Split (1)

train · 2.03M rows

text stringlengths 255 17.6k
Khan Exponent Rules Lesson 8 of 17 Objective: SWBAT to work proficiently with the basic laws of exponents. This assessment can be done at home or in class. I ask students to finish at least 5 problems in a row correctly, because the Laws of Exponents are so fundamental. Some of the exercises feel disconnected and jump radically (pun intended) up in difficulty, but students can handle these problems once they have had some practice with the laws of exponents. I have students start with my introductory video. As they watch it, I circulate to see how they are doing with the laws of exponents. Source: http://youtu.be/UNuMGZImGQ4 (accessed August 12 2014) This activity can be incredibly helpful if students slow down and take the time needed to think about what they are doing and why it makes sense. Instructional Note: Khan Academy is constantly changing its layout and its scoring system, but for this activity I would ask students to log in (optional) and work until their achieve mastery. This is a topic you need to discuss with students. "Mastery" in Khan Academy might mean something like getting 20 correct, but I want students to complete about 10 questions and only continue if they think they need more practice. I have had many students complain about Khan Academy. They get frustrated, because if they make a single mistake they need to basically start from the beginning. They find this discouraging. They kept working and working even when they understood the topic. They spent hours trying to get "mastery" and would give up if they hit the wrong button or number. Instead, they need to stop and reflect. They need to think, "do I need more practice?" There are currently 12 exponent exercise sets on Khan Academy and this is one of the most fundamental in terms of fluency. This is one that I encourage students to even try and get 10 in a row (as opposed to 5 or less on other modules). The key to this assessment is to make sure students write out the steps involved with the laws of exponents. For example, if they are subtracting exponents, they might show the terms canceling or explain which laws of exponents help them solve the problem. I like to review the laws of exponents on the board so that students can reference the law in their notes. They might write, "This example is a clear example of how we can add exponents when we are multiplying two or more numbers with the same base, where x^a * x^b = x^(a+b). The structure of the site is overwhelming to many students. To simplify the process, I have them log in to Khan Academy and then open a second tab and go straight to this link: They could also go to the exercise dashboard and type in "exponent rules." The key is to ask students a follow up question. The guidelines are as follows: - Finish the module until you reach "mastery." We encourage you at least 10 problems in a row. - As you work, write the questions and answers in your notebook. - When you are finished, annotate your notes and explain some general observations you made as you worked. Identify the laws you used to solve each problem. - Create solve and explain a challenge problem that would fit nicely in each module. - What is (a^2 * b^15)^3? Explain how you know. - Does (x+y)^a = (xy)^a? I usually ask for parts 5 and 6 in email and ask for very detailed explanations. Since all students have set me up as a coach I can easily monitor their progress after class. I circulate during class and help students by asking them reflective questions, like "when you move the decimal, what are you doing to the number?" I collect the notes from at least 1 student who has mastered the topic and 1 who is struggling. I finish this assessment by reviewing questions with the class. I log into Khan Academy and project for the whole class to see. I popcorn around the room and ask students to solve and explain. For each question I get at least 2 algorithms, since students love to hear other strategies. I have noticed that many students use one strategy throughout all the problems and are usually so tired of it by the end that they crave a more efficient strategy. I wait until the end to share all strategies because I believe that process of struggling helps them process the importance of a more efficient strategy. If we just shared at the start, I think many students would blindly plug in the more efficient strategy without understanding why or how it is efficient.
by William L. Anderson and Ruth Y. Wetmore, 2006. Additional research provided by John L. Bell. Part i: Overview; Part ii: Cherokee origins and first European contact; Part iii: Disease, destruction, and the loss of Cherokee land; Part iv: Revolutionary War, Cherokee defeat and additional land cessions; Part v: Trail of Tears and the creation of the Eastern Band of Cherokees; Part vi: Federal recognition and the fight for Cherokee rights; Part vii: Modern-day Cherokee life and culture; Part viii: References and additional resources Part iv: The Revolutionary War, Cherokee Defeat, and Additional Land Cessions When the Revolutionary War erupted in 1775, John Stuart, British superintendent of the South, planned to use Indian tribes in conjunction with English troops against the colonists. White encroachers at the Tennessee-North Carolina border along the Watauga, Nolichucky, and Holston Rivers, as well as a delegation of Shawnee and other northern Indians urging the Cherokee to fight against the Americans, inspired their decision to aid the British. The Upper Cherokee planned a three-pronged attack on the intruders along the North Carolina and Virginia frontiers. The Cherokee Middle Towns were to attack North Carolina, while the Lower Towns were to attack South Carolina and Georgia. The Lower and Middle settlements met with limited success. In reaction to these attacks, Gen. Charles Lee, commander of the southern Continental forces, urged a joint punitive expedition, known as the Cherokee Campaign of 1776. Under Col. Andrew Williamson, South Carolina troops moved against the Lower Towns and then traveled northwest to join the North Carolina forces under Gen. Griffith Rutherford in devastating the Middle and Valley Towns. Virginia troops under Col. William Christian crushed the Overhill Towns in present-day Tennessee. More than 50 Cherokee towns were destroyed in the summer of 1776, and the survivors were left without food or shelter. These attacks devastated the Cherokee people, who sued for peace, giving up huge parcels of land in the process. The treaties signed after the Cherokee Campaign of 1776 marked the first forced land cessions by the Cherokee, and for the first time the land ceded was not unsettled hunting grounds but the sites of some of the tribe's oldest towns, in which the Cherokee people had lived for centuries. The Cherokee Campaign of 1776 also caused a schism between the old chiefs and young warriors. Many of the latter withdrew to Tennessee and northern Alabama, where they became known as the Chickamauga Cherokee and continued to fight white Americans until 1794. While the American Revolution brought independence to white North Carolinians, the region's Indians, including the Cherokee, were a conquered people. Nevertheless, the Cherokee managed to maintain a semblance of political independence and cultural integrity despite military defeat. With the Treaty of Holston (1791), the United States initiated a "civilization" program aimed at assimilating the Cherokee people into the mainstream of American society. To a great extent this meant the adoption of sedentary agriculture. Consequently, with Indians living by means of farming, their huge hunting grounds would no longer be needed and whites could easily acquire more Cherokee land. The Tellico Treaty was signed in 1798 as a result of the movement of settlers into Cherokee territory in western North Carolina, west of the 1791 Holston Treaty line. The Tellico Treaty specified that a line, called the Meigs-Freeman Line, was to be drawn from the "Great Iron" or "Smokey" mountain in a southeasterly direction so as to exclude settlers from Cherokee territory. War Department agent Return Jonathan Meigs supervised the running and Thomas Freeman the surveying of the line from July through October 1802. They were assisted by Cherokee leaders and settlers. The line ran from the peak of Mount Collins (located between Clingman's Dome and Newfound Gap) to a point on the North Carolina-South Carolina border near the southwestern corner of Transylvania County. Within their newly established boundaries, the Cherokee took the lead in adopting Euro-American ways in the early nineteenth century, establishing schools and a bicameral tribal legislature. In the 1820s, the Cherokee Sequoyah invented a syllabary that enabled his people to read and write in their own language, and a bilingual newspaper, the Cherokee Phoenix, soon began publication. Cherokee men and women took up farming of cotton, flax, and livestock, and engaged widely in trade with whites. Some Cherokees even built columned plantation houses and bought slaves. Historians have referred to this period of recovery as the "Cherokee renaissance." Despite the successes of this period, which saw the Cherokee willingly embrace white culture, seeds were also planted for a new and even greater crisis for the Cherokee people. In an attempt to save land that had been lost after the Creek War of 1813, the Cherokee signed two more treaties in 1817 and 1819. The 1817 treaty was the first Cherokee treaty that included a provision for their removal from North Carolina lands. The treaty proposed exchanging Cherokee lands in the Southeast for territory west of the Mississippi River. The government promised assistance in resettling those Cherokees who chose to remove, and approximately 1,500-2,000 did. The Treaty of 1817 also contained a proposal for an experiment in Cherokee citizenship. Cherokees who wished to remain on ceded land in the East could apply for a 640-acre reserve and legal rights as American citizens. In 1819 the remaining Cherokees who opposed removal negotiated still another treaty. During the period from 1783 to 1819, the Cherokee people had lost an additional 69 percent of their remaining land. Although the tribe ceded almost 4 million acres by the 1819 treaty, they hoped that this additional cession would end any further removal effort. In fact, the Cherokee National Council agreed that they would not enter into any more negotiations involving the giving up of "even one foot of land." The continuing westward movement of North Carolina settlers usually brought whites into conflict with Indians, however, especially those on whose land gold was discovered in 1828. These whites were reaching into lands that treaties supposedly had guaranteed to the Cherokee. Yet instead of enforcing the treaties, the U.S. government—with President Andrew Jackson leading the way—decided to relocate the Cherokee people. Keep reading > Part v: Trail of Tears and the creation of the Eastern Band of Cherokees "Creek war scene with Indians defending their village against American soldiers." Catalog no. 2009.002.0771.1. From the Cherokee Museum Photo Collection, Museum of the Cherokee Indian, Cherokee, NC, USA. "Map showing Walton County and surrounding areas of Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Tennessee." 1804. N.C. Family Records Collection. http://digital.ncdcr.gov/u?/p15012coll1,9609 "Sequoyah," 1820-1860. From the LearnNC site at http://www.learnnc.org/lp/multimedia/9691. 1 January 2006 \| Anderson, William L. ; Wetmore, Ruth Y.
New research conducted by an international team of geoscientists has indicated that ancient heat sources in the Earth’s crust are responsible for making Greenland’s ice sheet melt and flow faster. The team has, for the first time, proved that processes deep in Earth’s mantle are coupled with the flow dynamics and subglacial hydrology of large ice sheets. Critically, the finding confirms that climate change assessments based on ice sheet movement must take into account the possibility that important factors may be at work miles below the surface. Research Fellow in Geology in the School of Natural Sciences at Trinity College Dublin, Dr Alan Vaughan, was a co-author on the paper that has just been published in leading international journal Nature Geoscience. Dr Vaughan said: “This study demonstrates an unexpected link between hotspot history and ice sheet behaviour." "It shows that the influences on ice sheets span a huge range of timescales from the month by month changes of the ice cover to the multi-million year epochs over which the Earth’s mantle and tectonic plates evolve.” The North Atlantic Ocean is an area of active plate tectonics on the Earth. Between 80 and 35 million years ago these processes moved Greenland over an area of abnormally hot mantle material, which is now responsible for the volcanic activity of Iceland. This mantle material heated and thinned Greenland at depth creating a zone 1200 km long and 400 km wide where the present day flow of heat from the Earth’s interior is elevated. This ancient, long-lived source of heat has created a region where subglacial meltwater is more abundant, lubricating the base of the ice and making it flow more rapidly. These secrets of Greenland’s past have been hidden until now by the 3 km thick ice sheet covering the landmass. Irina Rogozhina, team leader, from the GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, said: “The geothermal anomaly which resulted from the Icelandic mantle-plume tens of millions of years ago is an important motor for today’s hydrology under the ice sheets and for the flow-rate of the ice. This, in turn, broadly influences the dynamic behaviour of the large ice sheets and must be included in studies of the future response to climate change.” The location and orientation of the zone of elevated heat flow shows where Greenland moved over the mantle plume and provides an independent test for models of the opening of the North Atlantic that will revitalise a three-decade-long debate. The size and location of the newly identified anomaly zone explains observations of widespread rapid melting beneath the ice sheet from radar and ice core drilling data. The study results suggest that 50% of the ice-covered area in central-northern Greenland is melting from below and that the meltwater is routed to the ocean through a dense hydrological network beneath the ice. Increased sliding at the base of the ice in the zone of elevated heat flow has created an area of rapid ice flow over a distance of 750 km, which transports ice from the summit area of the Greenland ice sheet to the North Atlantic Ocean. The research team used sophisticated computer models to combine data from seismology, gravity measurements, ice core drilling campaigns, and radar sounding, as well as both airborne, satellite and ground-based measurements on the thickness of the ice cover. The journal article can be viewed here.
ENGLISH CIVIL WAR From 1642 to 1648 people in the British Isles were split by a war between King Charles I and Parliament. The king was said to be influenced by his wife, a French Catholic. He brought in unpopular taxes and tried to force his will on Parliament. This led to civil war. Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658) was a farmer and Member of Parliament. In the English Civil War he proved himself to be a brilliant soldier. He and his armored troopers became known as Ironsides. He led a savage invasion of Catholic Ireland in 1649. The forces of Parliament included many of the more extreme Protestants, called Puritans (also known as Roundheads, because of their short haircuts). The royalists were called Cavaliers (meaning “knights”). Their war ended with the capture of Charles I. The leaders of the Parliamentary forces were mostly country landowners, squires, and merchants. Many of the poor people who fought for them wanted the land to be shared and equal rights for all. Cromwell crushed these Diggers and Levelers in 1649. In 1649 a republic, or Commonwealth, was declared. There was now a Council of State instead of a king. However, the army was impatient for greater change, so in 1653 power was handed over to Oliver Cromwell, who was given the title “Lord Protector”. Cromwell died and under his son the Commonwealth soon collapsed. In 1660 the monarchy was restored, but with limited powers.
As your child learns to read, he or she is actually combining many kinds of knowledge and skills. ABCmouse.com is designed to help with all of them. Every letter in the alphabet represents at least one sound; many letters can represent different sounds, depending on what words they are in. The letter b, for example, has only one sound, but the letter c has two sounds, as in cat and center. By the time your child finishes kindergarten, he or she should know the names of all the letters, and the most common sound made by each letter. Knowing how written letters represent sounds is called phonics. Research indicates that learning the names of letters leads to more rapid and accurate learning of phonics. This is reflected in the earlier levels of ABCmouse.com curriculum through many activities that support learning the names of uppercase and lowercase letters. Activities in Levels 3 through 6 are designed to support the learning of basic phonics, as well as word families, and blending of consonant-vowel-consonant words, such as b-i-g, or big. Altogether, ABCmouse.com has hundreds of games, puzzles, books, and other activities to help your child become a phonics whiz. represent sounds is learning the names of letters leads to more rapid and accurate learning of phonics.
Nature Notebook – Invasive Narrow Leaf Cattails Cattails are vital components of healthy freshwater ecosystems. They filter water runoff before it enters waterways. They stabilize the soil and prevent erosion. They provide food and shelter for numerous animals. So why do conservationists cringe when they look at cattails? They probably see narrow-leaf cattails instead of the native broad-leaf species. Biologists aren’t sure if this species was introduced to the eastern coast or if it was native there. The seeds have traveled with humans along river waterways and railways to set up shop, quite successfully, in new environments. Although they can fulfill the “jobs” of the native species, the narrow-leaf cattails do so at the expense of neighboring wetland plants, by forming monocultures. When they become the only plant in an area, critical biodiversity is eliminated. Animal food and shelter resources are drastically limited. Narrow-leaf cattails also hybridize with native cattails producing even larger, more aggressive offspring. These plants are able to change the ecosystem to benefit their existence. They produce large amounts of plant litter (old parts). Native plants cannot grow in the accumulation but the “mutant” cattails love it. So more of them grow, produce more litter and grow more thus ensuring their control of resources.
You are here Oral histories and archaeology give clues to a population of people who lived throughout the Arctic thouands of years ago. They have been called 'Paleo-Inuit', 'Pre-Dorset' and 'Dorset' by archaeologists, but the Inuit term 'Sivullirmiut', which means 'the first people', may be more appropriate. There is much about the Sivullirmiut that is a mystery, including their relationship to Inuvialuit, as they vanished long before the direct ancestors of the Inuvialuit- the Thule people - appeared. Archaeologists have given the name Thule to the ancestors of the Inuvialuit who spread westward from Alaska, following the migration routes of bowhead whales. They settled on the edge of the Beaufort Sea, at the mouth of the Mackenzie River, some 800 years ago. This group became known by the name 'Siglit', or 'Coastal People'. Archaeological sites at ancient Inuvialuit villages near the mouth of the Mackenzie River provide glimpses at how ancestral Siglit Inuvialuit arose from the original Thule culture, and adapted to and thrived in their new homeland. While tools and techniques for harvesting fish, beluga whales and other resources were still prevalent, new changes followed quickly giving rise to a distinctive Siglit culture. To learn more about the history of Inuvialuit, please visit the following websites:
HUMAN IMPACTS ON ECOSYSTEMS AND ORGANISMS POPULATIONS. GOALSWe will investigate a few specific examples of how humans have directly impacted organisms. – Students will be able to explain these direct human influences on organisms.We will investigate some potential unintended outcomes or indirect results.-Students will be able to explain these unintended outcomes and indirect results on other populations in the food web. Some of these indirect results may cause populations to decrease OR increase depending on their trophic (food chain) relationships with the directly effected organisms. -Students will be able to explain populations that will increase or decrease as a result of the initial human influence. CAUSES OF LOW POPULATIONSIn the late 1800’s and early 1900’s wood duck populations were so low that scientists thought their extinction was eminent. The decrease in wood duck populations was due to couple of factors. First, the hunting season was open from Sept. to April. This hunting season was considered to be too long and too many wood ducks were shot. In addition, the type of hunting during the early 1900’s was not like the hunting of today. People could hunt wood ducks, and other ducks and sell them to restaurants. This type of hunting is referred to as market hunting and resulted in far too many birds being harvested. 1a and 1b A second reason for low wood duck populations is related to the wood ducks nesting habits. Wood ducks nest in dead, hollow tees near water. Holes in dead trees protect the nests and help the young to survive. Much of the dead timber in forests and swamps were cut for lumber leaving less places for wood ducks to nest and raise their young. With less young surviving wood duck populations decreased further. In 1918 conservationists and sport hunters helped to pass the Federal Migratory Act. This limited hunting of wood ducks until 1941 when wood duck populations were high enough to allow limited hunting. This act also outlawed market hunting to further protect wood ducks and other ducks. Hunters and conservationists also began to build wood duck houses. These wood duck houses were designed to replace the missing dead trees with holes. Around the country sportsmen, place thousands of these houses so that wood ducks would have more opportunity to nest safely. This helped increase the number of chicks that hatched and survived. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS FROM TOO ANY WOOD DUCKSOther ducks also nest in holes of dead trees. One duck is the Bufflehead. Some conservationists and scientists were actually concerned that Buffleheads might be outcompeted for nesting sites. If wood ducks are taking up nesting sites, then there will be less sites for the bufflehead, less chicks will hatch and their populations might decrease. 3 and 4 WHAT IS URBAN SPRAWL?Urban sprawl is the continued growth of housing, roads, and other human influences that take over natural habitats. This can reduce food sources and hiding areas for mule deer. EFFECTS OF URBAN SPRAWL ON MULE DEERUrban sprawl affects mule deer in a couple ways. One way is during winter the deer have less food because homes are built in the deer's typical wintering areas. Food is especially important during winter months when it is cold and most food sources are not available. With less food many more deer die. EFFECTS OF URBAN SPRAWL ON MULE DEERAnother way urban sprawl affects deer populations is related to concentrating many deer in smaller areas. With less land available to deer the deer are concentrated in smaller areas. This will actually make it easier for predators to kill more deer. URBAL SPRAWL GOOD FOR SOME ORGANISMS?With more deer concentrated in smaller areas predators may actually experience an increase in population. With more deer in an area it is easier for predators to catch more deer. This will allow more predators to survive into the next year and reproduce potentially causing an increase in predator populations. 3 and 4 WHAT IS ACID RAIN?Acid gases from cars, factories and other fuel burning sorurces get into the atmosphere, mix with rain, and fall to Earth as Acid Rain. Gas phase chemistry In the gas phase sulfur dioxide is oxidized by reaction with the hydroxyl radical via an intermolecular reaction: SO2 + OH· → HOSO2· which is followed by: HOSO2· + O2 → HO2· + SO3 In the presence of water, sulfur trioxide (SO3) is converted rapidly to sulfuric acid: SO3 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (l) Nitrogen dioxide reacts with OH to form nitric acid: NO2 + OH· → HNO3 WHAT IS ACID RAIN?Combustion of fuels (factories, electric generating plants that burn coal, and automobiles) creates sulfur dioxide and nitric oxides. They are converted into sulfuric acid and nitric acid and then it falls to the Earth with rain droplet's and flows into rivers, ponds, and lakes where frogs live. 1 and 2 HOW DOES IT HURT FROGS?Some acid is not a big problem, however when acidity levels are near pH of 5.5 to 6.5 some species of adult frogs cannot live in this water. The eggs of frogs become fragile and many will not not hatch at this level of acidity. Finally, some tadpoles will have lower body weight and be smaller as adult frogs. These frogs have a much less likely chance of surviving. As adult frogs die and less tadpoles hatch, the population of certain frog species will begin to decline. IMPACT ON OTHER ORGANISMSMany organisms feed on frogs. One organism is the Great Blue Heron. With less frogs the Great Blue Heron population may also decrease due to the lack of food. With Great Blue Heron populations decreased, other organisms, such as fish and salamanders, may increase in population. The reason is because there are less Herons eating these organisms. 4 and 5
Native American Music Music plays an integral role in the daily life of Native Americans. Music plays an integral role in the life of Native Americans. It is used for ceremonial purposes, recreation, expression, and healing. There are many different instruments used when making Native American music, including drums, flutes, and other percussion instruments. Perhaps the most important element of their music is the voice. Vocals are the backbone of the music made in Native American cultures. Unusual, irregular rhythms and a somewhat off-key style of singing is used. No harmony is ever incorporated, although sometimes many people sing at once, and other times the vocals are solo. The Native American vocals are passionate, used to invoke spirits, ask for rain or healing, or are used to heal the sick. In most cases, the men and women of the tribes sing separate songs, and have their own dances. The men typically dance around in a circle, while the women usually dance in place. Many researchers feel that Native American music is some of the most complex ever performed. The tensing and releasing of the vocals combined with varying drum beats makes it a very intricate form of art. Another interesting item of note is that every region of the country where the Native Americans had settled produced greatly varying forms and sounds of music. With so many different tribes, the music produced is always unique to its specific group. Generally, Eskimo music has been touted as being the most simple of all of the Native American music styles, while the Hopi, Pueblo, and Zuni tribes of the Southwestern part of the country have been known to produce much more complex sounding music. The emotion invoked from Native American music has been a great influence in modern folk music. In addition, tribal music is still very popular among music fans, and Native American CDs sell fairly well, even in today’s modern climate.
Quasicrystals are unusual materials in which the atoms are arranged in regular patterns that nonetheless never repeat themselves. Most are man-made in the lab; only one case of naturally occurring quasicrystals has been found thus far. And now physicists believe they’ve figured out how that happened. In a paper published today in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Caltech’s Paul Asimow and his co-authors describe how subjecting certain rare materials to extremely strong shock waves produces quasicrystals. Their results suggest that quasicrystals may form in rocky bodies during collisions in the asteroid belt, before falling to earth as meteorites. What makes quasicrystals so special? Crystals are usually defined by their precisely ordered atoms, forming periodic patterns that repeat over and over again within a lattice (honeycomb) structure. The cells of quasicrystals, however, don’t repeat in an identical pattern. There are small variations in neighboring cells. And yet they follow clear mathematical rules, akin to the famous Fibonacci sequence, where each number is the sum of the two numbers that precede it (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, and so on). You can see this sort of pattern in the gorgeous medieval mosaics of the Alhambra Palace in Spain, for instance. Think about tiling a bathroom floor, using just tiles in the shape of triangles, squares or hexagons. There can’t be any gaps or overlapping tiles, which means the five-point symmetry of a pentagon, for instance, just won’t work. Except apparently it can, if there’s a way to fill in the gaps with other atomic shapes to get the whole shebang to stick together. Quasicrystals were first spotted in 1982 by Israeli physicist Daniel Schechtman (then at Technion-Israel Institute of Technology), who was studying a sample of an aluminum-manganese alloy under an electron microscope and noticed that telltale odd aperiodic pattern. “Eyn chaya kao (“there can be no such creature”),” he muttered to himself in Hebrew. Yet there it was. “The rules of crystallography had been around since 1820,” Asimow told Gizmodo. “So they were completely unexpected when they were discovered.” Poor Schechtman endured a lot of mocking from his peers—the head of his laboratory sarcastically advised him to re-read his crystallography textbook—and was even asked to leave his research group at one point, but he got the last laugh. His discovery sparked a revolution in crystallography, and he won the 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. More than 100 different types of quasicrystals have since been made in laboratories around the world. They’re used in non-stick cookware, in LED lights, and surgical instruments, among other applications. But nobody had found a naturally occurring quasicrystal until Princeton physicist Paul Steinhardt stumbled upon one in 2007 while combing through museum rock collections. He tracked it down to a meteorite that landed in the Koryak mountains in Russia, even forming an expedition there to find more quasicrystal samples. He concluded quasicrystals literally came from outer space. For Asimow, this amazing find raised two key questions. First, how is it even possible for quasicrystals to form in nature? And second, why are they so insanely rare? He got his first clue when Steinhardt mentioned he’d found some strange textures (in the form of iron metallic beads) in the grains from the Khatyrka meteorite. He thought they looked a lot like the kinds of textures that formed in materials during shock compression experiments. Shock compression is when scientists place samples of material in a special steel chamber and fire a projectile at it, subjecting it to incredibly high pressures. It’s a means of exploring how those materials behave in extreme environments. Steinhardt’s hypothesis seemed plausible, since scientists had already determined that the Khatyrka meteorite had undergone some kind of shock event, long before it fell to Earth—most likely from a collision with another object in the asteroid belt the early days of our solar system. So Asimow took a sample of copper-aluminum alloy—similar in composition to the icosahedrite found in the meteorite—put it into the chamber, and shocked it with a tantalum capsule to produce the equivalent of 200,000 atmospheres. And voila! when he and his colleagues analyzed the sample afterwards, they observed the telltale pattern of a quasicrystal—now with extra iron in the copper-aluminum alloy. “We knew the meteorite had been shocked, we speculated that the shock might be the magic ingredient you needed, and it worked the first time we tried it,” said Asimow. “That suggests to us that it might not be that hard [to make naturally occurring quasicrystals], if you have the right starting materials and a shock of about the right strength.” His results provide a basic mechanism, although the precise details of exactly when the quasicrystals formed during shock compression have yet to be discovered. As for why it’s so rare to find quasicrystals in the wild, Asimow suggests it’s partly due to the rarity of that copper-aluminum alloy. It doesn’t show up in any other meteorites studied so far, and these are two metals with very different chemical behavior that aren’t normally found together. But that doesn’t mean other such meteorites don’t exist. The space rocks used to be quite rare until the 1970s, but now number in the thousands, with more being collected all the time. The best places for hunting meteorites are Antarctica and the Sahara Desert, where the black rocks are easy to spot against the white snow and lighter sand, respectively. Asimow is now fine-tuning his own experiments, partly to determine where the iron traces came from. He has already run two more control experiments to remove potential iron sources in his first experiment—the most likely being that tantalum capsule. He hasn’t analyzed the data yet, but fully expects them to fail to form quasicrystals. And then he’ll run numerous variations on his original experiment, to hone in on the precise conditions under which quasicrystals can naturally form. For now, he’s happy his first attempt has answered his initial questions. “It explains the mechanism for making natural quasicrystals, and why we haven’t found any others,” said Asimow. “We have a unique starting material, and we have a unique environment. Now the biggest mystery is why there were copper aluminum alloys in that meteorite in the first place.”
To understand and identify the foundations of human rights in Islam, one need to carefully study the history of Islam during the age when Islam appeared. As a consequence we will briefly examine the conditions during the time of the advent of Islam. Conditions During the Time of the Advent of Islam Islam dawned in land which was the driest and warmest in the world, and despite the fact that it was surrounded by seas from east and west since these seas were relatively narrow they cannot change the climate of the Saudi Peninsula. The people in Saudi Peninsula who were Bedouin desert settlers did not obey any discipline and did not submit or obey any power and lived in a tribal hierarchy and treated others in the same way that radical nationalists and racists do with other tribes and nations. They thought it was lawful to plunder, steal, commit rape, lye to others and behave treacherously. Barbarian Arabs did not obey any specific government and their basis of nationality was the tribal life, and mentioning the glories achieved by their tribes and describing the divisions and clans of the tribe and exaggerating the number of their population even by adding the tombs of the dead to the living was one of the most important features of their tribal life. Tribal system and tribal zeal and warlike spirit along with fanatic zeal for barbarian tendency and nationalism were the special characteristics of the Bedouin Arabs, and war and plunder was their official means of earning bread. Thus they were always ready to fight with others and plunder the neighboring tribes, and in their idylls of barbaric Arabs slaughter and looting were considered as a proof of their glory. The custom of killing daughters and burying them dead was an aristocratic custom, and not only the aristocrats but sometimes the common people even buried alive such daughters who could not fight and plunder and were considered as a burden in the family budget. During the age of ignorance the social position of a woman was inferior to man and animals and a mixture of these two. To such people the reason and wisdom of creation for woman was to perpetuate the tribe and serve the men, and the birth of a girl by a woman was considered as ill luck and misfortune. As a consequence it was a popular practice among them to bury girls alive, and such acts were considered to be the lawful rights of the parents of the daughter. This subject has been described in the Quran in the following terms: When good news of the birth of a female is given to any of them, his face grows dark and inwardly he chokes. Because of the evil of the good news he hides himself from people; (pondering) whether he will keep her and be humiliated, or trample her into the dust.(16:58-59) Ignorant Arabs were eating dead creatures and stole and enjoyed much to drink wine and commit incest and lead a lawless life. Resorting to idols and worshipping different sorts of idols and pictures and building idol temples was one of the characteristics of the Arabs in Hejaz. There were so many idol temples that is said that when the Prophet of Islam (S) conquered Mecca there were 370 idols existing in the Ka’ba and were destroyed by the army of Islam. Idol worship had progressed to the extent that they fabricated and worshipped idols in the form of animals, plants and man, Jinni, angles and stars. The best description of conditions in Saudi Arabia during the birth of Islam is that which Imam Ali ibn Talib (as) has mentioned in his sermon addressed to the Arabs: “Almighty God incited Muhammad (S) to frighten the people of Allah’s wrath and he was zealous and true to enforce whatever descended upon him (from Heaven). You O Arabs, you followed the worse of religions (idol worship) at that time and lived in the worse land (i.e. Arabian Peninsula). You used to live in craggy lands full of rocks and deaf poisonous snakes. What you drank was stark and stagnant water and your food was beastly and rough. You used to shed each other’s blood. You violated the bonds of relationships with your relatives and idol worship was popular among you and you added to sins and transgressions. That which we mentioned above is examples of corruption of ethics and the culture of ignorance when Islam was born, but besides idol-worshipping Arabs, the Christians in Saudi Peninsula and other countries had become corrupt, superstitious and had the ugliest and the cruelest mentality and lived in a very regrettable condition. In addition in other countries too moral corruption and excessive class difference and mistaken zeal was rampant. In Iran and Rome, which were the biggest governments of the time, class privileges and religious conflicts and monopoly of rule of aristocrats and lords and chaos, was quite notable. Islam blossomed under such sensitive circumstances and conditions when mankind suffered from mistaken customs, racial discrimination and class difference and by pointing to the fundamental human rights helped humanity to leave behind ignorance, superstition and slavery and march towards humanitarian values and perfection. The Prophet of Islam (S) said, “O people! With the birth of Islam Almighty God has eliminated the lassitude of the age ignorance, and the feeling of pride and glory for being related to such and such fathers and families. O people, truly you are born from men and Adam was created out of the soil. You must know that the best of you to God is the most respectable and the pious one”. He also said, “You have all been born from Adam and Adam was made out of soil. Arabs are not superiors compared to non-Arabs and those who are red do not differ with those who are white except in the extent of their piety. By chanting the slogan of peace and brotherhood among different tribes the Prophet made brotherhood popular forever and he encouraged people to resort to peace and brotherhood as far as he was able. The Holy Quran says: The believers are but brethren, therefore make peace between your brethren and be careful of (your duty to) Allah that mercy may be had on you (49:10) Interesting enough Islam taught Muslims to do what they like to like for others and avoid doing things which they don’t like against others. Also what is the more interesting is that Islam does not limit equality and brotherhood among Muslims only and exhorts brotherhood and equality among all people in the world to lay the foundation for peace and calm in the society. Furthermore in other countries and regions too moral corruption, deep class differences, bland fanaticism, mistaken customs and lawlessness was rampant. For this reason in his historical decree to Malik Ashtar after appointing him as governor of Egypt, Ali bin Talib (as) says: The people are your religious brothers or are the same as you in creation. In conclusion, with all these beautiful teachings Islam portrays in an attempt to salvage mankind from indignation and to promote equal rights to all humanity, what has Muslims of this generation done in regards to human rights? Today, do Muslims value the rights of others? Please share your thought!!! Authored By: Abbass Khajeh Piri
Willans' engine was one of the best-known examples of the steeple compound engine. These were double- or triple-expansion compound engines, with the unusual features of single-acting cylinders and a central spindle valve shared between all the cylinders of that spindle.[i] The cylinders are arranged as tandem compounds, with high- and low-pressure cylinders mounted on the same vertical shaft. This vertical arrangement of the steeple compound gives a compact floor layout for an engine of such power. The engines were developed by Peter W. Willans and Mark Robinson at Thames Ditton, primarily for the increasing market in electrical generation. In 1884 they were granted a patent for the central valve principle. By the 1890s, more of the Willans type were in service for electricity generation than any other type. As with other high-speed steam engines, the need was for a steam engine that ran at sufficiently high speeds to drive dynamos directly and also that had accurate speed regulation under changing load, so as to maintain the correct voltage. Maintaining the correct frequency for AC systems was even more important, but AC systems tended to favour slow-speed engines with large flywheels, rather than the high-speed engines used for DC. Willans engines were also used for powering textile mills, although as many mills had been built by this date, the longer-established cross-compound Corliss and drop-valve engines are better known in this application. The Willans engine, its low inertia and accurate speed control made it highly suitable for mill work. The constant shaft speed it delivered, even under a varying load, was considered to improve spinning quality and reduced the number of ends broken by shock loads. The Willans engine was single-acting; steam pressure was only applied to the upper surface of the pistons. This was a common feature of high-speed engines at this time, in a measure to reduce knocking and increased wear, thus permitting higher operating speeds. The principle was that in a single-acting engine the forces on the connecting rod and its bearings always act to compress the rod, rather than reversing direction twice in every revolution, as for the double-acting engine. The lower bearing brasses, which carried a load only during starting, were smaller than the crankpin and the main working brasses above. Although single-acting engines produce only half the power of an equivalent double-acting engine, or else must run at twice their speed, this reduced knocking could allow them to run more than twice as fast. In the conventional double-acting engine, residual steam was trapped in the exhausting cylinder after the valve closed and compressed. This compressed steam has a cushioning effect and acts to brake the piston at the end of stroke.[ii] In the single-acting engine there is no similar effect at the end of the power stroke. This had previously been a limitation on the operating speed of single-acting engines. In the Willans engine, cushioning at the end of stroke was provided by an additional air cylinder below the others. The air piston also acted as a trunk guide. During the upward stroke, inertia of the engine continues its movement upwards and before the next stroke begins there is otherwise nothing to retard it. The enclosed air cylinder acts as a compressed air dashpot above the trunk guide piston. Central spindle valve The most distinctive feature of the engine was its central spindle valve. This acted as a multi-stage piston valve, controlling admission of steam into each of the compound cylinders. Unusually the valve worked within the hollow piston rod or trunk, rather than in the cylinder block or valvechest. This hollow piston rod linked all of the cylinders and was machined with ports. The valvegear actuating the valve was very simple. Each piston had two parallel connecting rods, working on separated crankpin journals between the same crank webs. An eccentric between the two crankpins drove the centrally-mounted valve spindle by another short connecting rod. Because of the need to allow the valve rod to pass through between them, the piston had two overhung stub gudgeon pins, rather than a single through pin. Inlet steam was supplied to the top of the piston rod trunk through distinctive domed caps. If the engine was intended for a fixed cutoff, the inlet steam was controlled solely by the valve and trunk. Where variable cutoff was to be used, this was achieved very simply by a rotating collar with angled ports that overlapped the ports in the trunk and so controlled their timing. Lubrication of the Willans engine was by splash from an enclosed crankcase. This was filled with a mixture of oil and water. Excess water from condensate was drained out of the crankcase as it accumulated, but the engines did not have the separated glands between the cylinder and crankcase, with a drainage space between them, that were used by the Carel, Belliss and Morcom, or Alley & MacLellan (later Sentinel) engines. Willans engines gradually fell from use post-World War I, for two reasons. Firstly, Belliss and Morcom further developed the high-speed engine. Their invention in 1890 of the oil pump and forced lubrication system solved the problem of the bearing rattling under a reversing load. This allowed them to produce double-acting engines that were more compact than single-acting. Where a single cylinder engine could replace a small twin cylinder engine, this was also a useful cost saving. Although some steam generating sets remained in use well into the 1980s,[iii] these were almost all of the Belliss and Morcom double-acting type. Secondly, the growth of electricity generation and the development of the National Grid favoured fewer, larger generating stations, rather than the small local stations of the first generation. These large plants could more efficiently use large steam turbines and could afford the complicated high-superheat water-tube boilers used with them. The Carel engine, built by SA des Moteurs á Grand Vitesse. Brevet Carel's of Sclessin-Liège, Belgium, was very similar to the Willans. It used a similar layout of paired cylinders, in numbers from two to eight. It too was built for double- and triple-expansion. Like the Willans engine it used single-acting cylinders and also used the Willans air-cushion trunk guide. It differed in the design of its valves, as these were rotary. Each pair of cylinders had a shared rotary valve between them, driven by a half-speed bevel gear. Like the Paget locomotive, the valves were of cast-iron and ran in a phosphor bronze sleeve within the cylinder. As the valve and cylinders must operate in phase,[iv] the ports are duplicated. The advantage overall is a reduction in linear valve speed. Such rotary valves were often tried at this period, yet rarely successfully. Lubrication was difficult at this time and superheating was limited, if the valves were not to seize.[v] Paxman's Peache's Patent engine The 'Peache Patent' engine was produced by Davey, Paxman & Co of Colchester, who built 260 of them between 1895 and 1913. James Courthope Peache had previously worked for Willans & Robinson as Works Manager at the Ferry Works. He left Willans in January 1892 and in 1893 he approached James Paxman with his own design of a high-speed single-acting engine. He later returned to Willans, in 1904 becoming a Director of the company, now based in Rugby, and by 1908 became Managing Director. The Peache engine was considered as another single-acting tandem compound, although it had an unusual design of cylinder. The middle volume of the high- and low-pressure cylinders was in common, without the usual gland to isolate them. The high-pressure piston acts downwards and the low-pressure acts upwards. The space between the pistons, referred to as the 'controlling cylinder' is partially filled with steam tapped from the high-pressure cylinder. As this is compressed when the pistons move upwards, it acts in a similar manner to the air-cushion of the Willans. Unusually for a steam engine, but somewhat advantageously for a single-acting engine, the Peache was a desaxe engine. By slightly offsetting the crankshaft and piston axis, the crosshead forces remained towards the rear of the engine, throughout the operating cycle. Like the single-acting principle itself, this constant direction of forces helped to reduce vibration and wear. Few examples of these large electrical generation engines survive, including the Willans. A few of the examples still survive, including a very small one in the Science Museum. This is a 10 kW engine at 450 rpm and is displayed alongside its original bipolar dynamo. A single cylinder from a larger engine is also displayed, sectioned (illus.). A 1901, 140 bhp three cylinder generating set was retired in 1957 from the Maples furniture shop in London and placed on display at the original Willans factory in Rugby. In 2011 this was recognised with an Engineering Heritage Award. In 2017 it was transferred to the Internal Fire – Museum of Power in West Wales. A three-cylinder, two-stage engine is preserved in the Science and Tecnic Museum of Catalonia (mNACTEC). \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Willans steam engines.\| - I.e. one valve supplied all pistons in a vertical column. In contrast, Bellis (and others) produced a well-known design where a single piston valve was shared between adjacent cylinders horizontally. - This recompression was an important factor in the efficiency of the uniflow engine. - Mostly in hospitals, where there was already substantial steam plant for heating and reliable backup electricity generators were needed. - This is like an internal combustion two-stroke engine, rather than the four-stroke engine that also applies a half-speed reduction gear to its camshaft. - As indeed happened to the Paget locomotive. - Hills, Richard L. (1989). Power from Steam. Cambridge University Press. pp. 215–219. ISBN 0-521-45834-X. - Hills, Power from Steam, p. 218. - Kennedy, Rankin (1912 edition of 1905 book.). "I. Steam Engine Parts and Accessories". Valve Gearing and Governors. The Book of Modern Engines and Power Generators. Vol. IV. London: Caxton. pp. 17–19. Check date values in: - Kennedy, Electrical Installations, pp. 69–73. - "New steam engine designs". Science Museum. - GB 13769, Peter W. Willans, issued 17 October 1874 - Kennedy, Rankin (1903 edition (five volumes) of pre-1903 four volume edition.). Electrical Installations. Electrical Installations. Vol. III. London: Caxton. pp. 32–33. Check date values in: - Kennedy, Electrical Installations, p. 69. - Hills, Richard L. (1989). Power from Steam. Cambridge University Press. p. 217. ISBN 0-521-45834-X. - The Willans Engine for Rope & Belt Driving Purposes. Rugby: Willans & Robinson Ltd. p. 8. - Ripper, William C. H. (1920). "Quick-Revolution Engines". Steam Engine Theory And Practice (Seventh ed.). London: Longmans, Green & Co. pp. 350–352. - GB 4901, Peter W. Willans, issued 14 October 1882 - Kennedy, Electrical Installations, pp. 71–72. - Kennedy, Electrical Installations, p. 72. - Kennedy, Modern Engines, IV, pp. 208–215. - "High-Speed Steam Engines.". 20 December 2005. - Hills, Power from Steam, p. 219. - "High-Speed Steam Engines". Douglas Self. 20 December 2005. - Kennedy, Modern Engines, IV, pp. 213–215. - Richard Carr. "Paxman "Peache Patent" Steam Engines". Paxman History. - "Engineering Heritage Awards" (PDF) (5th ed.). Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE). p. 47. - "Central Valve Steam Engine". Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE). - "Victorian engine built in Rugby leaves for restoration in Wales". Rugby Advertiser. 20 June 2017.
Constitutional amendment is but one way that the Constitution has been developed, although it is certainly the most direct. Court opinion, particularly those of the Supreme Court has determined the interpretation of the Constitution. There is no provision in the Constitution for Judicial Review, although it has been considered part and parcel of the constitution since Marbury vs. Madison. Thirdly, the Constitution has been developed by Presidential acts. Notably, when Andrew Jackson refused to stop the removal of Indians from the South he strengthened the power of the Presidency under the Constitution. Similarly, under the constitution, the Vice President has only one official function: to preside over the Senate. Still, a number of recent presidents have vested broad authority in the Vice President. Fourthly, custom and practice have been a method by which the Constitution has been developed. There is no provision in the constitution for a presidential cabinet; but there have been such cabinets since the Washington Administration. I would say that some specific ways in which the Constitution has been developed is that more people have been brought into the political process. Starting with the Civil War Amendments (13th, 14th, and 15th) where African- Americans saw slavery permanently abolished, rights of citizenship conferred upon them, and the right to vote granted, more people have been included in the process. Women gaining suffrage was included in the 19th Amendment. Young people gaining the right to vote was included in the 26th Amendment, with the lowering of the voting age to 18. The inclusion of people of color, women, and young people were all examples of how the Constitution has been developed over time to include more people in the political process. In addition to this, I think that the fundamental goal of "forming a more perfect union" is represented with these particular amendments as it represents how the framers of the Constitution might have made mistakes early on, and how the self- reflective and corrective measures within the goals of the document allow change and development to be a part of its nature.
A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Generators can be subdivided into two major categories depending on whether the electric current produced is alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC). The basic principle on which both types of generators work is the same, although the details of construction of the two may differ somewhat. In 1820, Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted (1777–1851) discovered that an electric current created a magnetic field around it. French physicist André Marie Amperè (1775–1836) then found that a coil of wire with current running through it behaved just like a magnet. In about 1831, English physicist Michael Faraday (1791–1867) discovered the scientific principle on which generators operate: electromagnetic induction. By reversing the work of Oersted and extending the work of Amperè, Faraday reasoned that if a current running through a coiled wire could produce a magnetic field, then a magnetic field could induce (generate) a current of electricity in a coil of wire. By moving a magnet back and forth in or near a coil of wire, he created an electrical current without any other source of voltage feeding the wire. Alternating current (AC): Electric current in which the direction of flow changes back and forth rapidly and at a regular rate. Armature: A part of a generator consisting of an iron core around which is wrapped a wire. Commutator: A slip ring that serves to reverse the direction in which an electrical current flows in a generator. Direct current (DC): Electrical current that always flows in the same direction. Electromagnetic induction: The production of an electromotive force (something that moves electricity) in a closed electrical circuit as a result of a changing magnetic field. Slip ring: The device in a generator that provides a connection between the armature and the external circuit. Faraday also discovered that it makes no difference whether the coil rotates within the magnetic field or the magnetic field rotates around the coil. The important factor is that the wire and the magnetic field are in motion in relation to each other. In general, most AC generators have a stationary (fixed) magnetic field and a rotating coil, while most DC generators have a stationary coil and a rotating magnetic field. A magnet creates magnetic lines of force on either side of it that move in opposite directions. As the metal coil passes through the magnetic field in a generator, the electrical power that is produced constantly changes. At first, the generated electric current moves in one direction (as from left to right). Then, when the coil reaches a position where it is parallel to the magnetic lines of force, no current at all is produced. As the coil continues to rotate, it cuts through magnetic lines of force in the opposite direction, and the electrical current generated travels in the opposite direction (as from right to left). The ends of the coil are attached to metal slip rings that collect the electrical current. Each slip ring, in turn, is attached to a metal brush, which transfers the current to an external circuit. Thus, a spinning coil in a fixed magnetic field will produce an alternating current, one that travels first in one direction and then in the opposite. The rate at which the current switches back and forth is known as its frequency. Ordinary household current alternates at a frequency of 60 times per second (or 60 hertz). The efficiency of an AC generator can be increased by substituting an armature for the wire coil. An armature consists of a cylinder-shaped iron core with a long piece of wire wrapped around it. The longer the piece of wire, the greater the electrical current that can be generated by the armature. Commercial generators. One of the most important uses of generators is the production of large amounts of electrical energy for use in industry and homes. The two most common energy sources used in operating AC generators are water and steam. Both of these energy sources have the ability to drive generators at the very high speeds at which they operate most efficiently, usually no less than 1,500 revolutions per minute. In order to generate hydroelectric (water) power, a turbine is needed. A turbine consists of a large central shaft on which are mounted a series of fanlike vanes. As moving water strikes the vanes, it causes the central shaft to rotate. If the central shaft is then attached to a very large magnet, it causes the magnet to rotate around a central armature, generating electricity. Steam power is commonly used to run electrical generating plants. Coal, oil, or natural gas is burned—or the energy from a nuclear reactor is harnessed—to boil water to create steam. The steam is then used to drive a turbine which, in turn, spins a generator. An AC generator can be modified to produce direct current (DC) electricity also. This change requires a commutator. A commutator is simply a slip ring that has been cut in half, with both halves insulated from each other. The brushes attached to each half of the commutator are arranged so that at the moment the direction of the current in the coil reverses, they slip from one half of the commutator to the other. The current that flows into the external circuit, therefore, is always traveling in the same direction. This results in a steadier current.
It's the most dramatic mass extinction in the history of Earth. About 66 million years ago, a giant meteorite smashed into the Gulf of Mexico, sending toxic gases into the atmosphere and causing extreme climate change that wiped out most dinosaurs. Except that's not the whole story. Mass extinction, like modern love, is complicated. A new study from a group of UK researchers reveals that most dinosaur clades were already in decline long before the Chicxulub impact that changed Earth's ecosystems forever. After an exhaustive statistical analysis of dinosaur fossil frequency over time, the researchers published their findings in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. What they found was that dinosaur populations were declining about 24 million years before the bolide from space smashed into our planet. The researchers show that dinosaurs from three major sub-clades—Ornithischia, Sauropodomorpha, and Theropoda—reached a deadly tipping point about 90 million years ago. That's when dinosaur species began going extinct at a higher rate than they were speciating, or spawning new species. Put simply, new dinosaur species weren't evolving to replace the ones that went extinct. Extinction is a normal part of the lifecycle of any species, but in a healthy clade you expect to see new species evolving at the same or higher rate than they are going extinct. This wasn't so among most dinosaurs for millions of years before the Chicxulub event. That said, a few lucky dinosaur subclades, Hadrosauriformes and Ceratopsidae, actually saw speciation rates rising during the tens of millions of years before the meteorite impact. Indeed, there is evidence that Hadrosaurs lived for hundreds of thousands of years after the meteorite impact. And of course, early mammals were running around and happily speciating in the millions of years before and after the meteorite impact. This "gradual decline" scenario suggests that the Chicxulub catastrophe wasn't so much the cause of dinosaur extinction as it was the final death blow to an already-weakened group of animals. There are a number of reasons why the dinosaurs began dying off 90 million years ago. The planet was undergoing a major transformation, as the Earth's two supercontinents broke apart, and sea levels fluctuated wildly. At the same time, megavolcanoes were erupting in India's Deccan Traps, which geoscientist Gerta Keller has long argued spurred extinctions among dinosaurs in the seas and on land. All of these events, taken together, would have had the effect of shrinking the dinosaurs' once-massive tropical territories that stretched across the supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana. As habitats shrank, so too did dinosaur populations. That left them extremely vulnerable to extinction when disaster struck and killed off huge numbers of dinosaurs. The smaller the population, the harder it is to bounce back when many individuals die. Though it's tempting to blame the dinosaurs' demise on a single, apocalyptic disaster, the truth is that mass extinctions are always a long, messy process. The standard definition for mass extinction, when 75 percent or more of Earth's species die out, comes with the caveat that the process usually takes more than a million years. That's because it's actually phenomenally hard to kill off so many species. It takes more than one disaster. Now we know that the Earth itself, with its deadly tectonic shifts, was destroying the dinosaurs long before that space rock came in to finish the job. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2016. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1521478113
Geoscientists have long presumed that, like today, the tropics remained warm throughout Earth's last major glaciation 300 million years ago. New evidence, however, indicates that cold temperatures in fact episodically gripped these equatorial latitudes at that time. Geologist Gerilyn Soreghan of Oklahoma University found evidence for this conclusion in the preservation of an ancient glacial landscape in the Rocky Mountains of western Colorado. Three hundred million years ago, the region was part of the tropics. The continents then were assembled into the supercontinent Pangaea. Soreghan and colleagues published their results in the August 2008, issue of the journal Geology. Climate model simulations are unable to replicate such cold tropical conditions for this time period, said Soreghan. "We are left with the prospect that what has been termed our 'best-known' analogue to Earth's modern glaciation is in fact poorly known." "This study is an example of the wealth of untapped climate information stored in Earth's 'deep time' geologic record millions of years ago," said H. Richard Lane, program director in NSF's Division of Earth Sciences, which funded the research. "These kinds of discoveries may greatly improve our understanding and prediction of modern climate change." As a result of the close proximity of the ancient tropical glaciers to the sea, the toes of the glaciers were likely less than 500 meters above sea level--much lower than the tropical glaciers of Earth's recent glacial times. "The Late Paleozoic tropical climate was not buffered against cold from the high latitudes, as everyone had thought," said Soreghan. "The evidence we found indicates that glaciers were common at this time, even in tropical latitudes. This calls into question traditional assumptions of long-lasting equatorial warmth in the Late Paleozoic, and raises the possibility of large-scale and unexpected climate change in the tropics during that time." Whoa. To think 50 million years later, the world would be gripped by the hottest climates ever in the Phanerozoic. Oh yes, #define Gzhelian.
In their larval stage, many beetles bore into trees or tunnel just beneath the bark. As they feed, they encircle entire branches and even the trunk, cutting off the tree's supply of water and nutrients. Early symptoms include wilting and yellowing foliage on a single branch; you may also see small holes bordered by sawdust, excrement, or sap. Some borers enter below the soil line; if these are attacking, you'll see evidence only at the plant base. Fruit and nut trees, ash, dogwood, lilac, and cane berries are especially vulnerable, particularly if they are stressed or in poor health. Prevention is the best solution. Keep trees healthy with proper fertilizing and watering; be especially attentive to water during drought years. Avoid damaging bark. If you need to prune, do so in midsummer, so that wounds are healed by spring when larvae are present. Cut off and burn infected branches. Chemical controls may help if you spray when adult beetles are laying eggs in summer. Use chlorpyrifos.
› View larger Independence Day Solar Fireworks This image shows four separate images of the M5.3 class flare from the morning of July 4, 2012. In clockwise order starting at the top left, the wavelengths shown are: 131, 94, 193, and 171 Angstroms. Each wavelength shows a different temperature of material, which in turn corresponds to different levels of the sun's atmosphere. By looking at images in several wavelengths, scientists can track how a solar eruption moves through the layers. Credit: NASA/SDO/AIA/Helioviewer/TheSunToday An active region on the sun, labeled AR1515, sent out an M5.3 class solar flare that peaked on July 4, 2012 at 5:55 AM EDT. This is the same region that produced an M5.6 class flare on July 2, and several smaller flares as well. The sunspots (left, lower group) causing this latest burst of activity stretches more than 100,000 miles across, over 12 times the diameter of Earth. › View larger This image, captured by the Solar Dynamics Observatory, shows the M5.3 class flare that peaked on July 4, 2012 at 5:55 AM EDT. It is shown in the 131 Angstrom wavelength, a wavelength that is particularly good for capturing the radiation emitted from flares. The wavelength is typically colorized in teal as shown here. Credit: NASA/SDO/AIA/Helioviewer What is a solar flare? What is a coronal mass ejection? For answers to these and other space weather questions, please visit the Spaceweather Frequently Asked Questions Karen C. Fox NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD
While Alaska is widely known today as the largest state in the USA, it once part of Russia. For around a hundred years from the mid 18th century onwards, Alaska was a Russian colony but, after a handsome price was negotiated in 1867, it became US territory and eventually became the 49th state of the USA. At around the time that the rest of America was being colonised by English settlers, Alaska was discovered by the Russian navy in 1741. While indigenous people had been present for many centuries, the first time that Alaska was viewed by European eyes came when Vitus Bering set sail aboard the vessel St Peter. The expedition brought back sea otter pelts which were greatly sought after but more importantly, the first contact with Alaska had been made. Over the course of the next few years, Russia and Spain led several expeditions here and for a time, there was some dispute over the claims to Alaska but in time, it officially became part of Russia and known as New Archangel. Russia never fully colonized Alaska: The region was sparse, vast and overall fairly barren and it remained unprofitable for all the years that Russia laid claim to it. Although, Alaska itself was only a few miles from mainland Russia, it was underused and largely uncharted. At the time of the mid 19th century, Russia was experiencing financial problems as a nation and it had held an increasing fear that they would lose the territory of Alaska in a future conflict. In particular, they were fearful that Alaska would be lost to the British, who Russia had battled in the Crimea War and who controlled the neighbouring (now Canadian) territory. Although there was still very little interest in the colony and very few settlers, the nearby area of British Columbia had begun to develop thanks in the main to the gold rush of the time. Suspecting that any loss in battle would not improve their financial position, Russia sought to literally ‘sell’ Alaska. When the Tsar made his decision, both the British and the USA were approached but Britain showed no interest in the proposition whatsoever. The Tsar then concentrated on the Americans but negotiations in this respect were made impossible due to the American Civil War. Finally, with the USA free to open talks, the country became receptive to Russian proposals and Alaska was subsequently sold in 1867 for a figure of $7.2m. The deal was officially known as the Alaska purchase but many American’s referred to it as Seward’s folly after the then Secretary of State William H Seward. Clearly many American’s were unhappy with the deal for land that was so barren and seemed at the time to be of negligible use. So when you ask how much did Alaska cost, the answer in simple terms is $7.2m dollars. Conservative estimates have put that figure to be worth in excess of $1 billion in today’s money and as we move towards the 150th anniversary of the purchase, are both sides still happy with the deal?
It’s a 63-square-mile patch of wetland – a key stop for migrating birds along an arid stretch of the Pacific flyway. It’s the largest remaining wetland on the Colorado River Delta and part of an internationally recognized conservation area. It also sits squarely in the center of a debate over a multimillion-dollar water desalting plant just west of Yuma, Ariz., which is slated for a trial run later this year. Salty wastewater from the plant would flow down a drainage system that currently feeds Cienega de Santa Clara, essentially dooming the wetland, environmentalists say. Proponents of the trial argue that the freshwater the plant would provide is sorely needed for the region’s cities and farms. The debate highlights the challenge of slaking the thirst of a growing population that draws on the already-oversubscribed Colorado River, while protecting the region’s ecological gems. The challenge is expected to grow more acute if global warming dries out the region further, as many climate models project. If, however, other sources of water for the wetlands can be found, particularly if the water comes from sources on both sides of the US-Mexican border, it would represent “a tremendous breakthrough,” says Karl Flessa, a paleobiologist at the University of Arizona who studies the river’s historical ecosystems. Sitting in his office beneath a pair of enlarged satellite photos of the delta, Dr. Flessa explains that such an outcome would represent the first time US water managers had allocated Colorado River water specifically for environmental purposes outside the Grand Canyon. It would also represent the first time water had been delivered across the border for environmental uses. Why the wetlands expanded Getting there, however, is the hard part. The wetland’s water is brackish residue from farmland east of Yuma. Once, that water was channeled back into the Colorado and into Mexico. But in the 1970s, the US agreed to improve the quality of Colorado River water Mexico receives. The quickest way to attack that problem was to divert the water – and it ended up in Cienega de Santa Clara. The influx of water stimulated the wetland’s expansion from a few hundred acres in 1977 to more than 40,000 acres of marshland – a patchwork of open water and expanses of cattails. Meanwhile, the US Bureau of Reclamation was pursuing a high-tech approach – building the Yuma Desalting Plant. The idea: Run the brackish farm water through the plant and return it to the river. But for technical and budget reasons, the plant is not on line full time. Throughout this period, the diverted farm water has not counted toward Mexico’s treaty-specified allotment of Colorado River water, explains Lorrie Gray-Lee, who heads the Bureau of Reclamation office responsible for the agency’s activities along the last 700 miles of the Colorado River. So the US has made up the difference by releasing additional water from Lake Mead to meet its treaty obligations. But a prolonged drought has triggered a clamor on the US side of the border for that additional release. Water managers say operating the desalting plant is their ticket to getting that water. “The difficulty we have is that operating the plant requires a lot of money. It’s about as expensive as taking bottles of Evian and pouring them into the river,” Ms. Gray-Lee says. A plan to save wetland, supply water for US Four years ago, as pressure to restart the plant was building, a group of Arizona water managers, as well as environmentalists, farmers, and scientists, quietly hammered out a set of principles and options for meeting water needs north of the border while saving the Cienega de Santa Clara. It included the establishment of a monitoring program in the Cienega – a project the University of Arizona’s Flessa is designing with Mexican colleagues. It backed the notion of running the plant on a pilot basis for 90 days. It explored, too, the idea of using excess groundwater in the Yuma area to help meet US treaty obligations to Mexico. Since then, however, water-management districts in southern California and Nevada have offered to help pay the cost of running the plant on a pilot basis – in exchange for water. And Arizona has insisted that by law, its water cannot be used outside of Arizona. That leaves the desalting plant the main option left standing – at least for now. The Bureau of Reclamation’s goal is to run it for 365 days during an 18-month period to make sure the plant can function and to get a better sense of its annual operating costs. The project would still need to go through an additional permitting process, including environmental impact assessments, before it could operate around the clock. But to many environmentalists, the inertia of Western water politics is likely to cement the plant – once it is operating – as the lead option for freeing up Lake Mead water now bound for Mexico. Plenty of alternatives exist, they argue, though some of them need further evaluation. Mexico itself is looking for potential sources of farm wastewater that could help maintain the flow into the Cienega. In addition, runoff from farms in the San Luis and Mexicali Valleys could be tapped. If the desalting plant does eventually run full time, its saline effluent could be pumped to the Cienega’s southernmost reaches, where evaporation already has left the water on what essentially are salt flats suitable for little more than brine shrimp. “Turning to desalination in some cases may be appropriate” as the Southwest deals with rising populations and a drier future, acknowledges Jennifer Pitt, who heads the Environmental Defense Fund’s conservation efforts along the Colorado River. But before such energy-intensive approaches are switched on, she says, far more needs to be done to reduce water demand in cities, irrigate crops more efficiently, and establish laws that allow greater flexibility and recognize ecosystems as among a river’s legitimate users.
Major General Andrew Jackson during the Battle of New Orleans U.S. Major General Andrew Jackson’s stunning victory over crack British troops at Chalmette plantation on January 8, 1815, was the greatest American land victory of the War of 1812. Commonly called the Battle of New Orleans- the last battle of the last war ever fought between England and the United States- it preserved America’s claim to the Louisiana Territory, prompted a wave of migration and settlement along the Mississippi River, and restored American pride and unity. It also made General Jackson a national hero. The War of 1812 was fought to vindicate U.S. maritime rights, secure the western frontier from provocative British influence with the Indians, and pave the way for the annexation of Canada. It was pursued half-heartedly by both sides, and with little success for either. England, battling Napoleon’s armies in Europe, could spare few troops to fight in the United States and did little more than help to defend Canada. American victories were few, and these mostly at sea. When England defeated Napoleon in the spring of 1814, the character of the American war changed dramatically. Thousands of battle tested British soldiers sailed for the United States, and invasion thrusts were planned via Lake Champlain, the Chesapeake Bay, and later the Gulf coast. The first thrust ended when Commodore Thomas MacDonough defeated the British fleet in the Battle of Lake Champlain in September 1814. The second was turned back about the same time at Fort McHenry, the main defense of Baltimore, but not before the British had burned the White House and the Capitol at Washington. The third began in late December when 35 year-old British Major General Sir Edward M. Pakenham led a 10,000-man army overland from Lake Borgne to attack New Orleans. The capture of this important port was Britain’s main hope reaching a favorable peace settlement form the Americans. By controlling the mouth of the Mississippi River, England could seriously threaten the economic well-being of the entire Mississippi Valley and hamper U.S. westward expansion.
Famed sci-fi author Arthur C. Clarke called them biots—biological robots that use real muscle tissue to walk or crawl. While they've been created in the lab, today's biobots are currently little more than strips of muscle that inch across surfaces like caterpillars. But researchers predict machines guided by primitive artificial brains of their own, machines that could one day travel inside the body to conduct minimally invasive surgery or even venture out into the world to clean up pollution. Bioengineer Rashid Bashir at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, and his colleagues created their first bio-bots in 2012. The team used heart muscle cells, which contract spontaneously, potentially making them difficult to control for use in future applications. This week, though, the researchers debuted a biobot made with skeletal muscle, the same kind found in limbs, which suggests biobots could be controlled precisely for complex activities. "Our goal is to harness the power of mammalian cells, which have evolved over billions of years to do what they do," Bashir says. The researchers created their new 6-mm-long biobots using 3D printers. First they printed scaffolds made of a hydrogel similar to the polymer material making up soft contact lenses, creating a bench-like structure consisting of stiff pillars connected by a flexible plank. Next they deposited living rat skeletal muscle cells, which formed a strip of muscle connecting both feet of the scaffold's pillars. In experiments, the scientists placed their biobots in lab dishes filled with a warm, electrically conductive fluid. When the dishes were zapped with a series of electrical pulses, the biobots moved by inching across the dishes at rates of a little more than one-third of an inch per minute. The researchers detailed their findings in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. The biobots created so far are relatively simple. "We now have a toolbox of cells and polymer materials that can be used by engineers to design new biological machines," Bashir says. Imagine if biobots were given neurons, Bashir says. Embedding primitive brains into biobots could give them ways to monitor their environments and trigger movements. Also, biobots may need the equivalent of networks of blood vessels to help ensure they get the oxygen and nutrients they require to stay alive, says bioengineer Roger Kamm at MIT, who did not take part in this research. Biobots could eventually reach up to roughly a centimeter in size. "Anything larger would take prohibitively large amounts of cells and matrix materials," Bashir says. Currently biobots need to be surrounded by warm fluids to survive. Still, this means they could find applications in the body, either crawling around or even swimming. "You can imagine biobots reaching someplace inside the body to remove a small bit of tissue for minimally invasive surgery," says study coauthor Taher Saif, a mechanical engineer at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Also, "instead of having drugs going all over the body, maybe designed to specifically go after some chemical targets, you can have a biobot with neurons and sensors to more intelligently go after specific targets." To work outside the body, biobots will likely need some kind of shell, perhaps one made of polymer. If it worked, "you can imagine them removing a toxin from the environment, many groups of them acting like scavengers to sense and consume things that need to be removed or made less toxic," Saif says. "In the long term, essentially anything that a current robot does could be envisioned as being done by a biological robot. In particular, tasks that require fine motor control might be best suited to a biobot hand or arm," Kamm says. "Some of the advantages in using biological systems is that they could adapt to changing demands and self-repair."
Every true experimental design must have this statement at the core of its structure, as the ultimate aim of any experiment. The hypothesis is generated via a number of means, but is usually the result of a process of inductive reasoning where observations lead to the formation of a theory. Scientists then use a large battery of deductive methods to arrive at a hypothesis that is testable, falsifiable and realistic. The precursor to a hypothesis is a problem, usually framed as a question. The precursor to a hypothesis is a research problem, usually framed as a question. It might ask what, or why, something is happening. For example, we might wonder why the stocks of cod in the North Atlantic are declining. The problem question might be ‘Why are the numbers of Cod in the North Atlantic declining?’ This is too broad as a statement and is not testable by any reasonable scientific means. It is merely a tentative question arising from literature reviews and intuition. Many people would think that instinct and intuition are unscientific, but many of the greatest scientific leaps were a result of ‘hunches’. The research hypothesis is a paring down of the problem into something testable and falsifiable. In the above example, a researcher might speculate that the decline in the fish stocks is due to prolonged over fishing. Scientists must generate a realistic and testable hypothesis around which they can build the experiment. This might be a question, a statement or an ‘If/Or’ statement. Some examples could be: Over-fishing affects the stocks of cod. If over-fishing is causing a decline in the numbers of Cod, reducing the amount of trawlers will increase cod stocks. These are acceptable statements and they all give the researcher a focus for constructing a research experiment. The last example formalizes things and uses an ‘If’ statement, measuring the effect that manipulating one variable has upon another. Though the other one is perfectly acceptable, an ideal research hypothesis should contain a prediction, which is why the more formal ones are favored. A hypothesis must be testable, but must also be falsifiable for its acceptance as true science. A scientist who becomes fixated on proving a research hypothesis loses their impartiality and credibility. Statistical tests often uncover trends, but rarely give a clear-cut answer, with other factors often affecting the outcome and influencing the results. Whilst gut instinct and logic tells us that fish stocks are affected by over fishing, it is not necessarily true and the researcher must consider that outcome. Perhaps environmental factors or pollution are causal effects influencing fish stocks. A hypothesis must be testable, taking into account current knowledge and techniques, and be realistic. If the researcher does not have a multi-million dollar budget then there is no point in generating complicated hypotheses. A hypothesis must be verifiable by statistical and analytical means, to allow a verification or falsification. In fact, a hypothesis is never proved, and it is better practice to use the terms ‘supported’ or ‘verified’. This means that the research showed that the evidence supported the hypothesis and further research is built upon that. Your hypothesis should... Be written in clear, concise language Have both an independent and dependent variable Be falsifiable – is it possible to prove or disprove the statement? Make a prediction or speculate on an outcome Be practicable – can you measure the variables in question? Hypothesize about a proposed relationship between two variables, or an intervention into this relationship A research hypothesis, which stands the test of time, eventually becomes a theory, such as Einstein’s General Relativity. Even then, as with Newton’s Laws, they can still be falsified or adapted. The research hypothesis is often also callen H1 and opposes the current view, called the null hypothesis (H0). Consider the following hypotheses. Are they likely to lead to sound research and conclusions, and if not, how could they be improved? Adding mica to a plastic compound will decrease its viscosity. Those who drink a cup of green tea daily experience enhanced wellness. Prolonged staring into solar eclipses confers extrasensory powers. A decline in family values is lowering the marriage rate. Children with insecure attachment style are more likely to engage in political dissent as adults. Sub-Saharan Africa experiences more deaths due to Tuberculosis because the HIV rate is higher there. This is an ideal hypothesis statement. It is well-phrased, clear, falsifiable and merely by reading it, one gets an idea of the kind of research design it would inspire. This hypothesis is less clear, and the problem is with the dependent variable. Cups of green tea can be easily quantified, but how will the researchers measure “wellness"? A better hypothesis might be: those who drink a cup of green tea daily display lower levels of inflammatory markers in the blood. Though this hypothesis looks a little ridiculous, it is actually quite simple, falsifiable and easy to operationalize. The obvious problem is that scientific research seldom occupies itself with supernatural phenomenon and worse, putting this research into action will likely cause damage to its participants. When it comes to hypotheses, not all questions need to be answered! Provided the researchers have a solid method for quantifying “family values" this hypothesis is not too bad. However, scientists should always be alert for their own possible biases creeping into research, and this can occur right from the start. Normative topics with moral elements are seldom neutral. A better hypothesis will remove any contentious, subjective elements. A better hypothesis: decrease in total discretionary income corresponds to lower marriage rate in people 20 – 30 years of age. This hypothesis may yield very interesting and useful results, but practically, how will the researchers gather the data? Even if research is logically sound, it may not be feasible in the real world. A researcher might instead choose to make a more manageable hypothesis: high scores on an insecure attachment style questionnaire will correlate with high scores on a political dissention questionnaire. Though complex, this is a good hypothesis. It is falsifiable, has clearly identified variables and can be supported or rejected using the right statistical methods. This means you're free to copy, share and adapt any parts (or all) of the text in the article, as long as you give appropriate credit and provide a link/reference to this page. That is it. You don't need our permission to copy the article; just include a link/reference back to this page. You can use it freely (with some kind of link), and we're also okay with people reprinting in publications like books, blogs, newsletters, course-material, papers, wikipedia and presentations (with clear attribution).
Acid rain is a product of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) mixing with water in the atmosphere, then falling to the ground as rain or snow. In some cases, acidic air pollutants also can settle to the earth on their own, before combining with moisture - a process known as "dry deposition." SO2 emissions are released from power plants that burn oil or coal to generate electricity and from industrial combustion of fossil fuels. NOx emissions come from the same sources, as well as from motor vehicles with gasoline- and diesel-powered engines. These pollutants can be carried long distances on prevailing winds aloft. A substantial portion of the acid deposition in Massachusetts is attributable to SO2 and NOx emissions from out-of-state sources. Environmental Effects of Acid Rain When acid air pollutants fall to the ground in rain, in snow or on their own, they lower the pH levels of lakes, rivers, and soils and damage forests, leading to a range of environmental problems. Specifically, acid deposition: - Can make lakes and streams so acidic that survival becomes difficult if not impossible for many species of fish and invertebrates. - Makes plants, their leaves and their root systems more likely to dry out or accumulate dangerous toxic metals. - Dissolves and washes away calcium and other minerals from the soil, thereby robbing ecosystems of nutrients essential for plant growth. - Causes slow but steady damage to building features and materials, including limestone sculptures and paint. Learn more about the effects of acid rain from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). What Government is Doing to Address Acid Rain In 1990, the U.S. Congress created the Acid Rain Program within the federal Clean Air Act to reduce the adverse effects of acid rain through annual reductions in SO2 and NOx from power plants that burn fossil fuels. Massachusetts also has established limits on SO2 and NOx for power plants, and works closely with EPA to ensure the goals of the Acid Rain Program are met. As a member of the Conference of New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers, Massachusetts committed in 1998 to a 50 percent reduction in regional SO2 emissions by 2010 and a regional NOx emissions reduction of between 20 percent and 30 percent by 2007 (which was achieved). To achieve these goals, Massachusetts has required further reductions in SO2 and NOx (and in some cases mercury and carbon dioxide) from power plants and other large sources. To track the effectiveness of these nationwide and regional efforts, Massachusetts hosts two precipitation monitoring sites for the National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NADP). Located in Ware and Truro, these monitoring stations measure the acidity of rain and snow. Further, the Department of Environmental Protection (MassDEP) provides funding for the Acid Rain Monitoring Project led by the Water Resources Research Center at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Since 1983, this project has relied on citizen volunteers to collect samples from lakes and streams across the state. The map below shows sampling sites. See a larger, printer-friendly version of the map file size 1MB Long-Term Acid Rain Trends Nationally, according to EPA's Acid Rain Progress Report, SO2 emissions have dropped by 43 percent and NOx emissions by 51 percent from the electric power sector since 1990. These and other emission reductions have led to a significant decrease in acid deposition. However, monitoring data collected by the Massachusetts Acid Rain Monitoring Project indicate that surface water bodies have been slow to recover, showing only slight to no improvement in acidic level, suggesting that long-term monitoring of surface waters will be needed to assess how quickly their ecosystems are recovering with SO2 and NOx emissions from power plants, factories and motor vehicles now significantly reduced. The Committee on the Environment of the Conference of New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers mapped the sensitivity of regional forests to acid deposition. This approach uses an ecological assessment of the "nutrient budgets" of these wooded areas and can be used to determine which forests are most susceptible to acid precipitation. New England Forest Areas Most Sensitive to Acid Deposition Critical load mapping was performed to estimate the impacts of sulfur and nitrogen compound deposition on forest ecosystem health across the region. As soil becomes more acidic, it loses nutrients that are critical to plant growth. The map shows how extensive this nutrient loss has been in southern New England. The problem grows progressively worse as the color shading of forested areas changes from green to yellow, orange and red.
How to Teach your kids to draw a fish This video shows the viewer how to teach their children to draw a cartoon style fish. The video is literally a tutorial showing a young woman teaching a group of children. She does this by using simple shapes, which children already know how to draw, to build up the bigger fish. She starts with an oval shaped body and a tail. She then adds two eyes and a line for a mouth before finishing with fins and stripes. Finally she colors her fish in before showing the children's efforts. For more information and a demonstration of the techniques used please see the video.
Since you were in school, the world has changed a lot — literally! The borders and names of many countries are not the same as they were when you were in school. If your child is memorizing names of countries and world capitals, the best way to help is to pull out the atlas and quiz him — or emcee a Geography Bee. To help with the rest of your child's geography learning, we've created this guide to jog your memory and review basic concepts and vocabulary. What Is Geography? Geography is the study of place and space on Earth. It's about looking at how humans influence the land they live on and how the places people live shape their existence. In general, geographers seek to answer three questions: - Where are people and environments located? - Why are they located there? - Are there patterns to these locations? What significance do the patterns have? Geography has three main branches: - Physical describes and studies features of Earth, such as the oceans and rock formations, the planet's climates, and where plants and animals live. - Human or cultural is focused on how humans and the land interact. This study includes country and state borders, city landscapes, road maps, and neighborhoods. - Regional compares the differences and similarities between various areas. A map is simply a picture that represents an area of any size — from your child's bedroom to the whole world. Most maps are drawn from a bird's-eye view, and are almost always drawn in some sort of scale (i.e., one inch on a road map = 10 real miles) so that all the information can fit on the page. Maps are often used to locate specific places or landmarks and find the ways and distances between two locations. So you can find an exact point, maps use a geographic grid: imaginary lines running north and south and east and west. There are many terms used to describe where places are located. - Absolute Location — The position of any place on Earth as described by its latitude and longitude. - Hemisphere — One half of the globe. The equator divides the earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, while the Prime Meridian divides the earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. - Latitude — Imaginary lines that cross the surface of Earth parallel to the equator (east to west) and tell how far north or south of the equator a place is located. - Longitude — Imaginary lines that cross the surface of Earth perpendicular to the equator (north to south) and tell how far east or west a place is from the Prime Meridian. - Prime Meridian — An imaginary line running north to south through Greenwich, England, that's used as the reference point for longitude. It is also the reference point for time, which is measured relative to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). - Region — An area that includes a number of places that have something in common, either physical or cultural. For example, the "upstairs" in your house is a physical region where a number of rooms live. Chinatown in New York City (and in other U.S. cities) is a region defined by the culture of its inhabitants and businesses. - Relative Location — A description of one place based on the location of another, i.e., "the building is north of the river," or "the school is three blocks downtown from the library." There are a lot of words used to describe the features of land and water, and the way the two interact. Some of the more specific terms used are: - Archipelago — A group of islands. - Atoll — An island made of a circular coral reef surrounding a lagoon. (Picture a coral doughnut with water in the hole. - Barrier Reef — A coral reef parallel to a shore and separated from it by a lagoon. - Cape — A strip of land that juts out into water. - Isthmus — A narrow band of land that connects two bigger land areas. - Lagoon — A small lake or pond connected to a larger body of water; an area of water separated from the sea by sand dunes or coral. - Pass — A low place in a mountain range that allows people to travel through. - Peninsula — Land that is nearly surrounded by water that extends from a larger land mass. - Promontory — A high point overlooking (or projecting over) a body of water or lowland. - Plateau — A flat area of land that is higher than nearby land. Also known as a tableland or mesa. - Reef — A range or ridge of rocks, coral, or sand in the water near the surface. - Shoal — A stretch of shallow water, or a sandbank or sandbar that makes water shallow. - Strait — A narrow channel or passageway connecting two bodies of water.
ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS: THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD by Jonathan Dolhenty, Ph.D. I. The Philosophy of Socrates: Live of Socrates Socrates was born in 470 or 469 B.C.E., in Athens, the son of Sophroniscus, a sculptor, and Phaenarete, a midwife. He first learned his father’s art, but later dedicated himself to meditation and to philosophic teaching without recompense, notwithstanding his poverty. Conscious of his vocation, which he considered to be a divine mission, he did not allow himself to be distracted by domestic preoccupations and political interests. He married an Athenian woman, Xanthippe, to whom legend attributes many strange whims. Certainly, Xanthippe was not an ideal wife, but it must be admitted that neither was Socrates an ideal husband; he forgot his domestic duties out of his extreme interest in philosophy. Socrates did not take an active part in politics, although as a youth he had been a soldier and had saved the life of the youth Alcibiades in the battle of Mantinea. He believed that it would be better to serve his country by offering himself as an example of a most perfect man, obedient to its laws, even to the point of sacrifice, and by preparing a wise youth in opposition to that egotistic and power-crazed youth which the Sophists had turned loose upon the nation. But Socrates’ critical and ironic attitude and the consequent education imparted by him gave rise to a general malcontent and to popular hostility and personal enmities against him, notwithstanding his probity. Socrates appears as the head of an intellectual aristocracy, opposed to the popular tyranny and even to certain reactionary elements. This hostile state of mind toward Socrates crystallized and took juridical form in the accusation formulated against him by Meletus, Anytus, and Lycon: of corrupting youth, denying the national gods, and introducing new ones in their stead. Socrates disdained to defend himself and thus made concessions to the vanity of the judges to the point of humiliating himself before them and more or less excusing his actions. He had, before the eyes of his spirit, not an empirical acquittal for his terrestrial life but, rather, the eternal judgment of reason for immortality. He preferred death. Declared guilty by a small majority, he stood with indomitable spirit before the tribunal, and was condemned to death. Socrates was obliged to remain in prison for a month before execution. (A law prohibited the carrying out of capital punishment during the absence of the sacred ship sent yearly to Delos.) Socrates’ disciple Crito came to him and proposed flight to his master. Socrates refused, however, declaring that he did not wish to fail at any cost in obedience to his country’s laws. He passed his time preparing himself for death by spiritual converse with his disciples. Famous above all was his dialogue on the immortality of the soul, which must have taken place shortly before his death and which is recounted with incomparable art by Plato in the Phaedo. Socrates’ last words to his disciples, after quietly taking the deadly draught of hemlock, were: “I owe a cock to Aesculapius.” Aesculapius, the god of medicine, had delivered him from the evil of life with the gift of death. It was the year 399 B.C.E., the seventy-first of Socrates’ life. The late Dr. Jonathan Dolhenty was the Founder and President of The Center for Applied Philosophy and the Radical Academy, and is Honorary Philosophy Editor at The Moral Liberal. The Moral Liberal has adopted these projects beginning with a republishing and preserving of all of Dr. Dolhenty’s work. “Classic Philosophers: The Great Thinkers of the Western World” was designed and organized by Jonathan Dolhenty, Ph.D. Copyright ©1992 -2011 The Radical Academy. Copyright renewed in © 2011 -2013 The Radical Academy (a project of The Moral Liberal). The Moral Liberal recommends: Great Books of the Western World.
Lesson Plan Summary: Read The Homework Machine poem and have students draw what it would look like. This lesson incorporates Language Arts into Art. I use this with primary students, but it could be used for any grade. Pencils and erasers Pencil crayons (or crayons, felt pens, paint, etc.) Give each student their supplies. Have each student close their eyes. Tell them to close their eyes and get ready to use their imaginations. Tell them they are going to make a picture in their minds and they'll be drawing it later. Read the class the poem "The Homework Machine" by Shel Silverstein. When you are finished, tell the class to draw and color a picture of what they think the homework machine would look like. Then the students are done drawing, have a discussion about the poem and their pictures. For primary grades (especially K or 1), questions like "How big do you think the machine is?" and "What kind of noises do you think the machine would make?" are suitable. Older grades can answer questions like "Why do you think the machine didn't work properly?" and "How would you build a homework machine?" Submitted by: Patricia Pruim - Iskut, BC, Canada We want your pictures! Did you do the "Homework Machine" or a similar activity? We would love to get a picture to add to this activity page! Help others by showing off how you did it! Send us your picture or lesson modification ideas.
Teaching with Variation The central idea of teaching with variation is to highlight the essential features of the concepts through varying the non-essential features. Gu, Huang & Marton, 2004 Conceptual Variation: What it is in all its different forms True or False?: What is it and what is it not? Variation Versus Variety ‘Pick and mix’ Most practice exercises contain variety Careful choice of WHAT to vary Careful choice of what the variation will draw attention to Compare the two sets of calculations. What’s the same, what’s different? Consider how variation can both narrow and broaden the focus. Looking at all aspects of the concept. Tasks which challenge and provoke reasoning about concepts 2 paper tapes were broken, can you guess which original paper tape is longer? Why? How do you get your answer? In designing the exercises below the teacher is advised to avoid mechanical repetition and to create an appropriate path for practising the thinking process with increasing creativity . What is varying and what is not? – What is being drawn attention to? Intelligent practice provides : - Practice in calculation - Opportunities to spot relationships and make connections - Deepen conceptual understanding - Develop fluency and make connections Procedural fluency and conceptual understanding are developed in tandem.
After Colonel George Washington’s defeat at Fort Necessity in July 1754, the Royal Crown ordered Major General Edward Braddock to take command of the situation developing in North America. In February of 1755, Maj. Gen. Braddock came ashore at Hampton, Virginia, and would spend about one month at Williamsburg, Virginia before proceeding to Alexandria. While at Williamsburg, Braddock quickly went to work on plans for the future campaign. George Washington was given an opportunity to serve not as a Colonial officer, but as a British officer serving as Braddock’s Aide since he was familiar with the area past Fort Cumberland. Before the spring campaign could take place, Braddock had to plan logistics. He needed to supply and re-supply his army as they moved westward. In order to do this, wagons and pack horses were needed to transport supplies. He also needed to re-supply his army, therefore, he studied the trails as to where he could store supplies and have additional supplies transported to the field. Navigation was also discussed. The mountains would prove to be a natural barrier, the Allegheny Mountain in particular, was a very steep mountain. Another natural barrier were the rivers that flowed in the region which may be too deep to ford on foot. On March 22, Maj. Gen. Braddock left Williamsburg, and four days later moved into Alexandria, where the military aspect of the campaign would be concentrated. Major General Braddock would command the largest army North America had seen to date. He was ordered to rebuild the road west of Wills Creek at Fort Cumberland, to the Forks of the Ohio, where the French Fort Duquesne was located. He was to capture it, and then move northward, taking out French fortifications until he reached Fort Niagara. Major General Braddock’s army consisted of 1,350 soldiers from the 44th and 48th Regiments of-Foot. Major General Braddock would be re-enforced by Colonial troops and regulars, bringing his infantry up to about 2,000 men, supported by artillery. He also needed guides and Indian allies. After weeks of planning and briefings, Maj. Gen. Braddock began putting the expedition in motion. The expedition would move in stages. Major Sir John St. Clair would map out the transportation of supplies and artillery, and cut out new roads or widen existing roads. He recommended that the few supply wagons that the army had move from Alexandria to Rock Creek, and then eventually move to Winchester. Maj. St. Clair would move directly to Winchester, Virginia. Colonel Peter Halket and the 44th Regiment of-Foot would move directly to Winchester in stages beginning on April 11. On April 12, Colonel Thomas Dunbar and the 48th Regiment of-Foot would take a Maryland route, marching through Rock Creek to Frederick. Major General Braddock would leave Alexandria on April 17 and then move to Frederick. By April 17, Colonel Dunbar was just outside of Frederick. By April 21, Maj. Gen. Braddock would enter Frederick. Since supply wagons were not forthcoming, Braddock met with Benjamin Franklin, who pledged Pennsylvania support for wagons to meet the expedition at Fort Cumberland. George Washington also met with Braddock in Frederick. Also, Maj. Gen. Braddock learned that a westerly road through Maryland to Fort Cumberland did not exist and therefore, the Maryland expedition would have to turn south to Winchester. On April 29, the Maryland portion of the expedition moved through Fox’s Gap on South Mountain. The next day, modern day Williamsport was reached, where Colonel Dunbar’s command would move south toward Winchester. While Colonel Dunbar moved westward, Maj. Gen. Braddock moved directly to Winchester to meet with several Indian Chiefs. Braddock reached Winchester on May 4. The expedition would finally begin to concentrate at Fort Cumberland beginning on May 9. While at Fort Cumberland, Braddock met with several Indian leaders for their support. He wanted to ensure the Indians that his British army was there not as invaders, but, as liberators, freeing the Indians from the French. But his words were not strong enough to get the support from the natives. George Washington was also named as an Aide-de-Camp to Braddock as a volunteer Colonial. Life at Fort Cumberland consisted of drilling. Many of the Provincials were not nearly as trained as the Regulars, or the British infantry. Shortages of supplies also took a toll on the army. By May 20, Benjamin Franklin came through when several wagon loads of supplies came in rolling into Fort Cumberland. On May 29, the campaign would begin to resume. Major St. Clair and 600 men under Major Russell Chapman were ordered out to begin working on the road that led over the mountains. 50 wagons and two cannon would also leave with them. Clearing, making, and repairing roads for the main body of the army through the wilderness was not an easy task. The work was labor intensive, cutting a road twelve feet wide to accommodate the wagons and heavier artillery. The work crews were exhausted by the end of the day. The labor and poor diet of army rations would eventually take a toll on the work crews building the road. Leaving Fort Cumberland, Haystack Mountain was the first to be tackled. With Maj. Gen. Braddock’s army moving out of Fort Cumberland, it took the French for surprise. French Captain Claude-Pierre Contrecoeur had ordered upwards to 500 French and Indians out to keep an eye on the British. Now, with Braddock’s army on the move, Captain Contrecoeur felt that Braddock’s siege of Fort Duquesne would have to be completed without heavy artillery. He didn’t think the British would try to clear the Alleghenies with heavy artillery. Now, Maj. Gen. Braddock was beginning to push into the wilderness and now, the French had to find his army. By June 2, Dans Mountain was finally cleared. Next came Big Savage Mountain, standing at 2,800 feet above sea level. After which came Little Savage Mountain, followed by Meadow Mountain. On June 7, with St. Clair’s work detail being several miles ahead, the British columns began moving out. Bringing up the rear on June 10 was Maj. Gen. Braddock. Six days later, the main column of Braddock’s army encamped at Little Meadows. There, he decided to split his army. He would establish a “flying” column that could move further ahead without getting bogged down from the extra baggage of the expedition. This was an executive decision made by Braddock. On June 18, Maj. St. Clair moved out to begin clearing roads for the heavier equipment to come up at the rear. The next morning, under Maj. Gen. Braddock’s direct supervision the flying column moved out. With Braddock were Colonel Sir Peter Halket and the veteran soldiers of the 44th and 48th Regiments of-Foot, supported by four 12-pound cannon, four howitzers, three cohorn mortars, and thirteen wagons. Bringing up the rear was Colonel Dunbar, with a command of newer recruits and baggage, who was ordered to be at least one day behind the main column. On June 20, Braddock was just south of Pennsylvania and was forced to encamp there for a few days, as he caught up to Maj. St. Clair’s’ working party. Three days later, the army was on the move and by June 24, they had encamped just east of Great Meadows, where a year earlier Washington had fought and surrendered to the French. The next day, some of the officers saw the charcoal remains of Fort Necessity. They were not all that impressed with the fort. It was noted that human bones laid upon the ground from those who were killed in that battle. On June 25, the flying column marched about two miles west of the old fort and encamped. The next day, Chestnut Ridge, the last major mountain, was ascended. Now Braddock’s Army would have to be mindful as they were in the territory that France considered as “New France.” During Braddock’s expedition, the French at Fort Duquesne had sent out patrols to find the British army and harasses them. With all of the problems that faced Braddock, the French, Canadian militia, and Indians should have found the British army easily. There were some Indian attacks, but nothing major materialized from it. Intelligence gathering for both armies was lacking. Crocker, Thomas E. Braddock’s March, Westholme Publishing, Yardley, PA, 2009. Hall, Charles (editor). Gen. Braddock’s Defeat, Fort Edwards Foundation, Capoon Bridge, WV, 2005. Netherton, Ross. Braddock’s Campaign and the Potomac Route to the West, Higher Ed. Publishers, Falls Chruch, VA. 1997. Kopperman, Paul E. Braddock at the Monongahela, University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, PA. 1977. McCardell, Lee. Ill-starred General, University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, PA. 1958. Wahll, Andrew J. Braddock Road Chronicles 1755, Heritage Books, Westminster, MD. 2006. Parkman, Francis. Braddock’s Defeat, 1755, The French and English in America, Maynard, New York, NY, 1890 Preston, David. Braddock’s Defeat, Oxford University, Oxford NY. 2015.
\|Drafting the content of slides ...\| before making a PowerPoint presentation In numeracy we have been learning to partition two and three digit numbers and to double two digit numbers to twenty. This week’s spellings are now, she, you, are, her, all, they. For homework this week we have asked the children to use the appropriate sign to say if a number is “greater” than or “less” than a given number. The children have also got a copy of the text map of the story about Lima and the Red Hot Chilli which would like them to use to retell the story at home. Make sure that they show you the actions too! Thank you for your continued support. Have a lovely weekend. Miss Mead, Mrs Halstead and The Year Two Team.
Note: This article, originally published in 1998, was updated in 2006 for the eBook edition. Fermium is one of the transuranium elements, which lie beyond uranium on the periodic table. The periodic table is a chart that shows how chemical elements are related to each other. Uranium is element number 92, so all elements with larger atomic numbers are transuranium elements. Discovery and naming Fermium was discovered in 1952, among the products formed during the first hydrogen bomb test at Eniwetok Atoll, Marshall Islands, in the Pacific Ocean. For security reasons, this discovery was not announced until 1955. Credit for the discovery of fermium goes to a group of University of California scientists under the direction of Albert Ghiorso (1915- ). The element was named for Italian physicist Enrico Fermi (1901-54). Fermi made many important scientific discoveries in his life, and was a leader of the U.S. effort to build the world's first fission (atomic) bomb during World War II. Physical and chemical properties Too little fermium has been prepared to allow scientists to determine its physical and chemical properties. Fermium is not extracted from the Earth's crust. ENRICO Fermi \| Italian-born physicist F ermium was named after Italian-born physicist Enrico Fermi (1901-54). Fermi taught physics and did research at the University of Rome from 1926 to 1938. During this period, he learned how to use neutrons to change elements from one form (isotope) to another. He received the Nobel Prize in physics in 1938 for these discoveries. The year he received the Nobel Prize was a difficult time in Europe. Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) had just come to power in Italy. Mussolini followed many of the same unjust policies as did Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) in Germany. One of these policies was anti-Semitism (hostility toward Jews). Fermi, whose wife was Jewish, began to worry about what might happen if they stayed in Italy. Like many other scientists in Europe, he finally decided to come to the United States, where he took a job at Columbia University in New York. Soon after his arrival in the United States, Fermi's experience with neutrons proved to be very valuable. The U.S. government had undertaken a huge research program called the Manhattan Project. The purpose of the Manhattan Project was to find a way to build an atomic bomb. Fermi was placed in charge of one part of that project. Fermi's responsibility was to find a way to study the reaction that occurs when uranium atoms are bombarded by neutrons. His team did most of this research at the University of Chicago. On December 2, 1942, the team made an important breakthrough. They produced the first self-sustaining chain reaction in history. A self-sustaining chain reaction is one in which neutrons split uranium atoms apart. Large amounts of energy are produced in the reaction. Additional neutrons are also formed. These neutrons can be used to make the reaction repeat over and over again. The reaction eventually formed the basis of the first atomic bombs built three years later. After the war, Fermi returned to the University of Chicago as professor of physics. He died at the early age of 53 of stomach cancer. In his honor, the U.S. government created the Enrico Fermi Award for accomplishments in nuclear physics. All isotopes of fermium are radioactive. The most stable isotope is fermium-257. Isotopes are two or more forms of an element. Isotopes differ from each other according to their mass number. The number written to the right of the element's name is the mass number. The mass number represents the number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of the element. The number of protons determines the element, but the number of neutrons in the atom of any one element can vary. Each variation is an isotope. The half life of fermium-257 is 20.1 hours. The half life of a radioactive element is the time it takes for half of a sample of the element to break down. A radioactive isotope is one that breaks apart and gives off some form of radiation. For example, suppose 100 grams of fermium-257 is made. Fifty grams of the isotope would be left about one day (20.1 hours) later. After another day (another 20.1 hours), only 25 grams of the isotope would remain. Occurrence in nature Fermium does not occur naturally in the Earth's crust. Fermium is sometimes used in scientific research, but it has no commercial applications. There are no commercially important compounds of fermium. Scientists know too little about fermium to be aware of its health effects. As a radioactive element, however, it does pose a threat to human health. Fermium, the eleventh member of the actinide series, was discovered in 1952. Fermium (element 100), together with einsteinium (element 99), were unexpectedly produced in the explosion of the first U.S. thermonuclear device, "Mike," tested at Eniwetok Atoll in the South Pacific on November 1, 1952. Fermium was first identified in the form of the 255Fm (half-life 20 hours). The name fermium was chosen for element 100, in honor of the great physicist Enrico Fermi. Fermium isotopes of masses 242 through 260 are known. All are radioactive, decaying via α -particle emission, electron capture, and spontaneous fission . The isotope of mass 258 has the shortest half-life (0.4 milliseconds), and that of mass 257 has the longest (100.5 days). It is noteworthy that a predominantly symmetric mass division (during spontaneous fission) was first observed in 259Fm. The ground state electronic configuration of the gaseous fermium atom is [Rn]5f127s2, analogous to that of its lanthanide homologue (erbium). The most stable ion in aqueous solution is Fm3+, although Fm2+ and Fm4+ have been reported. However, the claim of the identification of the latter two ions has not been substantiated. As with einsteinium, divalency is seen in the metal . see also Actinium; Berkelium; Einsteinium; Fermi, Enrico; Lawrencium; Mendelevium; Neptunium; Nobelium; Plutonium; Protactinium; Radioactivity; Rutherfordium; Thorium; Transactinides; Transmutation; Uranium. Darleane C. Hoffman Ghiorso, Albert; Thompson, S. G.; Higgins, G. H.; et al. (1955). "New Elements Einsteinium and Fermium, Atomic Numbers 99 and 100." Physical Review 99:1048[L]. Hoffman, Darleane C.; Ghiorso, Albert; and Seaborg, Glenn T. (2000). The Transuranium People: The Inside Story. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing. Seaborg, Glenn T., and Loveland, Walter D. (1990). The Elements beyond Uranium. New York: Wiley. FM ★★ Citizen's Band 1978 (PG-13) The disc jockeys at an L.A. radio station rebel in the name of rock'n'roll. Despite the promising cast and setting (Mull makes his movie debut as a memorable space case), this is just disjointed and surprisingly unhip; one producer took his name off it due to creative difficulties. The decent soundtrack includes concert footage of Jimmy Buffet and Linda Ronstadt. ♫FM; Do It Again; FM Reprise; Livingston Saturday Night; The Key To My Kingdom; Green Grass and High Tides; Life In The Fast Lane; Bad Man; Poor, Poor, Pitiful Me. 104m/C VHS, DVD . Eileen Brennan, Alex Karras, Cleavon Little, Martin Mull, Cassie Yates, Linda Ronstadt, Jimmy Buffett; D: John A. Alonzo; W: Ezra Sacks; C: David Myers.
Oxygen saturation refers to the level of oxygen found in a person's blood, as indicated by the Mayo Clinic's definition of hypoxemia. A healthy person's blood is maintained through a certain oxygen saturation range to adequately deliver oxygen to cells and tissues. Blood oxygen saturation that is too low results in hypoxemia, causing the person to experience symptoms including shortness of breath, states the Mayo Clinic. Oxygen saturation is measured by testing a sample of blood from any artery. A pulse oximeter is a less accurate but valuable means for testing oxygen saturation. A healthy range of oxygen saturation is between 95 and 100 percent, according to the Mayo Clinic.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging What is Magnetic Resonance Imaging? Magnetic Resonance Imaging, or MRI, is a noninvasive diagnostic tool used to create three-dimensional images of the inside of the human body. These images are similar to images produced by a CT scan, but MRI scans are able to produce more detailed images of the body's soft tissues. These clearer images, which are produced using a magnetic field, mean MRI scans are valuable when it comes to diagnosing infection, cancer, internal bleeding or trauma. What are the steps in Magnetic Resonance Imaging? Preparing for an MRI When preparing for an MRI, it's important to remove dentures or dental bridges, jewelry, glasses, and similar items. Certain surgical implants may make a patient ineligible for an MRI. Some of the items that cannot be put in an MRI machine include some cardiac defibrillators, pacemakers, cochlear implants, plates, screws, clips, and metal coils. The patient may be given a gown to wear and hearing protection. If the patient has anxiety or is a child, sedation may be used to keep them still and relaxed during the MRI scan. Usually, pregnant women are not given MRIs. Contrast Material Administered If necessary, a special contrast material may be administered orally or intravenously. This may be done to give a more detailed scan. The patient is placed in position, and the scanning process is started. Loud humming and banging sounds will be heard once the machine is activated. The time it takes for an MRI may vary, but the procedure usually lasts 30 to 90 minutes. If the patient moves during the procedure, it may be necessary to stop and restart the process. A technician in the next room observes the procedure and the imagery provided by the MRI during the scanning process. The patient and the technician communicate by a microphone and speaker during the procedure. After the MRI After the scan is completed, a radiologist reviews the MRI images and sends a report to the referring physician. The patient and physician will discuss the results of the test to determine a course of treatment.
An angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle. Angles are usually assumed to be in a Euclidean plane or in the Euclidean space, but are also defined in non-Euclidean geometries. In particular, in spherical geometry, the spherical angles are defined, using arcs of great circles instead of rays. Angle is also used to designate the measure of an angle or of a rotation. This measure is the ratio of the length of a circular arc to its radius. The radian is the standard unit of angle with symbol rad and c. Angle Conversion Calculator Most popular convertion pairs of angle - Frequency Wavelength
Darwin’s finches, or Galapagos finches, are small land birds found in the Galapagos Islands. There are 14 different finches in the Geospizinae subfamily. They belong to the tanager family of birds and are actually not closely related to true finches at all. The closest known relative of the Galapagos finches is the dull-coloured grassquit, which is found on mainland South America. Only one finch in the group known as Darwin’s finches is not native to Galapagos. The Cocos finch can only be found on Cocos Island, an offshore island in Costa Rica. The rest of Darwin’s finches are found only in the Galapagos Islands, but are spread across the Archipelago. Darwin’s finches are all incredibly similar in shape, size and colour, but there are a few differences which can help you get started in identifying them. Darwin’s finches vary in shades and tones, but not enough to make the changes in appearance as obvious as other species of birds. This means that plumage is not the easiest way of identifying the finches. The majority of Darwin’s finches are generally dull black, brown or olive, often with streaky plumage, short tails and short, rounded wings. Unfortunately, this makes identifying the species just by the plumage very difficult! Plumage colour can, however, be helpful for identifying if you are looking at a male or female finch species. For example, the males of the ground finches usually have black plumage, whereas the females have brown, streaked plumage. The simplest way to identify the finches is to know the locations where they can be seen in the Archipelago. Every aspect of the finch’s variations is based on their immediate and unique habitat. Many animals in Galapagos are endemic to particular islands, and Darwin’s finches are no different. For example, the medium tree finch is endemic to Floreana island, and the large cactus ground finch can only be found on the islands of Espanola, Genovesa, Darwin or Wolf. Because of the great distance between the islands in Galapagos, the finches cannot interbreed and are forced to eat the food readily available to them, so over time the different populations on the various islands have became distinct. The table below shows you which finches can be found on each island, so depending on where you are in Galapagos, you should be able to at least narrow down which finches you will be likely to spot. The diet of these birds varies greatly from island to island due to the variation in the flora and fauna on each landmass. The techniques used by the finches for collecting food differs from island to island as well, which has led to the change in each finches’ appearance and behaviour. If you happen to see a finch feeding or displaying a particular type of feeding behaviour, this should help you to further identify which finch you have in your sight. For example, the medium and small ground finches feed on the ectoparasites of the iguanas and tortoises and the cactus ground finch feeds on the flowers of the Opuntia cactus. The woodpecker and mangrove finch use tools such as cactus spines in order to assist in its feeding on of beetle larvae, by digging them out of rotten wood, therefore these birds live in the humid swamp areas of the Archipelago. Both can be found on Isabela islands, and the Woodpecker finch also inhabits Santa Cruz, San Cristobel and Santiago islands. Beak size and shape These isolated populations of birds show considerable variations in bill structure and feeding habits that supported Darwin’s theory of evolution. The most visually noticeable aspect of variation between the finch species is certainly the beak size and shape. For example, slim, sharp beaks prevailed in insect-feeding birds; and short, thick beaks that were suitable for crashing seeds occurred in seed-eating populations. The largest beak belongs to the large ground finch, whose beak is huge in comparison to the rest of its body. The powerful beak is used for cracking hard seeds. The smallest of the beaks belongs to the small tree finch, used for finding tiny insects inside cracks in wood and rocks. Hopefully this has given you a bit of a head start when it comes to identifying Darwin’s finches. But do bear in mind the words of author Michael Harris: “It is only a very wise man or a fool who thinks that he is able to identify all the finches which he sees”.
What Makes a Planet? In ancient times, it was relatively easy to say what was a planet and what wasn’t. When you looked up at the night sky, some of the stars would stay in place over time, while others would wander around—and after all, the word planet itself comes from the Greek word for “wanderer.” So anything that moved against the background of the fixed stars was considered a planet—the sun, the moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Much later, as astronomy became more of a modern science, the definition of planet changed accordingly. In the 17th century, planet began to be used specifically of the large rocky or gaseous bodies that orbit around the sun—a definition which excluded the moon and, obviously, the sun, but now included the Earth and, as they were discovered, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. Although a bit more complicated than “one of the moving stars,” this was still a relatively simple, reliable definition, and remained useful for several centuries. However, as we moved into the 21st century, the increased power of telescopes and other detection techniques made the issue more complicated again. Ten years ago, in 2006, in response to the discovery of a number of additional astronomical bodies in the outskirts of our solar system, the International Astronomical Union decided on a new, even narrower definition of planet: a celestial body that orbits the sun, is large enough to form a spherical shape under the influence of its own gravity, and heavy enough to deflect any other bodies in its orbit. In the process, Pluto was demoted to the status of a dwarf planet—a celestial body that is spherical and orbits the sun but that is not big enough to disturb other objects from its orbit. Although not without a bit of controversy, these new definitions have been generally accepted by scientists and public alike.
Teach students facts about the Supreme Court and how it works. - Learn how to research for a case and build an argument. - Practice public speaking. - Learn the importance the Supreme Court has on their lives. - NCSS Standard: VI. Power, Authority, & Government - NCSS Standard: X. Civic Ideals & Practices Time Required: 1-2 days Recommended Grade Level: 4-8 Topics: Government, History - How the Supreme Court Works Infographic (.png file) - Supreme Court's Visitor's Guide to Oral Argument - Worksheet: Characteristics of a Persuasive Essay 1. Choose Your Case Activity Use the infographic to present the role of the Supreme Court, how it works, the types of cases that reach the Supreme Court, and any background information on this institution. Brainstorm with your class possible cases that may reach the Supreme Court, cases students are interested in. Some examples: - Changing the voting age - Paying college athletes - Homework at school should not be legal - Access to free college education - A school or local issue Choose up to three cases from the list (or others that the students may be interested in) and divide the class into groups and assign a role based on the participants in the Courtroom. - Attorneys are assigned cases to argue in favor and against the case. - Choose nine students to represent the Justices that will examine the arguments and decide over the case. - Other roles and tasks to the rest of the class. Have students start planning their arguments and instruct them to dress accordingly to their role. Homework: Give students this worksheet where they can learn about arguing, and use to prepare their case. 2. Courtroom Session Organize your classroom for a mockup courtroom session. Then students will represent their parts: - the Marshal calls the Court to order, maintain decorum in the courtroom, - time the oral, presentations, etc.; - the attorneys argue their cases; - the Justices ask questions. After the cases are argued and heard, the Justices will review and discuss the arguments. The decision will be announced to the class. Homework: Have the students write a short summary of the case. The basics, the arguments for and against and the court's decision and why they thought that way.
Big brown bats also known as Eptesicus fuscus are member of bat species popular in the areas of the United States, Canada and other parts of North America. These bat specie has also been found in southern Mexico. On the physical appearance, they are characterized by average body length of about 120mm. The back of this bat specie is covered with brown fur while the stomach is covered with brighter and paler fur. Nevertheless, the face, wings, ears as well as their tails are completely black. The wingspan is measured 330mm (13 inches) and they have sharp-strong teeth which made it easy for them to feed on insects with hard shell. The female big brown bats normally form nursery colonies in order to rear the young ones. There is variation in the size of the colony ranging from twenty to thirty animals. During this maternity period the male normally roost alone. Though the mating season of big brown bat is always fall and winter the females do not get pregnant at this time till spring as they normally store the sperm while in hibernation. That is why the females normally give birth in late May or early June. The babies are known to be bourn blind and without fur on their body and also completely rely on their mother for feeding and nourishment. Within a month or 6 weeks they babies are already strong enough to fly from place to place. The life cycle of big brown bat is known to start at the mating season which normally takes place in fall or spring while in hibernation but the copulation is not always complete until they are out of hibernation. In most cases the female big brown bats normally give birth to twins mostly June but in North America, they only have one baby yearly. This kind of bat can live up to 18 to 20 years while in wild. However, most big brown bats normally die in their first winter season if they do not store enough calories that can take them. When it comes to places big brown bats inhabit, they are just so numerous to mention as they can easily adapt in variety of places. The habitat of big brown bats ranges from cities, meadows, deserts to mountains, forest and chaparral. Diet and Behaviors Big brown bats are highly widespread to different parts of the world due to the fats that they are hardy to withstand adverse weather conditions which other bats cannot handle. The ones that normally hibernate normally do so in mines, attics, caves and others. And some normally migrate short distance to find suitable location for hibernation. There are lots of things big brown bats consider before selecting roost. One of the reasons is to stay safe from predators. The predators such as Snakes, Cats, raccoons and others will easily catch them if they happen to fall to the ground. These bat specie is known to be insectivorous in nature. They love to feed on beetles and other flying insects like flies, moths, flying ants and wasps. BAT CONTROL: We specialize in bat control projects. Call us now for bat control in your city or town. Go back to the How to get rid of bats page to learn more about Biology of Big Brown Bat: Appearance, Biology, Life Cycle, Habitat, Diet and Behavior To find out our prices for bat control, visit our bat removal prices page.
As the school year starts to wind down, you may want to take some time to review what students have learned (or should have learned) throughout the year. Not only does reviewing important concepts help students prepare for final exams, but it also gives you one more opportunity to help information stick in students’ brains. To help you review with students, we’ve rounded up some of our top online, self-directed lessons for Language Arts, Math, Science, Social Studies, and Early Education. You can share these lessons in a whole class setting or assign them to individual students to work on in class or at home. You can also share the links with parents so students can watch the lessons and continue learning over the summer. On Help Teaching’s Language Arts Lessons page, you will find lessons covering a range of topics, grammar skills and reading comprehension strategies to thematic vocabulary and spelling lists. Suffix -ER – Understanding the meaning of common prefixes and suffixes helps students learn to decode unfamiliar words while reading. Use this lesson about the suffix – ER and find additional prefix and suffix lessons on the ELA Lessons page. Types of Sentences – Knowing the types of sentences can help students better understand the meaning of sentences they read, as well as begin to vary sentence types in their own writing. Discover the four main types of sentences in this lesson: interrogative, declarative, imperative, and exclamatory. What are Prepositions? – Prepositions are one of the eight parts of speech students should know. In this lesson, students can learn what prepositions are and when to use them. Elements of a Mystery – Mystery is often an exciting genre for students. Whether students are reading a mystery or writing their own mysteries, this lesson will help make sure they know the elements of the genre. This lesson covers terms such as suspense and red herring. Online Advertising Techniques – Do your students know and recognize common advertising techniques when they see them? This lesson will introduce students to some key techniques so that they can become more media literate and learn not to be dubed by advertisers’ tricks. SAT Prep: Improving Sentences – Whether taking the SAT or another standardized language exam, students are frequently asked to answer questions related to improving sentences. This lesson breaks down common ways to improve sentences and helps improve students’ understanding of the elements of grammar and good writing. Our collection of Social Studies Lessons is continuing to grow and include lessons related to geography, U.S. history, and even critical thinking skills. Visit the site regularly to see all of new lessons as soon as they are added. U.S. States and Capitals – How well do your students know their states and capitals? They can use this lesson to learn them for the first time or brush up on their knowledge. The accompanying questions and worksheets offer additional practice opportunities. The Declaration of Independence – The Declaration of Independence is one of the key documents in American history. This lesson provides an overview of the document and helps students understand its importance in history. The Constitution – As politicians make and pass new laws, people often discuss whether those laws are constitutional. This lesson gives students an overview of the Constitution and the rights it guarantees the American people. Historical Thinking Skill Contextualization – When it comes to understanding history, context is key. This lesson helps student understand history within the context that it is presented to help them become more informed consumers of information. Historical Thinking Skill Multiple Perspectives – There are at least two sides to every story. In this lesson, students are encouraged to look at historical events from multiple perspectives. Help Teaching’s science lessons cover key concepts and skills in the areas of astronomy, biology, chemistry, physics, earth science, and scientific practices. Push and Pull – A Science Story – The Next Generation Science Standards ask that students demonstrate understanding of forces and motion, beginning in kindergarten with pushes and pulls. Use this narrated story lesson to reinforce student understanding of the effects of pushing or pulling on an object. Why Does the Sun Look So Bright? – Part of understanding Earth’s place in the universe is knowing that the sun is an average star that appears brighter than those seen at night because of its relative distance from the Earth. Check in on your students’ conceptions about why the sun is so bright with this video lesson and worksheet. Amphibian Vocabulary Words – If your students confuse amphibians with reptiles, help them brush-up on the differences with this narrated video lesson on amphibian vocabulary words. Find vocabulary lessons for reptiles, mammals, fish, birds, and invertebrates on our Biology Lessons page. Weather and Climate – Understanding the similarities and differences between weather and climate is a fundamental earth science concept, but can be confusing to students. This lesson reviews the relationship between weather and climate then asks students to apply their knowledge in practice questions and accompanying worksheet. Laboratory Safety Symbols – One of the most exciting things about science is hands-on labs. However, practicing science safely is vital to the success of any experiment. Make sure your middle or high school students have mastered the meanings of these key lab safety symbols. History of the Atom – Review the history of atomic theory, from Dalton’s theory through the modern wave-mechanical model of the atom, with this video lesson ideal for the introductory chemistry student. Newton’s Laws of Motion – Newton’s Laws of Motion are fundamental to an understanding of how forces interact. Make sure your physics students have a solid grasp of these three laws with this video lesson and practice questions. Our collection of math lessons is designed to cover fundamental concepts and skills in the areas of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, statistics, and trigonometry. The General Sherman Tree Math Story – Students are asked to apply their knowledge of hundreds, tens, and ones place value in this real-world story lesson about the mighty General Sherman Tree. Telling Time – A.M. and P.M. – Is it 3:00 in the morning? Or, is it 3:00 in the afternoon? Check that your students can differentiate between A.M. and P.M. with this narrated lesson. Classifying Angles – Upper elementary math students are expected to be able to identify right, acute, and obtuse angles, then apply this knowledge to classifying two-dimensional shapes. This lesson reviews angles types before students move onto studying more advanced geometric figures. Solving for Variables – Algebra is all about finding missing information. Information which is unknown or can change is represented by variables. Students will review the basic rules to follow for solving for variables and test their understanding through guided problems. Linear Equations Using Slope Intercept Form – A linear equation can be expressed in different ways, but one of the most useful forms is the slope intercept form. Make sure your students have mastered using slope intercept form with the examples and problems in this narrated video lesson. Finding the Volume of Compound Shapes – Sometimes shapes are nice and simple like cylinders or boxes, but many times they are more complex. This lesson breaks apart a complex shape piece-by-piece, illustrating how to solve compound shape problems. The Letter A – What word starts with the letter A? Apple starts with A. So does acorn. Students can learn many different words that start with the letter A in this short video lesson. Our ELA lessons page contains short videos for all 26 letters of the alphabet. Long Vowel Sounds – In this video, students will learn all of the long vowel sounds. They will also discover key words that contain those vowel sounds. This short lesson is great for building beginning reading and spelling skills. The – AN Word Family – Introduce kids to the -AN word family with this short lesson which contains words and pictures of different -AN words. Our ELA lessons page features lessons for other word families as well. Counting to Ten – In this short video, students can practice counting to ten. This video aligns with Common Core standards for kindergarten, but it’s great for preschoolers too. Naming Shapes: Circle – What does a circle look like? In this video, kids look at a series of shapes and must decide whether each shape is a circle. You can find videos for other shapes on the Math lessons page. Big and Small – Recognizing the difference between big and small is an important concept for kids. In this lesson, kids learn what the words big and small mean. Then they must identify objects as big or small. If you like the lessons you see, visit Help Teaching’s Lessons page to discover even more educational lessons. New lessons are always being added to the site, so continue to check back for more topics. Try HelpTeaching out today for free. No credit card required.
Frostbite is a medical condition involving damage to skin and tissues due to extreme cold. Frostbite is most likely to happen in body parts that are far from the heart or those with large exposed areas to cold weather. The initial stages of frostbite are sometimes called “frost nip”. A person with frostbite on the arms or legs may also have hypothermia (lowered body temperature). Frostbite can occur when skin is exposed to a temperature at or lower temperature of 0 °C (32 °F), resulting in vasoconstriction. The resultant decrease in blood flow does not deliver sufficient heat to the tissue to prevent the formation of ice crystals. The anatomic sites most susceptible to frostbite include hands, feet, and exposed tissues (eg, ears, nose, and lips). At or below 0 °C (32 °F), blood vessels close to the skin start to constrict, and blood is shunted away from the extremities via the action of the glomus bodies (glomus bodies are most numerous in the fingers and toes. The role of the glomus body is to shunt blood away from the skin surface when exposed to cold temperature, thus preventing heat loss, and allowing maximum heat flow to the skin in warm weather to allow heat to dissipate. The glomus body has a high sympathetic tone and potentiation leads to near complete vasoconstriction). There are four degrees of frostbite. Each of these degrees has varying degrees of pain . First degree: It is known as frostnip. It only affects the surface of the skin, which is exposed. On the onset, there is itching and pain, and then the skin develops white, red, and yellow patches and becomes numb. The area affected by frostnip usually does not become permanently damaged as only the skin's top layers are affected. Second degree: If skin is exposed to cold for longer time, then it may freeze and harden, but the deep tissues are generally not affected and remain soft and normal. Second-degree injury cause blisters for about one or two days after becoming frozen. The blisters may become hard and blackened, but usually appear worse than they are. Most of the injuries heal in one month, but the area may become permanently insensitive to both heat and cold. Third and fourth degrees: If the exposed area freezes further, deep frostbite occurs. The muscles, tendons, blood vessels, and nerves all freeze. The skin becomes hard, feels waxy, and the area is lost temporarily, and may be permanent in severe cases. The deep frostbite results in areas of purplish blisters which turn black and which are generally blood-filled. Nerve damage in the area can result in a loss of feeling. This extreme frostbite may result in fingers and toes being amputated if the area becomes infected with gangrene. If the frostbite has not treated, it may fall off. The extent of the damage done to the area by the freezing process of the frostbite may take several months to assess, and this often delays surgery to remove the dead tissue. Frostbite generally occurs when body is exposed to low temperatures. The severity of frostbite depends on the temperature and period of exposure. When the temperature is below freezing point, it leads to frostbite due to inadequate blood circulation to the exposed body parts. This can be due to the body's reaction to freezing by constricting circulation to the extremities so as to preserve its temperature and fight hypothermia. It can further lead to hypothermia (extreme cold, inadequate clothing, wet clothes, wind chill). Poor circulation can also be due to other factors such as cramped positions, tight clothing, fatigue, certain medications, smoking, alcohol use, or diseases that affect the blood vessels such as diabetes. Frost bite is generally diagnosed based on the symptoms MRI and X-rays can also be used to know the extent of severity in the frost bite. It is better to prevent from being exposed to cold by taking necessary precautions. Re-warming: It should be done only if that skin area will not be exposed to cold further. Ideally, re-warming should be done under medical supervision as: It can be a painful process that might requires painkillers. The best results are achieved by using a whirlpool bath that contains a mild antiseptic. The affected area should be re-warmed slowly by immersing it in warm (not hot) water. A bath of water at a temperature of 40-41C (104-105.8F) is recommended. Re-warming should last at least 30 minutes and should only be stopped once the affected body part has a red-purple color and can be easily moved. If there is high risk of frostbite for any length of time, clothing is very important. Make sure that extremities, such as hands, feet, nose, ears and lips, are well protected. These are the most vulnerable areas and often the first to be affected. Healthy warm meals and drinks, such as hot chocolate, are effective in keeping you warm. U S National Library of Science
With the advent of various life-changing technologies came the chance for mankind to have an easier, faster and better life. As such, the ability to access computers, and by extension, the web/internet, has become necessary for one to immerse oneself within the economic, political, and social aspects of human life all over the world. However, it is often the case that not everyone has access to such life-changing technologies. Some people end up being on the sidelines, marginalised. This lopsidedness is what forms what is known as the digital divide. Basically, digital divide may be expressed as the gulf between the regions or areas which have access to modern ICT devices (such as telephones, computers, the internet etc) and those who don't. It is seemingly apposite to bring to notice that the term digital divide is not a new idea but one which has developed over the years. Before the late 20th century, the term was used to refer to the split between those that had access to telephones and those who didn't. However, recently it mostly points to the gap between urban cities and rural towns or areas in relation to global awareness and access to information devices. It is perhaps equally worthy of mention that digital divide takes difference forms. It occurs between the rural areas and urban cities, between the educated and the uneducated, between socio-economic groups and less developed countries. Even in countries with access to digital technology it is evident by virtue of the gap between the quality of computers being used by different individuals. In other words, the idea of the "digital divide" refers to the ever increasing gap between the underprivileged members of society (especially the poor, rural, elderly, and handicapped) who do not have access to computers or the internet; and those who have access (the wealthy, middle-class etc or those living in urban and suburban areas) on the other hand. There are various factors contributing to the digital divide and they may include a person's level of education, background or location, financial status etc. One of the chief barriers to equal internet access is the issue of affordability. Most people cannot cope with the attendant high prices coming with technological advances. Another issue of contention is the lack of empowerment which results to the inequality in participation i.e people who do not have the necessary knowledge how to effectively employ the internet. The impacts of digital divide are severe and are far reaching on the individual, the society and the globe at large. One of these impacts is its contribution to stratification in a society where some people have access to the internet while others do not, either due to illiteracy or affordability issues. Digital divide also inhibits access to information and knowledge. As it is commonly said that the lack of information is deformation. Also, people would generally agree that knowledge is power which means that the lack thereof amounts to powerlessness. The difference between the rich and the poor is some cases is lack of information. Information is power and in the words of an astute scholar "if education is expensive try ignorance." Indeed, there is a world out there waiting to be explored and the internet is a leverage for this opportunities to be tapped into and exploited. One of these opportunities is the emerging cryptocurrency and blockchain world which has come to establish itself as the future of many spheres of human endeavour. However, due to the digital divide, some people do not have an idea of what cryptocurrency or blockchain technology is. This is rather disturbing as it means that such marginalised people do not have the privilege to enjoy the benefits that the emergence of cryptocurrency and blockchain technology has brought with it. It is obvious that some solution has to be proffered to solve this huge problem and EmpowermeEOS might just be that solution. EmpowermeEOS is a social initiative, based on the EOS blockchain, created with the singular purpose of helping youths and people in marginalised communities get in touch with the changing times in the financial sphere in line with crypocurrency and blockchain technology, so that they would not be left behind. The major aim has been to use the EOS blockchain as a pillar to support these people and help them on a journey to understand the world of cryptocurrency and all it entails. So far we've been able to help several people as the program currently boasts of a little over 100 students. (EmpowermeEOS mentor, Toju Kaka, teaching a set students about blockchain technology at a campus meet-up) We have taken it upon ourselves to provide them with ample education so that they are mentally equipped to succeed. We believe that education is empowerment. Education is the primary tool that we can use to reduce the ignorance fear and poverty in this world. We believe that no amount of financial aid can cure poverty because poverty is not a disease of the pocket but rather a disease of the mind. Thus, the importance of empowering people with knowledge. However, in facilitating this education, it is rather obvious that the contemporary classroom experience will not suffice. This is owing to the fact that technology is bringing so much rapid change to the world and the education systems in most parts of the world simply cannot keep up. Most of these vital knowledge can be accessed online with the myraid of great online courses and content. There are equally many online influencers that help to break down the most complex ideas and make it easy for the layman to understand. But what happens when the people you want to educate are not online? What happens when they cannot afford to be online? What happens when they don’t have smartphones? What happens when they cannot afford data/internet subscription? (EmpowermeEOS mentor, Toju Kaka, presenting a laptop to a University student at a blockchain awareness tour) This is where EmpowermeEOS comes in. The plan has been to provide young people with technology, education and mentorship so that they can attain financial freedom. We leverage on the EOS blockchain, its dApps, communities and sidechains to empower these teens and youths by equipping them with the necessary tools (such as phones, internet subscription, learning materials etc) which they need to work both online and offline. Please Donate to EmpowermeEOS Support us as we bridge the digital divide and take a stand against poverty and ignorance with the aid of blockchain technology. Your donation will go a long way to educate someone and lift him/her out of poverty. You can donate by sending EOS to: empowermeeos Bitcoin to: 12k7Y3MQBGWDbFuhp92nh6GTzfCGB4uW9H You can also learn more and connect with EmpowermeEOS via the following media: Definition of Digital Divide\|\|Tech Target
The Paiute, like the Shoshone, are descended from the Cochise culture. The Cochise lived in North America’s southwest about 8000 BC. With the end of the last Ice Age, the southwest got too dry to support everybody. So the Cochise split up. The ancestors of the Paiute, the Shoshone, the Aztecs, and the Ute moved north. Soon they lived around the edges of an enormous lake. The lake covered most of northern Nevada and into Wyoming and Utah and Colorado! But even this giant lake started to dry up about 7000 BC. So they split up again. The Aztec and Ute moved back to the south. But the Shoshone and Paiute stayed where they were. So Paiute languages are related to the languages that the Shoshone, the Utes and the Aztecs speak. By about 5000 BC, Paiute people lived all across what is now southern Oregon, Nevada, California, western Utah, and northern Arizona. Paiute people were not farmers. They were nomadic. They hunted and gathered all of their food. Each group of Paiute people controlled access to one particular lake or wetland. Paiutes found most of the food and materials they needed along the edges of that lake, or by fishing and catching ducks and geese in their lake. They also gathered pine nuts in the mountains, every fall. They ate grass seed, wapato and other roots, squirrels and rabbits, and deer. Like their Ute relatives further south, Paiute people lived in wickiups. Mostly the Paiute lived in peace with the Shoshone to their north and the Ute to their south, who were their relatives. But the Washoe lived to the west of the Paiutes, along the California coast, and were not related to them. The Paiutes did fight wars over land rights with the Washoe people. About 1200 AD, some of these Paiute may have gotten together with southern Shoshone people and the Ute to invade Pueblo people’s land. That was far south of them in what is now New Mexico and Arizona.
Picture a bouncing ball. Between impacts with the floor, the ball rises and slows, then descends and speeds up. For any particular bounce, if the ball’s height is plotted as a function of time, the resulting graph has a parabolic shape. In other words, the relationship between height and time for a single bounce of a ball is quadratic. This relationship is expressed mathematically as where y represents the ball’s height at any given time x. Another form of a quadratic equation is where h is the x-coordinate of the vertex, k is the y-coordinate of the vertex, and a is a parameter. This way of writing a quadratic is called the vertex form. In this activity, you will record the motion of a bouncing ball using a Motion Detector. You will then analyze the collected data and model the variations in the ball’s height as a function of time during one bounce using both the general and vertex forms of the quadratic equation. - Record height versus time data for a bouncing ball. - Model a single bounce using both the general and vertex forms of the parabola.
For a reaction to occur, reactant particles must collide. For a successful collision to occur, there has to be Recall that temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance. In this graph, two temperatures `T_1` and `T_2` are shown. For each one, there are particles with all different kinetic energies, but there are more particles at some kinetic energies then there are at others. The area below each curve is the same (they have the same total number of particles), but with `T_2`, the shape is shifted to the right, so there are more particles with high kinetic energies, meaning the temperature of the object is greater. For a chemical reaction to occur, a minimum energy barrier must be surpassed. This is called the activation energy (`E_"a"`). Because increasing temperature increases the number of collisions (more kinetic energy leads to more frequent collisions) and the fraction of collisions that are successful (because the kinetic energies are more likely to reach `E_"a"`), a 10 ºC rise in temperature can actually double or triple the rate. If a collision is successful, then a higher energy, unstable, transitory particle if formed: the activated complex. This is a middle step (neither reactant nor product) that forms, has partial bonds, is highly reactive, exists for a very short duration, and then either breaks down to form products or re-forms the reactants. It exists between the time when reactant bonds break (exothermic) and product bonds form (endothermic), which is why it has so much energy.
Understanding and Calculating CPI CPI stands for Consumer Price Index and it is a measure of the average price changes in a defined basket of goods and services that are commonly used by people. Generally, the CPI is used as an indicator of the cost of living as well as the economic growth of a nation. Along with the GDP deflator, the CPI is used as a measure of inflation. It allows economists and policymakers to gauge the economic performance of a nation and thereby guide macroeconomic policies. Here is guidance on how to calculate CPI. Defining the Basket As the first step in addressing the question, how to calculate CPI, we need to know what’s in the market basket. The goods and services that are purchased for consumption by a market’s population are included in the CPI market basket. In order to fix a market basket, we need to understand the number of households present in a nation along with the quantum of consumption across these households. A lot of surveys and census needs to be used in defining this data and thereby arriving at a market basket. Calculating Cost of Market Basket Once we know what all gets included in the basket and their quantities, we need to calculate the current as well as previous prices of these goods and services. This gives us an idea of the price of the basket at any point in time. Since the market basket remains fixed in terms of items and the quantities, the only variable here is the price. This allows us to isolate the price change effects over the years. In order to calculate CPI, we need to define a base year. This will serve as a benchmark and we can easily compare all the other years against this benchmark. Generally, the base year is kept the same for a few years until it is changed to a new one. CPI is calculated by dividing the price of the basket in any given year by the price of the basket in the base year. The ratio is then multiplied by 100 in order to get CPI value. It is not enough to only calculate CPI. We need to use CPI figures in order to determine the inflation rate, thereby meeting the economic need of CPI. The inflation rate is nothing but the percentage change in CPI from one time period to another. Inflation rates across nations are measured using CPI and are also published from time to time. The prices that are paid by consumers for purchasing goods and services are used in calculating CPI and this, in turn, is used to understand the inflation levels. It helps in understanding the cost of living levels of a nation. Cost of living can affect people in various ways. CPI is simply the cost of living put in numerical form. While there is a lot of debate on the importance of and how to calculate CPI as a measure for inflation, it still has widespread use when it comes to controlling inflation and thereby guiding the movement of an economy.
Summarize the course and conduct of the Revolutionary War after 1778, and describe the key role played by France in the final victory at Yorktown.© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 9, 2019, 8:10 pm ad1c9bdddf The course of the war changed in 1778 due to the fact that the Revolutionary War became a world war for the British. In 1777 after the Continental Army defeated the British at Saratoga, France finally was persuaded to officially enter the war against Britain. France was eager to get revenge on Britain, and therefore had secretly supplied the Americans throughout much of the war. After the American vicotry at Saratoga Louis XVI was convinced the Americans could defeat the British and as a result France, in 1778, offered a treaty of alliance, offering America continued financial support and recognition of its independence. Additionally, in 1779, Spain and Holland entered the war against ... This solution addresses how the course of the American Revolution changed after 1778. In this 450 word explanation, the impact of the war in the Southern colonies is addressed as well as how the French alliance with the Americans helped secure a victory for the United States.
Most adults have 32 teeth in their mouths. The wisdom tooth is usually counted as tooth number 1. The mouth is divided into four quadrants, known as upper left, upper right, lower left and lower right. The teeth in our mouth are also separated into the back and the front. At the back area, known as posterior, the teeth consist of molars and pre=molars or bicuspids. The front teeth are known as anterior teeth and consist of incisors and cuspids or canines. The tooth is made up of different types of surfaces and today we take a look at our tooth surfaces to understand the anatomy of a tooth better. Understanding Teeth Grouping In order to understand more about tooth surfaces, it is first and foremost necessary to understand that teeth are broadly divided into three groups in order to identify the tooth as per its location in the mouth. These three broad groups include: Mandibular or maxillary: Each individual has two jaws. The maxillary refers to the upper jaw and the mandibular is the lower jaw. The teeth which are present in these jaws are referred to as being either mandibular teeth or maxillary teeth. Right or Left: If you divide both the jaws from the middle from front to the back, you will get upper and lower left sections and upper and lower right sections. Each of these sections will represent 1/4th of each of the upper and lower jaw. Each section is known as a quadrant. So for example, if you are referring to a tooth that is located to the left of the dividing line in the upper arch, it will be known as part of the maxillary left quadrant. Anteriors or posteriors: The anterior teeth refer to the cuspids and incisors and posteriors refer to the bicuspids and molars. Out of 32 natural teeth in an adult, each jaw contains 16 teeth out of which there are 6 anterior and 10 posteriors. 3 anterior and 5 posterior teeth are present in one quadrant. What Are The Five Surfaces of A Tooth? If you have a better understanding of the different surfaces of the different types of teeth in your mouth, then it helps you to become more aware of how you can better your dental hygiene and health. Knowing about tooth surfaces will also help you understand how to reach all the surfaces of your teeth during your daily brushing and flossing schedule. To begin with, there are five surfaces in each tooth. The surfaces depend on whether the tooth is positioned in the front or in the back. These surfaces include: - A tooth has 2 proximal surfaces. One is oriented towards the middle of the dental arch and the other is oriented facing away from the middle of the dental arch. - Distal: This is the proximal surface that is positioned away from the middle of the dental arch. - Mesial: This is the primal surface that is located closest to the middle of the dental arch. - Coming to the facial, this is the surface of the tooth that is facing towards the cheeks or the lips. Going further into the specifics of the facial surfaces, we use terms like buccal and labial. - Buccal: This is the surface of a posterior tooth which is facing towards the cheek. - Labial: This is the surface of an anterior tooth which is facing towards the lips. - Coming to the lingual surface, it is the surface of a tooth that faces towards the tongue. This is comprised of: - Incisal: This is the cutting edge of an anterior tooth. - Occlusal: This is known as the chewing surface of the posterior teeth. - Last, but not the least, there are also pits and grooves that are small grooves and indentations present in your teeth. Now let us look at each surface individually. Buccal and Lingual Surfaces These surfaces are found on the cheek and tongue side of your teeth. Buccal is the cheek-side of your teeth and the surface is generally smooth. The exception to this rule is the lower molars, where you may also find buccal pits. The lingual surface refers to the tongue-side of your teeth and is also generally smooth. The exception to this is the upper molars that may also have lingual grooves that end in a pit. Some of your upper front teeth may also have some lingual pits. Occlusal and Incisal Surfaces These surfaces are typically present on the biting side of your teeth. All the molars and premolars have grooves and pits on the occlusal surfaces. Occlusal means biting. These biting surfaces also contain raised areas, known as tooth cusps. Canines are also referred to as cuspids because they are having one cusp each. Premolars, on the other hand, are known as bicuspids because they have two cusps each. Molars are known to have 4 to 5 cusps each. Cusps of your molars and premolars surround the grooves and pits present on these teeth. Coming to the incisal surfaces, these are the biting surfaces of your front teeth and may also have a hint of cusp development. However, the incisal edges generally form without grooves and pits, making it easier to clean them. Understand that you will need to focus on the surfaces which have grooves and pits. Floss every day at least once to get the plaque out of the spaces between the teeth. Keeping this information about the tooth surfaces in your mind will help improve your dental health. - Bruxism (Teeth Grinding): Causes, Risk Factors, Symptoms, Investigations, Treatment, Lifestyle Modifications - Teeth Care for Babies - Teeth Grinding in Children: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, Prevention - How Many Baby Teeth are There & When Does it Fall? - 11 Natural Ways to Stop Teeth Grinding - Sensitive Teeth after Whitening: Know its Causes & Ways to Get Rid of it - What Causes Teeth Grinding & Ways to Prevent it? - Benefits of Banana Peels in Teeth Whitening - Bartlett, D.W., Lussi, A., West, N.X., Bouchard, P., Sanz, M. and Bourgeois, D., 2013. Prevalence of tooth wear on buccal and lingual surfaces and possible risk factors in young European adults. Journal of dentistry, 41(11), pp.1007-1013. - Brosh, T., Strouthou, S. and Sarne, O., 2005. Effects of buccal versus lingual surfaces, enamel conditioning procedures and storage duration on brackets debonding characteristics. Journal of dentistry, 33(2), pp.99-105.
Italian School, (15th century) Biblioteca Marciana, Venice, Italy / The Bridgeman Art Library The creation of the constellation is explained in Greek mythology by the short-lived association of Karkinos with one of the Twelve Labors of Hercules, in which Hercules battled the multi-headed Lernaean Hydra. Hera had sent Karkinos to distract Hercules and put him at a disadvantage during the battle, but Hercules quickly dispatched the creature by kicking it with such force that it was propelled into the sky. Other accounts had Karkinos grabbing onto Hercules’ toe with its claws, but Hercules simply crushed the crab underfoot. Hera, grateful for Karkinos’ heroic effort, gave it a place in the sky.
What Is Microeconomics? Microeconomics takes a close look at the individual components of a larger economy and their behaviors. Microeconomics covers factors that affect individual economic choices, how change affects these factors, and how individual markets determine prices and demand. The study of economics focuses on the theory of demand, the theory of the firm, demand for labor, and factors of production. In general microeconomics, and in contrast to to macroeconomics, the study looks at the economic behavior of individuals as units of the economy, and not the aggregate economy as a whole. History of Microeconomic Study The first record of a text explaining the complex web of consumer and decision making was perhaps that of the Swiss mathematician Nicholas Bernoulli (1695-1726). The Adam Smith theory of “laissez-faire” that began in the mid-1700s dominated the economic theory by concentrating on free markets and capitalism. For two centuries, Smith views on the economy prevailed until in the early 1900s when Alfred Marshall (1842-1924), a London-born economist impacted on the economic thought. In Marshall's “Principles of Economics,” he formulated the concepts of consumer utility, the demand curve, and price elasticity of demand. John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) from the 1930s worked on his revolutionary ideas regarding how a government managed an economy becoming the most influential economist of the 20th Century. As Keynes ideas hit the global economies, so did Marshall's in the financial circles. The study of individual units of an economy became an integral part of the economic picture. In the 1950s, Herbert A. Simon introduced “satisficing”, the theory of consumer behavior which contended that when a customer finds the needed commodity or service that seems good enough, the need and quest for decision making comes to an end. Microeconomics in Practice Microeconomics studies the effects of individual human decisions, and how those decisions affect the utilization, consumption, and distribution of scarce resources. Microeconomics explains why and shows how different goods and services have different values, why individuals make the decisions they make, how the single entities of the economy coordinate and cooperate, and forecast the individual actions should the factors of production change. Microeconomics is the study of economic tendencies. Supply and Demand Supply and demand are the fundamental components of microeconomics used in price determination. In perfect competitive market, aspects such as per unit taxes, price controls, and externalities of a particular product do not exist as such demand equals supply, the unit price during production is the market prices, and the economic equilibrium. In the real sense, when there is a shortage of a commodity resulting from a reduction in supply, it will affect the price: when demand increases, prices will increase and consequently when supply increases prices reduce. Elasticity is the degree of change in consumer demand when placed in context of a change in a given commodity's price. An elastic product or service is sensitive to price variations whereas an inelastic commodity is insensitive to price changes. For example, when the price of mangoes goes up, a consumer may decide to buy oranges which are cheaper, and in the long run, the demand for mangoes fall. Inelastic goods and commodities may include electricity and medicines. Even when the prices go up, the demand is still vital. Businesses and investors prefer inelastic goods as they are less affected by demand and supply. Opportunity cost is the evaluation of trade-offs and alternatives which determines how individuals and businesses determine their respective courses of action. That is to say that the cost of something is placed in the context of the monetary cost and the value of what you lost to attain it. For example, “instead of purchasing a car at one million dollars, what else would one buy with that money?” There are many interactive systems within all market structures. Such market structures include monopolies, oligopolies, competitive markets, and perfect competitions. In a "Monopoly", only one supplier provides the needed commodity and in a "Monopsony" there is only one buyer. In oligopoly a small number of firms run the market and control the majority of the shares. An "Oligopsony" has many sellers with few buyers. In perfect competition, there is "an absolute elastic demand curve." In competitive markets, the monopolistic competition, there are many firms with slightly differentiated products and each firm has a small proportion of the market share. The theory of production studies production, the economic conversion of resource inputs into outputs in the forms of goods and services. Resources are vital when creating a good or service. These resources include manufacturing, packaging, storing and shipping. In simple terms, production is every economic activity other than consumption- the final purchase of the finished product. The cost of production is determined by the resources used when making the product. Thus, costs comprise of the factors production: land, labor, capital. Technology here is either a form of fixed capital or circulating capital. Relevance of Microeconomics Microeconomics does not proffer market ultimatums. Rather, it is a normative science, and one that focuses on explaining what the market should expect when certain conditions or factors change. For example, when the manufacturer raises the price of a commodity, consumers tend to buy less of that commodity. When supply is restricted, prices tend to increase. It helps investors determine risks worth taking and assist in studying and prospect future occurrences. Microeconomics is also relevant in industries looking for an entry, or competition. In the political arena it is used when evaluating the role of political institutions and parties in determining policy outcomes, and in law firms to assess the efficiency of competing regimes, and in public affairs to determine government tax and expenditure policies needed by the economy of a country. What are Microeconomics? Microeconomics takes a close look at the individual components of a larger economy and their behaviors. Microeconomics covers factors that affect individual economic choices, how change affects these factors, and how individual markets determine prices and demand. The study of economics focuses on the theory of demand, the theory of the firm, demand for labor, and factors of production. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.
Imagine you have been asked to introduce one of the following people, write an introduction that explains why they are famous and some interesting information about them. Write a biography of one of the following people: what situation were they living in, what did they achieve, and what impact has that had on society? - Gives an account of a person’s life - Start by introducing the person and what they achieved - Write about the significant events that happened in their lives - Write about the impact their work has had on other people Computer science started hundreds of years ago when people started thinking about how to represent and manipulate data. Some of the people who worked on early ideas have modern concepts named after them (such as Boolean true/false values, named after George Boole). Find out more about the people whose work is used every day in computers today. We've given some links to Wikipedia below to get you started, but make sure you look more widely than that. Some people and historic ideas to research about are: - George Boole did extensive work on the idea of representing things with just two values, and many current programming languages have "Boolean variables", which are named after him. - Baudot, telegraph codes, Braille, Morse all relate to binary representations (although Morse really uses three symbols: dot, dash and gap). See what you can find out about the lives of Baudot, Braille or Morse, and what led them to invent their codes. - Donald Murray (who was born in New Zealand) came up with a letter code that was widely used for some time. - Early telegraph systems sometimes used binary representations; you could research shutter telegraphs.
At Woodlands, we follow the National Curriculum for English and deliver the content through our Power Teaching and Learning programme. The national curriculum for English aims to ensure that all pupils: - read easily, fluently and with good understanding - develop the habit of reading widely and often, for both pleasure and information - acquire a wide vocabulary, an understanding of grammar and knowledge of linguistic conventions for reading, writing and spoken language - appreciate our rich and varied literary heritage - write clearly, accurately and coherently, adapting their language and style in and for a range of contexts, purposes and audiences - use discussion in order to learn; they should be able to elaborate and explain clearly their understanding and ideas - are competent in the arts of speaking and listening, making formal presentations, demonstrating to others and participating in debate Our Power Teaching and Learning approach teaches children to explore the writer’s craft through examination of a wide variety of fiction and non-fiction texts. Children explore writers’ vocabulary choices and the meaning of words in context. Children are then encouraged to write with their reader in mind – identifying the topic, audience and purpose for each piece of writing. Children write to entertain, inform, discuss and persuade following the long term plan for the year. Grammar teaching is an essential part of the writing process. Spelling is taught following the Spelling Shed scheme and all children have access to online resources to practise their spelling at home. Handwriting is taught following Penpals and children work hard to earn their Pen Licence and be awarded with a handwriting pen in KS2. Children are given additional opportunities to write creatively from a variety of stimuli through half termly creative writing weeks. Children at Woodlands apply what they have learned in English lessons to write across the curriculum and showcase their learning in other subjects. In all subjects, children are supported to answer questions in full sentences and to explain and elaborate to show their understanding. Children are given a wide range of opportunities across all areas of the curriculum to make presentations, participate in discussion and debate and share their learning with others. To find out more about Reading at Woodlands, please visit our dedicated Reading and Phonics page.
What is a Tithe Map? The principal of paying a tenth of one's earnings in goods has been rooted in the Christian tradition since bibilcal times and became established in England as the country adopted Christianity in Anglo-Saxon times. The income from the tithe would support the local rector and the church building. Over the years it became quite complicated as to who paid what to whom. Early in the 19th century it was decided to 'commute' the payments of goods into cash payments. Parliament passed the 'Commutation Act' in 1836. In quite a number of places the tithes had already been commutated but the Act meant that now all landowners had to complete the task. They were responsible for drawing up a detailed map of the lands in their tithe district. Considerable efforts were made to make the maps as accurate as possible, the best of them being 'sealed' and being treated as class one maps. Often these maps were the first accurate detailed maps of the parishes of England. With the map complete, details on each parcel of land could then be collected and lister on the 'Apportionment' document. A number on each parcel of land links to a record in the apportionment. The system was broadly standard across the country. The Overstrand map held in the Norfolk Record Office is a good 'second class' map. At some point this particular map ceased to be in public ownership and was discovered in the 1920s in an antique shop in Dereham. For more detailed information on tithe maps and apportionments, you can try the following. They both have reference lists and bibliographies if you wish to study the subject further.
Here you’ll find some practical ideas for working with the clip. Choose the ones that suit your teaching aims, particular group of learners, your teaching style, and then plan your own lesson. ‘Unjumble the sentence’ Ask your students to unjumble the sentence; figure out the right order of the words. You can write the words on the board or dictate it to them. Ask them not to shout in the solution, just raise their hands if they’ve got it. Wait till most of your students have got it. keeping records / 2012 / in the United States / since / was the hottest year / started / scientists Solution: 2012 was the hottest year in the United States since scientists started keeping records. Tell your students that this is one of the key sentences in the clip they’re about to watch. What do they think it will be about? ‘Reflect and Share’ The aim of this activity is to explore what activism and being an activist means. Ask your students to think individually about the following questions, then discuss them together. - What is the root of the word ‘activist’? - What does it mean? - Can you think of some activists? Is being an activist their full-time job? - What professions do you associate with activism? ‘Predict from the title’ Tell your students that they’re about to watch a trailer for a movie called ‘ Do the Math‘. Put them in pairs and ask them to predict what the film will be about. Then take some feedback in plenary. ‘I will (not) watch this film because …’ Ask your students if the trailer has raised their interest in seeing the whole film. Ask them to choose one of the sentence beginnings and complete it in writing: - I will watch this film because … - I will not watch this film because … Then ask them to share their sentences in small groups. Finally, students signal with a show of hands how many of them would like to or not like to see the whole film giving reasons. One by one call out the following vocabulary items and ask your students to recall how they came up in the clip, what the context was. Write the ones that they are not sure about on the board. Then watch the clip again and ask your students to make a mental note of the context / sentence in which the words are used. wreck / industry / rogue force / calamity / compatible / caves / lock / tar sands / bankrupt / subsidize / tipping point Tell your students to image that they’re about to watch the whole film. Ask them to formulate three questions they would like to get answers to. They write their questions on slips of paper. When everyone has got their three questions, ask for a volunteer to read out one of his/her questions. If a student has something similar, they are the one to read out another question. If nobody has a similar question, the student sitting next to (or on the right side of, behind etc.) continues. This goes on as long as their are slips with questions.
The number of Democrats serving in the U.S. House of Representatives changes with each election cycle, but as of April 2014, only 199 Democrats hold elected office in this Congressional chamber. Democrats are the minority party out of 435 members. Members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms and are elected to represent residents of districts within a single state. The congressional districts are apportioned to states by population. The United States Census results determine the official population of each state, which is further divided by districts. Each state must have at least one representative, but most states have several.
"To the person without number sense, arithmetic is a bewildering territory in which any deviation from the known path may rapidly lead to being totally lost." Dowker (1992) Below is an article from Nrich Maths that outlines what number fluency is and why it is important for children today. Please take a few minutes to read through this before viewing the videos. You may well have some questions from this, such as 'What does fluency look like?' or 'Is it really that important?'. The videos beneath the article explain clearly and succinctly the answers to these questions and more. They are by a gentleman call Dr Yeap Ban Har. He is a world renowned expert in Singapore style maths. The emphasis of this is on number fluency and mastery of basic relationships rather than progression of strategies. Nrich Maths - What is number fluency? One of the three aims of the new curriculum states that pupils (of all ages, not just primary children) will: become fluent in the fundamentals of mathematics, including through varied and frequent practice with increasingly complex problems over time, so that pupils develop conceptual understanding and the ability to recall and apply knowledge rapidly and accurately. What is fluency? The first thing to say is that fluency is not only about number – there are other areas of the curriculum where fluency is important. However it’s probably sensible to acknowledge that number is by far the largest part of the primary curriculum, so in this article we’ll concentrate on that. We’re not the only nation to take a recent interest in this – in the US the new standards have quite a lot to say about being fluent: 'Students exhibit computational fluency when they demonstrate flexibility in the computational methods they choose, understand and can explain these methods, and produce accurate answers efficiently.' Russell (2000) spells this out in more detail and suggests that fluency consists of three elements: Efficiency - this implies that children do not get bogged down in too many steps or lose track of the logic of the strategy. An efficient strategy is one that the student can carry out easily, keeping track of sub-problems and making use of intermediate results to solve the problem. Accuracy depends on several aspects of the problem-solving process, among them careful recording, knowledge of number facts and other important number relationships, and double-checking results. Flexibility requires the knowledge of more than one approach to solving a particular kind of problem, such as two-digit multiplication. Students need to be flexible in order to choose an appropriate strategy for the numbers involved, and also be able to use one method to solve a problem and another method to check the results. So fluency demands more of students than memorising a single procedure – they need to understand why they are doing what they are doing and know when it is appropriate to use different methods. The phrase ‘number sense’ is often used to mean conceptual fluency – understanding place value and the relationships between operations. Children need to be both procedurally and conceptually fluent – they need to know both how and why. Children who engage in a lot of practice without understanding what they are doing often forget, or remember incorrectly, those procedures. Further, there is growing evidence that once students have memorised and practised procedures without understanding, they have difficulty learning later to bring meaning to their work (Hiebert, 1999). How can we support children in becoming fluent? As with much of mathematics, the key to fluency is in making connections, and making them at the right time in a child’s learning. We learn by moving from the concrete to the abstract and structured apparatus such as Dienes can be helpful for learning about place value or number bonds. However the meaning isn’t in the manipulatives themselves – it has to be constructed by children over a period of time, through playing around with them and connecting them directly to mental and recorded calculation. Talking about their work It is often said that you can't do maths unless you talk maths. But the quality of the talk is important. It is not simply children sharing how they did a particular calculation, but describing why and how it worked, and how their method is the same or different to those of others. In other words, giving children opportunities to use those higher-level skills of comparing, explaining and justifying. Russell says ‘The reason that one problem can be solved in multiple ways is that mathematics does not consist of isolated rules, but connected ideas. Being able to solve a problem in more than one way, therefore, reveals the ability and the predilection to make connections between and among mathematical areas and topics'. Consolidation in meaningful contexts By offering children practice in context we help them to make links between the types of situations that a particular strategy might suit. Russell calls this mathematical memory, which is different from just memorising. She says that important mathematical procedures cannot be "forgotten over the summer" because they are based in a web of connected ideas about fundamental mathematical relationships. (McClure 2014)
A nearby, rocky exoplanet may be just a plain rock with no atmosphere — supporting a theory that planets orbiting small stars are more susceptible to lacking an atmosphere. Astronomers using NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope observed the planet, named LHS 3844b, while looking for signs of an atmosphere. Instead, they found indications that the planet is a bare rock. The findings support the theory that planets orbiting smaller stars (around 60% smaller in radius than the sun) lack substantial atmospheres — possibly due to the radiation from their dwarf star, according to the study. LHS 3844b has a radius that is 1.3 times larger than Earth, and it completes one orbit around its host star in a mere 11 hours. The study tested for the planet's atmosphere, which is an indication of whether or not it can sustain life, by observing light from its surface over a period of 100 hours. Through the observations, the scientists discovered that one side of the planet is permanently facing its star in what's known as a "tidally locked" orbit. (Earth's moon is also tidally locked, which is why we never see the far side.) One side of the planet, the "dayside," is a scorching 1,410 degrees Fahrenheit (770 degrees Celsius). If there was a substantial atmosphere present on the planet, then the hot air from one side would generate winds that transfer heat across the planet's surface. But with a lack of atmosphere, there would be no air to transfer the heat around. (The temperature of the planet's "nightside" could not be measured by the Spitzer telescope, as it is an infrared telescope). "The temperature contrast on this planet is about as big as it can possibly be," Laura Kreidberg, a researcher at the Harvard and Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and lead author of the new study, said in a statement. "That matches beautifully with our model of a bare rock with no atmosphere." The planet's surface could be covered in the same dark lava rocks called mare that are found on the moon's darker areas, according to the statement. The rocky exoplanet was first discovered in 2018 by NASA's Transiting Exoplanet Satellite Survey, which found LHS 3844b orbiting around an M dwarf star — the most common type of star in the Milky Way. The discovery of the exoplanet marks the first time scientists were able to observe an exoplanet orbiting an M dwarf without an atmosphere. "We've got lots of theories about how planetary atmospheres fare around M dwarfs, but we haven't been able to study them empirically," Kreidberg said. "Now, with LHS 3844b, we have a terrestrial planet outside our solar system where for the first time we can determine observationally that an atmosphere is not present." - 7 Ways to Discover Alien Planets - 10 Exoplanets That Could Host Alien Life - This Gassy 'Preteen' Exoplanet With 2 Suns Is Losing Its Atmosphere
By that what I mean is having students distill their ideas down to just the most important, relevant, clear, and concise words. By putting limits on the number of words or characters our students can use, this forces students to: - Summarize key points - Select what is most important - Choose words that best convey meaning - Restate concepts - Avoid unnecessary filler and fluff In this blog post we will take a look at how students can use the "Word Count" tool in Google Docs to easily check the amount of words and/or characters they have written. This can be used for writing activities where you put a limit on how long the students’ writing can be. See below for details and directions. And I will try to keep it short. As Shakespeare said, "Brevity is the soul of wit." Choose your limit and topic First you will want to decide what limit to put on your students for their writing. You might decide to limit them to a certain number of words (20 words, 50 words, 100 words) or a specific amount of characters (100 characters, 200 characters, etc.) The idea is your students will have to write something that fits within those restrictions. What they are writing might be: - A summary of a story they are reading - The main point of an article - A description of a character - A clear statement of an argument - A new title for a story, book, play, or movie - The dust jacket blurb for a book - The Netflix description for a movie - A personal definition for a vocabulary word - A simplified explanation of a concept from science, math, social studies, etc (ELI5 = Explain Like I’m Five) - A Tweet summarizing their thoughts on an article, chapter, book, concepts, etc. The point is, the students will need to boil down their ideas to a smaller set of words, which forces them to really consider what is most important and how to communicate that clearly. By the way, if you want to use the Twitter idea above, you can make the limit be 140 characters, and can use the "Compose a Tweet" Google Drawings template below for the students to write up their final wording. To get your own copy of the template, click below. - "Compose a Tweet" template - Google Drawings link Use the Word Count tool in Google Docs Now that you have the assignment and the limit, it is time for the students to write. They can use Google Docs to write as usual, so they will have all the benefits of that tool including anywhere/anytime access, auto-save, Voice Typing, the Explore tool, collaboration features, and more. As they write though, they will need to keep checking on how many words or how many characters they have used, depending on the limit you have set. They can do this easily with the "Word Count" tool built into Google Docs. - Select the text you have typed. If there is other text in the document, be sure to just select the portion you wrote and want to get the word count for. - Next click "Tools" in the top menu bar. - Select "Word count" from the drop-down menu. - You will now get a pop-up window that will display the statistics. - Words = The number of words you selected, out of the total number of words in the document. - Characters = The number of characters you selected, out of the total number of characters in the document. - In either case you will want to take note of the first number, since that will be the count from the text you wrote and selected. - Click "Close" when done. As needed, the student can now edit what they have written. They may need to reduce the number of words or characters by deleting content, rewriting, summarizing, and such. Or they may still have some room to breathe and can add more details. Throughout the process the student should keep using the "Word Count" tool to see what impact their changes have made, until they are within the limits you have set. Writing within a word or character limit can be a great way to help develop student skills of summarization, restatement, and clarity. Google Docs can be a big help in this process by providing the students an easy way to measure their word or character count. This can also be very helpful for you as a teacher when it comes time to evaluate their writing, as you can also use the "Word Count" tool to verify what the students have done. If you would like to learn more about creative uses of Google Docs for literacy activities, feel free to join me for my free webinar on January 26th: 4 Fun Literacy Activities with Google Docs January 26, 2017 - 3:30pm to 4:30pm EST Webinar link - http://ti.apps.sparcc.org/videopd/20170126-docs-lit (click to register and watch live webinar) Description: Looking for ways to techify your literacy activities? In this session we will explore several engaging hands-on literacy activities that use features built right into Google Docs. These will include improving reading comprehension with Google Docs "Black Out", writing interactive "Choose Your Own Adventure" stories in Docs, summarization skills with the Word Count tool, and fun ways to use Emojis in Docs for reading and writing. Post by Eric Curts. Connect with Eric on Twitter at twitter.com/ericcurts and on Google+ at plus.google.com/+EricCurts1
Czechoslovakia’s Velvet Revolution in 1989 — Campaigners sought to end the Soviet occupation of the country, as well as shifting from communist rule. They wanted to remove the laws of state-mandated censorship and demanded free elections. Just eighteen months before the November nonviolent revolution, Czechoslovakians organized their first public mass demonstration since 1969. Roman Catholic groups seeking religious freedom organized a Candle Demonstration, and the event on March 25th, 1988, was attended by more than 5,000 Slovaks. Police forces responded by shooting protesters with water cannons and beating them with sticks and batons. The fall of the Berlin Wall on November 6th, 1989, became a galvanizing event as Czechs and Slovaks watched Soviet control of Eastern Europe begin to crumble. Ten days later, on November 16th, peaceful student demonstrators marched from the universities to the Ministry of Education to present demands for educational reform. The next day, November 17th, 50,000 people came out to protest in Prague. Riot police came to break up the crowds, blocking escape routes and beating up the demonstrators. A rumor, which later proved false, claimed that one student had been killed. That evening, students and theater actors decided to go on strike. On the eighteenth, all shows and rehearsals stopped in the theater district. The stages opened their doors for community discussions and the Civic Forum was established by dissident playwright, and future president, Vaclav Havel. The Global Nonviolent Action Database reports that, “Homemade posters and proclamations were posted in public spaces, and actors read a proclamation by the students and artists to audiences, calling for a general strike on 27 November. The next day, members of artistic and literary associations joined the strike, as well as actors in Bratislava, Brno, and Ostrava. In addition, about 500 Slovak artists, scientists, and leaders met at the Art Forum in Bratislava, denouncing the attack against the students in Prague. While there, they formed the Public Against Violence organization, which became the leading force behind the opposition movement in Slovakia. In addition, dissident playwright Vaclav Havel helped establish the Civic Forum, which called for the dismissal of top officials responsible for the violence on 17 November, the release of all political prisoners, and political and economic reforms.” By November 20th, students and actors agreed to go on permanent strike until Communist officials stepped down. Numerous mass demonstrations broke out in Prague and other parts of the country, sometimes exceeding 200,000 people. Over the next week, nonviolent actions intensified throughout many sectors of society. Television staff threatened to strike over government censorship of their coverage of the demonstrations. The Minister of Defense declared that the military would not break up the protests. Czechoslovakia TV and Radio joined the general strike. The editorial staff of the major Communist newspaper joined the movement. Two members of the riot police apologized for their November 17th actions to a crowd of hundreds of thousands. On November 27th, as planned, a nationwide two-hour general strike took place at noon. Nearly three quarters of the entire population of Czechoslovakia participated. The next day, the prime minister agreed to form a new coalition government and overturn the sections of the Constitution that guaranteed Communist rule. The transition of the government took place in stages. As the Global Nonviolent Action Database reports, “In early December, Communist leader Gustav Husak appointed the first largely non-Communist government in Czechoslovakia since 1948, and eventually resigned. Two weeks later, Alexander Dubcek became the first speaker of the federal parliament, and on 29 December 1989 Havel was elected president of the republic. Free elections were held in June 1990.” Learn more about the Velvet Revolution here. This article is from Rivera Sun’s book of nonviolent histories that have made our world. Click here for more information. Rivera Sun is a change-maker, a cultural creative, a protest novelist, and an advocate for nonviolence and social justice. She’s a love-based revolutionary and the author of The Dandelion Insurrection, The Way Between and ten other fiction, non-fiction and poetry books. Her essays and writings are syndicated by Peace Voice, and have appeared in over a hundred journals nationwide. Rivera Sun speaks and facilitates workshops in strategy for nonviolent change across the country and around the world. She connects the dots between the issues, shares solutionary ideas, and inspires people to step up to the challenge of being a part of the story of change in our times. www.riverasun.com
Each week, when a new letter is introduced, the teacher invites each child to come up and try to print the letter on the dry erase board. The teacher begins by printing a capital and lower case letter on the board first – she identifies each letter as she is writing them for the children to see. Then each child comes up and takes a turn to print the letter. The children in this class really look forward to their turn to try and make the letter. This week they were writing the letter “O”. The teacher doesn’t really use this time as an instruction on letter writing – she simply invites the children to explore the letter and the writing process freely without any correction or concern for whether it actually turns out looking like the letter or not. It always gets more challenging to find a place to write the letter once the board gets all filled up but the children actually like the challenge of finding a space to print the letter. It makes it more of a game and takes away the worry of making perfect letter formations. Once all the children have had a turn printing the letter, then the teacher sets the board up so they can see it throughout the day. Then she extends the learning experience by reading a book that also has the letter “O”. Reading aloud to young children is an important part of building their interest in writing as well as expanding their knowledge in language and literacy. Who knew that the letter O could be so fun to explore!
The Middle Ages saw how the Bubonic plague killed almost a third of Europe’s population. Illness and much death inspired the people of Europe to strive hard and start rebuilding again. In rebuilding activities, came the renaissance which is also known as “rebirth”. Through commerce and much trade, a new middle class emerged that supported skilled artisan. As the population grew in size, culture flourished. Renaissance art soon evolved and found its way in being the most unforgettable highlights in the history of modern man. From the need of rebirth, art through the development of culture was assisted by technology. It was in 1445 when Guttenberg invented the printing press. This piece of invention changed the lives of people in all of Europe. With books printed and mass produced, more people became literate and aware of the many subjects including science, religion and art. A new middle class emerged, an educated middle class. The educated middle class who had money started to fund activities which included art. These activities were organized very well. Florence in 1425 was populated by 60,000 Europeans and was a very self-sustaining independent city state. Artist guilds flourished in the city. At least twelve artist guilds managed the trade that helped make Florence a place of commercial bustle. Guilds were supported by wealthy members of commerce and politics. Many influential people controlled the guilds, all for the welfare and development of the city state. These guilds were organized for textile, banks, masons, builders, sculptors, lawyers and solicitors. As for renaissance art in the form of painting, masters and masterpieces did not come from smoke. These forms of culture were painstakingly nurtured by the bustling culture of the renaissance. Painters and maestros were hired by wealthy people to paint from portraits to big murals. Painting, before it became high art was a way of sustenance to hundreds of artists. Some artists would be housed by the Kings and Queens themselves to paint only for the royal family and draw numerous activities of the family. In the seventeenth century, painting was not a matter of inspiration, of waiting for a whisper from Lady Inspiration. A seventeenth century painter was a tradesman, who painted just as another man baked bread or made cupboards. And for such a trade, an apprenticeship was necessary. The guilds had all made definite rules about that. The painters’ guild, St. Luke’s had stipulated that a painter had to be a pupil for the length of three years before he could call himself a master. He could sell it under his own name. Only after his period of training could a painter sign his own work himself, or sell it under his own name, and then was also bound to pay contributions to the guild. ” (Haughan, 1973) It is only now that these masters, after their deaths have been able to price their pieces high. During the renaissance not all painters enjoyed the richness that their benefactors had. “Ugo was a master woodblock artist of the Renaissance, but he never became a household name like Michelangelo or Leonardo. Just like actors or athletes today, most Renaissance artists labored in obscurity their entire lives. Artists were tradesmen—like carpenters or stonemasons. But through sheer force of talent, this began to change during the Renaissance. ” (…, 2006). All masters of art started from being apprentices where they had to start their work with sweeping the floor and running errands for the maestro before they were able to hold paint brushes. The most powerful guilds were the textile workers and painting was just another craft. In 1299, the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence was constructed. 5,000 guild members would gather in this place and discuss and vote on issues concerning the city and its development. These art forms were as important in the sustainability and development of the renaissance as part of culture. Renaissance art later evolved into High Renaissance art with the help of the whole of Europe’s support for the arts. Included in High Renaissance art were big names such as Leonardo Da Vinci, Michael Angelo, Boticelli, and Raphael. Renaissance was an important time for artists because the culture nurtured their crafts, explorations and way of life. Through the artists’ guilds, art as both craft, way of life and inspiration to the modern world continued to develop.
Description is a detailed account of certain or salient aspects, characteristics, or features of a person, place or event. Descriptive composition endeavors to produce a brilliant description for the reader. Enough information and descriptions must be assembled by the writer to give a well rounded and interesting description. The writer observes all the concrete details and through his description the reader is able to set up an image in his mind. While writing a description, it is important to provide a topic sentence in each paragraph and ensure continuity in all the paragraphs .The description of a person must include the details about his birth, education and occupation. The focus should be on their achievements and on the qualities which make them exceptional. One must provide enough details and descriptions to enable the readers to gain a complete and vivid perception of the person. While describing a place, do remember to give the correct information about the geographical features of the place. The description must also include the historical significance of the place along with the famous facts about the place. The description of an event must include the day and the place of the event. It must tell us about the importance of the event and give ample information about it. Always remember that it is best not to include your personal opinion while describing an event.
Teaching new concepts to our children can be a difficult and frustrating process if you aren’t sure how to do it. Whether we are teaching them how to cook, clean the bathroom, or complete a new math concept there’s an effective way to do this that eases the student into mastery. It’s called, “I do, we do, you do” and works for any age level, and nearly every subject. “I Do”: After you have laid the foundation of information the student needs, you demonstrate the process in its entirety. Explain the steps as you go so the student can see your thought process as you work it out. This step might need to be repeated a few times if the student still has questions. You might even need to demonstrate the process in a different manner. Once the student has a good grasp on what you’re doing, it is time to move on to the next step, “we do.” “We Do”: This is the step in which you and the student complete the process together. This should be as hands-on and involved as you can make it. You may want to do this a few times so that you can be sure the student is comfortable with the process. This is also a step that can be revisited when the student needs to review the concept. Once the student feels comfortable in this step, it is time to move on the final step, “you do.” “You Do”: In this final step a student demonstrates and practices what they have learned. They should be able to independently complete the process with accuracy. If they are unable to do so, you can go back to the “we do” step and work through it together. This simple teaching method is one of my favorites. I have applied it to handwriting, composition, math, science, art and many more subjects. Sometimes the entire process takes two minutes. Other times it takes a whole subject period. When needed, we spend a lot of time going between the “we do” and the “you do” depending on the level of difficulty for the student. The goal is always to get the student working independently with confidence and accuracy.
Astronomers have detected several supermassive black holes wandering through their dwarf host galaxies, providing new clues about how similar black holes evolved in the early universe. Using the National Science Foundation's Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) in New Mexico, the researchers identified 13 dwarf galaxies that are less than a billion light-years away from Earth and that host supermassive black holes. Astronomers estimate that these galaxies contain less than 1% of the mass of the Milky Way, making them the smallest galaxies known to host massive black holes, according to a statement. On average, these supermassive black holes contain about 400,000 times the mass of the sun. And unlike most supermassive black holes that lurk near the center of their galaxy, about half of these objects were found wandering the outskirts instead. "We hope that studying them and their galaxies will give us insights into how similar black holes in the early universe formed and then grew, through galactic mergers over billions of years, producing the supermassive black holes we see in larger galaxies today, with masses of many millions or billions of times that of the sun," Amy Reines, an astrophysicist at Montana State University and lead author on the new research, said in the statement. The scientists used a galaxy catalog called the NASA-Sloan Atlas to select galaxies of interest, all of which were less than 3 billion times the mass of the sun. Then, they turned to the VLA, which took high-resolution views of 111 of the selected galaxies, revealing that 13 of the galaxies host a massive, active black hole that is consuming surrounding material. And scientists were particularly interested by the off-center nature of half of these black holes, according to the statement. Those locations suggest the galaxies are the result of past mergers among smaller galaxies. "This work has taught us that we must broaden our searches for massive black holes in dwarf galaxies beyond their centers to get a more complete understanding of the population and learn what mechanisms helped form the first massive black holes in the early universe," Reines said in the statement. The researchers presented their findings on Jan. 7 at the American Astronomical Society meeting in Honolulu. The study will also be published in the Astrophysical Journal. You can read the paper on the preprint site arXiv.org. - Supermassive Black Holes Likely Born in 'Halos' of Dark Matter - Are Supermassive Black Holes Going to Eat the Universe? - Astronomers Think They've Figured Out the Raging Swirls of Gas Around Supermassive Black Holes
Reading fluency activities are a great way to improve reading speed and accuracy. Reading fluency is the speed or rate of reading without conscious attention to the mechanics of reading. A fluent reader has the ability to read and understand words automatically. Fluent readers are able to more easily comprehend complete sentences and entire reading selections. When readers understand entire reading selections, they are able to retain the information, analyze it, and use it in many different ways. The more fluid and fast you read, your understanding of what you read becomes automatic and more fun. Reading can become an enjoyable activity for everyone. When you work on improving your reading fluency, you inherently improve your reading comprehension. Short, daily reading fluency activities are a perfect way to not only read faster, more fluidly, and efficiently but to also improve confidence. Reading Fluency Activities 1. Reading Fluency Drills Reading fluency drills are one of the best activities you can do to improve your reading fluency. With our custom-designed, phonetic-based drills, you work on improving the underlying brain processes of reading. When you do these drills, you target five areas of visual processing, six areas of auditory processing, and two areas of tactile/kinesthetic processing. This process also strengthens phonemic awareness and phonics skills at the same time. We do this in just 5-minutes a day and 3-5 days a week. How Scholar Within’s Reading Fluency Training Works: - One Student, One Instructor You will need either a parent, teacher, tutor, or older sibling with your student. - Gather Supplies: 2 Copies of the Drill - Both the student and instructor (parent, teacher, or older sibling) will each have copies of the same drill in front of them. The instructor’s copy has word counts on the side to be able to quickly figure out how many words the student has read. - Go to the Free Reading Fluency Drill Download Page - Practice the Reading Drill (2-3 minutes) - We start by doing a practice read aloud from left to right, just as you would read normally. - If any mistakes are made, have the instructor correct the mistakes as they are made aloud. - Your student will not have to read all of the words on the drill of the practice read, just roughly the amount they will be able to read in a minute timed. - Timed Reading Fluency Drill (1 minute) After you have done a brief practice read, you are ready for the timed drill. - Have the instructor use a stopwatch or the timer functionality on a phone. - Have the instructor keep track of mistakes discretely. We do this because sometimes students get flustered if they see that you have marked that they made a mistake and will not keep going. - Mistakes are: mispronounced words, skipped words, or repeated words. - Stop the drill at 1-minute. - Chart Words-Per-Minute and Mistakes - Count the number of words the student read in the 1-minute timing along with the number of mistakes made. - Chart the words and mistakes in a daily chart. This way you can keep track of how many words your student has read per minute each day. You will start seeing mistakes per minute go down and words read per minute go up often in the first few days. - Do the Reading Fluency Training 3-5 Times a Week - Continued daily fluency training in short increments will improve your kid’s skills faster than just reading alone. - Set a Goal for Mastery - After the first time the student has done the practice read and then the timed reading of the drill, set a goal for them to be able to read about 5-25 more words per minute, depending on the student’s grade level/ability, always with a maximum of no more than 4 mistakes per minute. - Move on to the Next Drill - Once the student has achieved mastery, move on to the next reading drill. We have over 50, custom-designed reading drills that start with the short vowel-consonant pattern and we work the way up all the way to multi-syllable, multi-pattern words. Many parents and teachers have asked if they could try our reading fluency activities, so we have made the first reading drill available to download. 2. Repeated Readings Repeated reading is another type of reading fluency practice. This is where a student reads a single passage multiple times in order to reach accuracy and improve their speed of reading the passage. This process typically improves the student’s ability to read automatically without pronunciation errors while maintaining their comprehension of the reading selection. The focus is on reading quality rather than on reading speed. 3. Choral Readings Choral reading is another way to practice reading fluency. In this method, students read along with a more experienced reader. Several students can also simultaneously choral read together with a more experienced reader. Choral reading helps the student pick up reading fluency, expression, and intonation. 4. Paired Reading (Take Turns Reading) Paired reading is another way to improve reading fluency. In this strategy, students take turns reading the text to each other. This can also be done by a parent reading a paragraph or page and the student reads the next paragraph or page. We did this often as a family, taking turns with each child reading a paragraph or page and then the next one would read, or I would read. Alternating readings are great for students to be able to understand the correct intonation of sentences. Understanding Why Reading Fluency is Important Read the sentence, “Sally can go to the store.” Then several pages later, you get to the questions and one question asks, “Why couldn’t Sally go to the store?” The question doesn’t make any sense to you, because you read Sally can go to the store. Upon going back and re-reading, you find that the sentence really said, “Sally can’t go to the store.” The whole meaning was lost by skipping the apostrophe t in the word can’t. That is one way that reading fluency problems impact comprehension. Your ability to read fluently starts with phonemic awareness and phonics. It is the ability to take the patterns of sounds (phonological structures) and sound-symbol relationship (orthographic structures) and being able to recognize it quickly enough to gain meaning from it. This process of quickly or rapidly recognizing word structures helps you to understand entire sentences automatically. When you are a fluent reader, you are able to read without thinking about the mechanics of reading. S. Jay Samuels started doing research in the 1970s. In 2006, he states, “Comprehension requires the fluent mastery of the surface-level aspects of reading.” What does research say? Reading fluency is about learning the patterns of the spoken and written word. When you start to see patterns in how words are written, you become more fluent. Because of this, fluency training that focuses on the phonemic and phonic components of words helps us to read a text more rapidly. Mark Seidenberg, author of Language at the Speed of Light states, “Reading brings in regularities in how letters combine and how orthography relates to phonology and meaning.” Practicing reading with a phonological and phonic basis, helps you to recognize and retain words quickly. This, then, makes reading easier and more fluent. As early as 1886, one of the first reading fluency researchers, psychologist William MacKeen Cattell, discovered that you can read a word (like ‘tiger’) faster than you can name a picture of a pouncing feline creature! Cattell was the first person to recognize that we become quite ‘automatic’ when we read. In fact, we are more automatic when reading than when speaking. So, learning to read automatically is a huge achievement for our brain. This is a capacity that we have, learning something so well that we can do it almost without thinking. Reid Lyon, Ph.D. (1997) states in his article Why Reading Is Not a Natural Process, “If beginning readers read the words in a laborious, inefficient manner, they cannot remember what they read, much less relate the ideas to their background knowledge. Thus, the ultimate goal of reading instruction–for children to understand and enjoy what they read-will not be achieved.” How does reading fluency fit into the 5-principles of reading? Reading fluency activities are important for every student to do. It is the third principle of reading. Fluency brings together phonemic awareness and phonics so that you can read words, sentences, and paragraphs quickly. When you are able to read quickly, you typically understand and comprehend what you have read. There are ways to improve your fluency. Fluency training is one of the easiest things a parent can do for their child. It requires little time and minimal experience. For more direct instruction on improving reading skills that include fluency training with phonemic awareness and phonics, the alphabetic principle, reserve your spot for our Reading Program. Here, Bonnie teaches these skills to you, step-by-step through audio and video lessons. The program integrates fluency training, phonemic awareness and phonics seamlessly.
Heat transfer by convection Ever been by the beach when it was sunny? On a clear day, on the beach, there is always wind blowing from the sea. Why is there always a wind on the beach and why do the sea breeze (winds blowing from the sea to the land) occur during the day, the land breeze (winds blowing from land to sea) occur at night? Why in the rainy season can clouds come down to the slopes? Why does the wind feel cool? The answers to these questions relate to the specific heat of land and sea, expansion, density and heat transfer by convection! By understanding well and correctly the subject matter, you can answer the questions above and other questions that you might ask later. Heat transfer by conduction usually occurs in solid objects or from solid objects to liquid objects (and from liquid objects to solid objects) or from solid objects to gas objects (and from gas objects to solid objects). While heat transfer by convection usually occurs in liquid objects (e.,g. water) and gas objects (e.,g. air). Heat transfer by convection is heat transfer accompanied by the transfer of objects. So that you better understand heat transfer by convection, review a case, for example, heated water using fire. When water in a container is heated with fire, heat moves from fire (high temperature) to a container (low temperature) by conduction and radiation. Then heat moves from the container (higher temperature) to the water near the container (lower temperature) by conduction. The additional heat causes the water temperature near the container increased. Increasing water temperature causes the water to expand or the volume of water increases. Because of the volume of water increases, the density of water decreases. Water near the base of the container has a higher temperature than the water next to it. In other words, water near the bottom of the container has a larger volume and a smaller density, while the water above it has a lower volume and a higher density. The difference in density causes the water on the surface of the container, which has a higher density, moves down and the water near the base of the container, which has a smaller density, moves upwards. This process occurs continuously until all the water inside has the same temperature (If the air pressure is 1 atmosphere then the water in the container is evaporating or boiling at 100 oC). The occurrence of land winds and sea breezes also involves heat transfer by conduction and convection. The specific heat of the land is smaller than the specific heat of the sea water. Hence the ground is hotter faster when it is exposed to the sun and also colder when the night comes. Land heat more quickly heats the air above (heat moves from land to air by conduction). The air temperature increases and the air expands. As a result, the air density decreases. On the contrary, the temperature of the sea water is colder so that the air above the sea level is also colder than the air on the land surface. The air on the sea surface is cooler so that the density is higher. The difference in air density causes the air on the surface of the sea move towards the land, while the air on the ground moves upwards. The farther from the surface of the earth, the amount of air decreases because the gravitational force of the earth gets smaller. Because the amount of air decreases, the air pressure is also getting smaller. Hot air on the land that moves upward has cooled down because it is farther away from the surface of the earth, the air pressure decreases. The cold air then moves down, not towards the surface of the land but towards the surface of the ocean which has more freezing temperatures. This process occurs continuously so that there is the flow of air from the sea to land. In short, air near the surface of the sea moves to the ground, the air near the surface of the earth moves upward, the air above moves to the surface of the sea. Why does smoke always move up? Smoke moves up because the temperature is higher than the temperature of the surrounding air. Because the smoke temperature is higher, the volume increases and the density decreases. The smaller mass of smoke causes less pressure, compared to the surrounding air pressure. The air around the smoke presses the smoke upwards. Why in the rainy season does the cloud move down? During the rainy season, clouds contain a lot of water vapor so that the density of clouds increases. Clouds that contain a lot of water vapor and have a large density, move down towards the place where the air around the area has the same density as the cloud density. You can question and answer many things related to this subject if you have understood well and correctly the explanation above.
A citation identifies a book, periodical article, or other information resource. A citation will include the basic pieces of information necessary to allow you to find the article. That same information is used to create the list of references, or bibliography you will put in your research paper. Your instructor can then use the citations in the bibliography of your paper to identify and locate those same articles. A single citation is sometimes called a "reference." A list of citations is generally known as a "bibliography," although sometimes the list is called simply a "works cited" page or "list of references." When you place citations in your research paper, they must be written in a correct format by following the style manual of a particular discipline. Citation styles you may be required to use are: The following are basic elements of a citation. Depending on the citation style, you may also include a URL or DOI if the resource you are citing is electronic. Citation elements for a book: Citation elements for a journal article:
Tess and the Mystery Rock is a science literature storybook. Use the book as an independent reader or turn it into a 5-subject unit study with its many educational components. This powerful interdisciplinary tool encourages reading comprehension and application of the scientific method. The book is complete with scientific documentation, data collection pages, supplementary experiments, writing prompts, and glossary. Tess and the Mystery rock will prove to be a valuable tool when used alongside Real Science-4-Kids curriculum. There is also an optional accompanying field notebook that is based on Tess’ story and provides questions for students to think about in relation to all five science disciplines. There are experiments to perform, facts to learn, and space for recording observations along with Tess. The science reader becomes a complete unit study with the addition of the field notebook. Tess and the Mystery Rock is appropriate for kindergarten through fourth grade. The included labs can be adjusted based on the capability of the students. Even toddlers will enjoy the story without the lab components, so enjoy it together as a family in whatever manner suits your needs. This is also a great way to introduce your youngest learners to the scientific process and the inquisitive nature of the science world without having to tackle a whole curriculum set. LIMITED TIME: Download this free experiment as an accompaniment to your Tess and the Mystery Rock bundle. Tess and the Mystery Rock is meant to be read slowly the first time through. Take time to stop on the thought pages and let your budding scientists think through the stories and concepts. Let their minds run wild with ideas to jot down and diagram. There are no wrong answers as they are learning the process of analysis and discovery. At the conclusion of the reader there are multiple ideas for hands-on experiments that support the main concepts of the book. These experiments can be used as you revisit the story time and time again. Support and enhance learning with the addition of the field notebook. Further study of concepts and additional experiments included in the notebook will allow you to use the reader as a science unit for an extended period of time. This is a great way to introduce young learners to science! Tess and the Mystery Rock is a science/literature crossover. Use as an independent reader or turn it into a unit study. This powerful interdisciplinary tool encourages reading comprehension and application of the scientific method. Support and enhance learning with the addition of Tess and the Mystery Rock Field Notebook. This book includes more experiments and further study of concepts, allowing you to use the reader as a science unit for an extended period of time. This is a great way to introduce young learners to science! What one mom had to say: “Lucky to have the new Real Science-4-Kids literacy based book, Tess and the Mystery Rock! Mac loved it! It was cute and funny, which Mac loved, and it got his brain working, which I loved. It got his wheels turning and I don’t know that he even realized he was learning. Since he was still in vacation mode, that felt like a real win for me. He was involved in these two books for a long while, and asked me again this morning if we could read it together and work in it some more. I’ve mentioned before that I’m a big fan of Real Science-4-Kids, and Tess and the Mystery Rock is another example of their imaginative and engaging approach to learning.”
What do you do when you must choose between using “a” or “an” when it precedes a letter or word? Use “a” before a consonant sound (b, c, d, f, g, etc.). Use “an” before a vowel sound (a, e, i, o, u). The key is to look at the sound the word makes. Example: Bill said he wanted to become (a, an) FBI agent when he grew up. Answer: Bill said he wanted to become an FBI agent when he grew up. The letter F is a consonant, but it sounds like it is preceded with a vowel when it is pronounced. An “ef” – B – I agent? Yes. It’s the initial sound of the word that we are looking for! Now, isn’t that easy?
This Behind the Scenes article was provided to LiveScience in partnership with the National Science Foundation. Methane, a potent greenhouse gas, seeps naturally from the sea floor in many places around the planet, including in the Gulf of Mexico. Scientists know that some of the Gulf's naturally released methane is eaten by microbes, but they are still trying to determine how much of this released methane ever reaches the atmosphere, where it may influence climate. To help better define the relationships between methane seeps and climate change, we had previously conducted many studies of natural methane seeps. However, not all marine methane seeps are natural; significant amounts of methane also seep from unnatural sources, such as oil wells. So when BP's Deepwater Horizon rig exploded in the Gulf of Mexico on April 20, 2010, and the Macondo prospect began releasing hydrocarbons, we suspected that the resulting oil spill would be accompanied by a large methane release. A Mega Methane Release Indeed, we were right. In fact, so much methane gushed from the well that some of it collected as solid, crystal-like structures — known as clathrate hydrates — in well caps that rig operators used in attempts to seal the well. Unfortunately, those accumulations of methane clathrate hydrate eventually filled the well caps, and thereby prevented them from sealing the well. In addition, soon after the Deepwater Horizon rig exploded, the Department of Energy and BP collected measurements indicating that, on a molecule-by-molecule basis, methane was the most abundant material being released from the rig. With the rig spilling 52,700 barrels of oil per day into the Gulf, we now realized it was also releasing far more methane than any other previously studied natural methane seep. As news of the rig's release of large amounts of methane spread throughout the scientific community and general public, a wave of wild speculation about its ultimate impacts grew. For example, some people predicted that the methane would gradually and harmlessly rise into the atmosphere. Another prediction was that the methane would remain in the ocean, suffocate marine life and thereby produce large expanses of lifeless ocean (called dead zones). Some people even outlandishly predicted — much to the consternation of many residents of the Gulf coast — that a giant methane bubble would suddenly rise from the bottom of the Gulf and trigger a huge tidal wave. Unfortunately, however, most speculation about the fate of the methane releases was grounded in baseless conjecture — not on any hard data. Such unsupported speculation reminds us of the famous quote by Lord Kelvin in 1883: "I often say that when you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind; it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely in your thoughts advanced to the state of Science, whatever the matter may be." As devoted investigators of methane, we wanted to learn what would really happen to the methane released by the Macondo prospect — both because of our interest in the relationships between methane releases and climate change and because of our concern for the Gulf's ecological health. As scientists, we wanted to solve the methane mystery through the traditional scientific method. This would involve first developing an idea, called a hypothesis, based on an initial set of data on released methane and then conducting tests involving more data collection, which would either support or disprove our hypothesis. Within weeks of the explosion, we received funding from the National Science Foundation to investigate the methane component of the oil spill. In June 2010, with only two weeks to prepare, we embarked on our first expedition to the oil spill, investigating methane while aboard a research vessel. On that trip, we measured methane levels in the ocean by using winches to carefully lower electronic equipment overboard. The electronic equipment collected data and provided us with water samples from various depths that we could use to test for methane. Using that method, we discovered giant horizontal plumes of methane and other gases that were located about two-thirds of a mile below the ocean surface and were about 110 to 220 yards (100 to 200 meters) thick. The plumes contained concentrations of dissolved methane that were 10,000 to 100,000 times above normal levels, the highest methane concentrations ever documented in ocean waters. In addition, we tested methane levels in and above the ocean surface in order to determine whether the gas was escaping into the atmosphere. Our results from those tests indicated that Macondo prospect methane was not being emitted to the atmosphere and was staying dissolved and suspended in the deep ocean. In June 2010, we also measured the rates at which methane-eating microbes were consuming and thereby removing Macondo prospect methane from the Gulf waters. Although a few resulting measurements indicated that microbes were consuming methane rather quickly, the majority of measurements reflected slow rates of consumption or "biodegradation." Because of that evidence of slow biodegradation of plume methane, together with the record-breaking nature of methane concentrations in the plumes, we hypothesized in June that the plumes of high methane concentrations would persist in the Gulf for years to come. Continuing to track the Gulf's methane levels, we led three additional surveys throughout the Gulf in August, September and October of 2010. Through those surveys, which were supported by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, we sampled 207 unique locations, and measured concentrations of dissolved methane and oxygen in thousands of samples from an area covering 36,000 square miles (about 93,000 square kilometers). Surprisingly, our analyses of data generated through those later surveys told an entirely unanticipated story: rather than lasting years, as we had hypothesized, the high methane concentrations we had measured in June 2010 had hardly lasted months and were gone by fall 2010. By then, oxygen levels within the plumes had become slightly depleted. Methane-eating microbes remove oxygen from the water as they breathe. Therefore, if microbes were consuming methane in the plumes, we would expect the plumes' methane and oxygen levels to drop — phenomena that were indeed reflected in the data collected from the plumes in the fall. So we revised our hypothesis accordingly. We now hypothesized that at some time during the mid-to-late summer of 2010, the vast amounts of methane released from the Deepwater Horizon disaster had been almost entirely consumed by methane-eating microbes. Putting Our New Hypothesis to the Test To test our revised hypothesis, we conducted numerous types of tests, both at sea and in the laboratory. Unlike our original hypothesis which was disproved by such follow-up tests, our revised hypothesis was supported by all such tests, which included the following: - An exhaustive search for methane in, above, below and away from the plumes that involved measuring more than 650 water samples. We also continually sampled the atmosphere by taking more than 60,000 air measurements. Our results showed that none of our air or water measurements had elevated levels of methane. - Measurements of the total amount of oxygen that had been removed from the plumes. These analyses revealed that so much oxygen was missing from the plumes that its removal could only be explained by one phenomenon, that the microbes nearly totally consumed the vast amounts of methane that had been released by the Deepwater Horizon disaster. - Genetic analyses of microbes remaining in the plumes, which showed that the organisms were methane-eating microbes. - Mathematical calculations integrating data of ocean currents and our data on methane, oxygen and rates of methane consumption indicated that almost all of the Deepwater Horizon methane had been completely consumed around the beginning of August. So what was the source of the massive populations of methane-munching microbes that had unexpectedly cleaned the plumes of methane and reduced the oxygen levels? The Gulf itself. After all, even before the Deepwater Horizon rig exploded, the Gulf had been dotted by many natural methane seeps that provided food for modest-sized populations of methane-eating microbes. In response to the explosion and resulting releases of huge volumes of methane, the microbial populations seized the day, feasted on the methane releases and experienced large population increases. After ultimately eating themselves out of house and home, the large populations of methane-eating microbes eventually shrank. So, if not for the presence in the Gulf of pre-explosion baseline populations of methane-eating microbes, the huge volume of methane released by the Deepwater Horizon disaster may have persisted far longer than it did. Because the volume of methane released from the Deepwater Horizon disaster was precedent-setting and had never before been observed, the rapid and mighty microbial response that it triggered had also never before been observed. We were glad to have this opportunity to lend our expertise to study the oil spill. But we also tried to make a little good come from this disaster and to use it to learn something about how the planet naturally functions. What our research has taught us is that if some of the large stores of methane that are currently buried beneath the sea floor are ever released in large quantities — either due to ocean warming, earthquakes or man-made factors — locally present microbes may at least partially help to reduce the potential influences on climate. Editor's Note: This research was supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF), the federal agency charged with funding basic research and education across all fields of science and engineering. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. See the Behind the Scenes Archive.
Auditory processing disorder (APD) is a hearing problem caused by the brain not processing sound in the normal way. A person with APD will have normal hearing when tested using standard tests, but will nonetheless have problems making sense of sounds, especially complicated and fast-changing sounds like speech. Children with APD may have noticeable problems from a very young age, such as difficulty understanding speech in the presence of other sounds, for example in a noisy classroom, and expressing themselves with speech. Their reading and spelling abilities may also be affected. There is increasing interest in APD in children world-wide, because of suspicions that it may lead to learning difficulties for language and literacy, and hence to poor school performance. Unfortunately, APD is very poorly understood, with no general consensus of what it really is, or how to diagnose or treat it. One promising avenue of research concerns spatial listening abilities. Spatial listening involves being able to separate sources of sound from each other based on their location in space. As an example, if a child is sitting in a classroom trying to listen to the teacher who is in front of them while behind them, two other children are having a conversation, they will find it easier to follow the teacher than if the chatting children were very near the teacher. Most people can understand speech much better when interfering noises (or other talkers) are located away from the talker they are trying to listen to, rather than nearby. However, some children suspected of having APD seem to be very poor at doing this. Although it would be best to measure these spatial listening abilities in real-life situations, it’s often more practical to use headphones and techniques of virtual reality in the lab. Virtual reality can make it seem like sounds are spread out in the world as they are in real life, rather than inside your head, as they typically are when listening through headphones. The drawback to virtual reality is that you need to account for the effects of the listener’s head on sounds – because our heads are all different from one another, what works for one person likely won’t work well for another. Tests of spatial listening in children to date have used standard adult head measurements to create their virtual reality, even though children’s and adults’ heads are very different in size and shape. This mismatch could have an effect on the results being obtained, making them less accurate, and making it harder to interpret the results of listening tests being used to develop diagnostic tests for APD. The main aim of Katharina’s project is to determine how accurate spatial listening performance as measured by virtual reality is, and how much it depends on taking into account the listener’s actual head size. She will measure spatial listening abilities under three conditions: 1) using virtual reality while taking into account a child’s actual head size, 2) using virtual reality with a default standard head size and 3) in real-life. She will study both children suspected of having APD, as well as normally-hearing children. A growing number of children are being referred for APD assessment, but few NHS clinics are able to diagnose their problems, not least because there is a great deal of uncertainty about what diagnostic tests to use. A better understanding of the nature of at least some types of APD, as well as more efficient diagnostic procedures, could have an important impact on clinical practice, and improve assessment and rehabilitation of APD.
Hangars - Part 4Last change: November 2019 Shelter-hangars are a typical military element of the "Cold War" period. Their development dates back to the Vietnam War. Until the outbreak of this war, combat aircraft were lined up in a straight line. This method facilitated the operation of aircraft. But at the same time planes lined up in a straight line were a good target for airstrikes. Even if the raid was not carried out along the set planes, the damage was still great. Initially, it was decided to build earth embankments along the aircraft parking spaces. Then the positions were divided by wood and earth partitions. Finally, it was decided to center the planes. But just centering was not enough. It was decided to surround the stands on three sides with earth embankments. Ground embankments were as high as protected planes. In the end, it was decided to hide the most expensive variant, i.e. cover this type of roofing. Construction engineering came to the rescue. Prefabricated elements made of reinforced concrete were developed, which were joined together by means of metal joints (bolts). As a result, a kind of tunnel was obtained, which was closed from the back by a wall, and from the front by a metal door. The whole was covered with soil and plants were planted. Over time, with such hiding places were added: warehouses and social rooms for the crew. Tunnels were made in the back of the shelter-hangar that allowed the aircraft engine to start up inside the shelter. The tunnel discharged exhaust gases from the engine (s). After some time, these tunnels were made in such a way as to disperse the temperature of the exhaust gases as much as possible and to protect against the impact of missiles guided by a thermal head. Electrical, fuel, water and sometimes pneumatic (for starting engines) installations were brought to the shelters. These solutions have already reached Poland in 60 years. Aircraft centering was widely used, stalls were surrounded by earth embankments, and shelter hangars were built at strategic airports. Initially for MiG-21 aircraft. Lim-2, Lim-5 and Lim-6 aircraft also used these hangars. With the MiG-21 aircraft properly positioned to the shelter-hangar, there was also a Lim aircraft. In the 80s, new hangars for Sukhoi Su-22 aircraft were built at the airports of Powidz, Piła, Mirosławice and Świdwin. A new type of hangar appeared when Lockheed Martin F-16 Jastrząb was introduced to the armament in 2006. These are shelters made in technology not known in Poland so far. There were 16 such hangars at the Krzesiny and Łask airports. Because another squadron from Powidz was moved to Krzesin, therefore light-type hangars were built for them in Krzesiny. Written by Karol Placha Hetman
A brief history of Catholicism and the Kings and Queens of Great Britain from 16th - 19th Century. The Pope is not only the religious leader on earth of the Catholic Church: he is also a head of state. For centuries there had been many disputes between kings and bishops, Popes and Emperors, especially as bishops were also great landowners and ministers of the Crown. In 1521 Henry VIII wrote a book against Luther, for which Pope Leo X gave him the title (still on British coins as ‘F.D.’) of ‘Defender of the Faith’. But St Thomas More, who was later beheaded for supporting the authority of the Pope, thought that Henry had been too enthusiastic in his account of it. ‘The Pope is a prince, as you are’, he said: ‘it may hereafter fall out that your Grace and he may vary’. In 1535, after Henry had declared himself Supreme Head of the Church in England, Pope Paul III excommunicated him (deprive of the right of Church membership) and declared him deposed. There was a theory that a pope, as head of the Christian commonwealth, could do this to an unjust king—though such a change of regime could only be effective if another king was willing and able to enforce it by invasion. In this case it was not effective, though there are still reminders of the threat in the castles which Henry built to defend the harbours along the south coast. In 1570 Pope St Pius V excommunicated Henry’s younger daughter Elizabeth I and declared her deposed for her suppression of Catholicism in England. But Philip II of Spain was not going to invade England in order to replace Elizabeth (who was his sister-in-law and whom he had offered to marry himself) by the next heir, Mary Queen of Scots, who was half-French. In 1580 Pius V’s successor Gregory XIII had suspended the bull because of representations by English Catholics about the impossible situation that it left them in. In 1587 Mary Queen of Scots was beheaded, leaving her claim to the English throne, not to her son James VI of Scotland but to Philip II. In 1588 the Spanish Armada attempted to invade England but was defeated by a combination of fire-ships and storms. Almost all English Catholics supported Elizabeth, and even Pope Sixtus V doubted whether it would be beneficial for the Church if the Armada succeeded, since Philip regarded himself as a sort of vice-Pope for his own vast domains on both sides of the Atlantic. Nevertheless, the bull of 1570 had still not been withdrawn, and the Elizabethan government tried to entrap prisoners by what was called the ‘Bloody Question’: if the Pope, for the restoration of the Catholic religion, invaded England, or authorised some other ruler to do so, whose side would you fight on? In 1603 Elizabeth died and James VI of Scotland succeeded her as James I of England. Although James was a Protestant, he had never, unlike Elizabeth, been a Catholic. Pope Paul V therefore ordered English Catholics to give their support to James, who for his part suspended the laws against Catholics and began negotiations to end the war with Spain. But after only a year the laws were reimposed, and in November 1605 they were apparently justified by the Gunpowder Plot. This left a lasting impression that Catholics could not be loyal subjects. It was celebrated by a special service for 5 November, which included a prayer against ‘our cruel Popish enemies who delight in blood’ and was in use until it was suppressed by Queen Victoria in 1856. In the later years of James I (d. 1625) and under his son Charles I the persecution of Catholics eased; in the 1630s there were even Papal agents in London and discussions about possible reunion. During the Civil Wars (1642-48) many Catholics fought for the King; in 1651 his son Charles II owed his life after the Battle of Worcester to the priest-holes in Catholic houses. He never forgot this and after his restoration in 1660 did what he could to protect the Catholics. James I, Charles I and Charles II all had Catholic wives; Charles II became a Catholic on his deathbed, and his brother James II (1685-88) was already a Catholic when he succeeded. But in 1688 he was removed and replaced by his Protestant daughter and son-in-law William III and Mary II. An Act of 1689 provided that no one who was a Catholic or married to one could be sovereign. In 1714, Mary II’s sister, Queen Anne, was succeeded by a distant cousin, George I from Hanover, though most Catholics still regarded James II’s son (‘James III’) as the lawful king. But when ‘James III’ died in 1766, the Pope refused to recognise his son (‘Bonnie Prince Charlie) as ‘Charles III’; and Charles’s brother, the ‘Duke of York’ who would have become ‘Henry IX’ in 1788, was a cardinal. By then Catholics had accepted George III as the rightful king, a sentiment encouraged by the Catholic Relief Acts of 1778 and 1791. In 1829, by the Catholic Emancipation Act, Catholics recovered most of the rights enjoyed by other British subjects—though the sovereign can still not be, or marry, a Catholic. For the Pope God our Father, shepherd and guide, look with love on Benedict, your servant, the pastor of your Church. May his word and example inspire and guide the Church, and may he, and all those entrusted to his care, come to the joy of everlasting life. We ask this through Christ our Lord. Visit a Catholic heritage building, e.g. the ruins of an abbey, house with priest-hole or an old pre-reformation church of Cathedral. Pray regularly for the well-being and needs of Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth II and her family. This was written in 2010 by a member of the catechetical team at The Maryvale Institute.
While some researchers look for drugs to treat HIV, other scientists delve deep into the virus itself for answers on how it causes infections. Using two supercomputers, University of Illinois research scientist Juan R. Perilla and late physics professor Klaus Schulten simulated 1.2 microseconds of the life of the HIV capsid, the structure that contains the virus's genetic material. The simulation, which took two years to complete, gives us a view of the virus on a molecular level and provides us with insight into how HIV senses its environment and becomes infective. The huge undertaking simulated the dynamics of 64 million atoms in the entire virus particle and revealed information about the stability, forces between atoms, ion permeability, surface waves, and mechanical properties of the HIV-1 capsid. The researchers reported the project results in the July 19 issue of Nature Communications. "We are learning the details of the HIV capsid system, not just the structure but also how it changes its environment and responds to its environment," Perilla said in a press release. Previous studies done over the last 25 years have used X-ray and crystal structure analyses to determine HIV's components and their arrangement. We know that the virus is composed of two strands of RNA — its genetic material — which the cell uses as templates to make 15 viral proteins. These complex proteins serve many functions, from helping the virus attach to a host cell, replicate its genetic material, and bud off as new viral particles. The capsid is one of the virus's structural proteins, located at the heart of the virion. It's a large structure, made of about 1300 proteins and 4 million atoms. Unlike other proteins in the virus, the capsid proteins are all identical. In the cell, they arrange into a cone-shaped structure made of hexamers — six sided proteins — and pentamers, with five sides. HIV belongs to the lentivirus genus of viruses. These viruses infect non-dividing cells, so to get the viral RNA into the host cell's DNA, the virus must evade the body's immune system, activate an enzyme to convert viral RNA to DNA, and get into the host cell's nucleus. Where once scientists thought the capsid only served to transport viral genetic material, we now know that the capsid has a role in all those other functions as well. Perilla and Schulten wanted to look at the how the viral capsid acts at the molecular level, but it interacts with every other viral protein. They solved the problem by simulating interactions of the entire virus, all 64 million atoms of it, while only showing the 4 million atoms of the capsid proteins. Perilla and Schulten used a process called molecular dynamics to study the HIV capsid. Molecular dynamics allows a scientist to simulate the forces between atoms of a compound — in this case, a virus — and something it's interacting with. Those simulations can be used to watch how molecules interact with their environment and each other. Recording those simulated forces generated the data they researchers were looking for, but because of the sheer number of atoms, simulating the forces between all of them over just 1.2 microseconds took two years. Molecular dynamics is just understanding how molecules move and impact each other. The forces between those molecules are not particularly complex, but if you model a system with thousands or millions of atoms, then you need to calculate the forces between every single atom, it's just enormously computationally expensive. The research duo used two different supercomputers to perform their elegant study. The capsid simulation was done on the Titan supercomputer at the US Department of Energy. Analysis of the massive amounts of data generated by the DOE computer was accomplished by Blue Waters at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois. Both are among the fastest computers in the world. As the supercomputers collected and analyzed data from the simulations, the results showed that different parts of the capsid oscillate — moves or swings back and forth — at different frequencies. Perilla believes the oscillations probably transmit information from one part of the capsid to another. The study also showed that ions — charged particles — flow into and out of the pores in the capsid that allow the passage of water and ions from their environment. Negatively charged ions accumulate on the positively charged inner surface of the capsid protein layer, while positive ions stick to the negatively charged exterior. The hexamers act as a channel for negatively charged chloride. It moves through the middle of the hexamer. Positively charged sodium, on the other hand moves between hexamers on the surface. Perilla believes this could help bring enzymes and other factors into the capsid to use in converting RNA to DNA. The nucleotides that make up DNA are negatively charged and are small enough to pass through pores in the HIV capsid, much the way chloride ions do. Another significant finding was that it might be possible to stress the mechanical and charged forces that hold the capsid together to make it susceptible to bursting. Previous research has found several areas on the capsid that seem especially prone to stress. Zooming out from the molecular level to the level of HIV infections, the new study has given Perilla ideas about how to use the new revelations about the HIV capsid to defeat the virus. "If you can break this electrostatic balance that the capsid is trying to keep together, you may be able to force it to burst prematurely," Perilla said in a press release. This painstaking and eloquent study may have given us the much closer look we needed to understand the innermost workings of HIV.
Mars may well have liquid water at or near its surface, but a new study suggests that water vapor is escaping the Red Planet faster than previously thought. The research, published in the journal Science, looked at data from the Trace Gas Orbiter, which is orbiting Mars as part of the ExoMars program, and found that seasonal changes influenced how water vapor was distributed in the planet's atmosphere. "The loss of water from Mars to space is thought to result from the transport of water to the upper atmosphere, where it is dissociated to hydrogen and escapes the planet," the researchers wrote in the study's abstract. "Recent observations have suggested large, rapid seasonal intrusions of water into the upper atmosphere, boosting the hydrogen abundance." "Water profiles during the 2018–2019 southern spring and summer stormy seasons show that high-altitude water is preferentially supplied close to perihelion, and supersaturation occurs even when clouds are present," the abstract added. "This implies that the potential for water to escape from Mars is higher than previously thought." During the warmest part of the year on Mars, there are significant chunks of the atmosphere that achieve the aforementioned "supersaturation," containing anywhere between 10 and 100 times more vapor than should be allowed. Speaking with Space.com, the study's lead author, Franck Montmessin, said this "supersaturation" is not seen "on any other body of the solar system." Montmessin added that researchers had expected the amount of water vapor reaching the upper portion of the atmosphere "should have been limited by the cold temperature up above and be bound to condense into clouds." Further research is needed to get a better idea of how much water vapor is entering the upper portion of the atmosphere so researchers can understand just how much is leaving. In 2018, scientists uncovered "a stable body of liquid water" on Mars, a "well-defined, 20-kilometer-wide zone," sitting below the Red Planet's southern polar ice cap. Layers of ice buried a mile beneath the planet's north pole were discovered in May 2019. In December 2019, NASA researchers published a “treasure map” where water ice may be found on the planet. 2020 is poised to be a big year for the exploration of Mars, as NASA launches the Mars 2020 rover (which will be renamed prior to launch), joining the still functioning Curiosity rover and the now-deceased Opportunity rover on the Red Planet. The Mars 2020 rover, which is slated to launch July 17, will detect if there is any fossilized evidence of extraterrestrial beings, in addition to other tasks. In 2019, Curiosity detected oxygen that "behaves in a way that so far scientists cannot explain." Several months prior to that, the rover also detected an "unusually high" level of methane on Mars. On Earth, methane is produced both biologically and geologically, although it is not clear what caused the methane spike on Mars. Fox News' James Rogers contributed to this story.
One of the most used terms in network is LAN (Local Area Network). It’s a form of network that we encounter in our daily lives, at home, at work, study, and in various other areas of life. Unless working specially in the field of Wide Area Networks (WAN), you will come across a LAN pretty much everyday. A key protocol used to maintain efficiency within a LAN is the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP), which is standardized as IEEE 802.1D. Without this protocol our LANs would rapidly become congested, with frames looping throughout the network infinitely, making network devices unstable. This protocol is implemented on switches, as switches deal with network data at the frame level. But before going ahead with a full blown explanation of what STP is, it is important to understand the ‘problem’ that STP prevents and how it improves a LAN’s performance. Let’s go through some salient features of a LAN first. One of the most important devices within a LAN is a switch. All standard switches are Layer 2 devices i.e. they work at the level of frames. A frame is the unit of transmission in a link layer protocol and consists of a link-layer header followed by a packet. Without going into too much detail, a switch communicates in terms of frames. Users interested learning more about frames, can visit our Ethernet Frame Formats section where they'll find plenty of useful information and 3D representations of the various Ethernet frames. Apart from the higher layer data encapsulated by the frame, it carries two other important pieces of information, the Source MAC Address and the Destination MAC Address. It’s important to make a note of this as it becomes vital in our understanding of how a switch works and for STP itself. How Does a Switch Work? It must be noted that, before starting on this tutorial, it is best to have an understanding of how a switch works. If not then all is not lost. Users can always look up existing switch principles covered under the Switches & Bridges article. Understanding of the following topics is essential for STP: - How a switch finds MAC Addresses of new hosts - How a switch populates its MAC Address tables - How a switch deals with an incoming frame when it doesn’t know which outgoing interface to switch it to (due to no entry for a destination MAC Address in the switching table) If the above fundamental principles are clear, learning about STP becomes simple. Within permissible limits it might be said that STP is introduced within the LAN to prevent complications and network related problems caused by the way a switch functions. The flaw does not lie with how a switch works, it lies with the repercussions and manifestations of traffic because of it. Now let us run through some of the major issues encountered within a LAN. Problems with Switches & Redundant Links Just like our lives, LANs becomes big and complicated and cater to a huge number of devices. To provide interconnectivity and redundancy, sometimes switches are connected between themselves to ensure data streams are always maintained between network hosts. In an ideal world, a simple network would only have a router, a switch, and ‘n’ number of hosts connected to that switch, depending on how big the switch is. But just like Utopia, this ideal world doesn’t exist and networks have multiple switches, and sometimes these switches have interconnections. It’s done to provide redundant paths to various parts of the network to which these switches provide connectivity. But by virtue of how a switch functions, there can be a few rather alarming issues cropping up very quickly when switches have more than one way of connecting various parts of the network. To visualise this concept, here’s a setup that has two hosts connected via two switches. For the sake of simplicity the router has been left out of this equation. Since STP is all about effective switching, let’s not involve ourselves in routing. The switching layout is, then, as follows: To simplify this layout, please consider the following - There are two switches, SW1 and SW2 - There are two hosts, PC1 and PC2, connected to SW1 and SW2 respectively - MAC Address of PC1 is PC1-MAC1 and that of PC2 is PC2-MAC2 - SW1 and SW2 are connected to each other via 2 links, LINK 1 and LINK 2. These are redundant links - For LINK1, the interface used on SW1 is SW1-MAC1, and the interface used on SW2 is SW2-MAC1 - For LINK2, the interface used on SW1 is SW1-MAC2, and the interface used on SW2 is SW2-MAC2 Now let’s look at a condition where both switches have an empty MAC address table. PC1 sends out a frame whose destination is PC2. This frame reaches SW1. Right now SW1 does not know which interface to use to forward this frame to PC2, so it does a broadcast. By virtue of frame forwarding, the source address of this frame now changes. Since this broadcast will go out through both LINK 1 and 2, the outgoing broadcast frames will have different source addresses. Let us consider the frame from SW1 going out on LINK 1. Its destination address still reads PC2-MAC2. But its source address now reads SW1-MAC1. When this frame reaches SW2, SW2 does not know which interface to use to forward this frame to PC2-MAC2, so it does a broadcast. By virtue of a broadcast from a switch, this frame will not go out on LINK 1 again. This broadcasted frame goes out to PC2 and also goes out on LINK 2. Once PC2 receives this broadcast, it acknowledges receipt and SW2 learns the interface to use to forward a frame whose destination MAC Address says PC2-MAC2. But what about the broadcast frame that went out on LINK 2? This now reaches SW1, and its destination MAC Address still reads PC2-MAC2. SW1, for the second time, does not know which interface to use to forward this frame. So guess what it does? It does a broadcast again, causing PC1 to receive a frame it sent out in the first case. So you see, an innocent frame that was destined for just one host on the other end of this simplified network, ended up with the host that sent it out in the first place. This is what is known as a broadcast storm. Now this process will keep on going till the network becomes congested with multiple duplicate frames, thus reducing its performance. This is not the only issue on this LAN. What happens in the background is that the MAC table within both switches becomes extremely unstable. This is caused by the effect of the frame with the same destination MAC Address approaching the two switches with different source MAC Address. Hence the MAC table on each switch keeps getting updated without achieving any stable state. Not to mention the fact that due to this broadcast storm the hosts keep receiving multiple duplicate frames. So to sum up, the issues encountered in the above situation are now made clear: - Unstable MAC Table in switches - Multiple duplicate frames arriving at hosts STP is aimed at resolving all the above issues. This is discussed in the next tutorial, Spanning Tree Protocol, Rapid STP Port Costs - Port States, where we will start discovering the working principle of this protocol, along with some key features and associated terms.
The ruins of the pueblos in Chaco Canyon in New Mexico, (villages founded by ancient Native American communities, Ancient Pueblo people, mostly between AD 900 and 1150) show complexes made up of an interplay of square and circle rooms. These systems evolved into clusters of directly interconnected spaces. The rooms usually stood four or five stories tall, with single-story rooms facing open plazas. The square ones, (the pit houses), were people’s habitations where the daily activities of the family took place. The round ones, called kivas by the archaeologists, are believed to be community gathering centers hosting up to 50-100 people at once. The larger round structures, or great kivas, were cerimonial rooms usually partially subterranean which could held up to 400 worshipers. The growth pattern of these structures reveal a relationship between the “public” areas, the kivas, and the number of rooms in a pueblo. One small kiva was built for roughly every 29 rooms and nine complexes each hosted a great kiva. The great kivas also included distinctive features, some of which might be called “built-in furniture”: seating pits, fire box and niches were embedded in the architecture of the site. Study from “The Hexagon, the Solstice and the Kiva“, by Chris Hardaker, M.A. Anthropology Another pueblo plan: Cliff Palace Another pueblo plan: Spruce Tree House Kiva in Spruce House A contested theory affirms that “at least twelve of the fourteen principal Chacoan complexes were sited and aligned in coordination, and that each was oriented along axes that mirrored the passing of the Sun and Moon at visually pivotal times“. One of the sites which is believed to have been planned following these principles is the Casa Rinconada, a circular structure half-sunk in the ground, an isolated great Kiva. The structure was probably dug out of the sand stone between 1070 and 1110 AD and excaveted in 1930-31 by archaeologists Vivian and Reiter with the support of the University of New Mexico. Casa rinconada has an average interior diameter of 19.2 m and it includes a firebox, an inner bench, four large seating pits that served as roof supports and 34 niches encircling the great wall. A cluster of rooms is connected on the north side. Aligned with the cardinal directions, the structure was supposedly used for mostly religious and probably agricultural purposes (as an instrument to monitor the variations of the sun, in order to keep track of the seasons ). It’s also believed by archeologists and anthropologists to be a central point within a sacred landscape with astronomical references and probably a representation of the cosmology of Ancient Pueblo people. Casa Rinconada, view Casa Rinconada, drawing Casa Rinconada plan. Via. “The Architecture of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico“, edited by Stephen H Lekson Related, on Socks:
Immigration and Citizenship The History of Immigration in the United States In this lesson, students will study the nature of immigration and trace the history of immigration in the United States from its founding to the first half of the twentieth century. They will gain an understanding of the experience of immigrants in the 1800s, the factors that brought them to the United States, and the challenges they faced upon their arrival. Students will thus be better equipped to engage in the modern conversation on immigration in the United States. A set of actions and habits necessary for the safe, effective, and mutually beneficial participation in a society. Every individual is equal to every other person in regards to natural rights and treatment before the law. Except where authorized by citizens through the Constitution, the government does not have the authority to limit freedom. Rule of Law Government and citizens all abide by the same laws regardless of political power. Those laws respect individual rights, are transparently enacted, are justly applied, and are stable.
The American Revolution was not only a battle between the British and the colonists; it was a historical movement that brought about new ways of thinking. The ideas of liberty and equality began to be seen as essential to the growth of the new nation. The separation of the American colonies from the British Empire occurred for a number of reasons. These reasons are illustrated in the Declaration of Independence. Although Thomas Jefferson wrote the document, it expressed the desire of the heart of each colonist to be free of British rule. British rule over the colonies became unbearable in the early months of 1776, making it clear to the colonists that it was time to either give in to British power or declare their independence. This idea of independence divided the colonies, but it was not long before a revolutionary committee met in Philadelphia and drew up the document that would change American history. The Declaration of Independence was written to separate the American colonies from Britain, but there were many underlying goals. It was written to state the grievances that the colonists held against the British, particularly the king. The colonists wanted a better economy, a new republican government, but perhaps most of all, they simply wanted their misery to end. This is what they set out to explain in the document. John Adams described it as “a Declaration setting forth the causes which have impelled us to this mighty revolution, and the reasons which will justify it in the sight of God and man” (Friedenwald 182). The forceful wording used in the introduction of the document was used for a reason. Jefferson writes, “When in the course of h... ... middle of paper ... ... clear that government is subject to the people that it governs. The British realized that they could not write a document that would meet the demands of the colonists (Thomas 334). It was time for the colonists to write their own document. This document, the Declaration of Independence, was not only a stand against Britain; it was a stand for freedom. Friedenwald, Herbert. The Declaration of Independence: An Interpretation and an Analysis. New York: Da Capo Press, 1974. Pleasants, Samuel A., III. The Declaration of Independence. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, 1996. Thomas, Peter D. G. Tea Party of Independence: The Third Phase of the American Revolution 1773-1776. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991. Wills, Garry. Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of Independence. Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Co., 1978. Need Writing Help? Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper » - The Declaration of Independence stands as a representation of justice, equality, and natural human rights. With it being written to liberate the American citizens from British control; allowing the citizens to live freely as they wish - as equal humans. However, there are numerous discrepancies and controversies to this document. Especially in the field of gender-equality and women 's rights. Mary Wollstonecraft, writer of A Vindication of the Rights of Women, is a forerunner of this movement. Comparing her work to the Declaration of Independence, it can be seen that Wollstonecraft 's work can be served as a critique against the masculinity put forth in the Declaration of Independence.... [tags: United States Declaration of Independence] 1252 words (3.6 pages) - During the colonialization of North American it was a time of rebirth for all people. America offered an opportunity for individuals and families to take a chance at a new way of living. Rather it be for religious reasons or just the search of new start, America was the place to do that. The British Empire; however, did not see it as such and many events created the friction which eventually start a revolutionary fire. The colonist wrote down what they had been feeling for years, the need for a change.... [tags: United States Declaration of Independence] 1026 words (2.9 pages) - becomes an unpardonable issue. When taking Locke 's statements into account, it becomes clear that the Declaration 's goals were influenced by this Enlightenment philosopher, who stressed liberty and following natural law. However, Locke was not the only Enlightenment philosopher to influence the Declaration of Independence. Thomas Hobbes 's Leviathan was also largely influential in the creation of the Declaration of Independence. It was during the Enlightenment that the idea of the law of nature‒which was somewhat present in Protestant beliefs as seen by the Leveller 's belief that one has the right to self-preservation due to natural law‒began to be widely accepted.... [tags: United States Declaration of Independence] 1506 words (4.3 pages) - The Declaration of Independence of 1776 promised “unalienable rights.” However, these rights were targeted towards men. In the eighteenth century, the men who were provided with “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness” were white males. Although liberty was fundamental to the establishment of the declaration, minorities were disregarded. Women were citizens but did not have a voice in politics. In both Vindication of the Rights of Woman and “Declaration of Sentiments,” females argue for their rights to be freed from a man’s oppression.... [tags: United States Declaration of Independence] 1247 words (3.6 pages) - sCommon Sense v. Declaration of Independence Common Sense written by Thomas Paine in January of 1776, enlightened its readers and ignited the colonists towards the American Revolution. Common Sense was the first document that established a suggestion towards a constitutional form of government. The foundation of the main points in Common Sense were the upbringing of the Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of Independence was written by Thomas Jefferson in July of 1776 approximately 7 months after Thomas Paine’s work of Common Sense.... [tags: United States Declaration of Independence] 979 words (2.8 pages) - The Declaration of Independence At the point when throughout human events, it gets significant for one group of people in another land to solve the political bands that make this group connected with another. The land that gives them a geographical separation should also separate them in other aspects. They believe that they are entitled to have freedom in choosing a religion, to have others respect, and to have their own laws in that geographically independent country. Moreover, people still hold these beliefs to be undisputable, that one and all people are created equal, that those people are gifted by the creator with certain inalienable rights, such as gladness and liberty.... [tags: United States Declaration of Independence] 854 words (2.4 pages) - The Founding Fathers created the Declaration of Independence with the intention of establishing a country based on equality. Despite this intention, women were purposely left out. The first few lines of the Declaration of Independence show inequality instantly: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal…” (“Declaration of Independence”). The usage of “men” immediately disregards the whole other half of the population—women. What happened to them. Why were they deliberately excluded.... [tags: United States Declaration of Independence] 832 words (2.4 pages) - It was not until the early 20th century, that women officially gained the right to vote and participate in legislation. Unlike men, women were deprived of their basic rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. They were discouraged from receiving education, and their achievements were not recognized as they were for male counterparts. As a result of women suffering, Elizabeth Cady Stanton decided to petition for women suffrage by drafting the Seneca Falls Declaration, a lengthy document written to resolve inequality between men and women.... [tags: United States Declaration of Independence] 1117 words (3.2 pages) - There are many events in history that include the expression of equality and freedoms. There are works on equality and or freedoms that have overriding themes. Three of these freedom or equality works are Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence, Martin Luther King Jr.’s I Have a Dream, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton’s Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions. Each of these works relate to either freedom or equality, but they have different priorities and goals. Many of the goals of each were either met or unmet.... [tags: United States Declaration of Independence] 1162 words (3.3 pages) - The Declaration of Independence is a document that was used to declare Independence for the 13 colonies from England on July 4th 1776. The Declaration of Independence is made up of three main parts. The Declaration of Independence came to be when it was chosen in the second Continental congress to cut their ties to England and allow the thirteen colonies be their own country. The thirteen colonies had representatives from each colony at the Second Continental Congress in which they made their goals apparent in the Declaration of Independence.... [tags: American Revolution] 1080 words (3.1 pages)
Lesson Plan Title : Mapping the Circulatory System Age Range: Grade 3 through grade 5 (Elementary) Overview and Purpose: Students study the path of the circulatory system in this activity. They trace each other's bodies and use them to label the path of blood in the circulatory system. Objective: The student will be able to use an outline of the human body to map out the direction the heart pumps blood through the body. Diagram showing the circulatory system and blood flow of the human body Outline of their body on butcher paper Have the students trace each other's bodies on butcher paper. They can use the outline of their body to create a diagram showing how blood is circulated throughout the body. They should differentiate between oxygenated and deoxygenated blood by using red and blue colored pencils. They should also label major arteries and veins. These diagrams can be displayed around the room or in the hallway. You could extend this activity by having students write a short story about what it is like to take a ride on the circulatory system. They could include a description of their travels in oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
Ancient Greek architecture is renowned for its amazing temples. The Hellenic people fo Mainland Greece, the Aegean Islands and in colonies in the Asia Minor designed this type of greek architecture characteristics. Buildings and temples built between 900 B.C and 1st century A.D. were distinguished by their highly formal structures and decorations. Public and domestic edifices built at that time were well-known for their columns and lintels. Here is a list of 20 influential greek architecture characteristics for you. Here Are 20 Influential Greek Architecture Characteristics 1. Selinunte Temple. Selinunte, Sicily. 550 B.C. This is one of the Doric temples in the Acropolis of Selinunte. It looks like the Temple of Apollo at Syracuse. This temple had 17 columns at the sides and an extra row of columns at the eastern end. It can be accessed from the naos and the aisles of the temples are wide. 2. Temple of Artemis. Corfu, Greece. 580 B.C. This is one of the most ancient edifices in Corfu, Greece. This Greek Architecture characteristic was made and offered to Artemis. It was used as a sanctuary. This stone made temple was built exclusively according to the Doric architectural style. 3. Temple of Hera. Olympia, Greece. 590 B.C. The Temple of Hera is an ancient Doric Greek temple. The torch of the Olympic flames is located and lit here. This temple was offered to Hera, the wife of Zeus. In the early 4th century A.D. this temple was destroyed by an earthquake and was never renovated. 4. The Erechtheion. Athens, Greece. 421 B.C. – 405 B.C. This temple was offered to both Athena and Poseidon. It is located on the north side of the Acropolis of Athens in Greece. Muscles designed this temple and the name came from the legendary Greek hero Erichthonius. It is thought that this temple was built to replace the Peisistratid temple which was ruined in 480 B.C. 5. The Parthenon. Athens, Greece. 447 B.C. – 432 B.C. It is the most famous of all Greek temples. The Parthenon is also one of the most influential edifices in the history of architecture. This temple was offered to Pericles by Ictinus and Callicrates. Pheidias ornamented it with sculptures. This temple contained a colossal statue of Athena. 6. The Philippeion. Olympia, Greece. 339 B.C. This Ionic circular memorial is made of ivory and gold. It’s in the Altis of Olympia and it contained the sculptures of Philip’s family including Alexander the Great, Olympias, Amyntas III and Eurydice I. Famous Athenian sculptor Leochares built it and it is the sole structure inside the region that was offered to a human. 7. The Temple of Aphaia. Aegina, Greece. 490 B.C. This ancient temple is one of the architectural wonders of ancient Greece. It is located on the Island of Aegina. It stands on the top of a 160 m hill. The temple was dedicated to Athena. It was built in 480 B.C. Thanks to the restorers that 25 of the original 32 Doric columns still stand today. 8. The Temple of Apollo Epicurius. Bassae, Greece. 450 B.C. to 425 B.C. The architect of the Temple of Hephaestus and the Parthenon, Iktinos designed this temple. It was offered to Apollo the Helper. Ancient writer Pausanias praised this temple because of its beauty and harmony. 9. The Temple of Apollo. Corinth, Greece. 540 B.C. The temple of Apollo is almost similar to the Temple of Hera of Olympia. The only difference is it was made totally on stone. This temple is located in Isthmus of Corinth. 10. The Delian Temple of Apollo. Delos, Greece. 470 B.C.- 300 B.C. This temple is a classic example of Doric architecture. It has 13 columns on its sides. Is has other temple edifices inside its main sanctuary. Today only a little part of the original temple remains. This temple was dedicated to Apollo. 11. The Temple of Apollo. Siracusa, Sicily. 565 B.C. The Temple of Apollo is a Doric temple which has 17 columns down each of its two sides. It also has an extra row of columns at its eastern end. One of the distinguishing greek architecture characteristics temples is the column at its sides are really close together. 12. The Temple of Asclepius. Epidauros, Greece. 380 B.C. This temple was built in the early fourth century BC. It was dedicated to the healing god Asclepius. Theodotos designed this Doric temple. It features pedimental sculptures, front and back and figural acroteria. 13. The Temple of Athena Nike. Athens, Greece. 427 B.C. The Temple of Athena Nike was built between 427 and 424 B.C. It is the earliest Ionic temple in the region. The walls of this temple are protected on the north, south, and west by the Nike Parapet. Famous greek architecture characteristics Kallikrates designed this temple. 14. The Temple of Hephaestus. Athens, Greece. 449 B.C. – 444 B.C. This temple is situated at the northwest side of the Agora of Athens on top of the Agoraios Kolonos Hill. This Doric temple is commonly known as the Hephasteion or the Temple of Hephaestus. It served as the Greek Orthodox church of St. George Akamates since 1834. 15.The Temple of Nemesis. Rhamnous, Greece. 436 B.C. – 432 B.C. This temple of Nemesis is located between Rhamnous and Marathon. Here offers were made to Livia, the wife of Augustus. This Doric temple consists of 12 columns on the sides and contains some grave monuments. 16. The Temple of Poseidon. Sounion, Greece. 444 B.C. – 440 B.C. The temple of Poseidon is an example of Doric peripteral hexastyle edifice. It features attenuated columns and perfected classical proportion. Here sailors usually propitiated Poseidon by sacrificing animals or any other gifts. 17. The Temple of the Olympian Zeus. Athens, Greece. 174 B.C. to 132 A.D. This huge ruined temple is located at the center of Athens. The Temple of the Olympian Zeus is a renowned tourist attraction in Athens. This temple was offered to The king of the Olympian Gods, Zeus. 18. The Temple of Zeus. Olympia, Greece. 460 B.C. The temple of Zeus was made between 472 B.C. and 456 B.C. It was dedicated to the king of the Gods: Zeus. Libon of Elis designed this greek architecture characteristics temple at Olympia. This Doric temple had carved metopes and triglyph friezes, with pediments filled with sculptures. 19. The Tholos of Athena. Delphi, Greece. 400 B.C. Theodorus of Phocaea designed this circular temple. It is an early example of a Doric exterior with a Corinthian interior. Respectively each has 20 and 10 columns. In ancient Greece, it set up the pattern for circular temples. 20. The Tholos of Polykleitos. Epidauros, Greece. 350 B.C. This temple is located in Epidauros, Greece. It was built in 350 B.C. The Tholos of Polykleitos is a circular temple or treasury surrounded by 26 columns of the Doric Order and it has 14 Corinthian columns in its interior.
Asthma is a condition that affects the lungs. It causes episodes of breathlessness, wheezing, tightness of the chest, and coughing. Asthma can be treated by taking medicine and avoiding known triggers that cause attacks. Individuals with asthma can reduce the rate and frequency of episodes by taking medication or removing triggers in their environment that trigger episodes. What Is Asthma? In patients with asthma, the airways to the lung are often swollen and/or inflamed. This makes them sensitive to environmental factors, called “triggers.” These triggers can be related to the weather, or they can be things such as exposure to chemicals, smoke, pet dander, or dust. Asthma can start at any age. Some patients may have asthma at a young age as their lungs develop, but the symptoms may disappear later in life. It is possible for them to return, however. In other cases, patients may develop asthma later in life altogether. Types of Asthma While asthma is commonly referred to as one disease, there are many different kinds. All types of asthma involve airway inflammation. However, different patterns of symptoms and the way the body processes triggers dictate which type of asthma a person has. Please note that while there are many types of asthma, but the two most common are allergic asthma and non-allergic asthma. Allergic asthma is the most common type of asthma. It affects 90% of kids with childhood asthma and 50% of adults with asthma. Symptoms appear alongside allergens (allergy triggers) like dust mites, pollen, or mold. Allergens that can cause an asthmatic reaction include: - Windblown pollen - Mold spores - Animal dander - Dust mite feces - Cockroach feces Allergens are not the only thing that can make allergic asthma worse, however; irritants may trigger an asthma attack even if they do not produce an allergic reaction. Common irritants include: - Air pollution - Strong odors - Dusty rooms Non-allergic asthma, also known as intrinsic-type asthma, means that suffers will experience asthmatic symptoms following an infection in the chest. Because the infections are typically viral, antibiotics are not useful in promoting healing. It may also be provoked by bacterial infections, which are often associated with sinusitis or bronchitis. In these infections, antibiotics are essential. Symptoms can be provoked by weather changes, cold air, physical activity, indoor and outdoor pollutants, or perfumes and other strong odors. Non-allergy asthma is not caused by allergies. Thus, individuals with this condition produce negative allergy skin tests. Who Is at Risk for Asthma? Risk factors will also vary from person to person. However, a number of factors can contribute to your chances of developing asthma. Exposure to irritants and substances known to cause allergies can also trigger signs and symptoms of asthma. What Are the Symptoms of Asthma? Symptoms vary from person to person. One may have frequent asthma attacks with symptoms at specific times—such as during physical activity—while another may have symptoms all the time. These triggers can often be difficult to pinpoint, so keeping a diary of known and possible triggers is important. Signs and symptoms may include: - Shortness of breath - Chest tightness - Pain in chest - Trouble sleeping caused by coughing, wheezing, or shortness of breath - Whistling or wheezing sound while exhaling - Coughing or wheezing attacks Treatments for Asthma Effective treatment of asthma requires keeping track of one’s symptoms and triggers to measure lung function. Use a diary to record shortness of breath, disturbed sleep patterns, tightness or pain in the chest, quick-relief inhaler use, and disruptions to work, school, or daily operations caused by asthma symptoms. Long-term medications, such as inhaled corticosteroids, are the most common and most important medicines used in asthma treatment. These medications are preventative and are used to treat airway inflammation that leads to asthma symptoms. Quick-relief inhalers contain fast-acting medication, such as albuterol (Proventil HFA, Ventolin HFA) and are sometimes called rescue inhalers. These are used to quickly open airways to alleviate breathing problems. Accurate and prompt use of these medications can prevent or alleviate allergy attacks. AMA medical group was founded to support every member of the community. If you have allergic or non-allergic asthma and are experiencing symptoms, don’t hesitate to contact us at (727) 331-8740 to schedule an appointment.
What Is Cancer? Differences between Cancer Cells and Normal Cells Cancer cells differ from normal cells in many ways that allow them to grow out of control and become invasive. One important difference is that cancer cells are less specialized than normal cells. That is, whereas normal cells mature into very distinct cell types with specific functions, cancer cells do not. This is one reason that, unlike normal cells, cancer cells continue to divide without stopping. In addition, cancer cells are able to ignore signals that normally tell cells to stop dividing or that begin a process known as programmed cell death, or apoptosis, which the body uses to get rid of unneeded cells. Cancer cells may be able to influence the normal cells, molecules, and blood vessels that surround and feed a tumor—an area known as the microenvironment. For instance, cancer cells can induce nearby normal cells to form blood vessels that supply tumors with oxygen and nutrients, which they need to grow. These blood vessels also remove waste products from tumors. Cancer cells are also often able to evade the immune system, a network of organs, tissues, and specialized cells that protects the body from infections and other conditions. Although the immune system normally removes damaged or abnormal cells from the body, some cancer cells are able to “hide” from the immune system. Tumors can also use the immune system to stay alive and grow. For example, with the help of certain immune system cells that normally prevent a runaway immune response, cancer cells can actually keep the immune system from killing cancer cells. How Cancer Arises Cancer is a genetic disease—that is, it is caused by changes to genes that control the way our cells function, especially how they grow and divide. Genetic changes that cause cancer can be inherited from our parents. They can also arise during a person’s lifetime as a result of errors that occur as cells divide or because of damage to DNA caused by certain environmental exposures. Cancer-causing environmental exposures include substances, such as the chemicals in tobacco smoke, and radiation, such as ultraviolet rays from the sun. (Our Cancer Causes and Prevention section has more information.) Each person’s cancer has a unique combination of genetic changes. As the cancer continues to grow, additional changes will occur. Even within the same tumor, different cells may have different genetic changes. In general, cancer cells have more genetic changes, such as mutations in DNA, than normal cells. Some of these changes may have nothing to do with the cancer; they may be the result of the cancer, rather than its cause. "Drivers" of Cancer The genetic changes that contribute to cancer tend to affect three main types of genes—proto-oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and DNA repair genes. These changes are sometimes called “drivers” of cancer. Proto-oncogenes are involved in normal cell growth and division. However, when these genes are altered in certain ways or are more active than normal, they may become cancer-causing genes (or oncogenes), allowing cells to grow and survive when they should not. Tumor suppressor genes are also involved in controlling cell growth and division. Cells with certain alterations in tumor suppressor genes may divide in an uncontrolled manner. DNA repair genes are involved in fixing damaged DNA. Cells with mutations in these genes tend to develop additional mutations in other genes. Together, these mutations may cause the cells to become cancerous. As scientists have learned more about the molecular changes that lead to cancer, they have found that certain mutations commonly occur in many types of cancer. Because of this, cancers are sometimes characterized by the types of genetic alterations that are believed to be driving them, not just by where they develop in the body and how the cancer cells look under the microscope. When Cancer Spreads A cancer that has spread from the place where it first started to another place in the body is called metastatic cancer. The process by which cancer cells spread to other parts of the body is called metastasis. Metastatic cancer has the same name and the same type of cancer cells as the original, or primary, cancer. For example, breast cancer that spreads to and forms a metastatic tumor in the lung is metastatic breast cancer, not lung cancer. Under a microscope, metastatic cancer cells generally look the same as cells of the original cancer. Moreover, metastatic cancer cells and cells of the original cancer usually have some molecular features in common, such as the presence of specific chromosome changes. Treatment may help prolong the lives of some people with metastatic cancer. In general, though, the primary goal of treatments for metastatic cancer is to control the growth of the cancer or to relieve symptoms caused by it. Metastatic tumors can cause severe damage to how the body functions, and most people who die of cancer die of metastatic disease. Tissue Changes that Are Not Cancer Not every change in the body’s tissues is cancer. Some tissue changes may develop into cancer if they are not treated, however. Here are some examples of tissue changes that are not cancer but, in some cases, are monitored: Hyperplasia occurs when cells within a tissue divide faster than normal and extra cells build up, or proliferate. However, the cells and the way the tissue is organized look normal under a microscope. Hyperplasia can be caused by several factors or conditions, including chronic irritation. Dysplasia is a more serious condition than hyperplasia. In dysplasia, there is also a buildup of extra cells. But the cells look abnormal and there are changes in how the tissue is organized. In general, the more abnormal the cells and tissue look, the greater the chance that cancer will form. Some types of dysplasia may need to be monitored or treated. An example of dysplasia is an abnormal mole (called a dysplastic nevus) that forms on the skin. A dysplastic nevus can turn into melanoma, although most do not. An even more serious condition is carcinoma in situ. Although it is sometimes called cancer, carcinoma in situ is not cancer because the abnormal cells do not spread beyond the original tissue. That is, they do not invade nearby tissue the way that cancer cells do. But, because some carcinomas in situ may become cancer, they are usually treated. Types of Cancer There are more than 100 types of cancer. Types of cancer are usually named for the organs or tissues where the cancers form. For example, lung cancer starts in cells of the lung, and brain cancer starts in cells of the brain. Cancers also may be described by the type of cell that formed them, such as an epithelial cell or a squamous cell. You can search NCI’s website for information on specific types of cancer based on the cancer’s location in the body or by using our A to Z List of Cancers. We also have collections of information on childhood cancers and cancers in adolescents and young adults. Here are some categories of cancers that begin in specific types of cells: Carcinomas are the most common type of cancer. They are formed by epithelial cells, which are the cells that cover the inside and outside surfaces of the body. There are many types of epithelial cells, which often have a column-like shape when viewed under a microscope. Carcinomas that begin in different epithelial cell types have specific names: Adenocarcinoma is a cancer that forms in epithelial cells that produce fluids or mucus. Tissues with this type of epithelial cell are sometimes called glandular tissues. Most cancers of the breast, colon, and prostate are adenocarcinomas. Basal cell carcinoma is a cancer that begins in the lower or basal (base) layer of the epidermis, which is a person’s outer layer of skin. Squamous cell carcinoma is a cancer that forms in squamous cells, which are epithelial cells that lie just beneath the outer surface of the skin. Squamous cells also line many other organs, including the stomach, intestines, lungs, bladder, and kidneys. Squamous cells look flat, like fish scales, when viewed under a microscope. Squamous cell carcinomas are sometimes called epidermoid carcinomas. Transitional cell carcinoma is a cancer that forms in a type of epithelial tissue called transitional epithelium, or urothelium. This tissue, which is made up of many layers of epithelial cells that can get bigger and smaller, is found in the linings of the bladder, ureters, and part of the kidneys (renal pelvis), and a few other organs. Some cancers of the bladder, ureters, and kidneys are transitional cell carcinomas. Sarcomas are cancers that form in bone and soft tissues, including muscle, fat, blood vessels, lymph vessels, and fibrous tissue (such as tendons and ligaments). Osteosarcoma is the most common cancer of bone. The most common types of soft tissue sarcoma are leiomyosarcoma, Kaposi sarcoma, malignant fibrous histiocytoma, liposarcoma, and dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans. Our page on soft tissue sarcoma has more information. Cancers that begin in the blood-forming tissue of the bone marrow are called leukemias. These cancers do not form solid tumors. Instead, large numbers of abnormal white blood cells (leukemia cells and leukemic blast cells) build up in the blood and bone marrow, crowding out normal blood cells. The low level of normal blood cells can make it harder for the body to get oxygen to its tissues, control bleeding, or fight infections. There are four common types of leukemia, which are grouped based on how quickly the disease gets worse (acute or chronic) and on the type of blood cell the cancer starts in (lymphoblastic or myeloid). Our page on leukemia has more information. Lymphoma is cancer that begins in lymphocytes (T cells or B cells). These are disease-fighting white blood cells that are part of the immune system. In lymphoma, abnormal lymphocytes build up in lymph nodes and lymph vessels, as well as in other organs of the body. There are two main types of lymphoma: Hodgkin lymphoma – People with this disease have abnormal lymphocytes that are called Reed-Sternberg cells. These cells usually form from B cells. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma – This is a large group of cancers that start in lymphocytes. The cancers can grow quickly or slowly and can form from B cells or T cells. Our page on lymphoma has more information. Multiple myeloma is cancer that begins in plasma cells, another type of immune cell. The abnormal plasma cells, called myeloma cells, build up in the bone marrow and form tumors in bones all through the body. Multiple myeloma is also called plasma cell myeloma and Kahler disease. Our page on multiple myeloma and other plasma cell neoplasms has more information. Melanoma is cancer that begins in cells that become melanocytes, which are specialized cells that make melanin (the pigment that gives skin its color). Most melanomas form on the skin, but melanomas can also form in other pigmented tissues, such as the eye. Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors There are different types of brain and spinal cord tumors. These tumors are named based on the type of cell in which they formed and where the tumor first formed in the central nervous system. For example, an astrocytic tumor begins in star-shaped brain cells called astrocytes, which help keep nerve cells healthy. Brain tumors can be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer). Other Types of Tumors Germ Cell Tumors Germ cell tumors are a type of tumor that begins in the cells that give rise to sperm or eggs. These tumors can occur almost anywhere in the body and can be either benign or malignant. Our page of cancers by body location/system includes a list of germ cell tumors with links to more information. Neuroendocrine tumors form from cells that release hormones into the blood in response to a signal from the nervous system. These tumors, which may make higher-than-normal amounts of hormones, can cause many different symptoms. Neuroendocrine tumors may be benign or malignant. Our definition of neuroendocrine tumors has more information. Carcinoid tumors are a type of neuroendocrine tumor. They are slow-growing tumors that are usually found in the gastrointestinal system (most often in the rectum and small intestine). Carcinoid tumors may spread to the liver or other sites in the body, and they may secrete substances such as serotonin or prostaglandins, causing carcinoid syndrome. Our page on gastrointestinal carcinoid tumors has more information.
What Is Gingivitis? Gingivitis is a type of periodontal disease, often referred to as gum disease. Gingivitis is a condition that results in inflammation of the gums. The most common cause of gingivitis is the accumulation of plaque on the teeth and gums. Bacteria in the plaque can damage the gum tissue. Nearly half of all Americans have some form of periodontal disease, and gingivitis is the most common. Luckily, a pediatric dentist can treat and ultimately reverse the effects of gingivitis if it is detected early. Gingivitis – Gingivitis is the mildest form of periodontal disease. Gingivitis is caused by excessive plaque build-up. If plaque is not removed by daily brushing and flossing, it produces toxins that can irritate the gum tissue, which causes gums to become red and puffy, and easily bleed. There is usually little or no discomfort associated with gingivitis, however, bleeding while brushing is quite common. Gingivitis is a non-destructive type of periodontal disease, but if the disease is left untreated, gingivitis can progress into periodontitis. This periodontitis is more severe and can eventually lead to loss of teeth. Periodontitis – If gingivitis is left untreated, it can worsen into periodontitis, which is typically characterized by gum inflammation and recession. Periodontitis usually progresses slowly, but rapid periods of progression can occur. Periodontitis can be further broken down into various forms and degrees of seriousness. Aggressive periodontitis occurs in otherwise healthy patients, and progresses very rapidly – and sometimes without symptoms. Chronic periodontitis is the most common form of periodontitis and is prevalent in adults. It progresses more slowly and is characterized by gum inflammation and bleeding. Symptoms of Gingivitis Gingivitis is characterized by swollen, red gums that bleed easily. The bristles from a toothbrush can poke and rub against red and inflamed gums, causing them to bleed easily. Gingivitis can worsen into periodontal disease, which is usually marked by heavy accumulations of dental plaque and calculus. Periodontal disease and periodontitis often cause puffy, bright red gums, and heavy gum recession. It can also lead to loss of teeth. Gingivitis usually can be resolved with good oral hygiene, such as more prolonged and more frequent brushing and flossing. Even swishing around an antiseptic mouthwash in your mouth may help. There are two different categories of gingival diseases, which are dental plaque-induced gingival disease and non-plaque induced gingival lesions. Dental plaque-induced gingival diseases are characterized as gingivitis associated with dental plaque only with or without other local contributing factors. It can be described as a bacterial infection of the gingival tissue caused by plaque (biofilm) at the gingival margin. This gingival disease can be caused by systemic factors, plaque, medications, or malnutrition. This can come with or without contributing factors if there are factors, there are a few that may apply. Orthodontic appliances, dental restorations, and crowded or malpositioned teeth are factors. Non-plaque induced gingival lesions can be caused by a specific bacterium, virus, or fungus. It can potentially be caused by systemic conditions like allergic reactions and certain illnesses, as well as genetic factors, wounds, or reactions to foreign bodies. Gingivitis is mostly caused by poor oral hygiene. It happens because bacteria accumulates plaque between and around the teeth. Other common causes are diabetes, use of certain medications, tobacco use, a poor diet, and genetic predisposition. However, most periodontal disease begins as simple gingivitis, which can be easily treated and prevented. The plaque that builds up in between gums triggers an immune response, which leads to the destruction of gingival or gum tissue or loss of teeth, as previously mentioned. Dental plaque is a biofilm that accumulates naturally on the teeth. It is formed by colonizing bacteria that are attempting to stick to the smooth surface of teeth. When this plaque is not removed adequately, it can harden into tartar or calculus and builds up at the base of teeth. It is yellow and can only be removed by a dentist. Other Causes/Risk Factors There are a few other causes and risk factors that can cause gingivitis. The first is changes in hormones; it can occur during puberty, menopause, menstrual cycle, and pregnancy. Some diseases that are linked to a high risk of gingivitis include cancer, HIV, and diabetes. The risk of gingivitis increases with age, and a poor diet is linked to gum disease. Some medications reduce saliva flow, which can then lead to abnormal growth of gum tissue and plaque. Smoking not only kills, but also those who smoke are more common to develop gingivitis compared to those that do not smoke. Lastly, family history can play a part in developing gingivitis, those whose parents have it, have a higher risk of also developing it. Like cavities, gingivitis can be prevented by maintaining a healthy oral routine that includes brushing twice per day for two minutes at a time and flossing once per day. Eating a balanced diet and visiting the dentist regularly helps to prevent gingivitis. Flossing every day, and doing it multiple times a day will help to prevent plaque from building up. Being consistent with flossing is going to be critical. Swishing mouthwash can help to reduce plaque and can remove remaining food particles that brushing and flossing may have missed. Lastly, know your risk. As previously mentioned, age, smoking, diet, and genetics can all increase the risk of periodontal disease. If your child has a high risk of developing gingivitis, talk to their pediatric dentist about precautionary measure you can take to keep the disease from progressing. Detect Periodontal Disease Early As with most ailments, periodontal disease is best dealt with in its early stages, making early diagnosis vital for successful treatment. Only a dentist or hygienist can check for symptoms and diagnose a person who has gingivitis. Checking for these signs can be done by using an x-ray and periodontal probing. Visit your pediatric dentist at Kids Healthy Teeth if your child is complaining about oral sensitivity or is displaying any of the symptoms above. We will evaluate their oral health and provide you with a treatment plan that will help earn a smile that is free of gingivitis.
Objective: The purpose of this book is to help students write strong sentences while helping them avoid common mistakes such as run-on and fragment sentences. Students will accomplish this objective by learning to identify the parts of a sentence. Next, they will learn to recognize common mistakes made by emerging writers. When they have a solid understanding of how sentences are formed, they will practice writing in a variety of sentence structures. These will focus on the four types of sentences: the simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentence. For even more practice writing stronger sentences, try Writing Tricks Plus, a book that shows students sixteen “tricks” for writing stronger sentences. Whether you are writing a story, essay, report, or research paper, the quality of your writing begins with the sentence. The ability to write strong sentences as well as the ability to write a variety of sentence types is at the heart of all writing. The purpose of this book is to help young students learn to identify the parts of sentences, identify types of sentences, and be able to write strong sentences. Here is how this book is organized: The first section contains many of the worksheets from the mini-book Sentence Fragments and Run-ons offered at Teachers Pay Teachers. It shows students how to identify the parts of a sentence. The students will look at what makes up a sentence and learn to identify common mistakes made by emerging writers. By the time students finish this section, they should have a solid grasp of sentence writing. The second section takes sentence writing to a whole new level. While in section one, students learn the basic structure of sentences. In this section the students learn how to manipulate the parts of a sentence to write in a variety of styles, all while making sure they stay within the rules of sentence writing. A good writer knows that the quality of a sentence is not in its length. However, the same writer knows how to mix shorter and longer sentences to create a rhythm within the writing. This section will give the students the confidence to write sentences of any length and know that they are staying within the rules of good writing. How are the students able to write such intelligent sentences with confidence? Within the second section, the students begin by reviewing what they have just learned, the parts of a sentence. Little by little, the students learn to add phrases to make simple sentences stronger. They learn to combine simple sentences into compound sentences. They learn to add clauses to turn simple sentences into complex sentences. Ultimately, they learn to combine compound and complex sentences to form the mammoth compound-complex sentence. As if all this were not enough, the final section helps students practice combining simple sentences into stronger sentences using the skills they have just learned. In the third section “Sentence Combining” students are shown common sentences written by emerging writers. They are then shown how to take the skills from Unit 2 and use them to write compound, complex, or compound-complex sentences. There will be many times that the teachers will be able to take sample sentences from their students own writing and point to the examples in this section. The students will be reminded of the lessons learned and know how to revise their writing accordingly. Note: Regarding the idea of having students assess each other’s writing, with some encouragement and practice with the teacher, the students can use the skills from “Sentence Combining” to help assess each other’s writing during the revise / edit stages of the writing process. This is a serious time saver, as most teachers do not have time to correct rough drafts before the students write their final drafts. A few mini-lessons from you, which involve taking examples from your students’ writing and showing them how to combine them into stronger sentences, will help your students do the same for each other. Obviously, the goal of these worksheets is to have students write strong sentences. These worksheets will help give the students confidence to write good sentences and give them the ability to self-correct when they make mistakes. With this in mind many of the worksheets require that the students practice the skills taught within an actual writing situation. The extensions will give them immediate practice and help them see the practical application of what they’ve learned.
What is the PYP perspective on assessment? The prime objective of assessment in the PYP is to provide feedback on the learning process. All PYP schools are expected to develop assessment procedures and methods of reporting that reflect the philosophy and objectives of the programme. Assessment involves the gathering and analysis of information about student performance and is designed to inform practice. It identifies what students know, understand, can do, and feel at different stages in the learning process. Students and teachers should be actively engaged in assessing the students’ progress as part of the development of their wider critical-thinking and self-assessment skills. Everyone concerned with assessment, including students, teachers, parents and administrators, should have a clear understanding of the reason for the assessment, what is being assessed, the criteria for success, and the method by which the assessment is made. The entire school community should also be concerned with evaluating the effectiveness of the programme. The PYP approach to assessment recognizes the importance of assessing the process of inquiry as well as the product(s) of inquiry, and aims to integrate and support both. The teacher is expected to record the detail of inquiries initiated by students in order to look for an increase in the substance and depth of the inquiry. The teacher needs to consider: - if the nature of students’ inquiry develops over time—if they are asking questions of more depth, that are likely to enhance their learning substantially - if students are becoming aware that real problems require solutions based on the integration of knowledge that spans and connects many areas - if students are demonstrating mastery of skills - if students are accumulating a comprehensive knowledge base and can apply their understanding to further their inquiries successfully - if students are demonstrating both independence and an ability to work collaboratively. The assessment component in the school’s curriculum can itself be subdivided into three closely related areas. - Assessing—how we discover what the students know and have learned. - Recording—how we choose to collect and analyse data. - Reporting—how we choose to communicate information. Assessing: how do we discover what students have learned? Student learning is promoted through planning and refining the teaching and learning process to meet individual or group needs. Assessing the students’ prior knowledge and experience as well as monitoring their achievement during the teaching period will enable teachers to plan and refine their teaching accordingly. Teachers should bear in mind that a well-designed learning experience will provide data on students’ knowledge, skills and conceptual understanding, and is consequently a vehicle for summative or formative assessment. Summative assessment aims to give teachers and students a clear insight into students’ understanding. Summative assessment is the culmination of the teaching and learning process, and gives the students opportunities to demonstrate what has been learned. Formative assessment provides information that is used in order to plan the next stage in learning. It is interwoven with learning, and helps teachers and students to find out what the students already know and can do. Formative assessment aims to promote learning by giving regular and frequent feedback. This helps learners to improve knowledge and understanding, to foster enthusiasm for learning, to engage in thoughtful reflection, to develop the capacity for self-assessment, and to recognize the criteria for success. There is evidence that increased use of formative assessment particularly helps those students who are low achievers to make significant improvements in their understanding. Assessment in the classroom may include: - using representative examples of students’ work or performance to provide information about student learning - collecting evidence of students’ understanding and thinking - documenting learning processes of groups and individuals - engaging students in reflecting on their learning - students assessing work produced by themselves and by others - developing clear rubrics - identifying exemplar student work - keeping records of test/task results.
Wednesday, 13 February 2019 We aim to incorporate other cultural celebrations within the setting wherever we can in an age appropriate way. This year we have covered many areas of learning to celebrate Chinese New Year. This year is the year of the pig so the children engaged in a pig counting activity. They rolled the dice and counted out the correct number of pigs, placing them on a tray. This also promoted turn taking. For literacy and fine motor skills the children looked at the various animals that have represented each Chinese new year including rabbit and dragon. They identified the letter sounds from the picture cards and set about creating the animals using the small coloured shapes. Using chopsticks and coloured sand the children attempted to recreate Chinese letters as well as numbers. Some simply used the chopsticks to make swirling patterns in the sand. The children also got to express themselves in various ways through listening to Chinese music. They used musical instruments and danced with the dragon whilst waving coloured scarves to the music. The children have definitely enjoyed celebrating Chinese New Year!
Welcome! This course is an introduction to the primary concepts of gaming, and an exploration of how these basic concepts affect the way gamers interact with our games. In this course you will understand what defines a “game” and the mechanics and rules behind different types of games. Through four linked assignments you'll learn ways to create and describe a game concept, and specifically what makes a compelling game. This course focuses on the conceptual underpinnings of games, and all assignments can be completed with a pencil and paper – no previous programming knowledge is required. Week 1: The Simplest Games -This week we start at the beginning: what are the principles of very simple games, like Hangman and tic-tac-toe? How do these games work? Why do people play them? What are the elements that define games and the gaming experience? And finally, what do games have in common with each other, and what sets them apart? In addition to covering the basics and ground rules for this course, we'll conclude this week with a very simple, low-tech assignment: create a game on a single sheet of paper. Week 2: Rules and Discovery -How does a player learn the mechanics of your game? How do they learn anything about your game? This week we will talk about the rules that define gameplay, and how those rules are communicated to your players. We also discuss the way rules are bent and broken by players. Week 3: Tell a Story -How does narrative drive a player to start playing your game? Or to finish it? This week we'll look at some of the ways you can make your game more compelling with story, and discuss some of the ways story can drive gameplay forward, or enable a player to make their own way through it. Week 4: The Friend and the Enemy -What purpose does an enemy serve in a game? What effect does a second player have on two-player games? Can a game work without an adversary or a final goal? We'll address all of those questions in this last week of the class, and work towards finalizing your board game project with characters.
• Deep-sea mining is the process of retrieving mineral deposits from the deep sea – the area of the ocean below 200 m. • Depleting terrestrial deposits and rising demand for metals are stimulating interest in the deep sea, with commercial mining imminent. • The scraping of the sea floor and pollution from mining processes can wipe out entire species – many yet to be discovered. • Environmental impact assessments, effective regulation and mitigation strategies are needed to limit the impacts of deep-sea mining. • Comprehensive baseline studies are needed to improve our understanding of the deep sea. The seafloor contains an extensive array of geological features. These include abyssal plains 3,500–6,500 m below the sea surface, volcanic underwater mountains known as seamounts, hydrothermal vents with bursting water heated by volcanic activity, and deep trenches such as the Mariana Trench, which at almost 11,000 m is the greatest depth registered in the ocean. These remote areas support species that are uniquely adapted to harsh conditions such as lack of sunlight and high pressure. Many of these species are unknown to science. As the deep sea remains understudied and poorly understood, there are many gaps in our understanding of its biodiversity and ecosystems. This makes it difficult to thoroughly assess the potential impacts of deep-sea mining and to put in place adequate safeguards to protect the marine environment. Based on current knowledge of the deep sea, the following impacts of mining activities could affect its biodiversity and ecosystems: Disturbance of the seafloor The scraping of the ocean floor by machines can alter or destroy deep-sea habitats, leading to the loss of species and fragmentation or loss of ecosystem structure and function. Many species living in the deep sea are endemic – meaning they do not occur anywhere else on the planet – and physical disturbances in just one mining site can possibly wipe out an entire species. This is one of the biggest potential impacts from deep-sea mining. Some forms of deep-sea mining will stir up fine sediments on the seafloor consisting of silt, clay and the remains of microorganisms, creating plumes of suspended particles. It is unclear how far these particles may disperse beyond the mining area, how long it would take for them to resettle on the seafloor, and to what extent they may affect ecosystems and species, for instance by smothering animals or harming filter-feeding species that depend on clear, clean water to feed, such as krill and whale sharks. Species such as whales, tuna and sharks could be affected by noise, vibrations and light pollution caused by mining equipment and surface vessels, as well as potential leaks and spills of fuel and toxic products.
By definition, a tornado is an aggressively rotating air column spreading from the base of a cloud to the ground and is often (but not always) shaped like a funnel. In contrast, a hurricane is a violently whirling storm that originates from the tropics that is capable of having winds travelling at speeds between 74 mph (category 1 hurricanes) and 157 mph (category 5 hurricanes). Other Differences Between A Tornado And A Hurricane Firstly, hurricanes form over oceans found in the tropics when water is around 80° Fahrenheit. Hurricanes’ development is most optimal when they are a distance from a jet stream. On the other hand, tornadoes form over land and originate from small storm clouds that are in close proximity to a jet stream. In addition, tornadoes are capable of forming within a hurricane while the reverse is impossible. On the topic of size, hurricanes are habitually bigger than tornadoes. Hurricanes measure hundreds of miles in width, enough to affect an entire small town or country. Tornadoes, in contrast, are usually small in the storm cloud and are rarely more than a quarter of a mile in width. The widest tornado ever had a width of 2.5 miles, a size barely enough to affect a small town. Regarding duration, hurricanes also outdo tornadoes. Hurricanes have the potential to go on for weeks while tornadoes usually abate within an hour or less. Typically, hurricanes have wind travelling at speeds of less than 180 mph while the winds within a tornado are much faster with the ability of attaining speeds of up to 300 mph. Even category 5 hurricanes (the strongest hurricanes) with wind speeds of up to 155 mph are incapable of matching the wind speeds within a tornado. The strength of a tornado is gauged using the Enhanced Fujita Scale (the EF scale) while hurricanes are measured by the Saffir-Simpson Scale. Under this scale, the strongest tornadoes are categorized EF 5. On average, there are ten hurricanes that occur over the Atlantic Ocean per year while tornadoes, on average, range from 800 to 1000 per year in the US alone. Season-wise, hurricanes can occur anytime of the year, although they are likelier in spring and fall, while tornadoes occur between June 1 and November 30 with a higher probability between mid-August and mid-October. In terms of destructive potential, hurricanes are more destructive than tornadoes. Hurricane Katrina, the most destructive hurricane in the US damaged property worth $108 billion. By comparison, the most destructive tornado, which hit in the town of Joplin, Missouri, caused less than 5% of the damage done by Katrina. This massive difference is brought about by the fact that hurricanes are bigger and last longer than tornadoes. Lastly, weathermen are capable of predicting the occurrence of hurricanes and give a warning to people several days before they happen. In contrast, tornadoes are much more difficult to forecast, and a warning is usually given between 15 and 30 minutes before they hit an area making them dangerous for unprepared people. Both of them can occur any time of the day. Are Hurricanes More Dangerous Than a Tornado? In terms of destructive potential, hurricanes are more destructive than tornadoes. About the Author Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.
This the first lesson in our "Flowers for Algernon" unit. So, to make the activities and connected readings seem different and fun, I have the students mark out a section of their class notebook -- they can use a post it or a paper clip -- and label it "Case File." I like for students to approach this text like scientists, and I want them to practice evaluating Charlie Gordon as a narrator and as a character. Their first "job" is to take a very simplified Rorschach test, which is the test that Charlie takes in the story. I use the basic ten ink blots by projecting them on the SmartBoard, and I have students write down what comes to mind. Their answers are recorded under the heading "Rorschach Test." After "taking" a Rorschach tests, the students compare their responses and show each other the visions that they see in the blots. We will come back to this later, after we read the section wherein Charlie can't see anything in the inkblots but ink. This is the first time that I am going to have students try the SOAPSTone technique for a non-fiction text. So, after having fun with the inkblots, I we will do a "bump" reading of the article (with each student taking a paragraph) and then we will break down the information using the technique. I learned this technique at an AP workshop that I took years ago, but there are lots of web resources about it, and I have seen teachers use this for students as young as sixth grade. Usually, the students struggle most with tone, but the other categories can be tricky sometimes, too. This article is a pretty straightforward one, so it's a good one with which to start. The reason I chose this article is that it is a timely discussion of a topic that is integral to the story, "Flowers for Algernon." I think knowing more scientific and historical background about Rorschach testing will help the students better understand the text. After "taking" a Rorschach test and reading about the validity of the testing system, I will ask students to evaluate the test. What do they think of such a test and why do they think it has hung around for so long? Based on their own very limited experience, what do they think the problems with the test could be, other than those posited in the article? The students will write this as an entry in their "Case File" section of their notebook (see video). Students will now read the first few pages of the story, stopping before Charlie's writing begins to change (just after the operation.) Then, in their Case Files, students will record their impressions of Charlie Gordon in their notebooks.
Daniel Defoe’s most famous work, “Robinson Crusoe,” is written from the first-person limited perspective. Because “Robinson Crusoe” used this point of view, and the text’s frontispiece for its original 1719 publication read “Written by Himself,” many contemporary readers thought that Crusoe was a real person who had actually been shipwrecked and made it home to tell the tale. Defoe is best remembered for pioneering this kind of narrative realism, a style informed by his work as a journalist. Through Crusoe's Eyes The point of view is called “first person” because Robinson Crusoe narrates the story and speaks about himself using first-person pronouns, such as “I” and “me.” For instance, the book begins, “I was born in the year 1632, in the city of York, of a good family.” The term “limited” means that Crusoe, as a narrator, doesn’t have access to the thoughts or feelings of any other characters. Soon after he meets Friday, for example, Crusoe indicates that they can only communicate by gestures: “He came and kneeled down to me, and embracing my knees, said a great many things I did not understand.”
General Nelson A. Miles in 1898 Nelson Appleton Miles (1839-1925), Collodion print on card, Brands Studios, Chicago, 1898. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nelson_A._Miles_by_Brands_Studios,_1898.jpg According to https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wounded_Knee_Massacre, General Miles sent this telegram from Rapid City to General John Schofield in Washington, D.C., on December 19, 1890: “The difficult Indian problem cannot be solved permanently at this end of the line. It requires the fulfillment of Congress of the treaty obligations that the Indians were entreated and coerced into signing. They signed away a valuable portion of their reservation, and it is now occupied by white people, for which they have received nothing. They understood that ample provision would be made for their support; instead, their supplies have been reduced, and much of the time they have been living on half and two-thirds rations. Their crops, as well as the crops of the white people, for two years have been almost total failures. The dissatisfaction is wide spread, especially among the Sioux, while the Cheyennes have been on the verge of starvation, and were forced to commit depredations to sustain life. These facts are beyond question, and the evidence is positive and sustained by thousands of witnesses.” In 1904 he ran for President but only received a handful of votes at the DNC (according to https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson_A._Miles). Tags: Appleton, Brands Studios, Cheyennes, Congress, DNC, General, Massacre, Miles, Nelson, Semi-Realistic People, Sioux, Wounded Knee, starvation, treaty, Safe for Work? Yes
In Unit 2, children investigate the world of color. Through free exploration and guided, hands-on activities, children gain an understanding of key science concepts about color, and develop an awareness of the shades of color around them. Listed below are the basic concepts that are covered in each week. - Shades of Color (Week One) Children become aware of the many different colors that they see around them every day, indoors and outdoors. Children are encouraged to identify colors and shades of color. Children also learn that diluting colored water creates a lighter shade of the same color. This new awareness of different shades of color supports their learning through weeks one and two. - More Shades of Color (Week Two) Children explore adding white or black paint to colored paint to produce different shades of that color. Children explore, observe, and discuss how shades and colors change when viewed through sunglasses. Children also learn to sort things by color. - Mixing New Colors (Week Three) Children focus on mixing two or more colors to produce a third color. They also discover that looking through several layers of transparent, colored plastic can change the way things look. Children continue to categorize objects by color. - Color and Light (Week Four) Children explore how light changes when seen through colored water and how light is made up of all the colors of the rainbow. They also explore mixing and comparing skin colors, and continue classifying objects by color. Children’s learning is supported through daily hands-on exploration and by listening to read-aloud books and watching media throughout the unit. Children also begin to learn strategies they can use for communicating with others, making good choices, problem solving, cooperation and planning, and getting along with others. Children continue to learn strategies for problem solving, getting along with others, making good choices, and sharing.
Stroke occurs when the blood supply to the brain gets cut off. The most common type of stroke is ischemic stroke, when the blood supply to the brain is disrupted by a clot. Ischemic strokes are of two types, thrombotic stroke (clot is formed in the arteries of the brain) and embolic stroke (clot is formed outside the brain). Embolic stroke is a type of ischemic stroke, in which the clot is formed elsewhere in the body and travels through the blood stream, to the arteries of the brain. Embolic stroke results from an embolus or a clot, which has travelled from another location. While the embolus can form in many areas in the body, heart, neck and chest are the commonest locations. The embolus enters the bloodstream and flows through it to reach the brain and neck arteries. It continues to travel till it gets lodged in one of the arteries supplying the brain. This results in blocking of the artery and the blood flow to the brain get affected, resulting in an embolic stroke. Ischemic strokes account for around 80% of strokes in the United States. Embolic stroke occurs due to blocking of blood supply to the brain by an embolus, thus stopping the blood reaching the brain. This can result in death of brain cells due to lack of blood supply. Depending on the time for which the blood supply to the brain is stopped and the time in which the person receives emergency treatment, the severity and the damage caused can be assessed. Many deaths are caused due to embolic stroke every year, while many who survive, may be left with permanent disability. Causes of Embolic Stroke Causes of an embolic stroke include those that can form a clot in the brain, neck or heart. An embolus can result from deposition of atherosclerotic plaque on the inner lining of arteries. Embolus can also develop as a result of fat globules or air bubbles entering into the blood stream or getting lodged in arteries. Another cause of embolus formation is abnormal rhythm of the heart, medically termed as atrial fibrillation. Some risk factors that can increase the risk of ischemic or embolic stroke include existing older age, heart disease, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, obesity, certain autoimmune disorders and a family history of stroke or heart disease. Lifestyle preferences like smoking, alcohol consumption, faulty dietary habits too can increase the risk of embolic stroke. Symptoms of Embolic Stroke Embolic stroke presents itself with the warning signs of stroke, which, if identified in the early stages can help in initiation of immediate medical treatment. The precise symptoms may vary depending on which part of the brain is affected during the embolic stroke. The signs and symptoms of embolic stroke include: - Sudden changes in the face, numbness in one part of the face, inability to smile or drooping of lips to one side. - Weakness or numbness in arms, legs or one side of the body, appearing suddenly can be a symptom of Embolic Stroke. - Sudden difficulty in seeing objects with one or both eyes, - Severe headache, confusion, difficulty in understanding or trouble speaking. - Sudden loss of balance, difficulty in co-ordination, dizziness or trouble in walking can be a symptom of Embolic Stroke. Diagnosis of Embolic Stroke Embolic stroke is an emergency situation, which needs immediate medical care. History and clinical examination can reveal existing medical problems and the symptoms of embolic stroke, if experienced any. The degree of severity can be assessed and emergency medical management approach can be planned. Investigations like scanning of the brain, angiogram or Doppler studies may be performed to gauge the formation of clots and blood flow to the brain. Investigations of the heat may also be done to evaluate the heart functioning, presence of any blood clots and related problems that may have caused an embolic stroke. Treatment of Embolic Stroke Embolic stroke calls for an emergency treatment plan, aimed at dissolving the clot or removing the embolus from the artery and restoring the blood supply to the brain. Medicines to remove the clot are given orally or administered intravenously. Surgical procedures that help to prevent further episodes of stroke may be required. These include, opening the narrowed arteries that have plaque deposition inside (carotid endarterectomy) or stents may be placed in the artery to keep it open and prevent from narrowing. Long term treatment depends on the cause of embolic stroke and often includes medications to prevent further attacks of stroke. Recovery Period for Embolic Stroke Recovery depends on the degree of damage caused during the embolic stroke. In most cases, difficulty in movement of limbs may persist after the episode and may recover within few months. Physical or speech therapy and rehabilitation is often required to regain the strength, co-ordination, balance, speech ability and other impaired functions. Most patients show steady improvement with proper rehabilitation and regular medication. Persons with fewer and milder symptoms often have better recovery than those with major symptoms of greater severity. Similarly, younger persons may show improvement better than older ones.
A new paper from Stanford, Princeton, and Berkeley suggests that the world has begun a sixth extinction-level event, this one driven primarily by humankind. This new research indicates that the fossil record clearly shows that species of every sort are becoming extinct far more rapidly than the historical background rate would suggest, and that much of the change is driven by humanity, including the impact of climate change. The report set out to answer whether current extinction rates for mammals and vertebrates were higher than the highest background level observable through the fossil record, how extinction rates have changed over time within observed history, and how many years it would take species to go extinct if the background extinction rate had held steady. The so-called “background rate” of extinction is extremely important. It’s the number of species that we can predict would have gone extinct, even without outside intervention. While the point of the paper was to measure the impact of humans, thousands of species of plants, animals, reptiles, amphibians, and birds have historically gone extinct without any human intervention whatsoever, while others (the dodo bird, Steller’s sea cow, the passenger pigeon, and the Rodriguez giant tortoise) were killed off by humans long before climate change was a concern. A high background extinction rate will make any modern departure from the norm less serious-looking, while a low background extinction rate emphasizes the modern departure from historical norms. In the past, scientists have estimated that species tend to go extinct at a rate between 0.1 and 1 species per million species per year, but for the purposes of this paper, the team of researchers decided on a background extinction rate of 2E/MSY (meaning two species for every million species, every million years). Because we can’t be certain of accounting for every single species, including species that do not decay and leave fossilized materials, there’s always going to be some slippage in the figures — but we can still chart the extinction rate of well-represented species and compare against historical records when that data is available. This chart shows the number of extinct creatures since 1500 and 1900 for each available species classification. The Highly Conservative rates include only species no longer believed to exist at all, anywhere on Earth. While it’s true that some of these species are later rediscovered, the rate of rediscovery is extremely low and typically confined to tiny, endangered populations located in an heretofore-unknown spot. The Conservative table includes those species believed to be extinct in the wild or possibly extinct. In both cases, the extinction rates shot up after 1900, once the industrial revolution and modern record keeping where both underway. These charts show the observed extinction rates for various species measured against the background extinction rate for both the “Highly Conservative” and “Conservative” estimates. Even assuming a much higher background extinction rate of 2E/MSY, the die-off rate for all species has been orders of magnitude above background. Statistically, the die-off in amphibians would have taken an estimated 11,600 years to occur naturally, while even the reptile species die-off rate would have taken 800 years — not the 114 years that have passed since 1900. Why should humans care? Sweeping species loss under the rug or dismissing it as ecological scareism is a serious mistake. The loss of a single species may seem of minor importance — after all, does the world actually need tree frogs? In theory, no, it doesn’t — but while the loss of any single species is a minor event in the grand scheme of things, the loss of hundreds can create substantial hardship for humanity. The loss of honeybee colonies in the US could drive food prices up, while the collapse of multiple off-shore fisheries has already created real problems for the communities that relied upon them. It’s impossible to estimate the cost of species extinction, in part because we literally don’t know what we might lose. Horseshoe crabs are an example of a species under pressure as a result of human activity that’s also extremely useful to human medicine. Unlike other species, which rely on hemoglobin in the blood for oxygen transport, horseshoe crabs use hemocyanin. Horseshoe crab blood is used to manufacture Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL), which reacts with bacterial endotoxins. It’s an essential compound used to ensure that medical devices and medications themselves aren’t infected with bacteria before being given to people. LAL can even detect some fungal infections far faster than other forms of testing. If horseshoe crabs had gone extinct before we discovered these properties, we’d likely have never known they existed in the first place. While I’ve picked relatively simple example, as more species go extinct, it destabilizes the entire ecological web around them. In some cases, other species that might have preferred the first as a food source will adapt. In other cases, they can’t. We don’t know what we don’t know — which means we don’t know at what point life on Earth reaches a tipping point and begins to drastically change. One thing we do know about past extinction events, regardless of their causes, is that they were marked by the emergence of very different environmental conditions and species. The most famous extinction event, the K-T impact that destroyed the non-avian dinosaurs, cleared the way for mammals to evolve and ascend. Life, as a whole, is extremely resilient, but no single species is guaranteed survival — including ours.
Striations and residue reflect harvesting methods — ScienceDaily A new Dartmouth-led study analyzing stone tools from southern China provides the earliest evidence of rice harvesting, dating to as early as 10,000 years ago. The researchers identified two methods of harvesting rice, which helped initiate rice domestication. The results are published in PLOS ONE. Wild rice is different from domesticated rice in that wild rice naturally sheds ripe seeds, shattering them to the ground when they mature, while cultivated rice seeds stay on the plants when they mature. To harvest rice, some sort of tools would have been needed. In harvesting rice with tools, early rice cultivators were selecting the seeds that stay on the plants, so gradually the proportion of seeds that remain increased, resulting in domestication. “For quite a long time, one of the puzzles has been that harvesting tools have not been found in southern China from the early Neolithic period or New Stone Age (10,000 — 7,000 Before Present) — the time period when we know rice began to be domesticated,” says lead author Jiajing Wang, an assistant professor of anthropology at Dartmouth. “However, when archaeologists were working at several early Neolithic sites in the Lower Yangtze River Valley, they found a lot of small pieces of stone, which had sharp edges that could have been used for harvesting plants.” “Our hypothesis was that maybe some of those small stone pieces were rice harvesting tools, which is what our results show.” In the Lower Yangtze River Valley, the two earliest Neolithic culture groups were the Shangshan and Kuahuqiao. The researchers examined 52 flaked stone tools from the Shangshan and Hehuashan sites, the latter of which was occupied by Shangshan and Kuahuqiao cultures. The stone flakes are rough in appearance and are not finely made but have sharp edges. On average, the flaked tools are small enough to be held by one hand and measured approximately 1.7 inches in width and length. To determine if the stone flakes were used for harvesting rice, the team conducted use-wear and phytolith residue analyses. For the use-wear analysis, micro-scratches on the tools’ surfaces were examined under a microscope to determine how the stones were used. The results showed that 30 flakes have use-wear patterns similar to those produced by harvesting siliceous (silica-rich) plants, likely including rice. Fine striations, high polish, and rounded edges distinguished the tools that were used for cutting plants from those that were used for processing hard materials, cutting animal tissues, and scraping wood. Through the phytolith residue analysis, the researchers analyzed the microscopic residue left on the stone flakes known as “phytoliths” or silica skeleton of plants. They found that 28 of the tools contained rice phytoliths. “What’s interesting about rice phytoliths is that rice husk and leaves produce different kinds of phytolith, which enabled us to determine how the rice was harvested,” says Wang. The findings from the use-wear and phytolith analyses illustrated that two types of rice harvesting methods were used — “finger-knife” and “sickle” techniques. Both methods are still used in Asia today. The stone flakes from the early phase (10,000 — 8,200 BP) showed that rice was largely harvested using the finger-knife method in which the panicles at the top of the rice plant are reaped. The results showed that the tools used for finger-knife harvesting had striations that were mainly perpendicular or diagonal to the edge of the stone flake, which suggests a cutting or scraping motion, and contained phytoliths from seeds or rice husk phytoliths, indicating that the rice was harvested from the top of the plant. “A rice plant contains numerous panicles that mature at different times, so the finger-knife harvesting technique is especially useful when rice domestication was in the early stage,” says Wang. The stone flakes however, from the later phase (8,000 — 7,000 BP) had more evidence of sickle harvesting in which the lower part of the plant was harvested. These tools had striations that were predominantly parallel to the tool’s edge, reflecting that a slicing motion had likely been used. “Sickle harvesting was more widely used when rice became more domesticated, and more ripe seeds stayed on the plant,” says Wang. “Since you are harvesting the entire plant at the same time, the rice leaves and stems could also be used for fuel, building materials, and other purposes, making this a much more effective harvesting method.” Wang says, “Both harvesting methods would have reduced seed shattering. That’s why we think rice domestication was driven by human unconscious selection.”
How it works As the physics Dalton’s law, the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressure of the individual gases. The air we breathe is a mixture of gases, where 78% is nitrogen and 21% is oxygen (O2). This gas is conveyed to the blood flow by means of a process of diffusion, which depends on the difference of pressures of the gas between the blood capillary and the lung alveolus. The bigger the difference of pressures between both compartments, the greater the diffusion of O2 towards the blood, increasing concentration of O2. If the atmospheric air pressure is increased to a certain proportion, the O2 pressure will increase accordingly. This is how the oxygen is conveyed to the blood flow attached to the hemoglobin (Hgb) within the red blood cells. Under normal circumstances and inspiring air at a normal pressure, Hgb carries the 97% of the O2, so, red blood cells’ capacity of attaching to O2 is almost saturated. When increasing the amount of O2 inspired with a mask, surrounded by a pressurized environment (Hyperbary), the O2 will “travel” diluted in the blood (Henry’s law) and in any other body fluids (blood, lymph, joint fluid, cerebrospinal fluid). This is why Hyperbaric chamber treatments contribute to healing processes and make them more efficient, reducing tissue inflammation, improving the metabolic system, accelerating recovery time from injuries and post-surgery when it is combined with other treatments and preventing other illnesses.
The 4 Cultural Dimensions of Culture Culture is an umbrella phrase that covers the complex web of human relationships and the social behaviors and norms observed in human cultural communities, which also includes the beliefs, skills, arts, laws, traditions, tools, and materials of the people in those cultures. Some of the most important dimensions of culture are ethnicity, class, gender, and religion. Cultural differences among societies are increasing, due to immigration, socioeconomic development, and technological modernization. International trade, globalization, and social networking have also contributed to the evolution of culture in a global context. Today, cultures differ not only in their societal practices but also in their technological practices. Cultural values and practices have a tremendous impact on the economic development of a country and society. A well-developed economy depends on the ability of its people to create the economic resources required by the society. A thriving economy requires the development of various institutions, such as education, health care, businesses, livelihoods, social welfare, private industries, government, and culture. In order to understand the importance of culture in shaping economic development, it is necessary to understand the shared patterns and experiences of different cultures. A culture is a set of cultural norms or beliefs that people share regarding their social, cultural, linguistic, religious, and communal interactions. These norms are transmitted from parents to children, through family members, elders, and mainstream media. These shared norms can be in the form of language, symbols, food, custom, and ritual, or emotions, norms, and beliefs about love, honor, beauty, truth, guilt, and power. A nation’s culture is also defined by legislation and public policies. These policies aim to promote social harmony, maintain the stability of society, guarantee individual rights, provide protection and security, promote social progress, and uphold the dignity of the human person. One of the major dimensions of culture is language. Language can either be the result of tradition or of socialization. Traditions, for instance, originate from the norms of a culture. On the other hand, socialization occurs when members of a community get together to interact with each other. When language is lost in this interaction, it is known as a language break, and the culture will lose its identity and, most often, the language associated with it. A third dimension of culture is ethnicity. The social groups that share a culture may have similar norms regarding gender, race, religion, nationalities, communities, and other aspects. It is not possible to speak of a culture when all members of a group do not share the same belief system, practice the same customs, or live within the same country or region. The fourth dimension of culture is the effects of the global and internal socio-cultural factors on the culture of a group. When the norms and beliefs of a culture are similar, there is little influence of external norms on the culture. This means that two groups living in the same area and having the same language, culture, traditions, and other elements will maintain their identity, but there is very little chance for a clash of cultures. On the other hand, when a group’s norms and beliefs are dissimilar, there is a good chance for a clash of cultures, because the members of both groups will perceive the others as occupying ‘ours’.
Lesson 3: Memory games Playing memory games can improve brain functions, such as attention, concentration, and focus. Memory games give space to critical thinking and that helps children nurture their attention to detail. They can improve visual recognition. With many memory games based on spotting differences, or linking two related images, children improve their visual discrimination. This will lead to an acceleration in distinguishing images from one and another. Short-term memory is key to playing memory games and playing them often will improve function in this area. A good short-term memory can improve a person's long-term memory too. Both are linked and being able to move things from your short-term memory into long-term will improve learning in other areas. Click on the image below to play some online memory games.

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.