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how did my plane yesterday depart late but it was able to reach the destination before it's original scheduled arrival time?
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We generally do not fly "as fast as we can go". We fly at a speed that is calculated by our airline to be a nice balance of speed and fuel economy. However, if a flight is behind schedule and could potentially impact the departure times of flights further down the line, then we can be authorized to kick it up a notch, so to speak, and try to make up some time in the air. We can also pester air traffic control for a few extra "shortcuts" along the way if we really feel that we need to catch up a bit with our schedule.
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[
"After flying , the aircraft passed the control tower back at Carswell on March 2 at 10:22 am, marking the end of the circumnavigation, and landed there at 10:31 a.m. after having been in the air for 94 hours and one minute, landing two minutes before the estimated time of arrival calculated at take-off.\n",
"BULLET::::- French flyers Paul Codos and Maurice Rossi set a new record for the furthest non-stop trip in an airplane, landing in Rayak, in Lebanon (at that time, part of Syria), having gone 5,700 miles in the 59 hours since they had taken off from New York City on at 2:00 am three days earlier. Bound for Iran, the men would have traveled even further, but a gasoline leak caused them to end the flight early.\n",
"They continued east the next morning. However, on the second night of the expedition, which was their first night sleeping outside, they nearly froze to death. After some debate the next morning, they decided that it would be wiser to return to the tail, remove the aircraft's batteries, and bring them back to the fuselage so they might power up the radio and make an SOS call to Santiago for help.\n",
"BULLET::::- You abandoning your trip following a delay of more than 12 hours in the departure of your outward flight, sea-crossing or international coach or train journey, forming part of the booked trip’s itinerary, as a result of strike or industrial action (of which you were unaware at the time you booked the trip), adverse weather conditions, or the mechanical breakdown of, or accident of, the aircraft, sea vessel, coach or train.\n",
"BULLET::::- At the opening of an air conference in London, Director of Civil Aviation Sefton Brancker predicted that within five years, an airplane would be able to travel from London to New York in just twelve hours.\n",
"On 7 March 1912, in a Blériot XI, he attempted to break the record for the shortest time for a non-stop flight from London (Hendon Aerodrome) to Paris (Issy-les-Moulineaux) previously set by Pierre Prier on 13 April 1911. Salmet's time was three hours sixteen minutes, and that was duly reported in the press. However, Salmet later confessed that he had landed in France en route to Paris to locate his bearings, so the existing record was not broken.\n",
"The following year, they made a long-duration flight over a closed circuit over Dayton, Ohio, remaining aloft for 36 hours, 14 minutes 8 seconds between 16 and 17 April. This established a new world duration record, but also a new distance record, weight record, and eight various airspeed records. On 2 May, they set out from New York to attempt the transcontinental flight again, this time traveling in the opposite direction. 26 hours 50 minutes later, they landed in San Diego, having covered 4,034 km (2,521 mi). Their aircraft is preserved in the National Air and Space Museum.\n"
] |
How did Taiwan handle the massive influx of Chinese refugees following the Chinese Civil War? How did the Kuomintang "set up shop", so to speak?
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In the memoir of Taiwanese author [Chiung Yao](_URL_0_), she said because her father was an intellectual and easily found another professor job, her family received a Japanese style house the size of twenty ["tatami"](_URL_1_) from the university. Her family was still extremely poor despite being better off than most refugees.
Another Taiwanese author named Liu Hsia wrote in her memoir that a family of fellow refugees could barely survive on the father's army pension with five kids. The author's father wanted to help them out so he resorted to forging a letter of recommendation and found a nurse position for the mother.
The less fortunate ones with fewer resources and connection would live in what they call "Military dependents' Village" consists of very poorly built houses similar to slums. They were originally intended to be temporary housing built with organic materials, but eventually the buildings were replaced with more permanent structures. In recent years those communities were demolished and replaced by low cost high rise apartment buildings.
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[
"Prior to the 1950s emigration from Taiwan (ROC) (then called Formosa) was negligible. In 1949, the Chinese Communist Party took control of mainland China, and 2 million refugees, predominantly from the Republic of China (ROC) Nationalist government, military, and business community, fled to Taiwan. Since the 1950s, because of the Cold War, the United States continued to recognize the Kuomintang-led ROC as the sole legitimate government of all of China from 1949 until 1979. As a result, immigration from Taiwan was counted under within the same quota for both mainland China and Taiwan. However, because the People's Republic of China (PRC) banned emigration to the United States until 1977, this quota for immigrants from China was almost exclusively filled by immigrants from Taiwan. After the national origins system was relaxed and repealed by the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 and 1965, many Taiwanese people came to the United States, forming the first wave of Taiwanese immigration. Their entry into the United States was facilitated by the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which created a system in which persons with professional skills and family ties in the United States were given preferential status, regardless of the nation of origin.\n",
"Due to the Chinese civil war that led Chiang Kai-Shek to retreat to Taiwan from Mainland China to escape Mao Zedong and the Communists, 2 million Chinese refugees and soldiers flooded the island inducing widespread poverty and chaos. Fortunately, pre-war development of Taiwan's agricultural sector allowed the Taiwanese economy to sustain itself despite the upsurge in the number of refugees. With Taiwan's prewar industrialization being well set, most of Taiwan's modern industries began to burgeon with a wide range of light and heavy industries that would propel the resource-poor island for further modernization.\n",
"After the handover of Taiwan to the Republic of China in 1945, there was brief cultural exchange with mainland China followed by further oppression. The Chinese Civil War resulted in another political separation when the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party) government retreated to Taiwan following their defeat by the communists in 1949. The influx of two million soldiers and civilians caused the population of Taiwan to increase from 6 million to 8 million. The government subsequently promoted Mandarin and banned the public use of Taiwanese as part of a deliberate political repression, especially in schools and broadcast media. In 1964 use of Taiwanese in schools or official settings was forbidden, and transgression in schools punished with beatings, fines and humiliation.\n",
"During the Chinese Civil War, some 20,000 Muslims, mostly soldiers and civil servants, fled mainland China with the Kuomintang to Taiwan. Since the 1980s, thousands of Muslims from Myanmar and Thailand, who are descendants of nationalist soldiers who fled Yunnan as a result of the communist takeover, have migrated to Taiwan in search of a better life. In more recent years, there has been a rise in Indonesian workers to Taiwan. According to the census of 2005, there were 58,000 Muslims in Taiwan in that year.\n",
"After the civil war between the Kuomintang (also known as the Chinese Nationalist Party) and the Communist Party in 1949, the Nationalist Government retreated to Taiwan. The military, civilian, and government personnel of all provinces were forced to move to settle in Taiwan. According to statistics, from 1945 to 1950, nearly 2 million soldiers and civilians from all parts of mainland China moved to Taiwan. In order to solve the housing problem caused by the population explosion, the Nationalist Government began to build houses or arrange dormitories, and the new residents were grouped in a certain range with the military service, occupation, and characteristics, which is now known as the “Military Dependents Village”. In Hsinchu, there are 47 villages, and the proportion is quite high. It has become a important historical and cultural asset that is indispensable to both local culture and Taiwanese history.\n",
"After the end of World War II, the Chinese Civil War resumed between the Chinese Nationalists (Kuomintang), led by Chiang Kai-shek, and the Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao Zedong. In December 1949, Chiang evacuated his government to Taiwan. Hundred thousands Inner Mongols were massacred during the Cultural Revolution in the 1960s and China forbade Mongol traditions, celebrations and the teaching of Mongolic languages during the revolution.In Inner Mongolia, some 790,000 people were persecuted. Approximately 1,000,000 Inner Mongols were killed during the 20th century. In 1960 Chinese newspaper wrote that \"Han Chinese ethnic identity must be Chinese minorities ethnic identity\". China-Mongolia relations were tense from the 1960s to the 1980s as a result of Sino-Soviet split, and there were several border conflicts during the period. Cross-border movement of Mongols was therefore hindered.\n",
"After the war was over, 14,000 of the PVA POWs hostile to the PRC were provided the option to defect to Taiwan (the majority of whom were former Nationalist soldiers who fought against the Communists in the Chinese Civil War). In contrast, only 7,110 Chinese POWs opted to return to the PRC. The defectors began arriving in Taiwan on January 23, 1954 and were referred to as \"Anti-Communist Martyrs\" (反共義士). In Taiwan January 23 became World Freedom Day (自由日) in their honor.\n"
] |
moving matter from a neutron star
|
If you were to bring a chunk of neutron star matter to the Earth, it would expand. Before I can explain this I have to explain what's actually going on in a neutron star.
When a star 'dies' it collapses in on itself and blows off its outer layers of gas. The core that's left is called a stellar remnant. This remnant can become 1 of 3 things, depending on it's mass. If its mass is below 1.44 solar masses (the Chandrasekhar limit) it becomes a white dwarf. If it's above that limit and below 3-4 solar masses(Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit,) it becomes a neutron star. If it's above that limit it becomes a black hole. In normal matter, you have electron degeneracy pressure. Under normal conditions, the electrons of a material prevent you from compressing it too much. However, in a neutron star, the energy and pressure is so great that the electrons and protons of the material actually combine to form neutrons. What causes neutron stars from collapsing into a black hole is now neutron degeneracy pressure.
So, if you were to take away some of that material and bring it to Earth, you would no longer have the immense energy compressing it. You'd end up with a large ball of neutrons.
Now free neutrons are quite radioactive so if you were to do this then they'd start decaying and releasing a whole bunch of harmful ionizing radiation. So don't do it :P
|
[
"When they are formed, neutron stars rotate in space. As they compress and shrink, this spinning speeds up because of the conservation of angular momentum—the same principle that causes a spinning skater to speed up when she pulls in her arms.\n",
"These stars gradually slow down over the eons, but those bodies that are still spinning rapidly may emit radiation that from Earth appears to blink on and off as the star spins, like the beam of light from a turning lighthouse. This \"pulsing\" appearance gives some neutron stars the name pulsars.\n",
"In other systems, the neutron star orbits so closely to its companion that its strong gravitational force can pull material from the companion's atmosphere into an orbit around itself, a mass transfer process known as Roche lobe overflow. The captured material forms a gaseous accretion disc and spirals inwards to ultimately fall onto the neutron star as in the binary system Cen X-3.\n",
"As the star's core collapses, its rotation rate increases as a result of conservation of angular momentum, hence newly formed neutron stars rotate at up to several hundred times per second. Some neutron stars emit beams of electromagnetic radiation that make them detectable as pulsars. Indeed, the discovery of pulsars by Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish in 1967 was the first observational suggestion that neutron stars exist. The radiation from pulsars is thought to be primarily emitted from regions near their magnetic poles. If the magnetic poles do not coincide with the rotational axis of the neutron star, the emission beam will sweep the sky, and when seen from a distance, if the observer is somewhere in the path of the beam, it will appear as pulses of radiation coming from a fixed point in space (the so-called \"lighthouse effect\"). The fastest-spinning neutron star known is PSR J1748-2446ad, rotating at a rate of 716 times a second or 43,000 revolutions per minute, giving a linear speed at the surface on the order of (i.e. nearly a quarter the speed of light).\n",
"As noted above, a mass distribution will emit gravitational radiation only when there is spherically asymmetric motion among the masses. A spinning neutron star will generally emit no gravitational radiation because neutron stars are highly dense objects with a strong gravitational field that keeps them almost perfectly spherical. In some cases, however, there might be slight deformities on the surface called \"mountains\", which are bumps extending no more than 10 centimeters (4 inches) above the surface, that make the spinning spherically asymmetric. This gives the star a quadrupole moment that changes with time, and it will emit gravitational waves until the deformities are smoothed out.\n",
"As stars emit matter with a stellar wind from the photosphere, the magnetosphere creates a torque on the ejected matter. This results in a transfer of angular momentum from the star to the surrounding space, causing a slowing of the stellar rotation rate. Rapidly rotating stars have a higher mass loss rate, resulting in a faster loss of momentum. As the rotation rate slows, so too does the angular deceleration. By this means, a star will gradually approach, but never quite reach, the state of zero rotation.\n",
"The neutron star is the source of a relativistic helical jet, which is observed in X-rays but has no detected radio signature. In the composite processed image (right) the neutron star pulsar is the point-like object with a pulsar wind nebula tail trailing behind it for about 3 light-years. The jet, aligned with the pulsar rotation axis, is perpendicular to the pulsar's trajectory and extends out over 37 light-years (about nine times the distance from our sun to the nearest visible star). The estimated velocity of the jet is about 80% of the speed of light.\n"
] |
we see ordinary city pigeons in most major cities, but never in between (e.g., chicago and denver but not in north dakota). how do they get there?
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1. Pigeons and doves are the same thing. People tend to call them pigeons in cities and doves in the country. They are common in cities and in rural areas. North Dakota has seven types of pigeons/doves.
2. City pigeons are often domesticated pigeons that were released back into the wild (in this case, cities). So humans brought them there.
3. Feral pigeons in cities were domesticated from rock doves that were used to living on cliffs. So hanging out on buildings wasn't that hard of an adjustment.
4. Most birds have to feed their young worms, nuts, seeds, etc. They need access to that type of food. Pigeons can eat pretty much anything, and they can create a special paste that they feed their young. That means they can better survive on the food in cities than other birds, which makes it seem like there are more of them. There is a lot food in cities, and there are fewer birds that can live off of it besides pigeons.
6. There are fewer predators. There are animals like peregrine falcons that eat pigeons in Chicago, but for the most part, there are are more pigeons than animals that eat pigeons.
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[
"Several species of local marshland birds and water birds including the little egret, the little green heron and cinnamon bittern, and migratory birds form Northern Hemisphere have been spotted there. Binoculars will come in handy for bird watching. The visitors can also enjoy a leisurely walk, jog or cycle along its bicycle track.\n",
"Large mammals found in the city include urbanized coyotes, red foxes, and numerous whitetail deer. Eastern gray squirrel, and other rodents are abundant, as well as cottontail rabbits and the nocturnal opossum and raccoon. Large bird species are abundant in parks and include the Canada goose, mallard duck, as well as shorebirds, including the great egret and great blue heron. Turkeys are also common in wooded areas and can occasionally be seen on the MKT recreation trail. Populations of bald eagles are found by the Missouri River. The city is on the Mississippi Flyway, used by migrating birds, and has a large variety of small bird species, common to the eastern U.S. The Eurasian tree sparrow, an introduced species, is limited in North America to the counties surrounding St. Louis. Columbia has large areas of forested and open land and many of these areas are home to wildlife.\n",
"Large mammals found in the city include urbanized coyotes and white-tailed deer. Eastern gray squirrel, cottontail rabbit, and other rodents are abundant, as well as the nocturnal Virginia opossum. Large bird species are abundant in parks and include Canada goose, mallard duck, as well as shorebirds, including the great egret and great blue heron. Gulls are common along the Mississippi River; these species typically follow barge traffic.\n",
"The passenger pigeon was found across most of North America east of the Rocky Mountains, from the Great Plains to the Atlantic coast in the east, to the south of Canada in the north, and the north of Mississippi in the southern United States, coinciding with its primary habitat, the eastern deciduous forests. Within this range, it constantly migrated in search of food and shelter. It is unclear if the birds favored particular trees and terrain, but they were possibly not restricted to one type, as long as their numbers could be supported. It originally bred from the southern parts of eastern and central Canada south to eastern Kansas, Oklahoma, Mississippi, and Georgia in the United States, but the primary breeding range was in southern Ontario and the Great Lakes states south through states north of the Appalachian Mountains. Though the western forests were ecologically similar to those in the east, these were occupied by band-tailed pigeons, which may have kept out the passenger pigeons through competitive exclusion.\n",
"Large mammals found in the city include urbanized coyotes and occasionally a stray whitetail deer. eastern gray squirrel, cottontail rabbit, and other rodents are abundant, as well as the nocturnal and rarely seen opossum. Large bird species are abundant in parks and include Canada goose, mallard duck, as well as shorebirds, including the great egret and great blue heron. Gulls are common along the Mississippi River; these species typically follow barge traffic. Winter populations of bald eagles are found by the Mississippi River around the Chain of Rocks Bridge. The city is on the Mississippi Flyway, used by migrating birds, and has a large variety of small bird species, common to the eastern U.S. The Eurasian tree sparrow, an introduced species, is limited in North America to the counties surrounding St. Louis. Tower Grove Park is a well-known birdwatching area in the city.\n",
"Some bird species that have been spotted in local backyards are cardinals, titmice, robins, ospreys, crows, woodpeckers, flickers, mockingbirds, wood thrushes, gray catbirds, cowbirds, chickadees, blue jays, mourning doves, towhees, summer tanagers, goldfinches, house and purple finches and the ubiquitous species starling and sparrow. Kingfishers, herons and hawks are seen near Sligo Creek.\n",
"The North American Aviary houses birds that are found locally or in other areas of the United States. Three of the largest birds in the aviary are the American white pelican, bald eagle, and the turkey vulture. Ten species of duck live in the aviary, including the pintail, the common shoveler, the green-winged teal, the English call duck, the ring-necked duck, the canvasback, the redhead, Barrow's goldeneye, the hooded merganser, and the wood duck.\n"
] |
it is said that there are more possible games of chess than there are atoms in the observable universe. how is something like this calculated?
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I don't think there is an easy way to calculate the exact number of games. One can estimate though and get a ballpark figure. Claude Shannon, father of information theory, was the first one to publish his ballpark estimate. It is based on the assumption that, on average the number of moves available to white, and then black (together) is about a thousand possibilities. Since a chess game lasts about 40 moves or so, the answer is about 1000 to the power 40. That is a one followed by 120 zeros.
The relevant question is not really how many chess games there are, since most of those games are not "good" games. One might wonder how many chess games there are that have good moves in them. This question can be posed more rigorously. Let's define a "good" move as one that does not change the best possible outcome for the side that makes the move. Then one can pose the question, how many chess games are there with only good moves in them. Now, the number is much smaller. But I have no idea how many.
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[
"BULLET::::- Chess on an Infinite plane: One type of infinite chess. Seventy-six pieces are played on an unbounded chessboard. The game uses orthodox chess pieces, plus guards, hawks, and chancellors. The absence of borders makes pieces effectively less powerful (as the king and other pieces cannot be trapped in corners), so the added material helps compensate for this. Despite the infinite playing area, mathematical investigations have shown that in a general endgame, one player can force a win in a finite number of moves. There is also a sub-variant which uses the huygens, possibly making the game mathematically undecidable.\n",
"BULLET::::- Chess on an infinite plane: 76 pieces are played on an unbounded chessboard. The game uses orthodox chess pieces, plus guards, hawks, and chancellors. The absence of borders makes pieces effectively less powerful (as the king and other pieces cannot be trapped in corners), so the added material helps compensate for this.\n",
"Allis also estimated the game-tree complexity to be at least 10, \"based on an average branching factor of 35 and an average game length of 80\". As a comparison, the number of atoms in the observable universe, to which it is often compared, is roughly estimated to be 10.\n",
"Since around 1997 chess engines have been able to defeat even the strongest human players. Nevertheless, it is considered unlikely that computers will ever solve chess due to its computational complexity.\n",
"Since 2005–06, human–computer chess matches have demonstrated that chess computers are capable of defeating even the strongest human players (Deep Blue versus Garry Kasparov). However, ratings of computers are difficult to quantify. There have been too few games under tournament conditions to give computers or software engines an accurate rating. Also, for chess engines, the rating is dependent on the machine that the program runs on.\n",
"Infinite chess is any variation of the game of chess played on an unbounded chessboard. Versions of infinite chess have been introduced independently by multiple players, chess theorists, and mathematicians, both as a playable game and as a model for theoretical study. It has been found that even though the board is unbounded, there are ways in which a player can win the game in a finite number of moves.\n",
"Chess is an example of a game with perfect information as each player can see all the pieces on the board at all times. Other examples of games with perfect information include tic-tac-toe, checkers, infinite chess, and Go.\n"
] |
since a country can print its own currency indefinitely, why can't the us for example just arbitrarily pay off all its debt that way?
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Yes. The more money in circulation, the less it's really worth, period.
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[
"Another, less used means of maintaining a fixed exchange rate is by simply making it illegal to trade currency at any other rate. This is difficult to enforce and often leads to a black market in foreign currency. Nonetheless, some countries are highly successful at using this method due to government monopolies over all money conversion. This was the method employed by the Chinese government to maintain a currency peg or tightly banded float against the US dollar. China buys an average of one billion US dollars a day to maintain the currency peg. Throughout the 1990s, China was highly successful at maintaining a currency peg using a government monopoly over all currency conversion between the yuan and other currencies.\n",
"The differing sizes of other nations' banknotes are a security feature that eliminates one form of counterfeiting to which U.S. currency is prone: Counterfeiters can simply bleach the ink off a low-denomination note, such as a $1 or $5 bill, and reprint it as a higher-value note, such as a $100 bill. To counter this, the U.S. government has included in all $5 and higher denominated notes since the 1990 series a vertical laminate strip imprinted with denomination information, which under ultraviolet light fluoresces a different color for each denomination ($5 note: blue; $10 note: orange; $20 note: green; $50 note: yellow; $100 note: red).\n",
"For a country that has its own currency, its government can create credits by itself, and its central bank can keep the interest rate close to or equal to the nominal risk-free rate. Former FRB chairman Alan Greenspan says that the probability that the US defaults on its debt repayment is zero, because the US government can print money. The FRB of St. Louis says that the US government's debt is denominated in US Dollars, therefore the government will never go bankrupt.\n",
"The United States dollar remains \"de facto\" world currency. Accordingly, almost all oil sales throughout the world are denominated in United States dollars (USD). Because most countries rely on oil imports, they are forced to maintain large stockpiles of dollars in order to continue imports. This creates a consistent demand for USDs and ostensibly supports the USD's value, regardless of economic conditions in the United States.\n",
"Without taxes the government could not pay its debt. Seven of the thirteen states printed large quantities of its own paper money, backed by gold, land, or nothing, so there was no fair exchange rate among them. State courts required state creditors to accept payments at face value with a fraction of real purchase power. The same legislation that these states used to wipe out the Revolutionary debt to patriots was used to pay off promised veteran pensions. The measures were popular because they helped both small farmers and plantation owners pay off their debts.\n",
"They may also be vulnerable to a sovereign debt crisis due to currency mismatch: if few bonds in their own currency are accepted abroad, and so the country issues mainly foreign-denominated bonds, decrease in the value of their own currency can make it prohibitively expensive to pay back their foreign-denominated bonds (see original sin).\n",
"BULLET::::- To create a uniform national currency. To achieve this, all national banks were required to accept each other's currencies at par value. This eliminated the risk of loss in case of bank default. The notes were printed by the Comptroller of the Currency to ensure uniform quality and prevent counterfeiting.\n"
] |
How did Egypt become so thoroughly Arabised?
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Egypt was under the control of the Arabs directly for six consecutive centuries, and then under the control of people who likely used Arabic for government functions due to the varied origins of the Mamluks themselves. So, in short, for almost a thousand years it was under the control of administrators who spoke Arabic, right in the middle of a large empire where Arabic was the main lingua franca. That is a huge time frame for the language to filter down to the general populace.
As to the second claim, the 'Arabization' of North Africa was mostly a cultural exchange rather than a replacement of peoples. Recent studies suggest that the average Egyptian can likely trace their heritage back thousands of years, and of course, clearly Berbers are a wholely distinct people from the Arabs. The Fertile crescent and Syria is a bit more, but there would have been Arabs and other Semitic peoples there before the Muslim invasions. The truth is that outside of a few isolated points in time, large scale population transfers just weren't that common. While the elites might be replaced, and the language of government and administration might change to reflect that, the change in the general population is generally going to reflect the cultural pressure from above rather than wholesale replacement of populations. This is not to say that some population transfers didn't take place in the Caliphate, but that they are almost certainly a minor component of the over-all Arabization of the Middle-East and North Africa.
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[
"During the 20th century, Egypt experienced several waves of revolutions to regain control of their nation from colonial rulers as to create a modern nation-state. Much of Egypt was Muslim at the time although there were significant numbers of Jews and Christians as well, but many of the political revolutions that Egypt experienced were centered on religions and how they related to politics. “The result was an ideological conflict over the direction of the Egyptian nation, over who had the legitimate authority to determine the direction,” and “by the 1930s a pattern of radical politics had taken hold across the Middle East.” In 1928, Hasan al-Banna founded the Society of Muslim Brothers, or Muslim Brotherhood, a prototype of the contemporary Islamic extremist movements. At this time, the revolutions were causing outbreaks of violence rooted in the political upheaval, but the Brothers denied to view their position as anything but religious. Like the Kharijites before them, the Brothers firmly believed that the law could only follow the guidelines that God had set for them. The Brotherhood rose to popularity through the 30s and 40s, and still had a significant membership in the 1950s, when Gamal Abdel Nasser began to rise to power.\n",
"In the years to follow the Arab occupation of Egypt, a social hierarchy was created whereby Egyptians who converted to Islam acquired the status of mawali or \"clients\" to the ruling Arab elite, while those who remained Christian, the Copts, became dhimmis. In time the power of the Arabs waned throughout the Islamic Empire so that in the 10th century, the Turkish Ikhshids were able to take control of Egypt and made it an independent political unit from the rest of the empire.\n",
"Arab nationalism began to gain grounds in Egypt in the 1940s following efforts by Syrian, Palestinian and Lebanese intellectuals. Nevertheless, by the end of the 1940s and even after the establishment of the Arab League, historian H. S. Deighton was still writing that \"Egyptians are not Arabs, and both they and the Arabs are aware of this fact\".\n",
"Significant Egyptian migration to Palestine happened at the end of the 18th century due to a severe famine in Egypt, and several waves of Egyptian immigrants came even earlier due to escape natural disasters such as droughts and plagues, government oppression, taxes, and military conscription. Although many Palestinian Arabs also moved to Egypt, Egyptian immigration to Palestine was more dominant. In the 19th century, large numbers of Egyptians fled to Palestine to escape the military conscription and forced labor projects in the Nile Delta under Muhammad Ali. Following the First Egyptian-Ottoman War, which saw the Egyptian conquest of Palestine, more Egyptians were brought to Palestine as forced laborers. Following the Second Egyptian-Ottoman War, which saw Egyptian rule in Palestine terminated, massive numbers of soldiers deserted during the Egyptian army's retreat from Palestine to permanently settle there. Egyptians settled mainly in Jaffa, the Coastal plain, Samaria and in Wadi Ara. In the southern plain there were 19 villages with Egyptian populations, while in Jaffa there were some 500 Egyptian families with a population of over 2,000 people. The largest rural concentration of Egyptian immigrants was in the Sharon region. According to David Grossman, statistics show the number of Egyptian immigrants to Palestine between 1829 and 1841 exceeded 15,000, and he estimated that it was at least 23,000 and possibly up to 30,000. In 1860, there was significant immigration to Safed by Moorish (i.e. Arab-Berber) tribes from Algeria and a small number of Kurds, while some 6,000 Arabs from the Beni Sakhr tribe immigrated to Palestine from what is now Jordan to settle in Tiberias. In addition, considerable numbers of Turks stationed in Palestine to garrison the land settled there.\n",
"It has been argued that until the 1940s, Egypt was more in favour of territorial, Egyptian nationalism and distant from the pan-Arab ideology. Egyptians generally did not identify themselves as Arabs, and it is revealing that when the Egyptian nationalist leader Saad Zaghlul met the Arab delegates at Versailles in 1918, he insisted that their struggles for statehood were not connected, claiming that the problem of Egypt was an Egyptian problem and not an Arab one. \n",
"The region was not originally Arab – its Arabization was a consequence of the inclusion of Palestine within the rapidly expanding Arab Empire conquered by Arabian tribes and their local allies in the first millennium, most significantly during the Islamic conquest of Syria in the 7th century. Palestine, then a Hellenized region controlled by the Byzantine empire, with a large Christian population, came under the political and cultural influence of Arabic-speaking Muslim dynasties, including the Kurdish Ayyubids. From the conquest down to the 11th century, half of the world's Christians lived under the new Muslim order and there was no attempt for that period to convert them. Over time, nonetheless, much of the existing population of Palestine was Arabized and gradually converted to Islam. Arab populations had existed in Palestine prior to the conquest, and some of these local Arab tribes and Bedouin fought as allies of Byzantium in resisting the invasion, which the archaeological evidence indicates was a 'peaceful conquest', and the newcomers were allowed to settle in the old urban areas. Theories of population decline compensated by the importation of foreign populations are not confirmed by the archaeological record Like other \"Arabized\" Arab nations the Arab identity of Palestinians, largely based on linguistic and cultural affiliation, is independent of the existence of any actual Arabian origins. The Palestinian population has grown dramatically. For several centuries during the Ottoman period the population in Palestine declined and fluctuated between 150,000 and 250,000 inhabitants, and it was only in the 19th century that a rapid population growth began to occur.\n",
"The Islamization of Egypt occurred as a result of the Muslim conquest by the Arabs during Roman Egypt, which led by the prominent Muslim ruler Amr ibn al-Aas, the military governor of Palestine. The masses of locals in Egypt underwent a large scale gradual conversion from Coptic Christianity to Islam. This process of Islamization was accompanied by a simultaneous wave of Arabization. These factors resulted in Muslim faith becoming the dominant faith in Egypt between 10th and 14th century, and the Egyptian acculturating into Islamic identity and then replacing their native Coptic and Greek languages with Arabic as their sole vernacular which became the language of the nation by law, a law that helped in almost vanishing the original tongue till today. \n"
] |
Has the U.S. Military ever conducted assassinations of foreign leaders in the past?
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Going off that, of the assassinations done by either CIA or military was it widely known who did it or did people think it was different countries?
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[
"FAR is most significantly known for having killed the U.S. ambassador to Guatemala, John Gordon Mein, in 1968. Also killed that year were two U.S. military advisers, Colonel John Webber and Ernest Munro, although they might have been killed at the command of PGT leader Leonardo Castillo Johnson.\n",
"In the United States, within 100 years, four presidents—Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley and John F. Kennedy—died at the hands of assassins. There have been at least 20 known attempts on U.S. presidents' lives. Huey Long, a Senator, was assassinated on September 10, 1935. Robert F. Kennedy, a Senator and a presidential candidate, was also assassinated on June 6, 1968 in the United States.\n",
"BULLET::::- Laurence Steinhardt (1913), former United States Ambassador to Sweden, Peru, the Soviet Union, Turkey, Czechoslovakia and Canada; the first United States Ambassador to be killed in office.\n",
"Assassinations of heads of state have been against U.S. policy since an executive order against them was issued in 1976; in response, Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld said that \"our department doesn't do that kind of thing.\" Bernardo Álvarez, Venezuela's ambassador to the U.S., demanded a stronger condemnation from the White House and that the United States \"respect our country and its president.\"\n",
"Robert Whitney Imbrie (April 23, 1883 – July 18, 1924) was the first U.S. foreign service officer to be murdered for political reasons. Today some Iranians recall Imbrie as a villain, justifiably killed.\n",
"BULLET::::- Gerald J. Bekkerman, \"Assassinations During War and Peace: Can the President Order the Assassination of a Hostile Foreign Leader Under U.S. Law in Lieu of Executive Order 12,333 and the War Crimes Act of 1996?\" KentLaw.edu\n",
"U.S. Ambassador to Mexico H.L. Wilson helped to plot the February 1913 coup d'état, during the Ten Tragic Days (\"la decena trágica)\", which overthrew Francisco I. Madero. However, the Ambassador might have done this without the explicit approval of lame duck President Taft, but Ambassador Wilson had secured the support of the foreign diplomatic corps in Mexico, especially the British, German, and French envoys, for the coup and lobbied for U.S. recognition of the new head of state, General Victoriano Huerta.\n"
] |
terryology.
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He's just mixing up multiplication and addition. He thinks 1 X 1 is the equivalent of holding up one index finger for each hand and seeing 2 fingers. He also said everyone thinks √4 is 2, so √2 must be 1, but it's not *because we're told it's 2,* which proves that he knows nothing about simple arithmetics.
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[
"Occupational therapy—often abbreviated OT—is the \"use of productive or creative activity in the treatment or rehabilitation of physically, cognitively, or emotionally disabled people.\" Most commonly, occupational therapists work with people with disabilities to enable them to maximize their skills and abilities. Occupational therapy practitioners are skilled professionals whose education includes the study of human growth and development with specific emphasis on the physical, emotional, psychological, sociocultural, cognitive and environmental components of illness and injury. They commonly work alongside clinical psychologists in settings such as inpatient and outpatient mental health, pain management clinics, eating disorder clinics, and child development services. OT's use support groups, individual counseling sessions, and activity-based approaches to address psychiatric symptoms and maximize functioning in life activities.\n",
"Occupational therapy (OT) is the use of assessment and intervention to develop, recover, or maintain the meaningful activities, or \"occupations\", of individuals, groups, or communities. It is an allied health profession performed by occupational therapists and occupational therapy assistants (OTA). OTs often work with people with mental health problems, disabilities, injuries, or impairments.\n",
"The Master of Applied Anthropology (MAA) is a two-year program focused on training non-academic anthropologists. The University of Maryland, College Park developed this program to encourage entrepreneurial approaches to careers outside academia, where most new anthropologists are likely to seek and find employment. For this reason, it is considered a professional degree rather than a liberal arts degree.\n",
"UDAS organizes various cultural and creative projects and activities for persons with and without disabilities, such as: drawing school and painting for children, workshop in creative writing, graphic workshops, art colonies, individual and collective exhibitions of art works, where priority is given to persons with disabilities. All activity have a clear psycho therapeutic aspect. Main cultural activity is doing art and handcraft. \n",
"An occupational therapist (OT) is a healthcare professional who works with clients across the lifespan to help them achieve a fulfilled and satisfied state in life through the use of meaningful occupation. Occupational therapists help people do the day-to-day tasks that \"occupy\" their time and engage in their meaningful roles and routines. OTs use occupation as a foundational means to promote health and wellness.\n",
"Terry is an intellectual boy for whom Claudia falls in love with, has black hair and dark eyes. He lives between the beach and Dawn's house with his parents, both of whom are lawyers, and his two brothers, one older and one younger. He loves school and his hobby is reading; he once won a districtwide science fair.\n",
"MANIC, formerly known as PMML.1, is a cognitive architecture developed by the predictive modeling and machine learning laboratory at University Of Arkansas. It differs from other cognitive architectures in that it tries to \"minimize novelty\". That is, it attempts to organize well-established techniques in computer science, rather than propose any new methods for achieving cognition. While most other cognitive architectures are inspired by some neurological observation, and are subsequently developed in a top-down manner to behave in some manner like a brain, MANIC is inspired only by common practices in computer science, and was developed in a bottom-up manner for the purpose of unifying various methods in machine learning and artificial intelligence.\n"
] |
what is the difference between a bison and a buffalo?
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You can find pictures on the internet easily so let me explain why the words got mixed up. We keep them separate because they aren't that closely related.
* ~~In Europe, Asia, and Africa there are only Buffalo. There used to be Bison in Europe but they went extinct thousands of years ago.~~ I read a little more about it and there are Bison in Europe but there weren't very many. They only lived in a small part of Europe because they were hunted a lot, just like the American Bison.
* In The Americas there are only Bison.
When Europeans came to America they saw Bison. They look kind of similar to the buffalo they were knew of so they called them buffalo. They weren't actually Buffalo so we gave them the name Bison, the same name we give to the extinct Bison from Europe.
It's not terrible to call bison buffalo, but it isn't correct. Don't worry about it too much but they are definitely different.
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[
"The American bison (\"Bison bison\") is a North American species of bison, also commonly known as the American buffalo. These bison once roamed the grasslands of North America in massive herds; their range roughly formed a triangle between the Great Bear Lake in Canada's far northwest, south to the Mexican states of Durango and Nuevo León, and east along the western boundary of the Appalachian Mountains. Today these bison are much fewer in number, and travel only in small herds.\n",
"Officially, the \"American Buffalo\" is classified by the United States Government as a type of cattle, and the government allows private herds to be managed as such. This is a reflection of the characteristics that bison share with cattle. Though the American bison (\"Bison bison\") is not only a separate species, but actually in a separate genus from domestic cattle (\"Bos primigenius\"), they clearly have a lot of genetic compatibility and American bison can interbreed freely with cattle. Moreover, when they do interbreed, the crossbreeds tend to look very much like purebred Bison, so appearance is completely unreliable as a means of determining what is a purebred bison and what is a crossbred cow. Many ranchers have deliberately cross bred their cattle with bison, and it would also be expected that there could be some natural hybridization in areas where cattle and bison occur in the same range. Since cattle and bison eat similar food and tolerate similar conditions, they have often been in the same range together in the past, and opportunity for cross breeding may sometimes have been common.\n",
"A bison has a shaggy, long, dark-brown winter coat, and a lighter-weight, lighter-brown summer coat. As is typical in ungulates, the male bison is slightly larger than the female and, in some cases, can be considerably heavier. Plains bison are often in the smaller range of sizes, and wood bison in the larger range. Head-rump lengths range from long and the tail adding or\n",
"The American bison (\"Bison bison\") is a North American species of bison, also commonly known as the American buffalo. These bison once roamed the grasslands of North America in massive herds; their range roughly formed a triangle between the Great Bear Lake in Canada's far northwest, south to the Mexican states of Durango and Nuevo León, and east along the western boundary of the Appalachian Mountains.\n",
"Officially, the \"American Buffalo\" is classified by the United States Government as a type of cattle, and the government allows private herds to be managed as such. This is a reflection of the characteristics that bison share with cattle. Though the American bison (\"Bison bison\") is not only a separate species, but actually in a separate genus from domestic cattle (\"Bos primigenius\"), it clearly has a lot of genetic compatibility with the latter, and American bison can interbreed freely with cattle. Moreover, when they do interbreed, the crossbreeds tend to look very much like purebred bison, so appearance is completely unreliable as a means of determining what is a purebred bison and what is crossbred with cattle. Many ranchers have deliberately crossbred their cattle with bison, and it would also be expected that there could be some natural hybridization in areas where cattle and bison occur in the same range. Since cattle and bison eat similar food and tolerate similar conditions, they have often been in the same range together in the past, and opportunity for cross breeding may sometimes have been common.\n",
"The American bison or simply bison (\"Bison bison\"), also commonly known as the American buffalo or simply buffalo, is a North American species of bison that once roamed North America in vast herds. Their historical range, by 9000 BCE, is described as the great bison belt, a tract of rich grassland that ran from Alaska to the Gulf of Mexico, east to the Atlantic Seaboard (nearly to the Atlantic tidewater in some areas) as far north as New York and south to Georgia and per some sources down to Florida, with sightings in North Carolina near Buffalo Ford on the Catawba River as late as 1750. They became nearly extinct by a combination of commercial hunting and slaughter in the 19th century and introduction of bovine diseases from domestic cattle. With a population in excess of 60 million in the late 18th century, the species was down to 541 animals by 1889. Recovery efforts expanded in the mid-20th century, with a resurgence to roughly 31,000 animals today, largely restricted to a few national parks and reserves.\n",
"The American bison (Bison bison) is a North American species of bison, also commonly known as the American buffalo. These bison once roamed the grasslands of North America in massive herds; their range roughly formed a triangle between the Great Bear Lake in Canada's far northwest, south to the Mexican states of Durango and Nuevo León, and east along the western boundary of the Appalachian Mountains.\n"
] |
how to best describe/explain ionization energy and electron affinity?
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Ionization energy is the amount of energy that must go into an atom to remove an electron. As you remove more electrons, the amount of energy required becomes larger and larger because of the effective nuclear charge. This pulls the electrons closer and closer to the nucleus, which results in higher energy to pull it off. Once all the valence electrons are removed, the ionization energy increases substantially.
& #x200B;
Electron affinity is basically the opposite. It's the energy that's released when an electron is added to an atom.
& #x200B;
In the context of NaCl, not much energy is required to remove an electron from a sodium atom, and a lot of energy is released when an electron is added to a chlorine atom (in fact, it has the highest electron affinity in the periodic table).
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[
"Electron affinity can be defined in two equivalent ways. First, as the energy that is released by adding an electron to an isolated gaseous atom. The second (reverse) definition is that electron affinity is the energy required to remove an electron from a singly charged gaseous negative ion. Either convention can be used. Whereas ionization energies are always concerned with the formation of positive ions, electron affinities are the negative ion equivalent.\n",
"Equivalently, electron affinity can also be defined as the amount of energy \"required\" to detach an electron from the atom while it holds a single-excess-electron thus making the atom a negative ion, i.e. the energy change for the process\n",
"Robert S. Mulliken proposed that the arithmetic mean of the first ionization energy (E) and the electron affinity (E) should be a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons. As this definition is not dependent on an arbitrary relative scale, it has also been termed absolute electronegativity, with the units of kilojoules per mole or electronvolts.\n",
"In chemistry and atomic physics, the electron affinity (\"E\") of an atom or molecule is defined as the amount of energy \"released\" or \"spent\" when an electron is added to a neutral atom or molecule in the gaseous state to form a negative ion.\n",
"The adiabatic ionization energy of a molecule is the \"minimum\" amount of energy required to remove an electron from a neutral molecule, i.e. the difference between the energy of the vibrational ground state of the neutral species (v\" = 0 level) and that of the positive ion (v' = 0). The specific equilibrium geometry of each species does not affect this value.\n",
"In the field of solid state physics, the electron affinity is defined differently than in chemistry and atomic physics. For a semiconductor-vacuum interface (that is, the surface of a semiconductor), electron affinity, typically denoted by \"E\" or \"χ\", is defined as the energy obtained by moving an electron from the vacuum just outside the semiconductor to the bottom of the conduction band just inside the semiconductor:\n",
"The electron affinity of an atom is the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom to form a negative ion. Although electron affinity varies greatly, some patterns emerge. Generally, nonmetals have more positive electron affinity values than metals. Chlorine most strongly attracts an extra electron. The electron affinities of the noble gases have not been measured conclusively, so they may or may not have slightly negative values.\n"
] |
What happened to the Rockefellers fortune?
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This is a complicated question because when people see that the brothers had such a large sum they automatically assume the same thing you did. That wealth typically creates more wealth. The trouble is no one takes into account the time value of money. Which states that money today is more valuable than money tomorrow or a year from now. He was once valued at 336 billion but that was for at that time in history. The value of money decreases over time, plus the brothers were worth that much. Since their deaths it has been split between 200 family members. The fact that they are still able to be wealthy at this day and age is more what we're use to. In that families that are wealthy usually remain wealthy. The Rockefellers actually made some smart investments. They owned Chase Manhattan bank and were large investors in Apple, so their wealth has accrued but the world will never see the same as in the Gilded age. When there was The Rockefellers, JP. Morgan, Carnegie and So on.
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[
"At the time of his death, \"Forbes\" estimated Rockefeller's net worth was $3.3 billion. Initially, most of his wealth had come to him via the family trusts that his father had set up, which were administered by Room 5600 and the Chase Bank. In turn, most of these trusts were held as shares in the successor companies of Standard Oil, as well as diverse real estate investment partnerships, such as the expansive Embarcadero Center in San Francisco, which he later sold for considerable profit, retaining only an indirect stake. In addition, he was or had been a partner in various properties such as Caneel Bay, a resort development in the Virgin Islands; a cattle ranch in Argentina; and a sheep ranch in Australia.\n",
"The Rockefeller family () is an American industrial, political, and banking family that owns one of the world's largest fortunes. The fortune was made in the American petroleum industry during the late 19th and early 20th centuries by John D. Rockefeller and his brother William Rockefeller, primarily through Standard Oil. The family has had a long association with, and control of, Chase Manhattan Bank. the Rockefellers were considered one of the most powerful families, if not the most powerful family, in the history of the United States. The Rockefeller family originated in Rhineland in Germany and family members moved to the New World in the early 18th century, while through Eliza Davison, John D. Rockefeller and William Rockefeller Jr. and their descendants are also of Scotch-Irish ancestry.\n",
"Since Rockefeller had invested large sums of money in the stock market, his wealth declined sharply as a result of the 1929 stock market crash. In September 1930, Rockefeller and Todd started looking for funding to construct the buildings; and by November they secured a tentative funding agreement with the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company. In March 1931, this agreement was made official, with Metropolitan Life agreeing to lend $65 million (equivalent to $ million in ) to the Rockefeller Center Development Corporation. Metropolitan Life's president Frederick H. Ecker granted the money on two conditions: that no other entity would grant a loan to the complex, and that Rockefeller co-sign the loan so that he would be responsible for paying it off if the development corporation defaulted. Rockefeller covered ongoing expenses through the sale of oil company stock. Other estimates placed Radio City's cost at $120 million (equivalent to $ billion in ) based on plan H-16, released in August 1930, or $116.3 million (equivalent to $ billion in ) based on plan F-18, released in November 1930.\n",
"The Rockefeller wealth, distributed as it was through a system of foundations and trusts, continued to fund family philanthropic, commercial, and, eventually, political aspirations throughout the 20th century. John Jr.'s youngest son David Rockefeller was a leading New York banker, serving for over 20 years as CEO of Chase Manhattan (now part of JPMorgan Chase). Second son, Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller, was Republican governor of New York and the 41st Vice President of the United States. Fourth son Winthrop Aldrich Rockefeller served as Republican Governor of Arkansas. Grandchildren Abigail Aldrich \"Abby\" Rockefeller and John Davison Rockefeller III became philanthropists. Grandson Laurance Spelman Rockefeller became a conservationist. Great-grandson John Davison \"Jay\" Rockefeller IV served from 1985 until 2015 as a Democratic Senator from West Virginia after serving as governor of West Virginia, and another Winthrop served as Lieutenant Governor of Arkansas for a decade.\n",
"Rockefeller ran the company as its chairman, until his retirement in 1897. He remained the major shareholder, and in 1911, with the dissolution of the Standard Oil trust into 34 smaller companies, Rockefeller became the richest man in the world, as the initial income of these individual enterprises proved to be much bigger than that of a single larger company. Its successors such as ExxonMobil or Chevron are still among the companies with the largest revenues in the world. By 1882, his top aide was John Dustin Archbold. After 1896, Rockefeller disengaged from business to concentrate on his philanthropy, leaving Archbold in control. Other notable Standard Oil principals include Henry Flagler, developer of the Florida East Coast Railway and resort cities, and Henry H. Rogers, who built the Virginian Railway.\n",
"His wealth continued to grow significantly (in line with U.S. economic growth) as the demand for gasoline soared, eventually reaching about $900 million on the eve of the First World War, including significant interests in banking, shipping, mining, railroads, and other industries. His personal wealth was 900 million in 1913 worth 21 billion dollars adjusted for inflation in 2016. According to his \"New York Times\" obituary, \"it was estimated after Mr. Rockefeller retired from business that he had accumulated close to $1,500,000,000 out of the earnings of the Standard Oil trust and out of his other investments. This was probably the greatest amount of wealth that any private citizen had ever been able to accumulate by his own efforts.\" By the time of his death in 1937, Rockefeller's remaining fortune, largely tied up in permanent family trusts, was estimated at $1.4 billion, while the total national GDP was $92 billion. According to some methods of wealth calculation, Rockefeller's net worth over the last decades of his life would easily place him as the wealthiest known person in recent history. As a percentage of the United States' GDP, no other American fortune—including those of Bill Gates or Sam Walton—would even come close.\n",
"Rockefeller, who had rarely sold shares, held over 25% of Standard's stock at the time of the breakup. He and all of the other stockholders received proportionate shares in each of the 34 companies. In the aftermath, Rockefeller's control over the oil industry was somewhat reduced but over the next 10 years, the breakup also proved immensely profitable for him. The companies' combined net worth rose fivefold and Rockefeller's personal wealth jumped to $900 million.\n"
] |
what would happen if a massive planet came very close to earth, as in, would our gravity change?
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The planets would disrupt each others orbit, draw each other closer together and then shoot apart again, over and over and over like this for years as gravity ripped chunks off of each with every pass, each time getting closer together.
Those chunks would hit both planets turning them into lifeless balls of molten rock before finally slamming together completely, most of which would eventually cool down forming a solid mass, a new planet. The remainder of the materials would orbit around the new planet for a while, most of it raining down in the form of giant meteors, until they too eventually merge together and form a moon.
That's actually how Earth and the Moon were formed.
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[
"The absence of close orbiting super-Earths in the Solar System may also be the result of Jupiter's inward migration. As Jupiter migrates inward, planetesimals are captured in its mean-motion resonances, causing their orbits to shrink and their eccentricities to grow. A collisional cascade follows as their relative velocities became large enough to produce catastrophic impacts. The resulting debris then spirals inward toward the Sun due to drag from the gas disk. If there were super-Earths in the early Solar System, they would have caught much of this debris in resonances and could have been driven into the Sun ahead of it. The current terrestrial planets would then form from planetesimals left behind when Jupiter reversed course. However, the migration of close orbiting super-Earths into the Sun could be avoided if the debris coalesced into larger objects, reducing gas drag; and if the protoplanetary disk had an inner cavity, their inward migration could be halted near its edge. If no planets had yet formed in the inner Solar System, the destruction of the larger bodies during the collisional cascade could have left the remaining debris small enough to be pushed outward by the solar wind, which would have been much stronger during the early Solar System, leaving little to form planets inside Mercury's orbit.\n",
"Most natural satellites of the planets undergo tidal acceleration to some degree (usually small), except for the two classes of tidally decelerated bodies. In most cases, however, the effect is small enough that even after billions of years most satellites will not actually be lost. The effect is probably most pronounced for Mars's second moon Deimos, which may become an Earth-crossing asteroid after it leaks out of Mars's grip.\n",
"Second, no large-mass body such as a gas giant should be present in or relatively close to the HZ, thus disrupting the formation of Earth-size bodies. The matter in the asteroid belt, for example, appears to have been unable to accrete into a planet due to orbital resonances with Jupiter; if the giant had appeared in the region that is now between the orbits of Venus and Mars, Earth would almost certainly not have developed in its present form. However a gas giant inside the HZ might have habitable moons under the right conditions.\n",
"As Earth passes by Jupiter to make use of gravity assist, a \"gravitational spike\" causes devastating earthquakes that disable many thrusters across the globe and pull the Earth dangerously close. The four escape amidst the chaos and attempt to make their way out in Han Zi'ang's truck, but the truck is requisitioned for a rescue mission by the military rescue team CN171-11; they are to transport a lighter core, an engine component, to restart the planetary thruster engine in Hangzhou, supervised by soldiers led by Wang Lei. In the remnants of Shanghai, they lose their vehicle, and while transporting the component up the ruins of the Shanghai Tower Han Zi'ang is killed. With news that the Hangzhou thruster was fully compromised and the city was completely destroyed, the group is downcast. However they later find a new vehicle where the on-board engineer, Li Yiyi, convinces them to transport a lighter core to repair a larger planetary thruster engine in Sulawesi.\n",
"BULLET::::3. Gravitational perturbation of planets and planetesimals by nearby stars becomes less likely as the density of stars decreases. Hence the further a planet lies from the Galactic Center or a spiral arm, the less likely it is to be struck by a large bolide which could extinguish all complex life on a planet.\n",
"The Sun's gravity is sufficiently weak at such a distance that these small galactic perturbations may be enough to dislodge some planetesimals from such distant orbits, sending them towards the Sun and planets by significantly reducing their perihelia. Such a body, being composed of a rock and ice mixture, would become a comet when subjected to the increased solar radiation present in the inner Solar System.\n",
"Interest in the possibility of serial impacts on Earth was piqued by observations of comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 impacting on Jupiter in 1994. It is estimated, however, that the likelihood of such an event on Earth is vanishingly small because the Earth's weaker gravitational field is much less able than Jupiter's to pull a speeding object close enough to be torn apart by tidal forces. However, evidence of serial impacts on the Moon can be seen in several chains of craters.\n"
] |
which one is more environmental friendly - eating with a disposable plate and cutlery to save water; or eating with normal plate and wash them with water and soap?
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Washing your dishes is more environmentally friendly. The water is not destroyed in the washing process.
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[
"Besides ingredient quality, there are also sanitation requirements. It is important to ensure that the food processing environment is as clean as possible in order to produce the safest possible food for the consumer. A recent example of poor sanitation recently has been the 2006 North American E. coli outbreak involving spinach, an outbreak that is still under investigation.\n",
"Where dishes are to be shared among many, such as in restaurants, sanitization is necessary and desirable in order to prevent spread of microorganisms. Most restaurants have three-compartment sinks (depending on country or state regulations) and use the three-sink system (washing, rinsing and sanitizing of dirty dishes) with the first compartment containing a combination of warm water and soap or detergent. Water within the first compartment often needs to be between (according to applicable health codes). \n",
"In the kitchen, for example, the food has to be organic, and there is a big animal-welfare priority. The school has to do without chemicals, so cleaners, for instance, are replaced with environmentally-friendly products.\n",
"As a result of the potential animal and human health risks, some agencies assert that the risks inherent in raw feeding outweigh the purported benefits. Despite such concerns, there is no known incidence of humans being infected with salmonella by cats and dogs fed a raw diet. There have been isolated cases of humans contracting salmonella from household pets, but it is undetermined whether raw food was connected to the salmonella infection. The FDA recommends cleaning and disinfecting all surfaces that come in contact with raw meat, as well as thoroughly washing hands your hands, to reduce the risk of coming in contact with harmful bacteria.\n",
"Food safety depends on the safe preparation, handling, and storage of food. Food spoilage bacteria proliferate in the \"Danger zone\" temperature range from , food therefore should not be stored in this temperature range. Washing of hands and surfaces, especially when handling different meats, and keeping raw food separate from cooked food to avoid cross-contamination, are good practices in food preparation. Foods prepared on plastic cutting boards may be less likely to harbor bacteria than wooden ones. Washing and disinfecting cutting boards, especially after use with raw meat, poultry, or seafood, reduces the risk of contamination.\n",
"Culinary hygiene pertains to the practices related to food management and cooking to prevent food contamination, prevent food poisoning and minimize the transmission of disease to other foods, humans or animals. Culinary hygiene practices specify safe ways to handle, store, prepare, serve and eat food.\n",
"Neither the U.S. Food and Drug Administration nor the United States Department of Agriculture recommend washing fruits and vegetables in anything other than cold water. To date there is little evidence that vegetable washes are effective at reducing the presence of harmful microorganisms, though their application in removing simple dirt and wax is not contested.\n"
] |
why do animals in a particular ecological niche often look so similar even if they are completely unrelated?
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This is a concept called "convergent evolution." Basically, if the pressures on one creature were such that flight was advantageous to survival in a particular environment, those same pressures could easily select for similar variations should they happen to randomly arise in another species.
This is particularly true for those filing the same niche, as the pressures will be particularly similar.
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[
"In morphology, analogous traits arise when different species live in similar ways and/or a similar environment, and so face the same environmental factors. When occupying similar ecological niches (that is, a distinctive way of life) similar problems can lead to similar solutions. The British anatomist Richard Owen was the first to identify the fundamental difference between analogies and homologies.\n",
"The different dimensions, or \"plot axes\", of a niche represent different biotic and abiotic variables. These factors may include descriptions of the organism's life history, habitat, trophic position (place in the food chain), and geographic range. According to the competitive exclusion principle, no two species can occupy the same niche in the same environment for a long time. The parameters of a realized niche are described by the realized niche width of that species. Some plants and animals, called specialists, need specific habitats and surroundings to survive, such as the spotted owl, which lives specifically in old growth forests. Other plants and animals, called generalists, are not as particular and can survive in a range of conditions, for example the dandelion.\n",
"Because of their strict ecological requirements, some species have been proposed as indicators of the conservation state of their habitats. They are generally animals with low vagility (dispersal ability) and with very specific habitat requirements, so they can be also used to accurately determine the distribution of ecozones. Today the fauna of these animals is being studied to select conservation priorities in the Atlantic rainforest in Brazil.\n",
"In essential structural characteristics, as well as in general appearance and habits, all the animals of this genus very closely resemble each other, so whether they should be considered as belonging to one, two, or more species is a matter of controversy among naturalists.\n",
"This perspective of niche allows for the existence of both ecological equivalents and empty niches. An ecological equivalent to an organism is an organism from a different taxonomic group exhibiting similar adaptations in a similar habitat, an example being the different succulents found in American and African deserts, cactus and euphorbia, respectively. As another example, the anole lizards of the Greater Antilles are a rare example of convergent evolution, adaptive radiation, and the existence of ecological equivalents: the anole lizards evolved in similar microhabitats independently of each other and resulted in the same ecomorphs across all four islands.\n",
"Ecological niches are all of the variables in an environment, such as the resources, competitors, and responses, that contribute to the organism's fitness. Multiple-niche polymorphism states that diversity is maintained within a population due to the varying amount of possible niches and environments. Therefore, the more various niches the more likelihood of polymophrism and diversity. For \"B. burgdorferi\", varying vertebrae niches, such deer and mice, can affect the overall balancing selection for variants.\n",
"Because animals can change orientation with respect to their environment, and because appendages like limbs and tentacles can change position with respect to the main body, positional descriptive terms need to refer to the animal as in its standard anatomical position. All descriptions are with respect to the organism in its standard anatomical position, even when the organism in question has appendages in another position. This helps avoid confusion in terminology when referring to the same organism in different postures.\n"
] |
non-native speaker here, why is "biannually" considered to be twice a year, but "biweekly" only once every two weeks instead of two times per week?
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"Biweekly" can refer to either twice a week or two times a week. The same for "bimonthly" (i.e. once a month or two times a month).
The issue stems from the prefix *"bi-"*, which is inherently ambiguous in that it can mean either **occuring twice** or **occuring every two**.
English offers us an alternative with 'annual', as things can either be *"biannual"* (twice a year) or *"biennial"* (every two years). However, using the word "biannual" to mean every two years is also technically correct, and is more often used over "biennial".
*"Bi-"* is one of English's many ambiguities and requires experience with understanding context to decipher its true meaning in a given situation.
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[
"Biweekly means either occurring every two weeks, or occurring twice every week. This causes ambiguity when the term is used. As a result, in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand, the term fortnightly is more commonly used for an event that occurs every two weeks.\n",
"The custom of \"At Home\" days was also observed in the British colonies, such as in Wellington, New Zealand. Here the tradition served to uphold barriers between the different social classes among the colonists.\n",
"For many Native Americans, \"frybread links generation with generation and also connects the present to the painful narrative of Native American history\". It is often served both at home and at gatherings. The way it is served varies from region to region and different tribes have different recipes. It can be found in its many ways at state fairs and pow-wows, but what is served to the paying public may be different from what is served in private homes and in the context of tribal family relations.\n",
"People with second homes because they are working in another part of the country or have a holiday cottage are difficult to fix at a particular address; this sometimes causes double counting or houses being mistakenly identified as vacant. Another problem is where people use a different address at different times e.g. students living at their place of education in term time but returning to a family home during vacations, or children whose parents have separated who effectively have two family homes. Census enumeration has always been based on finding people where they live, as there is no systematic alternative: any list you could use to find people is likely to be derived from census activities in the first place. Recent UN guidelines provide recommendations on enumerating such complex households.\n",
"Four-o'-clock is native to the central section of North America, and it occurs elsewhere as an introduced species, including parts of Europe. Its exact native range is obscure, and it is often weedy throughout its range, spreading into disturbed habitat easily.\n",
"On June 18, 1868, the once-scattered bands of people who call themselves \"Diné\", set off together on the return journey, the \"Long Walk\" home. This is one of the few instances where the U.S. government permitted a tribe to return to their traditional boundaries. The Navajo were granted 3.5 million acres (14,000 km²) of land inside their four sacred mountains. The Navajo also became a more cohesive tribe after the Long Walk and were able to successfully increase the size of their reservation since then, to over 16 million acres (70,000 km²).\n",
"Even at the series of conferences where the term was gradually adopted (1990 being the third of five), concern was expressed by a number of the Native attendees that traditional Natives back in the reservation communities would never agree to this newly-coined concept, or adopt the neologism being used to describe it. \n"
] |
why are people/businesses moving to the south and not detroit?
|
A lot fewer unions in the south is a big part. Also rules and regulations setup over decades that are unfriendly to new business in Detroit.
|
[
"All of these changes in the area's transportation system favored low-density, auto-oriented development rather than high-density urban development, and industry also moved to the suburbs. The metro Detroit area developed as one of the most sprawling job markets in the United States by the 21st century, and combined with poor public transport, resulted in many jobs beyond the reach of urban low-income workers.\n",
"In the central portions of Detroit, the population of young professionals, artists, and other transplants is growing and retail is expanding. This dynamic is luring additional new residents, and former residents returning from other cities, to the city's Downtown along with the revitalized Midtown and New Center areas.\n",
"Outside and foreign investors, white flight, and the collapse of the automobile industry have made it difficult for local Detroit residents to own land, a reflection of the trend since 1910 of African American land ownership. The 1980s of Detroit maintained a trend of supermarket closures, with Farmer Jack, the last chain grocery store in Detroit in 2007. Years before the United States financial crisis of 2008, Detroit entered a recession. After the country-wide recession struck, Detroit's depression worsened, which resulted in increases in unemployment, crime, and poverty levels.\n",
"In the early 20th century from 1910 to 1930, Detroit was among the many cities in the North that attracted immigrants from southern, central, and eastern Europe as well as African American migrants during the Great Migration. The promise of good jobs in addition to readily available property brought many people to the Motor City, as they sought a place where they could settle down and live the American Dream. More than one-fifth of the population of the city was consistently composed of immigrants during the first half of the 20th century. From at least 1880 to the 1980s, the greatest number of immigrants and their descendants living in Wayne County, Michigan (where Detroit is located) were from central and eastern Europe.\n",
"Detroit’s urban agriculture initiatives are well established compared to others in the United States. Because of the need for reliable and healthy food sources, Detroit shows potential for the expansion of urban agriculture from a neighborhood level to a city level.\n",
"Road engineers and industry workers flocked to Detroit with the passage of the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 (Phipps Act). The creation of interstate highways and well-maintained roads made it easier to build homes away from the urban city center, increasing urban sprawl and suburbanization that would later characterize the region. Just as the highways allowed for suburban sprawl, they also allowed for segregation between suburbanites (typically white) and working class city-dwellers (immigrants and African Americans) as workers could not afford to move away from the city center. As population boomed, close living quarters instigated racially charged conflicts, through \"everyday expressions of white supremacy, and segregation\". As thousands of workers moved into the city, many lived near the factories to be close to work and fellow union members, creating concentrated neighborhoods of working class citizens. These neighborhoods were often class- and race-based, perpetuating social stigmas surrounding race and ethnic group. Much of this racial and class-based segregation continues today. Debates over the trade union of the automobile industry also sparked conflict, turning the working class against many wealthy industry owners and cementing the class system that would come to characterize the population. Ford's next conception of the automated assembly line changed city demographics, allowing unskilled labor to dominate the automobile industry and pushing skilled craftsmen out, usually further into the suburbs. The city developed at a rapid pace, with General Motors building offices adjacent to poor working class ghettoes, and developing the Detroit River to serve the needs of the auto industry.\n",
"With the growth, the auto industry created jobs in Detroit that attracted immigrants from Europe and migrants from across the United States, including both blacks and whites from the rural South. By 1920, Detroit was the fourth-largest city in the US. Residential housing was in short supply, and it took years for the market to catch up with the population boom. By the 1930s, so many immigrants had arrived that more than 30 languages were spoken in the public schools, and ethnic communities celebrated in annual heritage festivals. Over the years immigrants and migrants contributed greatly to Detroit's diverse urban culture, including popular music trends. The influential Motown Sound of the 1960s was led by a variety of individual singers and groups.\n"
] |
Would a helium filled balloon float on Mars?
|
You can solve this with the ideal gas law, pV = nRT. Pressure x Volume = #molecules x ideal-gas-contant x temperature.
Mars' atmosphere is made of carbon dioxide, which has a molar mass of 44g/mol. Air, which is basically an 80-20 mix of nitrogen and oxygen, has a molar mass of 29 g/mol. Helium is 4g/mol. Helium is actually 50% more boyant on Mars than it is on earth. It's looking good, but we haven't factored in the balloon yet.
Balloons equalize pressure between the atmosphere and the gas inside, plus a little tension from the balloon itself. From some random YouTube video, it seem a balloon fully inflated is at 110 kPa. About 10 kPa over earth's atmosphere. On earth this extra pressure due to the balloon's tension is minimal. On Mars, not so much. Mars' atmosphere is at 0.6 kPa, so a fully inflated balloon would be at 10.6 kPa.
The volume of a mol, from the ideal gas law is, V = RT/P. For earth (100kPa, 25C), a mol is about 24L. Which is about a large party balloon, we'll go with that. So the air it is displacing is 29g. The helium is 4g. And the balloon is about 15g. So about 10g of displaced air mass. 10g at 9.81 m/s/s of gravity is 98 mN of lift. About 0.02 pounds for those of you using barbarian units.
The same 24L of martian air is 0.6 kPa(24L) = nR (-55C). So 0.00795 mol. Which at 44g/mol, is 0.35g. Which is way less than the 15g balloon, so even without the helium weight it simply can't be done. The helium at 10.6 kPa is going to be 0.1404 mol. Which will have a mass of 0.56 g. Even the helium itself will weigh more than the displaced martian atmosphere. The displaced 0.35g is replaced by 15.6 g, which at 3.7 m/s/s of gravity is 58mN of force.
98 mN rise on earth, 58 mN sink on Mars, varying obviously with some assumptions and averages I made. Nonetheless, a helium filled party balloon on Mars will definitely not float, but will sink with around the same force one rises at on earth.
As for a balloon on Mars made to be a balloon on Mars, it definitely could be done. After all, helium is actually 50% more boyant on Mars. You'd have to go with a much lighter material, as Martian air doesn't weigh much. Or go with a much bigger latex balloon, as you increase the volume the balloon weight starts becoming a much smaller relative to the volume, by a squared factor. Neither of these will matter though if your helium under pressure still weighs more than your martian atmosphere. You'd have to have much less tension in the balloon to keep the helium at a pressure much closer to the atmospheric pressure.
|
[
"BULLET::::- Mars has a very thin atmosphere – the pressure is only 1/160th of earth atmospheric pressure – so a huge balloon would be needed even for a tiny lifting effect. Overcoming the weight of such a balloon would be difficult, but several proposals to explore Mars with balloons have been made.\n",
"Fully inflated, a balloon of this size would contain just over of helium. Helium's lift capacity at sea level and 0 °C is 1.113 kg/m (0.07 lbs/ft) and decreases at higher altitudes and at higher temperatures. The volume of helium in the balloon has been estimated as being able to lift a total load, including the balloon material and the structure beneath it, of at sea level and at .\n",
"A helium-filled balloon carries a 'Traveler' capsule into the stratosphere at an altitude of 24,000 meters (80,000 feet). Once operational, passengers in the capsule will be able to see the blackness of space and the curvature of the planet. The Traveler is equipped with solar panes.\n",
"Total mass of the balloon assembly was 65 kilograms (143 pounds), with a 15 kilogram (33 pound) gondola and a 13.5 kilogram (30 pound) instrumented guiderope. The balloon was expected to operate for ten days. Unfortunately, although considerable development work was performed on the balloon and its subsystems, Russian financial difficulties pushed the Mars probe out from 1992, then to 1994, and then to 1996. The Mars balloon was dropped from the project due to cost.\n",
"Eventually, the group decided on a cylindrical sealed helium balloon made of aluminized PET film, and with a volume of 5,500 cubic meters (196,000 cubic feet). The balloon would rise when heated during the day and sink as it cooled at night.\n",
"A common helium-filled toy balloon is something familiar to many. When such a balloon is fully filled with helium, it has buoyancy—a force that opposes gravity. When a toy balloon becomes partially deflated, it often becomes neutrally buoyant and can float about the house a meter or two off the floor. In such a state, there are moments when the balloon is neither rising nor falling and—in the sense that a scale placed under it has no force applied to it—is, in a sense perfectly weightless (actually as noted below, weight has merely been redistributed along the Earth's surface so it cannot be measured). Though the rubber comprising the balloon has a mass of only a few grams, which might be almost unnoticeable, the rubber still retains all its mass when inflated.\n",
"When rubber or plastic balloons are filled with helium so that they float, they typically retain their buoyancy for only a day or so, sometimes longer. The enclosed helium atoms escape through small pores in the latex which are larger than the helium atoms. Balloons filled with air usually hold their size and shape much longer, sometimes for up to a week.\n"
] |
how do glute muscles become weak?
|
The same way any other muscle gets weaker. Over time and extended periods of low use, they deteriorate and lose mass.
|
[
"Muscle coactivation allows muscle groups surrounding a joint to become more stable. This is due to both muscles (or sets of muscles) contracting at the same time, which produces compression on the joint. The joint is able to become stiffer and more stable due to this action. For example, when the bicep and the triceps coactivate, the elbow becomes more stable. This stabilization mechanism is also important for unexpected loads impeded on the joint, allowing the muscles to coactivate and provide stability to the joint in a quick fashion. This mechanism is controlled neuromuscularly, which allows the muscle(s) to contract. This occurs through a motor neuron sending a signal (through creating action potentials) to the muscle fiber to contract by releasing Acetylcholine. When signals are sent to all muscle fibers in a muscle group, the muscle group will contract as a whole.\n",
"Muscle weakness, also known as muscle fatigue, (or \"lack of strength\") refers to the inability to exert force with one's skeletal muscles. Weakness often follows muscle atrophy and a decrease in activity, such as after a long bout of bedrest as a result of an illness. There is also a gradual onset of muscle weakness as a result of sarcopenia - the age-related loss of skeletal muscle.\n",
"Though not universally used, \"metabolic fatigue\" is a common alternative term for peripheral muscle weakness, because of the reduction in contractile force due to the direct or indirect effects of the reduction of substrates or accumulation of metabolites within the muscle fiber. This can occur through a simple lack of energy to fuel contraction, or through interference with the ability of Ca to stimulate actin and myosin to contract.\n",
"The gluteal muscles include the gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, and tensor fasciae latae. They cover the lateral surface of the ilium. The gluteus maximus, which forms most of the muscle of the buttocks, originates primarily on the ilium and sacrum and inserts on the gluteal tuberosity of the femur as well as the iliotibial tract, a tract of strong fibrous tissue that runs along the lateral thigh to the tibia and fibula. The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus originate anterior to the gluteus maximus on the ilium and both insert on the greater trochanter of the femur. The tensor fasciae latae shares its origin with the gluteus maximus at the ilium and also shares the insertion at the iliotibial tract.\n",
"In terms of selective muscle weakness or poor flexibility muscular imbalance is frequently regarded as an etiological factor in the onset of musculoskeletal disorders. There are a variety of areas that can be affected, each causing different symptoms hence there are also different treatments available, but in general cases muscle strengthening techniques were developed for the use on the weak or tight muscles.\n",
"Though not universally used, \"metabolic fatigue\" is a common alternative term for peripheral muscle weakness, because of the reduction in contractile force due to the direct or indirect effects of the reduction of substrates or accumulation of metabolites within the myocytes. This can occur through a simple lack of energy to fuel contraction, or through interference with the ability of Ca to stimulate actin and myosin to contract.\n",
"For example, in the case of partial paralysis (i.e. poliomyelitis) the loss of strength and muscle control tend to be greater in some muscles than in others, leading to an imbalance between the various muscle groups around specific joints. Case in point: when the muscles which dorsiflex (flex the foot upward) are less functional than the muscles which plantarflex (flex the foot downward) a contracture occurs, giving the foot a progressively downward angle and loss of flexibility. Various interventions can slow, stop, or even reverse muscle contractures, ranging from physical therapy to surgery. A common cause for having the ankle lose its flexibility in this manner is from having sheets tucked in at the foot of the bed when sleeping. The weight of the sheets keep the feet plantarflexed all night. Correcting this by not tucking the sheets in at the foot of the bed, or by sleeping with the feet hanging off the bed when in the prone position, is part of correcting this imbalance.\n"
] |
why is fertilizer the primary ingredient in many homemade bombs?
|
It's the nitrogen//nitrogen-based chemicals in the fertilizer. The nitrogen stuff is great for growing crops... but it's also good for explosives.
You can search for "nitrogen explosive compounds", but read here this one example of why:
_URL_0_
|
[
"A fertilizer (American English) or fertiliser (British English; see spelling differences) is any material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is applied to soils or to plant tissues to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. Many sources of fertilizer exist, both natural and industrially produced.\n",
"BULLET::::- In 2013, a Pakistani firm invented a new formula to make fertilizers that cannot be converted into bomb-making materials. The firm, Fatima Fertilizer, had succeeded in making non-lethal alternatives to ammonium nitrate, a key ingredient in the fertilizers it makes. Fertilizers with ammonium nitrate, however, can easily be converted into bomb-making ingredients. This invention was praised by the Pentagon. “Such a long-term solution would be a true scientific breakthrough,” US Army Lieutenant General Michael Barbero, the head of the Pentagon's Joint Improvised Explosive Device Defeat Organization, said in a statement. After this invention, CNN reported that the United States and Pakistan reached an agreement to jointly make fertilizers with non-explosive materials. But diplomatic sources told Dawn that an agreement could only be reached after the new material is tested. The sources said that US experts would soon visit Pakistan for testing the new material with experts from the Fatima Group, Pakistan's major fertilizer manufacturer.\n",
"Fertilizers are commonly used for growing all crops, with application rates depending on the soil fertility, usually as measured by a soil test and according to the particular crop. Legumes, for example, fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and generally do not require nitrogen fertilizer.\n",
"Fertilizers are applied to crops both as solids and as liquid. About 90% of fertilizers are applied as solids. The most widely used solid inorganic fertilizers are urea, diammonium phosphate and potassium chloride. Solid fertilizer is typically granulated or powdered. Often solids are available as prills, a solid globule. Liquid fertilizers comprise anhydrous ammonia, aqueous solutions of ammonia, aqueous solutions of ammonium nitrate or urea. These concentrated products may be diluted with water to form a concentrated liquid fertilizer (e.g., UAN). Advantages of liquid fertilizer are its more rapid effect and easier coverage. The addition of fertilizer to irrigation water is called \"fertigation\".\n",
"BULLET::::- Using fertilizers increases nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and potassium in the soil. The use of fertilizers influences soil pH and often acidifies soils, with the exception of potassium fertilizer. Fertilizers can be organic or synthetic.\n",
"BULLET::::- fertilizers (also spelled fertilisers) - compounds given to plants to promote growth; they are usually applied either through the soil, for uptake by plant roots, or by foliar feeding, for uptake through leaves.\n",
"It attained importance with the growth of the fertilizer industry in the late 19th century and remains an important intermediate in the production of many fertilizers. It is also used as a stabilizer in the production of nitrocellulose.\n"
] |
how is it that someone (like myself) is allergic to almost every antibiotic? what makes the body hate them so much?
|
Essentially an allergy is an immune response to a foreign substance.
For you, the antibiotics has 'proteins' antigens which trigger the white cells of you immune system to attack them. This appears as massive inflammation due to degranulation of mast cells releasing imflammatory proteins etc. Typically presenting as Rashes to full blown anaphylaxis (air way compromise)
& #x200B;
When patients come with multiple drug 'allergies' it important to differentiate what is a true allergy vs what is a side effect of antibiotic such as nausea/diarrhoea.
|
[
"Aside from these ambient allergens, allergic reactions can result from foods, insect stings, and reactions to medications like aspirin and antibiotics such as penicillin. Symptoms of food allergy include abdominal pain, bloating, vomiting, diarrhea, itchy skin, and swelling of the skin during hives. Food allergies rarely cause respiratory (asthmatic) reactions, or rhinitis. Insect stings, food, antibiotics, and certain medicines may produce a systemic allergic response that is also called anaphylaxis; multiple organ systems can be affected, including the digestive system, the respiratory system, and the circulatory system. Depending on the rate of severity, anaphylaxis can include skin reactions, bronchoconstriction, swelling, low blood pressure, coma, and death. This type of reaction can be triggered suddenly, or the onset can be delayed. The nature of anaphylaxis is such that the reaction can seem to be subsiding, but may recur throughout a period of time.\n",
"Allergic reactions are hyperactive responses of the immune system to generally innocuous substances, such as proteins in the foods we eat. Why some proteins trigger allergic reactions while others do is not entirely clear, although in part thought to be due to resistance to digestion. Because of this, intact or largely intact proteins reach the small intestine, which has a large presence of white blood cells involved in immune reactions. The heat of cooking can help make protein molecules less allergenic.\n",
"A wide variety of foods can cause allergic reactions, but 90% of allergic responses to foods are caused by cow's milk, soy, eggs, wheat, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and shellfish. Other food allergies, affecting less than 1 person per 10,000 population, may be considered \"rare\". The use of hydrolysed milk baby formula versus standard milk baby formula does not appear to change the risk.\n",
"Allergic reactions are hyperactive responses of the immune system to generally innocuous substances, such as proteins in the foods we eat. Why some proteins trigger allergic reactions while others do not is not entirely clear, although in part thought to be due to resistance to digestion. Because of this, intact or largely intact proteins reach the small intestine, which has a large presence of white blood cells involved in immune reactions. The heat of cooking structurally degrades protein molecules, potentially making them less allergenic. The pathophysiology of allergic responses can be divided into two phases. The first is an acute response that occurs immediately after exposure to an allergen. This phase can either subside or progress into a \"late-phase reaction\" which can substantially prolong the symptoms of a response, and result in more tissue damage.\n",
"Some people have allergies or sensitivities to foods which are not problematic to most people. This occurs when a person's immune system mistakes a certain food protein for a harmful foreign agent and attacks it. About 2% of adults and 8% of children have a food allergy. The amount of the food substance required to provoke a reaction in a particularly susceptible individual can be quite small. In some instances, traces of food in the air, too minute to be perceived through smell, have been known to provoke lethal reactions in extremely sensitive individuals. Common food allergens are gluten, corn, shellfish (mollusks), peanuts, and soy. Allergens frequently produce symptoms such as diarrhea, rashes, bloating, vomiting, and regurgitation. The digestive complaints usually develop within half an hour of ingesting the allergen.\n",
"An allergic reaction can be caused by any form of direct contact with the allergen—consuming food or drink one is sensitive to (ingestion), breathing in pollen, perfume or pet dander (inhalation), or brushing a body part against an allergy-causing plant (direct contact). Other common causes of serious allergy are wasp, fire ant and bee stings, penicillin, and latex. An extremely serious form of an allergic reaction is called anaphylaxis. One form of treatment is the administration of sterile epinephrine to the person experiencing anaphylaxis, which suppresses the body's overreaction to the allergen, and allows for the patient to be transported to a medical facility.\n",
"BULLET::::- Allergic diseases – Allergies, or allergic diseases, are conditions in which histamines are released. Types of allergy include food allergies (not to be confused with Food Intolerances or Food Poisoning), atopic dermatitis, allergic , anaphylaxis, and allergic rhinitis (also known as hay fever, which is the most common), for example. No cure exists for allergies, but several treatments exist such as antihistamines, corticosteroids, avoiding the allergen, and allergen immunotherapy (also known as desensitization.)\n"
] |
Is cancer a preventable disease?
|
You addressed it in your post, but I just want to point it out as well : "Prevention" in medicine is like "safety" in engineering. It depends on what you mean by "prevention".
If by prevention you mean complete prevention, as in cancer risk is gone...no. Not going to happen.
But for what you are asking, yes. You can significantly lower your risk (most likely; there is the of a "doom gene" somewhere that means you're getting cancer no matter what you do). However, the degree to which you can lower your risk of a certain cancer is not the same as the degree to which I can lower my risk of the same cancer, largely due to genetics. Personal history, like smoking, sunburn, etc plays a role too, although most people think of these as prevention. I personally don't think of it that way because if you did it in the past, there's not a lot you can do to change that fact now. Your history is just as set as your genes. More so, actually.
Not sure why....just feel like expounding here...
Cancer is a multihit disease. Consider an oversimplified individual cell. This cell is only supposed to grow (divide) in response to very specific signals. It has layers of protection to ensure that happens as dictated and only as dictated, with checkpoints all along the way that slow or halt the pathway to division. These checkpoints must be shut down or circumvented in order for the cell to divide. This can happen in a healthy way (controlled division) or as a pathology (cancer).
It should go without saying, but the checkpoints are all gene products in some way. Some are proteins, some are the products of proteins, some are RNA, etc, but they all work to slow or prevent division of the cell, and they all ultimately come from specific genes or sets of genes.
Say there are 5 of these checkpoints, A, B, C, D, and E. But, unlucky you, you inherited a bad copy of a gene crucial to making C, so you only have 4 of the checkpoints. No worries, though, you still have A, B, D, and E. But suddenly...a wild gamma ray appears, and now the gene that encodes A has mutated into uselessness. OK, it's not great, but you still have B, D, and E.
Until you take your next drag on that cigarette and you mutate D into uselessness. OK...there's still B and E.... but then you get a free radical straying where it's not supposed to and the gene that ecodes the the thing crucial to the processing of E is mutated so it no longer interacts with E. And then a few weeks later, when the cell divides due to a legitimate signal, a replication error takes out something in the pathway that makes B.
And now all bets are off. All the stuff telling the cell "Stop growing!" is gone, and any tiny little push towards "grow!" is heeded and taken on with gusto. Cancer.
Some of those things you had zero control over and were set from the beginning; the inherited gene, for example.
Some you had no real control over and happened through the course of life, like the gamma ray.
Some were strictly your choice, like the cigarette.
But then there are things like that free radical; you get those as a course of metabolism. They are inevitable, but their half-life and frequency can be reduced by diet.
And the replication error? Certain micronutrients may have been able to reduce the frequency of replication errors (another risk factor). Maybe if you hadn't gotten injured in just that way, that division never would have occured. This is an example of another important aspect; there are risk factors that are simply not known or are not really predictable.
Just for the record: It's not really that simple. The checkpoints aren't all just "yes/no" things (some are checkpoints, they just aren't all checkpoints); many work as a balancing act. Once you get an imbalnce, you "tip" towards division.
There are also gene products that work the other way; they initiate division. It's possible to go that way as well, but as it's a gain of function mutation it's much, much more rare than the loss of function mutations you get elsewhere.
|
[
"Cancer prevention is defined as active measures to decrease cancer risk. The vast majority of cancer cases are due to environmental risk factors. Many of these environmental factors are controllable lifestyle choices. Thus, cancer is generally preventable. Between 70% and 90% of common cancers are due to environmental factors and therefore potentially preventable.\n",
"Cancer prevention is the practice of taking active measures to decrease the incidence of cancer and mortality. The practice of prevention is dependent upon both individual efforts to improve lifestyle and seek preventative screening, and socioeconomic or public policy related to cancer prevention. Globalized cancer prevention is regarded as a critical objective due to its applicability to large populations, reducing long term effects of cancer by promoting proactive health practices and behaviors, and its perceived cost-effectiveness and viability for all socioeconomic classes.\n",
"The majority of cancer cases are due to environmental risk factors, and many, but not all, of these environmental factors are controllable lifestyle choices. Greater than a reported 75% of cancer deaths could be prevented by avoiding risk factors including: tobacco, overweight / obesity, an insufficient diet, physical inactivity, alcohol, sexually transmitted infections, and air pollution. Not all environmental causes are controllable, such as naturally occurring background radiation, and other cases of cancer are caused through hereditary genetic disorders. Current gene editing techniques under development may serve as preventative measures in the future. Future preventative screening measures can be additionally improved by minimizing invasiveness and increasing specificity by taking individual biologic make up into account, also known as \"population-based personalized cancer screening.\"\n",
"Greater than 30% of cancer deaths could be prevented by avoiding risk factors including: tobacco, excess weight/obesity, poor diet, physical inactivity, alcohol, sexually transmitted infections and air pollution. Not all environmental causes are controllable, such as naturally occurring background radiation and cancers caused through hereditary genetic disorders and thus are not preventable via personal behavior.\n",
"For the vast majority of cancers, risk factors are environmental or lifestyle-related, thus cancers are mostly preventable NCD. Greater than 30% of cancer is preventable via avoiding risk factors including: tobacco, being overweight or obesity, low fruit and vegetable intake, physical inactivity, alcohol, sexually transmitted infections, and air pollution. Infectious agents are responsible for some cancers, for instance almost all cervical cancers are caused by human papillomavirus infection.\n",
"However, the cure for some forms of cancer also lies in the G phase of the cell cycle. Many cancers including breast and skin cancers have been prevented from proliferating by causing the tumor cells to enter G cell cycle arrest, preventing the cells from dividing and spreading.\n",
"Because cancer is a class of diseases, it is unlikely that there will ever be a single \"cure for cancer\" any more than there will be a single treatment for all infectious diseases. Angiogenesis inhibitors were once incorrectly thought to have potential as a \"silver bullet\" treatment applicable to many types of cancer. Angiogenesis inhibitors and other cancer therapeutics are used in combination to reduce cancer morbidity and mortality.\n"
] |
What is the maximum rate of rainfall possible?
|
There are some great answers so far, but I think everyone is missing the point. /u/evilmercer is not asking what the maximum observed rate has been historically, but what the maximum *theoretical* rate of rainfall is. Given the wording of his question, I believe he is seeking two separate answers:
* What is the maximum rate of rainfall from an air density perspective?
* Would a storm system be able to create this rate of rainfall, even momentarily?
|
[
"The maximum annual rainfall ever recorded was 1500 mm for every year. The highest rainfall recorded in a single day was 850 mm. The average total annual rainfall is 1500 mm. The average annual temperature is 32 °C, and the average maximum temperature is 35 °C, while the average minimum temperature is 28 °C. In the summer the temperature is up to 35 °C, but in winter it drops to approximately 10 °C. Annual rainfall is about 1500 mm.\n",
"The maximum annual rainfall ever recorded was 1500 mm for every year. The highest rainfall recorded in a single day was 850 mm. The average total annual rainfall is 1500 mm. The average annual temperature is 32 °C, and the average maximum temperature is 35 °C, while the average minimum temperature is 28 °C. In the summer the temperature is up to 35 °C, but in winter it drops to approximately 10 °C. Annual rainfall is about 1 500 mm.\n",
"Rainfall rate equal to or greater than per hour is a cloudburst. However, different definitions are used, e.g. the Swedish weather service SMHI defines the corresponding Swedish term \"skyfall\" as 1 mm/min for short bursts and 50 mm/h for longer rainfalls. The associated convective cloud can extend up to a height of above the ground.\n",
"Storms which have moved slowly, or loop, over a succession of days lead to the highest rainfall amounts for several countries. Riehl calculated that 33.97 inches (863 mm) of rainfall per day can be expected within one-half degree, or 35 miles (56 km), of the center of a mature tropical cyclone. Many tropical cyclones progress at a forward motion of 10 knots, which would limit the duration of this excessive rainfall to around one-quarter of a day, which would yield about 8.50 inches (216 mm) of rainfall. This would be true over water, within 100 miles (160 km) of the coastline, and outside topographic features. As a cyclone moves farther inland and is cut off from its supply of warmth and moisture (the ocean), rainfall amounts from tropical cyclones and their remains decrease quickly.\n",
"For both waves of rainfall, several locations neared or exceeded 24‑hour rainfall amounts estimated as having a 1% chance of being exceeded in a given year, (100 year average recurrence interval) as determined by both the NOAA Atlas 14 and reports by the Southern Regional Climate Center. The rainfall maximum near Necaise of was estimated as having only a 0.1% chance of being exceeded in a given year (1000 year average recurrence interval).\n",
"The average annual rainfall is between 900 and 1200mm. The most abundant rainfall is recorded around the altitude of 1600m to 1800m. June is the month with the highest precipitations, 110mm at the bottom of the mountain and 160mm at altitudes over 1500m.\n",
"Rainfall averages around 600 mm per year, a figure similar to that for the driest parts of England. Over 1 mm of rain can be expected on 106.6 days. Averages refer to a mixture of the 1971-2000 and 1981-2010 climate periods.\n"
] |
Do the Strong and Weak Forces have a field like Gravitation and EM?
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Yes, but unlike gravity and EM, their fields have very short interaction lengths. They are mediated by W+-/Z bosons and gluons, respectively.
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[
"The strong force is today understood to represent the interactions between quarks and gluons as detailed by the theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD). The strong force is the fundamental force mediated by gluons, acting upon quarks, antiquarks, and the gluons themselves. The (aptly named) strong interaction is the \"strongest\" of the four fundamental forces.\n",
"The weak force is due to the exchange of the heavy W and Z bosons. Its most familiar effect is beta decay (of neutrons in atomic nuclei) and the associated radioactivity. The word \"weak\" derives from the fact that the field strength is some 10 times less than that of the strong force. Still, it is stronger than gravity over short distances. A consistent electroweak theory has also been developed, which shows that electromagnetic forces and the weak force are indistinguishable at a temperatures in excess of approximately 10 kelvins. Such temperatures have been probed in modern particle accelerators and show the conditions of the universe in the early moments of the Big Bang.\n",
"The strong force is described by quantum chromodynamics (QCD), a part of the standard model of particle physics. Mathematically, QCD is a non-Abelian gauge theory based on a local (gauge) symmetry group called SU(3).\n",
"The distinction between electromagnetism and the weak force arises because there is a (nontrivial) linear combination of \"Y\" and \"T\" that vanishes for the Higgs boson (it is an eigenstate of both \"Y\" and \"T\", so the coefficients may be taken as −\"T\" and \"Y\"): \"U\"(1) is defined to be the group generated by this linear combination, and is unbroken because it does not interact with the Higgs.\n",
"The effective range of the weak force is limited to subatomic distances, and is less than the diameter of a proton. It is one of the four known force-related fundamental interactions of nature, alongside the strong interaction, electromagnetism, and gravitation.\n",
"The weak force is best known for its role in nuclear decay. It has very short range but (apart from gravity) is the only force to interact with neutrinos. The weak force is communicated via exchange particles like other subatomic forces. Perhaps the most well known of the exchange particles for the weak force is the W particle which is involved in beta decay. W particles have electric charge – there are both positive and negative W particles – however the Z boson is also an exchange particle for the weak force but does \"not\" have any electrical charge. Exchange of a Z boson transfers momentum, spin, and energy, but leaves the interacting particles’ quantum numbers unaffected – charge, flavor, baryon number, lepton number, etc. Because there is no transfer of electrical charge involved, exchange of Z particles is referred to as “neutral” in the phrase “neutral current”. However the word “current” here has nothing to do with electricity – it simply refers to the exchange of the Z particle.\n",
"The word \"strong\" is used since the strong interaction is the \"strongest\" of the four fundamental forces. At a distance of 1 femtometer (1 fm = 10 meters) or less, its strength is around 137 times that of the electromagnetic force, some 10 times as great as that of the weak force, and about 10 times that of gravitation.\n"
] |
What are some lesser known epidemics of the past?
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The bubonic epidemic no one ever hears about: [The Plague of Justinian](_URL_0_).
It is estimated to have killed over twenty-five million people, only 25% of the casualties caused by the Black Death, but the PoJ was the first recorded instance of a (confirmed) Yersinia pestis epidemic.
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[
"It appears that epidemic meningitis is a relatively recent phenomenon. The first recorded major outbreak occurred in Geneva in 1805. Several other epidemics in Europe and the United States were described shortly afterward, and the first report of an epidemic in Africa appeared in 1840. African epidemics became much more common in the 20th century, starting with a major epidemic sweeping Nigeria and Ghana in 1905–1908.\n",
"The name refers to this pandemic being the third major bubonic plague outbreak to affect European society. The first was the Plague of Justinian, which ravaged the Byzantine Empire and surrounding areas in 541 and 542. The second was the Black Death, which killed at least one third of Europe's population in a series of expanding waves of infection from 1346 to 1353.\n",
"Besides India, widespread epidemics have been reported from Mauritius, Fiji Islands, Northwest Cape districts of South Africa, Madagascar and also from Nepal. Apart from a South African study, where the epidemic occurred through contamination in wheat flour, all the epidemics occurred through the consumption of mustard oil contaminated with argemone oil.\n",
"Epidemics occurred routinely throughout Europe from the 16th to the 19th centuries, including during the English Civil War, the Thirty Years' War, and the Napoleonic Wars. Pestilence of several kinds raged among combatants and civilians in Germany and surrounding lands from 1618 to 1648. According to Joseph Patrick Byrne, \"By war's end, typhus may have killed more than 10 percent of the total German population, and disease in general accounted for 90 percent of Europe's casualties.\"\n",
"The outbreak was part of a second worldwide pandemic caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae and lasted from 1829 to 1851. The approach of the cholera epidemic was well documented at the time, but how it was spread was a mystery. In the first pandemic, the disease was first noted in India, Moscow, Russia in 1830, Finland and Poland in 1831, and Great Britain in 1831. It struck first at the ports, and Sligo was the second busiest port on the west coast at the time after Limerick. Overall, the outbreak killed at least 50,000 people in Ireland.\n",
"Large epidemics are common and very swift, one of the earliest largest having occurred at the city of Belém, in the Brazilian Amazon state of Pará, with 11,000 recorded cases. In the Brazilian Amazon, oropouche is the second most frequent viral disease, after dengue fever. Several epidemics have generated more than 263,000 cases, of which 130,000 alone occurred in the period from 1978 to 1980. Presently, in Brazil alone it is estimated that more than half a million cases have occurred. Nevertheless, clinics in Brazil may not have adequate testing reliability as they rely on symptoms rather than PCR viral sequencing, which is expensive and time consuming, in many cases there may be conviction with other similar mosquito-borne viruses.\n",
"Epidemics occurred throughout Europe and occurred during the English Civil War, the Thirty Years' War and the Napoleonic Wars. During Napoleon's retreat from Moscow in 1812, more of his soldiers died of typhus than were killed by the Russians. A major epidemic occurred in Ireland between 1816–19, and again in the late 1830s, while yet another major typhus epidemic occurred during the Great Irish Famine between 1846 and 1849. The Irish typhus spread to England, where it was sometimes called \"Irish fever\" and was noted for its virulence. It killed people of all social classes, since lice were endemic and inescapable, but it hit particularly hard in the lower or \"unwashed\" social strata. In Canada, the 1847 North American typhus epidemic killed more than 20,000 people, mainly Irish immigrants in fever sheds and other forms of quarantine, who had contracted the disease aboard coffin ships.\n"
] |
why can you only know an electron's position if you give up on knowing its momentum and vice versa?
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It's not that you don't *know* the electron's momentum and position at the same time. Electrons don't **have** well-defined momentum and a well-defined position at the same time.
Electrons operate under the rules of quantum mechanics, where they actually exists as a probability wave. And the position and momentum of a subatomic particle share the same relation as position and wavelength for a normal wave: If you drop a stone in a pond, the wave radiates outward, dissipating as it goes. So you can *kind* of define its position, in a fuzzy sort of way (its position is spread out across part of the surface of the pond), and you can *kind* of give an average wavelength (but since the wave dies out as it travels, it's not super accurate either), but you don't have either very accurately.
The more confined you make the position of a ripple like that, the less-defined its wavelength becomes, to the point that a ripple that exists in a single, well-defined spot has no wavelength at all. And if you want a proper wavelength, you have to spread the wave across the entire pond, in which case the wave has no position.
That's the same relation as the one between position and momentum in a subatomic particle.
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[
"This principle of uncertainty holds for many other pairs of observables as well. For example, the energy does not commute with the position either, so it is impossible to precisely determine the position and energy of an electron in an atom.\n",
"An elegant illustration of the uncertainty principle is Heisenberg's thought experiment for locating an electron with an ideal microscope. The position of the electron can be determined to within the resolving power of the microscope, which is given by a formula from classical optics\n",
"The uncertainty principle arose as an answer to the question: How does one measure the location of an electron around a nucleus if an electron is a wave? When quantum mechanics was developed, it was seen to be a relation between the classical and quantum descriptions of a system using wave mechanics.\n",
"Because of the uncertainty principle, statements about both the position and momentum of particles can only assign a probability that the position or momentum will have some numerical value. The uncertainty principle also says that eliminating uncertainty about position maximises uncertainty about momentum, and eliminating uncertainty about momentum maximizes uncertainty about position. A probability distribution assigns probabilities to all possible values of position and momentum. Schrödinger's wave equation gives wavefunction solutions, the squares of which are probabilities of where the electron might be, just as Heisenberg's probability distribution does.\n",
"Because of the [[uncertainty principle]], statements about both the position and momentum of particles can assign only a [[probability]] that the position or momentum has some numerical value. Therefore, it is necessary to formulate clearly the difference between the state of something that is indeterminate, such as an electron in a probability cloud, and the state of something having a definite value. When an object can definitely be \"pinned-down\" in some respect, it is said to possess an [[eigenstate]].\n",
"For example, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that one cannot simultaneously know, with arbitrarily high precision, both the position and momentum of a particle. Suppose one measures the position of a particle. This act destroys any information about its momentum. Is it then possible to talk about the outcome that one would have obtained if one had measured its momentum instead of its position? In terms of mathematical formalism, is such a counterfactual momentum measurement to be included, together with the factual position measurement, in the statistical population of possible outcomes describing the particle? If the position were found to be r then in an interpretation that permits counterfactual definiteness, the statistical population describing position and momentum would contain all pairs (r,p) for every possible momentum value p, whereas an interpretation that rejects counterfactual values completely would only have the pair (r,⊥) where ⊥ denotes an undefined value. To use a macroscopic analogy, an interpretation which rejects counterfactual definiteness views measuring the position as akin to asking where in a room a person is located, while measuring the momentum is akin to asking whether the person's lap is empty or has something on it. If the person's position has changed by making him or her stand rather than sit, then that person has no lap and neither the statement \"the person's lap is empty\" nor \"there is something on the person's lap\" is true. Any statistical calculation based on values where the person is standing at some place in the room and simultaneously has a lap as if sitting would be meaningless.\n",
"In quantum mechanics, due to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, an electron can never be at rest; it must always have a non-zero kinetic energy, a result not found in classical mechanics. For example, if we consider something very large relative to an electron, like a baseball, the uncertainty principle predicts that it cannot really have zero kinetic energy, but the uncertainty in kinetic energy is so small that the baseball can effectively appear to be at rest, and hence it appears to obey classical mechanics. In general, if large energies and large objects (relative to the size and energy levels of an electron) are considered in quantum mechanics, the result will appear to obey classical mechanics. The typical occupation numbers involved are huge: a macroscopic harmonic oscillator with = 2 Hz, = 10 g, and maximum amplitude = 10 cm, has = , so that ≃ 10. Further see coherent states. It is less clear, however, how the classical limit applies to chaotic systems, a field known as quantum chaos.\n"
] |
Are thoughts physical objects?
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Thoughts are webs of electricity traveling through different sections of your brain. Most are reactionary responses to outside stimuli, and then chained together based on memories that surface during the process...
I try not to think about it really; that our entire lives are just a chain of reactionary electric charges pulsing on a lump of meat...
I'm sad now.
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[
"Before asking whether any such objects exist outside me, I ought to consider the ideas of these objects as they exist in my thoughts and see which are clear and which confused. (Descartes, Meditation V: On the Essence of Material Objects and More on God's Existence).\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Brain and Consciousness\" suggests that \"pretty much everything in the universe has a physical aspect and an informational aspect, neither of which is more foundational than the other\", and that informational entities like the Mass in B Minor cannot be considered as material objects. It proposes that \"your body and your mind are different aspects of you\", and that the inherent uncertainties of neuron firing mean that the brain is not fully deterministic.\n",
"Thought is not necessarily connected with a brain. It appears in the work of bees, of crystals, and throughout the purely physical world; and one can no more deny that it is really there, than that the colors, the shapes, etc., of objects are really there. Consistently adhere to that unwarrantable denial, and you will be driven to some form of idealistic nominalism akin to Fichte's. Not only is thought in the organic world, but it develops there. But as there cannot be a General without Instances embodying it, so there cannot be thought without Signs. We must here give \"Sign\" a very wide sense, no doubt, but not too wide a sense to come within our definition. Admitting that connected Signs must have a Quasi-mind, it may further be declared that there can be no isolated sign. Moreover, signs require at least two Quasi-minds; a Quasi-utterer and a Quasi-interpreter; and although these two are at one (i.e., are one mind) in the sign itself, they must nevertheless be distinct. In the Sign they are, so to say, welded. Accordingly, it is not merely a fact of human Psychology, but a necessity of Logic, that every logical evolution of thought should be dialogic. (Peirce, 1906 )\n",
"I find in myself innumerable ideas of things which, though they may not exist outside me, can't be said to be nothing. While I have some control over my thoughts of these things, I do not make the things up: they have their own real and immutable natures. Suppose, for example, that I have a mental image of a triangle. While it may be that no figure of this sort does exist or ever has existed outside my thought, the figure has a fixed nature (essence or form), immutable and eternal, which hasn't been produced by me and isn't dependent of my mind. (Descartes, Meditation V: On the Essence of Material Objects and More on God's Existence).\n",
"In some branches of psychology, depending on school of thought, a physical object has physical properties, as compared to mental objects. In (reductionistic) behaviorism, a objects and their properties are the (only) meaningful objects of study.\n",
"Examples are a cloud, a human body, a weight, a billiard ball, a table, or a proton. This is contrasted with abstract objects such as mental objects, which exist in the mental world, and mathematical objects. Other examples that are not physical bodies are emotions, the concept of \"justice\", a feeling of hatred, or the number \"3\". In some philosophies, like the Idealism of George Berkeley, a physical body is a mental object, but still has extension in the space of a visual field.\n",
"Comparing Ontology with Epistemology, Berkeley asked, \"But, though it were possible that solid, figured, moveable \"substances\" may exist without the mind, corresponding to the ideas we have of bodies, yet how is it possible for us to know this?\" Knowledge through our senses only gives us knowledge of our senses, not of any unperceived things. Knowledge through reason does not guarantee that there are, necessarily, unperceived objects. In dreams and frenzies, we have ideas that do not correspond to external objects. \"…[T]he supposition of external bodies is not necessary for the producing our ideas….\" Materialists do not know how bodies affect spirit. We can't suppose that there is matter because we don't know how ideas occur in our minds. \"In short, if there were external bodies, it is impossible we should ever come to know it….\" Suppose that there were an intelligence that was not affected by external bodies. If that intelligence had orderly and vivid sensations and ideas, what reason would it have to believe that bodies external to the mind were exciting those sensations and ideas? None.\n"
] |
why on mobile devices can i find nothing except live and cover songs on youtube?
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Youtube checks the user-agent header and blocks certain videos from appearing on mobile. Music videos seem to be a popular choice for such filtering. I don't know why it's done, but you can get around it.
You need to change your user agent header so you appear to be coming from a desktop browser. (or strip it altogether - I don't know how YouTube reacts to this but it should work). If your phone/browser is locked down and doesn't allow you to do this, and you don't want to root it, you could set up a proxy server on a Raspberry Pi or similar low-cost device, and have that spoof the user-agent for you.
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[
"There are now over 100,000 videos posted on YouTube using “Sa Isang Sulyap”—all in all, these videos have been viewed more than 400 million times. It is also one of the most downloaded songs today by mobile phone users.\n",
"YouTube (owned by Google Inc.) is the premier site for finding music videos for both independent bands and mainstream bands that have released their music on CD or digitally, while also being useful for finding rare songs. YouTube is a multimedia provider, so it is difficult to say how much entertainment it has provided to music consumers, however it did provide about one-third of all 11 billion online video views in the US in the month of April 2008.\n",
"The website started when the founder could not easily find the music video which he was looking for, or when he found it on some site that had too many ads. Currently YinYueTai has no ads, and unlike YouTube where you can find multiple copies of the same music video, YinYueTai only keeps one copy of each music video on site for easy search.\n",
"In early 2010, the group began to upload their music to YouTube. Their first video, a cover of Britney Spears's song \"3\" got a lot of hits quickly thanks to Jack Conte promoting it on YouTube. Another early video release, \"Window Shop\" (originally recorded on Louis Cole's first album) also got a lot of hits thanks to a front page YouTube feature. In this same year, they released their first album called \"Louis Cole and Genevieve Artadi.\"\n",
"Most modern smartphones are capable of accessing YouTube videos, either within an application or through an optimized website. YouTube Mobile was launched in June 2007, using RTSP streaming for the video. Not all of YouTube's videos are available on the mobile version of the site. Since June 2007, YouTube's videos have been available for viewing on a range of Apple products. This required YouTube's content to be transcoded into Apple's preferred video standard, H.264, a process that took several months. YouTube videos can be viewed on devices including Apple TV, iPod Touch and the iPhone. In July 2010, the mobile version of the site was relaunched based on HTML5, avoiding the need to use Adobe Flash Player and optimized for use with touch screen controls. The mobile version is also available as an app for the Android platform. In September 2012, YouTube launched its first app for the iPhone, following the decision to drop YouTube as one of the preloaded apps in the iPhone 5 and iOS 6 operating system. According to GlobalWebIndex, YouTube was used by 35% of smartphone users between April and June 2013, making it the third-most used app.\n",
"Launched in November 2015, YouTube Music is an app that allows users to search through their database of over 30 million audio tracks. But YouTube is also unique because it offers a breadth of concert footage/audio.\n",
"Since its inception the website had allowed users to upload music playlists to their profile page. Initially users could upload up to 10 songs at a time with an unlimited number of songs allowed on any given playlist (they could upload more songs after the first ten by starting a second upload and specifying that they should be added to a pre-existing playlist.) This brought the site initial popularity due to the ease with which people could share copyrighted digital music. Originally one could download each track individually in mp3 format.\n"
] |
why is the distribution of elements on earth not uniform?
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Basically because each element is chemically unique, and therefore behaves differently to other elements in given conditions.
Take for example crystallisation from a magma. As the magma cools, certain elements are able to form stable crystalline structures (minerals). Different minerals can start to crystallise at different temperatures, and different minerals have completely different chemistries. So, for example, pyroxene (which crystallises early) can crystallise out lots of aluminium, whereas quartz (which forms late) mostly only crystallises out silica. This gets even more complicated when you realise some elements can substitue for others in crystal structures, so for example [Europium can be preferentially substituted into plagiclase feldspar](_URL_0_) in place of Calcium.
This kind of chemical differentiation is very common, and there's lots of different processes in which it is important. But there's other differentiation processes too. For example, simple density sorting can be really important. The reason we find large concentrations of gold in many places is because gold-rich rocks have been eroded by rivers, and the gold grains have been deposited by those rivers simply due to density contrast. That leads to a secondary 'placer' deposit of gold which is far more enriched than the rocks from which the gold originally came.
The processes which form oceanic crust are different to those which form continental crust, so again the mineral assemblages (and therefore elemental distributions) of the two systems are very different.
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[
"The organization of elements on the periodic table in to horizontal rows and vertical columns makes certain relationships more apparent (periodic law). Moving rightward and descending the periodic table have opposite effects on atomic radii of isolated atoms. Moving rightward across the period decreases the atomic radii of atoms, while moving down the group will increase the atomic radii.\n",
"However, even if the Earth's orbit were circular, the perceived motion of the Sun along our celestial equator would still not be uniform. This is a consequence of the tilt of the Earth's rotational axis with respect to the plane of its orbit, or equivalently, the tilt of the ecliptic (the path the Sun appears to take in the celestial sphere) with respect to the celestial equator. The projection of this motion onto our celestial equator, along which \"clock time\" is measured, is a maximum at the solstices, when the yearly movement of the Sun is parallel to the equator (causing amplification of perceived speed) and yields mainly a change in right ascension. It is a minimum at the equinoxes, when the Sun's apparent motion is more sloped and yields more change in declination, leaving less for the component in right ascension, which is the only component that affects the duration of the solar day. A practical illustration of obliquity is that the daily shift of the shadow cast by the Sun in a sundial even on the equator is smaller close to the solstices and greater close to the equinoxes. If this effect operated alone, then days would be up to 24 hours and 20.3 seconds long (measured solar noon to solar noon) near the solstices, and as much as 20.3 seconds shorter than 24 hours near the equinoxes.\n",
"The ordering of atoms in the periodic table did tend to be according to atomic \"weights\", but there were a few famous \"reversed\" cases where the periodic table demanded that an element with a higher atomic weight (such as cobalt at weight 58.9) nevertheless be placed at a lower position (\"Z\" = 27), before an element like nickel (with a lower atomic weight of 58.7), which the table demanded take the higher position at \"Z\" = 28. Moseley inquired if Bohr thought that the electromagnetic emission spectra of cobalt and nickel would follow their ordering by weight, or by their periodic table position (atomic number, \"Z\"), and Bohr said it would certainly be by \"Z\". Moseley's reply was \"We shall see!\"\n",
"The dividing line between metals and nonmetals can be found, in varying configurations, on some representations of the periodic table of the elements (see mini-example, right). Elements to the lower left of the line generally display increasing metallic behaviour; elements to the upper right display increasing nonmetallic behaviour. When presented as a regular stair-step, elements with the highest critical temperature for their groups (Li, Be, Al, Ge, Sb, Po) lie just below the line.\n",
"A good example of this is the surface of the Earth. While maps frequently portray north, south, east and west as a simple square grid, that is not in fact the case. Instead, the longitude lines running north and south are curved and meet at the north pole. This is because the Earth is not flat, but instead round.\n",
"The sheets are divided from each other either square to the map grid, or along the meridians and parallels. In the first case, the sheets will all be the same size. In the second case, the sheet size will decrease towards the north (for a northern hemisphere map) or the south (for a southern hemisphere map).\n",
"\"Uniform\" is used in the sense of following a uniform probability distribution across the study region, not in the sense of “evenly” dispersed across the study region. There are no interactions amongst the events, as the intensity of events does not vary over the plane. For example, the independence assumption would be violated if the existence of one event either encouraged or inhibited the occurrence of other events in the neighborhood.\n"
] |
when smoking, why does your throat hurt only when you breathe in air?
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You're breathing in hot air and chemicals that get absorbed by your lungs and cooled down by the time they're breathed out.
You should probably look into quitting it's super unhealthy :).
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[
"Many compounds of smoke from fires are highly toxic and/or irritating. The most dangerous is carbon monoxide leading to carbon monoxide poisoning, sometimes with the additive effects of hydrogen cyanide and phosgene. Smoke inhalation can therefore quickly lead to incapacitation and loss of consciousness. Sulfur oxides, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride in contact with moisture form sulfuric, hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acid, which are corrosive to both lungs and materials. When asleep the nose does not sense smoke nor does the brain, but the body will wake up if the lungs become enveloped in smoke and the brain will be stimulated and the person will be awoken. This does not work if the person is incapacitated or under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol.\n",
"Inhaling cigarette smoke increases blood levels of carbon monoxide which negatively affects oxygenation throughout the body leading to hypoxia. One response to hypoxia is the upregulation in synthesis of the major methyl donor S-adenosylmethionine. Upregulation of this methyl donor through heightened expression of methionine adenosyltransferase 2A leads to increased DNA methylation, which can lead to the down-regulation of target genes. \n",
"Its toxicity is caused mainly by the content of strongly acidic hydrochloric acid, but also due to thermal effects of reaction of zinc chloride with water. These effects cause lesions of the mucous membranes of the upper airways. Damage of the lower airways can manifest itself later as well, due to fine particles of zinc chloride and traces of phosgene. In high concentrations the smoke can be very dangerous when inhaled. Symptoms include dyspnea, retrosternal pain, hoarseness, stridor, lachrymation, cough, expectoration, and in some cases haemoptysis. Delayed pulmonary edema, cyanosis or bronchopneumonia may develop. The smoke and the spent canisters contain suspected carcinogens.\n",
"Its toxicity is caused mainly by the content of strongly acidic hydrochloric acid, but also due to thermal effects of reaction of zinc chloride with water. These effects cause lesions of the mucous membranes of the upper airways. Damage of the lower airways can manifest itself later as well, due to fine particles of zinc chloride and traces of phosgene. In high concentrations the smoke can be very dangerous when inhaled. Symptoms include dyspnea, retrosternal pain, hoarseness, stridor, lachrymation, cough, expectoration, and in some cases haemoptysis. Delayed pulmonary edema, cyanosis or bronchopneumonia may develop. The smoke and the spent canisters contain suspected carcinogens.\n",
"Inhaling smoke into the lungs, no matter the substance, has adverse effects on one's health. The incomplete combustion produced by burning plant material, like tobacco or cannabis, produces carbon monoxide, which impairs the ability of blood to carry oxygen when inhaled into the lungs. There are several other toxic compounds in tobacco that constitute serious health hazards to long-term smokers from a whole range of causes; vascular abnormalities such as stenosis, lung cancer, heart attacks, strokes, impotence, low birth weight of infants born by smoking mothers. 8% of long-term smokers develop the characteristic set of facial changes known to doctors as smoker's face.\n",
"Sidestream tobacco smoke, or exhaled mainstream smoke, is particularly harmful. Because exhaled smoke exists at lower temperatures than inhaled smoke, chemical compounds undergo changes which can cause them to become more dangerous. As well, smoke undergoes changes as it ages, which causes the transformation of the compound NO into the more toxic NO. Further, volatilization causes smoke particles to become smaller, and thus more easily embedded deep into the lung of anyone who later breathes the air.\n",
"Asthma, COPD, and smokers have reduced airflow ability. People who suffer from asthma and COPD show decreases in exhaled air due to inflammation of the airways. This inflammation causes narrowing of the airways which allows less air to be exhaled. Numerous things cause inflammation some examples are cigarette smoke and environmental interactions such as allergies, weather, and exercise. In smokers the inability to exhale fully is due to the loss of elasticity in the lungs. Smoke in the lungs causes them to harden and become less elastic, which prevents the lungs from expanding or shrinking as they normally would.\n"
] |
Why can Phosphate have five bonds? (More than an octet)
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First off, I want to say that d-orbitals are not involved in the bonding of hypervalent main group compounds like PCl5. The central atoms in molecules like PCl5, SF6, etc. still obey the octet rule. Many introductory resources claim otherwise, but there is ample computational evidence that that this is the case. I can provide references if you are interested.
Now that that is out of the way, essentially what happens is that each phosphorous-chlorine bond has less than two electrons. You can have chemical bonds that have fewer than two electrons, a simple example of this is H2^+, which is a stable molecule even though there is only one electron holding the two H nuclei together.
Molecular orbital theory explains this as I explained above: there are four bonding molecular orbitals that bond the phosphorous to the 5 chlorine atoms, each bonding orbital connects the phosphorous to multiple chlorine atoms. The rest of the electrons are in nonbonding orbitals on the chlorine atoms. If you know anything about molecular orbital theory, you know that this isn't strange.
The valence bond theory picture is perhaps more intuitive. You can think of molecules like PCl5 as a set of ionic resonance structures. That is, think of it as the ionic molecule PCl4^+ Cl^- with 5 resonance structures, each with a different Cl atom having the negative charge. The thing to keep in mind about resonance structures is that they do not distinctly exist: The real electronic structure of the molecule is the average of all the resonance structures together. This produces the same result as molecular theory: on average each P-Cl bond is less than two electrons.
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[
"The octet rule is a chemical rule of thumb that reflects observation that elements tend to bond in such a way that each atom has eight electrons in its valence shell, giving it the same electronic configuration as a noble gas. The rule is especially applicable to carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and the halogens, but also to metals such as sodium or magnesium.\n",
"In a covalent bond, one or more pairs of valence electrons are shared by two atoms: the resulting electrically neutral group of bonded atoms is termed a molecule. Atoms will share valence electrons in such a way as to create a noble gas electron configuration (eight electrons in their outermost shell) for each atom. Atoms that tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their valence shell are said to follow the octet rule. However, some elements like hydrogen and lithium need only two electrons in their outermost shell to attain this stable configuration; these atoms are said to follow the \"duet rule\", and in this way they are reaching the electron configuration of the noble gas helium, which has two electrons in its outer shell.\n",
"A nucleoside triphosphate is a molecule containing a nitrogenous base bound to a 5-carbon sugar (either ribose or deoxyribose), with three phosphate groups bound to the sugar. They are the building blocks of both DNA and RNA, which are chains of nucleotides made through the processes of DNA replication and transcription. Nucleoside triphosphates also serve as a source of energy for cellular reactions and are involved in signalling pathways.\n",
"Phosphate groups can exist in three different forms depending on a solution's pH. Phosphorus atoms can bind three oxygen atoms with single bonds and a fourth oxygen atom using a double/dative bond. The pH of the solution, and thus the form of the phosphate group determines its ability to bind to other molecules. The binding of phosphate groups to the inositol ring is accomplished by phosphor-ester binding (see phosphoric acids and phosphates). This bond involves combining a hydroxyl group from the inositol ring and a free phosphate group through a dehydration reaction. Considering that the average physiological pH is approximately 7.4, the main form of the phosphate groups bound to the inositol ring in vivo is PO. This gives IP a net negative charge, which is important in allowing it to dock to its receptor, through binding of the phosphate groups to positively charged residues on the receptor. IP has three hydrogen bond donors in the form of its three hydroxyl groups. The hydroxyl group on the 6th carbon atom in the inositol ring is also involved in IP docking.\n",
"Like phosphate, phosphoryl chloride is tetrahedral in shape. It features three P−Cl bonds and one strong P=O double bond, with an estimated bond dissociation energy of 533.5 kJ/mol. On the basis of bond length and electronegativity, the Schomaker-Stevenson rule suggests that the double bond form is dominant, in contrast with the case of POF. The P=O bond involves the donation of the lone pair electrons on oxygen \"p\"-orbitals to the antibonding combinations associated with phosphorus-chlorine bonds, thus constituting \"π\" bonding.\n",
"Because alkynes have two π bonds, alkynes can form stable complexes in which they bridge two metal centers. The alkyne donates a total of four electrons, with two electrons donated to each of the metals. And example of a complex with this bonding scheme is η-diphenylacetylene-(hexacarbonyl)dicobalt(0).\n",
"These three components are connected so that the nitrogenous base is attached to the first carbon of ribose (1’ carbon), and the phosphate group is attached to the 5’ carbon of ribose. While all nucleotides have this structure, the phosphate group makes a second connection to the ribose ring at the 3’ carbon in cyclic nucleotides. Because the phosphate group has two separate bonds to the ribose sugar, it forms a cyclic ring.\n"
] |
The New Testament largely covers the final three years of Jesus's life; is there any more known about the first 30 years of his life?
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The simple answer is no.
Apocryphal sources exist but are universally pretty late. Even the length of Jesus' ministry isn't exactly known. We assume it was a three year ministry because of the Gospel of John, but the interesting point there is that the Gospel of John isn't a common source for information concerning the historical Jesus -- it's just too different from the synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke). But the synoptics do not specify how long Jesus was active. Gospel of John provides a clear time frame while the other Gospels do not.
But even the seem to disagree a lot about Jesus before his ministry. Mark has no infancy narrative, and while Matthew and Luke do both diverge in pretty significant ways. Luke's narrative include a story about Jesus as a child at the Temple while Matthew's infancy narrative is more concerned with Joseph than anything else.
The epistles are directed to communities who we can presume were already told the story of Jesus by whichever evangelist founded the community so those are more concerned with the theological implications of history. In general there's not a whole of history about Jesus there.
Documents like the Infancy Gospel of Thomas or the Protoevangelium of James do exist, but they're all later and, while interesting reads, do not appear to be historical accounts. Outside of Christian texts, when Jesus is mentioned by ancient historians Jesus is not really the focus -- there's more concern for Christians than for Christ.
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[
"For a \"century and a half\", then, after Jesus' death, we have no means whatever of substantiating even the existence of the Gospels, as now bound up in the New Testament. There is a perfect blank of 140 years; and a most serious one it is.\n",
"Although Lindsey did not claim to know the dates of future events with any certainty, he suggested that indicated that Jesus' return might be within \"one generation\" of the rebirth of the state of Israel, and the rebuilding of the Jewish Temple, and Lindsey asserted that \"in the Bible\" one generation is forty years. Some readers accepted this as an indication that the Tribulation or the Rapture would occur no later than 1988. In his 1980 work \"The 1980s: Countdown to Armageddon\", Lindsey predicted that \"the decade of the 1980s could very well be the last decade of history as we know it\".\n",
"The life of Jesus in the New Testament is primarily outlined in the four canonical gospels, which includes his genealogy and nativity, public ministry, passion, resurrection and ascension. Other parts of the New Testament – such as the Pauline epistles which were likely written within 20–30 years of each other, and which include references to key episodes in Jesus' life, such as the Last Supper, and the Acts of the Apostles, () which includes more references to the Ascension episode than the canonical gospels - also expound upon the life of Jesus. In addition to these biblical texts, there are extra-biblical texts that Christians believe make reference to certain events in the life of Jesus, such as Josephus on Jesus and Tacitus on Christ.\n",
"Following the accounts of Jesus' young life, there is a gap of about 18 years in his story in the New Testament. Other than the statement that after he was 12 years old () Jesus \"advanced in wisdom and stature, and in favour with God and men\" (), the New Testament has no other details regarding the gap. While Christian tradition suggests that Jesus simply lived in Galilee during that period, modern scholarship holds that there is little historical information to determine what happened during those years.\n",
"In the Seventh-day Adventist interpretation of Daniel chapter 9, the 490 years is an uninterrupted period starting from \"the time the word goes out to rebuild and restore Jerusalem,\" of Daniel 9:25 and ending 3½ years after Jesus' death./ref The starting point identified with a decree by Artaxerxes I in 458/7 BCE to provide money to rebuild Jeruslaem and its temple. The appearance of \"Messiah the Prince\" at the end of the 69 weeks (483 years) is aligned with Jesus' baptism in 27 CE. The 'cutting off' of the \"anointed one\" is applied to the Jesus' execution 3½ years after the end of the 483 years, bringing \"atonement for iniquity\" and \"everlasting righteousness\". Jesus' death is said to 'confirm' the \"covenant\" between God and mankind by in 31 CE \"in the midst of\" the last seven years. The end of the 70th week is associated with 34 CE when the gospel was redirected from only the Jews to all peoples.\n",
"In the New Testament, all four Gospels conclude with an extended narrative of Jesus' arrest, trial, crucifixion, burial, and resurrection. In each Gospel, these five events in the life of Jesus are treated with more intense detail than any other portion of that Gospel's narrative. Scholars note that the reader receives an almost hour-by-hour account of what is happening.\n",
"BULLET::::- There are 18 unknown years of Jesus' life missing in the Bible (ages 12–30). Like Nicolas Notovitch did before in his \"The Unknown Life Of Jesus Christ: By The Discoverer Of The Manuscript\" (1887), the \"Aquarian Gospel\" documents these 18 years as a time when Jesus travels to the centers of wisdom in western India, Tibet, Persia, Assyria, Greece, and Egypt. In each of these capital cities, he is educated, tested, and teaches the religious leaders. Jesus inevitably proves that he is 'God's chosen one' (the Christ) in these locales and brings back this multi-cultural wisdom and confidence to Galilee and Judea.\n"
] |
how wind can push my car sideways when my wheels are pointed straight forward?
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Eh? When does your car move sideways?
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[
"Before entry to the bend, the car is turned towards the bend slightly, but quickly, so as to cause a rotating motion that induces the rear of the car to slide outwards. Power is applied which applies further sideways movement. At the same time, opposite lock steering is applied to keep the car on the desired course. As the car reaches the bend it will have already turned through most of the needed angle, traveling sideways and losing some speed as a result. A smooth application of power at this point will accelerate the car into the bend and then through it, gradually removing the sideways component of travel. \n",
"Consider the pseudovector angular momentum . Driving in a car, and looking forward, each of the wheels has an angular momentum vector pointing to the left. If the world is reflected in a mirror which switches the left and right side of the car, the \"reflection\" of this angular momentum \"vector\" (viewed as an ordinary vector) points to the right, but the \"actual\" angular momentum vector of the wheel (which is still turning forward in the reflection) still points to the left, corresponding to the extra sign flip in the reflection of a pseudovector.\n",
"Some of the ancient descriptions suggest that some south-pointing chariots could move in only three ways: straight ahead, or turning left or right with a fixed radius of curvature. A third wheel might have been used to fix the turning radius. If the chariot was turning, the pointing doll was connected by gears to one or other of the two main road wheels (e.g. whichever was on the outside of the curve around which the chariot was moving) so the doll rotated at a fixed speed, relative to the rate of the chariot's movement, to compensate for the predetermined rate of turn. The doll turned in opposite directions depending on which road wheel was connected to it, so its rotation compensated for the chariot turning left or right. This design would have been simpler than using a differential gear.\n",
"As opposed to a vehicle riding along a flat circle, inclined edges add an additional force that keeps the vehicle in its path and prevents a car from being \"dragged into\" or \"pushed out of\" the circle (or a railroad wheel from moving sideways so as to nearly rub on the wheel flange). This force is the horizontal component of the vehicle's normal force. In the absence of friction, the normal force is the only one acting on the vehicle in the direction of the center of the circle. Therefore, as per Newton's second law, we can set the horizontal component of the normal force equal to mass multiplied by centripetal acceleration:\n",
"BULLET::::- Oversteer – the rear wheels tend to crawl or slip towards the outside of the turn more than the front. The driver must correct by steering away from the corner, otherwise the car is liable to spin, if pushed to its limit. Oversteer is sometimes useful, to assist in steering, especially if it occurs only when the driver chooses it by applying power.\n",
"Pulling the car \"backward\" (hence the name) winds up an internal spiral spring; a flat spiral rather than a helical coil spring. When released, the car is propelled forward by the spring. When the spring has unwound and the car is moving, the motor is disengaged by a clutch or ratchet and the car then rolls freely onward. Often the clutch mechanism is geared so that the pullback distance needed to wind the spring is less than the distance the spring is engaged propelling forward.\n",
"In a normal turn, rear wheels follow the front ones because resistance to motion in the forward direction (in which the wheels turn) is significantly less than in the sideways direction. The latter provides the centripetal force that makes the rear end of the car follow the turn. When the driver locks the rear wheels with the handbrake, both directions offer the same resistance, so the rear end tends to keep moving in the existing direction (due to inertia) and thus slides out.\n"
] |
why is it that there are plenty of tropical small islands throughout the pacific (guam, us virgin islands, etc) but there are hardly such islands in the atlantic ocean?
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The pacific ocean is a hotbed for volcanic activity. Under water volcano explodes, creates an island, plants and animals move in. Pretty neat
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[
"The Hawaiian Islands are about from North America and from Asia, and it is because of this isolation that the Hawaiian Islands have extraordinary numbers of unique species. Only a species that could fly or swim immense distances could reach the archipelago. But whereas Polynesians, and later, Europeans, have largely altered the ecosystem of the Main Hawaiian islands by introducing alien species, the ecosystems of the NWHI remain, for the most part, intact. The extensive coral reefs found in Papahānaumokuākea are home to over 7,000 marine species. Of the many species that live here, over 1,700 species of organisms are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (i.e., they are found nowhere else). For this reason, the region has been dubbed \"America's Galápagos\".\n",
"The flora of these islands is relatively poor in terms of diversity of species, due to their geographical isolation. However, most of the islands are covered by tropical forest. That is because the soil of volcanic origin is very fertile, and the climate is warm and humid. Among the trees of these islands that stand out are the coconut tree, the breadfruit , the casuarina, the banana, the ceiba, the banyan, the ilang-ilang, the polynesian chestnut, the flamboyant and the Caribbean pine. Among the bushes that stand out are the tiaré flower (emblem of Tahiti), the hibiscus, the plumeria, the bougainvillea, the gardenia, the jasmine and the oleander.\n",
"The islands are within a few miles of Venezuela, and the species are therefore typical of tropical South America. However, the number of species is relatively low compared to the mainland, as would be expected on small islands.\n",
"This article defines the ocean islands of greater North America to include the coastal islands of North America, the islands of the Caribbean Sea, the Lucayan Archipelago, the islands of Greenland (Kalaallit Nunaat), the islands of Canada, and the islands of Alaska. The Hawaiian Islands are not included because they are considered part of Oceania.\n",
"Islands in the Pacific Ocean are of four basic types: continental islands, high islands, coral reefs and uplifted coral platforms. Continental islands lie outside the andesite line and include New Guinea, the islands of New Zealand, and the Philippines. Some of these islands are structurally associated with nearby continents. High islands are of volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are Bougainville, Hawaii, and the Solomon Islands.\n",
"In total the Hawaiian Islands comprise a total of 137 islands and atolls, with a total land area of . This archipelago and its oceans are physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania. The climate of Hawaii is typical for a tropical area, although temperatures and humidity tend to be a bit less extreme than other tropical locales due to the constant trade winds blowing from the east.\n",
"The islands are part of the Southern Indian Ocean Islands tundra ecoregion that includes a small number of subantarctic islands. Because of the paucity of land masses in the Southern Ocean, the islands host a wide variety of species and are critical to conservation. In the cold subantarctic climate, plants are mainly limited to grasses, mosses, and kelp, while lichens are the most visible fungi. The main indigenous animals are insects along with large populations of seabirds, seals and penguins. At least twenty-nine different species of birds are thought to breed on the islands, and it is estimated the islands support upwards of 5 million breeding seabirds, and 8 million seabirds total. Five species of albatross (of which all are either threatened or endangered) are known to breed on the islands, including the wandering albatross, dark-mantled, light-mantled, Indian yellow-nosed and grey-headed albatross. The islands also host fourteen species of petrel, four species of prion, the Antarctic tern, and the brown skua, among others seabirds. Four penguin species are found, including king penguins, Eastern rockhoppers, gentoos and macaroni penguins.\n"
] |
how do night contacts work?
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My understanding is they reshape the eye. The degree of how concave or convex the lens of the eye causes near sightedness or far sightedness. Sleep contacts temporarily shape your eyes back to neutral.
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[
"Hand signals are a form of sign system used by divers to communicate when underwater. Hand signals are useful whenever divers can see each other, and some can also be used in poor visibility if in close proximity, when the recipient can feel the shape of the signaller's hand and thereby identify the signal being given. At night the signal can be illuminated by the diver's light. Hand signals are the primary method of underwater communication for recreational scuba divers, and are also in general use by professional divers, usually as a secondary method.\n",
"A day and night camera is a security camera that can see the picture during the day hours, when there is enough sunlight, and during the night in total darkness or minimum illumination. A day and night camera has special lenses that allow infrared emission produced by infrared LEDs and reflected from objects to go through and reach a CCD or CMOS chip inside the camera. As a result, the end user can see picture in total darkness at the distance of infrared emission produced by LEDs. A day and night camera can have infrared LEDs mounted on its housing or can accept the emission, produced by an infrared turret. Day and night cameras often have modifications in their digital signal processor (DSP) that compensates for the difference in illumination between day and night modes. HDR technology may also be used in more expensive models to compensate for the difference in illumination between shaded and lighted areas of surveillance.\n",
"The band is most useful for inter-continental communication for one or two hours before sunset, during the night and for one or two hours after sunrise. It is extremely useful for short to medium distance contacts from local contacts out to a range of 500–1500 km (300–1000 miles) or more, depending on conditions, during the day. In higher latitudes, daytime intercontinental communication is also possible during the short days of winter, for example a good path often opens between Japan and northern Europe in the hours leading up to European midday from late November through late January, with a long path opening to the west coast of the United States and Canada after midday.\n",
"Rudnick has observed that the best use of the night is to speak to many potential romantic or business contacts over the course of the night, and to follow up and stay in touch with them over the following months to see what develops, instead of spending the entire night talking with only one person.\n",
"ChromaGen contact lenses have been used and shown to have some limitations with vision at night although otherwise producing significant improvements in color vision. An earlier study showed very significant improvements in color vision and patient satisfaction.\n",
"High voltage power cables, particularly those close to airports, need to be visible day and night. During the day, brightly coloured balls positioned along the length of the cables are sufficient, but during the night, lighting is necessary. These beacons provide this lighting by glowing red, the standard colour used in aviation for warning beacons.\n",
" Infrared is used in night vision equipment when there is insufficient visible light to see. Night vision devices operate through a process involving the conversion of ambient light photons into electrons that are then amplified by a chemical and electrical process and then converted back into visible light. Infrared light sources can be used to augment the available ambient light for conversion by night vision devices, increasing in-the-dark visibility without actually using a visible light source.\n"
] |
based off of this photo that keeps going around reddit what would actually happen to the moon and this person.
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Alot of shrapnel, if not that then the lack of oxygen after a couple of days.
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[
"In November 1969, a nude photo of Wilson made a trip to the Moon. As a joke, NASA ground staff hid a small nude photo of her (along with fellow playmates Angela Dorian, Cynthia Myers and Leslie Bianchini) inside the schedule of Apollo 12's mission commander, Pete Conrad. Although it is certain that the photo made the trip to the lunar surface aboard the Lunar Module, it is not known if it was taken outside for the moonwalk. Pete Conrad was the third man to walk on the Moon.\n",
"Moon died on 7 September 1978, just under a month after the album's release; on the cover, he is shown sitting in a chair labelled \"Not to be taken away\". Photographer Terry O'Neil had insisted Moon sit with the back of the chair facing the camera so as to hide his distended stomach, a result of his alcoholism.\n",
"U.S. President Jimmy Carter surveyed the damage and said, \"Someone said this area looked like a moonscape. But the moon looks more like a golf course compared to what's up there.\" A film crew, led by Seattle filmmaker Otto Seiber, was dropped by helicopter on St. Helens on May 23 to document the destruction. Their compasses, however, spun in circles and they quickly became lost. A second eruption occurred on May 25, but the crew survived and was rescued two days later by National Guard helicopter pilots. Their film, \"The Eruption of Mount St. Helens\", later became a popular documentary.\n",
"Sibrel's first encounter is with the Apollo 11 crewmember Buzz Aldrin. Inside an office room, he shows Aldrin his \"secret\" footage, which Sibrel says was sent to him by mistake from NASA. According to Sibrel, this footage shows the crew rigging a shot inside their spacecraft to appear halfway to the Moon, when they were really in Earth orbit and trying to deceive the world.\n",
"The Man in the Moon refers to any of several pareidolic images of a human face, head or body that certain traditions recognize in the disc of the full moon. The images are composed of the dark areas of the lunar \"maria\", or \"seas\" and the lighter highlands of the lunar surface.\n",
"BULLET::::- The photo of Earth from the Moon, \"Earthrise\", was released to the public by NASA along with eight other spectacular photographs taken during the Apollo 8 mission. The display coincided with the first press conference (at Houston) by astronauts Borman, Lovell and Anders since their return to Earth, and the images were shown on live television, then repeated on evening newscasts around the world and published in the next day's newspapers. In addition to the famous view of a half-lit image of Earth were two pictures of craters on the Moon's far side from an altitude of ; a photo of the nearside craters Goclenius and Magelhaens; a view of the Mare Tranquillitatis where the first Earthmen would land in Apollo 11; and two other views of the Earth's Western Hemisphere.\n",
"The Man in the Moon is an imaginary figure resembling a human face, head, or body, that observers from some cultural backgrounds typically perceive in the bright disc of the full moon. Several versions are displayed above. \n"
] |
The lack of a strong socialist party in the US linked to the absence of feudalism?
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I think the contention that feudalism was a heavy contributor to socialism is a pretty weak one. What is Lipset's evidence for that assertion? I think the rise of socialism is a heck of a lot more complex than "the struggle against feudalism and the ravages of industrialization took on a class conscious character in a relatively homogeneous population".
If we don't accept that as true, we have to look for other reasons that African-Americans didn't turn to socialism as an answer. On the other hand, it must also be remembered that the socialist movement in the United States was heavily involved in the civil rights struggle (and one of the justifications of the heavy handed FBI surveillance and infiltration of those civil rights movements).
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[
"Socialism in the United States has been composed of many tendencies, often in important disagreements with each other as it has included utopian socialists, social democrats, democratic socialists, communists, Trotskyists and anarchists. The socialist movement in the United States has historically been relatively weak. Unlike socialist parties in Europe, Canada and Oceania, a major social democratic party never materialized in the United States and the socialist movement remains marginal, \"almost unique in its powerlessness among the Western democracies\". In the United States, socialism \"brings considerable stigma, in large part for its association with authoritarian communist regimes\". Writing for \"The Economist\", Samuel Jackson argues that in the United States the word socialism has been used as a pejorative term without clear definition by conservatives and libertarians to taint liberal and progressive policies, proposals and public figures. Nonetheless, a 2013 article in \"The Guardian\" states: \"Contrary to popular belief, Americans don't have an innate allergy to socialism\". For instance, Milwaukee has had several socialist mayors such as Emil Seidel, Daniel Hoan and Frank Zeidler. Socialist Party presidential candidate Eugene V. Debs won nearly one million votes in the 1920 presidential election.\n",
"Socialism had been gaining momentum among working class citizens of the world since the 19th century. These culminated in the early 20th century when several states and colonies formed their own communist parties. Many of the countries involved had hierarchical structures with monarchic governments and aristocratic social structures with an established nobility. Socialism was undesirable within the circles of the ruling classes (which had begun to include industrial business leaders) in the late 19th/early 20th century states; as such, communism was repressed. Its champions suffered persecution while people were discouraged from adopting it. This had been the practice even in states which identified as exercising a multi-party system.\n",
"Academic scholars have long studied the reasons why no viable socialist parties have emerged in the United States. Some writers ascribe this to the failures of socialist organization and leadership, some to the incompatibility of socialism and American values, and others to the limitations imposed by the American Constitution. Lenin and Trotsky were particularly concerned because it challenged core Marxist beliefs, that the most advanced industrial country would provide a model for the future of less developed nations. If socialism represented the future, then it should be strongest in the United States.\n",
"the socialist party, is the direct descendent of the guerrilla troops that fought against the Salvadoran government, and was legally constituted as a political party on September 1, 1992 (Stahler-Sholk 1994:3). Since the Civil War the two have remained the country’s principal political parties, still divided by the left-right binary. Today ARENA describes itself as a party in whose “forming principals express that a democratic and representational system, which guarantees the freedom of action and the consequences of individual peaceful goals, are the quickest and stablest path to achieve integral development of the nation” (ARENA 2007). The FMLN “has begun to take steps…to act as a consequence of the historically created challenges, in order to make the party an organization of ‘social fighters…’and ‘to unify more’ the struggle for power (Comisión Nacional de Educación Política 2002). Other political parties in El Salvador include The Christian Democratic Party, The United Democratic Center, and The Party of National Conciliation.\n",
"The socialist political movement includes a set of political philosophies that originated in the revolutionary movements of the mid-to-late 18th century and out of concern for the social problems that were associated with capitalism. By the late 19th century, after the work of Karl Marx and his collaborator Friedrich Engels, socialism had come to signify opposition to capitalism and advocacy for a post-capitalist system based on some form of social ownership of the means of production. By the 1920s, social democracy and communism had become the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement. By this time, socialism emerged as \"the most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide. It is a political ideology (or world view), a wide and divided political movement\" and while the emergence of the Soviet Union as the world's first nominally socialist state led to socialism's widespread association with the Soviet economic model, some economists and intellectuals argued that in practice the model functioned as a form of state capitalism or a non-planned administrative or command economy. Socialist parties and ideas remain a political force with varying degrees of power and influence on all continents, heading national governments in many countries around the world. Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of other social movements, such as environmentalism, feminism and progressivism.\n",
"Socialist internationalism is anti-imperialist, and therefore supports the liberation of peoples from all forms of colonialism and foreign domination, and the right of nations to self-determination. Therefore, socialists have often aligned themselves politically with anti-colonial independence movements, and actively opposed the exploitation of one country by another.\n",
"Several prominent political parties in New Zealand, such as the New Zealand Labour Party, have historical links to socialism but are not generally considered socialist today due to their acceptance of a market economy. More likely to receive this label are the small Marxist organisations that exist outside the mainstream political world, such as the International Socialist Organisation and Socialist Aotearoa.\n"
] |
why do we still take test and learn the same as how people did in the whole of history when technology has advanced so far?
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Learning has advanced a great deal since formal education began. There are some things that have become redundant, and some things may seem useless. For instance, why bother learning that there are 4 quarts in a gallon when I can just look it up? But many people, myself included, would argue that a fundamental understanding of the simple elements is necessary for an understanding of the complex. Albert Einstein wouldn't have been able to come up with the things he had if he hadn't been good at math (he didn't actually fail math, that's an urban legend). Facts tend to rest on other facts in our minds, and rote memorization doesn't lead to understanding; a book can contain all the facts in the world, but it doesn't come up with new ideas.
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[
"\"Section 1:\" The use of Science has improved tremendously in many ways for humans. The knowledge of science has grown considerably. However, the way we manage knowledge has remained the same for centuries. We are no longer able to access the breadth of scientific breakthroughs. Alternatively, the technology has matured greatly and allows us to now produce complicated, yet cheap and dependable machines.\n",
"Indeed, as of today, \"science has provided the swiftest communication between individuals; it has provided a record of ideas and has enabled man to manipulate and to make extracts from that record so that knowledge evolves and endures throughout the life of a race rather than of an individual\". Improved technology has become an extension of our capabilities, much as how external hard drives function for computers so it may reserve more memory for more practical tasks.\n",
"Some examples of skills that have appeared more recently: mathematics, engineering, human games, logic and scientific reasoning. These are hard for us because they are not what our bodies and brains were primarily evolved to do. These are skills and techniques that were acquired recently, in historical time, and have had at most a few thousand years to be refined, mostly by cultural evolution.\n",
"Winner viewed technology as a \"form of life\" that not only aids human activity, but that also represents a powerful force in reshaping that activity and its meaning. For example, the use of robots in the industrial workplace may increase productivity, but they also radically change the process of production itself, thereby redefining what is meant by \"work\" in such a setting. In education, standardized testing has arguably redefined the notions of learning and assessment. We rarely explicitly reflect on how strange a notion it is that a number between, say, 0 and 100 could accurately reflect a person's knowledge about the world. According to Winner, the recurring patterns in everyday life tend to become an unconscious process that we learn to take for granted. Winner writes,\n",
"Rodney Brooks explains that, according to early AI research, intelligence was \"best characterized as the things that highly educated male scientists found challenging\", such as chess, symbolic integration, proving mathematical theorems and solving complicated word algebra problems. \"The things that children of four or five years could do effortlessly, such as visually distinguishing between a coffee cup and a chair, or walking around on two legs, or finding their way from their bedroom to the living room were not thought of as activities requiring intelligence.\"\n",
"Although technological progress has been accelerating, it has been limited by the basic intelligence of the human brain, which has not, according to Paul R. Ehrlich, changed significantly for millennia. However, with the increasing power of computers and other technologies, it might eventually be possible to build a machine that is more intelligent than humans.\n",
"Before more advanced technology came about, scientists tested individual behavior using more low-tech means. As technology progressed, so did the tests scientists administer to evaluate a person's cognitive function.\n"
] |
why is norway so horrendously expensive?
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It is difficult to transport anything to Norway because the land is very difficult to traverse and the sea can be incredibly rough. However though it does have large income from oil it also has an extremely generous social welfare system and that means high taxes and that means expensive goods and services.
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[
"BULLET::::- Cost of living. Norway is among the most expensive countries in the world, as reflected in the Big Mac Index and other indices. Historically, transportation costs and barriers to free trade had caused the disparity, but in recent years, Norwegian policy in labor relations, taxation, and other areas have contributed significantly.\n",
"Since World War II, Norway has experienced rapid economic growth, and is now amongst the wealthiest countries in the world. Norway is the world's third largest oil exporter after Russia and Saudi Arabia and the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of GDP. It has also rich resources of gas fields, hydropower, fish, forests, and minerals. Norway was the second largest exporter of seafood (in value, after China) in 2006. Other main industries include food processing, shipbuilding, metals, chemicals, mining and pulp and paper products. Norway has a Scandinavian welfare system and the largest capital reserve per capita of any nation.\n",
"The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development has described Norway's economic performance as a \"paradox\". Other scholars also refer to it as a \"puzzle\". The concept has been developed due to the combination of low innovation and high economic performance in the country. Even when the rents of oil and gas sector are excluded, Norway's productivity and income are among the highest in the world. However, at the same time Norwegian R&D investment has a relatively small share of the country's GDP compared to other industrial economies.\n",
"Norwegians enjoy the second-highest GDP per-capita among European countries (after Luxembourg), and the sixth-highest GDP (PPP) per-capita in the world. Today, Norway ranks as the second-wealthiest country in the world in monetary value, with the largest capital reserve per capita of any nation. According to the CIA World Factbook, Norway is a net external creditor of debt. Norway maintained first place in the world in the UNDP Human Development Index (HDI) for six consecutive years (2001–2006), and then reclaimed this position in 2009, through 2015. The standard of living in Norway is among the highest in the world. \"Foreign Policy\" magazine ranks Norway last in its Failed States Index for 2009, judging Norway to be the world's most well-functioning and stable country. The OECD ranks Norway fourth in the 2013 equalised Better Life Index and third in intergenerational earnings elasticity.\n",
"Oslo is one of the most expensive cities in the world. As of 2006, it is ranked tenth according to the Worldwide Cost of Living Survey provided by Mercer Human Resource Consulting and first according to the Economist Intelligence Unit. The reason for this discrepancy is that the EIU omits certain factors from its final index calculation, most notably housing. Although Oslo does have the most expensive housing market in Norway, it is comparably cheaper than other cities on the list in that regard. Meanwhile, prices on goods and services remain some of the highest of any city. Oslo is hosting 2654 of the largest companies in Norway. Within the ranking of Europe's largest cities ordered by their number of companies Oslo is on position 5. A whole group of oil and gas companies is situated in Oslo. According to a report compiled by Swiss bank UBS in the month of August 2006, Oslo and London were the world's most expensive cities.\n",
"The economy of Norway is a developed mixed economy with state-ownership in strategic areas. Although sensitive to global business cycles, the economy of Norway has shown robust growth since the start of the industrial era. The country has a very high standard of living compared with other European countries, and a strongly integrated welfare system. Norway's modern manufacturing and welfare system rely on a financial reserve produced by exploitation of natural resources, particularly North Sea oil. According to United Nations data for 2016, Norway together with Luxembourg (a small state) and Switzerland are the only three countries in the world with a GDP per capita above US$70,000 that are not island nations nor microstates.\n",
"Living costs in Norway are very high and have been increasing tremendously over the past few decades. Therefore, the Norwegian minimal state pension, which has been designed to cover the most basic living expenses in Norway, is adjusted each year to the increasing living costs in Norway.\n"
] |
Prior to the rise of Ataturk, what made someone in the Ottoman Empire a “Turk”?
|
Short answer: ethnicity and language (both in place well before the 19th century), plus some negative experiences with other nationalities (mostly in the 19th-20th centuries, triggering the rise of Turkish nationalism.) When you read the memoirs of the future political and military leaders of Turkey, at one point almost all of them mention a story like this:
The young X (the future leader) enters an elite Ottoman school/military academy. There he meets others from different parts of the Empire. He witnesses how Albanians, Arabs (insert any other nationality here) create societies and promote their national culture. Yet he does not belong to any of these groups, and often he insists on the shared Ottoman identity. He feels alienated. At some stage, he thinks this does not work anymore (1912 Albanian independence and the Arabic revolt during WW1 being primary turning points for many, apparently) and he becomes more Turkish than Ottoman. This general story is repeated so many times that it is fair to say the Turkish identity resurfaced in the late 19th-early 20th century as a negative reaction to other nationalisms.
What Turkish culture is probably a question too deep for me to delve into here. The native tongues seem to have played a vital role in reinforcing unity among ethnic groups in the Empire, so Turkish as your native tongue (which often even though not always meant you are ethnically Turkish) plus undergoing experiences similar to the story I told made people Turks. A reminder though: it is simply a mistake to suppose that such individuals and modern states created the national identity of Turkishness. There are several much older occasions in which people spoke of themselves as "Turks" and clearly regarded others as non-Turkic/Turkish "others." A 15th century Ottoman chronicle by Mehmed Neşrî Efendi, for example, describes how Murad I of the Ottoman Empire said he ached to showcase “the Turkish manliness” against the Serbian Army, in the 14th century! So what we are talking here about is the Turkishness as understood from the late 19th century onwards but “Turkishness” itself has deeper roots in history.
Finally, I do not think that most ordinary Turks felt failed or ignored by the Ottomans. They did not really think of the Ottomans as someone else either, it seems. There was a time following the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923 when the state sought to instill such a mentality (now largely exaggerated for modern political purposes). Indeed, there are speeches by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in which he criticizes how the Ottoman conquests were merely for the benefit of the Palace and the Sultan but at the cost of much Turkish blood. The Ottoman past was often used as a yardstick to demonstrate the success of the Republic, one success being the more clear expression of Turkishness in the Republican era. But at the end of the day, I highly doubt even the elites regarded the Ottoman Empire as an enemy per se. The confrontation with the Ottoman past in the Republic of Turkey never reached levels witnessed in the French Revolution or in the Soviet Union. It was never an issue of nationality alone anyway since the Ottoman past was often criticized also for not being secular, modern and independent enough too.
|
[
"With the establishment of the Turkish National Movement, the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, and the abolition of the sultanate, the Ottoman era and the Empire came to an end, and with Atatürk's reforms, the Turks created the modern, secular nation-state of Turkey on the political front. On 3 March 1924, the Ottoman caliphate was officially abolished and the last Caliph was exiled.\n",
"Among the Turkish leaders, the Ottomans emerged as great power under Osman I and his son Orhan I. The Anatolian beyliks were successively absorbed into the rising Ottoman Empire during the 15th century. It is not well understood how the Osmanlı, or Ottoman Turks, came to dominate their neighbours, as the history of medieval Anatolia is still little known. The Ottomans completed the conquest of the peninsula in 1517 with the taking of Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum) from the Knights of Saint John.\n",
"Once Mustafa Kemal Atatürk led the Turkish War of Independence against the Allied forces that occupied the former Ottoman Empire, he united the Turkish Muslim majority and successfully led them from 1919 to 1922 in overthrowing the occupying forces out of what the Turkish National Movement considered the Turkish homeland. The Turkish identity became the unifying force when, in 1923, the Treaty of Lausanne was signed and the newly founded Republic of Turkey was formally established. Atatürk's presidency was marked by a series of radical political and social reforms that transformed Turkey into a secular, modern republic with civil and political equality for sectarian minorities and women.\n",
"Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder and first president of the Republic of Turkey. Following the First World War, the huge conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was divided into several new states. The Turkish War of Independence (1919–23), initiated by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his colleagues in Anatolia, resulted in the establishment of the modern Republic of Turkey (\"Türkiye Cumhuriyeti\") in 1923. He subsequently introduced many radical reforms with the aim of transforming the old Ottoman-Turkish state into a new secular republic.\n",
"The late Ottoman government sought to create \"a core identity with a single Turkish religion, language, history, tradition, culture and set of customs\", replacing earlier Ottoman traditions that had not sought to assimilate different religions or ethnic groups.The Ottoman Empire had an ethnically diverse population that included Turks, Arabs, Albanians, Bosniaks, Greeks, Persians, Bulgarians, Serbs, Armenians, Kurds, Zazas, Circassians, Assyrians, Jews and Laz people. Turkish nationalists claimed that only Turks were loyal to the state. Ideological support for Turkification was not widespread in the Ottoman Empire.\n",
"Another guiding principle for the Young Turks was the transformation of their society into one in which religion played no consequential role, a stark contrast from the theocracy that had ruled the Ottoman Empire since its inception. However, the Young Turks soon recognized the difficulty of spreading this idea among the deeply religious Ottoman peasantry and even much of the elite, as the Ottoman Empire had not experienced the Enlightenment in the same way that Western Europe had. The Young Turks thus began suggesting that Islam itself was materialistic. As compared with later efforts by Muslim intellectuals, such as the attempt to reconcile Islam and socialism, this was an extremely difficult endeavor. Although some former members of the CUP continued to make efforts in this field after the revolution of 1908, they were severely denounced by the Ulema, who accused them of \"trying to change Islam into another form and create a new religion while calling it Islam\".\n",
"Young Turks (, from ) was a political reform movement in the early 20th century that consisted of Ottoman exiles, students, civil servants, and army officers. They favoured the replacement of the Ottoman Empire's absolute monarchy with a constitutional government. Later, their leaders led a rebellion against the absolute rule of Sultan Abdul Hamid II in the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. With this revolution, the Young Turks helped to establish the Second Constitutional Era in 1908, ushering in an era of multi-party democracy for the first time in the country's history.\n"
] |
I hoped this isn't looked down upon in this subreddit, but I think that it's inevitable. Either way, I'm curious. How accurate are the age of empire games?
|
Off the top of my head:
Age of Empires 3 is completely made up.
* Specifically, there were no Ottomans in the New World and no Russians except on the Pacific Coast
* The Ottomans did [invade](_URL_1_) Malta in 1565. New Brunswick is a real place.
* The [Sepoy Rebellion](_URL_2_) really did happen, and I remember some of the reasons for it being depicted accurately in the game. The campaign ends before getting to the bloody bad ending, though.
* The China campaign is based on fanciful [speculation](_URL_0_)
Age of Empires 2 used more real history in its campaigns, but took significant liberties as well. I think most of the battles really happened but were nothing like as depicted in the games, such as the [siege of Acre](_URL_3_)
As far as I know the weapons, units, buildings, and nations in the games are mostly real. Though in Age of Empires III most of the national leaders were not alive at the same time.
|
[
"On 24 February 2017 Ashen announced a sequel to \"Terrible Old Games You've Probably Never Heard Of\", titled \"Attack of the Flickering Skeletons: More Terrible Old Games You've Probably Never Heard Of\", again through Unbound, was released on 2 November 2017.\n",
"Alessio Cavatore comments: \"Anyone who knows the game \"Empires in Arms\" (\"EiA\") would agree that it is a monster. It is one of the longest, most complicated, and most demanding board games that has ever been produced. It's certainly the longest I've ever played, and I've played quite a few. However, \"EiA\" has also been the most exciting, engrossing, and rewarding board-gaming experience of my life.\"\n",
"In 2006, series producer Koji Igarashi stated that \"These games were taken out of the timeline [...] not because I didn't work on them, but because they were considered by their directors to be side projects in the series\". Since the 2002 removal, the events of \"Legacy of Darkness\" have occupied an ambiguous place in timelines published by Konami of Japan, Konami of America, and various gaming publications. The most recent English language timeline, distributed with preordered versions of \"\" in North America by Konami of America, includes Legacy of Darkness but does not describe the game's plot. IGA later clarified that he looks at the titles as \"...a Castlevania \"gaiden\" (subseries)\" and complimented them by stating \"...they both have a really unique take on the Castlevania world.\"\n",
"On March 5, 2006, a StarForce employee publicly posted a working link to a BitTorrent search engine listing of \"Galactic Civilizations II\" torrents during a discussion about the popularity of the game. Their action was publicized on various websites, including Digg, Neowin, and Penny Arcade. Stardock also posted an article, partially in response to inaccurate reporting of their own reasons for releasing the game without copy protection. Starforce later closed the thread, posting an apology and stating that the employee \"just wanted to show that every non-protected game can be cracked\".\n",
"The Role-Playing Game is a bit unclear on its specific time placement. While the Great Void is mentioned as impassable in the player's guide, \"The Known Universe\" ends with the protagonist telling the news of the Dragon King's expedition's return and deciding to travel to the newly discovered worlds.\n",
"IGN's Colin Moriarty wrote a piece that discussed the idea that this game as well as other \"Castlevania\" titles were overshadowed by the 1997 \"\" which he considered the best title in the series. He cited this game's absence from IGN's top 100 games of all-time as well as the absence of the second and third \"Castlevanias\" from \"Game Informer\"s top 100 games of all-time list. He suggested that the reason this is the case is because of the NES games' high learning curve and difficulty level. He also felt that \"Symphony of the Night\"s influence on the series after its release caused people to forget about the NES games. He praised the Virtual Console for allowing players unfamiliar with these games to experience them more easily. IGN's Lucas M. Thomas included its 25th anniversary in a list of forgotten anniversaries which took place in 2011. He felt it odd that \"Castlevania\" had so many titles before its 25th anniversary and only one title during 2011.\n",
"\"Age of Empires Online\" was the third most played Games for Windows Live title for the year 2012 based on unique users. Upon its shutdown in 2014, \"Age of Empires Online\" had its players embark on 500 million single-player quests, another 13.7 million multiplayer quests, and 2 million arena matches in its three-year history.\n"
] |
if trees initially were non-biodegradable, and a fungus adapted to degrade them could the same be done for plastic?
|
Sure and we are working on it. But its a slow process and we are producing literally thousands of tonnes of plastic every day.
Recycle.
|
[
"Biodegradable additives have the potential to significantly reduce the accumulation of plastics in the environment. Plastics are ubiquitous in everyday life and are produced and disposed of in huge quantities each year. Many common plastics, such as polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, poly(vinyl chloride), and poly(ethylene terephthalate), that can be found in most consumer products are not biodegradable. Furthermore, only about 9-10% of discarded plastics are recycled each year. Non-biodegradable plastics accumulate in the environment, threatening human, animal, and environmental health.\n",
"In addition, oxo-degradable plastics are commonly percieved to be biodegradable. However, they are simply conventional plastics with additives called prodegredants that accelerate the oxidation process. While oxo-degradable plastics rapidly break down through exposure to sunlight and oxygen , they persist as huge quantities of microplastics rather than any biological material. \n",
"Additionally, plastics degrade slowly, often over hundreds if not thousands of years. This increases the probability of microplastics being ingested and incorporated into, and accumulated in, the bodies and tissues of many organisms. The entire cycle and movement of microplastics in the environment is not yet known, but research is currently underway to investigate this issue.\n",
"Biodegradable plastics are plastics that can be decomposed by the action of living organisms, usually bacteria. This is not to be confused with bioplastics which are simply plastics derived from renewable raw resources. Thus, not all bioplastics are biodegradable. \n",
"The endophyte Pestalotiopsis microspora isolated from stems of plants from the Ecuadorian Rainforest by Yale Researchers, was shown in laboratory experiments to be able to digest Polyurethane plastic as the fungus's sole carbon source. While other fungi have demonstrated the ability to remediate polyurethane plastic, the two isolates in this experiment were able to grow on this plastic in the absence of light or oxygen.\n",
"Biodegradable plastics are plastics that degrade, or break down, upon exposure to: sunlight or ultra-violet radiation, water or dampness, bacteria, enzymes or wind abrasion. In some instances, rodent, pest, or insect attack can also be considered as forms of biodegradation or environmental degradation.\n",
"Under proper conditions, some biodegradable plastics can degrade to the point where microorganisms can completely metabolise them to carbon dioxide (and water). For example, starch-based bioplastics produced from sustainable farming methods could be almost carbon neutral.\n"
] |
what is software and how does it all work?
|
That's a **very** broad question, so rather than go into detail, I'll just give some very high-level answers, and you can ask for clarification as needed.
> how does software work?
Software is simply a set of instructions for a computer to follow. The "how" is fairly complex, but it boils down to setting voltages on billions of tiny circuits inside the computer in a very specific way.
> For that matter hardware too
Hardware is generally composed of billions of transistors, which are like tiny electrical "switches". A signal to one part can switch the transistor on or off, allowing other signals to either be blocked or allowed through.
Using transistors, you can build logic gates: circuits that perform operations like AND (give a high-voltage output only if both of the inputs are high-voltage), OR (give a high-voltage output if *either* of the inputs are high-voltage), NOT (give a high-voltage output for a low-voltage input, and vice versa), etc.
Using logic gates, you can build slightly more complex things, like adder circuits that can add binary numbers.
Using those more complex circuits, you can build even more complex things, like a CPU that can act on certain pre-defined instructions.
> I hear these terms - application, server, middleware.
An application is just a piece of software, and is generally used to describe something that needs an operating system to run (the Operating system itself is just a very complex bit of software, but is generally not referred to as an "application"). Internet Explorer is an application, for instance. So is iTunes. And Steam. And anything else that your computer can run.
A server is a computer that is set up to listen for network requests and respond to them (usually "serving up" webpages, hence the "server" name).
Middleware is a bit abstract. It's specialized software that exists to make it easier for other types of software to communicate with each other.
> When I read something like - "x application was built on top of y server" - what does that mean?
It's hard for me to say without knowing what X and Y are. My guess is that they're using the other definition of "server" that I haven't mentioned. Software that takes requests and sends responses is also referred to as a "server". For instance, when you check your email, your computer contacts the "mail server". In one sense, this describes the computer that is responding with your email. But in the other sense, the "mail server" is the specific application/software running on that computer that does all the mail-related stuff. The same computer might also serve up web pages, and the application that does that would be a "web server". The computer itself can be referred to as either a "mail server" or a "web server" depending on context (though it's pretty standard just to call it "the server").
Also, the opposite of a "server" is a "client". Whatever application/computer consumes messages sent by a server is referred to as a client. So Internet Explorer is a "web client", for instance. If you play online games, the game software itself is a client.
So "x application was built on top of y server" probably means that "x application" is some type of middleware that acts as both a server and a client, taking requests from other programs, modifying them somehow, and passing them on to "y server".
But again, without specifics, it's hard to say for certain.
|
[
"\"Software\" refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. Software is that part of a computer system that consists of encoded information or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built. Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. It is often divided into system software and application software Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own. When software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified, such as with BIOS ROM in an IBM PC compatible computer, it is sometimes called \"firmware\".\n",
"Software – collection of computer programs and related data that provides the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer for some purposes. In other words, software is a set of \"programs, procedures, algorithms\" and its \"documentation\" concerned with the operation of a data processing system. The term was coined to contrast to the old term hardware (meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software \"cannot be touched\". Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only. Sometimes the term includes data that has not traditionally been associated with computers, such as film, tapes, and records.\n",
"Computer software or just \"software\", is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer for some purposes. In other words, software is a set of \"programs, procedures, algorithms\" and its \"documentation\" concerned with the operation of a data processing system. Program software performs the function of the program it implements, either by directly providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software. The term was coined to contrast with the old term hardware (meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is intangible. Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only.\n",
"BULLET::::- A system that includes software – software is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer. In other words, software is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms and its documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing system.\n",
"BULLET::::- A system that includes software – software is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer. In other words, software is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms and its documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing system.\n",
"Computer software, or simply software, is a collection of data or computer instructions that tell the computer how to work. This is in contrast to physical hardware, from which the system is built and actually performs the work. In computer science and software engineering, computer software is all information processed by computer systems, programs and data. Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own.\n",
"Computer software is any kind of computer program, procedure, or documentation that performs some task on a computer system. The term includes application software such as word processors that perform productive tasks for users, system software such as operating systems that interface with computer hardware to provide the necessary services for application software, and middleware that controls and co-ordinates distributed systems.\n"
] |
why do different regions of usa sell varying octanes of gas? i can buy 85 octane in idaho, but can't find anything less than 87 in arizona.
|
Elevation.
"Octane" is a description of how much compression the fuel can be put under before it spontaneously ignites. The higher the octane number, the more pressure the fuel can take before it just ignites. An engine wants to take the fuel/air mixture as close to this point as possible (but not past it) before the spark plug sparks and lights the fuel. This (I think) ensures the most power for a given amount of fuel.
When you go to a higher elevation (like the mountains in Idaho), the air is thinner. This means the pistons in the engine can't compress the air as much. Since the pressure in the engine can't go as high, you need to use a fuel designed to ignite at a lower level of compression, a.k.a. a lower octane number.
|
[
"The octane rating of typical commercially available gasoline varies by country. In Finland, Sweden and Norway, 95 RON is the standard for regular unleaded gasoline and 98 RON is also available as a more expensive option. \n",
"Most states do not mandate certain standard gasoline grade octane ratings. In the United States and Canada, octane ratings are in AKI, commonly shown as \"(R+M)/2\". All states require gas pump to be labeled with the correct octane level and nearly all states do regular testing to make sure gas stations are in compliance. A minimum 87 octane fuel is recommended for most vehicles produced since 1984. Older cars with carburetors could operate with lower octane fuel at higher elevations. Regardless of legality fuel with an octane rating of less than 87 is generally not offered for sale in most states. However 85 and 86 octane gasoline can still commonly be found in several rocky mountain states.\n",
"In the United States, octane ratings in unleaded fuels vary between 85 and 87 AKI (91–92 RON) for regular, 89–90 AKI (94–95 RON) for mid-grade (equivalent to European regular), up to 90–94 AKI (95–99 RON) for premium (European premium).\n",
"Octanes are a family of hydrocarbons that are typical components of gasoline. They are colorless liquids that boil around 125 °C (260 °F). One member of the octane family, isooctane, is used as a reference standard to benchmark the tendency of gasoline or LPG fuels to resist self-ignition.\n",
"In China, the most commonly found octane grade is RON 91 (regular), 93 (mid grade) and 97 (premium). Almost all of the fuel has been unleaded since 2000. In some premium gas stations in large cities, such as Petrol China and SinoPec, RON 98 gas is sold for racing cars.\n",
"The octane rating of n-butanol is similar to that of gasoline but lower than that of ethanol and methanol. n-Butanol has a RON (Research Octane number) of 96 and a MON (Motor octane number) of 78 (with a resulting \"(R+M)/2 pump octane number\" of 87, as used in North America) while t-butanol has octane ratings of 105 RON and 89 MON. t-Butanol is used as an additive in gasoline but cannot be used as a fuel in its pure form because its relatively high melting point of 25.5 °C (79 °F) causes it to gel and solidify near room temperature. On the other hand, isobutanol has a lower melting point than n-butanol and favorable RON of 113 and MON of 94, and is thus much better suited to high fraction gasoline blends, blends with n-butanol, or as a standalone fuel.\n",
"The octane ratings below are the lowest allowed by law and may or may not reflect the actual levels offered for sale at most gas stations. Ethanol's effect on octane is not considered--these are ratings that are seen at the pump.\n"
] |
what causes laziness? is it a physical condition?
|
I guess everyone is too lazy to reply, OP. There are some good explanations for this, but my vague, non-scientific understanding is, it is indeed a physical condition, one that we inherited from our ancestors. I'm sure you can find a more technical/accurate/correct explanation of this, but here's the gist of it.
Our brains have a vulnerability that makes it extremely easy to get addicted to things. Watching TV can stimulate you (you are rewarded with dopamine). The more TV you watch, the more you want to watch it. The brain is rewiring itself to crave TV, because it was a source of dopamine release. Why does the brain do this? Because it worked to our ancestors favour. Their brain would be wired to be 'addicted' to gathering food, because it was necessary for survival and even the act of simply gathering the food would be rewarding to them, giving them a higher chance of surviving the next drought. This routine of gathering now becomes ingrained.
So after a while, any moment you are not watching TV, your brain will be agitated, because your primitive brain isn't doing something it thinks is useful (because you're not getting dopamine) so you will crave TV. So basically, you are addicted to a low energy, highly stimulated state, it's as simple as that. Ever notice that you browse reddit for hours, even when you've seen everything, and there's nothing even remotely enjoyable about it? It's your brain telling you "keep looking, you'll find it! (dopamine)". As your brain continues to rewire itself, it also starts to cull the circuits in the brain that it deems 'un-useful', such as the ability to learn. Soon, TV will be the only thing that gives you a dopamine fix, which means everything else in the world will seem boring, and this is the root of laziness.
Our brains are still plastic, however. Abstain from TV for a long enough time and you will no longer be addicted to it. Don't game for a few years, you will never be compelled to game again.
Here's a study that examines the physical changes in the brain when addicted to internet use, and the similarities to drug addiction: _URL_0_
|
[
"Laziness is a habit rather than a mental health issue. It may reflect a lack of self-esteem, a lack of positive recognition by others, a lack of discipline stemming from low self-confidence, or a lack of interest in the activity or belief in its efficacy. Laziness may manifest as procrastination or vacillation. Studies of motivation suggest that laziness may be caused by a decreased level of motivation, which in turn can be caused by over-stimulation or excessive impulses or distractions. These increase the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter responsible for reward and pleasure. The more dopamine that is released, the greater intolerance one has for valuing and accepting productive and rewarding action. This desensitization leads to dulling of the neural patterns and affects negatively the anterior insula of the brain responsible for risk perception.\n",
"ADHD specialists say engaging in multiple activities can cause behavioral problems such as attention/focus failure or perfectionism and subsequently pessimism. In these circumstances laziness can manifest as a negative coping mechanism (aversion), the desire to avoid certain situations in the hopes of countering certain experiences and preconceived ill results. Lacanian thought says laziness is the \"acting out\" of archetypes from societal programming and negative child rearing practices. Boredom is sometimes conflated with laziness; one study shows that the average Briton is bored 6 hours a week. Thomas Goetz, University of Konstanz, Germany, and John Eastwood, York University, Canada, concur that aversive states such as laziness can be equally adaptive for making change and toxic if allowed to fester. An outlook found to be helpful in their studies is \"being mindful and not looking for ways out of it, simultaneously to be also open to creative and active options if they should arise.\" They point out that a relentless engaging in activities without breaks can cause oscillations of failure, which may result in mental health issues. \n",
"Dysthymia characteristics include an extended period of depressed mood combined with at least two other symptoms which may include insomnia or hypersomnia, fatigue or low energy, eating changes (more or less), low self-esteem, or feelings of hopelessness. Poor concentration or difficulty making decisions are treated as another possible symptom. Mild degrees of dysthymia may result in people withdrawing from stress and avoiding opportunities for failure. In more severe cases of dysthymia, people may even withdraw from daily activities. They will usually find little pleasure in usual activities and pastimes. Diagnosis of dysthymia can be difficult because of the subtle nature of the symptoms and patients can often hide them in social situations, making it challenging for others to detect symptoms. Additionally, dysthymia often occurs at the same time as other psychological disorders, which adds a level of complexity in determining the presence of dysthymia, particularly because there is often an overlap in the symptoms of disorders. There is a high incidence of comorbid illness in those with dysthymia. Suicidal behavior is also a particular problem with persons with dysthymia. It is vital to look for signs of major depression, panic disorder, generalised anxiety disorder, alcohol and substance misuse and personality disorder.\n",
"Disturbances in zeitgebers can exert a negative influence on emotion and mood as well as cognitive functioning. The disturbance of biological rhythms by zeitgebers is theorized to increase risk for some forms of psychopathology. There is strong evidence that individuals with depression experience irregular biological rhythms, including disrupted sleep-wake cycles, temperature, and cortisol rhythms. These findings support the theory first proposed by Ehlers, Frank, and Kupfer in 1988 that says that stressful life events can lead to depressive episodes by disrupting social and biological rhythms, leading to negative symptoms like sleep disturbance that can trigger depression in vulnerable individuals. Recent work has also demonstrated that interventions like light therapy, sleep deprivation, and some pharmacological antidepressants may be effective in treating depression by reordering these rhythms to their natural state. Such interventions influence an individual's mood, body temperature, cortisol levels, and melatonin production, all of which appear to be irregular in depressed individuals.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Melancholic depression\" is characterized by a loss of pleasure in most or all activities, a failure of reactivity to pleasurable stimuli, a quality of depressed mood more pronounced than that of grief or loss, a worsening of symptoms in the morning hours, early-morning waking, psychomotor retardation, excessive weight loss (not to be confused with anorexia nervosa), or excessive guilt.\n",
"Endogenous depression \"(melancholia)\" is an atypical sub-class of the mood disorder, major depressive disorder (clinical depression). It could be caused by genetic and biological factors. Endogenous depression occurs due to the presence of an internal (cognitive, biological) stressor instead of an external (social, environmental) stressor. Endogenous depression includes patients with treatment-resistant, non-psychotic, major depressive disorder, characterized by abnormal behavior of the endogenous opioid system but not the monoaminergic system. Symptoms vary in severity, type, and frequency and can be attributed to cognitive, social, biological, or environmental factors that result in persistent feelings of sadness and distress. Since symptoms are due to a biological phenomenon, prevalence rates tend to be higher in older adults. Due to this fact, biological-focused treatment plans are often used in therapy to ensure the best prognosis.\n",
"Involutional melancholia or involutional depression is a traditional name for a psychiatric disorder affecting mainly elderly or late middle-aged people, usually accompanied with paranoia. It is classically defined as \"depression of gradual onset occurring during the involutional years (40-55 in women and 50-65 in men), with symptoms of marked anxiety, agitation, restlessness, somatic concerns, hypochondriasis, occasional somatic or nihilistic delusions, insomnia, anorexia, and weight loss.\" Involutional melancholia is not recognized as a psychiatric disorder by the DSM-5, the American Psychiatric Association's (APA) classification and diagnostic tool.\n"
] |
What was the basis of the Nazi war machine? How did the managed economy of the Nazis work?
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The Nazis did not nationalize all off industry; now they forced Jews to sell their businesses for peanuts to non-Jewish owners, under the policy of Aryanization/Arisierung - that was in 1938.
However they placed limited on what owners could do with their property, effectively the nazi state managed an increasing part of the economy - this tendency began in 1936 (the Nazi's had a four year plan between 1936-40); from 1939 this the economy switched to war economy and between 1942-45 most of the economy was managed directly by the state.
For instance farmers would be told what they should plant (they also did price fixing), and factories would be told what to produce; however the old manager was still in charge, provided he was not Jewish.
Much of the free market was gradually abolished; by 1936 prices and salaries were fixed; the central bank lost its independence; etc.
Much of the prewar years was based on deficit spending; actually the Bruehning government started this, but because of Versaille/Young plan he was not allowed to finance these measure by inflation. The measures were efficient at stopping unemployment; however the planning body was a mess of different interest and priorities, the office of the four year plan (Goehring) would quarrel with leader of war economy (Schacht) vs. Wehrmacht officials, etc.
Also deficit spending had the result that there were no currency reserves left by 1939.
So it is correct to say that eventually the business plan of the Nazi system was war, also planning went for war in 1939; the second four year plan would have ended early in 1940, the object of the plan was to create a self sufficient economy/decrease dependence on imported raw materials and to prepare for war.
----
"Deutsche Wirtschaft und Wirtschaftspolitik 1914 - 1945" Prof. Dr. Rainer Goemmel
_URL_0_
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[
"Hitler completely reorganized the economic landscape in Germany. The economic chamber of the Third Reich consisted of over two hundred organizations and national councils involved in industry, commercial, and craft lines. Large public works programs, such as the construction of the Autobahn, stimulated the economy and reduced unemployment. These programs also prevented the recurrence of inflation, which plagued the German economy immediately following World War 1 and led to widespread civil unrest. As the economy slowly recovered under the Nazi Party, Hitler adapted the economy to cater towards war preparations.\n",
"During the Hitler era (1933–45), the economy developed a hothouse prosperity, supported with high government subsidies to those sectors that tended to give Germany military power and economic autarky, that is, economic independence from the global economy. During the war itself the German economy was sustained by the exploitation of conquered territories and people. \n",
"The Nazi war economy was a mixed economy that combined a free market with central planning. Historian Richard Overy describes it as being somewhere in between the command economy of the Soviet Union and the capitalist system of the United States.\n",
"Hitler primarily viewed the German economy as an instrument of power and believed the economy was not about creating wealth and technical progress so as to improve the quality of life for a nation's citizenry, but rather that economic success was paramount for providing the means and material foundations necessary for military conquest. While economic progress generated by National Socialist programs had its role in appeasing the German people, the Nazis and Hitler in particular did not believe that economic solutions alone were sufficient to thrust Germany onto the stage as a world power. The Nazis thus sought to secure a general economic revival accompanied by massive military spending for rearmament, especially later through the implementation of the Four Year Plan, which consolidated their rule and firmly secured a command relationship between the German arms industry and the National Socialist government. Between 1933 and 1939, military expenditures were upwards of 82 billion Reichsmarks and represented 23 percent of Germany's gross national product as the Nazis mobilised their people and economy for war.\n",
"After the war, Albert Speer claimed that the German economy achieved greater armaments output, not because of diversions of capacity from civilian to military industry but through streamlining of the economy. Richard Overy pointed out some 23 percent of German output was military by 1939. Between 1937 and 1939, 70 percent of investment capital went into the rubber, synthetic fuel, aircraft and shipbuilding industries. Hermann Göring had consistently stated that the task of the Four Year Plan was to rearm Germany for total war. Hitler's correspondence with his economists also reveals that his intent was to wage war in 1943–1945, when the resources of central Europe had been absorbed into the \"Third Reich\".\n",
"Germany had not fully mobilized in 1939, nor even in 1941. Not until 1943, under Albert Speer (the minister of armaments in the \"Reich\"), did Germany finally redirect its entire economy and manpower to war production. Instead of using all available Germans, it brought in millions of slave workers from conquered countries, treating them badly (and getting low productivity in return). Germany's economy was simply too small for a longer all-out war. Hitler's strategy was to change this by a series of surprise blitzkriegs. This failed with defeats in Russia in 1941 and 1942, and against the economic power of the allies.\n",
"Adam Tooze wrote that the German economy was being prepared for a long war. The expenditure for this war was extensive and put the economy under severe strain. The German leadership were concerned less with how to balance the civilian economy and the needs of civilian consumption but to figure out how to best prepare the economy for total war. Once war had begun, Hitler urged his economic experts to abandon caution and expend all available resources on the war effort but the expansion plans only gradually gained momentum in 1941. Tooze wrote that the huge armament plans in the pre-war period did not indicate any clear-sighted blitzkrieg economy or strategy.\n"
] |
how to talk to children
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Reading your username makes me question your intentions.
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[
"BULLET::::- \"So Much to Say\" (1980), regarding the language of children from birth to age five. It proposes that children are driven to talk because they have \"something to say,\" have private emotions and thoughts to report.\n",
"Children who have delayed speech or other mental illnesses cannot grasp the concept of verbal communication, so they turn to symbol communication. These children may already understand basic symbols like head-nodding for \"yes\" or head shaking for \"no\" from watching their parents or others around them. Children who have a hard time speaking cannot demonstrate their literacy skills confluent with other children their age. Parents who take special care in helping their child use by using symbolic communication at first see a huge growth in their speech and communication skills.\n",
"From an early age, infants use language to communicate. Caregivers and other family members use language to teach children how to act in society. In their interactions with peers, children have the opportunity to learn about unique conversational roles. Through pragmatic directions, adults often offer children cues for understanding the meaning of words.\n",
"Talking Matters is a programme that promotes the importance of talking with babies. This programme is designed to address the differences in language children have when they start school. It is a community-based programme that focusses on the child's brain development in the first 0–3 years.\n",
"Baby talk is a type of speech associated with an older person speaking to a child. It is also called caretaker speech, infant-directed speech (IDS), child-directed speech (CDS), child-directed language (CDL), or motherese.\n",
"The idea of a talking child was adapted from Jackie Cooper's earlier NBC sitcom \"The People's Choice\", which features a talking basset hound named Cleo. The idea of a talking infant was later reused in the film \"Look Who's Talking\" and the 1990s sitcom, \"Baby Talk\".\n",
"Small Talk was written with the intention of giving parents the confidence to enhance their child's communication in those all-important early years when the brain is busy creating pathways to the jaw, lips and tongue, establishing the building blocks of first speech.\n"
] |
did thousands of people die trying 'food' that we now know is poisonous?
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Probably. And more than a few avoided food that we know is fine. Many people in Europe in the 1400s thought fruit was slightly poisonous and shouldn't be given to young children. Many people used to think tomatoes were toxic.
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[
"There have been cases where people died after eating foods containing palytoxin or poisons similar to it. In the Philippines people died after eating \"Demania reynaudii\", a crab species. After eating bluestripe herring some people died in Madagascar. People who had eaten smoked fish and parrotfish experienced near fatal poisoning in Hawaii and Japan respectively.\n",
"There have been several episodes in which large numbers of people were severely poisoned by food contaminated with high levels of methylmercury, notably the dumping of industrial waste that resulted in the pollution and subsequent mass poisoning in Minamata and Niigata, Japan and the situation in Iraq in the 1960s and 1970s in which wheat treated with methylmercury as a preservative and intended as seed grain was fed to animals and directly consumed by people (see Basra poison grain disaster). These episodes resulted in neurological symptoms including paresthesias, loss of physical coordination, difficulty in speech, narrowing of the visual field, hearing impairment, blindness, and death. Children who had been exposed in-utero through their mothers' ingestion were also affected with a range of symptoms including motor difficulties, sensory problems and intellectual disability.\n",
"In November, 1967, 81 people in Chiquinquirá, most of them children, were fatally poisoned and hundreds more became seriously ill after eating bread that had been made with flour that had been contaminated with a powdered insecticide. \n",
"Issues of food spoilage do not necessarily have to do with the quality of the food, but more so with the safety of consuming said food. However, there are cases where food has been proven to contain toxic ingredients. 200 years ago, Claviceps purpurea, a type of fungus, was linked to human diseases and 100 years ago in Japan, yellow rice was found to contain toxic ingredients. \n",
"There have been no reported cases of severe poisoning or deaths in North America, but children have been fatally poisoned by its European relative \"A. spicata\". It is claimed that poisoning is unlikely from eating the fruits of this species also.\n",
"Initial indications were that the food was contaminated by an organophosphate, a class of chemicals commonly found in insecticides. A local government administrator commented \"It appears to be a case of poisoning but we will have to wait for forensic reports ... Had it been a case of natural food poisoning, so many children would not have died.\" Dr Amar Kant Jha, superintendent of Patna Medical College and Hospital in Patna, said that the survivors were emitting toxic vapours, which led his team to suspect almost immediately that they had been poisoned with an organophosphate.\n",
"Common toxic foods include avocado and guacamole, substances containing caffeine (such as tea and coffee), fruit pits and apple seeds (which contain amounts of cyanide), persimmons, onions (prolonged exposure can lead to a blood condition called hemolytic anemia), mushrooms (cause digestion problems and can induce liver failure), dried/uncooked beans (contain hemaglutin, toxic to birds), the stems, vines, and leaves of tomatoes (the actual fruit is fine), and eggplant. \n"
] |
When people say some metals are "better" at conducting electricity what does this mean, do they conduct faster or more efficiently?
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Both. The conductivity of a material is the constant that relates the current per unit area to the applied electric field. σ = J/E. So using a more conductive material you could design a circuit that moves the same amount of current using a weaker field (more efficient) or moves more current at the same field (faster) or somewhere in between.
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[
"Metals (e.g., copper, platinum, gold, etc.) are usually good conductors of thermal energy. This is due to the way that metals bond chemically: metallic bonds (as opposed to covalent or ionic bonds) have free-moving electrons that transfer thermal energy rapidly through the metal. The \"electron fluid\" of a conductive metallic solid conducts most of the heat flux through the solid. Phonon flux is still present, but carries less of the energy. Electrons also conduct electric current through conductive solids, and the thermal and electrical conductivities of most metals have about the same ratio. A good electrical conductor, such as copper, also conducts heat well. Thermoelectricity is caused by the interaction of heat flux and electric current. Heat conduction within a solid is directly analogous to diffusion of particles within a fluid, in the situation where there are no fluid currents.\n",
"Metals make relatively good conductors of heat, primarily because the delocalized electrons are free to transport thermal energy between atoms. However, unlike electrical conductivity, the thermal conductivity of a metal is nearly independent of temperature. This is expressed mathematically by the Wiedemann–Franz law, which states that the ratio of thermal conductivity to the electrical conductivity is proportional to the temperature. The thermal disorder in the metallic lattice increases the electrical resistivity of the material, producing a temperature dependence for electric current.\n",
"Regarding the sustainability of renewable energy systems, it is worthy to note that in addition to copper's high electrical and thermal conductivity, its recycling rate is higher than any other metal.\n",
"In 1911 Kamerlingh Onnes measured the electrical conductivity of pure metals (mercury, and later tin and lead) at very low temperatures. Some scientists, such as William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), believed that electrons flowing through a conductor would come to a complete halt or, in other words, metal resistivity would become infinitely large at absolute zero. Others, including Kamerlingh Onnes, felt that a conductor's electrical resistance would steadily decrease and drop to nil. Augustus Matthiessen said that when the temperature decreases, the metal conductivity usually improves or in other words, the electrical resistivity usually decreases with a decrease of temperature.\n",
"Resistance to electromigration, the process by which a metal conductor changes shape under the influence of an electric current flowing through it and which eventually leads to the breaking of the conductor, is significantly better with copper than with aluminium. This improvement in electromigration resistance allows higher currents to flow through a given size copper conductor compared to aluminium. The combination of a modest increase in conductivity along with this improvement in electromigration resistance was to prove highly attractive. The overall benefits derived from these performance improvements were ultimately enough to drive full-scale investment in copper-based technologies and fabrication methods for high performance semiconductor devices, and copper-based processes continue to be the state of the art for the semiconductor industry today.\n",
"The electronic structure of metals means they are relatively good conductors of electricity. Electrons in matter can only have fixed rather than variable energy levels, and in a metal the energy levels of the electrons in its electron cloud, at least to some degree, correspond to the energy levels at which electrical conduction can occur. In a semiconductor like silicon or a nonmetal like sulfur there is an energy gap between the electrons in the substance and the energy level at which electrical conduction can occur. Consequently, semiconductors and nonmetals are relatively poor conductors.\n",
"In metals, thermal conductivity approximately tracks electrical conductivity according to the Wiedemann–Franz law, as freely moving valence electrons transfer not only electric current but also heat energy. However, the general correlation between electrical and thermal conductance does not hold for other materials, due to the increased importance of phonon carriers for heat in non-metals. Highly electrically conductive silver is less thermally conductive than diamond, which is an electrical insulator, but due to its orderly array of atoms it is conductive of heat via phonons.\n"
] |
Does "smell" expand at different rate, due to surrounding temperature?
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Absolutely. When you smell something, molecules from whatever source you're smelling are in your nose. But they had get there from the source - they had move. As it happens, temperature is actually a measure of molecular motion; when things get hotter, the molecules are moving faster. And if the molecules are moving faster, they get to your nose faster.
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[
"Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a substance. When a substance is heated, the kinetic energy of its molecules increases. Thus, the molecules begin vibrating/moving more and usually maintain a greater average separation. Materials which contract with increasing temperature are unusual; this effect is limited in size, and only occurs within limited temperature ranges (see examples below). The relative expansion (also called strain) divided by the change in temperature is called the material's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature.\n",
"When the temperature increases, the Young's modulus of the material used to fabricate the moving structure decreases, or more simply, the moving structure softens. Meanwhile, thermal expansion and thermal conductivity increase, with the temperature inducing an internal stress in the moving structure. These effects can result in the shift of the resonant frequency of the moving structure which is equivalent to noise for resonant frequency shift sensing or the voltage sensing. In addition, temperature rise will generate larger Johnson noise (affect the piezoresistive transduction) and increase mechanical fluctuation noise (which affects optical sensing). Therefore, advanced electronics for temperature effect compensation have to be used to maintain sensitivity as temperature changes.\n",
"Thus, according to Boltzmann, owing to increases in thermal motion, whenever heat is added to a working substance, the rest position of molecules will be pushed apart, the body will expand, and this will create more \"molar-disordered\" distributions and arrangements of molecules. These disordered arrangements, subsequently, correlate, via probability arguments, to an increase in the measure of entropy.\n",
"The volumetric thermal expansion coefficient is the most basic thermal expansion coefficient, and the most relevant for fluids. In general, substances expand or contract when their temperature changes, with expansion or contraction occurring in all directions. Substances that expand at the same rate in every direction are called isotropic. For isotropic materials, the area and volumetric thermal expansion coefficient are, respectively, approximately twice and three times larger than the linear thermal expansion coefficient.\n",
"Note that in this example we have assumed that temperature is low enough that heat capacities are not influenced by molecular vibration (see heat capacity). However, vibrational modes simply cause gammas which decrease toward 1, since vibration modes in a polyatomic gas give the gas additional ways to store heat which do not affect temperature, and thus do not affect molecular velocity and sound velocity. Thus, the effect of higher temperatures and vibrational heat capacity acts to increase the difference between the speed of sound in monatomic vs. polyatomic molecules, with the speed remaining greater in monatomics.\n",
"There are two factors that can change the temperature of a fluid during an adiabatic expansion: a change in internal energy or the conversion between potential and kinetic internal energy. Temperature is the measure of thermal kinetic energy (energy associated with molecular motion); so a change in temperature indicates a change in thermal kinetic energy. The internal energy is the sum of thermal kinetic energy and thermal potential energy. Thus, even if the internal energy does not change, the temperature can change due to conversion between kinetic and potential energy; this is what happens in a free expansion and typically produces a decrease in temperature as the fluid expands. If work is done on or by the fluid as it expands, then the total internal energy changes. This is what happens in a Joule–Thomson expansion and can produce larger heating or cooling than observed in a free expansion.\n",
"where formula_11 is the critical temperature of the substance. So for formula_12, an expansion at constant enthalpy increases temperature as the work done by the repulsive interactions of the gas is dominant, and so the change in energy is negative. But for formula_13, expansion causes temperature to decrease because the work of attractive intermolecular forces dominates, giving a positive change in energy.\n"
] |
Why did American snipers in World War 2 were given the Springfield 1903 when the M1 Garand uses the same type of ammunition and is Semi-Automatic?
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Short answer. Because that's what they had on hand.
Short answer number 2. Because nobody had bothered developing the M1 as a sniper platform until late in the war.
Long answer. Well, nobody was bothering with the M1 until late in the war. Seriously, that's about the gist of it. None of this mess about "Semi autos being inherently inaccurate compared to bolt rifles" (The Russians would like to introduce you to the SVT 40, and some of the lovely and lethal ladies who used it to great effect on the Eastern Front) or pinging clips and such.
When the US entered WWII they didn't even have enough M1 Garands to go around yet, famously the Marines started the war with a large quantity of 03 Springfields on hand, as they had yet to fully transition to the M1. The first priority was getting standard M1's out to all the troops, and ramping up production of them to match the needs of the rapidly growing armed forces.
So, when a sniper rifle was needed, it was simpler to use the existing 03 Springfield platform to use as sniper rifles. They had been built in sniper configurations before, the tech was all worked out, there was a ton of civilian knowledge on how to turn them into scoped rifles. It was easy, simple and straightforward. The M1C and D rifles didn't make an appearance until 1944 and beyond, because of the need to first focus on getting standard rifles to the troops, and the fact that an entire program of turning the M1 into a sniper rifle had to be started up.
The M1 C and D were standard sniper rifles during the Korean War, and served quite well there, which should settle the myth of the weakness of a semi auto platform as a sniper rifle. You can also see the Russians have fielded many successful semi auto sniper rifles, such as the SVT 40, and the famous Dragonuv. The M1 was not a standard sniper platform in WWII, because it had not been developed as such yet, nothing more, nothing less.
Are bolt guns more inherently accurate? On off the shelf rack grade units? Probably. But when you start building match grade semi auto and bolt action rifles, I don't think it really matters anymore. Modern out of the box AR 15's get exceptional accuracy, and it's not uncommon to find or build sub MOA units for competition or varmint hunting. It's not the action of the gun, as much as it is the way it is built.
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[
"The US entered the war with the M1 Garand as its service rifle. However, due to its size and weight, it was not an ideal weapon for some specialist roles such as engineers, tank crew, radio operators etc. So the lighter and smaller M1 Carbine was introduced in mid-1942. A semi-automatic weapon it used different ammunition to the M1 rifle.\n",
"Since the Garand had demonstrated effectiveness as an infantry rifle in combat, the Ordnance Department suggested Winchester revise the design again to include a bipod and selective fire capability as a possible alternative to the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR). The Winchester Automatic Rifle (WAR) tested by the Ordnance Department in December 1944 was several pounds lighter than the BAR. Ten more WARs were tested during the summer of 1945 by the Army Infantry Board and by the Marine Corps Equipment Board; but interest in the project ended upon conclusion of Second World War hostilities.\n",
"In 1937, the American M1 Garand was the first semi-automatic rifle to replace its nation's bolt-action rifle as the standard-issue infantry weapon. The gas-operated M1 Garand was developed by Canadian-born John Garand for the U.S. government at the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts. After years of research and testing, the first production model of the M1 Garand was unveiled in 1937. During World War II, the M1 Garand gave American infantrymen an advantage over their opponents, most of whom were issued slower firing bolt-action rifles.\n",
"In 1937, the American M1 Garand was the first semi-automatic rifle to replace its nation's bolt-action rifle as the standard-issue infantry weapon. The gas-operated M1 Garand was developed by Canadian-born John Garand for the U.S. government at the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts. After years of research and testing, the first production model of the M1 Garand was unveiled in 1937. During World War II, the M1 Garand gave American infantrymen an advantage over their opponents, most of whom were issued slower firing bolt-action rifles.\n",
"The M14 was the last American battle rifle issued in quantity to U.S. military personnel. It was replaced by the M16 assault rifle, a lighter weapon using a smaller caliber intermediate cartridge. The M14 rifle remains in limited service in all branches of the U.S. military as an accurized competition weapon, a ceremonial weapon by honor guards, color guards, drill teams and ceremonial guards, and sniper rifle/designated marksman rifle but is still used in battlefields by special forces and standard infantry units. Civilian semi-automatic models are used for hunting, plinking, target shooting, and shooting competitions.\n",
"According to Bruce Canfield's encyclopedic \"U.S. Infantry Weapons of WW II\", final variants of the M1903 (the A3 and A4) were delivered in February 1944. By then, most American combat troops had been re-equipped with the M1 Garand. However, some front-line infantry units in both the U.S. Army and Marine Corps retained M1903s as infantry rifles beyond that date and continued to use them alongside the M1 Garand until the end of the Second World War in 1945. The Springfield remained in service for snipers (using the M1903A4), grenadiers (using a spigot type rifle 22 mm grenade launcher), and Marine Scout Sniper units.\n",
"The M1 Garand is a .30-06 caliber semi-automatic rifle that was the standard U.S. service rifle during World War II and the Korean War and also saw limited service during the Vietnam War. Most M1 rifles were issued to U.S. forces, though many hundreds of thousands were also provided as foreign aid to American allies. The Garand is still used by drill teams and military honor guards. It is also widely used by civilians for hunting, target shooting, and as a military collectible.\n"
] |
why are asians buying real estate all over the world, causing a housing crisis in various cities?
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It's not "Asian", it's only Chinese. China is about to implode and the people know it. The Chinese stock market is ludicrously overpriced because everyone in China buys stocks on margin, and when the price blips, everyone is leveraged to ridiculous levels and goes bankrupt overnight, so the blip becomes a catastrophe. People want to get their money out of China and into somewhere safe. If you have money to put somewhere, the options are real estate or offshore investment.
China is so paranoid that they will not allow people to move money out of the country, (the limit is something like $5000/day and only with a foreign passport), so that makes it impossible to *legally* invest in foreign stocks, leaving only real estate. (note that it's at the point now that Chinese companies are suing their own subsidiaries in America, so they have to pay themselves a settlement into their own American account, which *is* legal - sort of)
China is so paranoid that they will not allow people to buy land - if you buy an apartment, you don't own the land it's built on. And looking at Chinese real estate (remember those entire cities for 200,000 apartments, all of which are empty?), Chinese people are too smart to huff what the government is selling, so they need to buy real estate off shore. This is different to buying stocks off shore for legislative/tax reasons (I think the investment property is a business, but there are also people buying properties for their kids to stay in whilst studying as an excuse etc)
As for why it forms a bubble, that's because foreign governments are eyeing building industry bribes/donations/kickbacks along with wages for union members, stamp duties and other land taxes for treasuries and deciding that a bubble is a good thing.
This in turn means the people in Sydney, Auckland, Vancouver etc are buying real estate at greatly inflated prices on mortgages (i.e, buying on margin), so when housing prices here blip, everyone goes broke and the blip becomes a catastrophe. And the cycle repeats. Thanks China!!
edit: For the $0.50 brigade who think China is too strong to fall: We saw exactly this happening in the 1990's with Japan. Everyone was worried that the Japanese were infinitely rich with foreign currency from their exports inflating their markets beyond reasonable levels; we said they were buying too much property, racists/nationalists were saying they were buying what they couldn't conquer in WWII. Reality kicked in, Japanese stocks fell to realistic levels, everyone went broke and the Japanese economy is, even 25 years later, in such a bad shape that interest rates are negative.
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[
"Housing in Asia has an important role in economic growth. In the early 1990s large urbanization in Hong Kong, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines and other Southeast Asia countries brought about a large housing price appreciation. Asia attracted global economic interest up until the economic crash of 1997. A decade later, the Asian economy has been stabilized, and has allowed the property market to advance. As a result, foreign investment is continuing to grow. The market is currently experiencing a 50% increase in the amount being invested into Asian countries globally. Although some countries in Asia may not be suitable for international investment, due to government manipulated gdp figures and overvalued realestate fueled by unsustainably high debt to income ratios.\n",
"By 2018, housing prices Vancouver were the second-least affordable in the world, behind only Hong Kong. Many experts point to evidence of money-laundering from mainland China as a contributing factor. The high price of residential real estate has led to the implementation of an empty homes tax, a housing speculation and vacancy tax, and a foreign buyers' tax on housing.\n",
"Housing demand in urban China has greatly increased. Export-oriented economy and educational opportunities in Chinese cities have accelerated the country's urbanization, as have cities with available public goods limiting their access to residents who have purchased and registered real estate. Further raising the demand are distrust in the country's social safety net, cultural expectation for long-term residences, and \"poor public housing implementation\" that has left affordable housing hard to find. An inflated industry increases GDP statistics, the primary criteria for promoting public officials, which promotes governmental inaction. Real estate companies, banks, the government, and already-established urban residents have indirectly increased prices by speculating on the booming market.\n",
"The Link was called a \"bloodsucker\" by housing estate residents after the company acquired the Housing Authority shopping centres, renovated them, and raised rents. This has led to local shops being pushed out, higher prices, and the dominance of chain stores within the estates. This trend has reduced entrepreneurship opportunities for lower income people in Hong Kong's public housing estates and new towns, diminishing their chances to achieve social mobility, and has increased the cost of living.\n",
"Especially since many new real estate developers, who are not of Chinese descent have been increasingly and aggressively purchasing more and more apartment buildings in Manhattan's Chinatown including in the Little Fuzhou portion, many Chinese residents have been subjected to harassment in an attempt to force them out of the affordable housing units with the desire to rent to more higher level income professionals. In a July 2018 report from \"Voices of NY\", Fuzhou owned businesses have been declining on East Broadway due to the rents being too expensive and now there are many empty storefronts and the street, which used to be bustling with many Fuzhou immigrants walking around and with many busy Fuzhou businesses during the 1990s-2000s, including being the cultural heart and business center for the Fuzhou immigrants in New York as well as nationally have become quieter since the 2010s and there is a rapid increasing population of non Asians now. As a result, the street is now slowly starting to resemble the 1970s-80s, which during that time there were not as many people and busy businesses and there only had been moderate influx of Chinese immigrants, mainly the Cantonese at the time; although with moderate numbers of Fuzhou immigrants as there was still a significant portion of remaining Latino and Jewish residents; the only difference is that this time the non Asian population that are growing are primarily high-income Caucasians and the remaining, but declining Chinese population are mainly old timer Fuzhou immigrants, although some long time Cantonese immigrants that had settled there before the large influx of Fuzhou immigrants are also still remaining.\n",
"Poor urban housing conditions are a global problem, but conditions are worst in developing countries. Habitat says that today 600 million people live in life- and health-threatening homes in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. For example, more than three in four young people had insufficient means of shelter and sanitation in some African countries like Malawi. \"The threat of mass homelessness is greatest in those regions because that is where population is growing fastest. By 2015, the 10 largest cities in the world will be in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Nine of them will be in developing countries: Mumbai, India – 27.4 million; Lagos, Nigeria – 24.4; Shanghai, China – 23.4; Jakarta, Indonesia – 21.2; São Paulo, Brazil – 20.8; Karachi, Pakistan – 20.6; Beijing, China – 19.4; Dhaka, Bangladesh – 19; Mexico City, Mexico – 18.8. The only city in a developed country that will be in the top ten is Tokyo, Japan – 28.7 million.\"\n",
"A lack of housing coupled with high population growth, and has resulted in individuals living in low-cost illegal buildings or building shanties or huts on illegal land. For instance, many people have moved to the greater Mumbai area in search of jobs, and without affordable housing, thousands sleep in slums or on the streets. As a result, there is a trend of increased illegal housing in municipalities within Mumbai Metropolitan Development Authority. In the Thane district alone, there were reported to be 500,000 illegal buildings by 2010.\n"
] |
why can we tell an airplane is pitched up when looking straight down the aisle.
|
Cause of your ears. Your ears have, on the inside of your skull, structures in them that are filled with fluid. The insides of these structures are lined with little sensory nerves that "tell you" where the fluid is. Since gravity pulls the fluid downward, these organs tell you which way is down.
|
[
"After the initial pitch-up, the pilot places the elevators in the neutral position. Failure to do this will cause the aircraft to continue pitching up during the upright part of the maneuver, and downward in the inverted part, resulting in something resembling a barrel roll. The pilot then applies full aileron, accomplished by moving the stick to either the right or left. As the aircraft rolls about its longitudinal axis, the nose will begin to drop. Upon completing the roll, the nose will usually be 10 to 30 degrees below the horizon, so the pilot will need to pitch-up to return to level flight.\n",
"In a straight flight, the tail of the airplane aligns the fuselage into the relative wind. However, in the beginning of a turn, when the ailerons are being applied in order to bank the airplane, the ailerons also cause an adverse yaw of the airplane. For example, if the airplane is rolling clockwise (from the pilot point of view), the airplane yaws to the left. It assumes a crab-like attitude relative to the wind. This is called a slip. The air is flowing crosswise over the fuselage. In order to correct this adverse slip, the pilot must apply rudder (right rudder in this example). If the pilot applies too much rudder, the airplane will then slip to the other side. This is called a skid.\n",
"This applies to cockpits with two seats (usually Pilot & Co-Pilot) arranged horizontally or abreast. Assuming the pilot performing the manoeuvre is positioned in the left seat (command seat) when a steep turn to the right is performed, the nose will appear to fall. Conversely, a steep turn to the left will make it seem like the nose is rising against the horizon. This is parallax error based purely on the pilot's vantage point and instinctively causes a pull back or a push down reaction on the control stick / column which is an incorrect reaction. A good way of eliminating the effect of this error is to keep an eye on the horizon and maintain the aircraft's position relative to the horizon line thereby allowing you to approximate the 45 degree angle the panel top creates against the horizon.\n",
"The aircraft makes a tight, 180 degree change in heading while covering minimum horizontal distance. The maneuver begins by making roughly a quarter loop, bringing the plane up into a vertical or near-vertical climb, allowing the airspeed to drop. Before the airplane stalls (begins to fall) the pilot applies hard rudder input, bringing the plane into a sweeping, vertical flat-turn, during which the wing swings over the top of the turn toward the direction of the nose. Both the lowered airspeed and gravity provide assistance with the turn, similar to a stall turn (hammerhead turn), except the plane never actually stalls. Instead, as the speed decreases, the plane makes a gentle, 180 degree flat-turn over the top of the climb, then dives to the original altitude along a parallel flightpath, completing a quarter loop to return to level flight at the original speed.\n",
"The investigation showed that during the go-around, as the captain was dealing with the flap over-speed situation, he applied a nose-down side-stick input, resulting in a nose-down pitch. While the aircraft was accelerating with TOGA power in total darkness, the somatogravic illusion could have caused the captain to perceive (falsely) that the aircraft was ‘pitching up’. He would have responded by making a ‘nose down’ input. The aircraft descended and flew into the sea.\n",
"One witness interviewed by the NTSB, a pilot driving on a road southwest of the airport, told investigators that he saw the airplane in normal flight at normal altitudes, and that he believed that the approach was not abnormal. The airplane completed a 180-degree turn from the downwind leg of the approach and continued the turn. He then saw the aircraft pitch slightly, before it rolled to the left until the wings were vertical. The airplane then turned nose-down and smashed into the ground. He saw no fire or smoke during the flight and he believed both propellers were rotating.\n",
"Between and down the runway, the aircraft reached take-off speed, lifted off the ground, and began climbing normally as the crew retracted the landing gear. Upon climbing through , the aircraft began banking to the right. The climbing bank continued to increase at a rate which alarmed witnesses, and soon after the aircraft rolled through 90° (at which point the wings were vertical to the ground). At a height of around , with all four engines producing take-off thrust, the nose began to fall. Moments later the right wing and nose impacted the ground, causing the fuselage to cartwheel over, before the aircraft came to rest, with the correct side up. It was immediately engulfed in flames. All three members of the flight crew were instantly killed. Although emergency services at Long Island MacArthur promptly responded to the crash, the aircraft was destroyed by the post-crash fire.\n"
] |
how do scientists/anthropologists explain the seemingly quick ascent of the human species?
|
[Punctuated Equilibrium, my man. Evolution of species or ideas shouldn't be be viewed as a gradual and constant change but as a series of leaps and bounds interspersed with periods of stability.](_URL_0_)
|
[
"Overwhelmingly, the idea of a \"first ascent\" is a modern one, especially in places such as Africa and the Americas with a history of colonialism. There may be little or no physical evidence or documentation about the climbing activities of indigenous peoples living near the mountain. For example, the volcano Llullaillaco on the border of Argentina and Chile is known to have been climbed in the prehistoric period due to the presence of Incan artifacts at the summit, yet credit for the first recorded ascent is given to Chilean climbers Bión González and Juan Harseim, who summited in 1952.\n",
"The first recorded ascent occurred in 1965 by S. Kunstmann and W. Foerster, but evidence reported during that ascent implies that humans had reached the mountain earlier. Otherwise, Nevado de Longaví is one of the important tourist attractions of the commune.\n",
"The first scientific investigations of high-altitude adaptation was done by A. Roberto Frisancho of the University of Michigan in the late 1960s among the Quechua people of Peru. Paul T. Baker, Penn State University, (in the Department of Anthropology) also conducted a considerable amount of research into human adaptation to high altitudes, and mentored students who continued this research. One of these students went on to conduct research on high altitude adaptation among the Tibetans in the early 1980s through to today, anthropologist Cynthia Beall of the Case Western Reserve University.\n",
"BULLET::::- On August 26, 1823, Joseph F. Goodrich, an American missionary, made the first recorded ascent in a single day; however, a small arrangement of stones he observed suggested he was not the first human on the summit. He recorded four ecosystems as he travelled from base to summit, and also visited Lake Waiau.\n",
"In 1999, a new search expedition was mounted, founded by German Everest researcher Jochen Hemmleb, and led by Eric Simonson. Simonson had seen some very old oxygen bottles near the First Step during his first summit climb in 1991. One of these bottles was again found in 1999 and was one belonging to Mallory and Irvine, thus proving the two climbed at least as high as shortly below the First Step. Their location also suggests a climbing speed of approximately 275 vert-ft/hr, good time for the altitude and an indication the oxygen systems were working perfectly. The expedition also tried to reproduce Odell's position when he had seen Mallory and Irvine. The mountaineer Andy Politz later reported that they could clearly identify each of the three steps without any problems.\n",
"Cynthia M. Beall is an American physical anthropologist at the Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. Four decades of her research on people living in extremely high mountains became the frontier in understanding human evolution and high-altitude adaptation. Her groundbreaking works among the Andean, Tibetan and East African highlanders are the basis of our knowledge on adaptation to hypoxic condition and how it influences the evolutionary selection in modern humans. She is currently the Distinguished University Professor, and member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences and the American Philosophical Society.\n",
"In mountaineering, a first ascent (abbreviated to FA in guidebooks) is the first successful, documented attainment of the top of a mountain, or the first to follow a particular climbing route. First mountain ascents are notable because they entail genuine exploration, with greater risks, challenges, and recognition than climbing a route pioneered by others. The person who performs the first ascent is called the first ascensionist. \n"
] |
Is it possible to tack into the solar wind the same way we can sail into the wind on earth?
|
If you mean sailing in the opposite direction as the wind (i.e. to the Sun) then yes, it is possible, though not in the same way nor for the same reasons. Orbital dynamics are crazy and amazing :)
You can use [radiation pressure](_URL_0_) with a solar sail or the solar wind with an [electric sail](_URL_1_). In the rest of this comment I'll assume you have either of them.
Your spacecraft is initially in orbit around the Sun (assuming it's already escaped Earth's gravity). If you're orienting your sail at an angle, so that the net force on your spacecraft points in a direction opposite to its velocity, then you're causing it to slow down. Orbital dynamics mandate that an object in orbit that loses speed will come closer to the central attracting body (i.e. migrate to a lower orbit). If you keep losing and losing speed it will end up spiraling inwards.
Fun fact: even though the sail will cause it to lose speed, while getting closer to the Sun gravitational potential energy is released in the form of kinetic energy, effectively speeding up the spacecraft. The second effect is more significant; slowing down while in orbit actually makes the spacecraft move faster.
|
[
"Robert L. Forward has commented that a solar sail could be used to modify the orbit of a satellite about the Earth. In the limit, a sail could be used to \"hover\" a satellite above one pole of the Earth. Spacecraft fitted with solar sails could also be placed in close orbits such that they are stationary with respect to either the Sun or the Earth, a type of satellite named by Forward a \"statite\". This is possible because the propulsion provided by the sail offsets the gravitational attraction of the Sun. Such an orbit could be useful for studying the properties of the Sun for long durations. Likewise a solar sail-equipped spacecraft could also remain on station nearly above the polar solar terminator of a planet such as the Earth by tilting the sail at the appropriate angle needed to counteract the planet's gravity.\n",
"The solar wind is a continuous stream of plasma that flows outwards from the Sun: near the Earth's orbit, it contains several million protons and electrons per cubic meter and flows at . The magnetic sail introduces a magnetic field into this plasma flow which can deflect the particles from their original trajectory: the momentum of the particles is then transferred to the sail, leading to a thrust on the sail. One advantage of magnetic or solar sails over (chemical or ion) reaction thrusters is that no reaction mass is depleted or carried in the craft.\n",
"Many people believe that spacecraft using solar sails are pushed by the Solar winds just as sailboats and sailing ships are pushed by the winds across the waters on Earth. But Solar radiation exerts a pressure on the sail due to reflection and a small fraction that is absorbed.\n",
"Another possible method is a solar sail. Solar sails use radiation pressure in a way to achieve a desired propulsive force. The perturbation model due to the solar wind can be used as a model of propulsive force from a solar sail.\n",
"Just as with solar sails, magnetic sails can \"tack\". If a magnetic sail orients at an angle relative to the solar wind, charged particles are deflected preferentially to one side and the magnetic sail is pushed laterally. This means that magnetic sails could maneuver to most orbits.\n",
"J. D. Bernal wrote in 1929, \"A form of space sailing might be developed which used the repulsive effect of the Sun's rays instead of wind. A space vessel spreading its large, metallic wings, acres in extent, to the full, might be blown to the limit of Neptune's orbit. Then, to increase its speed, it would tack, close-hauled, down the gravitational field, spreading full sail again as it rushed past the Sun.\"\n",
"Like for other solar sail technologies, while modest variation of the thrust direction can be achieved by inclining the sail, the thrust vector always points more or less radially outward from the Sun. It has been estimated that maximum operational inclination would be 60°, resulting in a thrusting angle of 30° from the outward radial direction. However, like with the sails of a ship, tacking could be used for changing the trajectory. Interstellar ships approaching a sun might use solar wind flow for braking.\n"
] |
why do boobs in classical artworks look so different from those sported by today's models? [nsfw]
|
The models have all had surgery, or are naturally big-breasted.
In antiquity, it was considered more attractive to have smaller breasts, so the artists chose smaller-breasted women.
|
[
"Slides are well known for their sporty look because of the impact Adidas has left. They are very functional so they are great for casual outfits. For example going out to the beach, walking in parks, summer barbecues. However, high fashion designers such as Prada, Gucci, Burberry, and Marc Jacobs have included them in their collection. The different designs and ideas that come from the designers are including everything imaginable. Things from feathers to floral to faux fur and regal pearls are being attached or used as the main design behind slides.\n",
"With his metal hangings continuing to spread over the world, Western art critics began to connect Anatsui's work with potential art historical references in order for them, foreigners, to create familiarity. For example, one mentions that his bottle tops could be compared to \"Duchamp's bicycle wheel\" and \"recall disparate Modernist sweet spots without quite settling into any familiar category.\" \n",
"An offshoot of shabby chic is a trend towards 'relicing' of guitars and bass guitars to create a 'roadworn' appearance, from mild wear to extreme abuses almost never seen in genuine vintage instruments.\n",
"Butts initially called the game \"Lexiko\", but later changed the name to \"Criss Cross Words\", after considering \"It\", and began to look for a buyer. The game makers he originally contacted rejected the idea, but Butts was tenacious. Eventually, he sold the rights to entrepreneur and game-lover James Brunot, who made a few minor adjustments to the design and renamed the game \"\"Scrabble\".\"\n",
"Golub, who always painted in a figural style, drew upon diverse representations of the body from ancient Greek and Roman sculpture, to photographs of athletic competitions, to gay pornography; often pulled directly from a huge database he assembled of journalistic images from the mass media. He likened his painting process to sculptural technique and employed a method of layering and scraping away paint, sometimes using a meat cleaver, leaving varying amounts of canvas untouched.\n",
"\"BUTT\" has been praised for its unabashed sexual and non-sexual portrayals of men, which emphasize equal opportunity in depictions of all people in print. The magazine has been lauded for its unique, candid approach to interviews, which may be done by anyone.\n",
"Boozer's work is included in the collection of the Renwick Gallery of the Smithsonian American Art Museum, New York's South Street Seaport Museum, the US Department of State, the Washington DC City Hall Art Collection at the John A. Wilson Building, and in other various private collections. Boozer also creates work that is more readily consumable for commercial art galleries, often consisting of highly decorative abstract wall-mounted pieces in the form of cracked, heat-blasted rectangular slabs.\n"
] |
why was the race to the moon more important than the race to the first man in space?
|
They know him in Russia.
Because the Soviets sent a man into space first, the achievement was downplayed in the West, and then the Moon Race was really hyped up to compensate.
|
[
"According to US sources, the \"race\" peaked with the July 20, 1969, US landing of the first humans on the Moon with Apollo 11. Most US sources will point to the Apollo 11 lunar landing as a singular achievement far outweighing any combination of Soviet achievements. In any case the USSR attempted several crewed lunar missions, but eventually canceled them and concentrated on Earth orbital space stations, while the US landed several more times on the Moon.\n",
"During the 1960s, the United States and the Soviet Union were engaged in a feverish technological competition, popularly known as the space race, to be the first to land a human on the Moon. The United States won the race, but less is known about a \"secret chapter\" from the Cold War era. Overshadowed by the Apollo Moon landings and largely ignored in the West at the time, the Soviets were also exploring the Moon with a series of successful robotic Moon missions. The Soviets never sent humans to the Moon, but they successfully guided two freely-roving robots by remote control from the Earth. For 16 months between 1970 and 1973, these Lunokhods traveled more than over the Moon's surface. Kept in utmost secrecy for two decades, the secret Soviet space archives concerning this program were finally declassified.\n",
"The space race had triumphs and failures on both sides. One significant triumph was Apollo 8 in 1968. 1968 was a bad year for America. The Tet Offensive, Robert Kennedy was shot and killed, Martin Luther King Jr. was shot and killed, there were numerous race riots, and there was a brutal crackdown in Czechoslovakia. But there was one thing that gave people hope and inspiration. That was when Apollo 8 circled the moon and read from the first book of the Bible Genesis.\n",
"NASA planners projected that human spaceflight would pull the United States ahead in the Space Race as well as accomplishing their long time goal; however, in 1960, an Ad Hoc Panel on Man-in-Space concluded that \"man-in-space can not be justified\" and was too costly. Eisenhower later resented the space program and its gargantuan price tag—he was quoted as saying, \"Anyone who would spend $40 billion in a race to the moon for national prestige is nuts.\"\n",
"Unlike other international rivalries, the Space Race has remained unaffected in a direct way regarding the desire for territorial expansion. After the successful landings on the Moon, the U.S. explicitly disclaimed the right to ownership of any part of the Moon.\n",
"Motivation for the United States to engage the Soviet Union in a Space Race can be traced to the then on-going Cold War. Landing on the Moon was viewed as a national and technological accomplishment that would generate world-wide acclaim. But going to the Moon would be risky and expensive, as exemplified by President John F. Kennedy famously stating in a 1962 speech that the United States chose to go \"because\" it was hard.\n",
"This race's importance in the history book would be that the famous Apollo 11 moon landing would take place on the same day, with Neil Armstrong making his famous walk on the Moon. Henley Gray deliberately quit the race to get home in time to watch the moon landing on television; according to urban legend. As a result, he won $550 ($ when adjusted for inflation) in prize money and finished only 206 out of the 500 laps of the race.\n"
] |
how was the bureau of census measuring population before sampling?
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The census counts every person, or at least tries to, every ten years.
He is talking about people using the data collected - some of them insisted on using everything which, before modern computers could be a monumental task.
|
[
"Between 1790 and 1840, the census was taken by marshals of the judicial districts. The Census Act of 1840 established a central office which became known as the Census Office. Several acts followed that revised and authorized new censuses, typically at the 10-year intervals. In 1902, the temporary Census Office was moved under the Department of Interior, and in 1903 it was renamed the Census Bureau under the new Department of Commerce and Labor. The department was intended to consolidate overlapping statistical agencies, but Census Bureau officials were hindered by their subordinate role in the department.\n",
"The use of a sampling frame is counterintuitive as it suggests that the population size is already known. However, a census is also used to collect attribute data on the individuals in the nation. This process of sampling marks the difference between historical census, which was a house to house process or the product of an imperial decree, and the modern statistical project.\n",
"The United States Census Bureau, which operates out of the United States Department of Commerce, conducts a nationwide Census every decade to determine the population and its distribution within the United States, as required by Article I of the Constitution. The population numbers are used to distribute the number of members of the United States House of Representatives, as well as internally by each state to draw up their congressional and legislative redistricting maps.\n",
"The results from the 2001 census were produced using a methodology known as the One Number Census. This was an attempt to adjust the census counts and impute answers to allow for estimated under-enumeration measured by the Census Coverage Survey (sample size 320,000 households), resulting in a single set of population estimates.\n",
"The Census Act of 1850 established the primary machinery of the ninth census. The Census Bureau, working within the Department of the Interior, oversaw the recording and tabulation of results gathered by assistant marshals, who were hired and supervised by Federal marshals. Two new structural changes during the 1870 Census occurred: marshals had to return the completed population questionnaire to the Census Office in September and penalties for refusing to reply to enumerator questions were extended to encompass every question on the questionnaires.\n",
"The Census Bureau also conducts surveys on behalf of various federal government and local government agencies on topics such as employment, crime, health, consumer expenditures, and housing. Within the bureau, these are known as \"demographic surveys\" and are conducted perpetually between and during decennial (10-year) population counts. The Census Bureau also conducts economic surveys of manufacturing, retail, service, and other establishments and of domestic governments.\n",
"The 1850 United States census was the first federal U.S. census to query respondents about their \"nativity\"—i.e, where they were born, whether in the United States or outside of it—and is thus the first point at which solid statistics become available. The following chart, based on statistics from the U.S. Census from 1850 on, shows the numbers of non-native residents according to place of birth. Because an immigrant is counted in each census during his or her lifetime, the numbers reflect the cumulative population of living non-native citizens.\n"
] |
how is airport security regulated and kept consistent around the world
|
It is not.
Every single country sets up their own rules and regulations, as well as how they enforce these rules and regulations. There are some countries who have treaties with others that set certain requirements for flights between said countries, but these are not always well enforced.
|
[
"Airport security attempts to prevent any threats or potentially dangerous situations from arising or entering the country. If airport security does succeed then the chances of any dangerous situation, illegal items or threats entering into an aircraft, country or airport are greatly reduced. As such, airport security serves several purposes: To protect the airport and country from any threatening events, to reassure the traveling public that they are safe and to protect the country and their people.\n",
"In response to the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City, the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) implemented new rules to ensure the safety of domestic and international air travel in the United States. The rules of this program are administered by the Transportation Security Administration (TSA), who is responsible for the oversight of all transportation security, including truck, rail and ocean, as well as air.\n",
"All restrictions involving airport security are determined by Transport Canada and some are implemented by the Canadian Air Transport Security Authority (CATSA) in conjunction with the Airport Operator . Since the September 11 attacks, as well as the Air India bombing in 1985 and other incidents, airport security has tightened in Canada in order to prevent any attacks in Canadian Airspace.\n",
"Airport security normally requires baggage checks, metal screenings of individual persons, and rules against any object that could be used as a weapon. Since the September 11 attacks and the Real ID Act of 2005, airport security has dramatically increased and got tighter and stricter than ever before.\n",
"Airport security mechanisms must be quick, efficient, and effective due to the massive numbers of travelers, the Department of Homeland Security has implemented the Automated Targeting System, a data mining program. The Automated Targeting System works by collecting information from airlines such as passport data, credit card numbers, and identity information. That information is then run against a list of known terrorists, phone numbers connected to terrorist cells, and other pertinent intelligence data.\n",
"The Transportation Security Administration in the United States has implemented security operations centers for most airports that have federalized security. The primary function of TSA security operations centers is to act as a communication hub for security personnel, law enforcement, airport personnel and various other agencies involved in the daily operations of airports. SOCs are manned 24-hours a day by SOC watch officers. Security operations center watch officers are trained in all aspects of airport and aviation security and are often required to work abnormal shifts. SOC watch officers also ensure that TSA personnel follow proper protocol in dealing with airport security operations. The SOC is usually the first to be notified of incidents at airports such as the discovery of prohibited items/contraband, weapons, explosives, hazardous materials as well as incidents regarding flight delays, unruly passengers, injuries, damaged equipment and various other types of potential security threats. The SOC in turn relays all information pertaining to these incidents to TSA federal security directors, law enforcement and TSA headquarters.\n",
"The current trend of enhancing security at the cost of passenger and baggage handling efficiency at international airports is expected to continue in the future. This places financial burden on airports, risks the flow of servicing processes, and has implications for the privacy of passengers. International flights often require a higher level of physical security than do domestic airports, although in recent years, many countries have adopted the same level of security for both.\n"
] |
What happens to the parts of the brain which control amputated body parts?
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They exist, and can even be "tricked" into thinking an arm is still there which is basically phantom limb syndrome; it's also the basis for some robotic prosthesis which wouldnt work if the brain didnt retain those faculties; there are some local neurons that likely need to be developed, but the brain remains entirely undisturbed.
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[
"Upper motor neurons in the primary motor cortex send their axons to the brainstem and spinal cord to synapse on the lower motor neurons, which innervate the muscles. Damage to motor areas by chance of cortex can lead to certain types of motor neuron disease. This kind of damage results in loss of muscular power and precision rather than total paralysis.\n",
"These result in lesions to key areas of the brain involved in planning, executing, or regulating motor operations in skeletal muscles (i.e. muscles of the limbs), including muscles of the head and neck (dysfunction of which characterises dysarthria). These can result in dysfunction, or failure of: the motor or somatosensory cortex of the brain, corticobulbar pathways, the cerebellum, basal nuclei (consisting of the putamen, globus pallidus, caudate nucleus, substantia nigra etc.), brainstem (from which the cranial nerves originate), or the neuro-muscular junction (in diseases such as myasthenia gravis) which block the nervous system's ability to activate motor units and effect correct range and strength of movements.\n",
"The brain serves as the organic basis of cognition and exerts centralized control over the other organs of the body. The brain is protected by the skull; however, if the brain is damaged, significant impairments in cognition and physiological function or death may occur.\n",
"A similar phenomenon is unexplained sensation in a body part unrelated to the amputated limb. It has been hypothesized that the portion of the brain responsible for processing stimulation from amputated limbs, being deprived of input, expands into the surrounding brain, (\"Phantoms in the Brain\": V.S. Ramachandran and Sandra Blakeslee) such that an individual who has had an arm amputated will experience unexplained pressure or movement on his face or head.\n",
"Robotic lower limb exoskeletons have the potential to help an individual recover from an injury such as a stroke, spinal cord injury, or other neurological disabilities. Neurological motor disorders often result in reduced volitional muscle activation amplitude, impaired proprioception, and disordered muscle coordination; a robotic exoskeleton with proportional myoelectric control can improve all three of these by amplifying the relationship between muscle activation and proprioceptive feedback. By increasing the consequences of muscle activation, an exoskeleton can improve sensory feedback in a physiological way, which in turn can improve motor control Individuals with spinal cord injury or who have had a stroke can improve their motor capabilities through intense gait rehabilitation, which can require up to three physical therapists to help partially support the body weight of the individual. Robotic lower limb exoskeletons could help in both of these areas.\n",
"Under ordinary circumstances, the genetically determined circuitry in the brain remains largely stable throughout life. It was thought, until about 30 years ago, that no new neural circuits could be formed in the adult mammalian brain. Recently, functional MRI studies in amputees have shown that almost all patients have experienced motor cortical remapping. The majority of motor reorganization has occurred as a downward shift of the hand area of the cortex onto the area of face representation, especially the lips. Sometimes there is a side shift of the hand motor cortex to the ipsilateral cortex. In patients with phantom limb pain, the reorganization was great enough to cause a change in cortical lip representation into the hand areas only during lip movements. It has also been found that there is a high correlation between the magnitude of phantom limb pain and the extent to which the shift of the cortical representation of the mouth into the hand area in motor and somatosensory cortical reorganization has occurred. Additionally, as phantom pains in upper extremity amputees increased, there was a higher degree of medial shift of the facial motor representation. There are multiple theories that try to explain how cortical remapping occurs in amputees, but none have been supported to a great extent.\n",
"Damage to the C6 motor neuron, by way of impingement, ischemia, trauma, or degeneration of nerve tissue, can cause denervation of one or more of the associated muscles. Muscle atrophy and other secondary complications can occur.\n"
] |
what is the benefit of a water-cooled pc?
|
Generally superior cooling due to both heat absorption of liquid and a lack of stale warm air in the case.
Also quieter
|
[
"Liquid cooling is a highly effective method of removing excess heat, with the most common heat transfer fluid in desktop PCs being (distilled) water. The advantages of water cooling over air cooling include water's higher specific heat capacity and thermal conductivity.\n",
"Apple's Power Mac G5 was the first mainstream desktop computer to have water cooling as standard (although only on its fastest models). Dell followed suit by shipping their XPS computers with liquid cooling, using thermoelectric cooling to help cool the liquid. Currently, Dell's only computers to offer liquid cooling are their Alienware desktops.\n",
"Water cooling can be used to cool many computer components, but usually it is used for the CPU and GPUs. Water cooling usually uses a water block, a water pump, and a water-to-air heat exchanger. By transferring device heat to a separate heat exchanger which can variously be made large and use larger, lower-speed fans, water cooling can allow quieter operation, improved processor speeds (overclocking), or a balance of both. Less commonly, Northbridges, Southbridges, hard disk drives, memory, voltage regulator modules (VRMs), and even power supplies can be water-cooled.\n",
"Another growing trend due to the increasing heat density of computer, GPU, FPGA, and ASICs is to immerse the entire computer or select components in a thermally, but not electrically, conductive liquid. Although rarely used for the cooling of personal computers, liquid immersion is a routine method of cooling large power distribution components such as transformers. It is also becoming popular with data centers. Personal computers cooled in this manner may not require either fans or pumps, and may be cooled exclusively by passive heat exchange between the computer hardware and the enclosure it is placed in. A heat exchanger (i.e. heater core or radiator) might still be needed though, and the piping also needs to be placed correctly. \n",
"The water cooling system is notable because micro-channels bring water directly over the processing units, rather than merely inside the computer case. This allows effective cooling even with water at , which has a side benefit of producing higher grade heat that can be used elsewhere.\n",
"The primary advantage of water cooling for cooling CPU cores in computing equipment is transporting heat away from the source to a secondary cooling surface to allow for large, more optimally designed radiators rather than small, relatively inefficient fins mounted directly on the heat source. Cooling hot computer components with various fluids has been in use since at least as far back as the development of Cray-2 in 1982, using Fluorinert. Through the 1990s, water cooling for home PCs slowly gained recognition amongst enthusiasts, but it started to become noticeably more prevalent after the introduction of the first Gigahertz-clocked processors in the early 2000s. As of 2018, there are dozens of manufacturers of water cooling components and kits, and many computer manufacturers include preinstalled water cooling solutions for their high-performance systems.\n",
"Liquid cooling based on water as the coolant is another option. Since water has a very high heat capacity large amounts of heat can be removed from a system at moderate flow rates, thus allowing for a higher packaging density which in turn results in less floor space. Liquid cooling has recently resurfaced in the sector of high-performance computing. Since 2009 the Green500 list of the most energy-efficient supercomputers is dominated by liquid-cooled designs. \n"
] |
why group mentality is so powerful
|
Human nature to belong and conform to social groups, empathy, and natural fear of exclusion.
It's kind of instinctual, that's why the weak minded are susceptible to group mentality. Case in point: Reddit.
|
[
"It has been thought that groups with the strong ability to work together will be able to solve dilemmas in a quicker and more efficient fashion than an individual. Groups have a greater amount of resources which lead them to be able to store and retrieve information more readily and come up with more alternative solutions to a problem. There was a recognized downside to group problem solving in that it takes groups more time to come to a decision and requires that people make compromises with each other. However, it was not until the research of Janis appeared that anyone really considered that a highly cohesive group could impair the group's ability to generate quality decisions. Tight-knit groups may appear to make decisions better because they can come to a consensus quickly and at a low energy cost; however, over time this process of decision-making may decrease the members' ability to think critically. It is, therefore, considered by many to be important to combat the effects of groupthink.\n",
"Previous social psychological theories that aimed to explain intergroup behavior typically focused on the tendencies for people to have positive attitudes about themselves (ego-justification) and their self-relevant groups (group-justification). In other words, people are motivated to engage in behaviors that allow for them to maintain a high self-esteem and a positive image of their group.\n",
"A mindset may be so firmly established that it creates a powerful incentive within these people or groups to continue to adopt or accept prior behaviors, choices, or tools. The latter phenomenon is also sometimes described as \"mental inertia\", \"groupthink\", and it is often difficult to counteract its effects upon analysis and decision making processes.\n",
"\"Egocentric thinking\" refers to how individuals know more of their own personal information and risk that they can use to form judgments and make decisions. One difficulty, though, is that people have a large amount of knowledge about themselves, but no knowledge about others. Therefore, when making decisions, people have to use other information available to them, such as population data, in order to learn more about their comparison group. This can relate to an optimism bias because while people are using the available information they have about themselves, they have more difficulty understanding correct information about others. \n",
"Personality types (and personality disorders) play a large part in aiding with analysis, as they are often associated with specific cognitive beliefs and processes. For example, extreme narcissists lack empathy, conscience, and will do anything to accomplish personal goals. Lack of accomplishment is usually taken extremely badly and narcissists have low self-esteem. Narcissists have trouble learning from others because they know everything. Leaders who are narcissists make their people give great shows affirming their righteous leadership, demand praise from others, and employ “yes men”, or sycophants.\n",
"The social brain hypothesis was proposed by British anthropologist Robin Dunbar, who argues that human intelligence did not evolve primarily as a means to solve ecological problems, but rather as a means of surviving and reproducing in large and complex social groups. Some of the behaviors associated with living in large groups include reciprocal altruism, deception and coalition formation. These group dynamics relate to Theory of Mind or the ability to understand the thoughts and emotions of others, though Dunbar himself admits in the same book that it is not the flocking itself that causes intelligence to evolve (as shown by ruminants).\n",
"Groupthink refers to a state of mind when a group of people overlook their personal decisions and motivations in order to maintain the relationship of the in-group. Using groupthink, individuals are at risk of influence from others. This could result in the individual agreeing with unfounded ideas or credibility because many members of a particular group adhere to it in a desire to maintain cohesion. Janis also found that intelligence did not factor into the likelihood for groupthink; however, agreeableness and self-identification were strong factors. An example of groupthink exists within sociopolitical research across academia. In their famous review, Inbar and Lammers found a bias of research favoring or utilizing liberal participants over conservative. They suggest that this groupthink towards liberal participants may be affecting sociological, psychological, and political research that is being generalized to the overall population. This finding suggests that people across various domains and intelligence are susceptible to groupthink. \n"
] |
Are protons in nuclei wiggled by electrons "flying" around them?
|
This is better answered by answering each sub-question.
> Are protons in nuclei wiggled by electrons "flying" around them?
Yes, in the system both motions contribute to the actual state. But, the nucleus is very much heavier than the electron, so it's the electron that does most of the moving. Analogously, a swing with one heavy person and one light person moves so that the heavy person moves little. For most calculations it can be and is assumed that the nucleus is stationary.
As for other than electric force, not. A proton and an electron don't "collide" classically, which is a feature that now takes this scenario into quantum mechanics. Protons and electrons are different particles, so they don't occupy the same quantum state, and don't repel each other through the [exchange interaction](_URL_0_) like two electrons. So, when an electron flies headfirst into a nucleus, it will simply go through it like a ghost. This is exactly what happens with the *s* orbitals: [the nucleus has the highest electron density](_URL_1_).
This isn't as weird as you'd think. Consider a classical analogy: loose balls of yarn and double-pointed knitting needles. I think we can agree both are solid objects. Yet, you can pretty easily stick a needle right through a ball of yarn, even if you can't force another ball of yarn through.
> Protons and electrons attract each other.
Yes, but what is also necessary to understand that when an electron is accelerated, *there is nothing to stop it*. So, when it flies right at the nucleus, it will simply fly through and keep going, doing another loop on the other side. This system is stable over long times.
> And I hear that an electron is like wave around the nucleus. Waves oscillate so they should shake the proton.
Not really, in the dynamical sense you imagine. The reason quantum mechanics is called "quantum" is that there is the smallest possible quantum of energy, and only a restricted number of stable states. An electron forms a standing wave around the nucleus. In a similar way, the nucleus has its own mini-standing wave. The energy of this oscillation is very well-defined. In order to disturb it, you'd have to supply the full energy needed to raise it into a higher state. Smaller energies can't do much.
|
[
"In real molecules protons are surrounded by a cloud of charge due to adjacent bonds and atoms. In an applied magnetic field () electrons circulate and produce an induced field () which opposes the applied field. The effective field at the nucleus will be . The nucleus is said to be experiencing a diamagnetic shielding.\n",
"With the development of quantum mechanics and experimental findings (such as the two slit diffraction of electrons), it was found that the orbiting electrons around a nucleus could not be fully described as particles, but needed to be explained by the wave-particle duality. In this sense, the electrons have the following properties:\n",
"Electrons in an atom are sometimes described as \"orbiting\" its nucleus, following an early conjecture of Niels Bohr (this is the source of the term \"orbital\"). However, electrons don't actually orbit nuclei in any meaningful sense, and quantum mechanics are necessary for any useful understanding of the electron's real behavior. Solving the classical two-body problem for an electron orbiting an atomic nucleus is misleading and does not produce many useful insights.\n",
"All atomic nuclei contain protons as their only electrically charged particles. They therefore repel one another because like charges repel. However, if the atoms have a high enough temperature and pressure (for example, in the core of the Sun), then their random motions can overcome such electrical repulsion (called the Coulomb force), and they can come close enough for the strong nuclear force to take effect, fusing them into heavier atoms.\n",
"Electrons, like other particles, have properties of both a particle and a wave. The electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of three-dimensional standing wave—a wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus. This behavior is defined by an atomic orbital, a mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured. Only a discrete (or quantized) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus, as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form. Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures, and differ from each other in size, shape and orientation.\n",
"A number of models for the nucleus have also been proposed in which nucleons occupy orbitals, much like the atomic orbitals in atomic physics theory. These wave models imagine nucleons to be either sizeless point particles in potential wells, or else probability waves as in the \"optical model\", frictionlessly orbiting at high speed in potential wells.\n",
"The most common shapes for the density distribution of protons and neutrons in an atomic nucleus are spherical, prolate, and oblate spheroidal, where the polar axis is assumed to be the spin axis (or direction of the spin angular momentum vector). Deformed nuclear shapes occur as a result of the competition between electromagnetic repulsion between protons, surface tension and quantum shell effects.\n"
] |
how is the milk of a cow so beneficial to humans?
|
It's not just cows. Milk of many mammals is as beneficial to humans (and, on a side-note, that benefit *is* debatable, and many humans are, in fact, *not* able to process it).
Cows are just the animal we domesticated and started using for milk in a way that is ubiquitous in Western culture. In other cultures, other animal's milk is more widespread. That includes goats, camels, even donkeys. Also remember that much of Human population is lactose-intolerant.
|
[
"Although all mammals produce milk to nourish their young, the cow is predominantly used throughout the world to produce milk and milk products for human consumption. Other animals used to a lesser extent for this purpose include sheep, goats, camels, buffaloes, yaks, reindeer, horses and donkeys.\n",
"The females of all mammal species can by definition produce milk, but cow's milk dominates commercial production. In 2011, FAO estimates 85% of all milk worldwide was produced from cows. Human milk is not produced or distributed industrially or commercially; however, human milk banks collect donated human breastmilk and redistribute it to infants who may benefit from human milk for various reasons (premature neonates, babies with allergies, metabolic diseases, etc.) but who cannot breastfeed.\n",
"Whole cow's milk contains too little iron, retinol, vitamin E, vitamin C, vitamin D, unsaturated fats or essential fatty acids for human babies. Whole cow's milk also contains too much protein, sodium, potassium, phosphorus and chloride which may put a strain on an infant's immature kidneys. In addition, the proteins, fats and calcium in whole cow's milk are more difficult for an infant to digest and absorb than the ones in breast milk.\n",
"In many communities, milk production is only part of the purpose of keeping an animal which may also be used as a beast of burden or to draw a plough, or for the production of fibre, meat and leather, with the dung being used for fuel or for the improvement of soil fertility. Sheep and goats may be favoured for dairy production in climates and conditions that do not suit dairy cows.\n",
"While the treatment of dairy cows is similar to that of beef cattle, it has faced additional criticism. To produce milk from dairy cattle, most calves are separated from their mothers soon after birth and fed milk replacement in order to retain the cows' milk for human consumption. Animal welfare advocates point out that this breaks the natural bond between the mother and her calf. Unwanted male calves are either slaughtered at birth or sent for veal production. To prolong lactation, dairy cows are almost permanently kept pregnant through artificial insemination. Because of this, some feminists state that dairy production is based on the sexual exploitation of cows. Although cows' natural life expectancy is about twenty years, after about five years the cows' milk production has dropped; they are then considered \"spent\" and are sent to slaughter, which is considered cruel by some. \n",
"Aside from cattle, many kinds of livestock provide milk used by humans for dairy products. These animals include water buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, donkey, horse, reindeer and yak. The first four respectively produced about 11%, 2%, 1.4% and 0.2% of all milk worldwide in 2011.\n",
"Researchers at Michigan State University Department of Large Animal Clinical Studies interviewed 56 individuals all of whom obtained raw milk for personal consumption through a herdshare arrangement. Shareholders drove an average of 24 miles approximately 4 times per month to pick up their raw milk from the farm. Half of the respondents lived in the \"country\" while the remainder lived in the suburbs or the city. 64% of respondents had a bachelor's degree or higher. 91% of respondents believed that raw milk is healthier than pasteurized milk and nearly 80% disagreed with the claim that drinking raw milk would increase their risk of contracting a foodborne illness. Virtually all respondents had visited the farm where their milk was produced. Respondents drink raw milk for the following reasons:\n"
] |
If photons are smaller than atoms, why don't they pass through solid matter?
|
The closest thing to "size" for a photon is its wavelength. Different types of light have different wavelengths: x-rays have really short wavelengths, while radio waves have really long wavelengths. Visible light is somewhere in the middle.
If the wavelength is small compared to whatever we're dealing with, then you can treat the photon like a particle - i.e. it's a "bullet" that either hits, misses, or bounces off whatever we're dealing with. Visible light is 100s of nanometres in wavelength, which is way smaller than say, a window, and so you can think of it as a bunch of light "particles" flying towards the window: some of the particles go through the window, some bounce off the frame etc.
But if the wavelength is *big* compared to whatever we're dealing with, you really need to treat the photon like a wave - i.e. instead of a bullet being fired at a solid object, imagine a bunch of objects floating around in the ocean being shoved around by a water wave. This is the case for visible light and atoms. Visible light is 100s of nanometres in wavelength, but atoms can be even smaller than 1 nanometre. So you can't really "miss" with visible light - the photon passes through hundreds of atoms at the same time. This means there is definitely some interaction going on, and so the photon can be changed a little by the atoms, and that allows you to "see" the atoms when the photon hits your eye.
|
[
"Because the wavelength for even the smallest of macroscopic objects is extremely small, diffraction of matter waves is only visible for small particles, like electrons, neutrons, atoms and small molecules. The short wavelength of these matter waves makes them ideally suited to study the atomic crystal structure of solids and large molecules like proteins.\n",
"Because the size of the dispersed phase may be difficult to measure, and because colloids have the appearance of solutions, colloids are sometimes identified and characterized by their physico-chemical and transport properties. For example, if a colloid consists of a solid phase dispersed in a liquid, the solid particles will not diffuse through a membrane, whereas with a true solution the dissolved ions or molecules will diffuse through a membrane. Because of the size exclusion, the colloidal particles are unable to pass through the pores of an ultrafiltration membrane with a size smaller than their own dimension. The smaller the size of the pore of the ultrafiltration membrane, the lower the concentration of the dispersed colloidal particles remaining in the ultrafiltered liquid. The measured value of the concentration of a truly dissolved species will thus depend on the experimental conditions applied to separate it from the colloidal particles also dispersed in the liquid. This is particularly important for solubility studies of readily hydrolyzed species such as Al, Eu, Am, Cm, or organic matter complexing these species.\n",
"Usually atoms can be imagined as a nucleus of protons and neutrons, and a surrounding \"cloud\" of orbiting electrons which \"take up space\". However this is only somewhat correct, because subatomic particles and their properties are governed by their quantum nature, which means they do not act as everyday objects appear to act – they can act like waves as well as particles and they do not have well-defined sizes or positions. In the Standard Model of particle physics, matter is not a fundamental concept because the elementary constituents of atoms are quantum entities which do not have an inherent \"size\" or \"volume\" in any everyday sense of the word. Due to the exclusion principle and other fundamental interactions, some \"point particles\" known as fermions (quarks, leptons), and many composites and atoms, are effectively forced to keep a distance from other particles under everyday conditions; this creates the property of matter which appears to us as matter taking up space.\n",
"Photonic molecules are a theoretical natural form of matter which can also be made artificially in which photons bind together to form \"molecules\". They were first theoretically predicted in 2007. Photonic molecules are formed when individual (massless) photons \"interact with each other so strongly that they act as though they have mass\". In an alternative definition (which is not equivalent), photons confined to two or more coupled optical cavities also reproduce the physics of interacting atomic energy levels, and have been termed as photonic molecules.\n",
"Consider a cubic crystal of atoms: all the atoms inside are bonded to 6 neighbors and are quite stable, but atoms on the surface are only bonded to 5 neighbors or fewer, which makes these surface atoms less stable. Large particles are more energetically favorable since, continuing with this example, more atoms are bonded to 6 neighbors and fewer atoms are at the unfavorable surface. As the system tries to lower its overall energy, molecules on the surface of a small particle (energetically unfavorable, with only 3 or 4 or 5 bonded neighbors) will tend to detach from the particle, as per the Kelvin equation, and diffuse into the solution. When all small particles do this, it increases the concentration of free molecules in solution. When the free molecules in solution are supersaturated, the free molecules have a tendency to condense on the surface of larger particles. Therefore, all smaller particles shrink, while larger particles grow, and overall the average size will increase. As time tends to infinity, the entire population of particles becomes one large spherical particle to minimize the total surface area.\n",
"In a homogeneous crystalline structure, because of the uniform lattice structure of the metal ions, there is hardly any momentum transfer between the conduction electrons and the metal ions. However, this symmetry does not exist at the grain boundaries and material interfaces, and so here momentum is transferred much more vigorously. Since the metal ions in these regions are bonded more weakly than in a regular crystal lattice, once the electron wind has reached a certain strength, atoms become separated from the grain boundaries and are transported in the direction of the current. This direction is also influenced by the grain boundary itself, because atoms tend to move along grain boundaries.\n",
"Electrons, due to their smaller mass and thus larger space-filling properties as matter waves, determine the size of atoms and molecules that possess any electrons at all. Thus, anions (negatively charged ions) are larger than the parent molecule or atom, as the excess electron(s) repel each other and add to the physical size of the ion, because its size is determined by its electron cloud. Cations are smaller than the corresponding parent atom or molecule due to the smaller size of the electron cloud. One particular cation (that of hydrogen) contains no electrons, and thus consists of a single proton - \"very much smaller\" than the parent hydrogen atom.\n"
] |
Did the concept of mutually assured destruction prevent the Cold War from going hot?
|
We really can't know the answer to complex hypotheticals like that. Smaller "What ifs" can sometimes be productive. But "what if the strategic situation of the world was totally different?" isn't something that historians can readily answer.
What they can do is point out that, 1) the Cold War was plenty "hot" if you lived in one of the places consumed by proxy war or state interference; 2) "mutually assured destruction" as a condition did not really apply until the 1960s, arguably the 1970s, because the Soviet Union's nuclear capabilities were far undermatched against the USA's, though the question of whether deterrence broadly (which is not the same thing as MAD) mattered is still up for grabs; and 3) there is evidence that there is more than nuclear deterrence that kept the Soviets from initially pressing westward in the 1940s, and there is clearly more than deterrence with the US lack of interest in engaging the Soviets militarily (or with nuclear arms) prior to the Soviets having a truly compelling nuclear force (e.g. before the mid-1950s if you care primarily about Europe, the 1960s or 1970s if you care more globally). The "nuclear taboo" — lack of use of nuclear weapons — has applied even in non-deterrent, definitely non-MAD, situations.
|
[
"In embryo, Waltz argues that the logic of mutually assured destruction (MAD) should work in all security environments, regardless of historical tensions or recent hostility. He sees the Cold War as the ultimate proof of MAD logicthe only occasion when enmity between two Great Powers did not result in military conflict. This was, he argues, because nuclear weapons promote caution in decision-makers. Neither Washington nor Moscow would risk a nuclear apocalypse to advance territorial or power goals, hence a peaceful stalemate ensued (Waltz and Sagan (2003), p. 24). Waltz believes there to be no reason why this effect would not occur in all circumstances.\n",
"During the Cold War, concepts such as mutual assured destruction (MAD) led lawmakers and government officials in both the United States and the Soviet Union to avoid entering a nuclear war that could have had catastrophic consequences on the entire world. Various scientists and authors, such as Carl Sagan, predicted massive, possibly life-ending destruction of the Earth as the result of such a conflict. Strategic analysts assert that nuclear weapons prevented the United States and the Soviet Union from fighting World War III with conventional weapons. Nevertheless, the possibility of such a war became the basis for speculative fiction, and its simulation in books, films and video games became a way to explore the issues of a war that has thus far not occurred in reality. The only places a global nuclear war has ever been fought are in expert scenarios, theoretical models, war games, and the art, film, and literature of the nuclear age. The concept of mutually assured destruction was also the focus of numerous movies and films.\n",
"With the advent of the Cold War in 1945 and with the spread of nuclear weapons technology to the Soviet Union, the possibility of a third global conflict became more plausible. During the Cold War years, the possibility of a Third World War was anticipated and planned for by military and civil authorities in many countries. Scenarios ranged from conventional warfare to limited or total nuclear warfare. At the height of the Cold War, a scenario referred to as Mutually Assured Destruction (\"MAD\") had been calculated which determined that an all-out nuclear confrontation would most certainly destroy all or nearly all human life on the planet. The potential absolute destruction of the human race may have contributed to the ability of both American and Soviet leaders to avoid such a scenario.\n",
"With the advent of the Cold War in 1945 and with the spread of nuclear weapons technology to the Soviet Union, the possibility of a third global conflict became more plausible. During the Cold War years, the possibility of a Third World War was anticipated and planned for by military and civil authorities in many countries. Scenarios ranged from conventional warfare to limited or total nuclear warfare. At the height of the Cold War, a scenario referred to as Mutually Assured Destruction (\"MAD\") had been calculated which determined that an all-out nuclear confrontation would most certainly destroy all or nearly all human life on the planet.\n",
"The strategy of the Cold War was that of containment, and it was a generation dominated by the threat of total world annihilation through the use of nuclear weapons. Deterrence was a part of containment via retributive intimidation from the risk of mutually assured destruction. As a consequence, it was also a war in which attacks were not exchanged between the two main rivals, the United States and the Soviet Union. Instead, the war was fought through proxies. Instead of mainly being confined to Europe or the Pacific, the entire world was the battlefield, with countries rather than armies acting as main players. The only constant rule was that troops of the Soviet Union and the United States could not overtly fight with each other. Military strategy involved bipolar powers with global actors who could strike an opponent with nationally debilitating destruction in a matter of minutes from land, air, and sea.\n",
"Throughout the Cold War, the U.S. and USSR threatened with all-out nuclear attack in case of war, regardless of whether it was a conventional or a nuclear clash. U.S. nuclear doctrine called for mutually assured destruction (MAD), which entailed a massive nuclear attack against strategic targets and major populations centers of the Soviet Union and its allies. The term \"mutual assured destruction\" was coined in 1962 by American strategist Donald Brennan. MAD was implemented by deploying nuclear weapons simultaneously on three different types of weapons platforms.\n",
"An example of the deterrence theory in practice is the Cold War strategy (employed by both the United States and the Soviet Union) of mutually assured destruction (MAD). Because both countries had second strike capability, each side knew that the use of nuclear weapons would result in their own destruction. While controversial, MAD succeeded in its primary purpose of preventing nuclear war and kept the Cold War cold.\n"
] |
How does pollution from mostly unregulated countries like China affect the rest of the world?
|
Long-range transport of air pollutants, including metals and pops, and is well-documented with ongoing research. While your last question seems mostly policy related, a large proportion of, but not all, nations decreasing use/production/emission of toxic chemicals does have significant effects in decreasing levels (sorry - turned your question around a bit).
The example I'm most familiar with is mercury - in its elemental form (Hg0), it forms a vapour and can be transported great distances. Ultimately, a lot of this winds up in the arctic, storing up over the winter and, upon polar sunrise, changing form (Hg2+), causing deposition, oral bioavailability, and toxicity. In recently chatting with a phd student working on mercury testing in arctic birds, she mentioned that mercury levels have begun to drop, although levels of other compounds either haven't/are increasing still.
|
[
"In recent decades, China has suffered from severe environmental deterioration and pollution. While regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, they are poorly enforced, as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in favor of rapid economic development. Urban air pollution is a severe health issue in the country; the World Bank estimated in 2013 that 16 of the world's 20 most-polluted cities are located in China. And China is the country with the highest death toll because of air pollution. There are 1.14 million deaths caused by exposure to ambient air pollution. China is the world's largest carbon dioxide emitter. The country also has significant water pollution problems: 40% of China's rivers had been polluted by industrial and agricultural waste by late 2011. In 2014, the internal freshwater resources per capita of China reduced to 2,062m, and it was below 500m in the North China Plain, while 5,920m in the world.\n",
"Pollution in China is one aspect of the broader topic of environmental issues in China. Various forms of pollution have increased as China has industrialised, which has caused widespread environmental health problems.\n",
"China's rapid industrialization has substantially increased pollution. China has some relevant regulations: the 1979 Environmental Protection Law, which was largely modeled on U.S. legislation, but the environment continues to deteriorate. Twelve years after the law, only one Chinese city was making an effort to clean up its water discharges. This indicates that China is about 30 years behind the U.S. schedule of environmental regulation and 10 to 20 years behind Europe. In July 2007, it was reported that the World Bank reluctantly censored a report revealing that 750,000 people in China die every year as a result of pollution-related diseases. China's State Environment Protection Agency and the Health Ministry asked the World Bank to cut the calculations of premature deaths from the report fearing the revelation would provoke \"social unrest\".\n",
"Pollution from China has already affected other countries, and some ozone-forming particles have travelled across the Pacific Ocean to the United States, contributing to a relatively high level of ozone on the American West Coast. While these particles, along with other ozone-related chemicals, can be carried up to 30,000 feet above the ground, researchers in the United States predict that these pollutants may play a bigger role in the near future.\n",
"In 1997, the World Bank issued a report targeting China's policy towards industrial pollution. The report stated that \"hundreds of thousands of premature deaths and incidents of serious respiratory illness have been caused by exposure to industrial air pollution. Seriously contaminated by industrial discharges, many of China's waterways are largely unfit for direct human use\". However, the report did acknowledge that environmental regulations and industrial reforms had had some effect. It was determined that continued environmental reforms were likely to have a large effect on reducing industrial pollution.\n",
"Pollutants emitted into the air and water by China's rapid industrialization has brought major health concerns. The anthropogenic activities in China have decreased food safety and antibiotic resistance and have increased resurging infectious diseases. Air pollution, alone, is directly linked to increased risk of lung cancer, breast cancer, and bladder cancer and has already led to more than 1.3 million premature deaths in China and linked to 1.6 million deaths a year - 17% of all annual Chinese deaths. 92% of Chinese have had at least 120 annual hours of unhealthy air determined by EPA standards. As the World Health Organization states hazardous air is more deadly than AIDS, malaria, breast cancer, or tuberculosis, than Chinese air quality is especially problematic because of the scale at which it occurs.\n",
"Water pollution poses a significant health risk, especially in heavily industrialized, heavily populated areas like China. In response to a worsening situation in which entire cities lacked safe drinking water, China passed a revised Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law. The possibility of polluted water making it way across international boundaries, as well as unrecognized water pollution within a poorer country brings up questions of human rights, allowing for international input on water pollution. There is no single framework for dealing with pollution disputes local to a nation.\n"
] |
Do I weigh less at midday than at midnight?
|
A point of clarification: Mass is how much matter makes something up, so it won't change mass.
The position of the sun will change your weight, but only very, very slightly. It's only a very small fraction of the influence from the earth, so all other things being equal, there should be a very slight difference, something like less than a tenth of a percent.
_URL_0_
|
[
"The terms \"heavy-weight\" and \"light-weight\" are often used to describe buildings with different thermal mass strategies, and affects the choice of numerical factors used in subsequent calculations to describe their thermal response to heating and cooling.\n",
"Weight lifting can effectively demonstrate the effects of post-activation potentiation. For example, if a person lifts a light weight, and then lifts a heavy weight, before lifting the light weight again, the light weight will be relatively easier to lift and feel lighter the second time it has been lifted. Because the intense activation of the nervous system and correspondent recruitment of muscle fibres which occurred in conjunction with the heavy lift has allowed the person to perform more powerful movements, and the weight therefore feels relatively lighter. Another resistance based explanation involves the example of heavy suitcase, light suitcase i.e. after lifting a heavy suitcase, a person lifts a similar size, but light suitcase with no idea what is in it; as the person has just been carrying a heavy suitcase, their level of power application is well in excess of what is required to lift the light suitcase and it flies off the floor.\n",
"Total weight, including a windscreen/stand, can be less than one ounce (28 g). The design is popular in ultralight backpacking due to its low cost and lighter weight than commercial stoves. This advantage may be lost on long hiking trips, where a lot of fuel is packed, since alcohol has less energy per weight than some other stove fuels.\n",
"The Utah model assigns different weight to different temperature bands; a full unit per hour is assigned only to temperatures between and . Maximum effect is achieved at . Temperatures between and (the threshold between chilling and warm weather) have zero weight, and higher temperature have negative weights: they reduce the beneficial effects of an already accumulated chilling hours.\n",
"Weight on one's feet (from socks, boots, etc.) requires 4–6x times more energy to move than the same weight on one's back. Minimizing footwear weight is the most efficient means to reduce a hiker's total calories burned (i.e. food carried), stress on body, etc. For example, Grandma Gatewood wore Keds rather than army boots.\n",
"When the load factor is +1, all occupants of the aircraft feel that their weight is normal. When the load factor is greater than +1 all occupants feel heavier than usual. For example, in a 2 g maneuver all occupants feel that their weight is twice normal. When the load factor is zero, or very small, all occupants feel weightless. When the load factor is negative, all occupants feel they are upside down.\n",
"The rules called for four weight categories: less than 250 kg, 250 to 400 kg, 400 to 650 kg and 650 to 1000 kg. The weight was intended as dry weight, excluding the driver, fuel, batteries, oil, spare parts, tools, food and water, driver's luggage, headlights and lights harnesses, horns and eventual external starter.\n"
] |
why does standing on a train tire me out?
|
It's the same thing as being in a car for an extended period of time.
While you aren't really making a lot of *big* movements, you are making a *very very large amount* of *tiny* movements. Every second you're adjusting, balancing, making sure things are going smoothly, watching all of the people, etc - so while you aren't physically doing a whole lot, your muscles are constantly contracting/relaxing, and your brain is constantly thinking.
|
[
"Prior to the accident, some passengers became concerned about their safety. Regular travellers were aware that the train was travelling at excessive speed and one who had moved from his seat to stand with friends in another carriage was forced to return to his seat as the movement of the train made it uncomfortable to stand. In the minutes immediately preceding the accident, luggage and parcels fell from racks above the seats.\n",
"When a train is braking, the low adhesion manifests as wheel slip where the wheelset is rotating at a lower velocity (speed) than the forward speed of the train. The most extreme example of this is where the wheel stops rotating altogether (wheel slide) while the train is still moving and can result in a “wheel flat” caused by the softer wheel steel being abraded away by the harder rail steel.\n",
"Contrary to widespread rumors, neither the train, the cars, or any of the riders fell from the track. All riders were wearing their required seat belts and lap bars, preventing them from being ejected from their car. The sixth car did not completely derail from the track, rather settling in a leaning position on its right side.\n",
"In traction, low adhesion may cause a wheelset to accelerate more quickly than the train (wheel spin) to the point where it can damage the traction system or result in damage to the wheel and rail (rail burn).\n",
"As a heavy train goes round a bend at speed, the reactive centrifugal force can cause negative effects: passengers and cargo may feel unpleasant forces, the inside and outside rails will wear unequally, and insufficiently anchored track may move. To counter this, a cant (superelevation) is used. Ideally the train should be tilted such that resultant (combined) force acts straight \"down\" through the bottom of the train, so the wheels, track, train and passengers feel little or no sideways force (\"down\" and \"sideways\" are given with respect to the plane of the track and train). Some trains are capable of tilting to enhance this effect for passenger comfort. Because freight and passenger trains tend to move at different speeds, a cant cannot be ideal for both types of rail traffic. \n",
"Toppling will occur when the overturning moment due to the side force (centrifugal acceleration) is sufficient to cause the inner wheel to begin to lift off the rail. This may result in loss of adhesion - causing the train to slow, preventing toppling. Alternatively, the inertia may be sufficient to cause the train to continue to move at speed causing the vehicle to topple completely.\n",
"The train is propelled by drive tires because of the short distance of the two lifts. These tires vary in tread pattern. The main tread pattern is recycled rubber diamond cut. Some tires appear to not be spinning, but rather are speed monitors, which track how fast the train is being propelled and depending on how fast the train is going, tells the other motors how fast to spin. If the train is going too fast, a fault will occur and the train will stop at the next possible stopping point. Each lift is 65 feet high; the first lift is a 20 degree incline, while the second lift is a 25 degree incline.\n"
] |
When a star collapses into a black hole, does the density of the singularity continue to increase forever?
|
It doesn't really make sense to consider the density of the singularity. You can consider the mean density of the entire black hole within the event horizon, which actually decreases as the black hole gets bigger. If you treat the center as a singularity, it has infinite density, like an electron has infinite charge density.
|
[
"One hypothesis is that the core of the star collapsed to form a black hole. The collapsing matter formed a burst of neutrinos that lowered the total mass of the star by a fraction of a percent. This caused a shock wave that blasted out the star's envelope to make it brighter. After the idea that a black holes are usually formed after a supernova, N6946-BH1 has given evidence that, instead of following this process, the star may automatically collapse into a black hole.\n",
"In general relativity, if a star collapses to a size smaller than its Schwarzschild radius, an event horizon will exist at that radius and the star will become a black hole. Thus, the size of a preon star may vary from around 1 metre with an absolute mass of 100 Earths to the size of a pea with a mass roughly equal to that of the Moon.\n",
"The gravitational collapse of a star is a natural process that can produce a black hole. It is inevitable at the end of the life of a star, when all stellar energy sources are exhausted. If the mass of the collapsing part of the star is below the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff (TOV) limit for neutron-degenerate matter, the end product is a compact star — either a white dwarf (for masses below the Chandrasekhar limit) or a neutron star or a (hypothetical) quark star. If the collapsing star has a mass exceeding the TOV limit, the crush will continue until zero volume is achieved and a black hole is formed around that point in space.\n",
"In the collapsing star example, since all matter and energy is a source of gravitational attraction in general relativity, the additional angular momentum only pulls the star together more strongly as it contracts: the part outside the event horizon eventually settles down to a Kerr black hole (see No-hair theorem). The part inside the event horizon necessarily has a singularity somewhere. The proof is somewhat constructiveit shows that the singularity can be found by following light-rays from a surface just inside the horizon. But the proof does not say what type of singularity occurs, spacelike, timelike, orbifold, jump discontinuity in the metric. It only guarantees that if one follows the time-like geodesics into the future, it is impossible for the boundary of the region they form to be generated by the null geodesics from the surface. This means that the boundary must either come from nowhere or the whole future ends at some finite extension.\n",
"Alternatively, if the density in the universe were equal to or below the critical density, the expansion would slow down but never stop. Star formation would cease with the consumption of interstellar gas in each galaxy; stars would burn out, leaving white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes. Very gradually, collisions between these would result in mass accumulating into larger and larger black holes. The average temperature of the universe would asymptotically approach absolute zero—a Big Freeze. Moreover, if the proton were unstable, then baryonic matter would disappear, leaving only radiation and black holes. Eventually, black holes would evaporate by emitting Hawking radiation. The entropy of the universe would increase to the point where no organized form of energy could be extracted from it, a scenario known as heat death.\n",
"It might be thought that a sufficiently massive neutron star could exist within its Schwarzschild radius (1.0 SR) and appear like a black hole without having all the mass compressed to a singularity at the center; however, this is probably incorrect. Within the event horizon, matter would have to move outward faster than the speed of light in order to remain stable and avoid collapsing to the center. No physical force therefore can prevent a star smaller than 1.0 SR from collapsing to a singularity (at least within the currently accepted framework of general relativity; this does not hold for the Einstein–Yang–Mills–Dirac system). A model for nonspherical collapse in general relativity with emission of matter and gravitational waves has been presented.\n",
"On the other hand, the nature of the kind of singularity to be expected inside a black hole remains rather controversial. According to some theories, at a later stage, the collapsing object will reach the maximum possible energy density for a certain volume of space or the Planck density (as there is nothing that can stop it). This is when the known laws of gravity cease to be valid. There are competing theories as to what occurs at this point, but it can no longer really be considered gravitational collapse at that stage.\n"
] |
LEDs vs Normal Bulbs - Environmental Impact Outweighs Benefits?
|
I work with LEDs all the time. If you live in the US, the "Prius Conundrum" could be applied to any imported product.
As far as [luminous efficacy](_URL_5_), the LED lights that you can buy *right now* at Home Depot etc are about the same as compact fluorescent lighting (CFL). What's inside a white LED (blue LEDs are used with a phosphor) are some small amounts of semiconducting material, usually [indium gallium nitride](_URL_3_) that is completely encapsulated and not a heavy metal. Some [Philips LED lights](_URL_1_) (Home Depot has those for $15) use a remote phosphor that is completely encapsulated in plastic. (The blue LEDs inside them are about 45% electrically efficient)
LEDs will quickly over take CFLs in luminous efficacy and one can buy white LEDs now that are [significantly higher](_URL_0_) (+125 lumens per watt typical).
What they don't have are the shorter life spans of compact fluorescent bulbs, which reduces the the conundrum argument, and the small amounts of mercury they contain and some states have [specific laws on their disposal](_URL_4_).
_URL_2_
|
[
"Objections to banning the use of incandescent light bulbs include the higher initial cost of alternatives and lower quality of light of fluorescent lamps. Some people have concerns about the health effects of fluorescent lamps. However, even though they contain mercury, the environmental performance of CFLs is much better than that of light bulbs, mostly because they consume much less energy and therefore strongly reduce the environmental impact of power production. LED lamps are even more efficient, and are free of mercury. They are regarded as the best solution in terms of cost effectiveness and robustness.\n",
"Bulbs are chosen based on the desired light output and battery life. Generally, high performance bulbs are used, such as xenon bulbs or high power LED lights. LEDs provide maximum battery life due to their energy efficiency, and 2000s technology has greatly increased the light output of LEDs. At one time, xenon bulbs offered the brightest light levels, but recent high-power LEDs are brighter and more efficient than comparable xenon-filled incandescent lamps. Most importantly, LED bulbs are not subject to filament breakage due to the shot recoil of a firearm. Recent advances in high-lux, high-efficiency white LEDs have led to a wave of brighter and more energy-efficient tactical lights.\n",
"Efficient lighting is needed for sustainable architecture. As of 2011, some LED bulbs provide up to 150 lm/W and even inexpensive low-end models typically exceed 50 lm/W, so that a 6-watt LED could achieve the same results as a standard 40-watt incandescent bulb. Displacing less effective sources such as incandescent lamps and fluorescent lighting reduces electrical energy consumption and its associated emissions.\n",
"Lastly, the type of light bulbs that are installed has a significant effect on energy consumption. The efficiency of light sources vary greatly. Fluorescent lights produce several times as much light, for given power input, as incandescent lights do, and LEDs are continuing to improve beyond that. Shades vary in their absorption. Light colored ceilings, walls and other surfaces increase ambient light by reflecting.\n",
"Consumers are often poorly informed of the savings of energy efficient products. A prominent example of this is the energy savings that can be made by replacing an incandescent light bulb with a more modern alternative. When purchasing light bulbs, many consumers opt for cheap incandescent bulbs, failing to take into account their higher energy costs and lower lifespans when compared to modern compact fluorescent and LED bulbs. Although these energy-efficient alternatives have a higher upfront cost, their long lifespan and low energy use can save consumers a considerable amount of money. The price of LED bulbs has also been steadily decreasing in the past five years due to improvements in semiconductor technology. Many LED bulbs on the market qualify for utility rebates that further reduce the price of purchase to the consumer. Estimates by the U.S. Department of Energy state that widespread adoption of LED lighting over the next 20 years could result in about $265 billion worth of savings in United States energy costs.\n",
"Drawbacks include high weight, a slightly larger-than-normal base and – as with compact fluorescent lamps – when switched on, a slight delay before illumination begins and a static charge which attracts dust to the bulb face. As of 2016 the cost is higher and claimed efficiency is less than half that of commercially available LED bulbs, although it is considerably better than that of traditional incandescent lamps.\n",
"Lighting can be natural or via LEDs. As of 2018 commercial LEDs were about 28% efficient, which keeps the cost of produce high and prevents vertical farms from competing in regions where cheap vegetables are abundant. However, lighting engineers at Philips have demonstrated LEDs with 68% efficiency. Energy costs can be reduced because full-spectrum white light is not required. Instead, red and blue or purple light can be generated with less electricity.\n"
] |
Is their a chemical or other additive(like what I do not know, perhaps one that reacts with water) that could make paint dry faster?
|
Many of the paints in use now take advantage of chemical driers or other systems to accelerate 'drying.'
Firstly, not all paints are water-based. In the case of oil-based paints, 'drying' is actually not related to the evaporation of water, but instead to the slow chemical reaction of the oil to oxygen in the air that gradually [polymerizes the oil into a film](_URL_0_). This is a slow process compared to, say, how fast watercolors dry. But, there are things ([like cobalt](_URL_2_)) that can be added to speed up the process. There are also other types of [oil-based products](_URL_1_) that have been chemically treated to 'dry' faster.
Water-based paints can be diluted with water-soluble volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that evaporate at a lower temperature than water, thus speeding drying, but this practice is generally frowned on (as it's never a good idea to inhale a lot of most chemicals). Most latex paints are water soluble (and, these days, low-VOC), so your best bet is to paint on a low-humidity day, open some windows and turn on some fans.
|
[
"In recent years, water miscible oil paint has become available. Water-soluble paints are either engineered or an emulsifier has been added that allows them to be thinned with water rather than paint thinner, and allows, when sufficiently diluted, very fast drying times (1–3 days) when compared with traditional oils (1–3 weeks).\n",
"If little water is used, after evaporation the acacia gum functions as a true binder in a paint film, increasing luminosity and helping prevent the colors from lightening. Gum arabic allows more subtle control over washes, because it facilitates the dispersion of the pigment particles. In addition, acacia gum slows evaporation of water, giving slightly longer working time.\n",
"Once the oil is extracted, additives are sometimes used to modify its chemical properties. In this way, the paint can be made to dry more quickly (if that is desired), or to have varying levels of gloss, like Liquin. Modern oils paints can, therefore, have complex chemical structures; for example, affecting resistance to UV. By hand, the process involves first mixing the paint pigment with the linseed oil to a crumbly mass on a glass or marble slab. Then, a small amount at a time is ground between the slab and a glass Muller (a round, flat-bottomed glass instrument with a hand grip). Pigment and oil are ground together 'with patience' until a smooth, ultra-fine paste is achieved. This paste is then placed into jars or metal paint tubes and labelled.\n",
"Often, because a paint is too opaque, painters will add a medium like linseed oil or alkyd to the paint to make them more transparent and pliable for the purposes of glazing. While these media are usually liquids, there are solid and semi-solid media used in the making of paints as well. For example, many classical oil painters have also been known to use ground glass and semi-solid resins to increase the translucency of their paint.\n",
"The term \"watercolor\" refers to paints that use water-soluble, complex carbohydrates as a binder. Originally (in the 16th to 18th centuries), watercolor binders were sugars and/or hide glues, but since the 19th century, the preferred binder is natural gum arabic, with glycerin and/or honey as additives to improve plasticity and solubility of the binder, and with other chemicals added to improve product shelf life.\n",
"Water miscible oil paints (also called \"water soluble\" or \"water-mixable\") is a modern variety of oil paint engineered to be thinned and cleaned up with water, rather than having to use chemicals such as turpentine. It can be mixed and applied using the same techniques as traditional oil-based paint, but while still wet it can be effectively removed from brushes, palettes, and rags with ordinary soap and water. Its water solubility comes from the use of an oil medium in which one end of the molecule has been altered to bind loosely to water molecules, as in a solution.\n",
"Gum arabic is used as a binder for watercolor painting because it dissolves easily in water. Pigment of any color is suspended within the acacia gum in varying amounts, resulting in watercolor paint. Water acts as a vehicle or a diluent to thin the watercolor paint and helps to transfer the paint to a surface such as paper. When all moisture evaporates, the acacia gum typically does not bind the pigment to the paper surface, but is totally absorbed by deeper layers.\n"
] |
When did the Byzantines stop wearing togas and other classical Greco-Roman garments?
|
They probably rarely wore togae in the first place. Togae were notoriously uncomfortable to wear, let alone in the stifling heat of the Eastern Roman Empire. Martial refers to work done during the day wearing the toga as 'toga work' (_opera togata_) and 'never ending' being such a pain. They would have official places, but according to Juvenal outside of Rome, everyone made do with more comfortable tunics or so forth instead - although the following is likely hyperbole, it reflects known attitudes towards the toga and its uncomfortableness.
> "There are many parts of Italy, to tell the truth, in which no man puts on a toga until he is dead. Even on days of festival, when a brave show is made in a theatre of turf, and when the well-known farce steps once more upon the boards; when the rustic babe on its mother's breast shrinks back affrighted at the gaping of the pallid masks, you will see stalls and populace all dressed alike, and the worshipful aediles content with white tunics as vesture for their high office. In Rome, everyone dresses above his means, and sometimes something more than what is enough is taken out of another man's pocket. This failing is universal here: we all live in a state of pretentious poverty.
(Juvenal, Satire 3).
See also; [Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture, edited by Jonathan Edmondson and Alison Keith](_URL_0_)
|
[
"The Byzantines made and exported very richly patterned cloth, woven and embroidered for the upper classes, and resist-dyed and printed for the lower. By Justinian's time the Roman toga had been replaced by the tunica, or long \"chiton\", for both sexes, over which the upper classes wore various other garments, like a \"dalmatica\" (dalmatic), a heavier and shorter type of tunica; short and long cloaks were fastened on the right shoulder.\n",
"Byzantine dress changed considerably over the thousand years of the Empire, but was essentially conservative. The Byzantines liked color and pattern, and made and exported very richly patterned cloth, especially Byzantine silk, woven and embroidered for the upper classes, and resist-dyed and printed for the lower. A different border or trimming round the edges was very common, and many single stripes down the body or around the upper arm are seen, often denoting class or rank. Taste for the middle and upper classes followed the latest fashions at the Imperial Court. As in the West during the Middle Ages, clothing was very expensive for the poor, who probably wore the same well-worn clothes nearly all the time; this meant in particular that any costume owned by most women needed to fit throughout the full term of a pregnancy.\n",
"The tunic continued to be the basic garment of the Byzantine Romans of both sexes throughout the medieval period. The upper classes wore other garments atop the basic tunic, such as the \"dalmatica\", a heavier and shorter type of tunic, again, worn by both sexes, or the \"scaramangion\", a riding-coat of Persian origin. Except for the military or riding-dress, men and women of higher status wore tunics that came down to the ankles, or nearly so. Tunics were often dyed or richly embroidered, although the plainer ones could be used when layering different types.\n",
"In the early stages of the Byzantine Empire the traditional Roman toga was still used as very formal or official dress. By Justinian's time this had been replaced by the tunica, or long \"chiton\", for both sexes, over which the upper classes wore other garments, like a \"dalmatica\" (dalmatic), a heavier and shorter type of tunica, again worn by both sexes, but mainly by men. The hems often curve down to a sharp point. The \"scaramangion\" was a riding-coat of Persian origin, opening down the front and normally coming to the mid-thigh, although these are recorded as being worn by Emperors, when they seem to become much longer. In general, except for military and presumably riding-dress, men of higher status, and all women, had clothes that came down to the ankles, or nearly so. Women often wore a top layer of the stola, for the rich in brocade. All of these, except the stola, might be belted or not. The terms for dress are often confusing, and certain identification of the name a particular pictured item had, or the design that relates to a particular documentary reference, is rare, especially outside the Court.\n",
"The Byzantine dress changed considerably over the thousand years of the Empire, but was essentially conservative. The Byzantines liked colour and pattern, and made and exported very richly patterned cloth, especially Byzantine silk, woven and embroidered for the upper classes, and resist-dyed and printed for the lower. A different border or trimming round the edges was very common, and many single stripes down the body or around the upper arm are seen, often denoting class or rank. Taste for the middle and upper classes followed the latest fashions at the Imperial Court.\n",
"In the Middle Ages, after the Seljuq victory over the Byzantine Emperor Romanus IV, many Byzantine Greeks were taken as slaves to Central Asia. The most famous among them was Al-Khazini, a Byzantine Greek slave taken to Merv, then in the Khorasan province of Persia but now in Turkmenistan, who was later freed and became a famous Muslim scientist.\n",
"The Imperial Regalia of the Holy Roman Emperors, kept in the Schatzkammer (Vienna), contains a full set of outer garments made in the 12th century in essentially Byzantine style at the Byzantine-founded workshops in Palermo. These are among the best surviving Byzantine garments and give a good idea of the lavishness of Imperial ceremonial clothing. There is a cloak (worn by the Emperors with the gap at the front), \"alb\", dalmatic, stockings, slippers and gloves. The \"loros\" is Italian and later. Each element of the design on the cloak (see Textiles below) is outlined in pearls and embroidered in gold.\n"
] |
Was it commonplace for Royals of old to be highly learned and respected in Academia?
|
It was generally not common. Certainly there were some monarchs who did have some scholarly abilities. Queen Elizabeth I translated Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy.
But the amount of training in languages and literature necessary to be a truly accomplished scholar was tough for a monarch to achieve. They tended to be more patrons of scholarship (like Charlemagne or Alfred the Great or Catherine the Great) than scholars themselves.
|
[
"Later, in the Georgian and Victorian eras, royal education followed the French model, with governors overseeing the child's discipline and moral development, and preceptors conducting academic instruction. In the modern era, members of the House of Windsor have had varying degrees of education. The first heir to the British throne to receive a university degree is the current one, Charles, Prince of Wales. Since the later 20th century, members of the royal family have been educated in public schools, universities and military institutes.\n",
"Historians have \"assessed how well royal education has prepared monarchs for their political and ceremonial role\" in British society. Peter Gordon and Dennis Lawton rated the education of Queen Victoria as good, \"yet in contrast no subsequent monarch (or current heir) has been anywhere near adequately educated\". Ross McKibbin argues that the educations of George V, Edward VIII, and George VI were \"aimless\" and \"narrow,\" leaving them with the equivalent to the educations of \"landed gentry with military connections\".\n",
"During the reign of Emperor Charlemagne, he had his wife and daughters educated in the liberal arts at the Palace Academy of Aachen, for which he is praised in the Vita Karolini Magni. There is evidence that other nobles had their daughters educated at the Palace Academy as well. In line with this, authors such as Vincent of Beauvais indicate that the daughters of the nobility were widely given to education so that they could live up to their social position to come.\n",
"The highest-ranking royal officials were appointed from among men who regarded themselves the descendants of either the Hungarian chieftains of the period of the establishment of the kingdom or of the foreign warriors who settled in Hungary during the subsequent centuries. They were mentioned as \"noblemen\" from the end of the 12th century, but they did not form a hereditary elite. The most prominent families started to name themselves after their forefathers in the 1200s, but their genealogies were often fabricated. The \"Gesta Hungarorum\", which was completed around 1200, emphasized that the ancestors of many noblemen played a preeminent role in the Hungarian Conquest of the Carpathian Basin.\n",
"The education of the British royal family has changed over time, reflecting shifting ideas about education of the aristocracy and the role of the monarchy in the United Kingdom. Traditionally, heirs to the throne and other royal children were educated privately by tutors. In the Tudor era, ideas of Renaissance humanism—emphasising the liberal arts and sciences and the classics—influenced royal education. Elizabeth I of England, for example, was multi-lingual and wrote a number of translations.\n",
"Among the nobility there were many educated and cultured women, of which Queen Mary is the most obvious example. By the early eighteenth century their education was expected to include basic literacy and numeracy, musical instruments (including lute, viol and keyboard), needlework, cookery and household management, while polite accomplishments and piety were also emphasised. From the seventeenth century they were some notable aristocratic female writers. The first book written by a woman and published in Scotland was Elizabeth Melville's \"Ane Godlie Dreame\" in 1603. Later major figures included Lady Elizabeth Wardlaw (1627–1727) and Lady Grizel Baillie (1645–1746). There are 50 autobiographies extant from the late seventeenth to the early eighteenth century, of which 16 were written by women, all of which are largely religious in content.\n",
"The Royal High School is, by one reckoning, the 18th-oldest school in the world, with a history of almost 900 years. Historians associate its birth with the flowering of the 12th century renaissance. It first enters the historical record as the seminary of Holyrood Abbey, founded for Alwin and the Augustinian canons by David I in 1128.\n"
] |
why is gold so expensive?
|
_URL_0_
> Gold emerged as a sort of inevitable global currency, before people even thought of it as currency. It is rare, portable, easy to identify, can easily be made into jewelry, and can be easily quantified (unlike, say, jewels or seashells, which are harder to treat as a "substance"). Once word got around that rich people like it, it became easy to barter with anyone, anywhere, for anything.
> In the early stages, it was not really the same thing as "money", it was just an easy thing to barter. But it had money-like characteristics:
> - If someone walked into your apple-orchard offering to trade a yellow rock for apples, you might look at them a little funny. What use does an apple-grower have for a yellow rock?
> - But if you know that rich people in town covet this soft yellow metal as something they can make jewelry out of, then you might be happy to trade apples for it.
> - Once *everyone* knows that rich people will trade for this stuff, it becomes something like actual currency: neither the hunter, the shoemaker, nor the fisherman in town has much use for it, but because they know they can redeem it for the stuff they *do* want and need, it becomes a sort of transferable IOU that can be redeemed anywhere, i.e., money.
|
[
"Gold has been used as money for many reasons. It is fungible, with a low spread between the prices to buy and sell. Gold is also easily transportable, as it has a high value to weight ratio, compared to other commodities, such as silver. Gold can be re-coined, divided into smaller units, or re-melted into larger units such as gold bars, without destroying its metal value. The density of gold is higher than most other metals, making it difficult to pass counterfeits. Additionally, gold is extremely unreactive, hence it does not tarnish or corrode over time.\n",
"Ironically, during the 1980s gold reached its highest price as a result of international tensions reaping huge profits for the mining company conglomerates. However, because of currency restrictions and bans on the sales of Krugerrands in some countries, they were unable to invest abroad. The result was that they used their surplus funds to buy up businesses in virtually every activity in the economy.\n",
"Like most commodities, the price of gold is driven by supply and demand, including speculative demand. However, unlike most other commodities, saving and disposal play larger roles in affecting its price than its consumption. Most of the gold ever mined still exists in accessible form, such as bullion and mass-produced jewelry, with little value over its fine weight — so it is nearly as liquid as bullion, and can come back onto the gold market. At the end of 2006, it was estimated that all the gold ever mined totalled . The investor Warren Buffett has said that the total amount of gold in the world that is above ground could fit into a cube with sides of just (which is roughly consistent with 158,000 tonnes based on a specific gravity of 19.3). However, estimates for the amount of gold that exists today vary significantly and some have suggested the cube could be a lot smaller or larger.\n",
"Gold increased in value up to US$1750. Gold is typically considered a secure investment in times of economic uncertainty, with other investors and traders also investing in foreign currencies, such as the Swiss franc and Japanese yen, also considered to be safe investments.\n",
"\"Don't try to get rich with gold because the corresponding risk is too high. Gold is a volatile asset whose daily price action can be far more dramatic than blue-chip stocks and many other asset classes\"\n",
"Relatively cheap gold has retained its allure in China compared with other investment options, such as a stock market which had fallen. \"Gold is culturally accepted as a place to put your money in\", said Axel Merk, who increased his fund's gold holdings. In traditional Chinese culture, gold represents wealth; collecting gold collects peace, luck and wealth. In some regions of China, many observe the tradition of giving gold jewelry as betrothal, wedding and baby gifts. Chinese parents help their children pay for a wedding, and most store gold for their children's future. Due to this traditional preference to gold for thousands of years, many Chinese Dama choose to invest in gold.\n",
"Although the prices of some platinum group metals can be much higher, gold has long been considered the most desirable of precious metals, and its value has been used as the standard for many currencies. Gold has been used as a symbol for purity, value, royalty, and particularly roles that combine these properties. Gold as a sign of wealth and prestige was ridiculed by Thomas More in his treatise \"Utopia\". On that imaginary island, gold is so abundant that it is used to make chains for slaves, tableware, and lavatory seats. When ambassadors from other countries arrive, dressed in ostentatious gold jewels and badges, the Utopians mistake them for menial servants, paying homage instead to the most modestly dressed of their party.\n"
] |
how do options and shorts work for investments?
|
For shorts, its better to think about what you're expecting to happen when you do it than how its actually executed in the market (which is more complicated, but ultimately unimportant to you, the trader).
When you buy a stock, the *only* reason to buy it is that in the future you expect it to be higher than when you bought it. This is being "long".
When you short a stock, the *only* reason you "buy" it is that you think the stock will be lower in the future.
Your broker doesn't give a shit what you trade, they just facilitate the trade and take a commission (this is a bit untrue, but for these purpose its fine). When you short a stock, you potentially have a chance to lose more money than you have though, so they require these accounts to have some extra money to cover the losses in case that happens.
|
[
"This type of option is best used when the investor would like to generate income off a long position while the market is moving sideways. It allows an investor/writer to continue a buy-and-hold strategy to make money off a stock which is currently inactive in gains. The investor/writer must correctly guess that the stock won't make any gains within the time frame of the option; this is best done by writing an out-of-the-money option. A covered call has lower risk compared to other types of options, thus the potential reward is also lower.\n",
"Recently, real options have been employed in business strategy, both for valuation purposes and as a conceptual framework. The idea of treating strategic investments as options was popularized by Timothy Luehrman in two HBR articles: \"In financial terms, a business strategy is much more like a series of options, than a series of static cash flows\". Investment opportunities are plotted in an \"option space\" with dimensions \"volatility\" & value-to-cost (\"NPVq\").\n",
"An investment strategy defines in part the identity of a firm that engages in the provision of venture capital financing. It need be neither unitary nor unchanging. One strategy relates to the subject matter expertise of personnel at the funding firm; if the firm members have expertise in the transportation industry, their funding transportation startups would be a logical choice based on their understanding of the industry, while their funding of franchise restaurants, less so. Another strategy is to align with a set of known serial entrepreneurs who have a demonstrated success at establishing start-ups that acrue value and return on investment. An emerging strategy is one based on machine learning with a focus on likely investments with a high return on investment.\n",
"Developing a market plan is when a firms marketing team evaluates the firms current condition, what niches the company would want to target and any potential competition. A market plan can consist of elements such as, target market, consumer interests, and resources; it must be specific and key to that group of consumers as that is the speciality of niche marketing.\n",
"A typical option strategy involves the purchase / selling of at least 2-3 different options (with different strikes and / or time to expiry), and the value of such portfolio may change in a very complex way.\n",
"As an opportunistic investor, Prospect Partners pursues transactions in a number of ways: by working with current management teams seeking a recapitalization, by backing outside executives in a buyout, and by co-investing with independent equity sponsors. Private equity situations in which the firm invests include leveraged expansions, industry consolidations, corporate orphans, transitional sales, and undermanaged companies. Prospect Partners seeks to build equity value in its companies over time through internal growth and/or subsequent acquisitions.\n",
"A Growth Plan only contains the elements of a business where the customer can see value. It begins by setting out business goals and leads to the strategies and tactics for reaching them. The benefit of this is it enables businesses to connect their goals with precise actions. Small businesses focus on market penetration to sell more to existing customers. A growth plan for more mature small business is market development where they sell existing offerings to a different market (e.g. a neighboring state or country). Larger businesses tend to focus on reaching customers through alternate channels (e.g. online) or broadening their target customer through product development to solve their unique problems.\n"
] |
Why is tungsten at room temperature so brittle? Since super cooled metals are more brittle, is this the same phenomenon but just at a much lower temperature because tungstens melting point is so high? Or is it something entirely different?
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Basic answer is that tungsten is Body Centered Cubic (BCC) and therefore will go through a ductile to brittle transformation at certain temperatures. DBTT (Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature) of tungsten is quite high, around 400K. Room temperature, or 273K, is way below this transition temperature, so the tungsten will be brittle.
The basic mechanics here is that below this temperature there isn't enough vibrational energy in the lattice to allow for slip. So the atoms are almost locked in place and are unable to slide past each other, therefore they will separate and the material will fracture.
|
[
"Of all metals in pure form, tungsten has the highest melting point (3422 °C, 6192 °F), lowest vapor pressure (at temperatures above 1650 °C, 3000 °F), and the highest tensile strength. Although carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than tungsten, carbon sublimes at atmospheric pressure instead of melting, so it has no melting point. Tungsten has the lowest coefficient of thermal expansion of any pure metal. The low thermal expansion and high melting point and tensile strength of tungsten originate from strong covalent bonds formed between tungsten atoms by the 5d electrons.\n",
"Because tungsten is a rare metal and its compounds are generally inert, the effects of tungsten on the environment are limited. The abundance of tungsten in the Earth's crust is thought to be about 1.5 parts per million. It is one of the more rare elements.\n",
"To inhibit corrosion, at least 11% chromium is added to steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal surface; this is known as stainless steel. Tungsten slows the formation of cementite, keeping carbon in the iron matrix and allowing martensite to preferentially form at slower quench rates, resulting in high speed steel. On the other hand, sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus are considered contaminants that make steel more brittle and are removed from the steel melt during processing.\n",
"Tantalum-tungsten alloys are in the refractory metals group, keeping their chemical and physical properties the same at high temperatures. The tantalum-tungsten alloys are characterized by their high melting point and the tension resistance. The properties of the final alloy are a combination of properties from the two elements: tungsten, the element with the highest melting point in the periodic table, and tantalum which has high corrosion resistance.\n",
"Because it retains its strength at high temperatures and has a high melting point, elemental tungsten is used in many high-temperature applications, such as light bulb, cathode-ray tube, and vacuum tube filaments, heating elements, and rocket engine nozzles. Its high melting point also makes tungsten suitable for aerospace and high-temperature uses such as electrical, heating, and welding applications, notably in the gas tungsten arc welding process (also called tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding).\n",
"BULLET::::- Tin is the usual main structural metal of the alloy. It has good strength and wetting. On its own it is prone to tin pest, tin cry, and growth of tin whiskers. Readily dissolves silver, gold and to less but still significant extent many other metals, e.g. copper; this is a particular concern for tin-rich alloys with higher melting points and reflow temperatures.\n",
"An earlier material, Eglin Steel, ES-1, resolved these issues but the tungsten used in it was expensive, difficult to melt, and the resulting tungsten carbide particles made the material difficult to process in thick sections. However, the tungsten also gave ES-1 excellent high-temperature strength.\n"
] |
can someone explain to me the pros and cons of capitalism?
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Capitalism: An economic system under which capital is controlled by private individuals.
Capital: Productive property such as factories, farms, financial institutions, or other systems which create wealth.
Pros: In theory, it allocates capital to the areas in society where they are most useful. For instance, let's suppose Mr. White, Mr. Green, and Ms. Brown all own factories making T-Shirts. Ms. Brown finds a cheaper way to put the design on T-shirts, thus, she can make more of them while spending less money. Because she's spending less money, she is able to expand the factory, so more T-Shirts will be made in the more efficient way, benefiting society.
Cons: A lot of the money that goes to capitalists doesn't make its way down to the rest of society, and ends up not benefiting society in any particular way. For instance, after a few months or two, Ms. Brown is making enough money that she not only expands her factory, but also buys Mr. White's factory. Now she's making twice as much money (even though she isn't doing twice as much work as she was before). Now, most of her money is going to pay for luxuries and more capital. This isn't benefiting society, since it's silly to produce extravagant luxuries for the few when there are still people struggling to get things they need. Furthermore, Mr. Green has long since adopted the new way of making T-Shirts, so it no longer really benefits society that Ms. Brown is expanding her factories, because factories owned by her are no longer any more efficient than factories owned by anyone else. In fact, Ms. Brown doesn't even manage most of the factories anymore; she pays other people to do that. So in the end, the only one who has benefited from Ms. Brown having so much capital is Ms. Brown herself.
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[
"A closely related conception is that of raw or pure capitalism, or unrestrained capitalism, that refers to capitalism free of social regulations, with low, minimal or no government and operating almost entirely on the profit motive. Other than \"laissez-faire\" economics and anarcho-capitalism, it is not associated with a school of thought and typically has a bad connotation which hints towards a perceived need for restraint due to social needs and securities that can not be adequately responded to by companies with just a motive for making profit.\n",
"It has been argued that within Right Realism, there is inadequate interest in corporate crime, white-collar crime, political crime or state crime. Van Den Haag (1975) asserts that capitalism is about the creation of \"winners\" and \"losers\". Livesey identifies the implication that winners must be allowed to enjoy the fruits of their enterprise and their risk-taking without these rewards being taken away by the losers. Indeed, if capitalism continues as a form of economic production, those responsible for the creation and accumulation of wealth must be protected from the activities of criminals. This apparently justifies shifting the remit of law enforcement to concentrate surveillance and monitoring on the activities of the poor and powerless. However, it has also been asserted that any given set of economic institutions establishes \"winners\" and \"losers\", who also existed before the rise of capitalism and will also continue to exist under a system protective of the criminal, therefore turning its victims into the real \"losers\".\n",
"As understood by Rand, capitalism is the system that emerges among a group of free individuals, each applying time and reason to sustain his or her own life, each the owner of the means to do so, freely trading among themselves.\n",
"\"Capitalism\" is defined by HT as a political system of democracy and freedom (a definition many critics of HT, especially leftists, regard as risible), not just as an economic system based on private ownership, and is frequently condemned by the party. Freedom of ownership is one of capitalism's freedoms, along with freedom of belief and opinion and \"personal freedom\". Capitalism is based on the idea of \"the separation of religion from life\", and supported by the \"pillars\" of democracy, \"pluralism\" (the recognition and affirmation of diversity and peaceful coexistence of different interests, convictions and lifestyles), \"human rights and free market policies\". \n",
"The suggestion that capitalism should be viewed as a World-Ecology was made by professor Jason W Moore , this view is often referred to as a \"capitalist world-ecology\". This suggestion has been adapted by other academics in their papers on topics that relate to capitalism such as assistant professor Aaron Jakes, who utilized the view of capitalism as a world-ecology to analyse a historical case in Egypt when the British government conducted foreign affairs in cotton production. The view of capitalism as world-ecology discards the notion that nature and societies are mostly unrelated and separate entities and clarifies that nature and societies form a woven system of intricate relations. \n",
"Critics argue that capitalism is associated with the unfair distribution of wealth and power; a tendency toward market monopoly or oligopoly (and government by oligarchy); imperialism, counter-revolutionary wars and various forms of economic and cultural exploitation; repression of workers and trade unionists and phenomena such as social alienation, economic inequality, unemployment and economic instability. Critics have argued that there is an inherent tendency toward oligopolistic structures when \"laissez-faire\" is combined with capitalist private property. Capitalism is regarded by many socialists to be irrational in that production and the direction of the economy are unplanned, creating many inconsistencies and internal contradictions and thus should be controlled through public policy.\n",
"Capitalism generally refers to an economic system where the means of production are largely or entirely privately owned and operated for a profit, structured on the process of capital accumulation. In general, in capitalist systems investment, distribution, income and prices are determined by markets, whether regulated or unregulated.\n"
] |
What is the final form of energy?
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Heat (thermal energy) would be the closest to the answer you are looking for.
_URL_0_
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[
"In biology, energy is an attribute of all biological systems from the biosphere to the smallest living organism. Within an organism it is responsible for growth and development of a biological cell or an organelle of a biological organism. Energy is thus often said to be stored by cells in the structures of molecules of substances such as carbohydrates (including sugars), lipids, and proteins, which release energy when reacted with oxygen in respiration. In human terms, the human equivalent (H-e) (Human energy conversion) indicates, for a given amount of energy expenditure, the relative quantity of energy needed for human metabolism, assuming an average human energy expenditure of 12,500 kJ per day and a basal metabolic rate of 80 watts. For example, if our bodies run (on average) at 80 watts, then a light bulb running at 100 watts is running at 1.25 human equivalents (100 ÷ 80) i.e. 1.25 H-e. For a difficult task of only a few seconds' duration, a person can put out thousands of watts, many times the 746 watts in one official horsepower. For tasks lasting a few minutes, a fit human can generate perhaps 1,000 watts. For an activity that must be sustained for an hour, output drops to around 300; for an activity kept up all day, 150 watts is about the maximum. The human equivalent assists understanding of energy flows in physical and biological systems by expressing energy units in human terms: it provides a \"feel\" for the use of a given amount of energy.\n",
"In physics, energy is the quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on, or to heat, the object. Energy is a conserved quantity; the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The SI unit of energy is the joule, which is the energy transferred to an object by the work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton.\n",
"Energy is also transferred from potential energy (formula_8) to kinetic energy (formula_9) and then back to potential energy constantly. This is referred to as conservation of energy. In this closed system, energy cannot be created or destroyed; therefore, the initial energy and the final energy will be equal to each other. This can be demonstrated by the following:\n",
"In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structure, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants. A reaction is said to be exergonic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse. Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy. The \"speed\" of a chemical reaction (at given temperature \"T\") is related to the activation energy \"E\", by the Boltzmann's population factor ethat is the probability of molecule to have energy greater than or equal to \"E\" at the given temperature \"T\". This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the Arrhenius equation.The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction can be in the form of thermal energy.\n",
"In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants.\n",
"The word \"energy\" derives from the , which possibly appears for the first time in the work of Aristotle in the 4th century BC. In contrast to the modern definition, energeia was a qualitative philosophical concept, broad enough to include ideas such as happiness and pleasure.\n",
"Energy is produced by certain structures, most of which can be built anywhere; each of these structures is ideal for its own set of situations. Energy is consumed in all build projects 1:1 with metal, for repairs to damaged units and structures, during \"Resurrection\" of unit wrecks, powering structures like radar towers and charging shields, and is used to activate the biggest defenses such as the \"Annihilator\" energy weapon.\n"
] |
how does apple own the beatles?
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[The Beatles sold the rights to their catalog of music back in the 1960s.](_URL_1_) It's been owned by many people, most famously by Michael Jackson, who made almost as much money on Beatles royalties as on his own music.
I don't know if Apple Computer has any ownership in Beatles music, but you might be confused by [Apple Records](_URL_0_). Long before Steve Jobs was in business, The Beatles named their record company Apple. There was actually [a lawsuit between the computer company and the record label, because of conflicting trademarks.](_URL_2_)
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[
"After Klein's departure, Apple was managed by Neil Aspinall on behalf of the four Beatles and their heirs. Apple Records' distribution contract with EMI expired in 1976, when control of the Beatles' catalogue—including solo recordings to date by George Harrison, John Lennon and Ringo Starr—reverted to EMI (Paul McCartney had acquired ownership of his solo recordings when he re-signed with Capitol in 1975).\n",
"Apple Records is a record label founded by the Beatles in 1968 as a division of Apple Corps Ltd. It was initially intended as a creative outlet for the Beatles, both as a group and individually, plus a selection of other artists including Mary Hopkin, James Taylor, Badfinger, and Billy Preston. In practice, the roster had become dominated by the mid-1970s with releases of the former Beatles as solo artists. Allen Klein managed the label from 1969 to 1973, then it was managed by Neil Aspinall on behalf of the Beatles and their heirs. Aspinall retired in 2007 and was replaced by Jeff Jones.\n",
"From 1970 to 2007, Apple's chief executive was former Beatles road manager Neil Aspinall, although he did not officially bear that title until Allen Klein had left the company. The current CEO is Jeff Jones. In 2010, Apple Corps ranked number 2 on the \"Fast Company\" magazine's list of the world's most innovative companies in the music industry, thanks to the release of \"\" video game and the remastering of the Beatles' catalogue.\n",
"In 1967 when the Beatles decided to form their own corporation, they turned to Mansfield to run their record division and named him the U.S. Manager of Apple Records beginning in 1968. Mansfield joined his four new bosses setting up the worldwide launch of Apple Records and the U.S. management of subsequent projects such as \"The Beatles\" (aka \"The White Album\"), \"Yellow Submarine\", \"Abbey Road\", \"Let It Be\" and \"Hey Jude\". In addition to the Beatles, Mansfield looked after the careers of Apple artists such as James Taylor, Mary Hopkin, Badfinger and Jackie Lomax.\n",
"Apple to the Core: The Unmaking of the Beatles is a book by Peter McCabe and Robert D. Schonfeld, first published in the United States by Pocket Books in 1972. Released two years after the break-up of the English band the Beatles, the book covers the business aspect of the group's career, particularly the problems that befell their Apple Corps enterprise.\n",
"For three years, The Beatles' record company Apple Records were in a legal dispute, \"Apple Corps v Apple Computer\", with Apple Computer over the name \"Apple.\" On May 8, 2006, a ruling was declared in favor of Apple Computer, but Apple Records said it would appeal the ruling. Despite this, plans were announced by Neil Aspinall in April 2006 to remaster completely and release the entire Beatles catalog on an unspecified online music service, as well as release some previously unheard work by the band. No date was set at that time. It has also been reported that the Beatles' music catalog might initially be appearing on iTunes only, as Apple is reported to be negotiating with Britain's EMI group over an online distribution deal that might be exclusive for a limited time.\n",
"Apple Corps Ltd was conceived by the Beatles in 1967 after the death of their manager Brian Epstein. It was intended to be a small group of companies (Apple Retail, Apple Publishing, Apple Electronics, and so on) as part of Epstein's plan to create a tax-effective business structure.. The first project that the band released after forming the company was their film \"Magical Mystery Tour\", which was produced under the Apple Films division. Apple Records was officially founded by the group after their return from India in 1968 as another sub-division of Apple Corps.\n"
] |
if in the vacuum of space there are no exterior forces acing on a spacecraft, why can't we continuously speed up the craft to light speed with constant thrust?
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It takes more and more energy to constantly accelerate a spacecraft. This means that as you approach C the amount of energy that you need to go faster approaches infinity. Sadly humans do not have access to infinite energy so we can never actually reach C.
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[
"A related issue is drag. If the near light-speed space craft is interacting with matter or energy that is moving slowly in the planetary reference frame—solar wind, magnetic fields, cosmic microwave background radiation—this will cause drag which will bleed off a portion of the engine's acceleration.\n",
"Ion thrust engines are practical only in the vacuum of space and cannot take vehicles through the atmosphere because ion engines do not work in the presence of ions outside the engine. Additionally, the engine's minuscule thrust cannot overcome any significant air resistance. Spacecraft rely on conventional chemical rockets to initially reach orbit.\n",
"Another limitation is the atmosphere, if any, of the available planet. The closer the spacecraft can approach, the faster its periapsis speed as gravity accelerates the spacecraft, allowing for more kinetic energy to be gained from a rocket burn. However, if a spacecraft gets too deep into the atmosphere, the energy lost to drag can exceed that gained from the planet's gravity. On the other hand, the atmosphere can be used to accomplish aerobraking. There have also been theoretical proposals to use aerodynamic lift as the spacecraft flies through the atmosphere. This maneuver, called an aerogravity assist, could bend the trajectory through a larger angle than gravity alone, and hence increase the gain in energy.\n",
"For spacecraft, operation in a vacuum often means low mechanical damping. Meanwhile, spacecraft are compact and rigid, to withstand high launch loads. Jitter, then, is transmitted easily and often a limiting factor for high-resolution optics. \n",
"As part of a \"tether propulsion\" system, crafts can use long, strong conductors (though not all tethers are conductive) to change the orbits of spacecraft. It has the potential to make space travel significantly cheaper. When direct current is applied to the tether, it exerts a Lorentz force against the magnetic field, and the tether exerts a force on the vehicle. It can be used either to accelerate or brake an orbiting spacecraft. \n",
"DEEP-IN would use an array of small lasers to focus a stream of photons onto reflectors on spacecraft, eliminating the need for spacecraft to carry propellant and therefore significantly lowering their mass. Photon momentum would be translated to the spacecraft, and reflectors enable a theoretical twofold increase in momentum transfer compared to a blackbody surface. The project anticipates it could carry femtosatellites weighing grams at approximately 0.25 times the speed of light, and still have significant maximum speed on larger spacecraft.\n",
"For spacecraft missions where large changes in the direction of flight are necessary, direct propulsion by the spacecraft may not be feasible due to the large delta-v requirement. In these cases it may be possible to perform a flyby of a nearby planet or moon, using its gravitational attraction to alter the ship's direction of flight. Although this maneuver is very similar to the gravitational slingshot it differs in that a slingshot often implies a change in both speed and direction whereas the gravity turn only changes the direction of flight.\n"
] |
Hebrew language revival
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It was about the national identity, not religious reasons. More religious segments of Judaism were historically (and often still are) skeptical of Zionism in general, of which the Hebrew revival was a part.
First, some linguistic background. Hebrew went extinct by the 2nd century. But it remained in use in Jewish communities as the language of the liturgy, Jewish texts, and religious literature. Synagogues still generally used Hebrew biblical texts, religious learners still learned Jewish texts, Rabbis still wrote Hebrew commentaries. Jews were generally literate in Hebrew script, and used it for writing non-Hebrew languages in many cases.
The revival of Hebrew is an interesting linguistic topic. The father of Hebrew is Eliezer Ben-Yehudah. But the process began a bit before. During the 19th century, the Jewish literary revival involved making Jewish works of "high" literature, in both Hebrew and Yiddish. One product of this was a body of literature in Eastern Yiddish (Tevye the Milkman was a product of this, which of course became Fiddler on the Roof). Another was new literary writing in Hebrew, by authors like Chayim Nachman Bialik.
It's with this backdrop that we get a critically important, but sadly forgotten, Zionist named Ahad Ha'am (that was his penname--his actual name was Asher Grinsberg. Ahad Ha'am means "one of the nation"). There were several strands of Zionism in the late 19th century. His was sometimes called "cultural Zionism". He saw the establishment of a Jewish state as the ultimate expression of this Jewish cultural revival. Just as writing literature would revitalize Jewish writing, a Jewish state would revitalize all aspects of Jewish life. He saw Zionists like Herzl as being sort of half-assed. They wanted to help Jews, yes, but they didn't want to really make Jews a more vibrant nation. In essence, he saw Herzl et al as trying to create a "state of Jews", while he wanted a Jewish state. He didn't think it was practical to just get Jews to migrate to Palestine--you'd need a cultural revival to get people interested in such a national enterprise
And he wrote these objections in Hebrew. One of his bigger essays, זה לא דרך (Hebrew for "this is not the way"), where he outlined his objections. Trying to build a state out of nothing is pointless--first, Jews have to be inspired by a revitalization of Jewish culture.
Around this time Eliezer Ben-Yehudah started working to revive Hebrew. He did a few things to this end. He wrote a Hebrew-language newspaper based in Jerusalem. He raised his son as a native monolingual Hebrew speaker. He wrote a Hebrew dictionary, including a number of coined words for new concepts.
To address your initial question, there were religious objections to this. Hebrew was, in Jewish parlance, *lashon kodesh/loshn koshesh*, the Holy Tongue. It had a religious significance. And many objected to its use in daily affairs. It was a particular point of controversy for Eliezer Ben-Yehudah in Jerusalem, which had a large religious population.
With this intellectual and ideological backing, combined with someone doing the legwork, Hebrew slowly started to gain ground. In the early 1900s Zionists incorporated Revisionist Zionist lingo into the language arguement. They saw Yiddish as an exilic language, which was to be eschewed for the *real* Jewish language, Hebrew. This active objection to other languages, combined with the ideological advantage of a Jewish revival it provided, gave it strength.
Perhaps the solidifying moment was in the establishment of the Technion. It's a scientific univerisity in Haifa. There were intense debates about what its language should be. On one hand, German was the language of scientific discourse at the time. On the other, it was a institution in the Jewish statehood enterprise, and it should use the Jewish language. Eventually, Hebrew won out.
So propelled by a couple pieces of Zionist ideology, Hebrew managed to become the language of what would become Israel.
Edited to remove typo
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[
"The revival of the Hebrew language in Israel is the only example of a language's acquiring new first language speakers after it became extinct in everyday use for an extended period, being used only as a liturgical language. Even in the case of Hebrew, there is a theory that argues that \"the Hebrew revivalists who wished to speak pure Hebrew failed. The result is a fascinating and multifaceted Israeli language, which is not only multi-layered but also multi-sourced. The revival of a clinically dead language is unlikely without cross-fertilization from the revivalists' mother tongue(s).\"\n",
"Nonetheless, Ghil'ad Zuckermann believes that \"Yiddish is a primary contributor to Israeli Hebrew because it was the mother tongue of the vast majority of language revivalists and first pioneers in Eretz Yisrael at the crucial period of the beginning of Israeli Hebrew\". According to Zuckermann, although the revivalists wished to speak Hebrew with Semitic grammar and pronunciation, they could not avoid the Ashkenazi mindset arising from their European background. He argues that their attempt to deny their European roots, negate diasporism and avoid hybridity (as reflected in Yiddish) failed. \"Had the language revivalists been Arabic-speaking Jews (e.g. from Morocco), Israeli Hebrew would have been a totally different language—both genetically and typologically, much more Semitic. The impact of the founder population on Israeli Hebrew is incomparable with that of later immigrants.\"\n",
"The language's revival eventually brought linguistic additions with it. While the initial leaders of the process insisted they were only continuing \"from the place where Hebrew's vitality was ended\", what was created represented a broader basis of language acceptance; it includes characteristics derived from all periods of Hebrew language, as well as from the non-Hebrew languages used by the long-established European, North African, and Middle Eastern Jewish communities, with Yiddish (the European variant) being predominant.\n",
"The revival of spoken Hebrew can be separated into three stages, which are concurrent with (1) the First Aliyah, (2) the Second Aliyah, and (3) the British Mandate period. In the first period, the activity centered on Hebrew schools in the Settlements and in the Pure Language Society; in the second period, Hebrew was used in assembly meetings and public activities; and in the third period, it became the language used by the Yishuv, the Jewish population during the Mandate Period, for general purposes. At this stage, Hebrew possessed both spoken and written forms, and its importance was reflected in the official status of Hebrew during the British Mandate. All of the stages were characterized by the establishment of many organizations that took an active and ideological part in Hebrew activities. This resulted in the establishment of Hebrew high schools (גימנסיות), the Hebrew University, the Jewish Legion, the Histadrut labor organization, and in Tel Aviv—the first Hebrew city.\n",
"Eliezer Ben-Yehuda is the main revivalist of Hebrew as a modern spoken language, although in his book \"Language in Time of Revolution\", Israeli scholar Benjamin Harshav diminishes Ben-Yehuda's role and attributes the success of the revival to a wider movement in the Jewish society.\n",
"The revival of the Hebrew language took place in Europe and Palestine toward the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century, through which the language's usage changed from the sacred language of Judaism to a spoken and written language used for daily life in Israel. The process began as a diversity of Jews started arriving and establishing themselves alongside the pre-existing Jewish community in the region of Palestine in the first half of the nineteenth century, when veteran Jews in Palestine (largely Arabic-speaking by that time) and the linguistically diverse newly arrived Jews all switched to use Hebrew as a lingua franca, the historical linguistic common denominator of all the Jewish groups. At the same time, a parallel development in Europe changed Hebrew from primarily a sacred liturgical language into a literary language which played a key role in the development of nationalist educational programs. Modern Hebrew was one of three official languages of Mandatory Palestine, and after the Israeli Declaration of Independence in 1948, one of two official languages of Israel, along with Modern Arabic. In July 2018, a made Hebrew the sole official language of the state of Israel, with Arabic having \"special status\". More than purely a linguistic process, the revival of Hebrew was utilized by Jewish modernization and political movements, and became a tenet of the ideology associated with settlement of the land, Zionism and Israeli policy.\n",
"The revival of the Hebrew language in practice advanced in two parallel strains: The revival of written-literary Hebrew and the revival of spoken Hebrew. In the first few decades, the two processes were not connected to one another and even occurred in different places: Literary Hebrew was renewed in Europe's cities, whereas spoken Hebrew developed mainly in Palestine. The two movements began to merge only in the beginning of the 1900s, and an important point in this process was the immigration of Haim Nahman Bialik to Palestine in 1924. But after the transfer of literary Hebrew to Palestine, a substantial difference between spoken and written Hebrew remained, and this difference persists today. The characteristics of spoken Hebrew only began to seep into literature in the 1940s, and only in the 1990s did spoken Hebrew start widely appearing in novels.\n"
] |
What was the source of gunpowder for the colonial militias during the American Revolution?
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The American colonists had very limited supplies of gunpowder and very limited capacity for manufacturing more of it (precise figures are in the link.) Had there not been a foreign source of gunpowder it is very doubtful that they could have been successful in their revolution. Who was this crucial benefactor? [Why the liberty loving King of France Louis XVI.](_URL_1_)
It's easy to forget that North America remained a side theater to European conflicts. Without France's self interested support there couldn't have been American independence.
[Here's another link with more detailed figures]( _URL_0_)
|
[
"Prior to the American Revolutionary War very little gunpowder had been made in the colonies, and most was imported from Britain. In October 1777, the British Parliament banned the importation of gunpowder into the American colonies. In preparation for the overmountain march, five hundred pounds of black powder was manufactured for the Overmountain Men by Mary Patton and her husband at their Gap Creek powder mill. The Overmountain Men stored the Patton black powder on the rainy first night of their march in a dry cave known as the Shelving Rock that is located near Roan Mountain State Park at present-day Roan Mountain, Tennessee. During January 1781, the Overmountain Men also fought the British at the Battle of Cowpens in South Carolina.\n",
"Prior to the Revolution, very little gunpowder had been made in the United States. During the colonial period, most gunpowder used in America had been manufactured in Britain. In October 1777, the British Parliament banned the importation of gunpowder into the rebellious American colonies. To supply the Overmountain Men, five hundred pounds of black powder was manufactured by Mary Patton and her husband at their Gap Creek powder mill in present-day Elizabethton. On the first night of the march from Sycamore Shoals, the Overmountain Men stored the Patton black powder in a dry cave known as \"Shelving Rock\" to protect it from the rain. Shelving Rock is located along TN-143 just outside Roan Mountain State Park.\n",
"Gunpowder was an essential commodity, scarce in the Continental Army throughout the Revolutionary War and desperately low during the first year of the struggle for independence. Late in the summer of 1775, the shortage in Washington's army besieging Boston became so severe that he was unable to use his artillery, and his riflemen would have been unable to repel an attack had the British taken the offensive. Cooke, therefore, ordered Whipple to cruise for two weeks off Sandy Hook, New Jersey to intercept a powder-laden packet expected from London. He was then to proceed to Bermuda to capture the powder stored in the British magazine there. \"Katy\" departed Narragansett Bay on 12 September but caught no sight of the packet. Upon reaching Bermuda, Whipple learned that the powder from the magazine was already en route to Philadelphia.\n",
"Stores of gunpowder—typically referred to by Loyalists as \"the King's powder\" but in contrast by Patriots as \"the militia's powder\"—were also carried off from forts in Newport, Rhode Island, Providence, Rhode Island, and New London, Connecticut, and distributed to the militias in towns away from the coast. Cannon and other supplies were smuggled out of Boston and Charlestown.\n",
"These two incidents were the attempt to confiscate the cannon of the Concord and Lexington militias, leading to the Battles of Lexington and Concord of April 19, 1775, and the attempt, on April 20, to confiscate militia powder stores in the armory of Williamsburg, Virginia, which led to the Gunpowder Incident and a face-off between Patrick Henry and hundreds of militia members on one side and the Royal Governor of Virginia, Lord Dunmore, and British seamen on the other. The Gunpowder Incident was eventually settled by paying the colonists for the powder.\n",
"Beginning in April 1775, the Gunpowder Incident, a dispute between Governor Dunmore and Virginia colonists over gunpowder (stored in the Williamsburg Magazine) evolved into an important event in the run-up to the American Revolution. Dunmore, fearing another rebellion, ordered royal marines to seize gunpowder from the magazine. Virginia militia led by Patrick Henry responded to the \"theft\" and marched on Williamsburg. A standoff ensued, with Dunmore threatening to destroy the city if attacked by the militia. The dispute was resolved when payment for the powder was arranged.\n",
"In 1774, Eve built a water-powered factory for producing gunpowder on Frankford Creek in Frankford, which was then a village outside Philadelphia. Prior to the American Revolutionary War, Eve's powder mill at Wingohocking Street and Adams Avenue, was the only one in operation in the colonies.\n"
] |
when cops and dea agents perform undercover drugs busts where do they obtain said drugs?
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I think most of the time they act as the buyers, not the sellers. They are trying to work their way UP the ladder, not down, so they want the dealers, not the end users.
So they just make multiple buys from a small dealer, then bust him, and try to flip him to be a double agent in exchange for less jail time. Then they try to get him to introduce them to the next step up the ladder and do some bigger buys from him, then bust him and try to flip him also.
Then they just repeat this process as high as they can go, but the higher they go and the less productive the undercover operation is, as it takes much longer to gain trust, and get to the real kingpin instead of one of his flunkies or lieutenants, plus the buy quantity needs to keep escalating and it's hard to tell your boss down at the cop station, "Hey, I need a million bucks to buy some drugs" so there is really only so high they can go before it becomes completely unproductive.
|
[
"A narcotics agent convinces a convict he helped send to Alcatraz go undercover with him to help expose a heroin drug smuggling ring. The unlikely pair travels from San Francisco to Vancouver and finally to a dude ranch in Tucson which is run by mob bosses. They end up getting help breaking the case from the gang leader's dingy blonde girlfriend (Winters), who falls for the narcotics agent during the sting.\n",
"A man goes looking for cocaine on an island. Some cops (undercover) offer to help by taking the map and getting the coke in exchange for half. The cops (still undercover) send the man a picture of a hole with a bag in it, implying that cocaine is in the bag. They ask the man to come to a parking lot to give him his cut. At this time they arrest him for conspiracy. It was a witch hunt.\n",
"The Drug Dealers come to the desert looking for the location of an underground drug lab. One of the Drug Dealers reveals himself to be an Undercover Cop after calling in the discovery of The Stripper’s body lying in the sand. The other Drug Dealer shoots the Undercover Cop, but The Slasher then kills the Drug Dealer with a machete.\n",
"Investigation on drug trafficking often begins with the recording of unusually frequent deaths by overdose, monitoring financial flows of suspected traffickers, or by finding concrete elements while inspecting for other purposes. For example, a person pulled over for traffic violations may have illicit drugs in his or her vehicle, thus leading to an arrest and/or investigation of the source of the materials. The United States federal government has placed a premium on disrupting the large drug trafficking organizations that move narcotics into and around the United States, while state and local law enforcement focus on disrupting street-level drug dealing gangs.\n",
"Detectives Mike Parnell (David Rasche) and Danny Scalise (Richard Young) are crooked narcotics cops who steal the drugs they seize at busts for their own recreational drug use and to sell to dealers, brutalizing or framing anyone who gets in their way. One of their regular customers for stolen drugs is Joseph Donatelli (J.J. Johnston), a high-level mobster. \n",
"In 2007, several Hollywood Police Department officers were implicated in a wide-reaching corruption investigation by the FBI, and a few officers turned state's evidence in order to reduce their potential sentences. Four officers were jailed for trafficking in heroin.\n",
"In the later 1990s, the FBI arrested 42 officers from five law enforcement agencies in 1998 on charges of conspiracy to distribute cocaine. In a 1998 report to U.S. Congressman Charles B. Rangel, the federal General Accounting Office (GAO) found evidence of growing police involvement in drug sales, theft of drugs and money from drug dealers, and perjured testimony about illegal searches.\n"
] |
what happens to clothing that isn't sold?
|
What you're asking about is the retail chain. For most products, it works like this:
Manufacturer makes a product, and markets it to retailers, who place orders in various quantities. They ship the orders, and the retailers sell it in line with their contract with the manufacturer. Using your example, Levi doesn't want to compete with itself or have the price fall so low it causes perceived value issues, so they may have a minimum price the jeans can be sold for.
After a certain point, the unsold merchandise will go through a series of price reductions via sales, promotions, bogos, and ultimately end up on clearance.
The merchandise remaining after the clearance sale will be sent to the retailers distribution centers and bundled into lots. These lots are sold to discount outlets. For clothes, that would be places like Marshall's, Kohl's, TJ Maxx, etc.
They go through the same price reduction process as before, only becoming cheaper still. These places do hold on to merchandise for a considerable amount of time. You can find some relics at Big Lots, for example.
If the merchandise is still sitting unsold, it often ends up being put back in lots and re-auctioned to the bottom feeders of the retail chain - flea marketeers, eBay and Amazon wanna be moguls, etc.
At that point, the merchandise that doesn't sell is either so severely discounted, you are literally only paying for the shipping and storage, or it is finally liquidated via donation for tax purposes.
Or, you fill a warehouse with it, wait a respectable amount of time, and light a match.
|
[
"Clothing has been made from a very wide variety of materials, ranging from leather and furs to woven fabrics to elaborate and exotic natural and synthetic fabrics. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing. Articles carried rather than worn (such as purses), worn on a single part of the body and easily removed (scarves), worn purely for adornment (jewelry), or those that serve a function other than protection (eyeglasses), are normally considered accessories rather than clothing.\n",
"In developed countries, unwanted used clothing is often donated to charities that sort and sell it. Some of these distribute some of the clothing to people on low incomes for free or a very low price. Others sell all of the collected clothing in bulk to a commercial used clothing redistributor, and then use the raised funds to finance their activities. In the U.S., almost 5 billion pounds of clothing is donated to charity shops each year. Only about 10% of it can be re-sold by the charity shops. About a third of the donated clothing is bought, usually in bulk and at a heavy discount, by commercial dealers and fabric recyclers, who export it to other countries. Some of the used clothes are also smuggled into Mexico.\n",
"Generally, charitable organizations often sell donated clothing rather than directly giving the clothing away. Charities keep 10% of donated clothing for their high quality and retail value for the thrift shops. Charities sell the rest of the donations to textile recycling businesses.\n",
"The customer base of secondhand clothing market is usually extremely cost-conscious and often promotes the ideologies of sustainability and environmentalism. Secondhand clothing, after all, is the recycling of used and/or unwanted clothing, and this reciprocal buy/sell/trade transaction between the customer and the retailer saves an incalculable amount of unwanted clothing from dumps and landfills.\n",
"Often, people wear an item of clothing until it falls apart. Some materials present problems. Cleaning leather is difficult, and bark cloth (tapa) cannot be washed without dissolving it. Owners may patch tears and rips, and brush off surface dirt, but materials like these inevitably age.\n",
"In layman’s terms, a clothing consignment shop sells clothes that are owned not by the shop’s owner but by the individual who had given (or consigned) the items to the shop for the owner to sell. The shop owner/seller is the consignee and the owner of the items is the consignor. Both the consignor and the consignee receive portions of the profit made from the item. However, the consignor will not be paid until the items are sold. Therefore, unlike donating clothing to charities, people who consign their clothes to shops can make profit.\n",
"Used, unwearable clothing can be repurposed for quilts, rags, rugs, bandages, and many other household uses. It can also be recycled into paper. In Western societies, used clothing is often thrown out or donated to charity (such as through a clothing bin). It is also sold to consignment shops, dress agencies, flea markets, and in online auctions. Used clothing is also often collected on an industrial scale to be sorted and shipped for re-use in poorer countries. Globally, used clothes are worth $4 billion with the US as the leading exporter at $575 million.\n"
] |
how is a single injection of a drug able to provide months of therapy?
|
Esterification of an injectable steroid basically accomplishes one thing, it slows the release of the parent steroid from the site of injection.
This happens because the ester will notably lower the water solubility of the steroid, and increase its lipid (fat) solubility. This will cause the drug to form a deposit in the muscle tissue, from which it will slowly enter into circulation as it is picked up in small quantities by the blood. Generally, the longer the ester chain, the lower the water solubility of the compound, and the longer it will take to for the full dosage to reach general circulation.
|
[
"Alternatively, a single-dose therapy is used for instance if there are concerns regarding the patient's compliance. The single-dose therapy can be given as an injection, but is normally given in form of an oral medication.\n",
"Infusion therapy involves the administration of medication through a needle or catheter. Typically, \"infusion therapy\" means that a drug is administered intravenously or subcutaneously. The term may pertain where drugs are provided through other non-oral routes of administration, such as intramuscular injection and epidural administration (into the membranes surrounding the spinal cord).\n",
"A wide variety of drugs are injected, often opioids: these may include legally prescribed medicines and medication such as morphine, as well as stronger compounds often favored in recreational drug use, which are often illegal. Although there are various methods of taking drugs, injection is favoured by some people as the full effects of the drug are experienced very quickly, typically in five to ten seconds. It also bypasses first-pass metabolism in the liver, resulting in higher bioavailability and efficiency for many drugs (such as morphine or diacetylmorphine/heroin; roughly two-thirds of which is destroyed in the liver when consumed orally) than oral ingestion would. The effect is that the person gets a stronger (yet shorter-acting) effect from the same amount of the drug. Drug injection is therefore often related to substance dependence. \n",
"Drug injection via intravenous administration, intramuscular administration, or subcutaneous administration carries relatively greater risks than other methods of administration. The doses used by recreational intravenous users vary widely, with a range of 1–200 times the doses used therapeutically (i.e., up to several grams). Intravenous users risk developing pulmonary embolism (PE), a blockage of the main artery of the lung or one of its branches, and commonly develop skin rashes or infections at the site of injection. As with the injection of any drug, if a group of users share a common needle without sterilization procedures, blood-borne diseases, such as HIV or hepatitis, can be transmitted. The level of needle sharing among methamphetamine users is similar to that among other drug-injection users.\n",
"Palifermin is administered via intravenous bolus injection. The drug comes as a lyophilized powder that must be reconstituted with sterile water for injection before it may be administered. It is given for three days before, and three days after chemotherapy is undergone. However, it is important that the drug is not administered within 24 hours of the actual chemotherapy process. This drug is most commonly dosed in a hospital setting, but can be taken at home as per specific instructions regarding preparation and storage from a doctor. The recommended dosage consists of 60 µg/kg/day.\n",
"In the case of heroin-assisted treatment however, users are provided with a form of pharmaceutical-grade heroin injection solution which doctors consider fit for injection. And as doctors refrain from drastic changes in dose and provide post-injection monitoring, overdoses are rare and can be quickly treated with opioid antagonists like naloxone. Thus, patients in heroin-assisted treatment are relieved from the major complex of problems that defines illicit heroin use. Synthetic heroin taken under the aforementioned conditions is not neurotoxic and has few long-term side effects beside constipation and dependency. And while it had been speculated that the availability of such treatment options might change public perception of the risks associated with drug use and might lead to an increase in illicit drug use, the incidence of heroin abuse in Switzerland has declined sharply since the introduction of heroin-assisted treatment. As a study published in The Lancet concluded:\n",
"The drug is injected intravitreally (into the vitreous humour of the eye) once a month. If monthly injections are not feasible, the regimen may be reduced to 1 injection every 3 months after the first 4 months.\n"
] |
How does amputation early in life affect growth of the amputated limb?
|
Typically amputated limbs do not grow.
|
[
"If extensive necrosis and gangrene has set in an arm or leg, the limb may have to be amputated. Limb amputation is in itself usually remarkably well tolerated, but is associated with a substantial mortality (~50%), primarily because of the severity of the diseases in patients where it is indicated.\n",
"As many as 25% of diabetic patients will eventually develop foot ulcers, and recurrence within five years is 70%. If not aggressively treated, these wounds can lead to amputations. It is estimated that every 30 seconds a lower limb is amputated somewhere in the world because of a diabetic wound. Amputation often triggers a downward spiral of declining quality of life, frequently leading to disability and death. In fact, only about one third of diabetic amputees will live more than five years, a survival rate equivalent to that of many cancers.\n",
"Outcome of major limb replantations can be predicted by the potassium level of the blood which flows out of the replanted part after revascularization as a high level of potassium can be a marker of muscle and tissue death.\n",
"Over 185,000 amputations occur annually, with approximately 86% of incidents being lower-limb amputations. The majority of cases are reportedly caused by vascular disease (54%) and trauma (45%). Lower-limb amputees are further categorized by where the amputation occurs with respect to the knee joint. However, 34.5% of individuals with an initial foot or ankle amputation experience a progression of symptoms leading to subsequent amputations at higher levels of limb loss. Out of these reamputation cases, diabetic patients had a higher likelihood of requiring further amputations, regardless of initial amputation location. The rate of amputation has decreased significantly with the introduction and optimization of revascularization to combat vascular disease. An increasingly studied trend in amputation rates is the gender disparity of women receiving more surgical revascularization treatments and less amputations than male counterparts.\n",
"Because of the severity of the pain in erythromelalgia, and the lack of good pain medication then, there have been reports dating back to 1903 of amputation of the affected limb. In 1903 H. Batty Shaw reported that in three cases the pain was so severe, and that the affected extremities are so useless, that amputation was performed.\n",
"Before the 1850s, surgeons usually amputated the limbs for those with open fractures, as it was associated with severe sepsis and gangrene which can be life threatening. It was only until the 20th century, when Joseph Lister adopted the aseptic technique in surgeries, that the rate of death from open fractures reduced from 50% to 9%.\n",
"Traumatic amputation is uncommon in humans (1 per 20,804 population per year). Loss of limb usually happens immediately during the accident, but sometimes a few days later after medical complications. Statistically the most common causes of traumatic amputations are:\n"
] |
Were legendary swords actually a thing?
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Heya guys, just popping in here to issue a quick reminder as to the [standards we uphold in this subreddit.](_URL_0_) Not a single one of the answers so far has measured up to those standards, including posts along the lines of:
* "I don't know a great deal about this but as there are no other replies I'll have a go"
* "This one (Wiki link)"
* "Link to Youtube 'popumentary'" (We've had 6 or 7 different posts linking to the Ulfbehrt video, which is about as far from academic as you can get.)
Also, please remember the three things to ask yourself before posting:
1. Do I, personally, actually know a lot about the subject at hand?
2. Am I essentially certain that what I know about it is true?
3. Am I prepared to go into real detail about this?
If any one of these is answered with a "no," then please think twice about posting.
Thanks so much for your consideration! :)
|
[
"Various famous swords may be encountered Chinese legend or mythology. Some of these swords also appear in literary fiction; or, various other media, including comics and video games. There are two main types of sword: \"jian\" and \"dao\". Swords with estimated or presumed magical powers (or, that were especially well-made) were often designated by the epithet \"treasure\" (寶), as is the case with \"treasure \"jian\"\" (寶劍) and \"treasure\" dao\" (寶刀)\". Famous sword smiths documented in mythology include Ou Yezi and the husband and wife pair Gan Jiang and Mo Xie.\n",
"This article is a list of fictional swords in various pieces of literature, film and television.. For swords originating in mythology and legend, see List of mythological swords. Swords that originate in epic poems, tales and chronicles that were taken at one time as a \"true\" accounting of history rather than being composed as works of fiction, such as \"Beowulf\", \"The Tale of the Heike\" and the \"Kojiki\" of similar are not listed here, regardless of whether the swords themselves are believed by contemporary scholars to have existed historically.\n",
"The first weapons that can be described as \"swords\" date to around 3300 BC. They have been found in Arslantepe, Turkey, are made from arsenical bronze, and are about long. Some of them are inlaid with silver.\n",
"The legend of Timur (Temir) is the most ancient and well-known. Timur found a strange stone that fell from the sky (an iron ore meteorite), making the first iron sword from it. The word \"temür, temir or demir\" means \"iron\".\n",
"In some traditions, the sword is ascribed no powers of its own. It is famous because it is the hero's sword, or because of its origin, as when a god gives it to the hero. Other swords keep their wielders safe or destroy their enemies. A more localized motif is the sword that has been broken and must be reforged, commonly found in Northern Europe. Such a sword symbolizes the initial defeat and loss of honor of its wielder. Subsequent victory and the restoration of honor is achieved by reforging it, either at the wielder's hand or that of his heir.\n",
"Knives are mentioned in Tolkien's works, sometimes as backup weapons—such as the nondescript long knife of Legolas the archer. However, some individual knives are given more significance through naming (e.g. Sting, see below). Weapons that were only knives or short swords for adult Men or Elves could function as formidable swords in the hands of Hobbits, a diminutive people.\n",
"The swords contain an alloy of copper, tin, and other elements including nickel, magnesium, and cobalt. Some carry inscriptions that date their manufacture to between 245 and 228 BCE, indicating that they were used before burial.\n"
] |
how quartz crystal resonators work?
|
They rely on a piezo crystal. These crystals have the useful property that they generate a voltage if you squeeze them, and expand or contract if you apply a voltage. They are commonly used in lighters (squeezing them generates a high voltage, which causes a spark), speakers and ultra sound transducers(a rapidly oscillating voltage contracts and expands the crystal) and kitchen scales (putting a weight on them generates a voltage).
As a resonator, the crystal is tuned like a musical instrument to oscillate at a certain frequency, and combined with a small amplifying circuit. If you turn it on, it starts oscillating at a precise frequency, and never stops. Imagine it like a tuning fork, only that it never stops humming as long as you apply a voltage.
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[
"A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a precise frequency. This frequency is often used to keep track of time, as in quartz wristwatches, to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits incorporating them became known as crystal oscillators, but other piezoelectric materials including polycrystalline ceramics are used in similar circuits.\n",
"An oscillator crystal has two electrically conductive plates, with a slice or tuning fork of quartz crystal sandwiched between them. During startup, the controlling circuit places the crystal into an unstable equilibrium, and due to the positive feedback in the system, any tiny fraction of noise is amplified, ramping up the oscillation. The crystal resonator can also be seen as a highly frequency-selective filter in this system: it only passes a very narrow subband of frequencies around the resonant one, attenuating everything else. Eventually, only the resonant frequency is active. As the oscillator amplifies the signals coming out of the crystal, the signals in the crystal's frequency band becomes stronger, eventually dominating the output of the oscillator. The narrow resonance band of the quartz crystal filters out all the unwanted frequencies.\n",
"Quartz crystal resonators are many orders of magnitude more stable than LC circuits and when used to control the frequency of the local oscillator offer adequate stability to keep a receiver in tune. However the resonant frequency of a crystal is determined by its dimensions and cannot be varied to tune the receiver to different frequencies. One solution is to employ many crystals, one for each frequency desired, and switch the correct one into the circuit. This \"brute force\" technique is practical when only a handful of frequencies are required, but quickly becomes costly and impractical in many applications. For example, the FM radio band in many countries supports 100 individual channel frequencies from about 88 MHz to 108 MHz; the ability to tune in each channel would require 100 crystals. Cable television can support even more frequencies or channels over a much wider band. A large number of crystals increases cost and requires greater space.\n",
"A crystal oscillator, particularly one using a quartz crystal, works by distorting the crystal with an electric field, when voltage is applied to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known as electrostriction or inverse piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz - which oscillates in a precise frequency - generates an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like an RLC circuit, but with a much higher Q.\n",
"A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses a piezoelectric resonator, a crystal, as its frequency-determining element. \"Crystal\" is the common term used in electronics for the frequency-determining component, a wafer of quartz crystal or ceramic with electrodes connected to it. A more accurate term for it is \"piezoelectric resonator\". Crystals are also used in other types of electronic circuits, such as crystal filters.\n",
"Several resonator configurations are possible, in addition to the classical way of directly attaching leads to the crystal. E.g. the BVA resonator (Boîtier à Vieillissement Amélioré, Enclosure with Improved Aging), developed in 1976; the parts that influence the vibrations are machined from a single crystal (which reduces the mounting stress), and the electrodes are deposited not on the resonator itself but on the inner sides of two condenser discs made of adjacent slices of the quartz from the same bar, forming a three-layer sandwich with no stress between the electrodes and the vibrating element. The gap between the electrodes and the resonator act as two small series capacitors, making the crystal less sensitive to circuit influences. The architecture eliminates the effects of the surface contacts between the electrodes, the constraints in the mounting connections, and the issues related to ion migration from the electrodes into the lattice of the vibrating element. The resulting configuration is rugged, resistant to shock and vibration, resistant to acceleration and ionizing radiation, and has improved aging characteristics. AT cut is usually used, though SC cut variants exist as well. BVA resonators are often used in spacecraft applications.\n",
"The crystal oscillator circuit sustains oscillation by taking a voltage signal from the quartz resonator, amplifying it, and feeding it back to the resonator. The rate of expansion and contraction of the quartz is the resonant frequency, and is determined by the cut and size of the crystal. When the energy of the generated output frequencies matches the losses in the circuit, an oscillation can be sustained.\n"
] |
What are the best examples of forgiveness and philanthropy and self-sacrifice from history?
|
Sorry, we don't allow ["example seeking" questions](_URL_1_). It's not that your question was bad; it's that these kinds of questions tend to produce threads that are collections of disjointed, partial, inadequate responses. If you have a question about a specific historical event, period, or person, feel free to rewrite your question and submit it again. If you don't want to rewrite it, you might try submitting it to /r/history, /r/askhistory, or /r/tellmeafact.
For further explanation of the rule, feel free to consult [this META thread](_URL_0_).
|
[
"Forgiveness as a tool has been extensively used in restorative justice programs, after the abolition of apartheid Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa), run for victims and perpetrators of Rwandan genocide, the violence in Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and Northern Ireland conflict, which has also been documented in film, \"\" (2012).\n",
"Beyond Right & Wrong: Stories of Justice and Forgiveness is a 2012 American documentary film about restorative justice and forgiveness. It is directed by Roger Spottiswoode and Lekha Singh and produced by Lekha Singh and Rebecca Chaiklin. The film depicts victims and perpetrators of the Rwandan Genocide, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and The Troubles in Northern Ireland.\n",
"The use of forgiveness as a tool has in the restorative justice programs, run for victims and perpetrators of Rwandan genocide, the violence in Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and Northern Ireland conflict, has also been documented in film, \"\" (2012). A tribal form of restorative justice is portrayed in the book \"Touching Spirit Bear\" by Ben Mikaelsen.\n",
"The Forgiveness Project is a UK-based charity that uses real stories of victims and perpetrators of crime and violence to help people explore ideas around forgiveness and alternatives to revenge. With no political or religious affiliations, The Forgiveness Project’s independent and inclusive approach ensures its core message – that everyone has the potential to change their perspective and break the cycle of vengeance – resonates across all cultures.\n",
"No altar of civic patriotism ever held a more loyal offering than that on which Dr. Theodore B. Sachs sacrificed himself in life and death to save Chicago's Municipal Tuberculosis Sanitarium from ruthless partisan spoilsmen. In truth, many altars and offerings seemed to unite in that one costly sacrifice. Such supreme devotion to a cause as the Jewish religious spirit can beget, such self-sacrifice as the Russian oppression of the Jew incites, such idealism as only the Orient inspires, such sensitivity as the heritage of suffering weaves into the very texture of the soul, such humanitarian achievements as are possible only in America—all combined to make the achieving life and the tragic death of Dr. Sachs profoundly impressive.\n",
"Humanity has often wept over the fate of the aborigines of this country and philanthropy has long been busily employed in devising means to avert it, but its progress has never for a moment been arrested, and one by one have many powerful tribes disappeared from the earth...But true philanthropy reconciles the mind to these vicissitudes as it does to the extinction of one generation to make room for another...In the monuments and fortresses of an unknown people, spread over the extensive regions of the West, we behold the memorials of a once powerful race, which was exterminated or has disappeared to make room for the existing savage tribes...Philanthropy could not wish to see this continent restored to the condition in which it was found by our forefathers. What good man would prefer a country covered with forests and ranged by a few thousand savages to our extensive Republic, studded with cities, towns, and prosperous farms, embellished with all the improvements which art can devise or industry execute, occupied by more than 12,000,000 happy people, and filled with all the blessings of liberty, civilization, and religion?\n",
"In the 1996 book \"Living High and Letting Die\", the philosopher Peter Unger wrote that it was morally praiseworthy and perhaps even morally required for people in academia who could earn substantially greater salaries in the business world to leave academia, earn the greater salaries, and donate most of the extra money to charity. Moral philosopher Peter Singer has laid the foundations for effective altruism and earning to give in his 1971 essay \"\"Famine, Affluence and Morality\"\" and since advocated for donating considerable amounts of one's income to effective charitable organizations. Singer is a public proponent of effective altruism and endorsed earning to give in his 2013 TED talk. Associate Professor in Philosophy at Oxford University William MacAskill promoted earning to give as one possible high impact career in several news articles and in his 2015 book \"Doing Good Better: Effective Altruism and a Radical New Way to Make a Difference\". MacAskill is the co-founder and president of 80,000 Hours, a nonprofit which conducts research on careers with positive social impact and provides career advice. The organization recommends earning to give as a career path with a high impact potential for effective altruists.\n"
] |
how does the 100 year old light bulb work?
|
It's actually nowhere near as exceptional as you think. A huge proportion of the wear on light bulb filaments is to to thermal expansion and contraction from being turned on/off (this is why bulbs only ever to fail when you first turn them on). These very old bulbs are bulbs that have been left on continuously, so they don't get that wear: they just sit there, at a steady temperature, not being stressed in any way, so they don't fail.
|
[
"The Centennial Light is the world's longest-lasting light bulb, burning since 1901, and almost never switched off. It is at 4550 East Avenue, Livermore, California, and maintained by the Livermore-Pleasanton Fire Department. Due to its longevity, the bulb has been noted by \"The Guinness Book of World Records\", \"Ripley's Believe It or Not!\", and General Electric.\n",
"The fourth-longest-lasting light bulb is located in a fire house in Mangum, Oklahoma. The bulb is not attached to any special electrical supply, and when the power goes off, so does the bulb. The firefighters in Mangum are willing to show people the bulb as long as they're not busy with something else. \n",
"The Centennial Light was originally a 30-watt (or 60-watt) bulb, but is now very dim, emitting about the same light as a 4-watt nightlight. The hand-blown, carbon-filament common light bulb was manufactured in Shelby, Ohio, by the Shelby Electric Company in the late 1890s; many just like it still exist and can be found functioning. According to Zylpha Bernal Beck, the bulb was donated to the Fire Department by her father, Dennis Bernal, in 1901. Bernal owned the Livermore Power and Water Company and donated the bulb to the fire station when he sold the company. That story has been supported by firefighter volunteers of that era.\n",
"In 1980 the light was converted to electricity. The current light source is a modern FA-251 Beacon with a 12 Volt 75 Watt HL-2000 quartz halogen lamp. It is fed by mains electricity with a Battery standby. It revolves once every 30 seconds.\n",
"The light was created by a burner fuelled by kerosene, which generated 20,000 candlepower and itself was dioptric occulting type. The light was \"eclipsed\" (darkened) every 17 seconds by lowering a metal cylinder around the burner for 3 seconds, thus giving rise to the term\n",
"Thomas Edison designed a bulb that was supposed to last forever, called the Eternal Light, and turned it on on October 22, 1929. The bulb is located in the Edison Memorial Tower at the Thomas Edison Center at Menlo Park, as small museum near the tower in Menlo Park, New Jersey. The tower fell down in 1937, but the bulb's power was supposedly uninterrupted, according to General Electric, and the bulb continued to burn while a second tower was constructed. However, according to museum curator Jack Stanley, the bulb is fake, consisting of a hollow bulb illuminated by a series of automobile headlights mounted in the display's base.\n",
"LPFD Station 6 maintains the Centennial Light, the world's longest-lasting light bulb, Located at 4550 East Avenue in Livermore. The department says that the bulb is at least 117 years old and has been turned off only a handful of times. Due to its longevity, the bulb has been noted by \"The Guinness Book of World Records\", \"Ripley's Believe It or Not!\", and General Electric.\n"
] |
Why aren't you still contagious after you recover from a viral infection?
|
It is absolutely not true that viruses remain in your body forever. There are a small subset of viruses that do that, but the vast, vast majority of viruses are completely eliminated from your body by the immune system.
|
[
"A latent infection may become productive in response to changes in the host's environmental conditions or health; the provirus may be activated and begin transcription of its viral genome. This can result in the destruction of its host cell because the cell's protein synthesis machinery is hijacked to produce more viruses.\n",
"Once infected, there is no cure. Antiviral medications, such as acyclovir, valacyclovir, may prevent outbreaks or shorten outbreaks if they occur. The long term use of antivirals may also decrease the risk of further spread. The longer a person has the virus, the less outbreak they experience and the harder it will be to transmit to others, due to these specialty antigens and a strengthened immune system response.\n",
"While viral latency exhibits no active viral shedding nor causes any pathologies or symptoms, the virus is still able to reactivate via external activators (i.e. sunlight, stress) to cause an acute infection. In the case of herpes simplex virus, which generally infects an individual for life, a serotype of the virus reactivates occasionally to cause cold sores. Although the sores are quickly resolved by the immune system, they may be a minor annoyance from time to time. In the case of varicella zoster virus, after an initial acute infection (chickenpox) the virus lies dormant until reactivated as herpes zoster.\n",
"Gastroenteritis caused by viruses may last one to two days. Most people recover easily from a short episode of vomiting and diarrhea by drinking clear fluids to replace the fluid that was lost and then gradually progressing to a normal diet. But for others, especially infants and the elderly, the loss of bodily fluid with gastroenteritis can cause dehydration, which can be a life-threatening illness unless it is treated and fluids in the body are replaced.\n",
"Often, people have regular outbreaks of anywhere from 1 to 10 times per year, but stress (because the virus lies next to the nerve cells), or a weakened immune system due to a temporary or permanent illness can also spark outbreaks. Some people become infected but fail to ever have a single outbreak, although they remain carriers of the virus and can pass the disease on to an uninfected person through asymptomatic shedding (when the virus is active on the skin but rashes or blisters do not appear).\n",
"Viral infections can cause disease in humans, animals and even plants. However, they are usually eliminated by the immune system, conferring lifetime immunity to the host for that virus. Antibiotics have no effect on viruses, but antiviral drugs have been developed to treat life-threatening infections. Vaccines that produce lifelong immunity can prevent some viral infections.\n",
"Because watery nasal discharge containing live virus usually precedes both exanthem (external rash) and enanthem (oral ulcers) by 1 to 2 days, the infected person actually becomes contagious one to two days before recognition of the disease. Contagiousness persists until all vesicular lesions have become dry crusts (scabs), which usually entails four or five days, by which time nasal shedding of live virus ceases. The condition usually resolves by itself within a couple of weeks. The rash may, however, last for up to one month.\n"
] |
Are there any magnets available commercially that will adhere to aluminum?
|
Magnetic effects generally arise from the interactions of unpaired electrons. Typically, magnetic materials (such as iron) are ferromagnets, which means that the the unpaired electrons the d-orbitals can spin-align under certain conditions. Aluminum only has s and p orbitals, and therefore no d electrons are available for spin alignment. Therefore, aluminum exhibits no intrinsic ferromagnetism.
However, there are other means by which aluminum may magnetically interact. For instance, if one passes a current through an aluminum object, it will give off a weak magnetic field (Lenz's law), which will cause the aluminum to interact with a magnet. Other effects related to Lenz's law and electromagnetic flux may also cause aluminum to weakly interact with magnets (_URL_0_). So, in principle, one could apply a current to a piece of aluminum, and achieve a magnetic interaction with any commercially available magnet.
|
[
"The most suitable materials for magnet wire applications are unalloyed pure metals, particularly copper. When factors such as chemical, physical, and mechanical property requirements are considered, copper is considered the first choice conductor for magnet wire.\n",
"Ceramic, or ferrite, magnets are made of a sintered composite of powdered iron oxide and barium/strontium carbonate ceramic. Given the low cost of the materials and manufacturing methods, inexpensive magnets (or non-magnetized ferromagnetic cores, for use in electronic components such as portable AM radio antennas) of various shapes can be easily mass-produced. The resulting magnets are non-corroding but brittle and must be treated like other ceramics.\n",
"Specific materials include purely organic magnets made of organic radicals for example p-nitrophenyl nitronyl nitroxides, decamethylferrocenium tetracyanoethenide, mixed coordination compounds with bridging organic radicals, Prussian blue related compounds, and charge-transfer complexes.\n",
"BULLET::::- Magnets can be used in scrap and salvage operations to separate magnetic metals (iron, cobalt, and nickel) from non-magnetic metals (aluminum, non-ferrous alloys, etc.). The same idea can be used in the so-called \"magnet test\", in which an auto body is inspected with a magnet to detect areas repaired using fiberglass or plastic putty.\n",
"Alnico magnets are made by casting or sintering a combination of aluminium, nickel and cobalt with iron and small amounts of other elements added to enhance the properties of the magnet. Sintering offers superior mechanical characteristics, whereas casting delivers higher magnetic fields and allows for the design of intricate shapes. Alnico magnets resist corrosion and have physical properties more forgiving than ferrite, but not quite as desirable as a metal. Trade names for alloys in this family include: \"Alni, Alcomax, Hycomax, Columax\", and \"Ticonal\".\n",
"Plastic magnets could have uses in computer hardware, for example as disc drives and in medical devices such as pacemakers and cochlear implants where the organic material is more likely to be biocompatible than its metallic counterpart.\n",
"Non-polar (siliceous) zeolites are synthesized from aluminum-free silica sources or by dealumination of aluminum-containing zeolites. The dealumination process is done by treating the zeolite with steam at elevated temperatures, typically greater than . This high temperature heat treatment breaks the aluminum-oxygen bonds and the aluminum atom is expelled from the zeolite framework.\n"
] |
how does a fast charging plug charge faster when the socket has the same output when there's a regular plug?
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The "fast charge" socket **does not** have the same output.
The voltage is the same, but the current available at that voltage is higher. This must be taken into account when choosing cables and connectors.
|
[
"Note that the less resistance there is between the capacitor and the charging power supply, the faster it will charge. Thus, in this design, those closer to the power supply will charge quicker than those farther away. If the generator is allowed to charge long enough, all capacitors will attain the same voltage.\n",
"Where devices (for example, high-speed disk drives) require more power than a high-power device can draw, they function erratically, if at all, from bus power of a single port. USB provides for these devices as being self-powered. However, such devices may come with a Y-shaped cable that has two USB plugs (one for power and data, the other for only power), so as to draw power as two devices. Such a cable is non-standard, with the USB compliance specification stating that \"use of a 'Y' cable (a cable with two A-plugs) is prohibited on any USB peripheral\", meaning that \"if a USB peripheral requires more power than allowed by the USB specification to which it is designed, then it must be self-powered.\"\n",
"When a device detects it is plugged into a charger with a compatible faster-charging standard, the device pulls more current or the device tells the charger to increase the voltage or both to increase power (the details vary between standards).\n",
"The plug-in hybrid comes equipped with two charging sockets, regular and quick charging CHAdeMO. When charging at home the driver can choose between a standard 3-pin plug socket or via a dedicated EV charging point. The vehicle comes with a charging cable for connection to a standard plug socket. From a standard plug, charging from empty to full charge takes about five hours. From a dedicated charging point at home or at a public charging point, it takes about 3.5 hours for a full charge. The DC rapid charging socket can be used at CHAdeMO charging stations. Rapid charging allows for an 80% charge in approximately 25 minutes.\n",
"There are two different levels of charging. Level one charging is the slower method as it uses a 120 V/15 A single-phase grounded outlet. Level two is a faster method; existing Level 2 equipment offers charging from 208 V or 240 V (at up to 80 A, 19.2 kW). It may require dedicated equipment and a connection installation for home or public units, although vehicles such as the Tesla have the power electronics on board and need only the outlet. The optimum charging window for Lithium ion batteries is 3-4.2 V. Recharging with a 120 volt household outlet takes several hours, a 240 volt charger takes 1–4 hours, and a quick charge takes approximately 30 minutes to achieve 80% charge. Three important factors—distance on charge, cost of charging, and time to charge \n",
"Since these currents are larger than in the original standard, the extra voltage drop in the cable reduces noise margins, causing problems with High Speed signaling. Battery Charging Specification 1.1 specifies that charging devices must dynamically limit bus power current draw during High Speed signaling; 1.2 specifies that charging devices and ports must be designed to tolerate the higher ground voltage difference in High Speed signaling.\n",
"Because the power is applied through the chain and sprocket, power is typically limited to around 250–500 watts to protect against fast wear on the drivetrain. An electric mid-drive combined with an internal gear hub at the back hub may require care due to the lack of a clutch mechanism to soften the shock to the gears at the moment of re-engagement. A continuously variable transmission or a fully automatic internal gear hub may reduce the shocks due to the viscosity of oils used for liquid coupling instead of the mechanical couplings of the conventional internal gear hubs.\n"
] |
Generating electricity and rotating magnets
|
You could, but it wouldn't be beneficial. Any energy being used to cause rotation of the smaller magnets is not going in to generating electricity. You could be better off using your super magnet to generate electricity directly.
|
[
"Electric generators transform kinetic energy into electricity. This is the most used form for generating electricity and is based on Faraday's law. It can be seen experimentally by rotating a magnet within closed loops of conducting material (e.g. copper wire). Almost all commercial electrical generation is done using electromagnetic induction, in which mechanical energy forces a generator to rotate:\n",
"An electric generator or electric motor consists of a rotor spinning in a magnetic field. The magnetic field may be produced by permanent magnets or by field coils. In the case of a machine with field coils, a current must flow in the coils to generate the field, otherwise no power is transferred to or from the rotor. The process of generating a magnetic field by means of an electric current is called excitation. Field coils yield the most flexible form of magnetic flux regulation and de-regulation, but at the expense of a flow of electric current. Hybrid topologies exist, which incorporate both permanent magnets and field coils in the same configuration. The flexible excitation of a rotating electrical machine is employed by either brushless excitation techniques or by the injection of current by carbon brushes (static excitation).\n",
"The electric dynamo uses rotating coils of wire and magnetic fields to convert mechanical rotation into a pulsing direct electric current through Faraday's law of induction. A dynamo machine consists of a stationary structure, called the stator, which provides a constant magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings called the armature which turn within that field. Due to Faraday's law of induction the motion of the wire within the magnetic field creates an electromotive force which pushes on the electrons in the metal, creating an electric current in the wire. On small machines the constant magnetic field may be provided by one or more permanent magnets; larger machines have the constant magnetic field provided by one or more electromagnets, which are usually called \"field coils\".\n",
"Rotating magnetic fields are often utilized for electromechanical applications such as induction motors and electric generators. However, they are also used in purely electrical applications such as induction regulators.\n",
"Electric machines such as motors and generators have one or more windings which interact with moving magnetic fields to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. Often a machine will have one winding through which passes most of the power of the machine (the \"armature\"), and a second winding which provides the magnetic field of the rotating element ( the \"field winding\") which may be connected by brushes or slip rings to an external source of electric current. In an induction motor, the \"field\" winding of the rotor is energized by the slow relative motion between the rotating winding and the rotating magnetic field produced by the stator winding, which induces the necessary exciting current in the rotor.\n",
"BULLET::::- Field winding or field (permanent) magnets: The magnetic field producing component of an electrical machine. The magnetic field of the dynamo or alternator can be provided by either wire windings called field coils or permanent magnets. Electrically-excited generators include an excitation system to produce the field flux. A generator using permanent magnets (PMs) is sometimes called a magneto, or permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSMs).\n",
"The development of modern rare earth magnets makes the simple magneto alternator a more practical proposition as a power generator, as these permit a greatly increased field strength. As the magnets are compact and of light weight, they generally form the rotor, so the output windings can be placed on the stator, avoiding the need for brushgear.\n"
] |
In John Milton's Paradise Lost, Satan is sometimes read as the protagonist. While Milton obviously didn't intend this, did any of his contemporaries believe this?
|
[Yes.](_URL_0_)
As the source describes, Milton was a republican in the historical sense. It was during his lifetime that Oliver Cromwell, still a divisive figure in English history, rose to power after overthrowing Charles I. Milton supported this. Charles I was deposed, but after returning and making war throughout the 1640s, the English ultimately executed him in 1649. Following this, Cromwell is given the title of Lord Protector of the realm, although after his death, the monarchy is restored bloodlessly. Although Richard Cromwell was selected to succeed, he did not command the requisite respect and was booted out of office within a year, leading to the restoration of Charles II to the throne.
Fast forwarding to 1667, after Milton (unpopular for his Republican views, at this point blind, which was considered by some to be divine punishment for his support of regicide, or the killing of the king.)
> England in 1667 was reeling from the events of the previous year, when plague and fire had swept the capital, causing a devastation many people thought was divinely inspired; a biblical epic from a blind, grim old controversialist was by no means certain of being sympathetically received, as the poet's wish that his poem might 'fit audience find, though few' (VII.31) perhaps recognises. In spite of this unwelcoming climate, when Paradise Lost appeared, it was hailed as a work of genius, even by Milton's political opponents.
One of the first adaptations of the poem is John Dryden's play, which "outsold the original until the end of the seventeenth century."
> Satan, who disdains servitude and tries to overturn his monarch, becomes in Dryden's rewriting an unmistakeable portrait of Oliver Cromwell, the king-killer. He also believed that the fallen angel, and not Adam, was the hero (in the sense of his structural position as the protagonist of the epic), and weighted his adaptation accordingly... Contemporary readers who thought there was a whiff of sulphur about the unrepentant republican poet were not surprised to find these sentiments in the mouth of the arch-fiend; and there were those who believed that Milton was in fact disowning his previous stance by associating it with Satan. Neither reading does justice to the complexity of Paradise Lost, but this does identify what was to become a recurrent theme in later responses to the poem: the contested interpretation of Satan, its eloquent anti-hero.
The most prominent later commenter on Milton who views Satan as the protagonist, William Blake, remarks that, "The reason Milton wrote in fetters when he wrote of Angels and God, and at liberty when of Devils and Hell, is because he was a true Poet and of the Devil's party without knowing it."
Essentially, opinions are divided: as the linked source would indicate, many at the time may have viewed Milton's poem as autobiographical in a sense, or as they say, that Milton was "disowning his previous stance by associating it with Satan." Those who favored Cromwell were likely to favor it; even those who didn't agree with Milton like his political opponents "hailed [it] as a work of genius." The role of Satan, then as now, was open to interpretation and disputation.
Source:
Peter Gaunt, *Oliver Cromwell*
|
[
"John Milton's epic poem \"Paradise Lost\" features Satan as its main protagonist. Milton portrays Satan as a tragic antihero destroyed by his own hubris. The poem, which draws extensive inspiration from Greek tragedy, recreates Satan as a complex literary character, who dares to rebel against the \"tyranny\" of God, in spite of God's own omnipotence. The English poet and painter William Blake famously quipped that \"The reason Milton wrote in fetters when he wrote of Angels & God, and at liberty when of Devils & Hell, is because he was a true poet and of the Devils party without knowing it.\" \"Paradise Regained\", the sequel to \"Paradise Lost\", is a retelling of Satan's temptation of Jesus in the desert.\n",
"In other words, while Milton's Satan embodies a spirit of rebellion, and, as Maud Bodkin claims, \"The theme of his heroic struggle and endurance against hopeless odds wakens in poet and reader a sense of his own state as against the odds of his destiny\", his character is flawed because his aims are not humanistic. Satan is like Prometheus in his struggle against the universe, but Satan loses his heroic aspect after being turned into a serpent who desires only revenge and becomes an enemy to mankind. But Bodkin, unlike Shelley, believes that humans would view Prometheus and Satan together in a negative way:\n",
"Until John Milton created the character of Satan for his \"Paradise Lost\", the different attributes of Satan were usually ascribed to different entities. The angel who rebelled in Heaven was not the same as the ruler in Hell. The ruler of Hell was often seen as a sort of jailer who never fell from grace. The tempting serpent of Genesis was just a serpent. Milton combined the different parts of the character to show his fall from near-divine beauty and grace to his eventual skulking role as a jealous tempter. He was so successful in his characterization of Satan as a romantic hero who \"would rather rule in Hell than serve in Heaven\" that his version of Satan has displaced all others.\n",
"Milton's story has two narrative arcs, one about Satan (Lucifer) and the other following Adam and Eve. It begins after Satan and the other rebel angels have been defeated and banished to Hell, or, as it is also called in the poem, Tartarus. In Pandæmonium, the capital city of Hell, Satan employs his rhetorical skill to organize his followers; he is aided by Mammon and Beelzebub. Belial and Moloch are also present. At the end of the debate, Satan volunteers to corrupt the newly created Earth and God's new and most favoured creation, Mankind. He braves the dangers of the Abyss alone in a manner reminiscent of Odysseus or Aeneas. After an arduous traversal of the Chaos outside Hell, he enters God's new material World, and later the Garden of Eden.\n",
"John Milton (Nicolas Cage) is an undead criminal who has escaped Hell and stolen Satan's gun, labeled the Godkiller, to kill Jonah King (Billy Burke). King is a cult leader who tricked Milton's daughter into joining his followers in the wake of Milton's death ten years prior, only to kill her and her husband and steal their infant daughter (Milton's granddaughter) to be sacrificed in a Satanist ritual; King believes that if he kills the baby, that will unleash Hell over Earth.\n",
"The play is invariably compared to John Milton's \"Paradise Lost\", as the two deal with the same subject matter—the creation and fall of Man, and the devil's role in it. As in \"Paradise Lost\", some critics maintain that the true protagonist of the \"Tragedy\" is Lucifer himself, being more active than Adam and God combined. Milton offers a more well-rounded Lucifer, however; he is motivated chiefly by a desire for power, and all his actions stem from that, rather than from any specifically malicious drive. Madách's version is significantly more one-sidedly villainous, seeking to destroy mankind simply to prove God's creation experiment a failure. This spite, combined with his charisma in dealing with Adam and Eve, make him a decidedly sinister character, more so than Milton's.\n",
"Milton is perhaps best known for his epic \"Paradise Lost\", one of the few Pastoral epics ever written. A notable part of Paradise Lost is book IV where he chronicles Satan's trespass into paradise. Milton's iconic descriptions of the garden are shadowed by the fact that we see it from Satan's perspective and are thus led to commiserate with him. Milton elegantly works through a presentation of Adam and Eve’s pastorally idyllic, eternally fertile living conditions and focuses upon their stewardship of the garden. He gives much focus to the fruit bearing trees and Adam and Eve's care of them, sculpting an image of pastoral harmony. However, Milton in turn continually comes back to Satan, constructing him as a character the audience can easily identify with and perhaps even like. Milton creates Satan as character meant to destabilize the audience’s understanding of themselves and the world around them. Through this mode, Milton is able to create a working dialogue between the text and his audience about the ‘truths’ they hold for themselves.\n"
] |
after their extinction, why did dinosaur type creatures not evolve all over again?
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The ecological niches formerly occupied by dinosaurs were taken over by the creatures that survived the mass extinction. So now instead of big dinosaur carnivores like t-rex, we have big mammalian carnivores like lions, tigers, polar bears, killer whales, and fish like great white and bull sharks.
If all mammals became extinct tomorrow, but amphibians survived, hundreds of millions of years from now there would probably be big amphibian carnivores and big herbivores.
|
[
"After yet another, the most severe extinction of the period (251~250 Ma), around 230 Ma, dinosaurs split off from their reptilian ancestors. The Triassic–Jurassic extinction event at 200 Ma spared many of the dinosaurs, and they soon became dominant among the vertebrates. Though some mammalian lines began to separate during this period, existing mammals were probably small animals resembling shrews.\n",
"Though the end-Triassic extinction event was not equally devastating in all terrestrial ecosystems, several important clades of crurotarsans (large archosaurian reptiles previously grouped together as the thecodonts) disappeared, as did most of the large labyrinthodont amphibians, groups of small reptiles, and some synapsids (except for the proto-mammals). Some of the early, primitive dinosaurs also became extinct, but more adaptive ones survived to evolve into the Jurassic. Surviving plants that went on to dominate the Mesozoic world included modern conifers and cycadeoids.\n",
"BULLET::::- Not all dinosaurs became extinct during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. Birds evolved from small feathered theropods in the Jurassic, and while most dinosaur lineages were cut short at the end of the Cretaceous, some birds survived. Consequently, dinosaurs are part of the modern fauna.\n",
"After the publication of the paper, many news organizations misrepresented the findings by stating that dinosaurs seemed to have stopped evolving during the end of their reign. This may reflect cultural bias (bio-bigotry to the advantage of mammals, i.e. humans) because the actual journal article states right in the abstract that \"dinosaurs did not experience a progressive decline at the end of the Cretaceous, nor was their evolution driven directly by the KTR.\"\n",
"The groups that survived suffered extremely heavy losses of species, and some terrestrial vertebrate groups very nearly became extinct at the end-Permian. Some of the surviving groups did not persist for long past this period, while others that barely survived went on to produce diverse and long-lasting lineages. Yet it took 30million years for the terrestrial vertebrate fauna to fully recover both numerically and ecologically.\n",
"In the \"Origin of Species\", which was published in 1859, Charles Darwin wrote that the \"extinction of old forms is the almost inevitable consequence of the production of new forms.\" One notable exception to this rule is how the extinction of the dinosaurs facilitated the adaptive radiation of mammals. In this case creation was the consequence, rather than the cause, of destruction. \n",
"After the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event wiped out the non-avian dinosaurs (birds being the only surviving dinosaurs) and several mammalian groups, placental and marsupial mammals diversified into many new forms and ecological niches throughout the Paleogene and Neogene, by the end of which all modern orders had appeared.\n"
] |
I know of absolute zero at -273.15°C, but is there an absolute hot?
|
We don't know if there's a maximum temperature.
In certain models -- string theory is one of them -- there is a maximum temperature called the *Hagedorn temperature*. This arises because the number of possible high energy states increases sufficiently fast that as you put more energy into the system, it gets spread out over more and more states in such a way that the temperature decreases less and less for a given amount of heat put in. Net result is that there's a temperature that is the upper limit of the temperatures that can be reached.
I'll add that even in string theory, some people think the Hagedorn temperature might not be an actual limit, but more an indication that there is a phase transition (like when a liquid turns to gas), but that's even more speculative.
|
[
"BULLET::::- In January 2013, physicist Ulrich Schneider of the University of Munich in Germany reported to have achieved temperatures formally below absolute zero (\"negative temperature\") in gases. The gas is artificially forced out of equilibrium into a high potential energy state, which is however cold. When it then emits radiation it approaches the equilibrium, and can continue emitting despite reaching formal absolute zero; thus, the temperature is formally negative.\n",
"BULLET::::- Absolute zero – is the lower limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum value, taken as 0. Absolute zero is the point at which the fundamental particles of nature have minimal vibrational motion, retaining only quantum mechanical, zero-point energy-induced particle motion. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas law; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as −273.15° on the Celsius scale (International System of Units), which equals −459.67° on the Fahrenheit scale (United States customary units or Imperial units). The corresponding Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set their zero points at absolute zero by definition.\n",
"Absolute zero is the lowest limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum value, taken as 0. The fundamental particles of nature have minimum vibrational motion, retaining only quantum mechanical, zero-point energy-induced particle motion. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas law; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as −273.15° on the Celsius scale (International System of Units), which equals −459.67° on the Fahrenheit scale (United States customary units or Imperial units). The corresponding Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set their zero points at absolute zero by definition.\n",
"Absolute zero is −273.15 °C or −459.67 °F. The \"Rankine\" temperature scale uses degree intervals of the same size as those of the Fahrenheit scale, except that absolute zero is 0 °R — the same way that the \"Kelvin\" temperature scale matches the Celsius scale, except that absolute zero is 0 K.\n",
"This relationship gives us our first hint that there is an absolute zero on the temperature scale, because it only holds if the temperature is measured on an absolute scale such as Kelvin's. The ideal gas law allows one to measure temperature on this absolute scale using the gas thermometer. The temperature in kelvins can be defined as the pressure in pascals of one mole of gas in a container of one cubic meter, divided by the gas constant.\n",
"Absolute temperatures are stated in units of kelvin in his honour. While the existence of a lower limit to temperature (absolute zero) was known prior to his work, Lord Kelvin is known for determining its correct value as approximately −273.15 degree Celsius or −459.67 degree Fahrenheit.\n",
"Values of this order for the absolute zero were not, however, universally accepted about this period. Pierre-Simon Laplace and Antoine Lavoisier, in their 1780 treatise on heat, arrived at values ranging from 1,500 to 3,000 below the freezing-point of water, and thought that in any case it must be at least 600 below. John Dalton in his \"Chemical Philosophy\" gave ten calculations of this value, and finally adopted −3000 °C as the natural zero of temperature.\n"
] |
programming and writing computer code (if it can be explained to a 5 year old) elim
|
If you have a lot of time, I think a wonderful and engaging introduction is Harvard's [CS50](_URL_0_) course, and it leads you step-by-step through many of the questions you have.
|
[
"BULLET::::- May 1 – At 4:00 a.m., John George Kemeny and Thomas Eugene Kurtz run the first computer program written in BASIC (Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), an easy to learn high level programming language which they have created. BASIC is eventually included on many computers and even some games consoles.\n",
"Machine code is the only language a computer can process directly without a previous transformation. Currently, programmers almost never write programs directly in machine code, because it requires attention to numerous details that a high-level language handles automatically. Furthermore it requires memorizing or looking up numerical codes for every instruction, and is extremely difficult to modify.\n",
"Mildred Koss, an early UNIVAC programmer, explains: \"Writing machine code involved several tedious steps—breaking down a process into discrete instructions, assigning specific memory locations to all the commands, and managing the I/O buffers. After following these steps to implement mathematical routines, a sub-routine library, and sorting programs, our task was to look at the larger programming process. We needed to understand how we might reuse tested code and have the machine help in programming. As we programmed, we examined the process and tried to think of ways to abstract these steps to incorporate them into higher-level language. This led to the development of interpreters, assemblers, compilers, and generators—programs designed to operate on or produce other programs, that is, \"automatic programming\".\"\n",
"John Mauchly's Short Code, proposed in 1949, was one of the first high-level languages ever developed for an electronic computer. Unlike machine code, Short Code statements represented mathematical expressions in understandable form. However, the program had to be translated into machine code every time it ran, making the process much slower than running the equivalent machine code.\n",
"The first functioning programming languages designed to communicate instructions to a computer were written in the early 1950s. John Mauchly's Short Code, proposed in 1949, was one of the first high-level languages ever developed for an electronic computer. Unlike machine code, Short Code statements represented mathematical expressions in understandable form. However, the program had to be translated into machine code every time it ran, making the process much slower than running the equivalent machine code.\n",
"Inexperienced programmers who copy code often do not fully understand the pre-written code they are taking. As such, the problem arises more from their inexperience and lack of courage in programming than from the act of copying and pasting, per se. The code often comes from disparate sources such as friends' or co-workers' code, Internet forums, code provided by the student's professors/TAs, or computer science textbooks. The result risks being a disjointed clash of styles, and may have superfluous code that tackles problems for which new solutions are no longer required.\n",
"Programmers' work varies widely depending on the type of business for which they are writing programs. For example, the instructions involved in updating financial records are very different from those required to duplicate conditions on an aircraft for pilots training in a flight simulator. Simple programs can be written in a few hours, more complex ones may require more than a year of work, while others are never considered 'complete' but rather are continuously improved as long as they stay in use. In most cases, several programmers work together as a team under a senior programmer’s supervision.\n"
] |
how can google get fined by eu for practically promoting their own products/brand(google search engine & android/google search engine on android devices)
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How can they? The EU can impose a fine and refuse to let them operate in the EU until it is paid.
Why would they? Because it can be considered a breach in monopoly laws. Microsoft was indicted on the grounds of monopolization for bundling internet explorer with their OS.
I may be a bit out of the loop but are you asking about what rule they might break or what rule they did break?
|
[
"On 19 July 2018, EU has fined Google (about ). Google responded it would appeal the fine, which it did in October 2018. According to company spokesperson Al Verney \"Android has created more choice for everyone, not less\". To date, this fine is the biggest ever imposed by European Union on a company for anti-competitive behaviour. European Union Competition Commissioner Margrethe Vestager, who was part of the decision against Google, stated that only after the EU found against Google in the search anti-trust case in 2017 did Google attempt to settle on the issues of the Android anti-trust issues, which was far too late after the EU filed the initial charges against Google. In October 2018 Google revamped how it would distribute its Google Play Store with Android in the future: Charging a licensing fee for the store, without requiring installation of Google apps, but making it free to pre-install the Google apps if they want. Furthermore Google's hardware partners will be allowed to marked in devices in the EU that run rival versions of Android or other operating systems. In March 2019 Google announced that it will give European users of Android phones an option of which browser and search engine they want on their phone at the time of purchase to further comply with the EU's decision.\n",
"On July 18, 2018, the European Commission fined Google €4.34 billion for breaching EU antitrust rules. The abuse of dominant position has been referred to Google's constraint applied on Android device manufacturers and network operators to ensure that traffic on Android devices goes to the Google search engine. On October 9, 2018, Google confirmed that it had appealed the fine to the General Court of the European Union.\n",
"Since 2010, the European Union has launched three separate antitrust investigations into Google for violating the EU's competition laws due to its dominant position in the market. These cases have resulted in formal charges against Google related to Google Shopping, Google AdSense and the Android operating system. To date, Google has been found guilty of antitrust behavior in the cases related to Google Shopping and Android, and has been fined over .\n",
"On March 20, 2019, the European Commission imposed a €1.49 billion ($1.69 billion) fine on Google for preventing rivals from being able to “compete and innovate fairly” in the online advertising market. European Union competition commissioner Margrethe Vestager said Google had violated EU antitrust rules by “imposing anti-competitive contractual restrictions on third-party websites” that required them to exclude search results from Google’s rivals. Kent Walker, Google’s senior vice-president of global affairs, said the company had “already made a wide range of changes to our products to address the Commission’s concerns,” and that \"we'll be making further updates to give more visibility to rivals in Europe.\"\n",
"On April 20, 2016, the European Union filed a formal antitrust complaint against Google's leverage over Android vendors, alleging that the mandatory bundling of the entire suite of proprietary Google software, hindered the ability for competing search providers to be integrated into Android and that barring vendors from producing devices running forks of Android both constituted anti-competitive practices. In June 2018, the European Commission determined a $5 billion fine for Google regarding the April 2016 complaints.\n",
"On June 27, 2017, the European Commissioner for Competition, Margrethe Vestager, decided to fine Google €2.4 billion for breaching EU antitrust rules. Google was found to have abused its market dominance as a search engine by giving illegal advantages to another Google product, its own comparison shopping service.\n",
"A third-party Android app store Aptoide also filed a EU competion complaint against Google once again stating that they are misusing its power within the market. Aptoide alleged that Google was blocking third-party app stores from being on Google Play, as well as blocking Google Chrome from downloading any third-party apps and app stores. As of June 2014, Google had not responded to these allegations.\n"
] |
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