\n",
"In the United States, a primary residence is understood to be a property that one has regular access to, as opposed to a property one owns but does not have access to due to it being rented out to others. This can affect eligibility for a mortgage or home equity loan, with requirements generally being looser for getting a loan for a property one lives in, it being believed that a homeowner will try harder to pay the loan if they risk losing their primary residence. \n",
"Dependents were permitted to remain on their parents' insurance plan until their 26th birthday, including dependents who no longer live with their parents, are not a dependent on a parent's tax return, are no longer a student, or are married.\n",
"This generation differs from previous ones in that many members expect to remain with their parents for some years while maintaining their own social and professional lives. Home-leaving remains a priority for most in the Boomerang Generation, though financial burden (and the comforts of financial stability in their parents' homes) often delays the fruition of that goal.\n",
"As a result, the family is evicted from their home because they cannot pay the rent. Three of the children emigrate to the USA, one becomes a nun and one dies, until only the farmer and his wife remain.\n",
"BULLET::::- Dependents, mostly children, will be permitted to remain on their parents' insurance plan until their 26th birthday, and regulations implemented under the ACA include dependents that no longer live with their parents, are not a dependent on a parent's tax return, are no longer a student, or are married.\n",
"A person's primary residence, or main residence is the dwelling where they usually live, typically a house or an apartment. A person can only have one \"primary\" residence at any given time, though they may share the residence with other people. A primary residence is considered to be a legal residence for the purpose of income tax and/or acquiring a mortgage.\n"
] |
Given that many insects are attracted to light sources at night, do spiders take advantage of this?
|
There are a few species of bat which have learned that a lot of insects can be found near light sources at night. The few species in Europe that have learned this behaviour are quite light-tolerant though, other bat species actively avoid light. So it might be possible that some spiders are more likely to build webs near lights. See _URL_0_
I don't know if there's been research on spiders for this though.
|
[
"The attraction of insects to artificial light is one of the most well known examples of the effect of light at night on organisms. When insects are attracted to lamps they can be killed by exhaustion or contact with the lamp itself, and they are also vulnerable to predators like bats.\n",
"The reason insects and especially particular families of insect (e.g. moths), are attracted to light is uncertain . The most accepted theory is that moth migrate using the moon and stars as navigational aids and that the placement of a closer than the moon light causes subtended angles of light at the insects eye to alter so rapidly that it has to fly in a spiral to reduce the angular change -- this resulting in the insect flying into the light. Yet the reason some diurnal insects visit is entirely unknown.\n",
"Insects are affected differently by the varying wavelengths of light, and many species can see ultraviolet and infrared light that is invisible to humans. Because of variances in perception, moths are more attracted to broad spectrum white and bluish light sources than they are to the yellow light emitted by low pressure sodium-vapor lamps.\n",
"However, most spiders that lurk on flowers, webs, and other fixed locations waiting for prey tend to have very poor eyesight; instead they possess an extreme sensitivity to vibrations, which aids in prey capture. Vibration sensitive spiders can sense vibrations from such various mediums as the water surface, the soil or their silk threads. Changes in the air pressure can also be detected in search of prey.\n",
"The adult spiders are photophobic and live in places free from light, frequently in caves and tunnels, though they can sometimes be seen outside of caves and mines as they will emerge around dusk to hunt, often using a single silk lasso line and swinging down upon their prey. They are often found in areas that are frequented by bats. The spiders are most often observed in railway tunnels and mines since these are more likely to be visited by humans. The young spiders are, after several instars (and in contrast to the adults), strongly attracted to light—probably an evolutionary adaptation which ensures the spread of the species to new areas (see Life cycle for further details).\n",
"The most common insect is probably the leaf cutting ant, but common sights are the termites with their innumerable termite hills covering the landscape, several species of spiders, wild bees, dung beetles, especially around the cattle ranches, enormous night moths, and the fireflies with their eerie nocturnal lights. One species of black spider lives in a compact group like a large ball during the daylight hours, their thick as fish line web stretching between large trees. At dusk the spiders scurry out from their cluster to take up positions on the long web and catch the nocturnal insects as they fly blindly to their fate.\n",
"Most insects are capable of sensing polarized light and they are able to use the polarization of the sky when the sun is occluded by clouds. The orientation mechanisms of nocturnal moths and other insects that migrate have not been well studied, however magnetic cues have been suggested in short distance fliers.\n"
] |
Why are there so many companies getting hacked?
|
Major companies operate networks that are absolutely massive. It's simply not possible for them to operate them in a way that is impervious to attack. Anyone who tells you they can operate such a network is lying. With computer systems it isn't a matter of *if* they will be hacked but of *when*.
Moreover operating a server is a very dangerous thing to do if you aren't careful. Case in point, I run my own internet-facing server that I use for various tasks. Since midnight (~11 hours ago) it has seen:
* 70 attempts to log in over SSH (basically log in as administrator)
* 15 attempts to exploit [Shellshock](_URL_0_) against some website hosting software
* ~30 attempts to log in to the administrative panel of said website hosting using what look like gibberish as the name and password
That's just my no-name server hosting nothing of particular importance. All of these things are automated attacks that are fire-and-forget and the scale they occur at is astounding.
Worse yet, you wouldn't actually know if they succeed. The attack would insert some malicious payload that enables the attacker to come back later and steal your data or use your server to launch further attacks. The only defense is pro-actively monitoring for suspicious activity and staying up to date with security patches.
****
Back to big companies. People attack them because that's where the money is. Target and Home Depot got hit with the same malware that infected the POS terminals used to process credit/debit transactions and whoever was responsible walked away with something insane like information on over 40 *million* credit cards. Worse is that the companies were using extremely out of date security software that was effectively useless. The attacks were certainly impressive in scope but the security they were up against wasn't exactly state-of-the-art or robust.
With Sony it's very much a developing situation and we don't know how or why it happened. The reported size of data stolen is enormous (~100TB) and it's been reported that leaked portions show extremely bad security practices like keeping usernames and passwords in a text file in a folder named "Passwords".
tl;dr: Everyone gets hacked. *Everyone*. What makes the difference is how quickly they identify and respond to those events.
e: For more gory details written in a mostly-layman accessible manner about the Target attack, [this article](_URL_1_) is a solid read. It breaks down the attack into a play-by-play look at how it probably happened.
|
[
"The group has hacked many websites and applications using a series of different attacks. The most notable, however, being SQL injection. There have been a lot of companies affected by the group, but some of the hacks even for big companies did not make the media (probably due to keeping the multi-country legal investigation a secret). However, the most notable hacks done by The Unknowns, mostly government related websites, did make mass media.\n",
"Four primary motives have been proposed as possibilities for why hackers attempt to break into computers and networks. First, there is a criminal financial gain to be had when hacking systems with the specific purpose of stealing credit card numbers or manipulating banking systems. Second, many hackers thrive off of increasing their reputation within the hacker subculture and will leave their handles on websites they defaced or leave some other evidence as proof that they were involved in a specific hack. Third, corporate espionage allows companies to acquire information on products or services that can be stolen or used as leverage within the marketplace. And fourth, state-sponsored attacks provide nation states with both wartime and intelligence collection options conducted on, in, or through cyberspace.\n",
"The best-known and legitimate form of government hacking is the watering hole attack, in which the government takes control of a criminal-activity site and distributes a virus to computers which access the site. The malware can be installed through a link clicked by a user or through access to a site. The user is not aware of the infection on their machine; the malware partially controls it, searches for identifying information and sends it to the source.\n",
"With the business world increasingly operating on virtual platforms the fear of hackers is rising. As more jobs are using this virtual platform as a standard procedure, the amount of information that is available to be hacked is also increasing. This information may be confidential and if found by the wrong people, detrimental to the business and its customers. One well publicised case was the hacking of the online cheating site Ashley Madison. Consumers joined this site to arrange affairs (cheat on their partners) with others on the site. This information was then leaked enabling the “cheaters” partners to see what they have been up to. This was obviously disastrous for the online business and its customers. \n",
"The computer systems of financial regulators and financial institutions like the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, SWIFT, investment banks, and commercial banks are prominent hacking targets for cyber criminals interested in manipulating markets and making illicit gains. Web sites and apps that accept or store credit card numbers, brokerage accounts, and bank account information are also prominent hacking targets, because of the potential for immediate financial gain from transferring money, making purchases, or selling the information on the black market. In-store payment systems and ATMs have also been tampered with in order to gather customer account data and PINs.\n",
"On July 7, 2014, the company said it was hit by a cyber attack prompting the US government to suspend its work with the firm. Experts who have examined the hack \"believe it has all the markings of a state-sponsored attack,\" but did not detail possible suspects. The investigation revealed that the hackers broke into USIS by pivoting from an SAP system managed by a third party.\n",
"Some of the best large-scale hacks (e.g. the Caltech cannon heist) have involved multiple teams of hackers working on coordinated but diverse subtasks such as fund-raising, \"social engineering\", rigging, transportation logistics, gold electroplating, and precision numerical controlled machining, calling on a wide range of technical and management skills. Not surprisingly, some hacker teams have gone on to found start-up business ventures, though they may be reluctant to reveal their earlier exploits until many years have passed.\n"
] |
why when you get sunburned you get sleepy/tired?
|
Sunburns usually come with dehydration as well. Mix dehydration and your body trying to repair a sizable chunk of skin, its quite draining.
|
[
"Due to symptoms of low mood and energy, individuals with depression may be likely to have behaviors that are counter to good sleep hygiene, such as taking naps during the day, consuming alcohol near bedtime, and consuming large amounts of caffeine during the day. In addition to sleep hygiene education, bright light therapy can be a useful treatment for individuals with depression. Not only can morning bright light therapy help establish a better sleep-wake schedule, but it also has been shown to be effective for treating depression directly, especially when related to seasonal affective disorder.\n",
"Sunburn causes an inflammation process, including production of prostanoids and bradykinin. These chemical compounds increase sensitivity to heat by reducing the threshold of heat receptor (TRPV1) activation from to . The pain may be caused by overproduction of a protein called CXCL5, which activates nerve fibres.\n",
"People with PBC experience fatigue (80 percent) that leads to sleepiness during the daytime; more than half of those have severe fatigue. Dry skin and dry eyes are also common. Itching (pruritus) occurs in 20–70 percent. People with more severe PBC may have jaundice (yellowing of the eyes and skin). PBC impairs bone density and there is an increased risk of fracture. Xanthelasma (skin lesions around the eyes) or other xanthoma may be present as a result of increased cholesterol levels. \n",
"Sunburn is a form of radiation burn that affects living tissue, such as skin, that results from an overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, commonly from the Sun. Common symptoms in humans and other animals include red or reddish skin that is hot to the touch, pain, general fatigue, and mild dizziness. An excess of UV radiation can be life-threatening in extreme cases. Excessive UV radiation is the leading cause of primarily non-malignant skin tumors. \n",
"Sundowning should be distinguished from delirium, and should be presumed to be delirium when it appears as a new behavioral pattern until a causal link between sunset and behavioral disturbance is established. Patients with established sundowning and no obvious medical illness may be suffering from impaired circadian regulation, or may be affected by nocturnal aspects of their institutional environment such as shift changes, increased noise, or reduced staffing (which leads to fewer opportunities for social interaction).\n",
"While the specific causes of sundowning have not been empirically proven, some evidence suggests that circadian rhythm disruption increases sundowning behaviors. In humans, sunset triggers a biochemical cascade that involves a reduction of dopamine levels and a shift towards melatonin production as the body prepares for sleep. In individuals with dementia, melatonin production may be decreased, which may interrupt other neurotransmitter systems.\n",
"Sundowning, or sundown syndrome, is a neurological phenomenon associated with increased confusion and restlessness in patients with delirium or some form of dementia. Most commonly associated with Alzheimer's disease, but also found in those with other forms of dementia, the term \"sundowning\" was coined due to the timing of the patient's confusion. For patients with sundowning syndrome, a multitude of behavioral problems begin to occur in the evening or while the sun is setting. Sundowning seems to occur more frequently during the middle stages of Alzheimer's disease and mixed dementia. Patients are generally able to understand that this behavioral pattern is abnormal. Sundowning seems to subside with the progression of a patient's dementia. Research shows that 20–45% of Alzheimer's patients will experience some sort of sundowning confusion.\n"
] |
english bill of rights
|
The Bill of Rights is to do with establishing England (and later Great Britain and then the UK) as a constitutional monarchy, and formally sets out the relationship between monarch and parliament:
It states that Parliament is the ultimate decision-making and law-making body in the land. Parliament makes rules in the name of the monarch, but the monarch can not and must not interfere in Parliament's work or decisions, and specifically mentions that:
* Parliament is the only body that can impose taxes on the population. In particular the monarch cannot set up his or her own private income stream based upon taxation.
* The monarch cannot declare war without Parliament's say-so
* MPs and Lords cannot be sued for libel or slander for things they say in Parliament -- it is the only place in the UK to have absolute freedom of speech
The Bill of Rights also introduced for the first time a written requirement that the monarch must not be a Roman Catholic, nor married to one -- a ruling that has only very recently been rescinded.
There is a lot more in the actual text of the document, but the above points are the most important ones with regard to modern-day Britain.
|
[
"The Bill of Rights, also known as the English Bill of Rights, is an Act of the Parliament of England that sets out certain basic civil rights and clarifies who would be next to inherit the Crown. It received the Royal Assent on 16 December 1689 and is a restatement in statutory form of the Declaration of Right presented by the Convention Parliament to William III and Mary II in February 1689, inviting them to become joint sovereigns of England. The Bill of Rights lays down limits on the powers of the monarch and sets out the rights of Parliament, including the requirement for regular parliaments, free elections, and freedom of speech in Parliament. It sets out certain rights of individuals including the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment and reestablished the right of Protestants to have arms for their defence within the rule of law. It also includes no right of taxation without Parliament’s agreement. Furthermore, the Bill of Rights described and condemned several misdeeds of James II of England.\n",
"BULLET::::- The Bill of Rights (1689; England) declared that Englishmen, as embodied by Parliament, possess certain civil and political rights; the Claim of Right (1689; Scotland) was similar but distinct.\n",
"The Bill of Rights (1689) reinforced the Petition of Right (1628) and the Habeas Corpus Act (1679) by codifying certain rights and liberties. Described by William Blackstone as \"Fundamental Laws of England\", the rights expressed in these Acts became associated with the idea of the rights of Englishmen. The Bill of Rights directly influenced the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights, which in turn influenced the Declaration of Independence.\n",
"BULLET::::- A bill of rights is enacted by the Parliament of England in 1689. The Bill of Rights 1689 set out the requirement for regular parliaments, free elections, rules for freedom of speech in Parliament, and limited the power of the monarch. It ensured (with the Glorious Revolution of 1688) that, unlike much of the rest of Europe, royal absolutism would not prevail.\n",
"The English Bill of Rights of 1689 emerged from a tempestuous period in English politics during which two issues were major sources of conflict: the authority of the King to govern without the consent of Parliament, and the role of Catholics in a country that was becoming ever more Protestant. Ultimately, the Catholic James II was overthrown in the Glorious Revolution, and his successors, the Protestants William III and Mary II, accepted the conditions that were codified in the Bill. One of the issues the Bill resolved was the authority of the King to disarm his subjects, after King Charles II and James II had disarmed many Protestants that were \"suspected or knowne\" of disliking the government, and had argued with Parliament over his desire to maintain a standing (or permanent) army. The bill states that it is acting to restore \"ancient rights\" trampled upon by James II, though some have argued that the English Bill of Rights created a new right to have arms, which developed out of a duty to have arms. In \"District of Columbia v. Heller\" (2008), the Supreme Court did not accept this view, remarking that the English right at the time of the passing of the English Bill of Rights was \"clearly an individual right, having nothing whatsoever to do with service in the militia\" and that it was a right not to be disarmed by the Crown and was not the granting of a new right to have arms.\n",
"The text of the English Bill of Rights of 1689 includes language protecting the right of Protestants against disarmament by the Crown. This document states: \"That the Subjects which are Protestants may have Arms for their Defence suitable to their Conditions and as allowed by Law.\" It also contained text that aspired to bind future Parliaments, though under English constitutional law no Parliament can bind any later Parliament. Nevertheless, the English Bill of Rights remains an important constitutional document, more for enumerating the rights of Parliament over the monarchy than for its clause concerning a right to have arms.\n",
"The Bill of Rights is commonly dated in legal contexts to 1688. This convention arises from the legal fiction (prior to the passage of the Acts of Parliament (Commencement) Act 1793) that an Act of Parliament came into force on the first day of the session in which it was passed. The Bill was therefore deemed to be effective from 13 February 1689 (New Style), or, under the Old Style calendar in use at the time, 13 February 1688.\n"
] |
Great ape crossbreeding... possible?
|
A lot more goes into interbreeding than simply chromosome number; species with different chromosome counts can interbreed, though often the offspring are not viable or, when they are, tend to be sterile.
In the case of orangutan and chimpanzee or gorilla, you must keep in mind that these are species which have been separated by literally hundreds of thousands of years of evolution. While each of these three species does have 48 chromosomes, the location of various alleles differs greatly between them. The enzyme activity also differs enough that any resulting embryo from a forced fertilization would likely not be viable.
And then there's the issue of fertilization itself. Sperm are able to penetrate the membrane surrounding an egg because the enzymatic activity is recognized and an influx of Calcium ions is released, allowing the sperm to more actively penetrate the egg. Because the enzymes are different between species, there would not be such an influx of Calcium ions, making penetration difficult. The chances that a gorilla's sperm could fertilize an orangutan egg are remote.
And, of course, this could only happen in a lab. Gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangutans are not only genetically but also behaviorally isolated. In the wild, they would not recognize each other as potential mates; if anything, they'd either ignore or attack one another on sight.
So the short answer is no, crossbreeding would not be possible. It has not been possible for over a million years, if I recall correctly. I'd have to consult my primatological genetics text if I wanted to be sure.
|
[
"Polyembryony is a widespread form of asexual reproduction in animals, whereby the fertilized egg or a later stage of embryonic development splits to form genetically identical clones. Within animals, this phenomenon has been best studied in the parasitic Hymenoptera. In the 9-banded armadillos, this process is obligatory and usually gives rise to genetically identical quadruplets. In other mammals, monozygotic twinning has no apparent genetic basis, though its occurrence is common. There are at least 10 million identical human twins and triplets in the world today.\n",
"The first crossbreeding may produce a superior animal due to hybrid vigor. Often, this crossbreed is part of a rotational crossbreeding scheme; if it also incorporates terminal crossbreeding, it is then called a rotaterminal system. By mating the crossbreed with a third breed, hybrid vigor may be further enhanced.\n",
"Inbred strains (also called inbred lines, or rarely for animals linear animals) are individuals of a particular species which are nearly identical to each other in genotype due to long inbreeding. A strain is inbred when it has undergone at least 20 generations of brother x sister or offspring x parent mating, at which point at least 98.6% of the loci in an individual of the strain will be homozygous, and each individual can be treated effectively as clones. Some inbred strains have been bred for over 150 generations, leaving individuals in the population to be isogenic in nature. Inbred strains of animals are frequently used in laboratories for experiments where for the reproducibility of conclusions all the test animals should be as similar as possible. However, for some experiments, genetic diversity in the test population may be desired. Thus outbred strains of most laboratory animals are also available, where an outbred strain is a strain of an organism that is effectively wildtype in nature, where there is as little inbreeding as possible.\n",
"A crossbreed is an organism with purebred parents of two different breeds, varieties, or populations. \"Crossbreeding\", sometimes called \"designer crossbreeding\", is the process of breeding such an organism, often with the intention to create offspring that share the traits of both parent lineages, or producing an organism with hybrid vigor. While crossbreeding is used to maintain health and viability of organisms, irresponsible crossbreeding can also produce organisms of inferior quality or dilute a purebred gene pool to the point of extinction of a given breed of organism. \n",
"In cattle, there are systems of crossbreeding. In many crossbreeds, one is larger than the other. One is used when the purebred females are particularly adapted to a specific environment, and are crossed with purebred bulls from another environment to produce a generation having traits of both parents.\n",
"Chimpanzees and humans are closely related (sharing 95% of their DNA sequence and 99% of coding DNA sequences; visual chart: ), leading to contested speculation that a hybrid is possible. The closest known data is that hybridization between chimpanzees and bonobos, which share 99.6% of the genome ( and see the chart) is easily possible (). Some authors even say that \"the population split between bonobo and chimpanzee occurred relatively close in time to the split between the bonobo–chimpanzee ancestor (Pan ancestor) and humans\", or that Pan, especially bonobos , are a \"living fossil\" close to our ancestors, \"Pan prior\". However, genetic similarity and thus the chances of successful hybridization can be different from visual similarity; for example, pugs and huskies look quite dissimilar (perhaps more so than some chimpanzees or bonobos or even gorillas are from humans) but belong to the same species and subspecies and can hybridize freely. \n",
"Ultimately, it is not possible to tease apart the two potential causes of inbreeding, and attributed the observed inbreeding to one cause or the other. Therefore, just as with the mixed mating model, in the effective selfing model there is only one parameter to be estimated. However this parameter, termed the effective selfing rate, is often a more accurate measure of the proportion of self-fertilisation than the corresponding parameter in the mixed mating model.\n"
] |
why can't enemy combatants on the ground hear apache helicopters (or whatever) before they strike?
|
If you look at when they fire that missile, there's about 2.5-3s between launch and impact. Wikipedia lists the speed of the [Hydra 70](_URL_0_) rocket as 2,300 feet per second. That puts the chopper over a mile away from the target - plenty of distance for the sound to die out.
The camera footage you're looking at is zoomed in considerably, making the soldiers appear far closer than they are in reality.
|
[
"Apache \"Vampire 12\", flown by Warrant Officers David S. Williams and Ronald D. Young Jr., was forced down into a marsh after gunfire severed its hydraulics. Its radio was also hit, preventing communication with the other helicopters. Attempting to flee the crash scene, both men swam down a canal, but were captured by armed civilians. The Iraqi government would later show the helicopter on TV and claim that it had been shot down by a farmer with a Brno rifle; however due to the high volume of anti-aircraft fire and the armor of the Apache, it is unlikely that a bolt-action rifle was responsible.\n",
"By the end of U.S. military operations in Iraq in December 2011, several Apache helicopters had been shot down by enemy fire, and others lost in accidents. In 2006, an Apache was downed by a Soviet-made Strela 2 (SA-7) in Iraq, despite the Apache being typically able to avoid such missiles. In 2007, four Apache helicopters were destroyed on the ground by insurgent mortar fire using web-published geotagged photographs taken by soldiers. Several AH-64s were lost to accidents in Afghanistan as of 2012. Most Apaches that took heavy damage were able to continue their missions and return safely.\n",
"In 2007, four United States Army Apache helicopters were destroyed on the ground by Iraqi insurgent mortar fire; the insurgents had made use of embedded coordinates in web-published photographs (geotagging) taken of the helicopters by soldiers.\n",
"One concern involving the Apache arose when a unit of these helicopters was very slow to deploy during U.S. military involvement in Kosovo. According to the \"Army Times\", the Army is shifting its doctrine to favour ground-attack aircraft over attack helicopters for deep strike attack missions because ground-attack helicopters have proved to be highly vulnerable to small-arms fire; the U.S. Marine Corps has noted similar problems.\n",
"BULLET::::- 2007 – Four AH-64 Apache helicopters are destroyed on the ground by Iraqi insurgent mortar fire; the insurgents had made use of embedded coordinates in web-published photographs (geotagging) taken by soldiers to track the exact location of the helicopters.\n",
"Of the 29 returning Apaches, all but one suffered serious damage. On average, each Apache had 15-20 bullet holes. One Apache took 29 hits. Sixteen main rotor blades, six tail blades, six engines, and five drive shafts were damaged beyond repair. In one squadron only a single helicopter was fit to fly. It took a month until the 11th Regiment was ready to fight again. The casualties sustained by the Apaches induced a change of tactics by placing significant restrictions on their use. Attack helicopters would henceforth be used to reveal the location of enemy troops, allowing them to be destroyed by artillery and air strikes.\n",
"The Apaches entered the valley first to provide overwatch of the helicopter landing zones. The attack aircraft radioed back the call of \"ice\", a military term for an uncontested landing. Though the aircraft were able to disembark infantry without incident, the ground force began taking small arms fire immediately after their departure. After this initial period, the infantry and supporting Chinooks would require repeated air to ground fire support from the accompanying Apaches and USAF assets. The Taliban began to target the aircraft, and on the first day of the operation, five out of seven AH-64s were put out of action by ground fire.\n"
] |
the psychology of a troll (serious)
|
It's really the basest way to get acknowledgement on the internet. Whenever you write a well thought out response, you're putting yourself out there to be ridiculed. You put in your ideas, your insight, maybe take the time to reread and edit, and then post; for all that, someone can easily just say "nope" and downvote. And that downvote - as far as karma goes - essentially negates all your work.
When you troll, especially with troll accounts, you're just changing the goals of your redditting. Instead of saying "I have something thoughtful to contribute", you say "I'm just going to be incendiary". If your only goal is to agitate people, that's pretty manageable. Each downvote represents an occasion when you've gotten a reaction out of someone.
|
[
"Recent studies have found that people who are identified as trolls tend to have dark personality traits and show signs of sadism, antisocial behavior, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism. The 2013 case study suggested that there are a number of similarities between anti-social and flame trolling activities and the 2014 survey indicated that trolling is an Internet manifestation of everyday sadism. Both studies suggest that this trolling may be linked to bullying in both adolescents and adults.\n",
"According to Tom Postmes, a professor of social and organisational psychology at the universities of Exeter, England, and Groningen, The Netherlands, and the author of \"Individuality and the Group\", who has studied online behavior for 20 years, \"Trolls aspire to violence, to the level of trouble they can cause in an environment. They want it to kick off. They want to promote antipathetic emotions of disgust and outrage, which morbidly gives them a sense of pleasure.\"\n",
"A troll’s intention will also influence actions and outcomes ranging from casual sex in a more private area to exhibitionism like masturbating to group sex, fulfilling a sexual fantasy or even the voyeuristic thrill of watching someone else have public sex. Some are looking to: perform fellatio either directly or through a glory hole, receive it, or switch roles; perform or receive anal sex; participate in group sex or a BDSM experience even including gang bangs; or simply to watch others perform sex acts.\n",
"Trolls are the least intelligent of the non-magical creatures. Most of their decisions are based on their instincts. They are quick for their size and have large serrated tusks which produce a narcotic venom which renders the prey mindlessly—and defenselessly—happy. If they can, their preferred kill tactic is to slip their claws under the rib cage and pop the heart out before the muscles have time to tense up, rendering the meat mostly unharmed and tender. They have an extreme aversion to light, noise, and water. The largest pack of trolls were seen in the Eleven Wonders of the World Exhibit in a run-down part of Haven. Very few people have ever managed to single-handedly down a troll. Holly Short once did it with her helmet's eight-hundred-watt high beams, the shock of the light rendering the troll unconscious. Domovoi Butler became the only human ever to do so with a combination of medieval weaponry and modern combat techniques.\n",
"BULLET::::- Trolls: Trolls are unfriendly, greedy scavengers that will typically live in forests, by rivers, in caves or underground. Some are lizard-like in appearance, burly and shorter than the average man. Others are huge and brutish. There are several types of Trolls mentioned in the books. They are:\n",
"A troll is a class of being in Norse mythology and Scandinavian folklore. In Old Norse sources, beings described as trolls dwell in isolated rocks, mountains, or caves, live together in small family units, and are rarely helpful to human beings.\n",
"Uz, the trolls, are the race of darkness, large, intelligent, astoundingly omnivorous, with a very developed sonar-like sense (\"darksense\"). Their societies are matriarchal, and they worship, among others, a goddess of darkness called Kyger Litor, mother of the Trolls, and the more violent and sinister Zorak Zoran. \n"
] |
why is it that illegal aliens are routinely arrested and deported but legal action is rarely if ever taken agains those that employ illegal aliens?
|
So since this is already heading into THEY STEALING ER JERBS territory lets break it down.
pretty much every company in the USA pays at least minimum wage and auto deduct taxes. That's a whole lot of liability coverage since good luck proving they knew the person was undocumented. Also they probably actually don't know in the first place since there isn't much incentive for those companies to hire undocumented workers what with the minimum wage thing. Their papers looked good, and it's not your employer's job to conduct the kind of in depth and expensive background check needed to spot the issues. Got a SIN number? You can work.
For everyone else, most undocumented workers are doing cash in hand work. In which case good luck proving they were employed in the first place, or that they knew the persons immigration status especily since A: everyone is getting paid cash in hand, and B: no one is expected to even check a SIN number when you hire for casual day labor since they're only in your employ for a short time.
Failing that sort of work, they also self employ. Quite a few of them actually. One LLC registration later and now they've got their own business doing whatever they care to do.
|
[
"According to a number of legal experts, INS has taken the view that it can detain aliens for preventive rather than punitive purposes. These experts state INS has no authority to conduct a punitive detention, which is only authorized by criminal statutes. Civil libertarians have noted that over 2,000 aliens have been held indefinitely without hope of repatriation and that the Department of Homeland Security holds approximately 31,000 immigrants in detention at any given time.\n",
"The Act amended the INA to add new provisions enforcing mandatory detention laws. These apply to any alien who is engaged in terrorism, or who is engaged in an activity that endangers U.S. national security. It also applies to those who are inadmissible or who must be deported because it is certified they are attempting to enter to undertake illegal espionage; are exporting goods, technology, or sensitive information illegally; or are attempting to control or overthrow the government; or have, or will have, engaged in terrorist activities. The Attorney General or the Attorney General's deputy may maintain custody of such aliens until they are removed from the U.S. unless it is no longer deemed they should be removed, in which case they are released. The alien can be detained for up to 90 days but can be held up to six months after it is deemed that they are a national security threat. However, the alien must be charged with a crime or removal proceedings start no longer than seven days after the alien's detention, otherwise the alien will be released. However, such detentions must be reviewed every six months by the Attorney General, who can then decide to revoke it, unless prevented from doing so by law. Every six months the alien may apply, in writing, for the certification to be reconsidered. Judicial review of any action or decision relating to this section, including judicial review of the merits of a certification, can be held under habeas corpus proceedings. Such proceedings can be initiated by an application filed with the United States Supreme Court, by any justice of the Supreme Court, by any circuit judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, or by any district court otherwise having jurisdiction to entertain the application. The final order is subject to appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. Provisions were also made for a report to be required every six months of such decisions from the U.S. Attorney General to the Committee on the Judiciary of the House of Representatives and the Committee on the Judiciary of the Senate.\n",
"U.S. federal law requires aliens 14 years old or older who are in the country for longer than 30 days to register with the U.S. government and have registration documents in their possession at all times. The Act makes it a state misdemeanor crime for an illegal alien to be in Arizona without carrying the required documents and obligates police to make an attempt, when practicable during a \"lawful stop, detention or arrest\", to determine a person's immigration status if there is reasonable suspicion that the person is an illegal alien. Any person arrested cannot be released without confirmation of the person's legal immigration status by the federal government pursuant to § 1373(c) of Title 8 of the United States Code. A first offense carries a fine of up to $100, plus court costs, and up to 20 days in jail; subsequent offenses can result in up to 30 days in jail (SB 1070 required a \"minimum\" fine of $500 for a first violation, and for a second violation a minimum $1,000 fine and a maximum jail sentence of 6 months). A person is \"presumed to not be an immigrant who is unlawfully present in the United States\" if he or she presents any of the following four forms of identification: a valid Arizona driver license; a valid Arizona nonoperating identification license; a valid tribal enrollment card or other tribal identification; or any valid federal, state, or local government-issued identification, if the issuer requires proof of legal presence in the United States as a condition of issuance.\n",
"Aliens can be classified as unlawfully present for one of three reasons: entering without authorization or inspection, staying beyond the authorized period after legal entry, or violating the terms of legal entry.\n",
"Since 2010, deportations of illegal immigrants have increased, as deportation procedures became more systematic and border controls were reinforced with police and military patrols. Several states, such as Arizona and Alabama, have passed laws that criminalize illegal migration. Proposed acts that offer easier paths to U.S. citizenship for immigrants, such as the DREAM Act, have been rejected.\n",
"In cases involving transporting illegal aliens, the alien is considered a witness to the alleged crime. While the defendant may want the alien to be questioned by the defense counsel and called to testify at trial before being deported, Immigration services wants to return the foreigner to their country immediately without being questioned. In these cases, the defendant can move to have the indictment dismissed because the government’s action has deprived him of his Sixth Amendment right “to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor.” The executive, then, “must faithfully execute the immigration policy adopted by Congress, but it must also ensure that the criminal defendant receives the fundamental fairness inherent in due process.”\n",
"Many countries utilize administrative detention to hold illegal immigrants – those arriving at a country's borders without proper authorization – as an interim step to either deportation or the obtainment of proper legal status. Immigration detention is controversial because it presents a clash between traditional notions of individual liberty and the territorial sovereignty of states. Comparative studies on administrative detention practices of different countries found that those experiencing large-scale influxes of illegal migrants by sea (such as the United States and Australia) typically have the most draconian systems. Proponents of administrative detention for illegal immigrants claim that detention is required since these immigrants have not committed any crime for which they could be prosecuted under existing laws, and that allowing them to await their potential deportation while not in custody runs a risk of their absconding. Opponents maintain that alternatives to detention exist, and that such alternatives are preferable because they do not violate personal liberty, as well as being less of a financial burden to the state. Among the alternatives suggested are supervised release to a non-governmental organization (NGO), the release into the custody of a private citizen who will guarantee the immigrant's participation in immigration hearings, and \"open detention\" centers with mandatory reporting requirements.\n"
] |
How does something as large as a city affect the crust/mantle below it? Could a city become so large and heavy that it would collapse or compress the earth underneath?
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I'll try to make this as clear as possible.
Firstly, your answer is no (at least with respect to the crust/mantle). As far as compress the earth underneath, speaking in purely scientific terms, any weight will compress the earth underneath, whether it is 100,000 lbs or 1 oz. The degree of compression is what you are wondering.
You can see from [this](_URL_0_) boussinesq chart that the load of a *properly loaded* foundation member the weight is distrbued such that at a depth approximately 6 times the length of the footing, the load "felt" by the soil is only about 10% of that at the surface. Now, I'm sure you're wondering why don't we just make a 3 inch diameter pile and load it with 1,000,000 lbs and say "well, at 18" the load is dropped to 100,000, so we'll double that make it 3 ft and call it a day!" That won't work; notice I said "properly loaded", this means you have to take settlement into account, at an improper load, the foundation will sink (kind of like a hypodermic needle going into skin). So you need to size the footing to avoid this.
Building foundations are designed by geotechnical engineers. The first step in this process is to determine the soil properties below the proposed building; this includes getting information on soil properties deep below the surface (hundreds of feet sometimes) using differing methods (SPT, CPT penetrometers, ground penetrating radar, geophone/shear wave recording, etc) Then based on certain methods of settlement (Schmertmann's method is one, also using Boussinesq force distributions) you can determine the structural capacity of the soil. If you have the approximate weight distribution of the building, you can size your footings so that the force doesn't "over-stress" the soil. This would result in various failure, either the foundation "rolling" over (due to eccentric loading or eccentric support, think two soils next to each other that have different strength), or much more commonly (as noted below with the Mexican example) settlement.
Now, with the soil properties known if it is determined that you can't support all of the load on the surface of the ground, you need to do deep foundations. Commonly these will either be "drilled shafts" or "driven piles". For huge buildings, it will almost always be a drilled shaft because these are basically holes drilled into the ground (commonly over 10 ft in diameter) then a reinforcement cage lowered in, then concrete filling it. A driven pile, is basically a column that is driven into the ground and don't get much bigger than ~30 inches in diameter. Drilled shafts can be several hundred feet deep. This type of foundation relies more on side friction between the concrete and soil (think about a 100 ft deep, 10ft diameter concrete member buried in sand. It has over 3000 square feet for friction to act on. This is a HUGE amount of resistive force.
If you determine that the weight of the building will be too large, then you need to redesign it (either by using light weight concrete, which is about 50-60% of the weight of normal weight concrete or by using more steel as it is stronger when compared pound for pound).
Think about it this way, when you go to the beach and stand in the water, you start to sink , but only a couple inches. So what has happened is that your feet don't provide enough force on the surface to keep you up, so you start to settle *until the side friction between your ankles and the sand, plus the bearing capacity of your feet* is equal to your weight.
On this note, 1.) quicksand is not a thing. You can have sand in what is known as a "quick" condition, which is where water is flowing upward. and 2.) in this situation, you will not drown (unless you can't swim), sand is about twice as dense as water, so if the water gets to a fully quick condition, it will just become buoyant sand, meaning it is about the same density as water, and you can swim through it.
If you want more clarification, let me know.
Source: Masters degree in geotechnical engineering, working on Ph.D.
EDIT: Thank you to whomever gave me gold!
|
[
"Lost City is a location dominated by steep cliffs to the south, chimneys, and mounds of carbonate material deposited from chimneys that collapse as they age. Breccia, gabbros, and peridotites are dominating rock types as one maneuvers away from the field, which are prone to mass-wasting as bathymetry steepens. Mass-wasting events of the past are evident by bountiful scarps on the slope of the massif. Rubble tends to accumulate at areas no steeper than 60 degrees bounding the field, and can undergo lithification depending on how far it is located from Lost City.\n",
"A huge mass of rubble is all that remains of a large thermae; and, a large semicircular nymphaeum, decorated with columns and statues, is only represented by the stone blocks which formed the base of the superstructure.\n",
"Shrinking cities or urban depopulation are dense cities that have experienced notable population loss. Emigration (migration from a place) is a common reason for city shrinkage. Since the infrastructure of such cities was built to support a larger population, its maintenance can become a serious concern. A related phenomenon is counterurbanization.\n",
"The shrinking of urban populations indicates a changing of economic and planning conditions of a city. Cities begin to 'shrink' from economic decline, usually resulting from war, debt, or lack of production and work force. Population decline affects a large number of communities, both communities that are far removed from and deep within large urban centers. These communities usually consist of native people and long-term residents, so the initial population is not large. The outflow of people is then detrimental to the production potential and quality of life in these regions, and a decline in employment and productivity ensues.\n",
"In astronomy, a rubble pile is a celestial body that is not a monolith, consisting instead of numerous pieces of rock that have coalesced under the influence of gravity. Rubble piles have low density because there are large cavities between the various chunks that make them up.\n",
"The City is actually a structure that began on Earth. The mechanical beings known as Builders, which move around renovating and creating new landscapes, appear to have begun building without end, creating an enormous structure with little internal logic or coherence. The City appears to be organized into distinct floors, with layers of an unknown nigh-indestructible material called \"the megastructure\" between them. Traveling between floors is extremely difficult as the megastructure is almost indestructible and approaching the floor boundaries results in a massive safeguard response. Only a direct Gravitational Beam Emitter blast is known to have been capable of penetrating the megastructure.\n",
"The geology of New York is made up ancient Precambrian crystalline basement rock, forming the Adirondack Mountains and the bedrock of much of the state. These rocks experienced numerous deformations during mountain building events and much of the region was flooded by shallow seas depositing thick sequences of sedimentary rock during the Paleozoic. Fewer rocks have deposited since the Mesozoic as several kilometers of rock have eroded into the continental shelf and Atlantic coastal plain, although volcanic and sedimentary rocks in the Newark Basin are a prominent fossil-bearing feature near New York City from the Mesozoic rifting of the supercontinent Pangea.\n"
] |
Is time exactly symmetrical? If we were to rewind it would it play back as the reverse of it playing forwards?
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Time reversal is not a complete symmetry of our universe. We know this, because we can observe T-violation in experiments. We know that the weak force violates CP, and if CPT is a good symmetry, that implies violations of T as well. We can see T-reversal in the shapes of atomic nuclei. There are nuclei which have electric octupole moments (meaning they’re pear-shaped), which is a violation of T symmetry. People are also looking for electric dipole moments in neutrons and other particles, because that would also indicate T-violation.
|
[
"The symmetry of time (T-symmetry) can be understood simply as the following: if time were perfectly symmetrical, a video of real events would seem realistic whether played forwards or backwards. Gravity, for example, is a time-reversible force. A ball that is tossed up, slows to a stop, and falls is a case where recordings would look equally realistic forwards and backwards. The system is T-symmetrical. However, the process of the ball bouncing and eventually coming to a stop is not time-reversible. While going forward, kinetic energy is dissipated and entropy is increased. Entropy may be one of the few processes that is not time-reversible. According to the statistical notion of increasing entropy, the \"arrow\" of time is identified with a decrease of free energy.\n",
"Time appears to have a direction – the past lies behind, fixed and immutable, while the future lies ahead and is not necessarily fixed. Yet for the most part the laws of physics do not specify an arrow of time, and allow any process to proceed both forward and in reverse. This is generally a consequence of time being modelled by a parameter in the system being analysed, where there is no \"proper time\": the direction of the arrow of time is sometimes arbitrary. Examples of this include the cosmological arrow of time, which points away from the Big Bang, CPT symmetry, and the radiative arrow of time, caused by light only travelling forwards in time (see light cone). In particle physics, the violation of CP symmetry implies that there should be a small counterbalancing time asymmetry to preserve CPT symmetry as stated above. The standard description of measurement in quantum mechanics is also time asymmetric (see Measurement in quantum mechanics). The second law of thermodynamics states that entropy must increase over time (see Entropy). This can be in either direction – Brian Greene theorizes that, according to the equations, the change in entropy occurs symmetrically whether going forward or backward in time. So entropy tends to increase in either direction, and our current low-entropy universe is a statistical aberration, in the similar manner as tossing a coin often enough that eventually heads will result ten times in a row. However, this theory is not supported empirically in local experiment.\n",
"Retrocausality or Backwards causation is a concept of cause and effect where the effect precedes its cause in time, so that a later event in time affects an earlier event. In quantum physics, the distinction between cause and effect is not made at the most fundamental level, so time-symmetric systems can be viewed as causal or retro-causal. Philosophical considerations of time travel often address the same issues as retrocausality, as do treatments of the subject in fiction, but the two phenomena are distinct.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"3. Time and Mystery\" introduces objects surrounded by a green glow that are unaffected by time manipulation; for example, switches will remain flipped even if time is rewound to before the action occurred. Rewinding can thus be used to change the synchronization between objects that can and cannot be rewound, the basis of many puzzles in this section. This theme is also used in later worlds to denote objects unaffected by the player's time manipulation.\n",
"BULLET::::- T-symmetry (time reversal symmetry), a universe where the direction of time is reversed. T-symmetry is counterintuitive (surely the future and the past are not symmetrical) but explained by the fact that the Standard model describes local properties, not global ones like entropy. To properly reverse the direction of time, one would have to put the Big Bang and the resulting low-entropy state in the \"future.\" Since we perceive the \"past\" (\"future\") as having lower (higher) entropy than the present (see perception of time), the inhabitants of this hypothetical time-reversed universe would perceive the future in the same way as we perceive the past, and vice versa.\n",
"BULLET::::- Time reversal: Many laws of physics describe real phenomena when the direction of time is reversed. Mathematically, this is represented by the transformation, formula_8. For example, Newton's second law of motion still holds if, in the equation formula_9, formula_10 is replaced by formula_11. This may be illustrated by recording the motion of an object thrown up vertically (neglecting air resistance) and then playing it back. The object will follow the same parabolic trajectory through the air, whether the recording is played normally or in reverse. Thus, position is symmetric with respect to the instant that the object is at its maximum height.\n",
"BULLET::::- Time reversal flips the time coordinate, which amounts to time running from future to past. A curious property of time, which space does not have, is that it is unidirectional: particles traveling forwards in time are equivalent to antiparticles traveling back in time. Physical laws and interactions unchanged by this operation have T symmetry.\n"
] |
What are some modern social concepts that would be completely alien to a person living during the time of you expertise?
|
It's not just homosexuality - heterosexuality and bisexuality *as modern Western society understands it* would also be a strange idea to a person of that time depending on the nation-state they hailed from. (Greek sexuality is a little early for me but my understanding is that the erastes/eromenos relationship, which I believe is what you are referring to, was by no means a universal social construct within Ancient Greece as a whole, and the norms of the relationship varied from polis to polis.)
Romans, more my speed than Greeks, knew that there were some men who liked other men exclusively, and some women who liked other women exclusively, and some who preferred the opposite sex exclusively, but in general society functioned under strict laws of *pudicitia*, or sexual morality, for the privileged classes, that were more about preserving honor by restricting the types of sex acts that could be performed under a given circumstance. So Roman insults were more about specific acts performed (e.g. *cinaedus* and *pathicus* - which were the equivalent of "buttfucker" except in the reverse - maybe "pillow-biter"?) rather than the gender with whom the sex was happening.
Additionally, the idea of democracy as we currently practice it would have seemed really strange and awful - we include women, and poor people, and in some countries they even allow non-citizen residents to vote! Quelle horreur!
The way we view marriage is a relatively new concept and would have seemed odd to the Romans, for whom marriage was very much about the joining of families rather than the union of two people madly in love. The idea that it was entirely about property is misguided, but it was very much about using procreation to alter the social status of a family, especially among the privileged classes. Even among the lower classes, though, love wasn't really the primary consideration, at least not from the evidence we have, and so when you get beautiful epitaphs extolling a husband's love for his wife (like the Laudatio Turiae, which is totally worth a read), or vice versa, it makes it even more sweet. At least in my opinion.
|
[
"Social life in the 21st century includes a wide array of personal connections, not just intimates—people associated with a particular part of one’s life and daily activities, such as co-workers, neighbors, gym buddies, fellow volunteers and congregants, and providers of goods and services. Typically, peripheral ties far outnumber one’s close relations. Decades of research have shown the importance of primary relationships in both psychological and physiological well being. Yet an analysis of the broader social landscape suggests that consequential strangers provide many of the same benefits as intimates as well as many distinct and complementary functions. They are not universally beneficial—undesirable consequential strangers who cannot be avoided can be found in the workplace, neighborhoods and organizations. But to thrive in a modern society, research suggests, it is vital to have a variety of connections.\n",
"Existential thinkers seek to avoid restrictive models that categorize or label people. Instead, they look for the universals that can be observed cross-culturally. There is no existential personality theory which divides humanity into types or reduces people to part components. Instead, there is a description of the different levels of experience and existence with which people are inevitably confronted. The way in which a person is in the world at a particular stage can be charted on this general map of human existence (Binswanger, 1963; Yalom, 1980; van Deurzen, 1984).\n",
"The idea of social inertia can be traced back to French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu. According to Bourdieu, each person occupies a position in a social space, which consists of his or her social class as well as social relationships and social networks. Through the individual's engagement in the social space, he or she develops a set of behaviors, lifestyle and habits (which Bourdieu referred to as habitus) which often serve to maintain the status quo. Thus, people are encouraged to \"accept the social world as it is, to take it for granted, rather than to rebel against it, to counterpose to it different, even antagonistic, possibles.\" This can explain the continuity of the social order through time.\n",
"The \"social model\" was extended and developed by academics and activists in Australia, the UK, US and other countries, and extended to include all disabled people, including those who have learning difficulties / learning disabilities / or who are intellectually disabled, or people with emotional, mental health or behavioural problems.\n",
"Some cross-cultural theorists state that many European and North American cultures are based on universal expectations of individual conduct. \"I cannot hire my relatives to work in a public institution in my care, and, in theory, even my friends I should treat equally to strangers.\" Social obligations are dictated on the basis of norms or rules which are considered of a higher order, transcending the \"accidents\" of relationship, such as personal acquaintance, shared origin or family ties between people. \"If I am an electrical repairperson, I must service my list of clients in the order received because doing so is fair. If I am a police officer, I give my acquaintances tickets because I am a police officer and that's my job.\"\n",
"Modern society is increasingly aware of the concept of integration of people with disabilities. Issues such as accessibility, design for all and universal design are featured in the international symposia of bodies such as the European Commission. Steps have been taken to promote guidelines and best practices, and major resources are now dedicated to this field.\n",
"Human beings construct a shared social reality. This is explained in Berger and Thomas Luckmann's book \"The Social Construction of Reality\" (1966). This reality includes things from ordinary language to large-scale institutions. Our lives are governed by the knowledge about the world that we have and use the information that is relevant to our lives. We take into account typificatory schemes, which are general assumptions about society. As one encounters a new scheme, one must compare it to the ones that are already established in one's mind and determine whether to keep those schemes or replace the old ones with new ones. Social structure is the total of all these typificatory schemes.\n"
] |
WW2: What do these patches mean?
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The circular patches with the "A" are the insignia of the US 3rd Army, which in WW2 was under the command of Gen. George S. Patton. The triangular tricolour patches are the insignia of the US 16th Armoured Division. If you look closely, the embroidery below the 16 shows a tank track. The 16th Armoured was established in 1943, and reached Europe in 1945. It saw combat very briefly at the end of 1945 in Czechoslovakia, before withdrawing in accordance with a treaty with the advancing Soviets.
The patch at the bottom left with the winged star is the symbol of the USAAF, which is a little confusing. Did he transfer to or from the airforce at any point?
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[
"The World War I patch consisted of a dark blue disc bordered red having upon it a steel gray triangle (the Greek Delta symbol). The area within the triangle was divided into four equilateral triangles, with the lower left red, the top white, the lower right blue, and the central triangle the same dark blue as the disk. There are numerous variations of the World War I design, with the colors of the triangles transposed in various combinations. One common variant has three inner triangles instead of the prescribed four.\n",
"Colour patches of World War II were generally smaller than those of World War I, with the World War II square patch long on the sides, with an additional grey border if the colour patch had been used by the 1st AIF. New shapes were used, for example many five-sided and six-sided shapes including the tank-shaped patches of some armoured units, the T-shaped patches instituted for units of the 9th Division in 1943 representing their key role in the 1942 Siege of Tobruk, the double-diamond of the commandos and independent companies, and the 11th Division arrowheads. Some representations of Australian birds and mammals began to appear. Over 800 separate patches were authorised during World War 2.\n",
"The 42nd Division adopted a shoulder patch and distinctive unit insignia acknowledging the nickname. The original version of the patch symbolized a half arc rainbow and contained thin bands in multiple colors. During the latter part of World War I and post war occupation duty in Germany, Rainbow Division soldiers modified the patch to a quarter arc, removing half the symbol to memorialize the half of the division's soldiers who became casualties (killed or wounded) during the war. They also reduced the number of colors to just red, gold and blue bordered in green, in order to standardize the design and make the patch easier to reproduce.\n",
"With the start of World War II, the U.S. military suddenly needed for millions of embroidered patches to signify rank, unit, and specialty of members of the armed forces. The U.S. Government ordered the major embroidery companies to begin making embroidered patches (also known as shoulder sleeve insignia or SSI) and the looms were converted from lacemaking to war patch production.\n",
"In 1988, a decision was made to reintroduce Colour Patches for the first time since the end of the Second World War. The original 5th Battalion patch (as worn the day the 5th Battalion, 1st AIF, raised in Melbourne later to land at ANZAC Cove on the 25 April 1915) was adopted for the 5/6 RVR. This patch of a black rectangle on top of a red rectangle, is worn on the puggaree of the slouch hat.\n",
"Morale patches are a strong part of military history and are deeply connected to soldiers and law enforcement agents. Even before World War 1, the morale patch can be traced to the British Army who called them \"battle patches\". Mainly used to identify allies and enemy units; the distinctive designs would belong to each individual unit as a way to know who was who. Nowadays morale patches are also being used by civilians, for boosting employee morale etc. \n",
"The oldest of all official U.S. military patches is the Big Red One of the 1st Infantry Division, first issued on October 31, 1918. SSI became common during World War II and distinctive patches for individual units of the US Army, Navy, Marines, Air Force and Coast Guard have become a proud tradition. There is an active collectors market, especially for rare, limited edition patches.\n"
] |
how withdrawl from drugs causes severe illness? sometimes death?
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The worst withdrawal symptoms seem to be from drugs that are sedating: narcotics, alcohol and benzodiazepines.
These types of drugs tend to alter the amount of signaling via various neurotransmitters and their receptors. When one receptor is constantly activated by a drug then it will often be "down regulated" to try to bring things into balance. Other counter regulatory pathways may also get upregulated. But then when the drug or alcohol is suddenly stopped - you generally get activity that is the opposite, more or less, of what the drug was causing.
With alcohol and benzo withdrawal this can be really dangerous - marked increases in sympathetic nervous system activity (fight or flight) occurs, heart rate and blood pressure go up, and seizures may occur. If these reactions are severe, death can occur.
Narcotic withdrawal may cause severe discomfort - but generally not life threatening without other health problems: anxiety, sweating, aches, diarrhea, nausea, cramps and dilated pupils - many of which are from nervous system activity that is essentially the opposite of what you get with the drug itself.
In contrast, after prolonged stimulant use, stopping leads mostly to sleepy folks who are in a bad mood all the time. But not usually very ill from a medical / vital sign perspective.
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[
"Drug abuse, including alcohol and prescription drugs, can induce symptomatology which resembles mental illness. This can occur both in the intoxicated state and also during the withdrawal state. In some cases these substance induced psychiatric disorders can persist long after detoxification, such as prolonged psychosis or depression after amphetamine or cocaine abuse. A protracted withdrawal syndrome can also occur with symptoms persisting for months after cessation of use. Benzodiazepines are the most notable drug for inducing prolonged withdrawal effects with symptoms sometimes persisting for years after cessation of use. Both alcohol, barbiturate as well as benzodiazepine withdrawal can potentially be fatal. Abuse of hallucinogens can trigger delusional and other psychotic phenomena long after cessation of use.\n",
"Drug abuse, including alcohol and prescription drugs, can induce symptomatology which resembles mental illness. This can occur both in the intoxicated state and during the withdrawal state. In some cases these substance-induced psychiatric disorders can persist long after detoxification from amphetamine, cocaine, opioid, and alcohol use, causing prolonged psychosis, anxiety or depression. A protracted withdrawal syndrome can occur with symptoms persisting for months to years after cessation of substance use. Benzodiazepines, opioids, alcohol, and any other drug may induce prolonged withdrawal and have similar effects, with symptoms sometimes persisting for years after cessation of use. Psychosis including severe anxiety and depression are commonly induced by sustained alcohol, opioid, benzodiazepine, and other drug use which in most cases abates with prolonged abstinence. Any continued use of drugs or alcohol may increase anxiety, psychosis, and depression levels in some individuals. In almost all cases drug-induced psychiatric disorders fade away with prolonged abstinence, although permanent damage to the brain and nervous system may be caused by continued substance use.\n",
"The route of administration, whether intravenous, intramuscular, oral or otherwise, can also play a role in determining the severity of withdrawal symptoms. There are different stages of withdrawal as well; generally, a person will start to feel bad (crash or come down), progress to feeling worse, hit a plateau, and then the symptoms begin to dissipate. However, withdrawal from certain drugs (barbiturates, benzodiazepines, alcohol, glucocorticoids) can be fatal. While it is seldom fatal to the user, withdrawal from opiates (and some other drugs) can cause miscarriage, due to fetal withdrawal. The term \"cold turkey\" is used to describe the sudden cessation use of a substance and the ensuing physiologic manifestations.\n",
"A wide range of drugs whilst not causing a true physical dependence can still cause withdrawal symptoms or rebound effects during dosage reduction or especially abrupt or rapid withdrawal. These can include caffeine, stimulants, steroidal drugs and antiparkinsonian drugs. It is debated whether the entire antipsychotic drug class causes true physical dependency, a subset, or if none do. But, if discontinued too rapidly, it could cause an acute withdrawal syndrome. When talking about illicit drugs rebound withdrawal, especially with stimulants, it is sometimes referred to as \"coming down\" or \"crashing\".\n",
"In March 2016, research in the centre systematically identified 353 medicinal products withdrawn worldwide because of adverse drug reactions, assessed the level of evidence used for making the withdrawal decisions, and found that only 40 drugs were withdrawn worldwide. Withdrawal was significantly less likely in Africa than in other continents (Europe, the Americas, Asia, and Australasia and Oceania). Furthermore, in 47% of the 95 drugs for which death was documented as a reason for withdrawal more than 2 years elapsed between the first report of a death and drug withdrawal.\n",
"Withdrawal effects caused by sedative-hypnotics discontinuation, such as benzodiazepines, barbiturates, or alcohol, can cause serious medical complications. They are cited to be more hazardous to withdraw from than opioids. Users typically receive little advice and support for discontinuation. Some withdrawal symptoms are identical to the symptoms for which the medication was originally prescribed, and can be acute or protracted in duration. Onset of symptoms from long half-life benzodiazepines might be delayed for up to three weeks, although withdrawal symptoms from short-acting ones often present early, usually within 24–48 hours. There may be no fundamental differences in symptoms from either high or low dose discontinuation, but symptoms tend to be more severe from higher doses.\n",
"Although there have been reported fatalities due to GHB withdrawal, reports are inconclusive and further research is needed. A common problem is that GHB does not leave traces in the body after a short period of time, complicating diagnosis and research. Addiction occurs when repeated drug use disrupts the normal balance of brain circuits that control rewards, memory and cognition, ultimately leading to compulsive drug taking.\n"
] |
About the fancy uniforms we see in war paintings.
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Artists who do not travel with armies or have the chance to see one in a situation other than a parade may improperly display soldiers in battle. For example, many artists during the american civil war will draw every soldier with their knapsack (backpack) on and sometimes wearing gaiters, purely because thats what they saw when a regiment marched out of a city or in a parade. However in actual battle knapsacks were dropped before going in and gaiters were thrown away by most soldiers to begin with as they were very disliked.
But for the most part, uniforms in art are pretty accurate. They did indeed wear such fancy uniforms back then, and for a variety of reasons. A large one is these complex uniforms make distinguishing a friendly soldier from an enemy easy in battle. Though complex uniforms may be especially fancy for prestige reasons, such as the Imperial Guard of Napoleon or the Russian Leib Guard.
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[
"Portrait of a Commander or A Commander Being Dressed for Battle is a portrait of an unknown man in plate armour, normally attributed to Peter Paul Rubens. In July 2010 it was sold for £9 million by Christie's after Sotheby's turned it down, suspecting its authenticity as a Rubens. In December 2011, the portrait was placed on loan with the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.\n",
"Gray went on to paint several regimental commissions and he wrote to the Imperial War Museum many times requesting the loan of equipment to make his work ‘authentic.’ He wrote, “I will not do anything unreal or false… my pictures show the war as it was.” He refused to do anything in the ‘Romantic Lady Butler Woodville style’ since ...“most people want straight stuff.”\n",
"Detaille enlisted in the 8th Mobile Bataillon of the French Army when the Franco-Prussian War broke out in 1870; by November he was seeing and experiencing the realities of war. This experience allowed him to produce his famed portraits of soldiers and historically accurate depictions of military manoeuvres, uniforms, and military life in general. He eventually became the official painter of the battles. He published a book called \"L'Armée Française\" in 1885, which contains over 300 line drawings and 20 color reproductions of his works.\n",
"A documentation of a special kind are the figurines by Helmut Krauhs (1912–1995), which illustrate the soldiers' uniforms of the Josephinist and Napoleonic eras with meticulous precision and authenticity. Uniforms, medals, and weapons, and also special individual items add to the overall picture, such as the coat of the Russian general Pavel Andreyevich Shuvalov, worn by Napoleon on his journey to exile on the island of Elba. The Vienna Congress and the personality of Archduke Karl are documented in detail, and the so-called \"Info-Points\" – interactive touchscreen monitors which visitors can use - provide further information on the events of this period using contemporary graphics, maps, and biographical notes. Hall III is also called the \"Hall of Revolutions\" because the exhibition it contains begins with the French Revolution and ends with the Revolution of 1848.\n",
"As a prolific self-taught illustrator, he is also known in military history circles for \"Costume of the Army of the British Empire\", produced towards the end of the Napoleonic Wars and an accurate depiction of contemporary British uniform. As an antiquarian, he also produced, in collaboration with Samuel Rush Meyrick, \"Costume of the Original Inhabitants of the British Islands\", 1815, and \"The Ancient Costume of England\", with historical illustrations of medieval knights, ladies, shipsm and battles. The majority of his vast body of work (he estimated it was over 38,000 drawings) was not military in character, but largely passed into obscurity. Notebooks of his observations as a naturalist have survived, as well as antiquarian illustrations of civilian life. He also wrote on the history of the Seven Years' War and the natural history of dogs. Smith was of Flemish origin; he wrote the military part of Cox's \"Marlborough\" and many military and natural history books.\n",
"While informally researching military uniforms and weapons, McBarron realized that many illustrations of military scenes were inaccurate. He became committed to knowledgeable portrayal of detail and historical accuracy. An example is his mature 1975 work \"Soldiers of the American Revolution: A Sketchbook\".\n",
"The same day Confederate Army Capt. James Lile Lemmon, 18th Georgia Infantry, noted that the photographer \"asked that we sit for our portraits & after some debate among us we agreed as there was no harm in it, but my old uniform was in rags & stained with blood & ect & unfit for a portrait & I was glad that he had among his effects a few Confederate coats one of which I put on & then set for him.\"\n"
] |
why is the triple crown in horse racing so rare?
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Because they allow a horse that hasn't raced in the Kentucky Derby and Preakness, to compete in the Belmont and stop a horse that has raced all three from winning. Stupid ass rules.
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[
"Unlike the Grand Slam, the Triple Crown winners are not necessarily the tournament winners, since France or Italy – or even another of the home nations – could outperform them within the Championship as a whole. To date, the Triple Crown winners who failed to win the Championship are Wales in 1977, England in 1997, 1998, 2002 and 2014, and Ireland in 2004, 2006 and 2007. The champions were France on each occasion, apart from 2014 when Ireland were champions, the first instance of a team winning the Triple Crown but losing the overall title to another team eligible for it.\n",
"In 1985, Triple Crown Productions was created when the owner of Spend a Buck chose not to run in the other two Triple Crown races because of a financial incentive offered to any Kentucky Derby winner who could win a set of competing races in New Jersey. The organizers of the three races realized that they needed to work together. Other than the Kentucky Derby, the Preakness Stakes and Belmont Stakes were considered the two \"other\" races. ABC Sports, which had broadcast the Derby since 1975, wanted to televise all the races as a three race package. CBS Sports, which showed the other two races, had much lower ratings for them, with the possible exceptions of years in which the Crown was at stake like 1973, 1977, and 1978.\n",
"Each Triple Crown race is open to both colts and fillies. Although fillies have won each of the individual Triple Crown races, none has won the Triple Crown itself. Despite attempts to develop a \"Filly Triple Crown\" or a \"Triple Tiara\" for fillies only, no set series of three races has consistently remained in the public eye, and at least four different configurations of races have been used. Two fillies won the series of the Kentucky Oaks, the Pimlico Oaks (now the Black-Eyed Susan Stakes), and the Coaching Club American Oaks, in 1949 and 1952, but the racing press did not designate either accomplishment as a \"Triple Crown\". In 1961, the New York Racing Association created a filly Triple Crown of in-state races only, but the races changed over the years. Eight fillies won the NYRA Triple Tiara between 1968 and 1993.\n",
"At completion of the 2016 season, the three Triple Crown races have attracted 4,224 entrants. Of these, 292 horses have won a single leg of the Triple Crown, 52 horses have won two of the races (23 the Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes, 18 the Preakness Stakes and Belmont Stakes, and 11 the Kentucky Derby and Belmont Stakes), and 13 horses have won all three races. Pillory won both the Preakness Stakes and Belmont Stakes in 1922, a year when it was impossible to win the Triple Crown because the Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes were run on the same day.\n",
"In the United States, the Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing, commonly known as the Triple Crown, is a title awarded to a three-year-old Thoroughbred horse who wins the Kentucky Derby, Preakness Stakes, and Belmont Stakes. The three races were inaugurated in different years, the last being the Kentucky Derby in 1875. These races are now run annually in May and early June of each year. The Triple Crown Trophy, commissioned in 1950 but awarded to all previous winners as well as those after 1950, is awarded to a Triple Crown winner.\n",
"A Triple Crown is the act of winning or completing the three most important or difficult or prestigious events, tournaments, or prizes in a given field. Originating in England in the mid-19th century in the sport of horse racing, it has spread to other competitive endeavors.\n",
"The Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing, often shortened to \"Triple Crown\", comprises three races for three-year-old thoroughbred horses. Winning all three of these thoroughbred horse races is considered the greatest accomplishment in thoroughbred racing. The term originated in mid-19th century England and nations where thoroughbred racing is popular each have their own Triple Crown series.\n"
] |
Why does Patton seem to be disliked by most of the commanders of his day, yet a prominent figure by the enemy?
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I think you have to remember that Patton, for all his considerable skill, could be a thoroughly infuriating figure. Arrogant, rash, abrasive, impatient, and often intolerant of anything less than an almost reckless abandon for action the best that can be said about him is that he won, and that's probably all he or Eisenhower cared about. And, while it's true many American and British generals disliked him personally, most of even his staunchest adversaries admired his skill and ability. His reputation amongst the Axis forces was because, in many ways, he was the most successful emulation of their type of armored campaign. His ability to conduct brash and often reckless maneuver with great success at the expense of multiple German commanders earned him a thorough and almost universal admiration and respect as the best the Americans had to offer. All in all it was mostly his personal baggage that earned him a foul and sometimes unfair reputation and led many to downplay his professional successes due to personal grievances.
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[
"Patton's colorful image, hard-driving personality and success as a commander were at times overshadowed by his controversial public statements. His philosophy of leading from the front and ability to inspire troops with attention-getting, vulgarity-ridden speeches, such as a famous address to the Third Army, met with mixed receptions, favorably with his troops but much less so among a sharply divided Allied high command. His strong emphasis on rapid and aggressive offensive action proved effective, and he was regarded highly by his opponents in the German High Command. An award-winning biographical film released in 1970, \"Patton\", helped solidify his image as an American folk hero.\n",
"As a leader, Patton was known to be highly critical, correcting subordinates mercilessly for the slightest infractions, but also being quick to praise their accomplishments. Although he garnered a reputation as a general who was both impatient and impulsive and had little tolerance for officers who had failed to succeed, he fired only one general during World War II, Orlando Ward, and only after two warnings, whereas Bradley sacked several generals during the war. Patton reportedly had the utmost respect for the men serving in his command, particularly the wounded. Many of his directives showed special trouble to care for the enlisted men under his command, and he was well known for arranging extra supplies for battlefield soldiers, including blankets and extra socks, galoshes, and other items normally in short supply at the front.\n",
"Patton's colorful personality, hard-driving leadership style, and success as a commander, combined with his frequent political missteps, produced a mixed and often contradictory image. Patton's great oratory skill is seen as integral to his ability to inspire troops under his command. Historian Terry Brighton concluded that Patton was \"arrogant, publicity-seeking and personally flawed, but ... among the greatest generals of the war\". Patton's impact on armored warfare and leadership were substantial, with the U.S. Army's adopting many of Patton's aggressive strategies for its training programs following his death. Many military officers claim inspiration from his legacy. The first American tank designed after the war became the M46 Patton.\n",
"Patton had already developed a reputation in the U.S. Army as an effective, successful, and hard-driving commander, punishing subordinates for the slightest infractions but also rewarding them when they performed well. As a way to promote an image that inspired his troops, Patton created a larger-than-life personality. He became known for his flashy dress, highly polished helmet and boots, and no-nonsense demeanor. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the commander of the Sicily operation and Patton's friend and commanding officer, had long known of Patton's colorful leadership style, and also knew that Patton was prone to impulsiveness and a lack of self-restraint.\n",
"While Allied leaders expressed mixed feelings on Patton's capabilities, the German High Command was noted to have more respect for him than for any other Allied commander after 1943. Adolf Hitler reportedly called him \"that crazy cowboy general\". Many German field commanders were generous in their praise of Patton's leadership following the war, and many of its highest commanders also held his abilities in high regard. Erwin Rommel credited Patton with executing \"the most astonishing achievement in mobile warfare\". \"Generaloberst\" Alfred Jodl, chief of staff of the German Army, stated that Patton \"was the American Guderian. He was very bold and preferred large movements. He took big risks and won big successes.\" \"Generalfeldmarschall\" Albert Kesselring noted that \"Patton had developed tank warfare into an art, and understood how to handle tanks brilliantly in the field. I feel compelled, therefore, to compare him with \"Generalfeldmarschall\" Rommel, who likewise had mastered the art of tank warfare. Both of them had a kind of second sight in regard to this type of warfare.\" Referring to the escape of the Afrika Korps after the Battle of El Alamein, Fritz Bayerlein opined that \"I do not think that General Patton would let us get away so easily.\" In an interview conducted for \"Stars and Stripes\" just after his capture, Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt stated simply of Patton, \"He is your best.\"\n",
"Patton was a fierce and aggressive commander, but as the war turned against the Confederate States, Patton's instincts to attack every chance he got largely succeeded only in squandering men and materiel that the Confederacy could not easily replace. Patton's aggressiveness was checked by General Irving Morrell, a punning reference to the real Patton's African contest with Erwin Rommel. When he switched tactics to fight a delaying action in Chattanooga, he was bypassed by a U.S. airborne assault on the hills overlooking the city. Because of this, the U.S. drove to Atlanta, disgracing him in Jake Featherston's eyes.\n",
"For the most part, British commanders did not hold Patton in high regard. General Sir Alan Brooke, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS) − the professional head of the British Army − noted in January 1943 that \"I had heard of him, but I must confess that his swashbuckling personality exceeded my expectation. I did not form any high opinion of him, nor had I any reason to alter this view at any later date. A dashing, courageous, wild, and unbalanced leader, good for operations requiring thrust and push, but at a loss in any operation requiring skill and judgment.\"\n"
] |
If someone spoke gibberish to babies would the babies mistake it for real language?
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It would have to be consistent in order to learn, and if it were then it would just be another language (even if it was made up).
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[
"In the language deprivation experiment young infants were raised without human interaction in an attempt to determine if there was a natural language that they might demonstrate once their voices matured. It is claimed he was seeking to discover what language would have been imparted unto Adam and Eve by God. In his \"Chronicles\" Salimbene wrote that Frederick bade \"foster-mothers and nurses to suckle and bathe and wash the children, but in no ways to prattle or speak with them; for he would have learnt whether they would speak the Hebrew language (which had been the first), or Greek, or Latin, or Arabic, or perchance the tongue of their parents of whom they had been born. But he laboured in vain, for the children could not live without clappings of the hands, and gestures, and gladness of countenance, and blandishments\"\n",
"Children are also able to detect mispronunciations such as ‘vaby’ for ‘baby’. Recognition has been found to be poorer for mispronounced than for correctly pronounced words. This suggests that infants’ representations of familiar words are phonetically very precise. This result has also been taken to suggest that infants move from a word-based to a segment-based phonological system around 18 months of age.\n",
"The very earliest linguistic tasks facing newborns are perceptual. Babies need to determine what basic linguistic elements are used in their native language to create words (their phonetic inventory). They also need to determine how to segment the continuous stream of language input into phrases and eventually words. From birth, they have an attraction to patterned linguistic input, which is evident whether the input is spoken or signed. They use their sensitive perceptual skills to acquire information about the structure of their native language, particularly prosodic and phonological features. Sign languages have natural prosodic patterns and infants are sensitive to these prosodic boundaries even if they have no specific experience with sign languages. 6-month-old hearing infants with no sign experience also preferentially attend to sign language stimuli over complex gesture, indicating that they are perceiving sign language as meaningful linguistic input. Since infants attend to spoken and signed language in a similar manner, several researchers have concluded that much of language acquisition is universal, not tied to the modality of the language, and that sign languages are acquired and processed very similarly to spoken languages, given adequate exposure. At the same time, these and other researchers point out that there are many unknowns in terms of how a visual language might be processed differently than a spoken language, particularly given the unusual path of language transmission for most deaf infants.\n",
"Children generally learn the less marked phonemes of their native language before the more marked ones. In the case of English-speaking children, and are often among the last phonemes to be learnt, frequently not being mastered before the age of five. Prior to this age, many children substitute the sounds and respectively. For small children, \"fought\" and \"thought\" are therefore homophones. As British and American children begin school at age four and five respectively, this means that many are learning to read and write before they have sorted out these sounds, and the infantile pronunciation is frequently reflected in their spelling errors: \"ve fing\" for \"the thing\".\n",
"Another follow-up study examined the extent to which the statistical information learned during this type of artificial grammar learning feeds into knowledge that infants may already have about their native language. Infants preferred to listen to words over part-words, whereas there was no significant difference in the nonsense frame condition. This finding suggests that even pre-linguistic infants are able to integrate the statistical cues they learn in a laboratory into their previously-acquired knowledge of a language. In other words, once infants have acquired some linguistic knowledge, they incorporate newly acquired information into that previously-acquired learning.\n",
"Infants can distinguish native from nonnative language input using phonetic and phonotactic patterns alone, i.e., without the help of prosodic cues. They seem to have learned their native language’s phonotactics, i.e., which combinations of sounds are possible in the language.\n",
"Babies are born with the ability to discriminate virtually all sounds of all human languages. Infants of around six months can differentiate between phonemes in their own language, but not between similar phonemes in another language. At this stage infants also start to babble, producing phonemes.\n"
] |
How did Genghis Khan's father die, specifically?
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Yesugai the Brave, by various accounts, was poisoned at a meal on the steppes, by Tatars who by custom owed even an enemy hospitality.
We do not know if it was actually poison. This could have been a simple bacterial infection. However, actual poisons were available, such as from poisonous mushrooms.
Fecal matter would have been a hit-or-miss matter, depending on the local pathogens and whether Yesugei Baghatur had been exposed to them in the past.
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[
"Genghis Khan died on 18 August 1227, by which time the Mongol Empire ruled from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea, an empire twice the size of the Roman Empire or the Muslim Caliphate at their height. Genghis named his third son, the charismatic Ögedei, as his heir. According to Mongol tradition, Genghis Khan was buried in a secret location. The regency was originally held by Ögedei's younger brother Tolui until Ögedei's formal election at the kurultai in 1229.\n",
"Genghis Khan died in August 1227, during the fall of Yinchuan, which is the capital of Western Xia. The exact cause of his death remains a mystery, and is variously attributed to being killed in action against the Western Xia, illness, falling from his horse, or wounds sustained in hunting or battle. According to \"The Secret History of the Mongols\", Genghis Khan fell from his horse while hunting and died because of the injury. He was already old and tired from his journeys. The \"Galician–Volhynian Chronicle\" alleges he was killed by the Western Xia in battle, while Marco Polo wrote that he died after the infection of an arrow wound he received during his final campaign. Later Mongol chronicles connect Genghis's death with a Western Xia princess taken as war booty. One chronicle from the early 17th century even relates the legend that the princess hid a small dagger and stabbed him, though some Mongol authors have doubted this version and suspected it to be an invention by the rival Oirads.\n",
"Genghis Khan was related on his father's side to Khabul Khan, Ambaghai, and Hotula Khan, who had headed the Khamag Mongol confederation and were descendants of Bodonchar Munkhag (c. 900). When the Jurchen Jin dynasty switched support from the Mongols to the Tatars in 1161, they destroyed Khabul Khan.\n",
"Genghis Khan was aware of the friction between his sons (particularly between Chagatai and Jochi) and worried of possible conflict between them if he died. He therefore decided to divide his empire among his sons and make all of them Khan in their own right, while appointing one of his sons as his successor. Chagatai was considered unstable due to his temper and rash behavior, because of statements he made that he would not follow Jochi if he were to become his father's successor. Tolui, Genghis Khan's youngest son, was not suitable since in Mongol culture, youngest sons were not given much responsibility due to their age. If Jochi were to become successor, it was likely that Chagatai would engage in warfare with him and collapse the empire. Therefore, Genghis Khan decided to give the throne to Ögedei. Ögedei was seen by Genghis Khan as dependable in character and relatively stable and down to earth and would be a neutral candidate that might defuse the situation between his brothers.\n",
"At his death in 1227, Genghis Khan divided the Mongol Empire amongst his four sons as appanages, but the Empire remained united under the supreme khan. Jochi was the eldest, but he died six months before Genghis. The westernmost lands occupied by the Mongols, which included what is today southern Russia and Kazakhstan, were given to Jochi's eldest sons, Batu Khan, who eventually became the ruler of the Blue Horde, and Orda Khan, who became the leader of the White Horde. In 1235, Batu with the great general Subedei began an invasion westwards, first conquering the Bashkirs and then moving on to Volga Bulgaria in 1236. From there he conquered some of the southern steppes of present-day Ukraine in 1237, forcing many of the local Cumans to retreat westward. The military campaign against the Kypchaks and Cumans had started under Jochi and Subedei in 1216–1218 when the Merkits took shelter among them. By 1239 a large portion of Cumans were driven out of the Crimea peninsula, and it became one of the appanages of the Mongol Empire. The remnants of the Crimean Cumans survived in the Crimean mountains, and they would, in time, mix with other groups in the Crimea (including Greeks, Goths, and Mongols) to form the Crimean Tatar population. Moving north, Batu began the Mongol invasion of Rus' and for three years subjugated the principalities of former Kievan Rus', whilst his cousins Möngke, Kadan, and Güyük moved southwards into Alania.\n",
"In August 1227, during the fall of Yinchuan, Genghis Khan died. The exact cause of his death remains a mystery, and is variously attributed to being killed in action by Western Xia, falling from his horse, illness, or wounds sustained in hunting or battle. The Galician-Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Western Xia in battle, while Marco Polo wrote that he died after the infection of an arrow wound he received during his final campaign. Later Mongol chronicles connect Genghis' death with a Western Xia princess taken as war booty. One chronicle from the early 17th century even relates the legend that the princess hid a small dagger and stabbed him, though some Mongol authors have doubted this version and suspected it to be an invention by the rival Oirads.\n",
"Before Genghis Khan died he assigned Ögedei Khan as his successor. Later his grandsons split his empire into khanates. Genghis Khan died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. By his request, his body was buried in an unmarked grave somewhere in Mongolia. His descendants extended the Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia by conquering or creating vassal states in all of modern-day China, Korea, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and substantial portions of Eastern Europe and Southwest Asia. Many of these invasions repeated the earlier large-scale slaughters of local populations. As a result, Genghis Khan and his empire have a fearsome reputation in local histories.\n"
] |
unix vs macosx/windows/linux
|
Unix is an old OS developed by Bell Labs in the 70s. Since it was copyrighted, there have been many clones that have since grown and branched off. Linux is a notable example, BSD is another one which in turn is what OS X is based off of. These are called Unix-Like operating systems. Windows is something totally different.
edit: One thing worth mentioning is that Linux itself is not an entire desktop OS. This is why we have distributions like Ubuntu, Fedora, Debian, Red Hat, etc. These are all something you can install to your desktop and server and run but also very different in what they include. Linux is just the kernel (which you can think of like an engine in car).
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[
"Linux as a gaming platform can also refer to operating systems based on the Linux kernel and specifically designed for the \"sole purpose\" of gaming. Examples are SteamOS, which is an operating system for Steam Machines and computers, video game consoles built from components found in the classical home computer, (embedded) operating systems like Tizen and Pandora, and handheld game consoles like GP2X, and Neo Geo X. The Nvidia Shield runs Android as an operating system, which is based on a modified Linux kernel.\n",
"A Linux-based system is a modular Unix-like operating system, deriving much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a system uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel, which handles process control, networking, access to the peripherals, and file systems. Device drivers are either integrated directly with the kernel, or added as modules that are loaded while the system is running.\n",
"Linux is Unix-like, but was developed without any Unix code, unlike BSD and its variants. Because of its open license model, the Linux kernel code is available for study and modification, which resulted in its use on a wide range of computing machinery from supercomputers to smart-watches. Although estimates suggest that Linux is used on only 1.82% of all \"desktop\" (or laptop) PCs, it has been widely adopted for use in servers and embedded systems such as cell phones. Linux has superseded Unix on many platforms and is used on most supercomputers including the top 385. Many of the same computers are also on Green500 (but in different order), and Linux runs on the top 10. Linux is also commonly used on other small energy-efficient computers, such as smartphones and smartwatches. The Linux kernel is used in some popular distributions, such as Red Hat, Debian, Ubuntu, Linux Mint and Google's Android, Chrome OS, and Chromium OS.\n",
"The Linux kernel has been ported to a variety of CPUs which are not only primarily used as the processor of a desktop or server computer, but also ARC, ARM, AVR32, ETRAX CRIS, FR-V, H8300, IP7000, m68k, MIPS, mn10300, PowerPC, SuperH, and Xtensa processors. Linux is also used as an alternative to using a proprietary operating system and its associated toolchain.\n",
"Linux was originally developed for personal computers based on the Intel x86 architecture, but has since been ported to more platforms than any other operating system. Linux is the leading operating system on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe computers, and the only OS used on TOP500 supercomputers (since November 2017, having gradually eliminated all competitors). It is used by around 2.3 percent of desktop computers. The Chromebook, which runs the Linux kernel-based Chrome OS, dominates the US K–12 education market and represents nearly 20 percent of sub-$300 notebook sales in the US.\n",
"The Linux kernel is a free and open-source, monolithic, Unix-like operating system kernel. The Linux family of operating systems is based on this kernel and deployed on both traditional computer systems such as personal computers and servers, usually in the form of Linux distributions, and on various embedded devices such as routers, wireless access points, PBXes, set-top boxes, FTA receivers, smart TVs, PVRs, and NAS appliances. While the adoption of the Linux kernel in desktop computer operating system is low, Linux-based operating systems dominate nearly every other segment of computing, from mobile devices to mainframes. \n",
"Four operating systems are certified by The Open Group (holder of the Unix trademark) as Unix. HP's HP-UX and IBM's AIX are both descendants of the original System V Unix and are designed to run only on their respective vendor's hardware. In contrast, Sun Microsystems's Solaris can run on multiple types of hardware, including x86 and Sparc servers, and PCs. Apple's macOS, a replacement for Apple's earlier (non-Unix) Mac OS, is a hybrid kernel-based BSD variant derived from NeXTSTEP, Mach, and FreeBSD.\n"
] |
what are the historical reasons for which english cuisine is usually regarded as "bad" whereas french cuisine is usually regarded as "good"? (at least i think this is how we see it in the us...
|
They were culturally different. Also under Napoleonic rule, France controlled almost all of continental Europe (but obviously not Britain) which allowed French chefs to experiment with ingredients from all around the continent.
The short answer is simply that French chefs had the ingredients available and the cultural passion to elevate cuisine to higher levels than Britain had. It's not about skill it's about generations of tradition and availability of ingredients and culture.
Brits love their curry though! Can find much better curry and Asian food in general in Britain than in France.
Unrelated side note: Was in London last summer. Went past a noodle bar called "Phat Phuc"
|
[
"In general, France is regarded with favour by Britain in regard to its high culture and is seen as an ideal holiday destination, whilst France sees Britain as a major trading partner. Both countries are famously contemptuous of each other's cooking, many French claiming all British food is bland and boring, whilst many British claim that French food is inedible. Much of the apparent disdain for French food and culture in Britain takes the form of self-effacing humour, and British comedy often uses French culture as the butt of its jokes. Whether this is representative of true opinion or not is open to debate. Sexual euphemisms with no link to France, such as \"French kissing\", or \"French letter\" for a condom, are used in British English slang.\n",
"English cuisine in the twentieth century suffered from a poor international reputation. Keith Arscott of Chawton House Library comments that \"at one time people didn't think the English knew how to cook and yet these [eighteenth and nineteenth century] female writers were at the forefront of modern day cooking.\" English food was popularly supposed to be bland, but English cuisine has made extensive use of spices since the Middle Ages; introduced curry to Europe; and makes use of strong flavourings such as English mustard. It was similarly reputed to be dull, like roast beef: but that dish was highly prized both in Britain and abroad, and few people could afford it; the \"Roast Beef of Old England\" lauded by William Hogarth in his 1748 painting celebrated the high quality of English cattle, which the French at the \"Gate of Calais\" (the other name of his painting) could only look at with envy. The years of wartime shortages and rationing certainly did impair the variety and flavour of English food during the twentieth century, but the nation's cooking recovered from this with increasing prosperity and the availability of new ingredients from soon after the Second World War.\n",
"This is a list of notable French restaurants. French cuisine consists of cooking traditions and practices from France, famous for the rich tastes and subtle nuances with long and rich history. France, a country famous for its agriculture and independently minded peasants, was long a creative powerbase for delicious recipes, that are both healthy and refined. Knowledge of French cooking has contributed significantly to Western cuisines and its criteria are used widely in Western cookery school boards and culinary education. In November 2010, French gastronomy was added by the UNESCO to its lists of the world's \"intangible cultural heritage\".\n",
"Since the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce. During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by food critics with some good ratings in \"Restaurant\"'s best restaurant in the world charts. An early book of English recipes is the \"Forme of Cury\" from the royal court of Richard II.\n",
"This is a list of prepared dishes characteristic of English cuisine. English cuisine encompasses the cooking styles, traditions and recipes associated with England. It has distinctive attributes of its own, but also shares much with wider British cuisine, partly through the importation of ingredients and ideas from North America, China, and India during the time of the British Empire and as a result of post-war immigration.\n",
"French cuisine has influenced English cooking to some degree since the mid-17th century, although in England \"the meal still centred on pies and joints of meat, as it had done there in medieval times. English cooking did not change much over the ages, whereas French food did\".\n",
"Food in England is heavily influenced by other countries due to the island nation's dependence on importing outside goods and sometimes, inspiration. Many English culinary words and customs have been directly borrowed from the original French (some completely Anglicized in spelling) such as: \"cuisine\", \"sirloin\", \"pastry\" and \"omelette\" which came from the 18th century and earlier. In the late 19th and early 20th century, even more words, foods and customs from culinary France made their way into England, such as \"éclair\", \"casserole\", \"à la carte\", \"rôtisserie\" and \"hors d'oeuvre\".\n"
] |
why does my bottom lip get dry and chapped, while my top lip always remains smooth?
|
I think because when you smile, your upper lip remains straight but wider while your lower lip gets wider and bends down, effectively becoming longer than your upper lip, i.e.: stretching more than your upper lip.
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[
"Gloss paint sprayed on a smooth surface (such as the body of a car) should also dry into a smooth surface. However, various factors can cause it to dry into a bumpy surface resembling the texture of an orange peel. The orange peel phenomenon can then be smoothed out with ultra-fine sandpaper, but it can be prevented altogether by changing the painting technique or the materials used. Orange peel is typically the result of improper painting technique, and is caused by the quick evaporation of thinner, incorrect spray gun setup (e.g., low air pressure or incorrect nozzle), spraying the paint at an angle other than perpendicular, or applying excessive paint. \n",
"The primary purpose of lip balm is to provide an occlusive layer on the lip surface to seal moisture in lips and protect them from external exposure. Dry air, cold temperatures, and wind all have a drying effect on skin by drawing moisture away from the body. Lips are particularly vulnerable because the skin is so thin, and thus they are often the first to present signs of dryness. Occlusive materials like waxes and petroleum jelly prevent moisture loss and maintain lip comfort while flavorants, colorants, sunscreens, and various medicaments can provide additional, specific benefits.\n",
"The lip skin is not hairy and does not have sweat glands. Therefore, it does not have the usual protection layer of sweat and body oils which keep the skin smooth, inhibit pathogens, and regulate warmth. For these reasons, the lips dry out faster and become chapped more easily.\n",
"Lip licking, biting, or rubbing habits are frequently involved. Counterintuitively, constant licking of the lips causes drying and irritation, and eventually the mucosa splits or cracks. The lips have a greater tendency to dry out in cold, dry weather. Digestive enzymes present in saliva may also irritate the lips, and the evaporation of the water in saliva saps moisture from them.\n",
"Like lipstick, lip liners are composed of waxes, oils, and pigment. Compared to lipstick, lip liners are firmer in consistency and more deeply pigmented, making them suitable for drawing on to the lip with precision. For these reasons, lip liners have less oil but more wax and pigment than most lipsticks. A popular wax used in the making of lip liners is Japan wax.\n",
"Several studies have found fat grafting of the lip to be one of the best methods of maintaining a semi-permanent fuller and softer lip. When the lips are overfilled, the results can be comic, often supplying fodder to tabloid newspapers and offbeat websites. This look is sometimes mockingly called a 'trout pout.' Overaggressive injections can lead to lumpiness while too little can result in ridges. \n",
"Like lipstick, lip gloss is a mixture of waxes, oils, and pigments. However, lip gloss contains fewer pigments, and those used are often pale in color or diluted (<3%). Furthermore, the free-flowing nature of the product requires less wax. The principal components are lanolin, which feels good on the lips due to its moisturizing qualities and imparts gloss, and polybutene.\n"
] |
why can’t pc hardware run mac os but mac can run windows?
|
They can, it's just that apple doesn't permit OSX to be run on unauthorized hardware, and the lack of included drivers for anything but authorized hardware can be a huge challenge to overcome.
|
[
"Aside from Apple-branded hardware that is still maintained and operated, Mac OS 9 can be operated in other environments such as Windows and Unix. For example, the aforementioned SheepShaver software was not designed for use on x86 platforms and required an actual PowerPC processor present in the machine it was running on similar to a hypervisor. Although it provides PowerPC processor support, it can only run up to Mac OS 9.0.4 because it does not emulate a memory management unit.\n",
"It is also possible to run macOS as a virtual machine inside other operating systems installed on standard PC hardware, by using virtualization software such as Oracle's VirtualBox (though this is not officially supported by Oracle). Likewise, it is also possible to install macOS on VMware software, though the company states it is only officially supported for VMware running on Apple-labeled computers according to Apple's licensing policies. \n",
"When using a PC as a host, only hardware certified for use with either Windows 7 or Windows 8 will work well with Windows To Go. Although Microsoft does not provide support for this feature on Windows RT or Macintosh computers, it is possible to boot Windows To Go on a Mac.\n",
"However, it is possible to buy hardware with Linux already installed. Lenovo, Hewlett-Packard, Dell, Affordy, Purism, and System76 all sell general-purpose Linux laptops, and custom-order PC manufacturers will also build Linux systems (but possibly with the Windows key on the keyboard). Fixstars Solutions (formerly Terra Soft) sells Macintosh computers and PlayStation 3 consoles with Yellow Dog Linux installed.\n",
"Computer hardware is usually sold with an operating system other than Linux already installed by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM). In the case of IBM PC compatibles the OS is usually Microsoft Windows; in the case of Apple Macintosh computers it has always been a version of Apple's OS, currently macOS; Sun Microsystems sold SPARC hardware with the Solaris installed; video game consoles such as the Xbox, PlayStation, and Wii each have their own proprietary OS. This limits Linux's market share: consumers are unaware that an alternative exists, they must make a conscious effort to use a different operating system, and they must either perform the actual installation themselves, or depend on support from a friend, relative, or computer professional.\n",
"Some of these differences can pose as obstacles both to running macOS on non-Apple hardware and booting alternative operating systems on Mac computers – Apple only provides drivers for its custom hardware for macOS and Microsoft Windows (as part of Boot Camp); drivers for other operating systems such as Linux need to be written by third parties, usually volunteer free software enthusiasts.\n",
"Intel-based Mac computers use very similar hardware to PCs from other manufacturers which ship with Microsoft Windows or Linux operating systems. In particular, CPUs, chipsets and GPUs are entirely compatible. However, Apple computers also include some custom hardware and design choices not found in competing systems:\n"
] |
why do different numbers of protons/neutrons/electrons cause such drastic differences in the elements of the periodic table?
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You can think of them as chemical properties and atomic properties.
~Chemical properties are mostly caused by the outer most ring of electrons (valence) orbiting the nucleus. You see electrons are lonely little guys and they like to be with other electrons, exactly 8 to be specific. If they can find a way to hook up with other electrons so there are 8 of them in an orbital, the resulting chemical becomes stable.
For instance you have Carbon, with 4 valence electrons but it really wants to have 8. But take 2 carbons and put them together and they can share each others electrons, 4+4 = 8 and bang, you have a carbon chain. Or take Oxygen, it has 6 valence electrons but wants 8. However if you took 2 Oxygen and a carbon, each oxygen could share 2 electrons with the carbon making 8 total, and the carbon would be sharing 4 electrons between the two oxygen atoms also getting 8. And bam, you have carbon dioxide. Or take 2 hydrogen each with 1 valence electron, add them to an oxygen which has 6 and 1+1+6=8 and you have water.
Some atoms already have their valence shells full and neither want to give or take electrons. Because they are quite happy to be by themselves, they very rarely interact with other elements and we call these the noble gases. They are stable, and not very reactive because they already have a full valence shell.
~Nuclear properties. The number of protons and neutrons affect the mass of an atom, which in turn affects how heavy that element is. For instance Hydrogen has one proton, and it's the lightest gas there is, and Uranium has 92 protons and 146 neutrons (in some isotopes) , so it is one of the heavier elements (and the heaviest naturally occurring one)
Aside from the mass of the atom, as the nucleus gets larger and larger, the ability for the nuclear forces to hold it together get weaker. Above a certain threshold the mass is so large, and the force holding it together so weakened that the atom can split apart and form 2 new elements. This is how radioactivity and fission works.
~Transmutation is a fact of life, yes. For instance most of the helium in the world today is a byproduct of uranium and thorium decomposition. As the uranium radiates and splits into smaller nuclei it breaks down and helium and lead are the byproducts. Helium is so light it would float off into space if we didn't capture it so Earth lost it's original helium a long time ago. Most of the helium we use today comes from natural gas deposits, where the helium is released by decaying uranium and thorium and trapped with the natural gas for the same reason the natural gas is, it's a pocket of impermeable rock holding it all in. It's expected that gases under the earth should tend to collect together.
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[
"Yet another effect of the instability of an odd number of either type of nucleons is that odd-numbered elements tend to have fewer stable isotopes. Of the 26 monoisotopic elements (those with only a single stable isotope), all but one have an odd atomic number, and all but one has an even number of neutrons — the single exception to both rules being beryllium.\n",
"A simple numbering based on periodic table position was never entirely satisfactory, however. Besides the case of iodine and tellurium, later several other pairs of elements (such as argon and potassium, cobalt and nickel) were known to have nearly identical or reversed atomic weights, thus requiring their placement in the periodic table to be determined by their chemical properties. However the gradual identification of more and more chemically similar lanthanide elements, whose atomic number was not obvious, led to inconsistency and uncertainty in the periodic numbering of elements at least from lutetium (element 71) onward (hafnium was not known at this time).\n",
"The Oddo–Harkins rule holds that elements with even atomic numbers are more common that those with odd atomic numbers, with the exception of hydrogen. This rule argues that elements with odd atomic numbers have one unpaired proton and are more likely to capture another, thus increasing their atomic number. In elements with even atomic numbers, protons are paired, with each member of the pair offsetting the spin of the other, enhancing stability. All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers and they are not as common as the elements with even atomic numbers adjacent to them (the noble gases and the alkaline earth metals) in the Solar System. The heavier alkali metals are also less abundant than the lighter ones as the alkali metals from rubidium onward can only be synthesised in supernovae and not in stellar nucleosynthesis. Lithium is also much less abundant than sodium and potassium as it is poorly synthesised in both Big Bang nucleosynthesis and in stars: the Big Bang could only produce trace quantities of lithium, beryllium and boron due to the absence of a stable nucleus with 5 or 8 nucleons, and stellar nucleosynthesis could only pass this bottleneck by the triple-alpha process, fusing three helium nuclei to form carbon, and skipping over those three elements.\n",
"The form of the periodic table is closely related to the electron configuration of the atoms of the elements. For example, all the elements of group 2 have an electron configuration of [E] \"n\"s (where [E] is an inert gas configuration), and have notable similarities in their chemical properties. In general, the periodicity of the periodic table in terms of periodic table blocks is clearly due to the number of electrons (2, 6, 10, 14...) needed to fill s, p, d, and f subshells.\n",
"The Oddo–Harkins rule argues that elements with odd atomic numbers have one unpaired proton and are more likely to capture another, thus increasing their atomic number. It is possible that in elements with even atomic numbers, protons are paired, with each member of the pair balancing the spin of the other; even parity thus enhances nucleon stability.\n",
"Because this is the number of protons, the atomic number must be a whole number – there cannot be any fractional values. Moseley realised it was the atomic number, not the atomic weight that determines the order of the elements. What's more, because the atomic number increases in whole numbers from one element to the next there can be no extra elements between Hydrogen (atomic number 1) and Uranium (atomic number 92) – there can only be 92 elements, there is no room for any more.\n",
"In the standard periodic table, the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number \"Z\" (the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom). A new row (\"period\") is started when a new electron shell has its first electron. Columns (\"groups\") are determined by the electron configuration of the atom; elements with the same number of electrons in a particular subshell fall into the same columns (e.g. oxygen and selenium are in the same column because they both have four electrons in the outermost p-subshell). Elements with similar chemical properties generally fall into the same group in the periodic table, although in the f-block, and to some respect in the d-block, the elements in the same period tend to have similar properties, as well. Thus, it is relatively easy to predict the chemical properties of an element if one knows the properties of the elements around it.\n"
] |
how does the definition of "species" work in single cell organisms?
|
Traditionally, bacteria were classified by characteristics of theirs that were observed in a lab. For example, the most fundamental division of bacteria is between bacteria that are stained by a Gram stain and those that aren't. (This corresponds to important differences in their cell wall and membrane.)
Looking at other features like morphology (what the cells look like under a microscope), colony morphology (what the blobs that grow when you put them on a Petri plate look like), metabolic features (what can it eat and what wastes does it produce; also, what vitamins it needs), and other lab tests, bacteria were further and further classified until the scientists were satisfied that they couldn't discern any differences within the last groups defined. Those groups were species.
So for a hypothetical example, bacteria in genus X might be Gram-positive (stained by a Gram stain) with spherical cells ~1.5 microns in diameter that form very flat greenish colonies and are catalase negative (do not make hydrogen peroxide bubble when mixed with it). Within genus X, species Y can use glucose, maltose, and lactose for food, while species Z can only use glucose.
With the advent of easy DNA sequencing, bacterial species are mostly defined by their genome sequence. But when the genome sequence databases were built, they made them by sequencing the genomes of bacteria classified by the old methods and assigning the sequence to the old species name.
In the end, "species" is not really a well-defined concept for single-celled organisms and it will always be a little fuzzy and inconsistent.
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[
"In biology, a species () is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. Other ways of defining species include their karyotype, DNA sequence, morphology, behaviour or ecological niche. In addition, paleontologists use the concept of the chronospecies since fossil reproduction cannot be examined.\n",
"There are multiple ways to define the concept of \"species.\" The choice of definition is dependent on the particularities of the species concerned. For example, some species concepts apply more readily toward sexually reproducing organisms while others lend themselves better toward asexual organisms. Despite the diversity of various species concepts, these various concepts can be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches: interbreeding, ecological and phylogenetic. The \"Biological Species Concept\" (BSC) is a classic example of the interbreeding approach. Defined by evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr in 1942, the BSC states that \"species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.\" Despite its wide and long-term use, the BSC like others is not without controversy, for example because these concepts cannot be applied to prokaryotes, and this is called the species problem. Some researchers have attempted a unifying monistic definition of species, while others adopt a pluralistic approach and suggest that there may be different ways to logically interpret the definition of a species.\n",
"A type species is both a concept and a practical system that is used in the classification and nomenclature (naming) of animals. The \"type species\" represents the reference species and thus \"definition\" for a particular genus name. Whenever a taxon containing multiple species must be divided into more than one genus, the type species automatically assigns the name of the original taxon to one of the resulting new taxa, the one that includes the type species.\n",
"Species form the basis for any biological classification system. The ICTV had adopted the principle that a virus species is a polythetic class of viruses that constitutes a replicating lineage and occupies a particular ecological niche. In July 2013, the ICTV definition of species changed to state: \"A species is a monophyletic group of viruses whose properties can be distinguished from those of other species by multiple criteria.\"\n",
"A species complex is typically considered as a group of close, but distinct species. Obviously, the concept is closely tied to the definition of a species. Modern biology understands a species as \"separately evolving metapopulation lineage\" but acknowledges that the criteria to delimit species may depend on the group studied. Thus, many species defined traditionally, based only on morphological similarity, have been found to comprise several distinct species when other criteria, such as genetic differentiation or reproductive isolation were applied.\n",
"Organisms are classified by taxonomy into specified groups such as the multicellular animals, plants, and fungi; or unicellular microorganisms such as a protists, bacteria, and archaea. All types of organisms are capable of reproduction, growth and development, maintenance, and some degree of response to stimuli. Humans are multicellular animals composed of many trillions of cells which differentiate during development into specialized tissues and organs.\n",
"A cell type is a classification used to distinguish between morphologically or phenotypically distinct cell forms within a species. A multicellular organism may contain a number of widely differing and specialized cell types, such as muscle cells and skin cells in humans, that differ both in appearance and function yet are genetically identical. Cells are able to be of the same genotype, but different cell type due to the differential regulation of the genes they contain. Classification of a specific cell type is often done through the use of microscopy (such as those from the cluster of differentiation family that are commonly used for this purpose in immunology). Recent developments in single cell RNA sequencing facilitated classification of cell types based on shared gene expression patterns. This has led to the discovery of many new cell types in e.g. mouse cortex, hippocampus, dorsal root ganglion and spinal cord.\n"
] |
Has anything in the bible been proven to be historically wrong?
|
Where does one begin?
To give a very brief summary of the kind of thing you're asking about:
* The world was not created in 4,000 BC.
* There was no global flood in the 25th century BC.
* The world did not speak one language and all live in the city of Babel (Babylon) in the 23rd century BC.
* The biblical patriarchs (Abraham, Jacob, Moses, etc.) are folklore characters and probably did not exist, at least in the way they are depicted biblically.
* The biblical exodus of two million Hebrews from Egypt did not occur.
* The Israelites did not violently conquer the Canaanites. They *were* Canaanites.
* The kingdom of David and Solomon (if it even existed) was not a mighty empire stretching "from the Nile to the Euphrates".
* Jonah never converted Nineveh to Judaism.
* The book of Daniel gets the kings of Babylon and Persia wrong. In particular, there was no such person as Darius the Mede.
* Some of the historical details in the Gospels are implausible; there was no empire-wide census under Caesar Augustus as Luke claims, and the dead did not rise out of the graves and wander around Jerusalem as Matthew claims.
The real problem is treating the Bible as a history textbook, when it is more of a cultural artifact that includes poetry, mythology, folklore, fiction, allegory, satire, and so on. It is the modern reader who insists that holy books be literally true, not necessarily the ancient one.
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[
"Some scholars also believe that antinomianism, the belief that all was allowed because there were no laws, was believed by a faction in the early Christian community. In this verse the Gospel of Matthew directly counters these views by insisting the \"old laws\" such as the Ten Commandments are still valid. France notes that \"law and prophets\" was a common expression for the entirety of what Christians today call the Old Testament, though it more correctly refers to the Mosaic Law and Neviim, see Biblical Canon.\n",
"An important point to keep in mind is the documentary hypothesis, which, using the biblical evidence itself, claims to demonstrate that our current version is based on older written sources that are lost. Although it has been modified heavily over the years, most scholars accept some form of this hypothesis. There have also been and are a number of scholars who reject it, for example Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen and Old Testament scholar Walter Kaiser, Jr., as well as R. N. Whybray, Umberto Cassuto, O. T. Allis, Gleason Archer, John Sailhamer, and Bruce Waltke.\n",
"The view that biblical inerrancy can be justified by an appeal to prooftexts that refer to its divine inspiration has been criticized as circular reasoning, because these statements are only considered to be true if the Bible is already thought to be inerrant.\n",
"Crick asked in 1998 \"and if some of the Bible is manifestly wrong, why should any of the rest of it be accepted automatically? ... And what would be more important than to find our true place in the universe by removing one by one these unfortunate vestiges of earlier beliefs?\"\n",
"Biblical inerrancy is the belief that the Bible \"is without error or fault in all its teaching\"; or, at least, that \"Scripture in the original manuscripts does not affirm anything that is contrary to fact\". Some equate inerrancy with biblical infallibility; others do not. The belief is of particular significance within parts of evangelicalism, where it is formulated in the \"Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy\".\n",
"The study of inconsistencies in the Bible has a long history. In the 17th century, Spinoza considered the Bible to be, \"...a book rich in contradictions.\" In the 18th century, Thomas Paine in The Age of Reason compiled many of the Bible's self-contradictions. And in 1860, William Henry Burr produced a list of 144 self-contradictions in the Bible.\n",
"Throughout his career, he opposed the higher criticism, which held that the Bible was inaccurate on many points and not historically reliable. Professor Wilson wrote, \"I have come to the conviction that no man knows enough to attack the veracity of the Old Testament. Every time when anyone has been able to get together enough documentary 'proofs' to undertake an investigation, the biblical facts in the original text have victoriously met the test\" (quoted in R. Pache, \"The Inspiration and Authority of Scripture\").\n"
] |
What causes the liquid in a full spray bottle to siphon out entirely?
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Based on what information you provided, I would say that the cause would have been a temperature fluctuation paired with a faulty nozzle. As gases heat up, they expand, and when they cool, they contract. Even minor temperature changes (5°-10°C) are enough to make a noticeable difference in volume. So as the air inside the bottle rated up, it would have pushed all of the liquid out of the bottle through a potentially faulty nozzle head.
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[
"The difference between the reduced pressure at the top of the tube and the higher atmospheric pressure inside the bottle pushes the liquid from the reservoir up the tube and into the moving stream of air where it is broken up into small droplets (not atoms as the name suggests) and carried away with the stream of air.\n",
"BULLET::::- Swirl nozzles inject the liquid in tangentially, and it spirals into the center and then exits through the central hole. Due to the vortexing this causes the spray to come out in a cone shape.\n",
"ADE shoots a droplet from a source well upward to an inverted receiving plate positioned above the source plate. Liquids ejected from the source are captured by dry plates due to surface tension. For larger volumes, multiple droplets can be rapidly ejected from the source (typically 100 to 500 droplets/sec) to the destination with the coefficient of variation typically 4% over a volume range of two orders of magnitude.\n",
"Unlike the rubber bulb dispenser which primarily moved air with a small amount of fluid, modern spray bottles use a positive displacement pump that acts directly on the fluid. The pump draws liquid up a siphon tube from the bottom of the bottle and forces it through a nozzle. Depending on the sprayer, the nozzle may or may not be adjustable, so as to select between squirting a stream, aerosolizing a mist, or dispensing a spray. \n",
"A related technique, strawpedoing, is used for containers not easily punctured such as a glass bottles. A straw is inserted into the bottle and bent around the hole. When the bottle is tilted, the beverage quickly drains and is quickly consumed. The technique increases beverage delivery since the extra hole allows the liquid to leave while air enters simultaneously through the main hole. The bottleneck, created where air entering the container must travel through the same orifice as liquid leaving, is removed.\n",
"External mix nozzles contacts fluids outside the nozzle as shown in the schematic diagram. This type of spray nozzle may require more atomizing air and a higher atomizing air pressure drop because the mixing and atomization of liquid takes place outside the nozzle. The liquid pressure drop is lower for this type of nozzle, sometimes drawing liquid into the nozzle due to the suction caused by the atomizing air nozzles (siphon nozzle). If the liquid to be atomized contains solids an external mix atomizer may be preferred. This spray may be shaped to produce different spray patterns. A flat pattern is formed with additional air ports to flatten or reshape the circular spray cross-section discharge.\n",
"The can contains water (~80%), butane gas (~17%), surfactant (~1%), and other ingredients including vegetable oil (~2%). The liquefied butane expands when the product is ejected from the can. The butane evaporates instantly, forming bubbles of gas in the water/surfactant mixture. The surfactant(s) cause the bubbles to have stability and hence a gas-in-liquid colloid (foam) forms. The bubbles eventually collapse and the foam disappears, leaving only water and surfactant residue on the ground. More technical details can be found in the US patent applications for two of the commercial products available: Spuni (2001) and 9-15 (2010).\n"
] |
why do our bowels release when we are scared?
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Bowel contents are not required in an emergency.
|
[
"When prey are able to avoid predators, however, prey will sprint away and \"literally shake off the residual effects of the immobility response\" while \"their bodies convulse with paroxysmal spasms\". There is no evidence for Levine's conclusions about the prey's responses or Nancy's response to their session. Observing Nancy, Levine concluded that her convulsions were an \"instinctive and long-overdue response\" to her being strapped down and scared when a child. He concluded without evidence that Nancy's panic attacks were caused by the \"frozen residue of 'energy'\" that remained stuck in her, not from the traumatic experience. Levine argues that humans cannot effortlessly release energy from a traumatic memory because human's triune brain structure which, shaped by feelings and acumen, frequently supersedes instinct. He said that Nancy stopped experiencing panic attacks after she had additional sessions with him that involved more convulsions\".\n",
"Bowel obstruction may be complicated by dehydration and electrolyte abnormalities due to vomiting; respiratory compromise from pressure on the diaphragm by a distended abdomen, or aspiration of vomitus; bowel ischemia or perforation from prolonged distension or pressure from a foreign body.\n",
"FODMAPs are not the cause of irritable bowel syndrome nor other functional gastrointestinal disorders, but rather a person develops symptoms when the underlying bowel response is exaggerated or abnormal.\n",
"Bowel ischemia produces abdominal pain, which can be extreme. Underlying causes include embolism, blood clots in arteries (called \"thrombosis\"), and insufficient blood flow, either due to damage to arteries, compression caused by other situations such as bowel obstruction, or arteries that are unable to supply the extra blood flow needed while digesting food.\n",
"Fecal vomiting occurs when the bowel is obstructed for some reason, and intestinal contents cannot move normally. Peristaltic waves occur in an attempt to decompress the intestine, and the strong contractions of the intestinal muscles push the contents backwards through the pyloric sphincter into the stomach, where they are then vomited. \n",
"BULLET::::- Irritable bowel syndrome, a disorder in the lower intestinal tract, is usually accompanied by other symptoms, such as abdominal pain and diarrhea. It is more common in women and it usually occurs during early adulthood. There are many risk factors such as emotional stress and a low-fiber diet. These can all cause stomach disorders.\n",
"BULLET::::- Postprandial abdominal distension usually refers to bloating of the abdomen following a meal, especially a large one. It is generally harmless, but tends to be uncomfortable. Instances of its sudden onset or prolonged duration can, however, be symptoms of certain severe adverse gastro-intestinal conditions such as irritable bowel disease.Postprandial abdominal distension is also a documented side effect of some medications.\n"
] |
the difference between libertarian economics and anarcho-capitalism.
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Libertarians believe that a government should exist that supports property rights (e.g law enforcement (police), courts, etc) whereas, Anarcho-Capitalists believe that there does not have to be a government to protect property rights as everything associated with them (law enforcement, courts, etc) would exist without government funding, people would pay for their own security.
So just as Libertarians believe that government doesn't have to fund some things as they would exist privately (e.g, healthcare, education, etc) Anarcho-Capitalists go one step further and believe the same of law enforcement, thus there is no need for a government whatsoever.
|
[
"Left-wing market anarchism identifies with left-libertarianism (or left-wing libertarianism) which names several related but distinct approaches to politics, society, culture and political and social theory, which stress both individual freedom and social justice. Unlike right-libertarians, they believe that neither claiming nor mixing one's labor with natural resources is enough to generate full private property rights; and maintain that natural resources (land, oil, gold and trees) ought to be held in some egalitarian manner, either unowned or owned collectively. Those left-libertarians who support private property do so under the condition that recompense is offered to the local community.\n",
"There are many philosophical disagreements among proponents of libertarianism concerning questions of ideology, values and strategy. For instance, left-libertarians were the ones to coin the term as a synonym for anarchism. Outside of the United States, libertarianism is still synonymous with anarchism and socialism (social anarchism and libertarian socialism). Right-libertarianism, known in the United States simply as libertarianism, was coined as a synonym for classical liberalism in May 1955 by writer Dean Russell due liberals embracing progressivism and economic interventionism in the early 20th century after the Great Depression and with the New Deal. As a result, the term was co-opted in the mid-20th century to instead advocate \"laissez-faire\" capitalism and strong private property rights such as in land, infrastructure and natural resources. The main debate between the two forms of libertarianism therefore concerns the legitimacy of private property and its meaning. Most other debates remains within right-libertarianism as abortion, capital punishment, foreign affairs, LGBT rights and immigration are non-issues for left-libertarians whereas within right-libertarianism they are debated due to their divide between cultural liberal and cultural conservative right-libertarians.\n",
"Libertarian socialism (sometimes called social anarchism, left-libertarianism and socialist libertarianism) is a group of political philosophies within the socialist movement that reject the view of socialism as state ownership or command of the means of production within a more general criticism of the state form itself as well as of wage labour relationships within the workplace. Instead it emphasizes workers' self-management of the workplace and decentralized structures of political government asserting that a society based on freedom and equality can be achieved through abolishing authoritarian institutions that control certain means of production and subordinate the majority to an owning class or political and economic elite. Libertarian socialists generally place their hopes in decentralized means of direct democracy and federal or confederal associations such as libertarian municipalism, citizens' assemblies, trade unions, and workers' councils. All of this is generally done within a general call for libertarian and voluntary human relationships through the identification, criticism, and practical dismantling of illegitimate authority in all aspects of human life.\n",
"Libertarian socialists are anti-capitalist and can be distinguished from right-libertarians. Whereas capitalist and right-libertarian principles concentrate economic power in the hands of those who own the most capital, libertarian socialism aims to distribute power more widely amongst members of society. A key difference between libertarian socialism and right-libertarian philosophies such as neoliberalism is that advocates of the former generally believe that one's degree of freedom is affected by one's economic and social status whereas advocates of the latter focus on freedom of choice within a capitalist framework, specifically under capitalist private property. This is sometimes characterized as a desire to maximize free creativity in a society in preference to free enterprise.\n",
"Anarchist economics is the set of theories and practices of economic activity within the political philosophy of anarchism. With the exception of anarcho-capitalists who accept private ownership of the means of production, anarchists are anti-capitalists. They argue that its characteristic institutions promote and reproduce various forms of economic activity which they consider oppressive, including private property, hierarchical production relations, collecting rents from private property, taking a profit in exchanges and collecting interest on loans. They generally endorse possession-based ownership rather than propertarianism.\n",
"Left-libertarians, libertarian socialists and anarchists believe in a decentralized economy run by trade unions, workers' councils, cooperatives, municipalities and communes and oppose both state and private control of the economy, preferring social ownership and local control, in which a nation of decentralized regions is united in a confederation.\n",
"Left-wing market anarchism, also known as free-market anti-capitalism and free-market socialism, is a form of individualist anarchism and libertarian socialism associated with contemporary scholars such as Kevin Carson, Roderick T. Long, Charles W. Johnson, Brad Spangler, Sheldon Richman, Chris Matthew Sciabarra and Gary Chartier, who stress the value of radically free markets, termed freed markets to distinguish them from the common conception which these libertarians believe to be riddled with statist and capitalist privileges. Referred to as left-wing market anarchists or market-oriented left-libertarians, proponents of this approach strongly affirm the classical liberal ideas of self-ownership and free markets while maintaining that taken to their logical conclusions these ideas support anti-capitalist, anti-corporatist, anti-hierarchical and pro-labor positions in economics; anti-imperialism in foreign policy; and thoroughly radical views regarding cultural issues such as gender, sexuality and race.\n"
] |
when a multi-billion dollar transaction occurs between two companies, how are the funds transferred/managed?
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Typically by Wire Transfer.
Wire Transfers, unlike checks or regular electronic bank payments (known as ACH transactions in the US), are irrevocable once final -- even in the case of fraud. (That is, if someone authorized to make a wire transfer makes one, even if defrauded or illegally embezzling funds, the accountholder are still liable for the payment. If someone at the bank who isn't authorized to make a wire transfer illegally makes one, the accountholder is not liable.)
The idea is that businesses need finality when they receive payments, they can't just have money disappear from their accounts like if a "chargeback" or "stop payment" is done. If a wire transfer is made and you need your money back, you have to sue the recipient -- you can't just ask the bank to reverse the charge. For transactions between businesses, it's assumed that the need for finality outweighs the fraud protections that checks and nonwire electronic payments provide. (In the US, wire transfers are rarely used by consumers. Also why scamsters try to get you to wire money to them - people wrongly assume that wire transfers have the same protections as consumer payment systems.) Source: The Uniform Commercial Code Article 4A.
|
[
"The following example shows a classic transfer of funds transaction, where money is removed from one account and added to another. If either the removal or the addition fails, the entire transaction is rolled back.\n",
"Payment by cash. Such transactions are usually termed acquisitions rather than mergers because the shareholders of the target company are removed from the picture and the target comes under the (indirect) control of the bidder's shareholders.\n",
"The Large Value Transfer System, or LVTS, is a system in Canada for electronic wire transfers of large sums of money; it permits the participating institutions and their clients to send large sums of money securely in real-time with complete certainty that the payment will settle. LVTS processes the majority of payments made every day in Canada, and is designed to work with funds in Canadian dollars (CAD). On a normal business day, it clears and settles approximately CAD $153.5 billion. Frequently, when settling the payments made through LVTS between each other, some banks find themselves with extra funds, while others find themselves short; to come up with money, the banks can borrow it from each other for a day, or \"overnight\". The rate at which they borrow is called overnight rate, targets for which are set by the Bank of Canada as part of its monetary policy.\n",
"Sending and receiving money transfers is the core of company’s services. The transfer is not strictly refer to a concrete bank-recipient, which means the transfer can be given out at any location in the receipt country. In order to forward money a Sender-Client presents funds at any Leader System location for transfer service, receives the Money Transfer Control Number (MTCN) from an operator and transmits it to the recipient. The natural person, a recipient, can come to any location, presenting the MTSN and a photo ID. The data proves correct, the operator gives out the money. The transfer is delivered instantly, taking 2–3 minutes. Besides paying out cash, a sum can be transferred to the Client’s bank account of the recipient. The Sender can monitor the transfer status online at the System website. Besides, a Client can forward the transfer to a recipient online through leomoney.ru, the company’s own web portal.\n",
"Unified Payments Interface is a real-time interbank payment system for sending or receiving money. It is integrated with more than 120 banks in India. Consumers can participate in P2P transfer as long as they both have an account in one of the registered banks. To initiate fund transfer, users have to use any UPI supporting Android or iOS app, link their bank accounts and generate BHIM UPI PIN. Funds can be transferred via the following methods: \n",
"CTF funds can be transferred between providers. Rules for transfers are similar to those for Individual Savings Accounts – customers should inform the new provider they wish to use and they will undertake the move. No penalty or fee can be imposed for transferring the account, except for the cost of selling shares (such as dealing charges) in equity accounts.\n",
"Another means of transferring assets is through commercial shipment of conventional goods, but with an artificially low invoice price, so the receiver can sell them and recover disbursed funds through profit on sales.\n"
] |
why won't youtube fix the issue of saving the video quality even though it's the number one complaint they get?
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You mean when you start a new video? It's becomes HD every time I enter full screen.
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[
"Since April 2016, videos continue to be monetized while the dispute is in progress, and the money goes to whoever won the dispute. Should the uploader want to monetize the video again, they may remove the disputed audio in the \"Video Manager\". YouTube has cited the effectiveness of Content ID as one of the reasons why the site's rules were modified in December 2010 to allow some users to upload videos of unlimited length.\n",
"In November 2017, YouTube announced that it would take further steps to review and filter videos reported by users as containing inappropriate content, including more stringent use of its filtering and age-restriction system to prevent such videos from appearing on the app and YouTube proper. In an update to the YouTube Kids app that month, a more prominent disclaimer was added to its first-time setup process, stating that the service can not fully guarantee the appropriateness of videos that were not manually curated, and informing parents of means to report and block videos that they do not find suitable.\n",
"After YouTube investigated this claim, they found that the video did not breach copyright law, as it is covered by the fair use clause. It was subsequently reinstated on the site, and as of April 2019, the video has achieved over 13 million views. YouTube has declined to remove it again, due to the popularity of the video, and subsequent changes to copyright policy of the Web site.\n",
"Google offered users the means to save only some of the videos on the site, mostly for copyright reasons. Their documentation went so far as to claim that only these videos could be downloaded. However, since viewing a video requires downloading it to the computer, their software merely made saving videos less than trivially difficult, not impossible: a number of solutions, including external software and bookmarklets, have been developed.\n",
"Outcries arose from the YouTube community in late 2015 and onward, regarding the unfair removal of YouTube videos and even entire channels based upon allegations of copyright infringement, many of which were invalid as no fair use laws were broken. Much of the controversy erupted when a review of the film \"Cool Cat Saves the Kids\" by the channel I Hate Everything was removed from YouTube on November 9, 2015. Videos by large channels such as Channel Awesome and Markiplier were being taken down and deleted from the website; complaints sparked across YouTube, as well as on the social media site Twitter.\n",
"In August 2016, YouTube introduced a new system to notify users of violations of the \"advertiser-friendly content\" rules, and allow them to appeal. Following its introduction, many prominent YouTube users began to accuse the site of engaging in \"de facto\" censorship, arbitrarily disabling monetization on videos discussing various topics such as skin care, politics, and LGBT history. Philip DeFranco argued that not being able to earn money from a video was \"censorship by a different name\", while Vlogbrothers similarly pointed out that YouTube had flagged both \"Zaatari: thoughts from a refugee camp\" and \"Vegetables that look like penises\" (although the flagging on the former was eventually overturned). The hashtag \"#YouTubeIsOverParty\" was prominently used on Twitter as a means of discussing the controversy. A YouTube spokesperson stated that \"while our policy of demonetizing videos due to advertiser-friendly concerns hasn't changed, we've recently improved the notification and appeal process to ensure better communication to our creators.\"\n",
"\"We're never gonna give you uploading that's slow or loses video quality, and we're never gonna let you down by playing YouTube in poor video quality. That's why we're always running tests like Webdriver Torso.\" This is a reference to Rick Astley's song \"Never Gonna Give You Up\".\n"
] |
i know the 2 major parties don't want 3rd party candidates in presidential debates unless polling is at 15%, but why does the media let the parties control who is invited to these debates?
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"The media" is not invovled.
The debates are held by the Commission on Presidential debates. Which is run bipartisanly by republicans and democrats.
Commission sets the rules and the parties agree. The media just covers the debate.
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[
"In the United States, if an interest group is at odds with its traditional party, it has the option of running sympathetic candidates in primaries. If the candidate fails in the primary and believes he or she has a chance to win in the general election he or she may form or join a third party. Because of the difficulties third parties face in gaining any representation, third parties tend to exist to promote a specific issue or personality. Often, the intent is to force national public attention on such an issue. Then, one or both of the major parties may rise to commit for or against the matter at hand, or at least weigh in. H. Ross Perot eventually founded a third party, the Reform Party, to support his 1996 campaign. In 1912, Theodore Roosevelt made a spirited run for the presidency on the Progressive Party ticket, but he never made any efforts to help Progressive congressional candidates in 1914, and in the 1916 election, he supported the Republicans.\n",
"During presidential elections in the United States, it has become customary for the main candidates (almost always the candidates of the two largest parties, currently the Democratic Party and the Republican Party) to engage in a debate. The topics discussed in the debate are often the most controversial issues of the time, and arguably elections have been nearly decided by these debates (e.g., Nixon vs. Kennedy). Candidate debates are not constitutionally mandated, but it is now considered a \"de facto\" election process. The debates are targeted mainly at undecided voters; those who tend not to be partial to any political ideology or party.\n",
"Since 1980, the Republican Party of the United States has held debates between candidates for the Republican nomination in presidential elections during the primary election season. Unlike debates between party-nominated candidates, which have been organized by the bi-partisan Commission on Presidential Debates since 1988, debates between candidates for party nomination are organized by mass media outlets.\n",
"BULLET::::- The third-party candidate improves his/her showing as a percentage of the nationwide popular vote, increasing his/her party's visibility and prompting the voting public (including major-party sympathizers with the third party's platform) to take the third party more seriously. Most notably, organizations hosting presidential-candidate debates may require that a party clear a certain popular-vote threshold in one election in order for its candidate in the next election to qualify for the debates held in advance of that election, and vote trading helps the candidate reach that threshold. Because the third-party supporter in the swing state would likely vote for the more favored or less disfavored major-party candidate in the absence of a vote trade, the third-party candidate has little to lose from the vote trade's guarantee that the swing-state vote will be cast for the major party.\n",
"The result of the election is often determined by party politics. In most cases, the candidate of the majority party or coalition in the Bundestag is considered to be the likely winner. However, as the members of the Federal Convention vote by secret ballot and are free to vote against their party's candidate, some presidential elections were considered open or too close to call beforehand because of relatively balanced majority positions or because the governing coalition's parties could not agree on one candidate and endorsed different people, as they did in 1969, when Gustav Heinemann won by only 6 votes on the third ballot. In other cases, elections have turned out to be much closer than expected. For example, in 2010, Wulff was expected to win on the first ballot, as the parties supporting him (CDU, CSU and FDP) had a stable absolute majority in the Federal Convention. Nevertheless, he failed to win a majority in the first and second ballots, while his main opponent Joachim Gauck had an unexpectedly strong showing. In the end Wulff obtained a majority in the third ballot. If the opposition has turned in a strong showing in state elections, it can potentially have enough support to defeat the chancellor's party's candidate; this happened in the elections in 1979 and 2004. For this reason, presidential elections can indicate the result of an upcoming general election. According to a long-standing adage in German politics, \"if you can create a President, you can form a government.\"\n",
"Since 1983, the Democratic Party of the United States holds a few debates between candidates for the Democratic nomination in presidential elections during the primary election season. Unlike debates between party-nominated candidates, which have been organized by the bi-partisan Commission on Presidential Debates since 1988, debates between candidates for party nomination are organized by mass media outlets.\n",
"The form of polling caused some controversy. If someone say they prefer all three DPP candidates over Ma, it would cancel out have no effect on the outcome. \"The goal of the primaries is to choose one from three. If voters support all three candidates, it defeats the purpose of the poll\", Frank Hsieh Chang-ting was quoted as saying.\n"
] |
why the english speaking nations are more successful than any other linguistic nationalities in history?
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It's not *English* that does it. It's luck, mostly.
Europe had the industrial revolution first. That gave it an unprecedented ability to conquer other lands, which many countries did. The Brittish Empire just so happened to be in the right place at the right time to spread its influence far and wide.
Then came the United States. It had an ungodly amount of resources and land, which supported a *massive* population. It also was isolated enough that it could grow in strength before and during the world wars. All that combined to make it an economic superpower. The USA is in fact so big that it can swing the entire world economy to its whims. At the time when the US was rising to power, neither China nor India could really compete economically, and after WWII, the USSR dissolved, losing its power.
Given that English existed both in the USA and in practically every former Brittish colony, English quickly became the language of trade. If you spoke English, you could talk with all the big players, which is obviously a good thing if you want to make money.
If some other country, say Portugal, Spain, or France had settled the land that would become the USA, it might have been Portuguese, Spanish, or French that became the language of trade.
|
[
"English is the current lingua franca of international business, education, science, technology, diplomacy, entertainment, radio, seafaring, and aviation. After World War II, it has gradually replaced French as the lingua franca of international diplomacy. The rise of English in diplomacy began in 1919, when the Treaty of Versailles was written in English as well as in French, the dominant language used in diplomacy until that time. The widespread use of English was further advanced by the prominent international role played by English-speaking nations (the United States and the Commonwealth of Nations) in the aftermath of World War II, particularly in the establishment and organization of the United Nations. English is one of the six official languages of the United Nations (the other five being French, Arabic, Chinese, Russian and Spanish). The seating and roll-call order in sessions of the United Nations and its subsidiary and affiliated organizations is determined by alphabetical order of the English names of the countries.\n",
"English is often considered to be the lingua franca of the world today due to the diversity of countries and communities that have adopted English as a national, commercial, or social form of communication. Globalization, colonialism, and the capitalist system have all helped promote English as the world's dominant language, supplemented by years of British and American hegemony on the world stage. Today, nearly 1.39 billion people speak English according to the World Economic Forum, with its prominence over other languages highlighted through the geographic diversity of where it is spoken. According to Arwen Armbrecht, Mandarin Chinese is the most spoken first language in the world, however its influence lags behind English due to its limited use outside of Mandarin-speaking nations. As a result, the linguistic capital of Mandarin Chinese cannot be fully compared to that of English, which allows English to have such an important role around the globe.\n",
"Meanwhile, English was on its way to becoming the first global lingua franca. By the end of the twentieth century, it had special status in seventy countries, including India. Worldwide, English began to represent modernization and internationalization, with more and more jobs requiring basic fluency in it. In India especially, the language came to acquire a social prestige, 'a class apart of education', which prompted native Indian or South Asian speakers to turn bilingual, speaking their mother tongue at home or in a local context, but English in academic or work environments.\n",
"The countries where English is spoken can be grouped into different categories according to how English is used in each country. The \"inner circle\" countries with many native speakers of English share an international standard of written English and jointly influence speech norms for English around the world. English does not belong to just one country, and it does not belong solely to descendants of English settlers. English is an official language of countries populated by few descendants of native speakers of English. It has also become by far the most important language of international communication when people who share no native language meet anywhere in the world.\n",
"The predominance of English in many sectors, such as world trade, technology and science, has contributed to English-speaking societies being persistently monolingual, as there is no relevant need to learn a second language if all dealings can be done in their native language; that is especially the case for English-speakers in the United States, particularly the Northern United States and most of the Southern United States, where everyday contact with other languages, such as Spanish and French is usually limited. The country's large area and the most populous regions' distance from large non-English-speaking areas, such as Mexico and Quebec, increase the geographic and economic barriers to foreign travel. Nevertheless, the requirement for all school children to learn a foreign language in some English speaking countries and areas works against this to some extent. Although the country is economically interdependent with trade partners such as China, American corporations and heavily-Americanized subsidiaries of foreign corporations both mediate and control most citizens' contact with most other nations' products. There is a popular joke: \"What do you call a person who speaks three languages? A trilingual. What do you call a person who speaks two languages? A bilingual. What do you call a person who speaks one language? An American.\"\n",
"English is the most widely used foreign language in demand and is spoken by many professionals, academics, and members of the upper and middle classes as a result of the oil exploration done by foreign companies, in addition to its acceptance as a lingua franca. Culturally, English is common in southern towns like El Callao, and the native English-speaking influence is evident in folk and calypso songs from the region. English was brought to Venezuela by Trinidadian and other British West Indies immigrants. A variety of Antillean Creole is spoken by a small community in El Callao and Paria. Italian language teaching is guaranteed by the presence of a consistent number of private Venezuelan schools and institutions, where Italian language courses and Italian literature are active. Other languages spoken by large communities in the country are Basque and Galician, among others.\n",
"Despite the importance of English as an international lingua franca also in Europe, Europe can be associated with its linguistic diversity, which also includes the special protection of minority languages, e.g. by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages founded in the 1990s. This underlines that the popular view of “one nation = one language” (cf. Wirrer 2003) is mostly false.\n"
] |
when a company commits a gross violation that affects people (physically/mentally/financially, etc.), why is the company forced to pay the government, instead of the people they hurt?
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Usually they'll have to pay both. Fines levyed by the state is not meant to replace money companies have to pay for the damages they cause a person.
Let's say a company causes you to lose a leg because of negligence, they might be fined by the state if they broke the law, but *in addition to that* they have to pay you money for the damages they caused you specifically.
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[
"This federal statute has many consequences. For example, a corporation is allowed to own property and enter contracts. It can also sue and be sued and held liable under both civil and criminal law. As well, because the corporation is legally considered the \"person\", individual shareholders are not legally responsible for the corporation's debts and damages beyond their investment in the corporation. Similarly, individual employees, managers, and directors are liable for their own malfeasance or lawbreaking while acting on behalf of the corporation, but are not generally liable for the corporation's actions. Among the most frequently discussed and controversial consequences of corporate personhood in the United States is the extension of a limited subset of the same constitutional rights.\n",
"Moreover, the standards of behavior governing employees of government institutions subject to a state or national Administrative Procedure Act (as in the United States) are often more demanding than those governing employees of private or business institutions like newspapers. A person acting in an official capacity for a government agency may find that their statements are not indemnified by the principle of agency, leaving them personally liable for any damages.\n",
"Further, a corporation may simply be a \"veil\" for an individual's activities, easily liquidated and with no reputation to protect. Again it is argued, company fines ultimately punish shareholders, customers and employees in general, rather than culpable managers.\n",
"The organization is responsible for every employee in a company if something goes wrong. Employees can receive compensation for any serious incidents that may have occurred such as health and safety violations or injuries operating machinery, for example. Another example is the case of a supplier to British retailer Primark. The supplier's factory was located in the Rana Plaza building in Bangladesh. The building collapsed on April 24, 2013 killing 1100 people. The company was forced to pay the victims £12 million in damages.\n",
"BULLET::::- If an employee is hurt when there is no workers' compensation policy in effect and that employee chooses to file a workers' compensation claim, the employer will be liable for the actual cost of medical care and compensation payments, in addition to penalties. If a corporation has failed to secure workers' compensation coverage, the president, secretary and treasurer of a corporation are personally liable for the medical care, compensation payments, penalties and possible criminal prosecution.\n",
"There is a rule that \"Grama benizakin patur\". If somebody caused financial harm to somebody else via an action that was not guaranteed to harm them, the person cannot be forced by a court to pay, although he might be morally obligated to.\n",
"The defenders of corporations such as Ron Arnold highlight that governments do legislate in ways that restrict the actions of corporations (see Sarbanes-Oxley Act) and that lawbreaking companies and executives are routinely caught and punished, usually in the form of monetary fines.\n"
] |
what's the difference between killer bees and honey bees?
|
The "killer bee," AKA the Africanized honey bee, is a hybrid bee created from Western and European bee strains.
For whatever reason (and I'm not a geneticist nor a beekeeper, so I don't know how this happened), the Africanized bee picked up a few nasty traits. They are excessively defensive of their hive, and will swarm much more aggressively in defense of it. They are also known to pursue more aggressively. Where normal honeybees will swarm a threat and pursue for a limited distance, returning to the hive once they feel the invader is no longer a threat, killer bees are known to swarm greater numbers of bees and will chase for a much greater distance. They're thus much more likely to inflict lethal numbers of stings than basic honeybees.
Several swarms of these bees escaped captivity. The problem then became the fact that they compete more aggressively than European honeybees and tend to push them out when they compete for territory, meaning that the "killer bee" is rapidly spreading as wild swarms supplant the native wild honeybees.
|
[
"BULLET::::- Killer bees were created in an attempt to breed tamer and more manageable bees. This was done by crossing a European honey bee and an African bee, but instead the offspring became more aggressive and highly defensive bees that had escaped into the wild.\n",
"\"Killer bee\" is a term frequently used in media such as movies that portray aggressive behavior or actively seeking to attack humans. \"Africanized honeybee\" is considered a more descriptive term in part because their behavior is increased defensiveness compared to European honeybees that can exhibit similar defensive behaviors when disturbed.\n",
"Among insects, so-called killer bees were accidentally created during an attempt to breed a strain of bees that would both produce more honey and be better adapted to tropical conditions. It was done by crossing a European honey bee and an African bee.\n",
"Killer Bees – A group of three spelling bee addicted bullies, known as King Bee (Carlos Pena), Queen Bee (Krystal Acosta), and Stinger (Sean Michael Afable). They always dress in yellow and black, and tend to quickly spell-out insults at people. Their only appearances were \"Spelling Bees\" and \"Best Friends\". They always seemed to have an aversion towards Cookie because he was also good at spelling. Later on in the series, they ask Cookie to be part of their group, but this was only so they could have their math grades changed.\n",
"Unlike typical honeybees, which practice multiple mating, stingless bees have been suspected of single mating between drones and queen bees. This, along with the consequential pairing of the high relatedness rates within colonies of \"S. quadripunctata\", serves to explain the high degree of kin selection among stingless bees.\n",
"Drones are the colony's male bees. Since they do not have ovipositors, they do not have stingers. Drone honey bees do not forage for nectar or pollen. The primary purpose of a drone is to fertilize a new queen. Many drones will mate with a given queen in flight; each will die immediately after mating, since the process of insemination requires a lethally convulsive effort. Drone honey bees are haploid (single, unpaired chromosomes) in their genetic structure, and are descended only from their mother (the queen). In temperate regions drones are generally expelled from the hive before winter, dying of cold and starvation since they cannot forage, produce honey or care for themselves. There has been research into the role western honey bee drones play in thermoregulation within the hive. Given their larger size (1.5 times that of worker bees), drones may play a significant role. Drones are typically located near the center of hive clusters for unclear reasons. It is postulated that it is to maintain sperm viability, which may be compromised at cooler temperatures. Another possible explanation is that a more central location allows drones to contribute to warmth, since at temperatures below their ability to contribute declines.\n",
"The best place for hornets to find a combination of animal proteins (bees or larvae) and carbohydrates (honey) are bee hives. Oriental hornets have been known to cause serious damage to bee colonies. They are the primary pest that attacks honey bee colonies in many countries. In defense, Japanese honey bees have been shown to kill predatory hornets by surrounding them by forming a tight ball in which the temperature rises to lethal levels. Cyprian honey bees (\"Apis mellifera cypria\") have developed a slightly different method for killing their major predator. They form a tight, smothering ball around the attacking hornet and kill it by asphyxiation.\n"
] |
How do scientists know the decay progression of Uranium-238 if it takes place over billions of years?
|
Because the rate is the same. You can observe it for any period of time and extrapolate that rate of decay across whatever unit of time, whether it's days, months, or billions of years. Even if you observe it for a normal human period of time, there's still a tiny tiny change, and if you measure accurately, the rate is there.
|
[
"Since radioactive decay is exponential with a constant probability, each process could as easily be described with a different constant time period that (for example) gave its \"(1/3)-life\" (how long until only 1/3 is left) or \"(1/10)-life\" (a time period until only 10% is left), and so on. Thus, the choice of and \"\" for marker-times, are only for convenience, and from convention. They reflect a fundamental principle only in so much as they show that the \"same proportion\" of a given radioactive substance will decay, during any time-period that one chooses.\n",
"The mathematics of radioactive decay depend on a key assumption that a nucleus of a radionuclide has no \"memory\" or way of translating its history into its present behavior. A nucleus does not \"age\" with the passage of time. Thus, the probability of its breaking down does not increase with time, but stays constant no matter how long the nucleus has existed. This constant probability may vary greatly between different types of nuclei, leading to the many different observed decay rates. However, whatever the probability is, it does not change. This is in marked contrast to complex objects which do show aging, such as automobiles and humans. These systems do have a chance of breakdown per unit of time, that increases from the moment they begin their existence.\n",
"Each radioactive isotope has a characteristic decay time period—the half-life—that is determined by the amount of time needed for half of a sample to decay. This is an exponential decay process that steadily decreases the proportion of the remaining isotope by 50% every half-life. Hence after two half-lives have passed only 25% of the isotope is present, and so forth.\n",
"The project's findings were published in 2005, and while they acknowledged evidence for over 500 million years of radiometric decay at today's rates, they also claimed to have discovered other lines of evidence that pointed to a young earth. They therefore hypothesised that nuclear decay rates were accelerated by a factor of approximately one billion on the first two days of the Creation week and during the Flood.\n",
"In nature, uranium is found as uranium-238 (99.2739–99.2752%), uranium-235 (0.7198–0.7202%), and a very small amount of uranium-234 (0.0050–0.0059%). Uranium decays slowly by emitting an alpha particle. The half-life of uranium-238 is about 4.47 billion years and that of uranium-235 is 704 million years, making them useful in dating the age of the Earth.\n",
"One of the advantages of this method is that any sample provides two clocks, one based on uranium-235's decay to lead-207 with a half-life of about 703 million years, and one based on uranium-238's decay to lead-206 with a half-life of about 4.5 billion years, providing a built-in crosscheck that allows accurate determination of the age of the sample even if some of the lead has been lost.\n",
"Neutrons from the fission of uranium-235 are captured by uranium-238 nuclei to form uranium-239; a beta decay converts a neutron into a proton to form neptunium-239 (half-life 2.36 days) and another beta decay forms plutonium-239. Egon Bretscher working on the British Tube Alloys project predicted this reaction theoretically in 1940.\n"
] |
Why was the Spanish colonisation of the Americas so brutal and destructive compared to their colonisation of the Philippines?
|
You have a mistaken impression about the Spanish conquest. I don't know much about the Mayans and others, but the Spanish didn't genocide the Aztecs, though in other cases, like with the Pueblo, there's certainly a case to be made for genocide.
The reasons so many Aztecs died were primarily diseases. It's not really clear how many died, but one estimate made by historians at Berkeley University even puts it at 95% of the Aztec population dying because of repeated epidemics. Admittedly, the early Spanish colonial system was filled with abuse as the conquistadors formed their own fiefdoms with the Indians as their servants, a system called the encomienda system, but that system was abolished relatively quickly and replaced by a much more benign system, where Indians generally were left to rule themselves in their own communities, called pueblos de indios, or at least be ruled by Indian mayors called gobernador de indios, who were in turn elected by the local Indian nobility, the caciques, alongside a Spanish administrator called a corregidor.
Mestizos aren't the product of mass rape, they're the product of simply intermixing over the course of several centuries. It's the same reason you have Afro-Indians and Afro-Europeans in Mexico. The early Spanish conquistadors didn't bring their wives along, so they just started marrying native women. Same with slaves and Indians and slaves and Europeans. Though the Spaniards had instituted a racial caste system, race was such a vague system that it was practically useless. Indian nobles were above a poor Spanish farmer de facto, and a village full of black people could be classified as an Indian village simply on basis of location.
In general, the Spanish king had a very paternalistic view towards Indians, so if they were abused he did try to help them generally, although it was from a somewhat misguided point of view. There are still hundreds of letters in Spain between Indians nobles appealing their cases to the Spanish king. This was one of the reasons the Spanish king abolished the encomienda system, alongside the more practical reason that he didn't want the conquistadors to form independant kingdoms in the New World.
|
[
"The United States claimed the territories of the Philippines after the Spanish–American War. The ethnic Moro (Muslim) population of the southern Philippines resisted both Spanish and United States colonization. The Spaniards were restricted to a handful of coastal garrisons or Forts and they made occasional punitive expeditions into the vast interior regions. After a series of unsuccessful attempts during the centuries of Spanish rule in the Philippines, Spanish forces occupied the abandoned city of Jolo, Sulu, the seat of the Sultan of Sulu, in 1876. The Spaniards and the Sultan of Sulu signed the Spanish Treaty of Peace on July 22, 1878. Control of the Sulu archipelago outside of the Spanish garrisons was handed to the Sultan. The treaty had translation errors: According to the Spanish-language version, Spain had complete sovereignty over the Sulu archipelago, while the Tausug version described a protectorate instead of an outright dependency. Despite the very nominal claim to the Moro territories, Spain ceded them to the United States in the Treaty of Paris which signaled the end of the Spanish–American War.\n",
"Spanish colonial rule of the Philippines was constantly threatened by indigenous rebellions and invasions from the Dutch, Chinese, Japanese and British. The previously dominant groups resisted Spanish rule, refusing to pay Spanish taxes and rejecting Spanish excesses. All were defeated by the Spanish and their Filipino allies by 1597. In many areas, the Spanish left indigenous groups to administer their own affairs but under Spanish overlordship.\n",
"During Spain's 333 year rule in the Philippines, the colonists had to fight off the Chinese pirates (who lay siege to Manila, the most famous of which was Limahong in 1574), Dutch forces, and Portuguese forces. Moros from western Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago constantly raided the coastal Christian areas of Luzon and the Visayas and occasionally brought home loot and fair women. They often sold their captives as slaves. A British conquest of the Spanish Philippines occurred during the Seven Years' War, with British occupation of the capital between 1762 and 1764. Also, there were a number of failed Philippine revolts during Spanish rule.\n",
"The Philippines was never profitable as a colony during Spanish rule, and the long war against the Dutch from the West, in the 17th century together with the intermittent conflict with the Muslims in the South and combating Japanese Wokou piracy from the North nearly bankrupted the colonial treasury. Furthermore, the state of near constant war caused a high death and desertion rate among the Mestizo, Mulatto and Indio (Native American) soldiers sent from Mexico and Peru that were stationed in the Philippines. The high death and desertion rate also applied to the native Filipino warriors conscripted by Spain, to fight in battles all across the archipelago. The repeated wars, lack of wages and near starvation were so intense, almost half of the soldiers sent from Latin America either died or fled to the countryside to live as vagabonds among the rebellious natives or escaped enslaved Indians (From India) where they race-mixed through rape or prostitution, further blurring the racial caste system Spain tried hard to maintain. These circumstances contributed to the increasing difficulty of governing the Philippines. The Royal Fiscal of Manila wrote a letter to King Charles III of Spain, in which he advises to abandon the colony but the religious orders opposed this since they considered the Philippines a launching pad for the conversion of the Far East.\n",
"After the conquistadores brought the Filipinos under the rule of the Spanish crown, either by peaceful means of treaties and pacts or, alternatively, by war, Spain did not send large standing armies to maintain its empire in the East. The apostolic zeal of the missionaries followed the efforts of men such as Miguel López de Legazpi, and aided to consolidate the enterprise of Hispanizing the Philippines. The Spanish missionaries acted as de facto conquerors; they gained the goodwill of the islanders, presented Spanish culture positively, and in so doing won approximately 2 million converts.\n",
"The energies of Castile (later, the \"unified\" Spain), the other major colonial power of the 16th century, were largely concentrated on the Americas, not South and East Asia, but the Spanish did establish a footing in the Far East in the Philippines. After fighting with the Portuguese by the Spice Islands since 1522 and the agreement between the two powers in 1529 (in the treaty of Zaragoza), the Spanish, led by Miguel López de Legazpi, settled and conquered gradually the Philippines since 1564. After the discovery of the return voyage to the Americas by Andres de Urdaneta in 1565, cargoes of Chinese goods were transported from the Philippines to Mexico and from there to Spain. By this long route, Spain reaped some of the profits of Far Eastern commerce. Spanish officials converted the islands to Christianity and established some settlements, permanently establishing the Philippines as the area of East Asia most oriented toward the West in terms of culture and commerce. The Moro Muslims fought against the Spanish for over three centuries in the Spanish–Moro conflict.\n",
"Although the Spanish conquered the southern or Pacific portion of Honduras fairly quickly, they were less successful on the northern, or Atlantic side. They managed to found a few towns along the coast, at Puerto Caballos and Trujillo in particular, but failed to conquer the eastern portion of the region and many pockets of independent indigenous people as well. The Miskito Kingdom in the northeast was particularly effective at resisting conquest. The Miskito Kingdom found support from northern European privateers, pirates and especially the British formerly English colony of Jamaica, which placed much of the area under its protection after 1740.\n"
] |
i love that t-mobile does this, but how is allowing unlimited data for music streaming not a violation of nn?
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It is actually a violation of it. However, people aren't really fighting it because people like T-Mobile. Also, allowing unlimited music streaming scissor benefits people, so they like it.
|
[
"Since June 2014, U.S. mobile provider T-Mobile US has offered zero-rated access to participating music streaming services to its mobile internet customers. T-Mobile launched its plan called “Music Freedom” which would exempt users of T-Mobile from having to pay premium prices for access to music content; additionally, this content access would not count as part of an individual's cap, which is the limit they can reach before they are charged for data.\n",
"On June 18, 2014, T-Mobile also announced Un-carrier 6.0, known as \"Music Freedom\". Data used on certain streaming music services would no longer count to users' data limits. At the time of the announcement, these services included: Pandora, Spotify, Rhapsody, Google Play Music, iTunes Radio, Slacker, Milk Music, Beatport, and iHeartRadio. In addition, users are also able to vote for more music services to be selected for inclusion into this program. T-Mobile has partnered with Rhapsody to offer \"UnRadio\", a streaming radio service with unlimited skips, no ads, and offline playback. The service will be free to unlimited T-Mobile customers, and will be available to all others for a nominal fee, which varies between T-Mobile and non-T-Mobile customers. On November 24, 2014 this was expanded to add an additional 14 music services.\n",
"MOG was a subscription service that allows users to play tracks from its catalog on a variety of digital devices, including computers, handheld devices, Sonos system and television (through MOG's Roku channel). The company claimed that its catalog was 16 million tracks, although it is not clear how the count was produced or audited. Songs could be streamed via the internet or stored on their devices so that they could be played without internet connection. Web streams were 320kbit/s MP3 files and mobile streams were 48 kbit/s AAC+ files. Users could choose whether mobile downloads were 'high-quality' 320kbit/s MP3 files or 48 kbit/s AAC+ files.\n",
"BULLET::::- in 2012, Google Play Music launched unlimited music streaming for a subscription price of $9.99 per month. Users can upload their own MP3s to the service and download them, but cannot download songs they have not uploaded themselves.\n",
"Streaming music on a portable device is becoming mainstream, but digital radio and music streaming websites such as Pandora are fighting an uphill battle when it comes to copyright protection. 17 USC 801(b)(1)(D) of the Copyright Act states that Copyright Royalty Judges should \"minimize any disruptive impact on the structure of the industries involved and on generally prevailing industry practices\". \"Much of the initial drafting of the ‘76 Act was by the Copyright Office, which chaired a series of meetings with prominent industry copyright lawyers throughout the 1960s\". Some believe that Section 106 was designed with the intent to maximize litigation to the benefit of the legal industry, and gives too much power and protection to the copyright holder while weakening fair use.\n",
"Although music streaming is no longer a freely replicable public good, streaming platforms such as Spotify, Deezer, Apple Music, SoundCloud, and Prime Music have shifted music streaming to a club-type good. While some platforms, most notably Spotify, give customers access to a freemium service that enables the use of limited features for exposure to advertisements, most companies operate under a premium subscription model. Under such circumstances, music streaming is financially excludable, requiring that customers pay a monthly fee for access to a music library, but non-rival, since one customer’s use does not impair another’s.\n",
"One seemingly data-laden feature of the old Kin devices which remained available for the repurposed phones was Zune Pass, although it was now able to stream music only over Wi-Fi, even when customers had 3G data enabled, to conserve data. This was done to accommodate Verizon's new tiered data plans, which marked the end of unlimited data for users.\n"
] |
how do they make boneless chicken breasts?
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They take regular chicken breasts and take the bones out of them. There isn't any magic beyond that. They aren't growing boneless chickens out there.
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[
"Some chicken breast cuts and processed chicken breast products include the moniker \"with rib meat\". This is a misnomer, as it refers to the small piece of white meat that overlays the scapula, removed along with the breast meat. The breast is cut from the chicken and sold as a solid cut, while the leftover breast and true rib meat is stripped from the bone through mechanical separation for use in chicken franks, for example. Breast meat is often sliced thinly and marketed as chicken slices, an easy filling for sandwiches. Often, the tenderloin (pectoralis minor) is marketed separately from the breast (pectoralis major). In the US, \"tenders\" can be either tenderloins or strips cut from the breast. In the UK the strips of pectoralis minor are called \"chicken mini-fillets\".\n",
"A chicken breast is butterflied or sliced along its width. It is flattened to an even thickness with a tenderizer between two pieces of wax paper or plastic wrap. It is seasoned and dredged in flour before being browned in butter or olive oil. The sauce is made using the pan drippings. Lemon juice and white wine or chicken stock are added and reduced. Shallots or garlic can be added with capers, chopped parsley and slices of lemon. After reduction, butter is stirred in to finish the sauce. \n",
"Recipes for chicken mull vary slightly from person to person, but it is usually made by first cooking a whole chicken by boiling or parboiling, allowing a rich broth to form. The chicken is then removed from the pot and the meat is pulled from the bones or cut off with a knife. The skin, bones and fat are removed as well. Sometimes boneless, skinless chicken breasts are used instead of a whole chicken. A thickening of milk or cream is made (and sometimes evaporated milk is added as well) and added to the broth. Several sleeves of saltine crackers can be crumbled into broth and chicken mixture as it is the more common method of thickening the mull. The chicken is usually ground up in a meat grinder, although sometimes it is cut into small pieces. The chicken is then added back into the liquid along with salt, pepper and butter or margarine. Various other ingredients may be added to the stew according to local tradition, (such as diced potatoes or onions); a more common addition is varying amounts of hot sauce.\n",
"Chicken hearts are considered to be giblets, and are often grilled on skewers: Japanese \"hāto yakitori\", Brazilian \"churrasco de coração\", Indonesian chicken heart satay. They can also be pan-fried, as in Jerusalem mixed grill. In Egyptian cuisine, they can be used, finely chopped, as part of stuffing for chicken. Many recipes combined them with other giblets, such as the Mexican \"pollo en menudencias\" and the Russian \"ragu iz kurinyikh potrokhov\".\n",
"Belly casts are most often made toward the end of the third trimester of pregnancy, though a series of casts may also be made during the pregnancy. They are made by preparing the skin with a coating of Vaseline or a similar lubricant and adding strips of wet plaster gauze over the abdomen to make the cast. Some women also cast their breasts, arms, hands and thighs into a full torso sculpture. The plaster sets in about 20–30 minutes but some fast-setting strips set in five minutes. Once set, the cast is gently removed by the mother using a wriggling motion. It takes one or two days for the cast to dry completely.\n",
"Chicken fillets, sometimes called inner fillets, are a specific cut of meat from the chicken. There are two fillets in a chicken, and they are each a few inches long and about 1 inch or less wide. They lie under the main portion of the breast just above the ribcage around the center of the sternum. They are separated from the main breast by filament.\n",
"A belly cast is a three-dimensional plaster sculpture of a woman's pregnant abdomen as a keepsake of her pregnancy. It can also be known as a belly mask, pregnancy belly cast, a pregnant plaster cast, or prenatal cast.\n"
] |
how does amazon ec2 work?
|
Amazon EC2 is a service that allows you to rent servers and pay for what you use in an easy to use way.
With the amazon ec2 you do not pay for a server by the month though, you pay for it by the hour. So let me create a scenario for you:
Let's say you have a theory for the stock market that you want to test out. You've written some program to analyze historical data to see how accurate your theory has been throughout the stock markets history. The problem is there's a TON of data, and you only need to analyze it once to see if your theory will work. How do you do this?
Well, you could do it on your home computers, but it will probably take forever and what if your program makes requests to webpages each time it analyzes a price? Something like looking up how many news articles were released about that company on that specific day in history. That would kill your internet bandwith and probably get your internet suspended by your ISP if you tried to run all that at home.
So the next logical thinking is, I know, I'll get a dedicated server to process all this. You head over to rackspace and quickly realize that they want a year contract for servers, and it's going to be EXPENSIVE. Before cloud computing services like the ec2, these were your only options. You could either shell out a bunch of money to test your theory, or you could scale it way down, run it on your own computer, and not get a completely accurate picture.
NOW, with the amazon ec2, the way to solve this is to rent a server. Remember you pay by the hour, so if you rent a giant ec2 server with 16 cpu cores and 64 gb of ram, it wont take very long to analyze all that data will it? Maybe it would take 6 hours or so? Well, after those 6 hours, you can simply stop the server, and you will no longer be paying for it. Doing it this way makes it affordable (you pay to rent a giant server for a little while, instead of shelling out the money to buy it all month or all year) even for the little man.
There are numerous other benefits like easily making backups, changing network configurations instantly, and yes scalability (the problem i presented above is a scalability problem).
We use the ec2 and other AWS stuff heavily where I work, so if you have any questions feel free to ask.
|
[
"Amazon S3 or Amazon Simple Storage Service is a service offered by Amazon Web Services (AWS) that provides object storage through a web service interface. Amazon S3 uses the same scalable storage infrastructure that Amazon.com uses to run its global e-commerce network.\n",
"Amazon introduced SimpleDB, a database system, allowing users of its other infrastructure to utilize a high-reliability, high-performance database system. In 2008, Amazon graduated EC2 from beta to \"Generally Available\" and added support for the Microsoft Windows platform.\n",
"Also in 2006, Amazon introduced Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (Amazon EC2), a virtual site farm, allowing users to use the Amazon infrastructure to run applications ranging from running simulations to web hosting. In 2008, Amazon improved the service by adding Elastic Block Store (EBS), offering persistent storage for Amazon EC2 instances and Elastic IP addresses, and offering static IP addresses designed for dynamic cloud computing.\n",
"Amazon EBS provides a range of options for storage performance and cost. These options are divided into two major categories: SSD-backed storage for transactional workloads, such as databases and boot volumes (performance depends primarily on IOPS), and disk-backed storage for throughput intensive workloads, such as MapReduce and log processing (performance depends primarily on MB/s).\n",
"ecto is a commercial weblog client for Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows. It allows one to compose and store blog entries on the local desktop computer, then upload them to a weblog host. ecto interacts with popular server software such as Blogger, Movable Type, and WordPress, among others. The developer believes the additional flexibility of the desktop operating system allows the client to incorporate features lacking in web-based clients. For example, ecto incorporates spell checking, easy insertion of images, and text formatting. ecto employs the standard controls the operating system provides to all applications. It can also trackback to other blogs and add categories and tags to a blog entry. The Macintosh version integrates with iTunes and iPhoto. \n",
"Amazon Web Services (AWS) is a subsidiary of Amazon that provides on-demand cloud computing platforms to individuals, companies, and governments, on a metered pay-as-you-go basis. In aggregate, these cloud computing web services provide a set of primitive abstract technical infrastructure and distributed computing building blocks and tools. One of these services is Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud, which allows users to have at their disposal a virtual cluster of computers, available all the time, through the Internet. AWS's version of virtual computers emulate most of the attributes of a real computer including, hardware central processing units (CPUs) and graphics processing units (GPUs) for processing, local/RAM memory, hard-disk/SSD storage); a choice of operating systems; networking; and pre-loaded application software such as web servers, databases, customer relationship management (CRM), etc.\n",
"In 2002, the corporation started Amazon Web Services (AWS), which provided data on Web site popularity, Internet traffic patterns and other statistics for marketers and developers. In 2006, the organization grew its AWS portfolio when Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2), which rents computer processing power as well as Simple Storage Service (S3), that rents data storage via the Internet, were made available. That same year, the company started\" Fulfillment by Amazon \"which managed the inventory of individuals and small companies selling their belongings through the company internet site. In 2012, Amazon bought Kiva Systems to automate its inventory-management business, purchasing Whole Foods Market supermarket chain five years later in 2017.\n"
] |
is human brain at it's limits? and are there other stages of human brain development that will lead to us getting smarter.
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A helpful way to think about the brain is not as a something that reaches 'capacity'. Our brains are very efficient, so as we develop and grow we keep reinforcing the neural pathways that help us the most in life - i.e. how should I interpret someone shouting at me, or someone crying.
If you grow up with a lot of exposure to learning, you'll create very efficient pathways that make you very good at lets say math, or writing, or critical analysis. This means that by the time we reach adulthood, we have very established connections which act as a kind of 'cheat sheet' for interpreting external stimulation - we see something and the brain draws on past experience to make sense of it.
BUT what is very interesting is work being done on psychedelics right now. Essentially, under the influence of certain things in psychedelics our mind opens up and we can forge brand new neural connections much more easily - that is bits of the brain that weren't talking before can now talk to each other. This gives us new perspectives and insights and returns our mind to state like when we were young, that is when we were building our neural pathways.
So our brains are never at their limits because what they can build strong neural connections for are endless - they are just set in their ways.
|
[
"The development of the human brain, perception, cognition, memory and neuroplasticity are unsolved problems in neuroscience. Several megaprojects are being carried out in: American BRAIN Initiative, European Human Brain Project, China Brain Project, Blue Brain Project, Allen Brain Atlas, Human Connectome Project, Google Brain, - in attempt to better our understanding of the brain's functionality along with the intention to develop human cognitive performance in the future with artificial intelligence, informational, communication and cognitive technology.\n",
"The 10 percent of the brain myth is a widely perpetuated urban legend that most or all humans only use 10 percent (or some other small percentage) of their brains. It has been misattributed to many people, including Albert Einstein. By extrapolation, it is suggested that a person may harness this unused potential and increase intelligence.\n",
"BULLET::::18. Third Millennium Brain: The rewriting of the brain's potentials that started in the past still continues. “Braintech” is arising and will enhance humans even more. It is suggested that humans knowing that their origins lie in their brains, rather than ancient myth, will gain Brain Rights and enter a new Era—that of the Brain.\n",
"These concepts can be tied to the social brain hypothesis, mentioned above. This hypothesis posits that human cognitive complexity arose as a result of the higher level of social complexity required from living in enlarged groups. These bigger groups entail a greater amount of social relations and interactions thus leading to a expanded quantity of intelligence in humans. However, this hypothesis has been under academic scrutiny in recent years and has been largely disproven. In fact, the size of a species' brain can be much better predicted by diet instead of measures of sociality as noted by the study conducted by DeCasien et. al. They found that ecological factors (such as: folivory/frugivory, environment) explain a primate brain size much better than social factors (such as: group size, mating system).\n",
"Generally regarded as more capable of these higher order activities, the human brain is believed to be more \"intelligent\" in general than that of any other known species. While some non-human species are capable of creating structures and using simple tools—mostly through instinct and mimicry—human technology is vastly more complex, and is constantly evolving and improving through time.\n",
"The human brain is a highly complex system often dubbed a miniature universe. Its many mysteries have yet to be unveiled. The Brain Science Institute specializes in convergence research encompassing biology, chemistry, nanotechnology, information technology and computer engineering through which it aims to understand the neural mechanism responsible for controlling human behavior and to discover the clues to the tools for overcoming brain dysfunctions. The objective of the Brain Science Institute is to unravel the mysteries of the brain and thereby develop into the hub of the world's brain science research.\n",
"BULLET::::- The Limits of Intelligence: The laws of physics may well prevent the human brain from evolving into an ever more powerful thinking machine by Douglas Fox in \"Scientific American\", June 14, 2011.\n"
] |
Does WiFi have any detrimental effects?
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While it's prudent to repeat the experiment, there's nothing that is known so far (as in, reviewed and shown to be repeatable) that would indicate negative effects of Wi-Fi. The most serious detrimental effect of Wi-Fi is the rage it induces when the connection is too weak for whatever you're doing.
|
[
"The position of the United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency (HPA) is that “...radio frequency (RF) exposures from WiFi are likely to be lower than those from mobile phones.” It also saw “...no reason why schools and others should not use WiFi equipment.” In October 2007, the HPA launched a new “systematic” study into the effects of WiFi networks on behalf of the UK government, in order to calm fears that had appeared in the media in a recent period up to that time\". Dr Michael Clark, of the HPA, says published research on mobile phones and masts does not add up to an indictment of WiFi.\n",
"Addiction may be a problem (possibly more with touch-devices). There can also be objection against possible effect of exposure to radiation from the screens and WiFi. As stated under advantages there is no general consensus on the scientific evidence on efficacy. In a field as new as 1:1 with the technology used having undergone major changes it may take time for clear patterns to emerge and be agreed on.\n",
"Interference caused by a Wi-Fi network to its neighbors can be reduced by adding more base stations to that network. Every Wi-Fi standard provides for automatic adjustment of the data rate to channel conditions; poor links (usually those spanning greater distances) automatically operate at lower speeds. Deploying additional base stations around the coverage area of a network, particularly in existing areas of poor or no coverage, reduces the average distance between a wireless device and its nearest access point and increases the average speed. The same amount of data takes less time to send, reduces channel occupancy, and gives more idle time to neighboring networks, improving the performance of all networks concerned.\n",
"In a question-and-answer session, Stein voiced concern about wireless internet (Wi-Fi) in schools, saying, \"We should not be subjecting kids' brains especially to that ... and we don't follow this issue in our country, but in Europe, where they do, you know, they have good precautions about wireless. Maybe not good enough, you know. It's very hard to study this stuff. You know, we make guinea pigs out of whole populations and then we discover how many die.\" According to the World Health Organization (WHO), \"no adverse health effects are expected from exposure to [Wi-Fi]\". Stein later said, \"take precautions about how much we expose young children to WiFi and cellphones until we know more about the long-term health effects of this type of low-level radiation.\" In an interview with the \"Los Angeles Times\" editorial board, Stein clarified that her statements on Wi-Fi were \"not a policy statement\" and that attention to her statement on Wi-Fi was \"a sign of a gotcha political system\".\n",
"The World Health Organization investigated this issue due to persistent public misconceptions about it. They released a report on Electromagnetic fields and public health and their effects on health. Their conclusive findings showed that signal from wireless towers did no harm to health and the common radio signal was 5 times stronger.\n",
"In 2011, May Tweeted a flurry of warnings about the possible dangers of WiFi using her cellphone. May's comments that the use of WiFi might be related to the \"disappearance of pollinating insects\" and writing that WiFi was a \"possible human carcinogen\" fueled attacks over the scientific soundness of her views. \"It is very disturbing how quickly Wi-Fi has moved into schools as it is children who are the most vulnerable\", she wrote.\n",
"The HPA's position is that “...radio frequency (RF) exposures from WiFi are likely to be lower than those from mobile phones.” It also saw “...no reason why schools and others should not use WiFi equipment.” In October 2007, the HPA launched a new “systematic” study into the effects of WiFi networks on behalf of the UK government, in order to calm fears that had appeared in the media in a recent period up to that time\". Dr Michael Clark, of the HPA, says published research on mobile phones and masts does not add up to an indictment of WiFi.\n"
] |
why do governments, schools, and big businesses (mostly) always use hp printers?
|
So they? All I ever see is RICOH
|
[
"HP produces lines of printers, scanners, digital cameras, calculators, PDAs, servers, workstation computers, and computers for home and small-business use; many of the computers came from the 2002 merger with Compaq. HP promotes itself as supplying not just hardware and software, but also a full range of services to design, implement, and support IT infrastructure.\n",
"HP Inc. targets their line of business desktop computers for use in the corporate, government and education markets. HP operate their business desktops on minimum 12-month product cycle and directly compete with Dell Optiplex, Acer Veriton and Lenovo ThinkCentre.\n",
"HP Inc. (also known as HP and stylized as hp) is an American multinational information technology company headquartered in Palo Alto, California, United States. It develops personal computers (PCs), printers and related supplies, as well as 3D printing solutions.\n",
"In 2016, HP announced a focus on users who upgrade their computers frequently and spend more money on games and released the game-centric Omen brand of laptops and desktops targeted at mid-range customers.\n",
"HP is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the S&P 500 Index. It is the world's largest personal computer vendor by unit sales, having regained its position in 2017 since it was overtaken by Lenovo in 2013. HP ranked No. 58 in the 2018 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.\n",
"The HP programmables and others have an IrDA interface which allows them to interface with the printers specially designed for the calculators, HP's main lines of laser printers, computers, other calculators, and other devices.\n",
"The company was founded in a one-car garage in Palo Alto by Bill Hewlett and David Packard, and initially produced a line of electronic test equipment. HP was the world's leading PC manufacturer from 2007 to Q2 2013, at which time Lenovo ranked ahead of HP. HP specialized in developing and manufacturing computing, data storage, and networking hardware, designing software and delivering services. Major product lines included personal computing devices, enterprise and industry standard servers, related storage devices, networking products, software and a diverse range of printers and other imaging products. HP directly marketed its products to households, small- to medium-sized businesses and enterprises as well as via online distribution, consumer-electronics and office-supply retailers, software partners and major technology vendors. HP also had services and consulting business around its products and partner products.\n"
] |
if shadows are the absence of light, why do you get different coloured shadows with different light sources?
|
A shadow is generally not the total absence of light. It is simply an area where there is less light because a light source has been blocked by something opaque.
|
[
"If there is more than one light source, there will be several shadows, with the overlapping parts darker, and various combinations of brightnesses or even colors. The more diffuse the lighting is, the softer and more indistinct the shadow outlines become, until they disappear. The lighting of an overcast sky produces few visible shadows.\n",
"Hard light sources cast shadows whose appearance of the shadow depends on the lighting instrument. For example, fresnel lights can be focused such that their shadows can be \"cut\" with crisp shadows. That is, the shadows produced will have 'harder' edges with less transition between illumination and shadow. The focused light will produce harder-edged shadows. Focusing a fresnel makes the rays of emitted light more parallel. The parallelism of these rays determines the quality of the shadows. For shadows with no transitional edge/gradient, a point light source is required. Hard light casts strong, well defined shadows.\n",
"A point source of light casts only a simple shadow, called an \"umbra\". For a non-point or \"extended\" source of light, the shadow is divided into the umbra, penumbra and antumbra. The wider the light source, the more blurred the shadow becomes. If two penumbras overlap, the shadows appear to attract and merge. This is known as the Shadow blister effect.\n",
"Shades grow more powerful in areas of darkness or shadows, including the ability to leap from shadow to shadow, to create shadowy duplicates of themselves, and even become entirely invisible. They can also decrease the amount of light in an area, and can see through darkness, even of the magical variety.\n",
"When light falls from above on a uniformly coloured three-dimensional object such as a sphere, it makes the upper side appear lighter and the underside darker, grading from one to the other. This pattern of light and shade makes the object appear solid, and therefore easier to detect. The classical form of countershading, discovered in 1909 by the artist Abbott Handerson Thayer, works by counterbalancing the effects of self-shadowing, again typically with grading from dark to light. In theory this could be useful for military camouflage, but in practice it has rarely been applied, despite the best efforts of Thayer and, later, in the Second World War, of the zoologist Hugh Cott.\n",
"Shadows are cast through fog in three dimensions. The fog is dense enough to be illuminated by light that passes through gaps in a structure or tree, but thin enough to let a large quantity of that light pass through to illuminate points further on. As a result, object shadows appear as \"beams\" oriented in a direction parallel to the light source. These voluminous shadows are created the same way as crepuscular rays, which are the shadows of clouds. In fog, it is solid objects that cast shadows.\n",
"A shadow is a dark (real image) area where light from a light source is blocked by an opaque object. It occupies all of the three-dimensional volume behind an object with light in front of it. The cross section of a shadow is a two-dimensional silhouette, or a reverse projection of the object blocking the light.\n"
] |
Is the black hole of our galaxy, rotating around something else?
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The galaxy rotates around itself. All the stars are being pulled by all the other stars, which tends to mean they are revolving around the center of mass - the barycenter.
Sagittarius A\* happens to be at the center (well, near it), but the Sun doesn't orbit it. It isn't nearly massive enough.
|
[
"If the black hole is rotating, there is a second radius of influence associated with the rotation. This is the radius inside of which the Lense-Thirring torques from the black hole are larger than the Newtonian torques between stars. Inside the rotational influence sphere, stellar orbits precess at approximately the Lense-Thirring rate; while outside this sphere, orbits evolve predominantly in response to perturbations from stars on other orbits. Assuming that the Milky Way black hole is maximally rotating, its rotational influence radius is about 0.001 parsec, while its radius of gravitational influence is about 3 parsecs.\n",
"They then realised that the black holes must have something to do with a galaxy's formation, so they turned to something they thought was useless: the speed of the stars around the edge of the galaxy. This is sigma, the speed of the stars at the edge of the galaxy supposedly unaffected by the mass of the black hole at the centre.\n",
"In the centre of the galaxy are two tiny, S-shaped symmetric jets. These two flows of material travel outwards from the galactic centre along curved paths, and are masked by the tangle of dark dust lanes that spans the body of the galaxy. These jets are a sign of a very active centre, where lies a supermassive black hole. This speeds up and sucks in gas from the nearby space, creating a stream of material swirling inwards towards the black hole known as an accretion disc. This disk throws off material in very energetic outbursts, creating structures like the jets.\n",
"From concepts drawn from rotating black holes, it is shown that a singularity, spinning rapidly, can become a ring-shaped object. This results in two event horizons, as well as an ergosphere, which draw closer together as the spin of the singularity increases. When the outer and inner event horizons merge, they shrink toward the rotating singularity and eventually expose it to the rest of the universe.\n",
"In the case of stars orbiting close to a spinning, supermassive black hole, frame dragging should cause the star's orbital plane to precess about the black hole spin axis. This effect should be detectable within the next few years via astrometric monitoring of stars at the center of the Milky Way galaxy.\n",
"The inner nucleus of this galaxy displays a rise in stellar orbital motion that indicates the presence of a central dark mass. The best fit model for the motion of molecular gas in the core region suggests there is a supermassive black hole with about (450 million) times the mass of the Sun. This is the first object to have its black-hole mass estimated by measuring the rotation of gas molecules around its centre with an Astronomical interferometer (in this case the Combined Array for Research in Millimeter-wave Astronomy).\n",
"In the 1990s, a research group led by John Kormendy demonstrated that a supermassive black hole is present within the Sombrero Galaxy. Using spectroscopy data from both the CFHT and the Hubble Space Telescope, the group showed that the speed of revolution of the stars within the center of the galaxy could not be maintained unless a mass 1 billion times the mass of the Sun, or , is present in the center. This is among the most massive black holes measured in any nearby galaxies.\n"
] |
Could we send a spacecraft to LEO using solar sails?
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Solar sails provide a very small but consistent force. For a 100 square meter sail, the force is about 0.0005 Newtons. In space, that will provide a small acceleration, which over long times will give it appreciable speed. On Earth, however, there is the 10000+ Newton force of gravity keeping it down. 0.0005 won't do much.
|
[
"Unlike conventional chemical rockets which use Newton's third law of motion, solar sails take advantage of radiation pressure from stars. Kaku believes that after sending a gigantic solar sail into orbit, one could install lasers on the moon, which would hit the sail and give it extra momentum.\n",
"Until 2010, no solar sails had been successfully used in space as primary propulsion systems. On 21 May 2010, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) launched the IKAROS (Interplanetary Kite-craft Accelerated by Radiation Of the Sun) spacecraft, which deployed a 200 m polyimide experimental solar sail on June 10. In July, the next phase for the demonstration of acceleration by radiation began. On 9 July 2010, it was verified that IKAROS collected radiation from the Sun and began photon acceleration by the orbit determination of IKAROS by range-and-range-rate (RARR) that is newly calculated in addition to the data of the relativization accelerating speed of IKAROS between IKAROS and the Earth that has been taken since before the Doppler effect was utilized. The data showed that IKAROS appears to have been solar-sailing since 3 June when it deployed the sail.\n",
"The solar sail craft could also have been used to measure the effect of artificial microwaves aimed at it from a radar installation. A 70 m dish at the Goldstone facility of NASA's Deep Space Network would have been used to irradiate the sail with a 450 kW beam. This experiment in beam-powered propulsion would only have been attempted after the prime mission objective of controlled solar sail flight was achieved.\n",
"Robert L. Forward has commented that a solar sail could be used to modify the orbit of a satellite about the Earth. In the limit, a sail could be used to \"hover\" a satellite above one pole of the Earth. Spacecraft fitted with solar sails could also be placed in close orbits such that they are stationary with respect to either the Sun or the Earth, a type of satellite named by Forward a \"statite\". This is possible because the propulsion provided by the sail offsets the gravitational attraction of the Sun. Such an orbit could be useful for studying the properties of the Sun for long durations. Likewise a solar sail-equipped spacecraft could also remain on station nearly above the polar solar terminator of a planet such as the Earth by tilting the sail at the appropriate angle needed to counteract the planet's gravity.\n",
"Solar sails can travel to and from all of the inner planets. Trips to Mercury and Venus are for rendezvous and orbit entry for the payload. Trips to Mars could be either for rendezvous or swing-by with release of the payload for aerodynamic braking.\n",
"Currently, the only spacecraft to use a solar sail as the main method of propulsion is IKAROS which was launched by JAXA on May 21, 2010. It has since been successfully deployed, and shown to be producing acceleration as expected. Many ordinary spacecraft and satellites also use solar collectors, temperature-control panels and Sun shades as light sails, to make minor corrections to their attitude and orbit without using fuel. A few have even had small purpose-built solar sails for this use (for example Eurostar E3000 geostationary communications satellites built by EADS Astrium).\n",
"It had been long theorized that solar sails could reflect photons streaming from the sun and convert some of the energy into thrust. The resulting thrust, though small, is continuous and acts for the life of the mission without the need for propellant. In 2003, LGarde, together with partners JPL, Ball Aerospace, and Langley Research Center, under the direction of NASA, developed a solar sail configuration that utilized inflatable rigidized boom components to achieve 10,000 m sailcraft with a real density of 14.1 g/m and potential acceleration of 0.58 mm/s. The entire configuration released by the upper stage has a mass of 232.9 kg and required just 1.7 m of volume in the booster. Additional advancement of the solar sail project came as LGarde engineers improved “sailcraft” coordinate systems and proposed a standard to report propulsion performance.\n"
] |
why is there a stigma with google glass?
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As with all emerging technology it's paranoia and fear. We've had cameras that you can't even see with the naked eye that can take decent pictures/video for a while now. We've had hidden camera tech going back decades that's gotten even easier to conceal and hide.
The thing is: No one gives a shit about you enough to record you. This is hard for some people to accept but it's the truth of things. There's plenty of already semi-discreet ways to take pictures/record someone with your phone without them suspecting anything.
And sure, some people do. But Google Glass isn't really changing anything that wasn't already quite possible and easy to accomplish anyway. If you don't like being recorded in public, stay home.
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[
"Additionally, there is controversy that Google Glass would cause security problems and violate privacy rights. Organizations like the FTC Fair Information Practice work to uphold privacy rights through Fair Information Practice Principles (FIPPS), which are guidelines representing concepts that concern fair information practice in an electronic marketplace.\n",
"Other concerns have been raised regarding legality of Google Glass in a number of countries, particularly in Russia, Ukraine, and other post-USSR countries. In February 2013, a Google+ user noticed legal issues with Google Glass and posted in the Google Glass community about the issues, stating that the device may be illegal to use according to the current legislation in Russia and Ukraine, which prohibits use of spy gadgets that can record video, audio or take photographs in an inconspicuous manner. Concerns were also raised in regard to the privacy and security of Google Glass users in the event that the device is stolen or lost, an issue that was raised by a US congressional committee. As part of its response to the governmental committee, Google stated in early July that is working on a locking system and raised awareness of the ability of users to remotely reset Google Glass from the web interface in the event of loss. Several facilities have banned the use of Google Glass before its release to the general public, citing concerns over potential privacy-violating capabilities. Other facilities, such as Las Vegas casinos, banned Google Glass, citing their desire to comply with Nevada state law and common gaming regulations which ban the use of recording devices near gambling areas.\n",
"Several facilities have banned the use of Google Glass before its release to the general public, citing concerns over potential privacy-violating capabilities. Other facilities, such as Las Vegas casinos, banned Google Glass, citing their desire to comply with Nevada state law and common gaming regulations which ban the use of recording devices near gambling areas. On October 29, 2014, the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) and the National Association of Theatre Owners (NATO) announced a ban on wearable technology including Google Glass, placing it under the same rules as mobile phones and video cameras.\n",
"Google Glass is a brand of smart glasses—an optical head-mounted display designed in the shape of a pair of eyeglasses. It was developed by X (previously Google X) with the mission of producing a ubiquitous computer. Google Glass displayed information in a smartphone-like, hands-free format. Wearers communicated with the Internet via natural language voice commands.\n",
"Google Glass applications are free applications built by third-party developers. Glass also uses many existing Google applications, such as Google Now, Google Maps, Google+, and Gmail. Many developers and companies have built applications for Glass, including news apps, facial recognition, exercise, photo manipulation, translation, and sharing to social networks, such as Facebook and Twitter. Third-party applications announced at South by Southwest (SXSW) include Evernote, Skitch, \"The New York Times\", and Path.\n",
"In November 2012, Google Glass received recognition by \"Time\" Magazine as one of the \"Best Inventions of the Year 2012\", alongside inventions such as the Curiosity Rover. After a visit to the University of Cambridge by Google's chairman Eric Schmidt in February 2013, Wolfson College professor John Naughton praised the Google Glass and compared it with the achievements of hardware and networking pioneer Douglas Engelbart. Naughton wrote that Engelbart believed that machines \"should do what machines do best, thereby freeing up humans to do what \"they\" do best\". Lisa A. Goldstein, a freelance journalist who was born profoundly deaf, tested the product on behalf of people with disabilities and published a review on August 6, 2013. In her review, Goldstein states that Google Glass does not accommodate hearing aids and is not suitable for people who cannot understand speech. Goldstein also explained the limited options for customer support, as telephone contact was her only means of communication.\n",
"Concerns have been raised by various sources regarding the intrusion of privacy, and the etiquette and ethics of using the device in public and recording people without their permission. Google co-founder, Sergey Brin, claims that Glass could be seen as a way to become even more isolated in public, but the intent was quite the opposite: Brin views checking social media as a constant \"nervous tic,\" which is why Glass can notify the user of important notifications and updates and does not obstruct the line of sight.\n"
] |
What different tactics were developed by both the French and Germans to assault enemy trenches?
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Towards the beginning of the war, the French and Germans utilized very similar tactics on the offense. This would involve extremely long preparatory bombardments (lasting days, or even weeks, and firing millions of shells) at enemy positions. The idea was, the bombardment would destroy emplacements, ruin trench networks, and break up wire obstacles. Gas shells (which the Germans pioneered) and Livens projectors (which were actually more like holes in the ground with gas canisters which were opened at the right moment time) would be used during the final minutes of the attack to force the defends to stay in their trenches (or, by the defender, to disrupt the impending attack). As the bombardment began to fade, the attackers would come out of their trenches and cross no-mans land. Ideally, the defenders would be so broken from the bombardment that the infantry could quickly cross and size the first trench line. Then follow up bombardments would allow the attackers to continue until the had broken through the trench network, where Cavalry would exploit the the victory and win the war!
Problem was, the defenders were rarely broken by the bombardments and gas attacks. Frequently, the bombardments would only serve to ruin the battlefield and make the crossing *more* difficult. And the Germans became particularly efficient at creating deep dugouts which were difficult to collapse. The defenders could sit for days underground before the bombardment would stop, and the defenses would be remanned. In these conditions, the infantry attack would be brutalized before it gained much ground. Some improvements, like the Creeping Barrage (which was used by all sides) helped, but not much.
But in the French army, these problems were all exacerbated by their concept of *elan*. It roughly means dash or eagerness bordering on zealotry. French troops were expected to attack aggressively, push the enemy hard, and overwhelm them in close combat. Thus, the bayonet was an integral weapon for the French.
Later in the war, the French and Germans began to differ in tactics. The French invested heavily in tanks, which they employed with mixed success. After a shorter bombardment, the tanks would advance against German strong points and absorb their fire. The infantry would advance behind these tanks, support them in bad ground, and secure the success that they achieved. But in practice this almost never happened. Heinz Guderian's *Achtung Panzer* goes into detail with French tank tactics, their success, and their critical failures. He argues that the French attacks failed in two major areas: Concentration and support. They failed to employ enough tanks to penetrate the German lines reliably, which ruined their element of surprise, as well as allowed the Germans to concentrate fire on fewer targets. Further, where tanks were successful, Infantry rarely supported them to secure their success. For one reason or another, tanks were often forced to operate without help. This meant they were vulnerable, and isolated if they ran into mechanical trouble (which many did)
On the other hand, the Germans imported a tactical concept that they first experienced in the East. The German name for it was *Hutier* tactics, and it was a radical departure from the older forms attack. The *Hutier* attack first called on a powerful but short artillery barrage called a Hurricane Bombardment. The issue (as one might expect) with the long bombardments was that they telegraphed the location and timing of an attack. If somebody was willing to burn 1million shells in a sector, it was pretty obvious they were up to something. With the Hurricane Bombardment, the attackers focused more on an extremely heavy, but very short, bombardment. During this bombardment, stormtroopers would already begin crossing no-mans land. They would operate in small teams, and were armed with grenades, flame throwers, and other close combat weapons. When the bombardment ended, the stormtroopers would leap up and immediately attack the defender while they were leaving their dugouts. The hope was, the enemy would be completely overwhelmed by the storm troopers in the transition, and the first line of trenches would be rapidly secured. Obviously this didnt work in *every* place, but where it did, the stormtroopers were quickly reinforced by the regular infantry, who didnt have to contend with heavy resistance. Meanwhile, the artillery was already beginning a bombardment of the secondary trench lines. Not only would that prevent any major reinforcements, but it would serve as a jumping off point for the *next* assault. So the Germans could quickly overwhelm several positions, and the *Hutier* tactic brought the Germans as close to the fabled breakthrough as they would ever get.
As for your last question, I would direct you to the [Mutiny of the French Army](_URL_0_). I dont have time to elaborate more, but if you have questions, ask away.
|
[
"The popular image of a trench assault is of a wave of soldiers, bayonets fixed, going \"over the top\" and marching in a line across no man's land into a hail of enemy fire. This was the standard method early in the war; it was rarely successful. More common was an attack at night from an advanced post in no man's land, having cut the barbed wire beforehand. In 1915, the Germans innovated with infiltration tactics where small groups of highly trained and well-equipped troops would attack vulnerable points and bypass strong points, driving deep into the rear areas. The distance they could advance was still limited by their ability to supply and communicate.\n",
"British and French trenches were penetrated using novel infiltration tactics, also named \"Hutier\" tactics after General Oskar von Hutier, by specially trained units called stormtroopers. Previously, attacks had been characterised by long artillery bombardments and massed assaults. In the Spring Offensive of 1918, however, Ludendorff used artillery only briefly and infiltrated small groups of infantry at weak points. They attacked command and logistics areas and bypassed points of serious resistance. More heavily armed infantry then destroyed these isolated positions. This German success relied greatly on the element of surprise.\n",
"An improvement was the \"creeping barrage\" in which artillery fire is laid immediately in front of advancing infantry to clear any enemy in their way. This played an important part in later battles such as the Battle of Arras (1917), of which Vimy Ridge was a part. The tactic required close coordination in an era before widespread use of radio, and when laying telephone wire under fire was extremely hazardous. In response, the Germans devised the \"elastic defence\" and used \"infiltration tactics\" in which shock troops quietly infiltrated the enemy's forward trenches, without the heavy bombardment that gave advance warning of an imminent attack. The French and British/Dominion Armies were also engaged in evolving similar infantry tactics. The Allies introduced the tank to overcome the deadlock of static positions but mechanical unreliability prevented them from doing so.\n",
"In the first part of the war, the standard assault on a trench line consisted of a lengthy artillery barrage all along the line, attempting to smash the enemy positions, followed by a rush forward of infantry in massed lines to overwhelm any remaining defenders. This process either failed, or at most gained only a short distance, while incurring enormous casualties, and the armies settled into trench warfare.\n",
"Allied versions of infiltration tactics were first formally proposed by French Army captain André Laffargue. In 1915 Laffargue published a pamphlet, \"The attack in trench warfare\", based upon his experiences in combat that same year. He advocated that the first wave of an attack identify hard-to-defeat defenses but not attack them; subsequent waves would do this. The French published his pamphlet \"for information\", but did not implement it. The British Empire armies did not translate the pamphlet, and the British Army continued to emphasise fire power, although Laffargue's proposals were gradually adopted informally, first by the Canadian Corps. The U.S. \"Infantry Journal\" published a translation in 1916.\n",
"German defensive tactics had been based on the publication of 1906 (Drill Regulations for the Infantry), which expected defensive warfare to be short periods between offensives. On the Somme front, the construction plan ordered by Falkenhayn in January 1915 had been completed. Barbed wire obstacles had been enlarged from one belt wide to two, wide and about apart. Double and triple thickness wire was used and laid high. The front line had been increased from one line to three, apart, the first trench (, \"battle trench\") occupied by sentry groups, the second (, \"living trench\") for the front-trench garrison and the third trench for local reserves. The trenches were traversed and had sentry-posts in concrete recesses built into the parapet. Dug-outs had been deepened from to , apart and large enough for An intermediate line of strong points () about behind the front line had also been built.\n",
"Skirmishers in the Napoleonic War would often work in teams of two, ranging ahead of the main group and providing covering fire for each other. During World War I, trench warfare resulted in a stalemate on the Western Front. In order to combat this stalemate, the Germans developed a doctrinal innovation known as infiltration tactics (based on the Russian tactics used in the Brusilov Offensive), in which a brief intensive artillery preparation would be followed by small, autonomous teams of stormtroopers, who would covertly penetrate defensive lines. The Germans used their stormtroopers organised into squads at the lowest levels to provide a cohesive strike force in breaking through Allied lines. The British and Canadian troops on the Western Front started dividing platoons into sections after the Battle of the Somme in 1916. (This idea was later further developed in World War II). French Chasseur units in WWI were organised into fireteams, equipped with a light machine gun (Chauchat) team and grenades, to destroy German fire positions by fire (not assault) at up to 200 meters using rifle grenades. The light machine gun team would put suppressive fire on the enemy position, while the grenadier team moved to a position where the enemy embrasure could be attacked with grenades. The Chasseur tactics were proven during the Petain Offensive of 1917. Survivors of these French Chasseur units taught these tactics to American infantry, who used them with effectiveness at St. Mihiel and the Argonne. It was typical of a fireteam in this era to consist of four infantrymen: two assaulters with carbines, one grenadier, and one sapper.\n"
] |
When did mortgages start to be sold regularly?
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In _The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World_ by Niall Ferguson, he discusses (among many other things) the history of debt instruments. The truth is, the buying and selling of debt obligations has been around almost as long as debt obligations themselves.
Specifically, you may be referring to the changing of hands of the *servicing rights* of the mortgage. I have to delve a bit into current events here, but when you get a mortgage today (and this has largely remained unchanged since the sub-prime crisis of a few years ago), the mortgage itself is likely to be sold only once and only once - probably to Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, or Ginnie Mae, depending on the type of loan, but sometimes to private companies (although not nearly as much since the real estate bubble popped). Then, the cashflow from hundreds or thousands of loans is sold to investors in the form of bonds. The company that actually accepts your monthly payment (say, Wells Fargo or Bank of America) does not own the loan. They accept a servicing fee each month to pay for their expenses in servicing the loan (I've seen between 0% and 1.25% of outstanding principal as a servicing fee), and pass the rest of the payment onto the trustee which administers the bond. It is not uncommon for the servicing rights to change hands during the life of the loan, and was quite common during the real estate boom in the US in the previous decade.
Away from current events now, and back to history.
Modern securitization as described above is a system that came about with the chartering of Freddie Mac in 1970, and the creation of the first residential mortgage backed security (RMBS) by the US Dept of Housing and Urban Development. But securitization of mortgages had been around since the mid 1800s. It's easier for a small local bank to loan out money when they can sell their mortgages immediately on the secondary market, rather than have their money tied up for many years. However, and getting to your question, even when the mortgage itself was sold, the mortgagor (usually a farmer) still made payments to the same bank that originally made the loan. It was not until the Great Depression and the creation of Fannie Mae that the secondary market included government sponsored enterprises (GSE). Before that, it was large, usually East Coast, banks that bought mortgages on the secondary market.
So I guess the answer to your question would be around 1970, with the creation of the first government sponsored RMBS, and then the late 80s, with the creation of the first private label RMBS. The RMBS structure allows Bank A to make a loan, Bank B to buy and repackage the loan, and Bank C to service the loan, potentially removing the originating bank (Bank A) from the equation before the first payment is even made (in all three cases, I am using the term "bank" loosely, because these are very different kinds of banks). In previous forms of securitization (the ones going back to the 1800s), the originating bank was either the owner of the mortgage, or at least retained the servicing after they sold it (otherwise, they wouldn't have gone to the trouble of originating it).
Besides the above book, my source for the second paragraph, where I discuss modern mortgage servicing, is that I've been in the industry for 10 years, including some very interesting front row seats working as an RMBS securities analyst from 2007-2009. I hope that's ok, and that I answered your question.
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[
"The earliest mortgages were not offered by banks, but by insurance companies, and they differed greatly from the mortgage or home loan that is familiar today. Most early mortgages were short with some kind of balloon payment at the end of the term, or they were interest-only loans which did not pay anything toward the principal of the loan with each payment. As such, many people were either perpetually in debt in a continuous cycle of refinancing their home purchase, or they lost their home through foreclosure when they were unable to make the balloon payment at the end of the term of that loan.\n",
"Mortgage lending standards declined during the boom and complex, risky mortgage offerings were made to consumers that arguably did not understand them. At the height of the bubble in 2005, the median down payment for first-time home buyers was 2%, with 43% of those buyers making no down payment whatsoever. An estimated one-third of adjustable rate mortgages originated between 2004 and 2006 had \"teaser\" rates below 4%, which then increased significantly after some initial period, as much as doubling the monthly payment.\n",
"Among the early examples of mortgage-backed securities in the United States were the farm railroad mortgage bonds of the mid-19th century which may have contributed to the panic of 1857. There was also an extensive commercial MBS market in the 1920s.\n",
"Sears began offering financing plans around 1912. Early mortgage loans were typically for 5 – 15 years at 6% – 7% interest. Sales peaked in 1929, just before the Great Depression. While financing through Sears helped many homeowners purchase homes, the Great Depression led to rising payment defaults, resulting in increasing strain on the Modern Homes program. By 1934, Sears had stopped offering mortgages after the company was forced to liquidate $11 million in defaulted debt. Sears stopped selling homes for a short time in 1934 before restarting sales. Sales slowly recovered as the United States emerged from the Great Depression.\n",
"Between 1862 and 1867, 40 per cent of the amount of the loans was granted against pawned items and the remaining 60 per cent was secured by stock. Diversification continued and by the outbreak of World War I, Spanish savings banks were readily issuing mortgages directly to retail customers. The Mortgage Act of 4 June 1908 contributed to the development of this phenomenon as it pioneered exemption from having to pay different forms of capital gains and corporation’s tax for mortgages issued by the Mount of Piety.\n",
"The origins of modern residential mortgage-backed securities can be traced back to the Government National Mortgage Association (Ginnie Mae), although variations on mortgage securitization existed in the U.S. in the late 1800s and early 1900s. In 1968, Ginnie Mae was the first to issue a new type of government-backed bond, known as the residential mortgage-backed security. This bond took a number of home loans, pooled the monthly principal and interest payments and then used the monthly cash flows as backing for the bond(s). The principal of these mortgages was guaranteed by Ginnie Mae, but not the risk that borrowers pay off the principal balance early or opt to refinance the loan, a set of possible future outcomes known as \"prepayment risk.\" Selling pools of mortgages in this way allowed Ginnie Mae to acquire new funds with which to buy additional home loans from mortgage brokers which furthered the agency's Congressionally mandated mission to \"expand affordable housing\". Because banks and other mortgage originators could sell their mortgages in an RMBS, they used the proceeds to make new mortgage loans.\n",
"During the resulting stagflation of the 1980s, the Mortgage Bank increasingly became the prime source of not only mortgages, but of construction financing, as well, and directly funded the completion of over 15,000 homes a year (roughly half the average annual rate of private sector housing starts during that difficult decade). This practice, however, required growing subsidies from the Central Bank (over US$400 million annually), and during the era of financial liberalization advanced by President Carlos Menem from 1989 onwards, this support was reduced. The National Mortgage Bank became a secondary player in the small, domestic mortgage market. Ultimately, the bank, which remained smaller, commercial and profitable up to that date, was privatized in 1997.\n"
] |
Was Jesus trying to reform the Jewish faith as opposed to trying to begin a new religion?
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From the New Testament gospels, we can find a portrait of a Jesus wherein he certainly considered himself to be operating within "Judaism." I mean, there are any number of phrases we could select to show this (for a particularly 'conservative' one, try "Do not think that I have come to abolish the law or the prophets; I have come not to abolish but to fulfill. For truly I tell you, until heaven and earth pass away, not one letter, not one stroke of a letter, will pass from the law until all is accomplished," in Mt 5:17-18).
Scholars debate the so-called "parting of the ways" between Judaism and Christianity; but virtually everything about this is mired in ambiguity. It's probably most useful to talk about the parting of the ways in terms of when separate groups (like some of the figureheads in Rabbinic Judaism) would consider other groups to be "illegitimate," and would attempt to exclude them from their sphere of influence and various normative social practices, etc. Certainly, in the New Testament gospels, words are placed in the mouth of Jesus that were deemed heretical--beyond the pale of "minimal"/normative Jewish belief--both by Jewish figures *within* the gospels, and without (and this obviously continues up to the modern day, among Jews). But, in a sense, the ideology behind this was probably thought to be a *corrupt* form of Judaism, rather than a totally separate ideology.
There were certainly anti-Judaic trends that developed among early Christian theologians--one of the great ironies of history. I mean, although there's an obvious sense in which this is ridiculous, you have some sayings by Paul (and others) that on the surface seem to be diametrically opposed to those positive statements made about the Law by Jesus (like the quote from Mt 5:17-18 earlier). And then you have things like [1 Thessalonians 2:14-16](_URL_0_), which was fodder for anti-Judaism.)
____
Addendum: there is a phenomenally difficult crux underlying everything here (and, really, underlying *many* issues of religion, identity, etc.): who is the person who gets to decide who is or is not a Jew (or a Christian, or a “liberal,” or whatever)? Do we look for a "normative" body of belief and practices, find all of those who conform to these, and then exclude all others? Or are the claims of the (supposed) "outsiders," that there are in fact really *insiders* (just as much as any other person), enough to establish their insideness, in-and-of-themselves?
Is Islam the "perfected" Abrahamic religion, over against Judaism and Christianity? Are Mormons/LDS "Christians" just as much as anyone else is?
The ambiguities of insider/outsider identity in regard to Judaism/Christianity are probably no more tangible than at the beginning of the 9th chapter of Paul's epistle to the Romans:
> For I could wish that I myself were accursed and cut off from Christ for the sake of my own people, my kindred according to the flesh. 4 They are Israelites, and to them belong the adoption, the glory, the covenants, the giving of the law, the worship, and the promises; 5 to them belong the patriarchs, and from them, according to the flesh, comes the Messiah, who is over all, God blessed forever. Amen. 6 It is not as though the word of God had failed. *For not all Israelites truly belong to Israel*, 7 and not all of Abraham's children are his true descendants; but "It is through Isaac that descendants shall be named for you." 8 This means that it is not the children of the flesh who are the children of God, but the children of the promise are counted as descendants.
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[
"After Auschwitz the Christian churches no longer wish to convert the Jews. While they may not be sure of the theological grounds that dispense them from this mission, the churches have become aware that asking the Jews to become Christians is a spiritual way of blotting them out of existence and thus only reinforces the effects of the Holocaust.\n",
"The 16th-century Jewish theologian Isaac ben Abraham, who lived in Trakai, Lithuania, penned a work called \"Chizzuk Emunah\" (\"Faith Strengthened\") that attempted to refute the ideas that Jesus was the Messiah prophesied in the Old Testament and that Christianity was the \"New Covenant\" of God. He systematically identified a number of inconsistencies in the New Testament, contradictions between the New Testament and the Old Testament, and Old Testament prophesies which remained unfulfilled in Jesus' lifetime. In addition, he questioned a number of Christian practices, such as Sunday Sabbath. Written originally for Jews to persuade them not to convert to Christianity, the work was eventually read by Christians. While the well-known Christian Hebraist Johann Christoph Wagenseil attempted an elaborate refutation of Abraham's arguments, Wagenseil's Latin translation of it only increased interest in the work and inspired later Christian freethinkers. \"Chizzuk Emunah\" was praised as a masterpiece by Voltaire.\n",
"The Jewish religious leaders fiercely rejected the claim that their refusal to accept the religion of Jesus is the reason for the lengthening of the Exile, for if they had accepted the Islamic religion and turned to such nations as the Ottomans, they would also have been freed from bondage.\n",
"Many of his contemporaries thought that the first step to the conversion of the Jews was to take away their books. This view was advocated by Johannes Pfefferkorn, a German Catholic theologian. Pfefferkorn, himself a converted from Judaism, actively preached against the Jews and attempted to destroy copies of the \"Talmud\", and engaged in what became a long running pamphleteering battle with Reuchlin. He wrote that \"The causes which hinder the Jews from becoming Christians are three: first, usury; second, because they are not compelled to attend Christian churches to hear the sermons; and third, because they honor the \"Talmud\".\". Pfefferkorn's plans were backed by the Dominicans of Cologne; and in 1509 he obtained the emperor's authority to confiscate all Jewish books directed against the Christian faith. Armed with this mandate, he visited Stuttgart and asked Reuchlin's help as a jurist and expert in putting it into execution. Reuchlin evaded the demand, mainly because the mandate lacked certain formalities, but he could no long remain neutral. The execution of Pfefferkorn's schemes led to difficulties and to a new appeal to Maximilian.\n",
"At the same time, some adherents of the world’s major religious traditions became attracted to Jesus, yet were not drawn to the religion or institution of Christianity. In the 1960s, for example, numbers of Jews, after significant study, came to the conclusion that Jesus was indeed the long awaited Messiah. Yet they had no emotional or cultural link to the Christian religion, which was often seen as a part of Christendom, and associated with countries that had historically mistreated Jews. Therefore, when these Jews embraced Jesus as Messiah, many opted to remain within Judaism rather than convert to Christianity. Since the 1980s, similar phenomena have been seen among those of other non-Christian religious cultures, most notably among Hindus and Muslims. It is important to note that many Jews do not regard Messianic Jews as being true Jews anymore. Furthermore, some Jewish followers of Christ have come to consider that the term 'Messianic Judaism' was a mistake, because it placed 'the emphasis on rabbinic Judaism instead of Jewish culture'.\n",
"Some Christian Zionists believe that the gathering of the Jews in Israel is a prerequisite for the Second Coming of Jesus. The idea has been common in Protestant circles since the Reformation that Christians should actively support a Jewish return to the Land of Israel, along with the parallel idea that the Jews ought to be encouraged to become Christians as a means of fulfilling Biblical prophecy.\n",
"A leading effort to convert Jews to Christianity is known as Jews for Jesus. It was founded by Martin \"Moishe\" Rosen, a Jew who grew up in a non-observant home, converted to Christianity, and was ordained as a Baptist minister in 1957. In 1973, Rosen left the employment of the American Board of Missions to the Jews, now called Chosen People Ministries, to incorporate a separate mission which became known as Jews for Jesus ministries. In 1986 he received an honorary Doctor of Divinity Degree from Western Conservative Baptist Seminary in Portland, Oregon. Jews for Jesus is now led by David Brickner, who has been working for the organization since 1977.\n"
] |
Is it possible that humans have evolved to have a tolerance to alcohol?
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It appears that we have evolved a tolerance to alcohol. Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase is more expressed in humans than other mammals. Some people lack the enzyme (usually asians) which causes them to get red-faced and feel ill after drinking.
> society may have partly formed due to beer
This is nonsense. Apes have societies and they don't make booze.
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[
"To engage in alcohol consumption and development of alcoholism appear to be common to primates, and is not a specific human phenomenon. Humans have access to alcohol on far greater quantity than non-human primates, and the availability increased particularly with the development of agriculture. The tolerance to alcohol is not equally distributed throughout the world's population. Genetics of alcohol dehydrogenase indicate resistance has arisen independently in different cultures. In North America, Native Americans have the highest probability of developing alcoholism compared to Europeans and Asians. Different alcohol tolerance also exists within Asian groups, such as between Chinese and Koreans. The health benefit of a modest alcohol consumption reported in people of European descent appear not to exist among people of African descent.\n",
"While researchers have found that moderate alcohol consumption in older adults is associated with better cognition and well-being than abstinence, excessive alcohol consumption is associated with widespread and significant brain lesions. The effects can manifest much later—mid-life Alcohol Use Disorder has been found to correlate with increased risk of severe cognitive and memory deficits in later life. Alcohol related brain damage is not only due to the direct toxic effects of alcohol; alcohol withdrawal, nutritional deficiency, electrolyte disturbances, and liver damage are also believed to contribute to alcohol-related brain damage.\n",
"Alcohol (also known as ethanol) has a number of effects on health. Short-term effects of alcohol consumption include intoxication and dehydration. Long-term effects of alcohol consumption include changes in the metabolism of the liver and brain and alcoholism. Alcohol intoxication affects the brain, causing slurred speech, clumsiness, and delayed reflexes. Alcohol stimulates insulin production, which speeds up glucose metabolism and can result in low blood sugar, causing irritability and possibly death for diabetics. Even light and moderate alcohol consumption increases cancer risk in individuals. A 2014 World Health Organization report found that harmful alcohol consumption caused about 3.3 million deaths annually worldwide. Negative efforts are related to the amount consumed with no safe lower limit seen. Some nations have introduced alcohol packaging warning messages that inform consumers about alcohol and cancer, as well as foetal alcohol syndrome.\n",
"Tolerance is a lessened response to ethanol after repeated or prolonged ethanol exposure or consumption. In mammals, tolerance can form within minutes or over longer periods of time. Ghezzi et al. (2014) speculated that tolerance occurs due to a homeostatic mechanism that resists environmental changes. However, homeostatis does not explain how tolerance influences alcohol addiction in many cases. Epigenetic alterations, including phosphorylation, methylation, acetylation, miRNA, and chromatin remodeling, may help explain the cases not explained by homeostatic mechanisms.\n",
"The best available current evidence suggests that consumption of alcohol (chemically known as ethanol) does not improve health. Previous assertions that low or moderate consumption of alcohol improved health have been deprecated by more careful and complete meta-analysis. Heavy consumption of ethanol (alcohol abuse) can cause severe detrimental effects. Health effects associated with alcohol intake in large amounts include an increased risk of alcoholism, malnutrition, chronic pancreatitis, alcoholic liver disease and cancer. In addition, damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can occur from chronic alcohol abuse. Even light and moderate alcohol consumption increases risk for certain types of cancer. \n",
"While the effects of Alcohol have been studied immensely, even with respect to memory, there is limited research examining the effects of alcohol on procedural memory. Research conducted by Pitel A. L. et al. suggests that alcoholism impairs the ability to acquire semantic concepts. In this study, while semantic concepts were understood, procedural memory was often not automated. A potential reason for this finding is that poor learning strategies are used by alcoholics compared to non-alcoholics.\n",
"Alcohol tolerance refers to the bodily responses to the functional effects of ethanol in alcoholic beverages. This includes direct tolerance, speed of recovery from insobriety and resistance to the development of alcoholism.\n"
] |
why did apple's iphone gain so much popularity but windows phones have seen such meager market penetration?
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The iphone had no competition, the windows phone did. The iphone has a positive market image, while windows phone does not.
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[
"When Apple's iPhone was first introduced in 2007, it generated substantial media attention, with numerous media outlets calling it a \"BlackBerry killer\". While BlackBerry sales continued to grow, the newer iPhone grew at a faster rate and the 87 percent drop in BlackBerry's stock price between 2010 and 2013 is primarily attributed to the performance of the iPhone handset.\n",
"The continued top popularity of the iPhone despite growing Android competition was also attributed to Apple being able to deliver iOS updates over the air, while Android updates are frequently impeded by carrier testing requirements and hardware tailoring, forcing consumers to purchase a new Android smartphone to get the latest version of that OS. However, by 2013, Apple's market share had fallen to 13.1%, due to the surging popularity of the Android offerings.\n",
"The first three models of the iPhone (introduced in 2007) generally lagged behind the BlackBerry in sales, as RIM had major advantages in carrier and enterprise support; however, Apple continued gaining market share. In October 2008, Apple briefly passed RIM in quarterly sales when they announced they had sold 6.9 million iPhones to the 6.1 million sold by RIM, comparing partially overlapping quarters between the companies. Though Apple's iPhone sales declined to 4.3 million in the subsequent quarter and RIM's increased to 7.8 million, for some investors this indicated a sign of weakness. Apple's iPhone began to sell more phones quarterly than the BlackBerry in 2010, brought on by the release of the iPhone 4.\n",
"On March 2, 2011, at the iPad 2 launch event, Apple announced that they had sold 100 million iPhones worldwide. As a result of the success of the iPhone sales volume and high selling price, headlined by the iPhone 4S, Apple became the largest mobile handset vendor in the world by revenue in 2011, surpassing long-time leader Nokia. While the Samsung Galaxy S II proved more popular than the iPhone 4S in parts of Europe, the iPhone 4S was dominant in the United States.\n",
"Apple sold 6.1 million first generation iPhone units over five quarters. Sales in the fourth quarter of 2008 temporarily surpassed those of Research In Motion's (RIM) BlackBerry sales of 5.2 million units, which briefly made Apple the third largest mobile phone manufacturer by revenue, after Nokia and Samsung (however, some of this income is deferred). Recorded sales grew steadily thereafter, and by the end of fiscal year 2010, a total of 73.5 million iPhones had been sold.\n",
"Apple's market share further struggled due to the release of the Windows 95 operating system, which unified Microsoft's formerly separate MS-DOS and Windows products. Windows 95 significantly enhanced the multimedia capability and performance of IBM PC compatible computers, and brought the capabilities of Windows substantially nearer to parity with Mac OS.\n",
"Reception towards the device was generally positive, though there were still a high amount of negative feedback from users of Apple's iPhone due to its similar design and quality. Some media companies hailed it to be one of the best smartphones available in the market due to its high-end hardware which is sold for a comparably at a lower price compared to competitor smartphones. However, others criticized it for being too similar to Apple's iPhone 5S.\n"
] |
when a person is attempting suicide (eg about to jump from a bridge) and gets saved by emergency services, what happens to them next? what's their follow up care? could they just walk away?
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Just gonna leave this here:
**National Suicide Prevention Lifeline**
_URL_0_
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[
"Those who argue for a suicide barrier claim that most of those who jump from the West Gate Bridge do so through impulse and that police officers who try to save those who try to jump are putting their own lives in danger. There are multiple incidents of police officers dangling off the side of the bridge while holding onto would-be jumpers. A 2000 Royal Melbourne Hospital study on people who jumped from the bridge found at least 62 cases between 1991 and 1998. Seven people survived the fall. 74 percent of those who jumped from the bridge were male, with an average age of 33. More than 70 percent were suffering from mental illness. Of those who jumped off the West Gate Bridge, 31 percent fell on land. Some of those who landed in water drowned afterwards.\n",
"Various methods have been tried to reduce the number of suicides. The bridge is fitted with suicide-hotline telephones and staff patrol the bridge in carts, looking for people who appear to be planning to jump. The bridge is now closed to pedestrians at night. Cyclists are still permitted across at night, but can buzz themselves in and out through the remotely controlled security gates. Attempts to introduce a suicide barrier have been thwarted by engineering difficulties, high costs, and public opposition. One recurring proposal had been to build a barrier to replace or augment the low railing, a component of the bridge's original architectural design, as amended by the second designer in the final blueprint. New barriers have eliminated suicides at other landmarks around the world, but were opposed for the Golden Gate Bridge for reasons of cost, aesthetics, and safety, as the load from a poorly designed barrier could significantly affect the bridge's structural integrity during a strong windstorm. Despite these concerns, on June 27, 2014, California approved a funding plan to install a suicide barrier.\n",
"A number of measures are in place to discourage people from jumping, including telephone hotlines and patrols by emergency personnel and bridge workers. Although it had previously been considered impractical to build a suicide barrier, in 2014 the Bridge's directors approved a proposal for a net below the bridge's deck, extending out either side, rather than side barriers at the railings as had long been proposed.\n",
"One such dramatic rescue took place when a man from Humansdorp wanted to commit suicide from the bridge but was stopped just in time by Freddie van Niekerk, who had just walked past him and said he \"felt a sudden chill, as if God was speaking to me\" and grabbed the man. Van Niekerk endangered his own life and battled for 45 minutes to stop the man from jumping. Van Niekerk remained with the desperate man, even after the suicidal man had grabbed his benefactor's arms and threatened to pull him off the bridge, too. Van Niekerk had to save that same man a second time that day when he escaped from the Thornhill police station and started jogging back towards the bridge again.\n",
"A suicide bridge is a bridge used frequently to die by suicide, most typically by jumping off and into the water or ground below. A fall from the height of a tall bridge into water may be fatal, although people have survived jumps from high bridges such as the Golden Gate Bridge. Medical examiners at the Golden Gate Bridge state that jumpers suffer a gruesome death as their bodies hit the water at about , with severe organ damage (multiple ruptured organs) and broken necks, pelvises, etc.\n",
"Because the bridge is not accessible to pedestrians, suicides by jumping from the bridge have been rare, with the most recent confirmed case taking place on December 31, 2012. There have been roughly a dozen suicides by people jumping off the bridge.\n",
"In the decade through 2014, nearly 80 individuals have attempted suicide by jumping off the new Victory Bridge, resulting in 22 deaths. In February 2011, The City of Perth Amboy sent a resolution to Governor Chris Christie and the New Jersey General Assembly requesting the addition of a fence along the Victory Bridge. Currently there are no phones along the bridge route but there are suicide hotline numbers listed along the bridge's route. Following the temporary closure of the pedestrian sidewalks and bike lanes in October 2014, NJDOT officials installed fences along both sides to prevent further suicides.\n"
] |
What muscle are involved in your tongue sticking out
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The primary muscle is the [genioglossus](_URL_0_). Note the figure there - because it attaches to the inside of the chin, contraction of the muscle 'pulls' the tongue forward.
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[
"The transverse muscle of tongue (transversus linguae) is an intrinsic muscle of the tongue. It consists of fibers which arise from the median fibrous septum and pass lateralward to be inserted into the submucous fibrous tissue at the sides of the tongue.\n",
"The superior longitudinal muscle runs along the upper surface of the tongue under the mucous membrane, and elevates, assists in retraction of, or deviates the tip of the tongue. It originates near the epiglottis, at the hyoid bone, from the median fibrous septum.\n",
"Tongue muscles (genioglossus, geniohyoid and others) are attached to the lower jaw below the teeth. During a genioglossus advancement procedure, the surgeon cuts a small window or bone cut in the front part of the lower jaw (mandible) at the level of the geniotubercle where the genioglossus muscle attaches. This piece of bone, along with the attachment for the tongue (genial tubercle) is pulled forward and subsequently secured to the lower jaw, usually with a single screw or with a plate and screws.\n",
"Genioglossus is the fan-shaped extrinsic tongue muscle that forms the majority of the body of the tongue. Its arises from the mental spine of the mandible and its insertions are the hyoid bone and the bottom of the tongue.\n",
"Tongue muscles (genioglossus, geniohyoid and others) are attached to the lower jaw below the teeth. During a genioglossus advancement procedure, a small window or bone cut is made in the front part of the lower jaw (mandible) at the level of the geniotubercle which is where the genioglossus muscle is attached. This piece of bone along with the attachment for the tongue (genial tubercle) is pulled forward and is subsequently secured to the lower jaw, usually with a single screw or with a plate(s) and screws.\n",
"The four extrinsic muscles originate from bone and extend to the tongue. They are the genioglossus, the hyoglossus (often including the chondroglossus) the styloglossus, and the palatoglossus. Their main functions are altering the tongue's position allowing for protrusion, retraction, and side-to-side movement.\n",
"The stylohyoid muscle is a slender muscle, lying anterior and superior of the posterior belly of the digastric muscle. It shares this muscle's innervation by the facial nerve, and functions to draw the hyoid bone backwards and elevate the tongue. Its origin is the styloid process of the temporal bone. It inserts on the body of the hyoid .\n"
] |
how can you love yourself?
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If anyone ever is raised by their family *not* to love themselves, to have that voice in their head that speaks loving thoughts, then their family has failed them terribly (likely because they themselves were failed and so on..). No, that is not okay and not right and should be different. Everyone should work hard so that never happens.
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[
"This is a story about a university student who believed love has a formula to success and tried to prove it in a month. Her mom left her when she was young and she learn to be independent and strong. She eventually felt in love but to prove her formula works she follows her mind instead of her heart, but only to realize in the end that true love is about being able to feel the heartbeat of the other person.\n",
"\"Love, Me\" is a ballad in the key of C major, accompanied by Fender Rhodes electric piano and steel-string acoustic guitar. It tells of a couple who promise to love each other. The song's narrator tells of being with his grandfather, and reading a note that was written by his late grandmother back when both grandparents were younger. The grandfather explains that he had intended to meet her at a certain tree: \"\"If you get there before I do, don't give up on me / I'll meet you when my chores are through, I don't know how long I'll be / But I'm not gonna let you down, darling, wait and see / And between now and then, 'til I see you again, I'll be loving you / Love, me.\"\" In the second verse, the narrator and his grandfather are at a church where they stopped to pray just before the late grandmother died, and the grandfather reads the note and begins to cry, that is the first time that he ever saw his grandfather crying.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Love\" is a feeling of affection for another person (a parent, sibling, friend, or lover) or people (allies / followers, friends, or family members) that the character has strong emotional ties to.\n",
"\"I wanted to write about love because it is the one thing that we all identify with. Everyone knows what it feels like to be with someone you love, and to fall out of love. You suffer because of love and then love makes you happy.\"\n",
"\"So Much Love for You\" is an upbeat pop song. It is based around an arrangement of guitars and light percussion instruments, along with background piano and added sound effects. The chorus sections feature added bass/percussion. The lyrics talk about being in love. The song's protagonists says that she will feel happily in love no matter what they are looking at, and no matter where they are together. They ask their lover, who has \"fallen ill with love,\" to embrace all of them, since they want to feel their true feelings from the voice in their heart.\n",
"Lyrically, \"First Love\" talks about meeting somebody and finally feeling like it's the one and wishing you had met them years before. For Andy Walsh of \"Renowned for Sound\", the song \"deal[s] with the stars romantic past and the often-confusing side of relationships.\" Caroline Sullivan of \"The Guardian\" noted that the track \"sweetly extols the pleasure of finding the right person long past the first flush of youth.\" According to Lopez, \"The truth is it really is just about a feeling — the feeling of falling, of falling in love, the feeling of you've found the one, or that this person that you're with, you wish you would've met them years ago,\" she said. \"So for me it was less about telling a story, and more about capturing that feeling.\" In the beginning, she sings: \"And I wasn't looking for someone new / Til you came down / Giving me the best the time I've had.\" During the chorus, she admits: \"I wish you were my first love / 'Cos if you were my first / Baby there wouldn't have been no second, third or fourth love\".\n",
"Love allows people to attribute a sense of purpose for living. From the moment of birth relationships are made: mother and child, father and child, grandparent and child, and the like. As people grow older and enter into schools, jobs, and get involved in their communities the number of relationships, they have grown, as does their ability to maintain these relationships. \n"
] |
why people eat salty food then crave sugary food and repeat the cycle? what's going on in human body that causes this craving?
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We've evolved in environments where sugar and salt were no where near as abundant as they are today, and because they're so vital for our survival we've evolved to enjoy the taste of them in order to make us want to eat them to get the nutrition we need(ed). Now, there's a bit of a mismatch because of how readily available sugar and salt are. Not sure if this explains why you'd crave one after the other in a cycle though.
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[
"The desires for these new diets and lifestyles are very understandable from a biological and psychosocial perspective. For example, humans have an innate preference for sweets dating back to hunter-gatherer populations. These sweets signaled a good source of energy for hunter-gatherers that were not food secure. This same concept also relates to human predisposition for energy-dense fatty foods. These foods were needed to sustain long journeys and provided a safety net for times of famine. Humans also desire to eliminate physical exertion. This can explain the shift to more sedentary lifestyles from occupational, domestic, and leisurely activities that were previously much more physical taxing. \n",
"If a food containing even small but perceivable amount of sugar (simple sugars or disaccharides that can be tasted sweet, or starch that is at least minimally hydrolyzed by salivary amylase, or even some non-sugar sweeteners) is eaten in this state, there may be a period of time after it enters stomach and before bulk absorption occurs, when continuous exercise becomes very hard, and easily triggers rhabdomyolysis. It probably happens because the digestive system senses and signals forthcoming delivery of sugars, inhibiting fatty acid release and oxidation, and starving glycogen-less muscle cells of the sole available source of energy. Even simple continuous exercise, like walking or washing dishes by hand right after the meal, may trigger rhabdomyolysis in the exercising muscles. This rhabdomyolysis is probably not of exertional, but of hypoglycemic nature, as loaded glycogen-less muscles can rapidly remove glucose from blood, and the normal mechanism of glucose homeostasis lacks the required responsiveness or capacity to prevent hypoglycemia. The broken down myocytes probably do not yield much glucose. Unlike the case with exertional rhabdomyolisys, there is no warning. At rest, however, the liver will effortlessly cover the whole body energy needs until absorption of carbohydrates occurs.\n",
"There is evidence brief periods of fasting, a denial of food, can be beneficial to health in certain situations. Self-denial is sometimes related to inhibitory control and emotional self-regulation, the positives of which are dealt with in those articles. As people grow accustomed to material goods they often experience hedonic adaptation, whereby they get used to the finer things and are less inclined to savor daily pleasures. Scarcity can lead people to focus on enjoying an experience more deeply, which increases happiness.\n",
"Sugar addiction has been examined in laboratory rats and it develops in the same way that drug addiction develops. Eating sugary foods causes the brain to release natural chemicals called opioids and dopamine in the limbic system. Tasty food can activate opioid receptors in the ventral tegmental area and thereby stimulate cells that release dopamine in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). The brain recognizes the intense pleasure derived from the dopamine and opioids release and learns to crave more sugar. Dependence is created through these natural rewards, the sugary treats, and the opioid and dopamine released into the synapses of the mesolimbic system. The hippocampus, the insula and the caudate activate when rats crave sugar, which are the same areas that become active when drug addicts crave the drug. Sugar is good because it provides energy, but if the nervous system goes through a change and the body becomes dependent on the sugar intake, somatic signs of withdrawal begin to appear like chattering teeth, forepaw tremors and head shakes when sugar is not ingested. Morphine tolerance, a measure of addiction, was observed in rats and their tolerance on Morphine was attributed to environmental cues and the systemic effects of the drug. Morphine tolerance does not depend merely on the frequency of pharmacological stimulation, but rather on both the number of pairings of a drug-predictive cue with the systemic effects of the drug. Rats became significantly more tolerant to morphine when they had been exposed to a paired administration than those rats that were not administered a drug-predictive cue along with the morphine.\n",
"Foods with high levels of sugar glucose, such as chocolate, are more frequently craved than foods with lower sugar glucose, such as broccoli, because when glucose interacts with the opioid receptor system in the brain an addictive triggering effect occurs. The consumer of the glucose feels the urge to consume more glucose, much like an alcoholic, because the brain has become conditioned to release \"happy hormones\" every time glucose is present.\n",
"There is no single explanation for food cravings, and explanations range from low serotonin levels affecting the brain centers for appetite to production of endorphins as a result of consuming fats and carbohydrates.\n",
"Consumption of a tempting food by non-clinical individuals increases when self-regulatory resources are previously depleted by another task, suggesting that it is caused by a breakdown in self control. Impulsive eating of unhealthy snack foods appears to be regulated by individual differences in impulsivity when self-control is weak and by attitudes towards the snack and towards healthy eating when self-control is strong. There is also evidence that greater food consumption occurs when people are in a sad mood, although it is possible that this is due more to emotional regulation than to a lack of self-control. In these cases, overeating will only take place if the food is palatable to the person, and if so individual differences in impulsivity can predict the amount of consumption.\n"
] |
all the different kinds of alcohol, what they are, how they're different, what each one kinda tastes like, etc. etc.
|
This is something you kind of need to experience yourself but here goes nothing:
* **Wine** is broken into two main categories: red and white. Wine is generally made from fermenting grapes. The color is mainly determined by whether or not the grade skin was strained out. It has a pretty low alcohol content relative to liquor, but a little bit higher than beer. 8-12% alcohol by volume is common. It tastes somewhat like grape juice but less sickly sweet (though some wines are very sweet, so called dessert wines). White wines are generally "crisper" than reds, but they all have such a wide variety of specific flavors that it is hard to generalize. Also in the wine category I am going to through champagne, which is basically really fizzy wine.
* **Beer** is made from grains, and usually has a slightly lower alcohol content than wine. 5% for light beers, to 8 or 10 for regular. Some can get even higher. "Bready" is probably the best taste descriptor for someone who has never had beer, but again you really need to try it, and several different kinds.
* **Liquor** is the last main category. Liquor is distilled, rather than simply fermented, giving it a much higher alcohol content than wine or beer. 40% alcohol by volume is kind of the "standard" content, but it can range from 20 up to 96ish. Different liquors can be made of different things, so I will address them in groups. **Vodka** is made from grain or potatoes. It is notable as a mixing ingredient because it has very little taste on its own. Good vodka is judged largely on how it feels in your mouth. It can easily be flavored with basically anything. **Gin** is basically vodka flavored primarily with juniper, giving it a "christmas tree" like taste. Very piney, with hints of citrus and other flavors. **Rum** is made from molasses, and has a complex flavor that can vary largely depending on the type. **Whisk(e)y** is made from grains, and has no one flavor. Some are described as smoky, peaty, but rarely fruity, if that gives you any general idea. It is broken down into Bourbon (usually from kentucky), Tennessee whiskey, Irish whiskey, Scotch (whisky), and Rye whiskey, broadly speaking, depending on where its from and what its made with. **Tequila** is made from the blue agave plant, and I really can't tell you what it tastes like because I have never had it straight. **Brandy**, **Cognac**, and **Port** are all basically fortified wines. This means wine was taken and distilled to a higher alcohol content. Brandy and cognac can be made from other fruits but they follow the same process.
I probably missed a ton of stuff but hopefully this helps a bit.
|
[
"Cocktails often also contain one or more types of juice, fruit, sauce, honey, milk or cream, spices, or other flavorings. Cocktails may vary in their ingredients from bartender to bartender, and from region to region. Two creations may have the same name but taste very different because of differences in how the drinks are prepared.\n",
"Excessive concentrations of some alcohols other than ethanol may cause off-flavors, sometimes described as \"spicy\", \"hot\", or \"solvent-like\". Some beverages, such as rum, whisky (especially Bourbon), incompletely rectified vodka (e.g. Siwucha), and traditional ales and ciders, are expected to have relatively high concentrations of non-hazardous alcohols as part of their flavor profile. However, in other beverages, such as Korn, vodka, and lagers, the presence of alcohols other than ethanol is considered a fault.\n",
"Flavored liquors may have a base of vodka or white rum, both of which have little taste of their own, or they may have a tequila or brandy base. Typically, a fruit extract and, in some cases, sugar syrup are added to the base spirit.\n",
"Several flavors have been based on popular alcoholic beverages, beginning with Mai Tai in 1977. Over the years, new additions have included blackberry brandy (now discontinued), strawberry daiquiri, margarita, mojito, and piña colada. Draft beer, a flavor inspired by Hefeweizen ale, was introduced in 2014. All such flavors are entirely alcohol-free.\n",
"Flavored liquors (also called infused liquors) are alcoholic beverages that have added flavoring and, in some cases, a small amount of added sugar. They are distinct from liqueurs in that liqueurs have a large sugar content and may also contain glycerine.\n",
"Pure ethanol tastes bitter to humans; some people also describe it as sweet. However, ethanol is also a moderately good solvent for many fatty substances and essential oils. This facilitates the use of flavoring and coloring compounds in alcoholic drinks as a taste mask, especially in distilled drinks. Some flavors may be naturally present in the beverage's raw material. Beer and wine may also be flavored before fermentation, and spirits may be flavored before, during, or after distillation. Sometimes flavor is obtained by allowing the beverage to stand for months or years in oak barrels, usually made of American or French oak. A few brands of spirits may also have fruit or herbs inserted into the bottle at the time of bottling.\n",
"While the alcohol content of flavored malt beverages is similar to that of most traditional malt beverages, the alcohol in many of them is derived primarily from the distilled spirits component of the added flavors rather than from fermentation.\n"
] |
what's the deal with the uk independence party?
|
The uk traditonally had two main parties, Labour, left wing, and the Tories/conservatives , Right wing, Over the last few decades both parties have moved more to centre-left and centre-right. This is where the UkIP comes in. The Ukip is right wing party that aims to appeal to the more right wing members of the conservative party who feel disenfranchised by the Tories more recent moderate stance.
One of the Ukip's main positions is the UK should have more autonomy from Europe and European law. Possibly going far enough for the Uk to leave the European union.
|
[
"The UK Independence Party was founded to press for British withdrawal from the EU, and following the referendum its leader Nigel Farage announced, on 4 July, that having succeeded in this goal, he would stand down as leader. Following the resignation of the elected leader Diane James, Farage became the interim party leader on 5 October. Farage's successor Paul Nuttall was elected the party leader on 28 November 2016.\n",
"The UK Independence Party (UKIP ) is a hard Eurosceptic, right-wing to far-right political party in the. It currently has one representative in the House of Lords and two Assembly Members (AMs) in the National Assembly for Wales. The party reached its greatest level of success in the mid-2010s, when it gained two Members of Parliament and was the largest UK party in the European Parliament.\n",
"In 2013 the organisation initiated a nationwide consultation among its supporters about the UK Independence Party (UKIP). The move attracted considerable criticism from some on the right. It went on to campaign vociferously against UKIP during the run-up to the 2014 European elections.\n",
"The UK Independence Party are stood in ten seats, the Scottish Green Party in three, and the Scottish Christian Party in two, with one candidate from each of the Social Democratic Party, Women's Equality Party, Something New, Scotland's Independence Referendum Party and Independent Sovereign Democratic Britain. There were also ten independent candidates. For the first time in many years, the Scottish Socialist Party did not contest the election.\n",
"Despite contesting both the previous Assembly and Parliamentary elections, the United Kingdom Independence Party decided not to stand a candidate, instead calling for a vote for the Blaenau Gwent People's Voice Group - even though the Group does not support withdrawal from the European Union, nor the abolition of the Welsh Assembly, key UKIP policies.\n",
"The UK Independence Party (UKIP) came top of the poll, the first time a political party other than the Labour Party or Conservative Party had won the popular vote at a British election since the 1906 general election. It was also the first time a party other than Labour or Conservative had won the largest number of seats in a national election since the December 1910 general election. However, by the end of 2018, following multiple departures and other changes, only 9 MEPs remained affiliated to UKIP. By February 2019, there were only 7 UKIP MEPs, while 7 former UKIP MEPs had joined the new Brexit Party.\n",
"The UK Independence Party (UKIP), a Eurosceptic political party, was formed in 1993. It achieved third place in the UK during the 2004 European elections, second place in the 2009 European elections and first place in the 2014 European elections, with 27.5 per cent of the total vote. This was the first time since the 1910 general election that any party other than Labour or the Conservatives had taken the largest share of the vote in a nationwide election. UKIP's electoral success in the 2014 European election is documented as the strongest correlate of the support for the leave campaign in the 2016 referendum.\n"
] |
graphic card memory
|
Graphics card memory is RAM that's built directly into the video card itself.
Unlike general RAM which can be used for whatever, this stuff is reserved for *just* graphics, and being hooked right to the GPU makes it fast and easy fo rthe GPU to use it.
Typically, things like textures are stored in this memory. More memory means higher resolution textures can be stored, [which gives you nice graphics like this.](_URL_0_). Things like lighting and shadows also use memory, if there isn't enough memory available to remember what's in light or shadow the game may simplify or skip over how it handles lights.
|
[
"Memory cards are flash memory storage media used to store digital information in many electronics products. The types of memory cards include CompactFlash, PCMCIA, secure digital card, multimedia card, memory stick etc.\n",
"A memory card reader is a device for accessing the data on a memory card such as a CompactFlash (CF), Secure Digital (SD) or MultiMediaCard (MMC). Most card readers also offer write capability, and together with the card, this can function as a pen drive.\n",
"A memory card reader is a device, typically having a USB interface, for accessing the data on a memory card such as a CompactFlash (CF), Secure Digital (SD) or MultiMediaCard (MMC). Most card readers also offer write capability, and together with the card, this can function as a pen drive.\n",
"Usually the graphics card is made in the form of a printed circuit board (expansion board) and inserted into an expansion slot, universal or specialized (AGP, PCI Express). Some have been made using dedicated enclosures, which are connected to the computer via a docking station or a cable.\n",
"A memory card or memory cartridge is an electronic data storage device used for storing digital information, typically using flash memory. These are commonly used in portable electronic devices, such as digital cameras, mobile phones, laptop, computers, tablets, PDAs, portable media players, video game consoles, synthesizers, electronic keyboards and digital pianos.\n",
"PC Cards (PCMCIA) were the first commercial memory card formats (type I cards) to come out, but are now mainly used in industrial applications and to connect I/O devices such as modems. Since 1994, a number of memory card formats smaller than the PC Card arrived, the first one was CompactFlash and later SmartMedia and Miniature Card. The desire for smaller cards for cell-phones, PDAs, and compact digital cameras drove a trend that left the previous generation of \"compact\" cards looking big. In digital cameras SmartMedia and CompactFlash had been very successful. In 2001, SM alone captured 50% of the digital camera market and CF had captured the professional digital camera market. By 2005 however, SD/MMC had nearly taken over SmartMedia's spot, though not to the same level and with stiff competition coming from Memory Stick variants, as well CompactFlash. In industrial and embedded fields, even the venerable PC card (PCMCIA) memory cards still manage to maintain a niche, while in mobile phones and PDAs, the memory card has become smaller.\n",
"Like other types of flash memory card, an SD card of any SD family is a block-addressable storage device, in which the host device can read or write fixed-size blocks by specifying their block number.\n"
] |
Terms in electrolysis which confuses me.
|
The anode is ALWAYS the electrode where the oxidation reaction occurs. Similarly, the cathode is the electrode where reduction reaction occurs. Just remember
*AnOx, RedCat*
The anode and cathode switch depending on whether the cell is galvanic or electrolytic.
|
[
"Electrolysis is the passing of a direct electric current through an ionic substance that is either molten or dissolved in a suitable solvent, producing chemical reactions at the electrodes and a decomposition of the materials.\n",
"The key process of electrolysis is the interchange of atoms and ions by the removal or addition of electrons from the external circuit. The desired products of electrolysis are often in a different physical state from the electrolyte and can be removed by some physical processes. For example, in the electrolysis of brine to produce hydrogen and chlorine, the products are gaseous. These gaseous products bubble from the electrolyte and are collected.\n",
"In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a technique that uses a direct electric current (DC) to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction. Electrolysis is commercially important as a stage in the separation of elements from naturally occurring sources such as ores using an electrolytic cell. The voltage that is needed for electrolysis to occur is called the decomposition potential.\n",
"High pressure electrolysis is the electrolysis of water by decomposition of water (HO) into oxygen (O) and hydrogen gas (H) by means of an electric current being passed through the water. The difference with a standard electrolyzer is the compressed hydrogen output around 120-200 bar (1740-2900 psi, 12–20 MPa). By pressurising the hydrogen in the electrolyser, through a process known as chemical compression, the need for an external hydrogen compressor is eliminated, the average energy consumption for internal compression is around 3%.\n",
"High-pressure electrolysis (HPE) is the electrolysis of water by decomposition of water (HO) into oxygen (O) and hydrogen gas (H) due to the passing of an electric current through the water. The difference with a standard proton exchange membrane electrolyzer is the compressed hydrogen output around at 70 °C. By pressurising the hydrogen in the electrolyser the need for an external hydrogen compressor is eliminated, the average energy consumption for internal differential pressure compression is around 3%.\n",
"The word \"electrolysis\" was introduced by Michael Faraday in the 19th century, on the suggestion of the Rev. William Whewell, using the Greek words \"amber\", which since the 17th century was associated with electric phenomena, and \"\" meaning \"dissolution\". Nevertheless, electrolysis, as a tool to study chemical reactions and obtain pure elements, precedes the coinage of the term and formal description by Faraday.\n",
"High-pressure electrolysis is the electrolysis of water with a compressed hydrogen output around 12–20 MPa (120–200 Bar, 1740–2900 psi). By pressurising the hydrogen in the electrolyser, the need for an external hydrogen compressor is eliminated; the average energy consumption for internal compression is around 3%.\n"
] |
what would happen to italy if we got out the euro?
|
No one really knows and that is what makes it so scary.
One problem is that your debt would still be in Euros, so going back to the Lira would not get you back in control of your debt. While debtors do not like the idea that you would inflate your way out of debt, they prefer that to the idea of default. So it is easier to borrow if you can borrow in your own money because debtors know that if push comes to shove, you can always print money to pay them back. But with you debt in Euros, lenders would worry about default.
There is also the problem of contracts written in euros. What would happen to those. Would a contract between Italians be translated into Lira? How about a contract between an Italian and a German. What about your bank deposits. You put Euros in the bank. But would you get Lira when you take it out? Probably so. It would probably all get translated into Lira at some rate. That means it all has to be done quickly and as a surprise to avoid a run on the backs because people would have more faith in the euro and want to get euros in had before the switch.
And if Italy had to default on it debt in Euros, it might make it very hard for them to get new loans in Lira.
So the fear is that there would be confusion and chaos.
But it might be better the continuing with German demands for more and more austerity. The problem with austerity, is that every time you cut back on government spending to reduce the debt, the economy takes a hit, unemployment goes up, and tax receipts go down. The reduction in taxes offsets your cut in spending so that your deficit is no better but your economy is worse. There is no way to pay off your debts with so many people unemployed not producing any wealth to pay off the debts with. If you had the Lira, its value would be going down as people became worried about the debt, and everyone would take a hit. The whole country would be poorer because their money would be worth less, but the would still have their jobs and would still be producing wealth that lets you dig your way back out.
|
[
"With regards to Europe, Roubini predicted that Italy, and possibly a series of other eurozone countries (Portugal, Spain, Greece) might have to exit the eurozone if they did not implement \"serious economic reforms.\" \"[It] is not a foregone conclusion but, if Italy does not reform, an exit from EMU within 5 years is not totally unlikely. Indeed, like Argentina, Italy faces a growing competitiveness loss given an increasingly overvalued currency and the risk of falling exports and growing current account deficit. The growth slowdown will make the public deficit and debt worse and potentially unsustainable over time. And if a devaluation cannot be used to reduce real wages, the real exchange rate overvaluation will be undone via a slow and painful process of wage and price deflation.\"\n",
"Speculation followed about other countries as well, such as Italy, withdrawing from the Eurozone, with economist Nuriel Roubini submitting that \"Italy may, like other periphery countries [of the Eurozone], need to exit the euro and go back to a national currency, thus triggering an effective break-up of the Eurozone.\"\n",
"The prospect of Greece leaving the euro and dealing with a devalued drachma prompted many people to start withdrawing their euros from the country's banks. In the nine months to March 2012 deposits in Greek banks had already fallen 13% to .\n",
"In 2016, Italy’s finance minister pushed for financial compensation from the European Union for his country’s financial losses because of mass migration. As of 2016, the European Union had put forth only 1.8 billion euros for the entirety of Africa's refugee efforts in Europe.\n",
"At the American Economic Association's annual meeting of 2015, Berkeley University economic historian Barry Eichengreen predicted that the withdrawal of a member state, such as Greece, from the Eurozone, would \"set off [a] devastating turmoil in financial markets.\" At the same event, Harvard professor of Public Policy and professor of Economics Kenneth Rogoff characterised the overall common-currency project in Europe a \"historic disaster\", while Harvard professor of Economics and NBER president emeritus Martin Feldstein opined that \"there may be no way to end to [the] euro crisis,\" and suggested that to avoid a break-up and \"ensure the Euro's survival,\" the best way forward \"would be for each individual Eurozone member-state to enact its own tax policies to spur demand, including cutting the value-added tax for the next five years to increase consumer spending.\"\n",
"Bank of England governor Mervyn King stated in May 2012 that the Eurozone is \"tearing itself apart without any obvious solution.\" He acknowledged that the Bank of England, the Financial Services Authority, and the British government were preparing contingency plans for a Greek exit from the euro or a collapse of the currency, but refused to discuss them to avoid adding to the panic. Known contingency plans include emergency immigration controls to prevent millions of Greek and other EU residents from entering the country to seek work, and the evacuation of Britons from Greece during civil unrest.\n",
"On 29 May 2012 the National Bank of Greece (not to be confused with the central bank, the Bank of Greece) warned that \"[a]n exit from the euro would lead to a significant decline in the living standards of Greek citizens.\" According to the announcement, per capita income would fall by 55%, the new national currency would depreciate by 65% vis-à-vis the euro, and the recession would deepen to 22%. Furthermore, unemployment would rise from its current 22% to 34% of the work force, and inflation, which was then at 2%, would soar to 30%.\n"
] |
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