Split (1)

train · 2.03M rows

text stringlengths 255 17.6k
Try This at Home: The Stroop Test We have trained our brains to read and interpret words as soon as we see them. Even when we have another task - saying the color of ink of a word - it is hard to make that our brain's first priority. What You Need - White index cards - Crayons or markers What To Do Write the name of a color on each card. Make sure to write using a crayon or marker that is a different color than the name of the color you are writing. For example, you could write "RED" using a blue crayon or "PINK" using a green crayon. Get an adult, a friend, or both to participate in this experiment. The other people do not need to know how to read, but they do need to know the names of colors. Explain to the others that their goal is to say each word's ink color as fast as possible. Make a hypothesis! Do you think this will be easy or hard for the other person to do? Do you think there will be a difference in how well adults and kids do? Hold the cards so that the other person cannot see the writing. Count to three and flip over the first card so that the other person can see it. Did the other person say the correct answer? Continue doing this until you are out of cards. Experiment using other people. Was your hypothesis correct? We have trained our brains to read and interpret words as soon as we see them. Instead of saying the color of the ink, our first reaction is to say the word itself. This reaction is more powerful in adults because they have more reading experience. Children who have much less reading experience, or none at all, may not immediately interpret the word. Therefore, it is easier for children to say the color of the ink first. You can also try showing the cards so that the word is upside down. This may make saying the color of the ink a little easier, as it is harder to read upside-down words. The human eye can distinguish 500 shades of gray!
Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on the moon, July 20, 1969. Scientists are… (Associated Press ) Analyzing grains of soil collected from three Apollo lunar missions, geochemists have figured out that the hydrogen in trace amounts of water on the moon’s surface probably came from solar wind, the outflow of positively-charged hydrogen from the sun. For decades, scientists didn't find much hydrogen in the lunar samples that had been returned to Earth, said Yan Liu, a research professor at the University of Tennessee and lead author of the lunar water study, which was published Sunday in Nature Geoscience. But in 2008, scientists discovered trace amounts of hydrogen in lunar soil, and in 2010 and 2011 more discoveries followed, she said. Excited by those discoveries, scientists took the next step: to try to figure out if that hydrogen was contained in water and where it might have come from. That’s where Liu's experiment fit in. Her team analyzed the chemical form of the hydrogen, as well as what hydrogen isotopes -- different versions of the element -- were present in the samples. They found that the hydrogen in the rocks was indeed water. They also found that only a relatively small amount of the hydrogen in the water was of the heavier type known as deuterium. Water from comets and the water on Earth have relatively higher amounts of deuterium. Solar wind, which is made of positively-charged hydrogen ions, lacks deuterium because the heavier isotope is consumed by fusion in the sun's interior. Constant bombardment by solar wind, over more than 4 billion years, could have deposited enough hydrogen on the moon's surface to seed the water the researchers detected. "Our results show that most of the hydrogen [in these lunar soils] comes from the solar wind hydrogen," Liu said. There may also be solar wind hydrogen on the surface of asteroids, the planet Mercury, and other bodies in the solar system, she added. It would not collect as easily on Earth because the planet's atmosphere and magnetic field protect it.
When the word driver is mentioned, the first thing you probably think of is the driver of a vehicle, or maybe a golf club if you are a golfer. But this article is really about device drivers, which are small computer programs. Device drivers are software programs that take care of the communication between an operating system and computer hardware. They translate the generic instructions that the operating system will issue to hardware devices into specific instructions for a specific piece of hardware from a hardware manufacturer. In Windows you can use the Device Manager to see which devices are present in the computer and what drivers they use. Who makes device drivers? A lot of device drivers are included with the operating system itself. If we look at Windows device drivers, then Microsoft makes a lot of device drivers, either by itself or in cooperation with various hardware manufacturers. This will generally ensure that the device driver is best suited for the appropriate Windows version and the hardware devices of those manufacturers. But there are also a lot of manufacturers that make device drivers themselves, without the help of Microsoft. They will simply use the specifications for a driver from Microsoft for the Windows operating systems, and have their programmers write the device driver. This type of driver is often not included with the operating system, but is available only from the hardware manufacturer directly. Why is a driver important? Device drivers ensure that the computer hardware will work as intended. Without the driver, the operating system (Windows) will not be able to recognize the device when inserted or connected to the computer. Using the correct driver will also ensure the hardware device will be fully supported. The wrong driver might offer only partial functionality. For example, a printer scanner device can be used for printing but not for scanning, or a video card will only offer limited screen resolutions, even when capable of higher resolutions. If the wrong driver is used, there is also the risk of system instability. Hardware resources that are accessed by the driver software might be the wrong ones, and can cause the operating system to crash or hang. In Windows a blue screen error can be the result. The reason for this is that device drivers have a lot of high level access in the operating system to allow them to interact with the hardware devices, so if something goes wrong, it is immediately serious. What is a signed and unsigned driver? Signing refers to digital signing, which is a way to certify that a driver, or driver file, is authentic. In the same way that your signature under a document will show that you signed the papers, a digital signature is used to show that a driver was created by a certain software maker or hardware manufacturer. It also tells you that the driver was not modified after it was signed. An unsigned driver therefore is simply a driver that has not been digitally signed, so there is no way to know for certain where the driver originated from or if it has been modified. That does not mean however that the driver is not valid, as some hardware manufacturers chose not to sign their drivers. Typically that only happens for older drivers, but many of those can still be used. Windows Vista and Windows 7 will not allow unsigned drivers to be installed by default, as a way to ensure the integrity of the operating system. What are driver files? If we specifically look at Microsoft Windows, then there are a few file types, or extensions, that are driver files. Older versions of Windows used the .VXD extension for driver files. But Windows XP, Vista and Windows 7 all use the .SYS file extension for drivers. This is the main driver, but there are other files associated with a driver, either for installation (like: .INF, .CAT, .CAB, .MSI), or for operation (like: .EXE, .DLL, .CPL). Depending on the hardware device, the size of a driver can vary significantly. Some drivers require only minimal installation, and only have a .SYS, .INF, and .CAT file, while others have a lot of support files for functional reasons and control panels, which allow the user to configure the hardware device. Typically printer drivers and video drivers tend to have large driver installation packages. Why should you update drivers? Like any software, drivers are created by humans and as a result they can contain errors, or bugs. These software defects will come up when the driver is used, so a driver update is created to fix those bugs. Apart from fixing bugs, driver updates can also contain improvements to the driver software itself. This can result in better performance of the hardware supported by the driver, or new functionality becoming available to the operating system. A third reason to update drivers is to make sure that maximum compatibility between the hardware and the operating system is guaranteed. For new versions of Windows, like Windows 7, it is often the case that older device drivers are initially used. This allows manufacturers to specify that their hardware is compatible with new Windows version, even if the driver is not the best possible version for that new Windows version yet. So driver updates are released later on to improve on the compatibility. In the same way, new versions of the hardware are supported by existing drivers, while new versions of the drivers are created to improve the support for the new hardware version.
Graphing lines is one of the easiest topics in algebra because the process is so straight-forward, as long as you understand a few important things: 1. You must always get the equation into the slope-intercept form before you graph it. 2. You have to know that slope is rise over run. 3. Starting at the y-intercept is the easiest way to do it. So say we want to graph the equation y = (4/3)x + 2. We know that the line is going to cross the y-axis at 2, so go ahead and put a dot there at (0, 2). Now from the point at (0, 2), go to the right 3 units, and up 4 units. Now place another dot. Draw a line through the two dots, and you have just graphed the line. It should look like this graph: If the slope was -4/3 instead, then you would go to the right 3 units, and down 4 units instead. Remember that lines with a positive slope go /, while lines with a negative slope go \. So how do you graph y = 2? You draw a horizontal line that crosses the y-axis at 2. How do you graph x = -3? You draw a vertical line that crosses the x-axis at -3. All you have to do to graph a line when you’re given an equation is to put it in slope-intercept form, note what the slope and y-intercept are, and then use that information to quickly draw the graph. Start with one point at the y-intercept, then use what you know about the slope and rise over run to find a second point, starting at the first point you already have at the y-intercept. Then connect the two lines, and you’re done. It’s that easy. You should double check to make sure that you counted the right number of spaces when finding the second dot, and that you have made the line / or \ according to whether the line has a positive slope or a negative slope, respectively.
Bullying has many different forms. It might be name-calling or teasing, hitting or shoving, spreading rumours or excluding others. If you feel your child might be affected by bullying, there are ways you can help. Always keep an open line of communication with your child, and make sure you are able to spend some one-on-one time together to talk about his day. Children who are bullied are often too embarrassed, ashamed, or afraid to talk about it. If your child is comfortable talking with you already, then it is a little easier to open up about something difficult. If your child confides in you that she has been the target of bullying, take her concerns seriously. Let her tell you what happened and how it made her feel, without pressuring her for details. Then help her plan and practise several ways she can respond if another situation arises. Some ideas might include: Give a short response and walk away. “Don’t talk to me like that.” “I don’t need this.” “Whatever.” “I won’t let you bully me.” “Stop.” Let your child choose a phrase he is comfortable with and practise saying it confidently and assertively. Let him know that is all he has to say, and then he can turn and walk away. Avoid the bully. Sometimes it is easier to simply go the other way and avoid contact with the person who has been causing trouble. Stay with friends. Suggest your child try to stay in a group while playing outside or walking home. Bullies are more likely to pick on someone who is alone. Ask for help. Your child needs to know she can go to a grownup for help. Thank her for sharing her experience with you and assure her that she can also talk to her teacher, coach or other adults in charge if she is being bothered by a bully. While many children will experience bullying, virtually all children are witnesses to it at some point. Teach your child the importance of standing up against bullying. Don’t pay attention to a bully. Laughing, joining or just watching a bully pick on someone encourages the behaviour to continue. Let your child know that he can speak up in defence of the bully’s target. Give a friend an excuse to get away from the bully. If your child sees someone being bullied, she can call her over. “Come play soccer with us!” “I’m going for a walk, will you come with me?” This gives the other child the opportunity to get away without directly confronting the bully. Get others to help. As soon as one person steps forward, it is easier for other children to follow. There is strength in numbers if a group of children stand together. If the bully persists, your child needs to know he can get help from an adult in charge. Your child should know to never put himself in harm’s way. Bullying is not a problem that will go away if it is ignored. Make sure you child knows ways to respond when she or someone else is targeted by a bully. More children and adults need to take a stance and refuse to tolerate bullying if we are to make our communities safer and friendlier for all. Shawna Munro works at the Elspeth Reid Family Resource Centre, a facility of Child and Family Services of Western Manitoba that offers parenting information and support. » 255 Ninth St., Brandon Republished from the Brandon Sun print edition March 14, 2013
Approximately 500,000 U.S. children aged 1-5 years with blood lead levels above 5 micrograms of lead per deciliter of blood, the reference level at which CDC recommends public health actions be initiated. Lead poisoning can affect nearly every system in the body. Because lead poisoning often occurs with no obvious symptoms, it frequently goes unrecognized. Lead poisoning can cause learning disabilities, behavioral problems, and, at very high levels, seizures, coma, and even death. CDC’s Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Program is committed to the Healthy People (http://www.healthypeople.gov/) goal of eliminating elevated blood lead levels in children by 2010. CDC continues to assist state and local childhood lead poisoning prevention programs, to provide a scientific basis for policy decisions, and to ensure that health issues are addressed in decisions about housing and the environment. Workers can be exposed to lead through inhalation of fumes and dusts, as well as through ingestion as a result of lead-contaminated hands, food, drinks, cosmetics, tobacco products, and clothing. Furthermore, workers can take lead home on their clothes, skin, hair, tools, and in their vehicles , potentially exposing their families to harmful health effects. ATSDR is directed by congressional mandate to perform specific functions concerning the effect on public health of hazardous substances in the environment, including lead. These functions include public health assessments of waste sites, health consultations concerning specific hazardous substances, health surveillance and registries, response to emergency releases of hazardous substances, applied research in support of public health assessments, information development and dissemination, and education and training concerning hazardous substances.
Having spied the Pacific Ocean for the first time a few weeks earlier, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark cross to the south shore of the Columbia River (near modern-day Portland) and begin building the small fort that would be their winter home. Lewis, Clark, and their men deserved a rest. During the past year, they had made the difficult trip from the upper Missouri River across the rugged Rockies, and down the Columbia River to the ocean. Though they planned to return home by retracing their steps in the spring, the Corps of Discovery settled in the relatively mild climate of the Pacific Coast while winter raged in the mountain highlands. For their fort, Lewis and Clark picked a site three miles up Netul Creek (now Lewis and Clark River), because it had a ready supply of elk and deer and convenient access to the ocean, which the men used to make salt. The men finished building a small log fortress by Christmas Eve; they named their new home Fort Clatsop, in honor of the local Indian tribe. During the three months they spent at Fort Clatsop, Lewis and Clark reworked their journals and began preparing the scientific information they had gathered. Clark labored long hours drawing meticulous maps that proved to be among the most valuable fruits of the expedition. After talking with local Indians, the two men determined that they had taken an unnecessarily difficult path through the Rockies, and planned alternate routes for the return journey. Meanwhile, the enlisted men and fellow travelers hunted and trapped-they killed and ate more than 100 elk and 20 deer during their stay. While the stay at Fort Clatsop was peaceful, it was not entirely pleasant. The Clatsop Indian tribe was friendly, but Clark noted that the Indians were hard bargainers, which caused the expedition party to rapidly deplete its supply of gifts and trading goods, and eventually caused some resentment on both sides. Most vexing, though, was the damp coastal weather--rain fell all but twelve days of the expedition's three-month stay. The men found it impossible to keep dry, and their damp furs and hides rotted and became infested with vermin. Nearly everyone suffered from persistent colds and rheumatism. The expedition departed for home from soggy Fort Clatsop on March 23, 1806. The region they explored later became the state of Oregon--Lewis and Clark's journey strengthened the American claim to the northwest and blazed a trail that was followed by thousands of trappers and settlers.
Who is this test for? This test is designed to motivate and reward young learners who have had exposure to English in an academic context and who are in advance of Firstwords. The aim is primarily to test the learners’ ability to use the language communicatively rather than to test their knowledge of the language system. How is this test structured? The test consists of a one-hour paper, which tests Listening, Reading and Writing. The tasks in the test feature the Brown family and include some of the following topics: - The Body and People’s Appearance The children will listen to two short passages and will be required to perform the following tasks: - Listen to a conversation and draw a line from a name of a person or a thing to a picture of a person or thing. - Listen to a conversation and put a cross (X) in the box under the correct picture for each question. Reading and Writing Task The children will be required to perform the following tasks: - Read a short conversation and write in the missing questions. - From two lists, match the words forming the start of a sentence with the words forming the end of the sentence by connecting them with a line. - Put in the missing words in a short text by choosing the appropriate word from a list. - Extended writing. - Write short responses to given questions. The children will be tested in class by an external assessor. They will be asked to participate in a board game and an individual activity. For further information about the oral component for Springboard please click here.
The need for a cleaner burning fuel can lead to a biodiesel/ethanol debate. By comparing the qualities of the two fuels, you can decide which one is best to use from the point of view of the benefit to the environment. The materials used to make both biodiesel and bioethanol need to be taken into consideration to determine the effect they have on the environment. While the main ingredient of bioethanol is crops such as corn, biodiesel makes use of vegetable oil. The former requires the use of large amounts of land on which to plant the crops, which are then chopped down to be used. Making use of cellulosic waste can help to redress this balance. For the latter, it is necessary to consider the process involved in making the oil, however, this will be less of a concern where the oil has already been used, as the process will recycle it. Biodiesel requires the use of sodium hydroxide, which can cause damage to the environment if it is not disposed of properly. The process for manufacturing biodiesel is less labor intensive than that for bioethanol, resulting in less energy needing to be used. While biodiesel is produced simply by combining all the necessary components, the pulp that comes from the crops used to make ethanol must be heated. This can result in biodiesel being better for the environment due to the reduced level of energy use needed to produce it. However, it can be argued that the carbon dioxide created by the ethanol production process is negated by the crops used while they are growing, which help to remove carbon dioxide from the environment. Both biodiesel and bioethanol create waste products as part of their manufacturing process. The glycerine that comes from making biodiesel can be used to make soap or added to a compost heap to be used in planting. This benefits the environment by recycling the waste rather than dumping it. The solid waste from the original meal in ethanol fuel needs to be disposed of, which will often mean it going to landfill, as there is no other use for it. Although the use of both biodiesel and bioethanol reduce the level of CO2 emissions, they make use of chemicals that result in emissions. Combining biodiesel ingredients with dangerous chemicals such as sodium hydroxide produces gases that disperse into the environment. The process of cooking the pulp during the ethanol production process creates excess heat, which also effects the environment. The biodegradable nature of biodiesel means that it is easier on the environment in its normal state than ethanol. This is due to the fact that the latter is alcohol, which can prove harmful to the environment if it is not disposed of properly. The Truth about Biodiesel Emissions The general consensus is that greenhouse gas emissions are lower with biodiesel than they are with conventional gasoline or diesel. Other research has claimed that some biodiesel, especially biodiesel made with rapeseed oil, actually increases CO2 emissions. What is the reality? The Environmental Protection Agency has conducted extensive research into biodiesel emissions. In every case, they discovered that biodiesel emits fewer greenhouse gases than petroleum diesel. The EPA noted that the exact reduction depends on the type of oil used in making the biodiesel. With waste grease, for instance, the reduction over fossil fuel is 86 percent and with soy oil it is 57 percent. These are startling reductions. In all instances, the elements used to make biodiesel are renewable. Clean Air Act Biodiesel stands alone among alternative fuels by having satisfied the Clean Air Act's health testing requirements. One of its biggest pluses is that it greatly reduces the amount of unburned hydrocarbons. Along with nitrogen oxide, unburned hydrocarbons are the main causes of smog. Under testing, the amount of unburned hydrocarbons was 50 percent less with biodiesel than with regular diesel. Biodiesel virtually removes all sulfates and sulfur oxides (the major ingredients of acid rain), making biodiesel emissions much cleaner. The closed carbon cycle of biodiesel results in vastly reduced emissions. It offers less harm to humans than regular diesel and the small amounts of CO2 that are released into the air can be captured by plants. In time, those plants can be used to make more biodiesel. This has the effect of reducing global warming. Biodiesel is fully approved as a fuel, including 100 percent biodiesel, which has been classed as an alternative fuel by the Department of Energy and several other agencies. The volume of biodiesel production rose by 1400 percent between 1999 and 2008. This means it's much more widely used now and is often found in commercial vehicles, which can often be the worst polluters. It also means that the fuel is more widely available as a commercial product. Biodiesel can run in any diesel engine without modifications. The only possible problem is that biodiesel can release existing deposits on fuel tanks walls and in pipes, and these can cause clogs in the engine. The huge increase in the production of biodiesel means that more land has been used for the production of plants that can be pressed for oil. In turn, this means less land used for the cultivation of food. It's something of a trade off, with farmers going for the money offered by biodiesel. It's a balancing act that needs to be worked out in the future. Biodiesel emissions offer a great way of reducing our carbon footprint in the short term, and a good move to alternative fuels. The truth about biodiesel emissions is that, in spite of one study to the contrary, they're much lower than gasoline and diesel emissions and offer a good way forward.
Plato described justice differently than most standard definitions. To Plato, justice meant carrying out one’s duty to one’s station, i.e. workers work, auxiliaries guard, and guardians rule. Under this premise, if lying is part of one’s job, it is only just if one lies. The reason the lie is noble is because it is for a noble cause: the good of the people. Plato raised several questions that are still at the heart of many modern conflicts and heated debates. What is justice? What is goodness? Does a lack of goodness stem from a lack of knowledge about justice? Plato examined these questions as separate aspects of a single theme. He then used his answers to come up with his own rendition of the perfect existence. Plato’s version of the ideal society was one in which all people would trust that their position in life was just, and would carry out the responsibilities of that position without protest. He believed that the power of wisdom is possessed most abundantly in kings and philosophers, and that others should accept the authority of those wise and morally superior leaders. While there appears to be a logical chain of reasoning to Plato’s suppositions, there is a chasm of doubt when it comes to the workability of his plan. It seems as if he is promoting an elitist, dictatorial society in which the only wise leaders are those who happen to be what he happens to be; a philosopher. It is also against the grain of human nature to accept direction without question, which is a problem Plato was well aware of, but it is a problem he did not resolve. Of course, while it may seem that Plato was calling for his own personal version of utopia, a strong argument can be made that Plato was in fact pointing out the weaknesses involved with just such a society. Irony is after all, a remarkably powerful teacher.
the condition that exist when an object is in free fall (the only force on the object is the gravity) The experience of being in free fall. If you are in a satellite, elevator, or other free-falling object, then you have a weight of zero Newtons relative to that object. (or "zero gravity") the condition when no force (such as weight) is sensed. Occurs in orbit or free fall, when gravity already produces its full acceleration and can produce no further effect. 1. A condition in which no acceleration, whether of gravity or other force, can be detected by an observer within the system in question. Any object failing freely in a vacuum is weightless, thus an unaccelerated satellite orbiting the earth is weightless although gravity affects its orbit. Weightlessness can be produced within the atmosphere in aircraft flying a parabolic flightpath. 2. A condition in which gravitational and other external forces acting on a body produce no stress, either internal or external, in the body. Weightlessness (or free fall) is the state in which an object appears to have no weight (but the object's mass remains the same). During weightlessness, an object's gravitational pull is negligible (close to zero). See microgravity. Weightlessness or microgravity is the experience (by people and objects) during free-fall, of having no apparent weight. Weightlessness in common spacecraft is not due to an increased distance from the earth; the acceleration due to gravity at an altitude of 100 km is only 3% less than at the surface of the earth.
WRP - What Does it Mean for Wildlife By Jim Schrenkel, Wildlife Biologist WR-what? As with all governmental agencies, acronyms abound. WRP stands for the Wetland Reserve Program administered through the U.S. Department of Agriculture-Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS). Before discussing the many wildlife benefits, a general understanding of the program will be helpful. The WRP should actually be called the Wetland “Restoration” Program. The WRP is a voluntary program providing technical and financial assistance to landowners interested in restoring converted croplands and pastures back to wetlands. In a nutshell, it is restoring historic wetlands, cleared by people many years ago for agricultural purposes, back into functioning wetlands as Mother Nature originally intended. Wetlands have many benefits to people as well as wildlife. Water quality is improved through natural water filtration. Ground water is recharged. Flood risks are reduced by storing flood water. Wetlands are aesthetically pleasing. Finally, quality wildlife habitat is created. From the bottom of the food chain all the way to the top, a host of plant and animal life is supported by wetlands. Microscopic zooplankton are fed on by insect larvae and nymphs, which in turn are fed on by fish, reptiles and amphibians, which in turn are fed on by predatory animals such as eagles, mink, raccoons, etc. Wetlands provide food and cover for many other mammals such as beaver, otter, deer, rabbits and squirrels. Wetlands are probably most noted for the essential habitat they provide to many migratory birds and numerous threatened and endangered species. Wetlands are extremely important for migratory waterfowl as well as wading birds and Neotropical migratory birds. They use wetlands for all or part of their life needs such as breeding, nesting, feeding and resting. In Alabama, wetlands are essential for migratory birds for feeding and resting during migration. Actually, one-third of all bird species in the United States require wetlands for one or more of their life requirements. Another wildlife benefit of wetlands is with threatened and endangered species. In the United States, more than one-third of threatened and endangered species live only in wetlands while one-half of these species use wetlands for at least one of their life requirements. This is very important since wetlands only occupy five percent of the land area on the whole earth. Since 1900, 50 percent of the worlds’ wetlands have been destroyed. Wetlands appear in many different habitat types. Seasonally flooded bottomland hardwoods are the predominant wetland types in Alabama. They are characterized by trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants and grasses that can withstand flooding of various times and durations. These areas provide excellent food and cover for many wildlife species. Moist soil wetlands are open areas predominately composed of grasses that provide many high quality seeds for wildlife. Emergent marshes are areas of deeper water (3 to 6 feet) containing vegetation rooted in the soil that emerges above the water. These areas provide habitat for many snails and mussels that in turn provide food for many species of wildlife. Shrub/scrub swamps have water during the growing season and are characterized by shrubs such as willows and button bush. These areas provide valuable thermal cover areas as well as excellent feeding opportunities. Since wetlands are so diverse, they provide food, water and cover requirements necessary for many species of wildlife as well as people. This gives a whole new meaning to “what’s good for the goose is also good for the gander,” no pun intended.
An enormous log of freshly cut wood called the Yule log was fetched and carried to the house on Christmas Eve. In England it was the custom to burn the log for the twelve days of Christmas, from Christmas eve on December 24th to Epiphany on January 6th. The Yule Log was originally burned in honor of the gods and to bring good luck in the coming year. Since ancient times, the yule log ceremony celebrated the sun during the winter solstice. The log was chosen from a massive tree that required hauling by a team of horses or oxen. Tom Larson writes, “On or about Christmas eve, a big log was brought into a home or large hall. Songs were sung and stories told. Children danced. Offerings of food and wine and decorations were placed upon it. Personal faults, mistakes and bad choices were burned in the flame so everyone’s new year would start with a clean slate.” Learn more about the origins of the Yule Log at the following sites:
Kellog-Briand Pact (Pact of Paris) In April 1927 Briand suggested that France and the USA should sign a pact promising never to go war against each other. This proposed agreement was meaningless because there was absolutely no possibility of war between America and France. However Briand saw it as a way of symbolizing the friendship between the two countries. The American government could see little value in the pact. The American Secretary of State was called Frank Kellogg. He eventually suggested that instead of an American-French agreement. all countries should be invited to sign an agreement not to go to war. On 29 August 1928 government leaders of 15 powerful countries gathered together to sign the Pact of Paris. This soon became known as the Kellogg-Briand Pact. It said that each participating country would not use warfare in order to get what it wanted. In the months that followed most countries in the world agreed to the Kellogg-Briand Pact. The Pact was worthless as it put no real obligations or restrictions on countries. Japan and Italy both signed the Pact but before very long they used war to get what they wanted and the Kellogg-Briand Pact was shown to be completely irrelevant.
Learn something new every day More Info... by email Radio frequency refers to an alternating electrical current with certain properties that allow it to be broadcast from an antenna. If the current generates an electromagnetic field or wave at a frequency that is suitable for broadcasting television or radio signals, then it is considered a radio frequency. These frequencies are part of the electromagnetic spectrum and are located just beyond the infrared side of visible light. Any frequency between about nine hertz -- meaning nine cycles per second -- and 300 gigahertz -- meaning 300 billion cycles per second -- can be considered a radio wave, although only frequencies near the middle of this range are used in actual radio broadcasts. The rest of the range of radio frequencies is used by military and scientific personnel, mostly. Most of us are familiar with AM and FM radio, but radios are only some of the wireless devices that use a radio frequency to operate. Television broadcasts received over the air are a form of radio waves, as are satellite communications, citizens’ band radios, and cordless and cellular telephones. Indeed, every wireless technology available utilizes its own radio frequency. The majority of radios and wireless devices serve a single purpose, such as to receive AM radio, or to transmit sound and images over a short distance on a single radio frequency, such as is the case with a baby monitor. However, there are also radio receivers that have access to a very wide range of frequencies, and these are known as scanners. Many people use scanners to tune into the radio frequencies used by police and fire departments, or air traffic controllers. Scanners can be used to tune into just one station, or set to search the airwaves in the area for activity, and stop when a transmission is detected. One of the lesser-known uses of radio frequencies is as a visual tool in astronomy. Objects in outer space often emit large amounts of energy other than visible light, such as x-rays and radio waves. In fact, some of the static that we hear between stations as we turn a radio dial, especially at night in deserted areas, is actually from interstellar radio waves. Although these radio waves are very weak by the time they reach earth, they can be used by astronomers to form a more complete picture of the cosmos than can be seen with the eye alone, even with the aid of a telescope. As the article says, astronomy makes excellent use of radio waves and other electromagnetic waves for viewing heavenly bodies that are outside of our visual spectrum. Thanks to radio waves, telescopes can capture images of things like nebulas that might not even look like they're there if someone goes out and looks for one. Space operates very much on magnetism. The sun's sunspot cycle is even controlled by magnetic waves -- which telescopes can view twisting and bending around if they use the right magnetic imaging technique. I've viewed some of these magnetic telescopic images, and it's just amazing to imagine those waves happening right inside of the sun by us every day. Magnetic things fascinate me a lot. I hope that astronomy keeps making leaps and bounds in what their electromagnetic telescopes can do. Isn't it fascinating how radio frequencies are the exact same thing as the colors that we see and the sounds that we hear? Radio waves are just a different length than colors and sounds. Imagine if we could view more sizes of wave -- we could see radio waves and sounds. In a similar mind-bending situation, if we happened to sense a different length of electromagnetic waves than we currently do for visual colors, then the others would shift. Sound might become color, radio waves might become sound, and color might become radio waves -- and don't even get me started on microwaves! This stuff is quite a fascinating topic for science fair projects and science discussions with kids. I guess that's because it's a very visual kind of discussion, and universal, too. Everybody knows what color and sound are, and it's not hard to explain radio waves.
Beginning in the 500s B.C., Greeks placed herms, pillars surmounted by a head of the god Hermes, at physical boundaries, such as crossroads or even doorways. Such places were sites of ritual and worship, where the herms served a magical, protective function. By the Hellenistic period, the repertoire of heads found on herms had expanded to include other gods and even famous mortals, and people began to use the herms for non-religious, decorative purposes. This herm carries a head of Dionysos wearing a turbanlike headdress of loosely wound ribbons. Both the hair and the beard of Dionysos have been carved in a style that would have looked old-fashioned to the contemporary viewer. Greek bronze statues typically had eyes made of contrasting materials. In most instances the eyes have been lost, but this herm still retains the ivory inlay of the white of its left eye, giving a better idea of the work's original appearance.
Science has played an important role in making the case for political commitments and tangible action to implementing management measures to protect vulnerable marine ecosystems in the deep sea from the damage caused by destructive fishing practices. In 2005, 1,452 scientists from 69 countries signed a statement calling on governments and the United Nations to adopt a moratorium on high seas bottom trawling.(1) The following year, a number of the world's leading deep ocean scientists toured around Europe to bring their concerns directly to decision makers. At the same time, scientists from the Australia, Canada and the UK sent letters to their governments calling for action.(2) Never before had such a number of scientists united around a specific marine environmental issue. The action marked a turning point in the mounting global campaign to halt deep-sea bottom trawling on the high seas. Underlying the statements is a still-emerging body of science. Even today scientists are only just beginning to understand the diversity, significance and vulnerability of deep-sea biodiversity and ecosystems. As was shown by the Census of Marine Life - scientists now know that the deep sea is teeming with life, most of which still remains undiscovered. One of the driving forces behind the scientists' action was mounting concern that entire deep-sea ecosystems will be destroyed before they can be subject to scientific study. The Census showed, among other things, that today in the deep sea fisheries, and hydrocarbon and mineral extraction have the greatest impact, although that primary threat status is likely to shift to climate change in the future. For the fishing industry also, the unreachable is now within reach. Advances in bottom trawl technology means that it is now possible to fish the deep sea's rugged floors and canyons. Scientists have expressed profound concern that "human activities, particularly bottom trawling, are causing unprecedented damage to the deep-sea coral and sponge communities on continental plateaus and slopes, and on seamounts and mid-ocean ridges." They continue to urge that the precautionary principle be used to ensure that the deep-sea environment is protected and "to avoid the very real threat of serious or irreversible damage to them by bottom trawling". (3) More recently, in September 2010, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) launched a groundbreaking report, Deep-sea Sponge Grounds: Reservoirs of Biodiversity, highlighting deep-sea sponge science and conservation. Compiled by leading experts in the field, the report consolidates knowledge on the biology and ecology of deep-water sponge grounds, their value to society, and their associated policy frameworks. It is aimed at boosting the protection and sustainable management of these long-overlooked diverse and ancient habitats. The report also draws attention to how little is currently known and demonstrates the need to develop fuller knowledge and understanding of these habitats together with raising awareness as to why sponge grounds are important and the threats they face. In the water HERMIONE (Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Man's Impact on European Seas) is a three year project launched in April 2009 to advance our knowledge of the functioning of deep-sea ecosystems and their contribution to the production of goods and services. Using an interdisciplinary approach, scientists are exploring the impacts of climate change, fishing, resource extraction, seabed installations and pollution on highly vulnerable deep-sea habitats. The findings will be used to design and implement effective governance strategies and management plans. Study sites include the Arctic, North Atlantic and Mediterranean and cover a range of ecosystems. A major aim of the project is to create a platform for discussion between a range of stakeholders, and contribute to EU environmental policies. Clear message to policy makers and industry In May 2011 a workshop in Lisbon brought together 22 scientists and fisheries experts from around the world to consider the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) resolutions on high seas bottom fisheries: what progress has been made and what the outstanding issues are. A report was produced - The Impact of Deep-Sea Fisheries and Implementation of the UNGA Resolutions 61/105 and 64/72 - summarizing the workshop conclusions. The report identifies examples of good practice and makes recommendations in areas where it was agreed that the current management measures fall short of their target. Several of the report’s contributing scientists attended, and made presentations to, the UNGA meeting in September 2011 to review the implementation of resolutions 61/105 and 64/72. Read further on the outcomes of that meeting on our UN Processes page. (1) The scientists' statement of concern was initially signed by 1,136 scientists and released in February 2004 at the American Association for the Advancement of Science meeting and the Seventh Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Marine Conservation Biology Institute subsequently (MCBI) re-opened the scientists' statement for signature in 2005, in response to requests from scientists wishing to join the moratorium call. Scientists' Statement on Protecting the World's Deep-sea Coral and Sponge Ecosystems Full list of signatories (2) Scientists' Letters to their governments (4 attached): (3) Scientific and Political update 2006, DSCC (pdf) Momentum in support of a moratorium on high seas bottom trawling continues to grow, January 2006, Addendum to Political Momentum is Building Rapidly (pdf) Political Momentum Is Building Rapidly, April 2005 (pdf) English \| French \| German \| Spanish Visit the publications section of this site for links to further scientific reports.
Part 1 - Geography Activity 1: Introduction In order to get an overview of geography, you will watch the YouTube video MR. LIP – The Five Themes of Geography (YouTube, 2007, Mr.) posted under the Tasks tab. While watching the video, jot down the five themes of geography and a short definition. To increase your knowledge, you will read the defintions in Teaching the Five Themes of Geography with the Newspaper (Dill, 2010) which is posted in the Tasks tab. You will increase your understanding of each theme. Activity 2: Booklet Together with four of your peers, design a small booklet with five pages, each of them focusing on one of the five themes you examined in the Introduction. Give a brief definition of each theme and provide an example for the theme. E.g. describe where the location of your home city is. Use pictures from GoogleImages or your own drawings to illustrate your example. Activity 3: Researching a Native American tribe Using the sources posted in the Task tab (Watson, 1999; Native Language of the Americas, 2008; Athropolis Productions Ltd., 2005), as well as Google, collaborate with two of your peers and choose a Native American tribe from the map of Native American tribes posted in the Task tab. Research your tribe based on the following questions: 1. Where is your tribe located geographically? 2. Which climate does the location have? 3. How did your tribe gather food? 4. What is the relation between climate, location, and food gathering? Individually write a short essay on how the environment influenced your tribe's actions. Day 3, 4, and 5: Activity 4: Design your own country Now that you know that the environment influences individuals in their every-day lives, create your own country with two of your peers. Describe your country's name, location, region, place and environment, and its influences on humans' dress, food, and habits. Be creative and present your country to your fellow students with an illustrated poster. Part 2 - History Activity 1: Introduction to the problem When was the last time you ate succulent Fajitas at the local Mexican restaurant? Not long ago? Well, due to the current situation in the United States, you got lucky. Immigration is currently presenting a problem to the United States, and is to be solved by a wall between the United States and Mexico. What do you think about immigration in the United States? Find out by watching the three YouTube videos on immigration (YouTube, 2007, Immigration; YouTube, 2007, The US, YouTube, 2009), located in the Task tab. Activity 2: Personal effects of immigration How does the historical event of building the wall between the U.S. and Mexico affect you? In order to find out, start an email-journal to your teacher, in which you jot down foreign products and effects that impact your environment. Where does the food that you eat come from? Where are your clothes from? Do you use foreign words when you are talking? Where are your friends and ancestors from? Use Google to research answers to these questions. Day 7, 8, 9: Activity 3: Effects on others In collaborative groups, research http://www.bbc.co.uk and http://www.cnn.com, as well as the articles in the Task tab (Oak, 2010; Global Security, 2010) for information on the Mexican wall. Design a questionnaire that will help you to interview four immigrants on how the event of building the wall to restrict immigration affects them personally. Are they in favor of or against the wall? Conduct the interviews within Day 7, 8, and 9. Activity 4: The Mexico-U.S. wall decision Looking at the results of your journal and interviews, decide whether you are for or against the wall. Write a letter to the U.S. government, convincing them of your opinion about the wall, and stating whether the wall should be eliminated. Part 3 - Economics (Microeconomics) Activity 1: Introduction Students will be asked whether they own a Nintendo Wii game system. Students will be asked how they got the system and will answer that they or their parents/relatives, etc. purchased it at the store. Students will be asked whether the Wii was expensive, the answer most likely being "yes". Students will then be informed that they will watch a video about how the price of the Wii magically dropped. Students will watch the YouTube video on the Wii scenario (YouTube, 2007, Supply), and are told that they should pay attention to the details, taking notes on the price drop and the features of the Wii 1 and the Wii 2. Day 12, 13, 14: Activity 2: Interviews Students will be presented with the question why the price magically dropped from 400 to 100 dollars. In order to answer this question, students will work in collaborative groups to interview 10 Wii 1 owners, asking questions about when they bought the Wii 1, what they paid for it, whether it was hard to get a Wii, why they bought it, if they are still happy with it now. In their collaborative group, students will then design a chart on the outcomes of the interview, including including time of purchase, price, popularity of the Wii, and availability. Students will see that the price dropped with time, and that it became easier with time to find a Wii at the store. Students document their conclusions in a journal and present it to the class: The more time passed, the higher the availability (supply), the lower the price, the less popular the Wii was (demand). Students will be taught that availability is called supply and popularity is called demand. Activity 3: Researching supply and demand Students will now research supply and demand, using the sources available in the Task Tab (Word IQ, 2010; Social Studies for Kids, 2010), in order to help the Nintendo company answer the question why the demand for the Wii 1 is now low. Students will take notes on supply and demand and their interrelations throughout the research process, and are allowed to use Google and other sources for vocabulary clarification. Day 16, 17, 18: Activity 4: Role-play for the Nintendo corporation Students will design a role-play to help the Nintendo corporation, in which they state their outcomes of the interview and research activities. The role-play will be recorded and posted on YouTube as a reply to the Wii scenario and will include answers to the following questions: 1. How did limited supply of the Wii 1 at the beginning influence demand? 2. How did demand influence the price of the Wii? 3. Why did the price for the Wii drop? 4. How did advertising the Wii2 influence the demand for the Wii1? Day 19, 20: Activity 5: Mindmap wrap-up Students will design a minmap on the relations between supply and demand, using SmartDraw, a graphic organizer program, which is previously introduced by the teacher and relatively easy to use. Students will draw conclusions on when the best time to buy a product is, and how buying products influences the companies. These conclusions will be drawn throughout a whole-class discussion while presenting the mindmap.
Kenny Breuer, School of Engineering Sharon Swartz, Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Although the natural world has countless examples of creatures with extraordinary flight capabilities, bats have evolved with truly extraordinary aerodynamic capabilities that enable them to fly in dense swarms, to avoid obstacles, and to fly with such agility that they can catch prey on the wing, maneuver through thick rainforests and make high speed 180 degree turns. Bats possess specialized features that may contribute to their flight performance, including highly articulated and flexible skeletons, flexible and compliant membrane wings, thousands of tiny hair sensors distributed over their wing surface as well as a series of muscles embedded in the wing membrane whose function appears to be the active control of camber during flight. Our multidisciplinary research team consists primarily of researchers from Biology and Engineering and includes significant collaborations with researchers in Computer Science and Applied Mathematics, all working to characterize these unique flight capabilities, to understand the roles that the bats' bones, skin morphology and wing motion all play in enabling this behavior, to model these mechanisms, and ultimately to emulate them in engineered systems. Unlike insects and birds, both of whom have relatively rigid wings that can move with only a few degrees of freedom, the bat's wing is comprised of a thin, highly compliant skin membrane that is supported on a very flexible jointed skeleton with numerous degrees of freedom. The aerodynamics of flexible, articulated wings is extremely complex and poorly understood, and our team is studying their characteristics using high-speed measurements of the bat's wing and body motion. These kinematic measurements are synchronized with Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) measurements of the fluid velocity in the wake behind the animal and, together, the kinematic and fluid measurements will shed light on the lift and thrust mechanisms that bats use during straight flight as well as maneuvers. In support of these biological flight experiments, we are performing wind tunnel tests on physical models that mimic features observed in nature, material tests on bat bones and wing membranes, numerical simulations, theoretical modelling and advanced scientific visualizations. Our research is supported by AFOSR and NSF Bat wake measured using PIV, from Hubel et al 2009 Some videos from our research Cynopterus brachyotis (lesser dog-faced fruit bat), fliying the wind tunnel Tadarida brasiliensis (Mexican free-tail bat), flying in the wind tunnel
We think of music as one of the arts, but music is also the science of sound and harmony. In fact, the ancient Greeks thought music belonged solely to the realm of mathematics, with its emphasis on number relationships, ratios and proportions. A Greek philosopher named Pythagoras first invented the musical scale. He discovered that different musical notes could be produced by the same piece of stretched-out string, simply by placing a bridge across it. This divided the string into two related parts, very similar to the mathematical act of giving the ratio of two numbers. Plucking the string with no bridge gives you the "fundamental" musical note. Cutting the string exactly in half -- a ratio of 1:2 -- means that each half will play a note exactly one octave above the fundamental note. Pythagoras found he could divide the string into many different note combinations -- not all of them pleasing to the ear. The string must be divided into a simple ratio to produce a harmonious tone. For instance, if one side of the string has three-fifths of the length and the other has two-fifths, the result is a "perfect fifth," said to be the most pleasing to the human ear. The best-known ratio is called the "golden mean," later dubbed the "divine proportion." If you've read the bestselling novel The Da Vinci Code, you know this occurs whenever a line (or string) is divided in two so that the ratio of the small part to the large part is the same as the ratio of the large part to the whole. The golden ratio can be seen in paintings, architecture, and music. For instance, certain key passages in the "Hallelujah Chorus" from Handel's Messiah follow the golden mean. The Greek notion of musical ratios extended to their view of the universe. They believed the earth was at the center of the solar system, with the sun and other planets rotating around it in fixed circular orbits. These orbits were separated by intervals corresponding to musical chords. The planetary motion in these orbits gave rise to a divine "music of the spheres."
Newtons Laws Of Motion Isaac Newton was a physicist, astronomer and mathematician. Newton is remembered for his work in mechanics, optics, astronomy, mathematics and his famous description of gravity. Mechanics is the study of things that are moving. Newton’s mechanics offered the first explanation of Kepler’s laws (Kepler didn’t say why the planets move the way they do, he described their movement mathematically). Newtonian (or Classical) mechanics is the first topic studied by a student physicist. It provides us with our first introduction to mathematics (particularly calculus) as a practical tool, and remains a useful description of nature throughout our careers. There are many equations used when analysing the interaction of moving bodies, but with a little ingenuity they can all be derived from Newton’s three laws of motion. Newton’s Laws of Motion Newton’s First Law Every body will remain in a state of rest or constant velocity unless acted on by a force When a physicist talks about a body, he/she means a lump of matter that can be taken as one object. Footballs and bullets are bodies. Two bodies stuck together with Blu-Tack count as a single body. A body at rest is sitting still and not doing anything interesting. A body with a constant velocity is moving at a constant speed in a straight line. - A football sits still unless you kick it (duh!). - After a football has been kicked it ‘wants’ to travels in a straight line at a constant speed, but it doesn’t because air resistance slows it down and the earths gravity pulls the trajectory into an ellipse. Newton’s Second Law The rate of change of velocity is directly proportional to the force applied and occurs in the same direction. This is expressed as: The terms in this equation are: = The force applied. = The mass of the body. = The acceleration (rate of change of velocity) of the body. Since the acceleration is equal to the rate of change of velocity we can also write this equation as: This equation tells us that the harder you push the harder a body accelerates. Newton’s Third Law For every action there is a reaction, that is both equal and opposite. This law is often misunderstood, but is really very simple. When something applies a force, it itself experiences the same force (that causes an acceleration in the opposite direction). This can be experimentally tested by punching a brick wall. Your fist applies a force on the wall. The wall applies the same size force to your fist (in the opposite direction). This is why it huts if you punch the wall.
The Hanna & Walter Curriculum Project Our new curriculum has been completed and is ready for distribution. The curriculum was developed and edited by Julie Kohner and Julia Phillips Berger. The Holocaust, which literally means “Consumed by Fire”, is a term referring to the mass murder of six million Jewish men, women and children and five million non-Jewish men, women and children by Nazi Germany during World War II. This period of history should always be remembered, studied and explored by new generations. But how can one comprehend the tragedy of the Holocaust? It embraces the stories of millions of individuals and how their simple everyday lives were shattered and never completely restored. Only by getting to know personal stories can one begin to understand what the Holocaust was. This curriculum teachs high school students about the Holocaust through the book Hanna and Walter: A Love Story, a personal account of a man and a woman who survived. Your students will hear from these survivors about their carefree lives as teenagers before the Holocaust. Then they will accompany Hanna and Walter step by step as their lives change and are shattered during World War II. By getting to know the characters, their friends and family, your students will be able to identify with them and experience the story in a way that will allow them to understand the meaning of the Holocaust. Your students will be involved in discussions, simulations, creative writing, and art projects, and they will make a personal journal using copies of real artifacts depicting scenes from the story. By doing this they will be able to explore not only the personal story of Hanna and Walter, but also the general history of World War II and the Holocaust. Using this Curriculum: - The curriculum offers individual lesson plans, each based on a chapter in Hanna and Walter: A Love Story. (It is highly recommended that you read the entire book before teaching it.) - Each lesson plan includes: goals and objectives, materials need to teach the lesson, and page numbers for reading assignments in the book. - Most of the lesson plans include reading from the book. It is specified when it is recommended to read aloud in the class and when it is recommended to read silently. Depending on the amount of time you have with your class, you may choose to have the students read the chapters at home prior to class. - Some lessons require additional written materials or answers to questions. These are included on a Teacher Resource Page at the end of the lesson. - This is our suggested curriculum for teaching the book Hanna and Walter — A Love Story, but you should not feel confined by it. You may find that some lessons are more suited to your students than others, and that some issues require further elaboration. It is for your use and we hope you will find it helpful in teaching your students about the Holocaust. The curriculum is now available for purchase. Please send an email to VOGCharity@VOGCharity.com. Cost. $50.00 for the Curriculum and a copy of Hanna & Walter, A Love Story.
Early Chemistry and Gases The Chemical Revolution of the late 18th century was based in large part on Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier's new understanding of the chemical role of a gas—oxygen—in explaining combustion, respiration, and metallurgical processes like smelting. This advance in the theory of material change drew upon earlier work by other chemists, such as Joseph Priestley, who demonstrated that the air we breathe, previously thought to be uniform and not a kind of matter like solids or liquids, is in fact made up of several gases with different properties. Lavoisier’s successors further explored the character of gases. Their theoretical advances eventually proved of great importance to modern society: many industrial processes require gases and their compounds and rely on a thorough understanding of the reactions that produce them. Every general-chemistry student learns of Robert Boyle as the person who discovered that the volume of a gas decreases with increasing pressure and vice versa—the famous Boyle’s law. Joseph Priestley, best remembered for his discovery of oxygen, was ceremoniously welcomed to the United States in 1794 as a leading contemporary thinker and friend of the new republic. He was known to Americans at least as well for his prodigious political and theological writings as for his scientific contributions. Lavoisier, a meticulous experimenter, revolutionized chemistry by establishing the law of conservation of mass, determining that combustion and respiration are caused by chemical reactions with what he named "oxygen," and helping systematize chemical nomenclature, among many other accomplishments. Eleuthère Irénée du Pont was the founder of the DuPont Company, a major American business enterprise that got its start in gunpowder. Gay-Lussac's law (1808) states that gases at constant temperature and pressure combine in simple numerical proportions by volume, and the resulting product(s)—if gases—also bear a simple proportion by volume to the volumes of the reactants. Alfred Nobel, of the famed Nobel Prizes, was a Swedish chemist who invented dynamite. One thousand times more powerful than black powder, dynamite expedited the building of roads, tunnels, canals, and other construction projects worldwide. Carl von Linde developed modern refrigeration and was the first person to extract oxygen gas from the air, making it a commercially viable product and thus launching the industrial gas industry. This controversial German chemist received the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1918 for the synthesis of ammonia from its elements, hydrogen and nitrogen. The nitric acid produced from the ammonia was then used to manufacture agricultural fertilizers as well as explosives.
The tongue is able to move in nearly every direction, expand, compress and display a fine degree of articulation. Such muscular control allows us to manipulate our food and speak. The organ's ability to transform into a variety of shapes comes from its composition of skeletal muscle interspersed with fat. The tongue and its muscles are laterally symmetrical: a median septum divides the organ into two halves. The tongue is made up of two types of muscles: extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic muscles originate from elsewhere in the body and attach to the tongue. They connect with surrounding bones and help the organ move up and down, from side to side and in and out. The tongue's extrinsic muscles all end in "glossus," which, unsurprisingly, means "tongue." The genioglossus depresses the tongue and thrusts it out. The styloglossus raises and withdraws the tongue. The palatoglossus raises its back. And, the hyoglossus lowers the tongue's sides. Despite the tongue's fine degree of articulation, the extrinsic muscles also keep it firmly lashed in place. The muscles connect to the mandible, or jawbone, the hyoid bone, a U-shaped structure that supports the tongue, and the styloid processes of the temporal lobes. The styloid processes suspend the hyoid bone with muscles and ligaments, making it the only bone that doesn't come into contact with another. Unlike extrinsic muscles, intrinsic muscles originate within the tongue. They allow it to expand and contract, altering its shape and size. The tongue's intrinsic muscles, which include the longitudinalis superior, longitudinalis inferior, transversus linguae and verticalis linguae, are especially important for speech and deglutition, or swallowing food. Mucous membrane covers the tongue's mass of muscles and fat. The double-layered membrane helps block microbes and pathogens from entering the digestive system and other body cavities that come into contact with the outside. The epithelial layer of the mucous membrane secretes mucus that helps moisten the mouth and food. The tongue is also an important organ for the perception of taste. In the next section, we'll learn about the tongue's role in taste.
Learning science takes more than just learning what an atom is or how forces work. To fully understand science, the language of science must also be mastered. The words that scientists use to explain how things work can either make science interesting or difficult depending on how well someone understands the language. The Science Connects series is designed to supplement the Real Science-4-Kids science textbooks. The first connection will be to language. In this supplement, the students will explore the Latin or Greek word roots for several scientific terms. They will also learn five other words that have the same word root as the scientific term and build a vocabulary around the word root. They will explore the meaning of all of the words listed and then practice using them on their own. They will build their vocabulary and as a result begin to have a deeper understanding of the language used in science. RealScience-4-Kids components can also be ordered individually. Multiple students may share a textbook, but each student needs a lab workbook to perform the lab experiments and record their results.: - Combined Lab Workbook and Teacher's Manual on CD (includes chem/bio/physics) $90.00 click to order
Understanding Seasons - A Model From the University of Wisconsin SpacePlace - Seasons are not caused by the Earth being sometimes closer to and sometimes farther away from the Sun. - Seasons are caused by the tilt of the Earth's axis. When the Northern Hemisphere tips toward the Sun, we have summer and the Southern Hemisphere has winter. - It is colder in the winter because the days are shorter, nights are longer, and the Sun is lower in the sky. - It is hotter in the summer because the days are longer, nights are shorter, and the Sun is higher in the sky. - At the equinoxes day and night are equal in length. - You can build a model of the sun and Earth to help students understand the effect of the tilt of the earth on the seasons. - 1 Styrofoam ball - 1 large paper clip - 2 paper fasteners - Crayons or markers - 2 tagboard circles (one slightly larger than the other) You can use 2 different sizes of paper plates. - Cut out the smaller of the two circles. In the middle of the circle draw the sun. - Draw the dividing lines on the circle. You will need four parts. - Label them going counter clockwise around the circle - Winter Solstice, Vernal Equinox, Summer Solstice, and - Decorate each quarter with things that you enjoy doing during each season. - Cut out the large circle. - Using one of the paper fasteners, connect the two circles. Try to put the fastener as close to the middle of the two circles as possible. - Take the paper clip and bend the outside prong towards you about 23 degrees. Bend the inside prong in, closing the end to make a circle. Insert the paper fastener in the circle and place the paper clip contraption to the edge of the larger circle. - Draw a circle around the Styrofoam ball to represent the equator and attach the ball to the end of the paper clip was bent (23 degrees). - Now, being careful to always keep the Earth (Styrofoam ball) lifted in the same direction, move the larger circle around and see how our seasons occur. Copyright 1999 Journey North. All Rights Reserved. Please send all questions, comments, and suggestions to our feedback form
Student: I understand how to add and subtract fractions, but multiplying and dividing seems different. How is it done? Mentor: We'll start with multiplying. It is a little bit more straight-forward. Simply multiply the numerator and multiply the To solve 2/3 x 3/4 multiply the numerators 2 and 3 (which will be 6) and then the denominators 3 and 4 (which will be 12) so 2/3 x 3/4 = 6/12 Student: And I already learned that I can reduce that fraction to 1/2 by dividing both numbers by 6. How does it work when I divide numbers? Mentor: Let's try it with the problem 2/7 divided by 2/5. There are several ways to look at this, but one way is to invert the fraction doing the dividing, and then multiply the numbers across. Invert means to turn upside down, so the steps of the problem look like this:
Recurrent Themes in the Representation of South Asia Early European travelers found India to be a strange and confusing land filled not only with unusual flora and fauna but inhabited by peoples with seemingly different orientations towards life. Many of these travelers during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries prepared images to accompany the narrations of their journeys. These visual representations allow us to see India through the eyes and cultural preconceptions of these early voyagers. Four themes are traced in these cases: asceticism, sati, Hindu divinity, and cartography. Asceticism was among the several Indian practices that particularly fascinated and perplexed early European travelers. Dutch and French voyagers often described the Indian religious devotees who practiced various forms of physical penance in an attempt to transcend their bodily and earthly desires. Early European images typically portrayed these ascetics, known as fakirs or sadhus, as fanatical extremists who, for the Europeans, were "more like devils than living men" (Hamilton 1930 I: 91). India was alternately seen as either a land of "gentle gymnosophists, ascetics and philosophers" or a realm of "threatening and bizarre marvels" (Cohn 1992: 2). Both these opposing qualities infuse the European representations of the precolonial period. During the colonial and postcolonial eras, indigenous Indian artists also harnessed the image of the ascetic for their own particular purposes as symbols of personal or political power. This reached its pinnacle in the figure of the political and spiritual leader M.K. Gandhi, portrayed as an ascetic in ways that captured the imagination of Indians and Westerners alike. A rite frequently described by European travelers in both word and image was sati ("suttee"), in which a Hindu widow burns herself alive on her husbands funeral pyre. The abolition of sati was a central concern of colonial reform movements in the nineteenth century, and met with resistance from those who considered sati a sacred "tradition" of Hindu women. Beginning in the sixteenth century, the issue was introduced to European consciousness through graphic images. These depictions appeared so often that it "became the totalizing image of India as the land of the bizarre" (Cohn 1992:9). Sati remains a source of contention in India today, particularly in the wake of a highly publicized sati in 1987 by a young Rajput widow named Roop Kanwar. While sati seems to have been a relatively rare occurrence, the rite has long engendered debates about the conditions of Indian women. The image of sati, once emblematic of barbarous oriental otherness for Europeans, is now again at the center of Indian debates about modernity and tradition, secularism and civil rights. Hindu divinity is an enduring theme in the history of images from India. The earliest European travelers accounts from the sixteenth through the mid-seventeenth century represented the Hindu pantheon as little more than devils. Prejudiced by Christian expectations of demons in heathen lands, these narrators found what they already expected. But in the seventeenth century, in the context of a growing scientific humanism, differences in cosmology and religious practice were recognized. A new interest in information about Indian mythology created a demand for "authentic" pictures of Indian gods. Indian art historian Partha Mitter writes that a "new class of sources dating from the middle of the seventeenth century marks the beginnings of changing attitudes in the West towards alien societies and provides the essential key to the understanding of Indian iconography." The majority of drawings and engravings displayed here date from this seventeenth century period of reinvigorated European interest in Hindu iconography. Cartography and the history of the mapping of the Indian subcontinent is the final theme explored here. Any given cartographic depiction recognizes the aspects of the subject in question that are most salient to the cartographers needs. Under different ruling authorities, "India" has appeared in many forms and aspects. The cartographic project of mapping and re-mapping the nation continues to this day. A Land of Ascetics European images of Indian fakirs circulated throughout the seventeenth century via frequent re-printings of a limited set of illustrations. As Bernard Cohn noted in "The Past in the Present," they had their particular historical location in the city of Surat. One of the great congregating places of the fakirs was outside of Surat, the most important trading center for Europeans on the [west] coast of India in the seventeenth century. Here under the encompassing branches of what the Europeans referred to as a "banyan" tree (Ficus Indica), whose branches stretched over 500 feet, were a number of shrines and temples, to which a large number of the "Gentoos" [Hindus] came to worship the "devilish stone images" and their living counterparts, the fakirs. The banyan tree just outside Surat and all the confusing bodily mortifications performed by Hindu ascetics beneath that tree became for Europeans a central symbol of Indias otherness. Centuries later, asceticism, still symbolically redolent of Indian otherness, was effectively and powerfully re-deployed by M.K. Gandhi in the independence struggle. Widow self-immolation, or sati has played a vivid role in European visions of India. First visually depicted by Jan Huygen van Linschoten in his 1595 Itinerary, the iconic pattern established with his drawings endured into the eighteenth century. Linschoten was a Dutch merchant who sailed to India in 1593. His book -- a mixture of his observations and accounts of other Europeans in India, accompanied by his drawings -- was quickly translated into Latin, French, German, and English, and was widely known through Theodor De Brys India Orientalis. Cohn writes in "The Past in the Present": Linschotens drawing of a woman performing sati was to appear repeatedly and became the totalizing image of India as the land of the bizarre. Most of the seventeenth century travel accounts featured a description of a sati, and even though the textual details varied, the basic form and content of the scene was fixed. Beginning with the De Bry reproduction of Linschotens drawing, the display is intended to suggest that the iconography of sati developed by and circulated among Europeans has fed into contemporary Indian debates about modernity and tradition and about the condition of women in particular. The Representation of Hindu Divinity European visitors to India have long had difficulty "coming to terms with Hindu art," notes Indian art historian Partha Mitter in Much Maligned Monsters, his influential study of European reactions to Indian art. At the core of the historic European inability to assimilate Hindu art lay a problem of perception: "early travelers preferred to trust what they had been taught to expect instead of trusting their own eyes." Instead of seeing images of gods, these voyagers saw medieval monsters, more devils than deities. In Europe, says Mitter, the "sixteenth century saw a substantial widening of interest in non-European societies, for Humanists engaged in collecting information as assiduously as they amassed natural and artificial objects in their cabinets of curiosities." With this growing interest in other cultures came increasing recognition of differences in cosmology and religious practice. By the seventeenth century, the demand for information about Indian mythology in turn created a demand for authentic pictures of Indian deities. "A new class of sources dating from the middle of the seventeenth century marks the beginnings of changing attitudes in the West towards alien societies and provides the essential key to the understanding of Indian iconography." The majority of drawings and engravings displayed here date from this period of informed European interest in Hindu iconography, during which time "Indian gods began rapidly to shed their previous monstrous guises, as their own character and attributes were increasingly restored to them." In the twentieth century, representations of the Hindu pantheon were again reshaped by the cross-cultural interactions of East and West. This time Indian artists adapted European painting styles for their modern interpretations of deities and myths. The Ravi Varma oleolithograph on display here is an example of this transformation in the representation of Hindu divinity. Cartography and the Creation of India Cartography has long been central to Western knowledge of India and played a conspicuous role in the colonial dominion with India. The history of Western maps of India begins with sixteenth-century voyagers who were intent on charting all they saw. Such documentation is not however a neutral enterprise; acts of visualization are a way of making what they see their own, of claiming dominion. As Cohn observed in "The Past in the Present": The population of the British in India grew from a few hundred in 1700 to thirty or forty thousand by the end of the century. Integral to the emergence of the colonial state and a distinctive overseas British society in India was an ever-expanding documentation project. India by 1800 was an observational site, its physical features to be measured and mapped and transformed into a topography; its flora and fauna given a natural history; its peoples and their forms of thought, institutions, and social practices described and classified. Engaged in the naturalization, domestication, and documentation project was an army of professional and amateur delineators, surveyors, topographers, natural historians, map makers, scholars, linguists, historians, antiquarians, archaeologists, engravers, artists, architects, and photographers. New descriptive and interpretive strategies had to be constructed and deployed if India was to be effectively domesticated. The devils of the 17th century travelers, with their satanic rites and satyrical priests, the wildness, the bizarre, and the weird had to be submerged if India was to be effectively and profitably ruled. The British colonial project of mapping bequeathed a legacy that lives in the postcolonial era. Modern examples of cartography in service of independent India illustrate the continuities.
What are Cirrus Clouds? The most common form of high-level clouds are thin and often wispy cirrus clouds. Typically found at heights greater than 20,000 feet (6,000 meters), cirrus clouds are composed of ice crystals that originate from the freezing of supercooled water droplets. Cirrus clouds generally occur in fair weather and point in the direction of air movement at their elevation. The formation of cirrus clouds has both a heating and cooling effect on the earth's surface. Cirrus clouds cool the surface of earth by reflecting solar radiation into space (albedo effect). Additionally, cirrus clouds have the ability heat the earth by trapping infrared radiation from the surface of the earth (greenhouse effect).
The most prevalent system of color vision in mammals is known as dichromacy, which is a color-detection system based on two types of cone photoreceptors--those sensitive to short (SWS) and medium-to-long (M/LWS) wavelengths. Trichromacy, which is used by humans, was thought to be unique to primates that have re-evolved a third cone type from the duplication of the MWS/LWS gene, which enables the discrimination of green-red colors. But the researchers' previous physiological studies in Australian marsupials provided original evidence for the potential of trichromatic color vision in mammals other than primates. The findings were consistent in several distantly related marsupial species, indicating that the presence of three spectrally distinct cone types, sensitive to short (SWS), medium (MWS), and long (LWS) wavelengths, is a common feature of Australian marsupials. However, since evidence of color vision cannot be derived from physiological studies alone, marsupial trichromacy remained to be established with an unequivocal behavioural approach. In the new study, the researchers therefore investigated the contribution of the distinct cone types to color vision in the fat-tailed dunnart (Sminthopsis crassicaudata), using additive color mixture experiments in which choice between a colored light (training wavelength) and an additive mixture of two different colored lights (primary wavelengths) is based exclusively on differences in chromatic content. The results revealed that the fat-tailed dunnart possesses functional trichromacy, but that its version of trichromatic vision differs from that of primates in that it includes sensitivity to UV wavelengths. In addition to furthering our knowledge of how mammalian color vision functions, the findings provide an opportunity to re-examine theories on the evolution of this key sensory capacity. The researchers include Catherine A. Arrese and Lyn D. Beazley of the University of Western Australia in Crawley, Australia; Christa Neumeyer of J. Gutenberg University in Mainz, Germany. Arrese et al.: "Behavioural evidence for marsupial trichromacy." Publishing in Current Biology 16, R193-R194, March 21, 2006. www.current-biology.com Last reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 21 Feb 2009 Published on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved.
The term sedimentary basin is used to refer to any geographical feature exhibiting subsidence and consequent infilling by sedimentation. As the sediments are buried, they are subjected to increasing pressure and begin the process of lithification. Methods of Formation It is common to categorise sedimentary basins according to the mechanism of formation: tectonic compression (e.g., foreland basins, caused by lithospheric flexure), tectonic extension (e.g., back-arc basins, caused by lithospheric stretching), and tectonic strike-slip (such as pull-apart basins). If the lithosphere is caused to stretch horizontally, by mechanisms such as ridge-push or trench-pull, the effect is believed to be twofold. The lower, hotter part of the lithosphere will "flow" slowly away from the main area being stretched, whilst the upper, cooler and more brittle crust will tend to fault (crack) and fracture. The combined effect of these two mechanisms is for the earth's surface in the area of extension to subside, creating a geographical depression which is then often infilled with water and/or sediments. (An analogy might be a piece of rubber, which thins in the middle when stretched.) An example of a basin caused by lithospheric stretching is the North Sea - also an important location for significant hydrocarbon reserves. Another such feature is the Basin and Range province which covers most of the USA state of Nevada, forming a series of horst and graben structures. Another expression of lithospheric stretching results in the formation of ocean basins with central ridges; The Red Sea is in fact an incipient ocean, in a plate tectonic context. The mouth of the Red Sea is also a tectonic triple junction where the Indian Ocean Ridge, Red Sea Rift and East African Great Rift Valley meet. This triple junction is also the only place on the planet where seafloor crust is subaerially exposed. The reason for this is twofold, due to a high thermal buoyancy of the junction, and a local crumpled zone of seafloor crust acting as a dam against the Red Sea. Lithospheric compression/shortening and flexure If a load is placed on the lithosphere, it will tend to flex in the manner of an elastic plate. The rate and degree of flexure is a function of the flexural rigidity of the lithosphere, which is itself a function of the lithospheric mineral composition and thermal regime. The nature of the load is varied. For instance, the Hawaiian Islands chain of volcanic edifices has sufficient mass to cause deflection in the lithosphere. The obduction of one tectonic plate onto another also causes a load and often results in the creation of a foreland basin, such as the Po basin next to the Alps in Italy, the Molasse Basin next to the Alps in Germany, or the Ebro basin next to the Pyrenees in Spain. Deformation of the lithosphere in the plane of the earth (i.e. such that faults are vertical) occurs as a result of horizontal differential stresses. The resulting zones of subsidence are known as strike-slip or pull-apart basins. Basins formed through strike-slip action occur where a vertical fault plane curves. When the curve in the fault plane moves apart, a region of transtension results, creating a basin. Another term for a transtensional basin is a rhombochasm. A classic rhombochasm is illustrated by the Dead Sea rift, where northward movement of the Arabian Plate relative to the Anatolian Plate has caused a rhombochasm. The opposite effect is that of transpression, where converging movement of a curved fault plane causes collision of the opposing sides of the fault. An example is the San Bernardino Mountains north of Los Angeles, which result from convergence along a curve in the San Andreas fault system. The Northridge earthquake was caused by vertical movement along local thrust and reverse faults bunching up against the bend in the otherwise strike-slip fault environment. Ongoing development of sedimentary basins As more and more sediment is deposited into the basin, the weight of all the newer sediment may cause the basin to subside further because of isostasy. A basin can continue having sediment deposited into it, and continue to subside, for long periods of geological time; this can result in basins many kilometres in thickness. Geologic faults can often occur around the edge of, and within, the basin, as a result of the ongoing slippage and subsidence. Study of sedimentary basins The study of sedimentary basins as a specific entity in themselves is often referred to as basin modelling or Sedimentary Basin Analysis. The need to understand the processes of basin formation and evolution are not restricted to the purely academic. Indeed, sedimentary basins are the location for almost all of the world's hydrocarbon reserves and as such are the focus of intense commercial interest. There is no pharmaceutical or device industry support for this site and we need your viewer supported Donations \| Editorial Board \| Governance \| Licensing \| Disclaimers \| Avoid Plagiarism \| Policies
Water-powered sawmills were a feature of the New England landscape since the earliest years of European settlement—the first water-powered sawmills in New England were built near Berwick, Maine in 1634. In England, pit sawing by hand remained the predominate method of converting logs to lumber throughout the seventeenth century. In the American colonies, there was a shortage of labor, but hundreds of streams and rivers ripe for exploitation as power sources. In order to utilize the vast forests of the New World and supply the need for building materials in the growing country, sawmills (or other mills) were eventually built on nearly every source of moving water—by 1840 there were about 5,500 sawmills in New England, with nearly 700 in Connecticut alone. Most of these sawmills were on small scale with a single saw, and were part of the local economy. On the large rivers of northern New England, especially Maine, however, sawmills with multiple or gang saws processed millions of feet of lumber annually both for shipment to major New England cities and also for export. The thousands of sawmills in New England for about 200 years beginning in the 1630s used essentially a single technology—a wooden waterwheel with a crank connected by the ‘pitman’ arm to a wooden sash (frame) in which was mounted a straight saw blade. The reciprocating motion of the vertically mounted saw results in the characteristic straight “up and down” saw marks on boards and timbers cut on these sash-type saws. Sawmill technology changed significantly and continually during the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century. In 1800, essentially all sawmills were of the sash-type, with the wooden building and structural components of the saw mechanism made locally by the millwright (excepting the steel saw blade, iron crank, and a few other parts). For an example, see this photo of the sash saw that operated at Romford. CT. Through the nineteenth century, more sawmill parts began to be manufactured from iron and could be purchased from a mill supplier—for the 1870-era Ledyard mill, this includes an iron water turbine, iron shafting and gears, and iron friction rods upon which the saw sash moves. A larger change in mill technology, however, was the use of circular, rather than straight, saw blades starting around 1830; by 1900 circular saws had replaced nearly all the sash sawmills. As these changes were occurring, the development of reliable and affordable steam engines resulted in the dominance of this power source by the early twentieth century—the use of steam power also allowed the development of portable circular sawmills which could be set up near the timber to be harvested. The currently operating sash-type sawmill (up and down or reciprocating motion versus a spinning circular blade)) with its horizontal iron water turbine and gears dates from about 1870, but there were sawmills on the site at Lee's Brook Pond in Ledyard, CT long before then. There were references to a mill pond here from as early as the 1740s. A sawmill belonging to Nathaniel Brown II and Increase B. Stoddard stood on this site in the late 1790s. The mill was never a large commercial venture supplying lumber to distant cities as found in the mill towns of northern New England. Rather it was a country mill, serving the farms and settlements within a convenient hauling distance by horse and wagon. Most likely, the early mills on this site had an undershot vertical wooden water wheel to drive the machinery that was driven by direct immersion in Lee's Brook. There are some unconfirmed references to it originally being a flutter-type mill (like a paddle boat wheel which was driven by water flowing beneath it). Flutter wheels operate at higher revolutions per minute with low water heads than do a large, classic vertical wheels. Water wheels have the disadvantage of freezing in winter, making them only seasonal sources of power. Brown operated the mill until 1805 at which time Philip Gray bought the mill which was standing on the property of Joseph Lee. The dam and pond are thought to have been created at about this time to create a more dependable source of water power. It was stipulated that, “the said Philip Gray build a new mill on the spot where the old one now stands on the farm where the said Lee now lives” with rights to repair the dam and the “privilege of flowing a pond of water” on the land “as much as necessary for the use of said mill.” In turn Lee received the privilege of having 700 feet of boards cut if he brought logs to the mill during the cutting season. Gray was given the right to keep the gate shut on the dam “from the first of November until the thirteenth of April every year” as this was the lumbering season, before and after the farming season. Gray sold his interest in the mill in 1831, after which it changed hands several of times. The building at that time was 12 x 30 feet, considerably smaller than its present size. It is not clear if there was an operating sawmill on this site throughout the 19th century. In addition to land and town records, there are several maps that indicate a mill site where the present sawmill still stands. Maps from 1833 and 1868 show a sawmill on this site, but interestingly, an 1854 map indicates only the presence of a gristmill. The present sawmill was built around 1870 by Israel Brown. He installed a 12 foot tall water tank fed from the pond by a sluiceway with an enclosed horizontal iron turbine beneath it. The underwater turbine inside the mill building provided more horsepower than the old wheel and was protected from debris coming downstream as well as from early winter freeze-ups. He kept the old up-and-down sash saw rather than converting to a single thick vertical muley (mulay or mulley) blade or a circular saw blade; he also added a shingle mill and built a blacksmith shop nearby. Because the turbine draws water from beneath the surface of the pond and the machinery itself is below ground, it was not as subject to freezing as an exposed water wheel, thus extending the cutting season. In 1887 Brown mortgaged the mill and water rights to William Leeds Main who was the grandfather of Harry W. Main, the last mill owner. As late as the 1970s, several older local residents could remember the mill in operation into 1930s and it is believed it was last used about 1935. (Part of this material is adapted from Historic Ledyard. 1976. Vol. I, Gales Ferry Village, Ledyard Historic District Commission.) Click here to see 1935 Connecticut State Library photos of Ledyard Sawmill; Check pages 1 and 2. The mill was in use until damaged by a hurricane in 1938 which also destroyed the blacksmith shop. After that, the building was abandoned. Fortunately the turbine, drive mechanism, and line shafts were left in place. The photos show the mill and surrounding property about the time they were purchased by of the town of Ledyard. Comparisons with the State Archive photos, which roughly coincide with the year the mill closed, indicate that time had taken its toll on the buildings and dam. The badly deteriorated mill and 11.6 acres of land, including the two-acre pond, were purchased by the Town of Ledyard in 1966 to create Sawmill Park. Over nine years the dam and buildings were restored by volunteers and with funds from local sources, town funds and matching state grants. The restored sawmill powered by its original water source, Sawmill Pond formed from damming Lee’s Brook, was opened to the public on Saturday, April 19, 1975 as part of Ledyard’s bicentennial celebration. Listing in the National Register of Historic Places. The mill machinery is restored as was found in the 1960s. The mill had not been modified since it last ran in the 1930s, and based on the sawmill parts and building construction, it is likely that the mill is now restored to the configuration that was originally installed in the late 1860s. The mill is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The listing is under the name "Main Sawmill" for the Main family who owned the mill from 1887 until it was sold to the town of Ledyard in 1966. The application for listing was submitted in 1972 after the restoration of the sawmill and equipment was nearly complete. The nomination form and accompanying photographs are available.
We have already discussed the idea that some bacteria have always been resistant to certain antibiotics and that each antibiotic only has an effect on specific germs (See the antimicrobials section). But sometimes bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics that previously killed or damaged them. This resistance can develop in the following ways: - A random change in the genetic material of the bacteria, this is known as a mutation. This can cause the genetic material to make the bacteria resistant to harm by the drug. - By 'picking up' genetic material that contains instructions that code for antibiotic resistance. This genetic material can come from viruses, other bacterial cells or plasmids, which are loops of DNA in a bacterial cell that are separate from its chromosome (bacteria only have one single chromosome, unlike us humans who have 23 pairs in each cell). These plasmids can move from bacteria to bacteria, picking up and depositing bits of genetic material as they go. If the plasmid contains a bit of genetic material that codes for antibiotic resistance this can be spread to many other bacteria. So this explains how antibiotic resistance can develop but it doesn't explain what effect these genetic instructions have on stopping the antibiotic from harming the bacteria. They can do this in a number of ways: - Inactivating the antibiotic before it reaches the bacterial cell - Reducing the uptake of the antibiotic into the bacterial cell - Increasing the amount of antibiotic that is pumped out of the bacterial cell - Altering the antibiotic's target on the bacterial cell so that the antibiotic cannot recognise and target the cell - Activating different ways of multiplying, feeding, maintaining its structure etc, so that it can function despite the effect of the antibiotic (See the antimicrobials section for an overview of how antibiotics can interfere with a bacteria's life processes)
5. Considering Alternative Perspectives Top R4R Picks Resources for extending the learning WHAT IS IT? In the process of forming opinions, clarifying values and taking an informed position, the learner considers different ways of looking at issues and reaching solutions. This approach includes consideration of complimentary and competing strategies, experiences and world views. WHY USE IT? - This approach helps expose the values we have to the scrutiny of critical thinking preparing students to make better decisions as informed citizens. - It creates a thinking challenge through which critical analysis skills and informed opinions can be developed. - Consideration of alternate perspectives promotes open-mindedness and a willingness to take relevant evidence and argument into account in forming or revising our own beliefs and values. - It presents more options for solving problems and addressing challenges. - Considering differing points of view develops “intellectual empathy”, the ability to respect and understand other points of view by making students more aware of their own values and biases. - It is an approach that promotes diversity creating a learning environment that is emotionally safe for students. - Concerns of bias and indoctrination in the learning process can be effectively addressed. TIPS FOR TEACHERS: - Take the time to introduce students to multiple sides of issues. Look to include literature and media resources that offer different perspectives. - Prompt students to gather, assess and compare information from different and conflicting sources. - Ask students to identify which voices are represented and which ones are missing from a text. - Look for opportunities to include drama, role-playing and simulation activities. - Include frequent opportunities for reflection. - After consideration of alternate perspectives, require students to clarify and support their own positions. - Where appropriate make use of the different perspectives represented in the classroom.
The Astronomical Earth Of the planets, only Mercury and Venus are nearer to the sun; the mean distance from the earth to the sun is c.93 million mi (150 million km).Rotation and Revolution The earth rotates from west to east about a line (its axis) that is perpendicular to the plane of the equator and passes through the center of the earth, terminating at the north and south geographical poles. The period of one complete rotation is a day; the rotation of the earth is responsible for the alternate periods of light and darkness (day and night). The earth revolves about the sun once in a period of a little more than 3651/4 days (a year). The path of this revolution, the earth's orbit, is an ellipse rather than a circle, and the earth is consequently nearer to the sun in January than it is in July; the difference between its maximum and minimum distances from the sun is c.3 million mi (4.8 million km). This difference is not great enough to affect climate on the earth. The change in seasons is caused by the tilt of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit, making an angle of c.66.5°. When the northern end of the earth's axis is tilted toward the sun, the most direct rays of sunlight fall in the Northern Hemisphere. This causes its summer season. At the same time the Southern Hemisphere experiences winter since it is then receiving indirect rays. Halfway between, in spring and in autumn, there is a time (see equinox) when all parts of the earth have equal day and night. When the northern end of the earth's axis is tilted away from the sun, the least direct sunlight falls on the Northern Hemisphere. This causes its winter season. Sections in this article: The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
Science Fair Project Encyclopedia Rewriting in mathematics, computer science and logic covers a wide range of methods of transforming strings, written in some fixed alphabet, that are not deterministic but are governed by explicit rules. This is a powerful general method for dealing with equation. A rewrite system is a set of equations that characterize a system of computation. Rewrite systems provide a convenient method of automating theorem proving. If we begin with a set of equational hypotheses, then these may be used to formulate a set of rewrite rules. The non-deterministic nature of a rewriting system indicates that it is not an algorithm for changing one string to another, but a system of 'permissions'. An example from school algebra goes under the heading collect like terms in an equation. There will usually be several ways to proceed, in collecting up and simplifying an equation - P(x) = Q(x) in which P and Q are polynomials. After some application of the conventional rules of algebra we may end with an equation - R(x) = 0. This is something like a normal form, though we may well have different signs (at least) for R found by different routes. If we insist that R is monic there is actually a normal form (as is usually tacitly assumed) in which R(x) is written in terms of decreasing powers of x. The feature of this rewriting system that has some general application is that some unique result or normal form is obtainable; and naturally any serious computer algebra system will have to perform this simplification automatically. Some of the more common types are: The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details
A team of researchers has found new evidence that the slipstream behind a moving vehicle blows seeds great distances, meaning some invasive plant species could thrive at the road side. Led by Dr Moritz von der Lippe the study shows that the wind created in the wake of a passing car can pick up seeds, carrying them further than they would if they journeyed by more natural methods; paving the way for possibly harmful invasions. Scientists thought that seeds scattered by cars fell back into the midde of the asphalt surface of the road. There, the inhospitable conditions are not suitable for seeds to thrive and so most transported seeds will never grow into plants. This new study, published in PLoS ONE, revealed that when seeds are caught in the airflow behind a car, the turbulence causes them to eventually be brushed to the roadside, where grassy verges and muddy banks provide the perfect environment for them to germinate and succeed. 'The fact this process takes the seeds to the edge of the road, to somewhere that they can germinate – known as effective dispersal – that's the important part of the process,' says Proffessor James Bullock, a co-author of the study. Dispersal of seeds is necessary for plants to survive; it prevents overcrowding and results in greater survival rates. But it can also result in certain species migrating away from their natural homes to colonise areas they haven't been found in before. If these migrating species proliferate, they can damage the ecology of the area. Some species, such as Ragwort (also known as Ragweed), are covered by laws stating they must not be allowed to spread, because their potential to cause crop losses is so great. There has been much previous research into the dispersal of seeds by natural processes such as wind, animals and even gravity, but scientists realised that lorries, cars and other motorised vehicles can carry seeds much further than animals can. Seeds hitchhiking on tyres or in mud stuck to cars, can travel great distances and could have huge consequences for the geography of species, especially since invasive species can often grow at the roadside. Most studies have been concerned with the distance humans and cars carry these attached seeds, as opposed to the location the seeds finally arrive at. The study was conducted in the glamorous location of the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology's car park. The simple experiment involved lining up fluorescent-paint sprayed seeds – naturally dispersed by wind or gravity – across the car park, then getting cars to drive across the line. The scientists then had to wait until darkness to venture out with UV lights, in order to find where the seeds had dispersed to – a process that was sometimes harder than interpreting the results. The researchers proposed a change to road shape, or a barrier to prevent seeds from being blown from the inhospitable asphalt road into the more welcoming kerb. Explore further: Rural road maintenance may accidentally push spread of invasive plants von der Lippe, M. et al., Human-Mediated Dispersal of Seeds by the Airflow of Vehicles. PLoS ONE 8(1): e52733. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052733
Now that it is becoming increasingly clear that we are already on board for a substantial increase in global temperature in the coming century, the discussion has broadened from efforts to cut the greenhouse gases that drive the process, which are obviously more critical than ever, to include also efforts to mitigate the expected impacts. In addition to efforts at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and overhauling energy industries, there have been many suggestions for geo-engineering on a global scale to reduce atmospheric heating. The latter range from the sublime to (often) the ridiculous — huge parasols in space to shade the earth, dumping freight cars of iron filings into the tropical ocean to stimulate blooms of plankton that suck down the CO2, etc. Many such suggestions would be astronomically expensive and some are truly over the top. Is there really no better way? Why not look to Nature for an answer? This approach has worked countless times before. Natural ecosystems have had 3-some-odd-billion years to experiment in the face of constant pressure and have discovered a plethora of ingenious ways to solve problems. Consider the new paper in Current Biology by Ridgwell and colleagues. These authors suggest the ingenious hypothesis that regional warming might be mitigated not by costly futuristic infrastructure but by relatively simple changes in crop varieties that change leaf albedo over large areas. Ridgwell et al. proceed from the observation that historical conversion of native vegetation to crops with higher albedo (i.e., ability to reflect incoming solar radiation) has reduced warming, and they suggest a low-tech, relatively inexpensive approach that would exploit the existing infrastructure of agriculture. The idea is to switch crops to known varieties that have leaf glossiness and/or canopy architecture that reflect more solar radiation. By making these changes in the Hadley Centre coupled atmosphere-ocean model, they estimate that summer temperatures could be reduced by a substantial 1 degree C throughout much of the mid-latitude northern hemisphere. These changes could potentially be done cheaply and quickly and might even be improved by selective breeding for higher-albedo foliage. The figure at left shows the global distribution of croplands. The model of Ridgwell et al. allowed C3 grasses (crops such as rice, wheat, and soybeans) and C4 grasses (e.g., maize, sorghum, sugarcane, and millet) to grow within these areas designated as cropland. The figure below shows the results in terms of climatic impacts of bio-geoengineering. The colors show the global anomalies of summer (JJA) and winter (DJF) surface air temperature resulting from a +0.04 increase in maximum crop canopy albedo and an elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration of 700 ppm, relative to “control” conditions with no change in crop albedo. The small “hotspots” of cooling or warming visible on the map are mostly associated with localized changes in seasonal sea-ice extent or snow cover relative to the control, induced by the cropland albedo changes elsewhere. To me this is a classic potential application of reconciliation ecology, and also biomimicry, that is creative use of nature’s methods to achieve goals that are important to humanity but minimize impacts on the rest of the ecosystem (in the sense that we already have huge areas under agricultural cultivation and this is unlikely to change). Plus it’s surely a whole lot cheaper than putting a bunch of colossal umbrellas in space, even if that was likely to work.
To use a single term to describe a diverse movement is deceptive. It connotes a certain amount of homogeneity and standardization, which was the very antithesis of Art Nouveau. Individuality was key; the movement’s forerunners believed that problems of design could be overcome through the unique methods of each artist.1 Yet despite this tendency, there was also a set of common formal means and inspirations. It is within these concepts that one finds the foundations for many modern design philosophies — including that of the Bauhaus. Technology and material played a central role in Art Nouveau’s motivation. It has been suggested that the period followed a materialist model, utilizing the most advanced means and methods of construction from any and all disciplines, and from there deriving its style.2 The Industrial Revolution was the advent of iron and glass construction — factory-produced materials with a potential for myriad creative applications. Artists and architects perceived the valuable opportunity such media presented, and looked to contemporary engineering as models. They began with the airy, skeletal forms of the greenhouse and train shed, and improvised. Trusses developed curvilinear webbing, and buttresses stretched outwards, seemingly warping beyond its limits. Columns sprouted wrought iron vines, tracing the elements of the roof’s structure. Rather than being simple applications, ornament became symbolically organic, derived and seemingly emerging from an object — as means to highlight its materials and construction.3 This was another facet of an all-encompassing artistic unity, and architects such as Horta and Endell implemented them deftly. Horta’s Maison du Peuple, demolished in 1965, was exemplary. Large expanses of glass, exposed wrought iron tracing the curving façade and internal balconies blur the perceived boundaries of interior and exterior.4 Structure became decoration, and decoration (seemingly) structure; both were entwined beyond separation. Function was also important with early Art Nouveau principles, but its gravity varied in each country. Some artists held the search for novel aesthetic to be of greater importance — to the point that utility was often disregarded.5 It was perhaps partially due to this philosophical variation and from those examples that Art Nouveau’s purely decorative reputation arose. But despite this, many participants of the movement were driven by the intent to create beautiful, useful objects. Members of the German Jugendstil were particularly strong advocates of functional design. The manifestations of function were not always well-accepted, however, in an era during which a lavishly furnished home reflected wealth. Belgian architect Henry van de Velde’s display at the Paris Exhibition, though effective, received considerable criticism from many of its visitors. Its design featured carefully planned spaces that flowed one into the other, and furniture that was integral with the walls.6 Though it demonstrated a beautifully designed, efficient use of space, the general public remained unconvinced that art need not be a mere accessory. For them, art was still detached from the utilitarian components of life — often contributing to the clutter of one’s home. Skepticism merely fueled the designers, as they strove towards the Wagnerian Gesamstkunstwerk. The concept — literally, “the total work of art” — suggested a harmonious environment in which the activity, tools, furniture, room, and building were integral. Artists believed this goal could be achieved through a unification of the arts. The first issue of Deutsche Kunst und Dekoration (1897) proclaimed “need of a complete integration of all artists, architects, sculptors, painters and technical artists. They all belong intimately together in the same place, each thinking individually, yet working together hand in hand for a larger whole.” 7 The statement echoes the same desire as the earlier Arts and Crafts… but it is also worth noting its similarity in wording and intent to the first Bauhaus manifesto. Certain motifs became vehicles for the functional, technological, and material intents of Art Nouveau. Although vegetation, sea creatures, and the lithe female form were prevalent subjects, the blatant eroticism that was later attached to the movement was not necessarily the primary feature. Artists looked to folk art, nature, and to specific historical periods for inspiration, which at first may seem somewhat contradictory behavior for a style that pronounced itself anti-historic and anti-eclectic. But such sources were strictly generative antecedents – foundations for a strongly sought abstraction that appealed to emotion. Successful pieces thus portrayed the world as it was felt as much as it was seen.8 Methods to achieve abstraction were revolutionary at the time — and often characterized the work of such design groups as the Bauhaus. Surface treatment, for instance, consisted of harmonic color palates, plays of solid and void, asymmetry and planar flattening. In using these techniques, artists discarded the favored practices of artistic realism that emerged from techniques of perspective, shading, and highlighting.9 Instead, bold use of lines was favored — prominent not only in the visual, but also the applied and architectural arts. Whether through direct connection or inferred relation, lines became a unifying element and an emblem in the all-consuming goal of integration, drawing objects together towards synthesis of an entire space.10 They appeared in two forms: one was a curvilinear, floral idiom, which was generally connoted with the style, and the other followed a more geometric, linear vocabulary, “which heralded the modern preoccupation with geometry.” 11 Art Nouveau came to describe both — as well as a hybrid of the two. In any form though, lines defined the voids, created the forms, and caused the asymmetry so important to the style of this movement. Some artists, such as Peter Behrens and Wassily Kandinsky, began their careers in Art Nouveau, and later participated in various modernist movements. Many of the techniques they learned from their initial attempts remained in employment in their later works. Consider Peter Behrens’ early woodcut, The Kiss, as an apt demonstration of Art Nouveau techniques. Bold colors flatten the space and distort one’s perceptions of the subjects — two androgynous lovers locked in a kiss. The swirling, miasma of the hair frames both the image and their faces, effectively joining the two elements together more intimately than their dispassionate gesture. Invoking the restless tension that drives the image, abstraction, asymmetry, color, and outline dominate the image, to the point that the subjects are subordinate. Such techniques stood in jarring contradiction to the meticulous realism of Beaux-Arts instruction — and completely reflected the path that art would follow for the remainder of the twentieth century. 1] Nikolaus Pevsner, The Sources of Modern Architecture and Design (London: Thames & Hudson, Ltd., 2] Paul Greenhalgh, “Revisiting the Style of Art Nouveau,” USA Today, September 2000: 43. 3] Peter Selz, ed. Art Nouveau: Art and Design at the Turn of the Century (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1975), 17. 4] Pevsner, 96. 5] Selz, 101. 6] Selz, 97. 7] Selz, 7. 8] Selz, 9. 9] Mieczysław Wallis, Secesja (Warsaw: Arkady, 1974), 159. 10] Roberta Waddell, The Art Nouveau Style in Jewelry, Metalwork, Glass, Ceramics, Textiles, Architecture, and Furniture (New York: Dover Publications, 1977), ix. 11] Frank Russell, ed. Art Nouveau Architecture (London: Rizzoli International Publications, 1979), 7.
With the end of World War I in November of 1918, Australians entered the new decade in a state of ambivalence about the past. Many were caught between feeling a great sense of loss for their brave men who had sacrificed their lives during the War, and a sense of pride for their nation which had, in the space of four years, developed a strong character that could stand proudly beside other nations of the world. Most people in Australian society did share the view that they were relieved to have made it through the War years and were looking forward to the future with optimism. Little did they know about the Depression which lay ahead. Events leading up to the 1930s Australia was a nation which had reached Federation less than two decades before the end of the War and had not developed any substantial military power or financial capacity. Yet, it had contributed a proportionately-large number of their resources to the War effort. Regardless of this, Australia's economy looked to be flourishing into the 1920s. It attracted the attention of many foreign investors and experienced growth from the high prices and the increasing demand for its exported primary products. However, the Australian government borrowed £275 million over ten years from 1919 to 1929, primarily from the British. Australia was second only to Germany in having the highest level of debt in the world. The money was spent on areas such as transport and the construction of the nation's capital, Canberra, with the belief that these would turn out to be long term investments. In particular, the Returned Servicemen's Settlement Scheme was established out of the idea that returned soldiers would receive land from which they could extract a source of income and simultaneously develop the agricultural industry, sealing Australia's future. The problem was that many of the returned servicemen did not have agricultural knowledge or experience. Often the plots were too small or infertile to support a profitable income. As a result, one third of the men left their farms and the debt was left to accumulate. All of these loans had to be repaid eventually. It was thought that the money from wool and wheat exports would compensate for this, however towards the middle of the 1920s the prices of primary produce began to decline and Australia was importing more than it was exporting. See image 1 Australia was not the only country which experienced a false sense of security after the War. The economy of the United States prospered after the War, and the country lent large sums of money to foreign nations during the 1920s. In particular, the prices of shares on the American stock market were reaching all time highs, as had the production of goods. The problem was that consumer demands dropped and uncertainty surrounding the stock market increased. This resulted in what was known as the 'crash of the New York stock market.' This in turn meant people losing most of their money, companies being faced with bankruptcy and the countries which had been financially dependent on the States being forced to repay their loans. With the world economy in decline, Australia was one of the nations which were being forced to repay what they had borrowed. This particularly included the large sums from Britain and the United States. The search for work The Depression was said to have officially commenced in 1929, with the downfall of the New York Stock Market in late October. However, unemployment figures in Australia reached their peak in 1932, with 29 percent of Australians being unemployed. The main problem with being unemployed in the 1930s was that there was tough competition to get a job or even find a vacant position, because nearly a third of the population was in the same predicament. It was a vicious circle in which employers could not afford to pay employees because not enough business was generated to pay for wages People, on the other hand, could not generate business because they could not find a job and as they were not earning any money, they had no money to spend. Many people could not afford extra expenses such as newspapers in order to look for work. Consequently, they walked for miles, hoping that if a job came up they could be the first to claim it. Men who lived in the city which was overflowing with unemployed people, often went 'on the track' which was where they walked, travelling around the countryside in the hope they could pick up some odd jobs, perhaps on farms. Some of these men needed to travel such great distances and as they had no money to do so, would 'jump the rattler,' otherwise known as hitching the freight trains, without paying a fare. The problem with this was that jumping on or off any fast moving vehicle is very difficult. Therefore it was not uncommon for men to receive injuries, or even be killed, while trying to hitch a lift on the trains. In addition to the danger of injury, was the danger of being caught by the vigilant railway inspectors and police. See image 2 For those who could find work, their standard of living was not necessarily any better. In 1933, 17 percent of people earned less than four dollars per week. Paid employees had to take pay cuts and also were forced to look after relatives who were unemployed. Every day was a struggle. Sometimes down on the wharves, tickets would be thrown into the air amongst a group of workers to determine who received the shift for the day. The man who was able to secure a ticket was offered a day's work. Alternatively, a few men were able to take part in the State government's 'work for the dole' scheme. This meant that they worked on public infrastructure such as improving the rail and roads, as well as building water towers and digging canals. However, the conditions were inadequate, they could be sent to remote areas and their dole payments could be cancelled if they turned down any work. The most demoralising factor was that for all of their hard work, they received an income which was below the basic wage. Ex-servicemen particularly found themselves experiencing hard times. Having made it through the War they were now faced with an even greater struggle in the homeland which they had fought to protect. Many of those who had taken up the government's Soldier Settlement Scheme gave up on their land and moved back to the city, feeling that they had nothing to show for their years of hard work. They felt as though they had failed themselves and their families, as they were unable to support them. To make it worse, psychological trauma still afflicted many of them. It has been suggested that 10 000 ex-servicemen were dying each year in the hard times of the 1930s. The effects in the country and city It was particularly working-class people who were most affected by this drastic period of unemployment in Australia. In the country, the working class comprised those who relied on their small businesses, especially farms, to support themselves and their family. Those who were farmers had already been experiencing hard times, with drought having hit them long before the Depression did. Those who struggled to repay their loans during the drought and had no chance to do so during the Depression often faced eviction. If the farmers could afford to continue to pay their farm payments then they could at least have their livestock or agricultural produce as food. Often these goods were traded or given to other people in the community who were not as fortunate. In fact, it was not perceived as a complete disgrace to steal another person's sheep from their farm to provide food for one's family during these difficult times. In the city, such an offence would be condemned because any kind of stock, even a fowl, was a rare commodity and people did not steal from someone whose life was equally tough. It has been suggested that so many men travelled to the country to find work because life in the cities was tougher than in the country during the Depression. Although there was no work available anywhere, there was at least food in the country. Many city people transformed their flower gardens into vegetable gardens in an attempt to provide some nutrition and some self-sufficiency. See image 3 In cities, peddlers and beggars became a common sight on the streets for the first time. They often went from door to door, trying to sell anything from shoe laces to their services which included cutting firewood and various household chores. They were often happy to be paid in money or food. See animation Home and health As a result of not being able to pay their rent, a large number of people were evicted from their homes during the Depression. It was recorded in Sydney in 1932 that over a period of twelve months, applications for evictions reached 5000. Many unemployed and homeless men in Sydney went to the iconic Mrs Macquarie's Chair (an area near today's Sydney Opera House), where they would huddle together underneath old newspapers to keep warm during the night. Many families joined large groups of people who had to live in what were called 'shanty towns.' These towns usually comprised a number of shelters on the outskirts of a town. The shelters were made from scrap materials which included corrugated iron, cardboard, planks of wood, and hessian bags. It was particularly the 'Happy Valley' community in Sydney's La Perouse which was the best-known. Here, as in most other 'shanty towns', they had no running water, the inhabitants having to collect it from 1.5 kilometres away. The struggling residents also had to endure inadequate food, usually living on bread and dripping, the fat from cooked meat. Some also joined long queues to be fed by soup kitchens. With a lack of nutrition and sanitation, the areas became rampant with diseases such as dysentery, scurvy and lice. See image 4 During this time, people turned to charities to assist them. The number of people needing help quickly began to exceed the resources of the charities. The government had to implement strategies which involved imposing a tax on the wages of those who were earning an income to offset the relief expenditures. It also introduced a form of sustenance payments which was referred to as the 'susso.' The dole was initially in the form of fortnightly rations, usually including bread, meat, tea, sugar, jam, condensed milk, butter, cheese and soap. For families, rations were increased in quantity and variety to include golden syrup, rice, potatoes, onions, prunes and oatmeal, as well as baby foods. Later on, the susso came in the form of food vouchers. The unemployed were then able to redeem them at selected stores and shops. No vouchers were ever issued for rent, electricity bills or clothing. By giving out vouchers rather than money, the government could ensure that they could only be used for food and not be wasted on alcohol, gambling and other temptations. While the vouchers offered at least some assistance to families, the scheme posed larger problems. To be able to receive these payments, people had to have not worked for 14 days and could not have any money or property except for the family home. This was a problem for many who were not earning nearly enough to support their families, yet were not able to receive the susso. Many unemployed men who needed the susso felt humiliated and ashamed. These men who had always been the hard-working wage earners of the family up until then had to line up and receive assistance in order to simply feed their families. With so much stress and pressure being placed on the men, particularly those with families, a number of them deserted their marriages and turned to alcohol and suicide. For most of them, however, their pride refused to be beaten. It was quite common to see these men presenting themselves as tidily as they possibly could while waiting for their unemployment payment. Children also felt the force of the Depression. Schools tried to assist students by feeding them and clothing them with what resources they had. Despite this, many children were forced to leave school prematurely so that they could find a job or look after the household, enabling their parents to look for work. Often children and youths, which included anyone under the age of 21, were paid a lower wage than adults which made them attractive to employers. However, once these youths turned 21 they were often immediately dismissed and replaced with younger employees.
OK, all you skeptics who say solar power sucks because all kinds of toxic materials go into the panels. Try this on for size: biophotovoltaics. Specifically, we’re talking about a new technique from a team led by MIT’s Andreas Mershin that could point the way toward using plant materials—even stuff like grass clippings—to make an inexpensive alternative to traditional solar panels. And not only would this plant-based solar be cheap, but it would be easy to manufacturer. As in, DIY easy. The researchers’ work here revolves around a complex of molecules known as photosystem-I (PS-I)—the tiny structures within plant cells that carry out photosynthesis. Makes sense, since photosynthesis is all about turning sunlight into energy. Several years ago, an MIT researcher named Shuguang Zhang had derived PS-I from plants, noodled with it, slapped it on a glass substrate, exposed it to light and produced an electric current. This was a great breakthrough, but it didn’t really go anywhere because the assembly and stabilization process—from the chemicals used to the lab equipment needed—was super-expensive and, anyway, it took a tremendous amount of light to get a minuscule bit of electric current. In the new research, MIT’s Mershin (pictured above) was guided to overcoming these problems by an insight from nature (not the first time we’ve seen that). Thinking about a pine forest, he “noticed that while most of the pines had bare trunks and a canopy of branches only at the very top, a few had small branches all the way down the length of the trunk, capturing any sunlight that trickled down from above,” MIT says in a report on the research. So Mershin “decided to create a microscopic forest on a chip, with PS-I coating his ‘trees’ from top to bottom.”
Can You Match This? Matching Games for Young Children Preschool matching games can help review learned information, provide practice in following directions and improve social skills. Here are suggestions of games you can use in the classroom, some at no cost to you! Make Your Own Use blank 4” X 6” index cards to prepare different matching games. Store the sets of cards in zippered plastic bags. - Upper and lower case letters - Pictures of opposite things - Beginning consonant and picture of something that starts with the letter - Photos of students and students’ first names - Numbers with same amount of objects One way to play: Preschoolers need to move! Count out the number of cards that you need so that each student will get a card. Make sure they all have matches, so, if you have twenty students, you will need 10 pairs of cards. Mix them up and place the cards face down on the floor. Remind students that they need to walk not run. Say “Go”. Students should take a card from the pile on the floor and go around the room to find the match. FOr example, if the student has the upper case “A,” the student needs to find the person with the lower case “a”. The matched pairs need to stand together until everyone has found a partner. Then the teacher walks around and checks them. Another way to play: Let’s say you are using the upper and lower case letter cards. Put the upper case letters in a separate pile for the teacher. Put the lower case letter cards in a large circle on the floor. Sing or play some music as the children parade around the circle. When the music stops, hold up a card. The student standing on the matching card is out unless they can name the letter. Individual, pairs or small groups You can use your matching card sets to play a memory game with a small group or individuals. Place about 12 cards face down and have one student turn over a card and try to find its match by turning over another card. If they don’t match, place the cards face down in the same place. The next student does the same thing. If the cards match, the student keeps the pair of cards. The one with the most cards wins. As an assessment tool, individual students can match all of the cards. Online Matching Games It is amazing to see all of the colorful, fun, and educational online matching games for preschool children. While learning a specific concept, they are also practicing mouse skills and how to follow directions. PBS Kids has an entire page filled with matching games. Many of the games have characters that are familiar to your preschooler such as Clifford and Curious George. Nick Jr. also has a wide variety of matching games featuring characters like Dora, Wow Wow Wubzie, and more. Buy Them at the Store There are many choices of matching games to buy at the store. The students will practice matching and learn social skills associated with playing games. Children are asked to match characters from the beloved Curious George books and television show. - I Never Forget a Face Memory Game by eeBoo This game provides multicultural faces to match. - Simple Puzzle Alphabet Letters & Numbers Pairs by eeBoo Match pictures with beginning letter sounds and numbers with dots. Also practices the fine motor skill of putting puzzle pieces together. What Goes Together Puzzle by Trend Great for thinking skills. Students are asked to match things that go together like a dog with a dog dish. Students will practice verbalization by explaining why two things go together. Matching Activity: Worksheets If you need an assessment to evaluate a student's progress with a certain type of matching, you can make your own worksheet specific to your needs. There are websites from which you can print matching worksheets as well. Matching a variety of objects or characters builds valuable thinking skills needed to succeed in education. Students match letters to sounds and sounds to words. They match numbers with an amount of objects. They match an object with what it is used for like a lock and a key. All of it is thinking. There are so many ways to build these skills. Play card games like Uno and Go Fish. Play dominoes. Preschool matching games make learning fun!
Speaking of Spheres (Day 1) Lesson 4 of 7 Objective: SWBAT develop the formula for the volume of a sphere, before apply it meaningfully. I start this lesson by telling the class that they will be watching a video demonstration of the relationship between the volume of a cylinder and that of a sphere. I say: At the end of the video I would like you to write one complete sentence to summarize your observations about this relationship. So, please watch closely. One very important thing: I show the video without audio. I don't what students to listen to the narrator: I give the class a couple of minutes to write their sentence and revise it. Once they have, I ask that they share their written responses with their elbow partner. I will then replay the video. Before I do, however, I allow some time to discuss points of disagreement as a class. I often like to record the different observations on the board for all to see. Then, before sharing my explanation, I show the video one more time. It probably won't be long before I hear "I told you" or "you see, I was right" from the students in the class, (see Be Aware of Put Downs reflection). I then call on volunteers to share their responses with the entire class. My experience is that after repeating the video, most students will see that the volume of the sphere volume is 2/3 of the volume of the cylinder. It is likely that we will work together to add more detail such as, "with the same height and the same diameter (or radius)." As students share there definitions I will ask out loud, "Is there any important information missing from Johnny's sentence?" Intervening in this way encourages careful proofreading and editing. And, it usually motivates a full and correct explanation from the class. I end this activity by writing on the board: V(sphere) = 2/3(pi)(r)(h) After watching the video twice, we'll take a stretching break. My students love it when I give them 60 seconds between activities to stretch their bodies or take a walk around the room. My students sometimes ask for the minute stretch themselves and I always give it to them. I know it helps their thinking, and I find it improves our student-teacher relationship. Now that students have watched the video and figured out the relationship between the volume of a sphere and its surrounding cylinder of equal height and diameter, I form small homogeneous groups of twos or threes, and I hand each student a Speaking of Spheres exploration sheet for cooperative work. The questions aim to help students work out the Sphere Volume formula for themselves. Once they understand the derivation of the formula, they apply it in a series of interesting and unusual problems. To make this work, I “give up the floor” to the students encouraging them to discuss and tune into each other’s opinions (see Assign a Monitor reflection) For Questions 1-3 I expect students to see that the height of the cylinder is 2r and substituting this for h in the equation 2/3(pi)r2h yields the sphere volume formula (See Exploration answer sheet). For Question #4 I want students to find the amount of water in the balloon using the sphere volume formula, but I make sure at least one student finds two thirds of the cylinder volume. I want to compare answers produced by these two different approaches at the end of the lesson. To close the lesson I divide the board into 5 sections, reunite the group, and ask volunteers to share their answers to one of the four exploration questions on the board. For the 5th section I ask a student who found the volume of the sphere in Question 4b by taking 2/3 of the volume of the cylinder. Students will see that the answers to 4a and 4 b are the same, confirming the volume relation. In this Homework assignment I have students re-visit our efforts to derive the sphere volume formula. Then, I have students apply the formula to ordinary problems where they are given the diameter or the volume of a sphere. The assignment is "short and sweet", simply returning to concepts and tasks similar to those seen in class.
Plates grow by pulling apart at the mid-ocean ridges and sinking back into the earth's interior at the tranches, mostly around the rim of the Pacific. As plates grow, they create strips of progressively older crust on either side of the ridge. We can determine the age of the ocean floor by drilling into it an retrieving samples, but mostly because newly formed crust is slightly magnetized by the earth's magnetic field, and we can compare the magnetism of the sea floor with the history of changes in the earth's magnetic field. On the colored diagrams, land is brown, and submerged continental crust is tan. The bluish gray area, labeled Submarine Volcanic Plateau, includes large areas of sea floor where thick accumulations of lava flows built up. This color also indicates areas where the exact age of the sea floor is uncertain. On these diagrams, pairs of parallel lines show boundaries where plates are spreading apart, and simple lines show all other types of boundary. The earth has two kinds of crust. The continents are mostly made of thick granite. When continents pull apart, the gap is filled by thin crust made of basalt. In plate tectonics, a continent is any piece of continental crust surrounded by oceanic crust or plate boundaries. New Zealand is a continent. Unlike most continents, most of New Zealand is submerged. Also, unlike Africa and South America, it does not fit neatly against Australia. The submerged northern portion, called the Lord Howe Rise, is actually a collection of smaller fragments that moved in a complex way so the present shape is not the original shape. The ocean floors show a remarkable degree of regularity. The crest of the mid-ocean ridges is at an average depth of 2700 meters, and the 3000 meter contour on the map reveals most of the crest. As newly formed ocean crust cools, it becomes denser and sinks, until it finally sinks to an average depth of 5500 meters. The broad deep areas about 5000-6000 meters below sea level are called abyssal plains and are the flattest areas on Earth. The very deepest parts of the ocean, up to 11 kilometers deep, make up a very tiny part of the sea floor. They are not out in the middle, like one might expect in a bowl. Instead they are long, narrow trenches close to a continent or island chain. The trenches mark convergent plate boundaries where oceanic crust sinks back into the earth's interior. The Pacific Plate is unusual in that it is almost entirely oceanic crust. Only in a few places like Baja California and southern New Zealand are small slivers of continental crust attached. The continents are moving away from the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and converging on the Pacific. Most of the Pacific is surrounded by subduction zones. Note how wide the age bands are in the Pacific. The Pacific, Nazca and Cocos Plates are among the fastest moving plates on Earth, moving at up to 15 centimeters per year. In general, the larger the portion of plate descending back into the earth, the faster the plate moves. This is good evidence that the weight of the descending plate helps pull the rest of the plate along. The mid-ocean ridge in the Pacific, the East Pacific Rise, is bounded on the east by the Cocos and Nazca Plates. When North America was further east, the East Pacific Rise extended all the way to Alaska and the Nazca, Cocos and Juan de Fuca Plates were a single large plate, which geologists call the Farallon Plate. About 30 million years ago North America came into direct contact with the Pacific Plate and the Juan de Fuca Plate was cut off from the rest of the Farallon Plate. Today only a small remnant of it remains. In addition to the large plates, significant small plates are labeled. Very small plates are not labeled. Created 10 August 2009, Last Update 14 December 2009 Not an official UW Green Bay site
Three important groups in the Phylum Mollusca (both fossil and extant organisms) are bivalves, gastropods and cephalopods. Bivalves evolved around 500 million years ago during the mid-Cambrian Period and species survive today. They were most common in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras i.e. from 251 million years ago until today. Many fossilised bivalves bear a close resemblance to living species which enables us to understand the lifestyle of those species that lived in the past. Bivalves are entirely aquatic. Most marine species living in shallow seas. Some species burrow into sediments, some cement themselves onto or bore into objects such as rocks and some are attached by threads. A few species can swim. The majority of bivalves have a shell comprised of two valves of equal size and shape (bilaterally symmetrical) with each valve the mirror image of the other. The hard shells enclose the soft body. A few species such as oysters do not, however, have symmetrical shells. The shells can be made of calcite or aragonite and have growth lines recording the history of growth. Usually the valves are closed by 2 main muscles and scars are often left on the inside of the shells after death showing where these muscles were attached. The fossil shells would have afforded protection against predation and helped to prevent the mollusc from dehydrating if it lived in the intertidal zone. Most bivalves are filter feeders. The presence of fossil bivalves in a rock will indicate that the rock was formed in either a marine, brackish or freshwater environment. Gryphaea - an extinct species of oyster Gryphaea, also known as "Devil's Toenail" lived from the Jurassic to Cretaceous Period (200 - 65 million years ago). The shell was composed of calcite and the animal would have lived on muddy sea-floors cemented to a rock. The shell shaped like a bowl was an adaptation to living in soft, fine-grained sediment. It was believed in Scotland during the 17th and 18th centuries that carrying one of these fossils would help prevent arthritis and rheumatism. Aquatic gastropods first evolved early in the Cambrian around 542 million years ago and during the last 65 million years have become the most common mollusc group as they are able to live in so many different habitats. There are around 105,000 living gastropod species and 15,000 fossil species have been found. In the Carboniferous Period (354-290 million years ago) gastropods began to inhabit freshwater environments and terrestrial snails may have evolved by late Carboniferous times from these freshwater species. In order to live on dry land snails evolved lungs to allow them to breathe out of water and aestivated(became dormant during hot, dry periods waking up when humidity was high and conditions were wetter). Although gastropods suffered some species loss during the mass extinction at the end of the Permian when 90% of marine organisms became extinct, they were not as badly affected as many other groups. Gastropods possess a muscular, flattened foot used for movement, eyes,tentacles and a radula composed of minute teeth for feeding. Most have a coiled or conical shells composed of calcite and/or aragonite but some species, slugs for example, have no shells. The majority of gastropods are marine living in shallow seas but many also live in freshwater environments such as rivers, lakes and ponds, and some species live on dry land. Helix astra - from the Pleistocene I should have added a coin for scale for this photo - the shell on the right is 4/5 inches long and the one on the left around 3 inches. I haven't been able to confirm the exact species of either fossil but I believe that the one on the right may be Bourgetia which lived in shallow water. Turitella imbricata. From the Eocene (55 - 36 million years ago. A sea snail species Cephalopods, such as ammonites and belemnites, were covered in an earlier posting. Losing My Balls 5 hours ago
page 1 of 2 In this chapter, Ruth describes the ominous presence of the Ku Klux Klan in the South, specifically in Suffolk. The palpable threat to both blacks and Jews spurred the beginning of Ruth's lifelong dislike of the South. She describes her older brother Sam, a sweet and somewhat timid boy who ran away from home at the age of fifteen, driven away by the tremendous burden of Tateh's expectations. Ruth recalls that her father's harshness with Sam exceeded even the stringency of his demands on Ruth and her sister Dee-Dee. Despite efforts on the part of Ruth and her mother to convince Sam to return home, Ruth never saw her brother again. Years later she learned that he had been killed after joining the army to fight in World War II. James gives an amusing and descriptive account of the chaotic atmosphere in his mother's household of twelve children. James and his siblings shared virtually all possessions and activities, which fostered competition as well as closeness. While James emphasizes his family's poverty, he also comments on its resourcefulness and vitality. His oldest brother, Dennis, served as a role model for all of the younger siblings. Everyone was held to the standard of Dennis's his good behavior and accomplishments. While Dennis kept private his own controversial activities in the Civil Rights Movement, James's sister Helen quit school, became a hippie, and rejected what she labeled the "white man's education." One night, after an explosive fight with her sister Rosetta, fifteen-year-old Helen ran away from home. While Ruth soon discovered that Helen was staying with her sister Jack, she could not convince Helen to come home. Helen then disappeared from Jack's, this time for months. When Ruth finally learned she had moved to a room in a bad neighborhood, she attempted once again to convince her to return home. Without a word, Helen refused to see her. In this chapter, Ruth discusses the hardships of being Jewish in the South during the first part of the twentieth century. Ruth endured constant ridicule at school and sought a way to escape her inferior status in Suffolk. She had difficulty making friends there, but she found one true childhood friend in Frances, a gentile girl who accepted Ruth's Jewish background. Ruth vividly portrays the devastating poverty that afflicted both white and black people in Suffolk. Ruth's discussion of her family life touches upon many larger themes of the book. Ruth's experiences with her family involve her Jewish faith. Orthodox Judaism requires adherence to highly codified behaviors in daily life and in one's attitudes toward family. Ruth resisted her father's many arranged meetings with young Jewish men interested in marrying her. Ruth's break with her family was solidified by this lack of interest in a Jewish marriage, along with her wish to escape the oppression of the mid-19th-century South and her father's sexual and psychological abuse. When Ruth left her family in Virginia, they sat shiva for her. In the Jewish faith, sitting shiva is a way of paying respects to the dead. Once the family has mourned the death of a family member, that family member cannot return to them. Ruth's crimes against her family were considered so egregious that they decided she was dead to them, and sat shiva for her to mourn her passing. Years after Ruth's separation from her family, she became desperate for money. Her first husband had died, and she lacked the resources necessary to raise eight children on her own. She contacted some members of her family, but no one would help her. Of all Ruth's problems with her family, this complete cutting of ties may be the most painful. Several of Ruth's family members follow this pattern of alienation and lack of communication. Her brother Sam left home at fifteen, never to return or speak to his family again. Ruth's own daughter Helen also leaves home at fifteen. Helen initially refuses to come home or discuss her sudden departure. However, Ruth's separation from her family differed from Helen's separation from her mother. While Ruth is irreversibly alienated from her Jewish family, Ruth does not cut off ties with her daughter, but repeatedly encourages her to come home. Ruth's father told her never to return, but Ruth plead with Helen to come back so they can talk through their differences. how was the writers grandparents married and why? 33 out of 87 people found this helpful Take a Study Break!
Lesson 1 (from Preface) The Scarlet Letter begins with a "preface to the second edition," which Hawthorne wrote in 1850. While it is mostly unrelated to the narrative itself, it is important for understanding Hawthorne's narration. The objective of this lesson to introduce the novel and begin to acquaint students with Hawthorne's unique and chatty style. 1. Close read, as a class, the first two sentences (down to "malevolence"). Ask students to focus on the narrative voice, as in, if you heard someone saying these words, who would that person be? Focus specifically on the issue of person: Why is Hawthorne referring to himself in the third person? What does that achieve? What is the purpose of using "the author" here? In addition, pay particular attention to the following phrase: "unprecedented excitement in the respectable community," and be sure that students start to read beneath his words and vaulted style... This section contains 11,290 words (approx. 38 pages at 300 words per page)
Executive Skills and Reading Comprehension The role of executive functioning in learning has been researched for many decades, and we now know that executive skills play important roles in literacy learning, and especially in successful reading comprehension. I recently finished a book by Kelly Cartwright, Executive Skills and Reading Comprehension: A Guide for Educators (2015, Guilford Press) that explores this connection in detail and provides suggestions for supporting students who have weak executive skills. “Children who have difficulties with reading comprehension, despite having age-appropriate word reading skills, have lower levels of executive skills than their peers with better comprehension. These discoveries are important for all educators because reading comprehension is the foundation for all other learning in school: students cannot understand, enjoy, or respond to literature without effective reading comprehension; likewise, students cannot gather new information from science, math, or social studies texts when they don’t understand what they read. (p.3)” What are executive function skills and how do they support reading comprehension? Cartwright suggests we think of the term executive skills as an umbrella term that refers to a set of mental tools we use to manage tasks and achieve goals, and that these skills can be grouped into three core areas: cognitive flexibility, working memory, and inhibition. Executive skills involve regulating one’s own thinking to achieve desired goals. Cartwright notes that “Executive skills emerge early in life and develop across childhood and beyond. Even in very young students, executive skills enable the self-control that is necessary to remember classroom routines, pay attention to a teacher’s direction, and inhibit inappropriate behaviors.” Here is a summary of how these core skills affect reading comprehension (p. 8-9): - Cognitive Flexibility: is the ability to shift attention from one activity to another or to actively switch back and forth between important components of a task. When reading, skilled comprehenders actively shift focus between many things, such as word and text meanings, letter-sound information, and syntactic (sentence grammar) information. - Working Memory: is the capacity for holding information in mind while working with part of that information. When building text meaning, a good comprehender must keep in mind the various text ideas presented, note the causal links between them, and update the meaning as he encounters new ideas in text. - Inhibition: is the ability to resist engaging in a habitual response as well as the ability to ignore distracting information – i.e., to think before acting. Good comprehenders must inhibit activation of inappropriate word meanings or irrelevant connections to ideas encountered in texts. Cartwright also addresses additional, more complex executive skills: - Planning: involves setting and working toward a goal - Organizing: involves ordering and sequencing information or subtasks in ways that support a common goal You cannot reach a goal without a plan, and you can do so most effectively if you are aware of the steps you need to take, in the proper order, to ensure that your goal is met. These two skills work hand-in-hand to support reading comprehension. Good readers begin with a plan and goals to understand and they organize their approach to reading. In addition, Cartwright points out that the level of a student’s executive skills will also affect his motivational or social-emotional processes – i.e., differences in students’ executive skills will be reflected in both their cognitive and social-emotional ability. For example: - Students with strong executive functioning ability are able to effectively manage and control their own behavior, regulate thinking and learning, regulate their emotional processes, have peer relations, and have strong emotional processes. - Students who are impulsive and emotionally reactive have difficulty controlling their own behavior, interacting with peers, sticking to classroom routines, focusing on task, and ignoring irrelevant information. Here are some of the chapters in Cartwright’s book: - Plans and Goals: Getting Ready to Read - Organization: Why Text and Reader Organization Matter - Cognitive Flexibility: Juggling Multiple Aspects of Reading - Working Memory: Holding and Linking Ideas in Mind While Reading - Inhibition and Impulse Control: Resisting Distractions to Support Comprehension - Social Understanding: The importance of Mind Reading for Reading Comprehension Other Resources Related to Executive Functioning and Reading If you are interested in this topic, I highly recommend you review the work of my long-time colleague, Lynn Meltzer at The Research Institute for Learning and Development. Her book Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom (2010, Guilford Press) provides very useful suggestions for understanding and assessing executive function processes and creating a classroom wide executive function culture that fosters strategy use for reading. Meltzer has chapters on goal setting, planning, organizing, remembering, flexible problem solving, self-monitoring, and emotional self-regulation. Meltzer and her colleagues have also developed the SMARTS Executive Function curriculum designed to help middle and high school students who have weak executive skills. Here are a few other sources to learn more about the connection between executive skills and reading comprehension: - Why Executive Function is a Vital Stepping-Stone For Kids’ Ability to Learn: blog article at KQED News - The Reading Brain: Executive Function Hard at Work: article at LDA of America website - 5 Ways Executive Functioning Issues Can Impact Reading: article at the Understood for Learning and Attention website
The year 1763 was a pivotal year in the formation of our American Republic. It was 250 years ago today that the peace treaty was signed between Great Britain, France, and Spain which ended the Seven-Years War or better known in North America as the French and Indian War. This treaty not only changed the landscape of North America but set in motion the events that would lead to American Independence. Why is this war and the ending of this war so important in the history of our American Revolution? How is it that we can look back to the events of the French and Indian War and its aftermath and see the wheels of revolution start to turn? It has a lot to do with what had been happening in the colonies over the last century and what changed with how England dealt with the colonies afterward. "It would be a mistake to overstate the independence of families from the social milieu, both local and regional." (Lemon, Colonial American in the Eighteenth Century, "Colonization: 1490s-1770s", p.131) Since the first settlers landed in the New World there was no assistance from the mother country, they were left to fend for themselves, they had to work together with the people around them, and rely on each other physically, socially, and politically. Even the Mayflower Compact, our peoples' first governing document speaks to their independent nature, and although they give recognition to the King of England their laws and governance were to be left to their own accord. "In the Presence of God and one another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil Body Politick, for our better Ordering and Preservation, and Furtherance of the Ends aforesaid: And by Virtue hereof do enact, constitute, and frame, such just and equal Laws, Ordinances, Acts, Constitutions, and Officers, from time to time, as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general Good of the Colony; unto which we promise all due Submission and Obedience."The basic colonial government started at the top with a Governor appointed by the British Crown, from there you had his council and then the elected Assembly. As the population grew and the economy expanded the power of the elected Assembly grew as well. The colonists would drink to the King of England but with him and his army far away to enforce their will there was a major disconnect in what it meant to be a British citizen and a colonist. With those sentiments the Governors had trouble administering their authority or implementing British laws without the cooperation of the colonists. "By the mid 1700s American political ideas became apart of a "great tradition of the eighteenth-century commonwealthmen, the radical Whig ideology that arose from a series of upheavals in seventeenth-century England - the Civil War, the exclusion crisis of 1679-81, and the Glorious Revolution of 1688." (Middlekauff, The Glorious Cause, p.51) All these factors led to a citizenry who were accustomed to self-government. Each colony elected officials who would levy taxes, create colonial budgets, and maintain order. To all of the sudden be forced to take orders from the British Parliament and Crown on matters that for over a century they had controlled for themselves was a difficult pill to swallow. It is true they always considered themselves loyal British subjects but this was not England and the rules were different, they had been since the Pilgrims first landed here to settle. However by the mid-1700s the British Government failed to see it the same way and wanted to implement their will upon the people. As the French and Indian War commenced in the mid 1750s the separation between the colonies and the mother country was evident. Written sometime in the 1820s by William Wells, grandson to Samuel Adams, he spoke of the events before and during the French and Indian War stating, "The events of the war, and the government mismanagement (since the first colonists came here)... prepared the people for the struggle which was to rend the colonies from the mother country. The press commenced the discussion of popular rights, and no doubt many speculative minds calculated the probable fate of America at some future date as a separate sovereignty." (Carr, Seeds of Discontent, p.315) Clearly the path to creating a new nation was being paved since the first settlers landed here in the late sixteenth century however it took something major to push them over the edge. As the British started to maintain a standing army in the colonies for the first time ever, limit the expansion west (which was one of the key purposes in fighting in the French and Indian War as far as nearly all the colonists were concerned), and begin direct taxes that the colonists had never seen before or approved it becomes quite evident that the colonists were getting pushed closer to that edge. As we will examine in the coming years one decision after another by the British, forced the American colonists to rise up and stand against injustice, eventually getting to the realization that their destiny would be to create a new "Nation, under God, Indivisible, with Liberty and Justice for All."
\|Date(s):\|\|September 3, 1825\| \|Course:\|\|“The United States: The Nation Divided, 1836-1876,” Wheaton College\| \|Rating:\|\|5 (5 votes)\| In 1825, Christian groups and colonization societies in America advocated for freed African Americans to colonize land in Liberia as an alternative to emancipate slaves in America. Religious groups expressed their sentiments in publication including the Christian Register, which published an article in an issued dated September 3, 1825. The article argued for the transportation of slaves to their homeland in Liberia because it would be beneficial to the discriminated African American race for a plethora of reasons. The publication argued slaves would regain freedoms denied to them in America as well as allow them to establish their own government the way they desired. Freed slaves would be allowed to cultivate the land of Liberia by utilizing certain technology the United States would introduce to the country. Colonization societies believed light American presence would allow former slaves to excel in the agricultural, economic and political realms of their society because freed slaves in Liberia would have ties with one of the most technologically advanced nations of the era. The Christian Register boldly emphasized the emancipation of enslaved peoples as morally correct, and a resolution was desperately needed to appease slaveholders and abolitionists alike. Sending slaves to Liberia seemed to offer the best mode of compromise. The issue of whether the emancipation of enslaved African Americans was necessary during the nineteenth century played a crucial role in the development of beliefs in certain groups, such as the American Colonization Society and the Pennsylvania Colonization Society. The American Colonization Society, the Pennsylvania Colonization Society, and the Christian Register advocated that the sending of freed slaves would be beneficial to enslaved African Americans. However, after reanalyzing the efforts of pro-colonization societies and publication, historians of the 21st century have come to understand that colonization was in response to the threat of freed African Americans if emancipation legislation was passed in the United States. Abolitionists offered information, which discredited the efforts of colonization societies by arguing reports from Liberia were deplorable. Slaves were rarely sent to their homeland and conditions in Liberia were treacherous. There was no possible way freed slaves could colonize Liberia the way pro-colonization supports had argued they could in the nineteenth century. Abolitionists were capable of discrediting the ideologies of colonization societies because it was based on the belief of negrophobia. In fear of how African Americans would respond if they were finally emancipated from slavery, colonization societies believed by sending them to Liberia, they would not have to deal with the potential hazardous outcomes of emancipation.
ESL Teacher Talk Children vs. Adults in the ESL Classroom Who's going to pick up English faster - children or adults? Conventional wisdom has it that children are going to pick up the language faster (this is known as the "critical period hypothesis"). The theory is that their brains are more adaptable and that their cortex is more plastic than that of adult learners. Meanwhile, adults are already set in their ways, their brains long frozen into position (this is known as the "frozen brain hypothesis"). This thinking is reinforced by a common scenario: children forced to translate for their immigrant parents because their parent's English is so poor. Even if the parents do speak English, they typically have a heavier accent than their children. Research has shown that the frozen brain hypothesis is a myth. Adult learners' brains are not on ice after all. In fact, studies have shown that teenagers and adults are actually more successful than children in the classroom in picking up a second language. So why does the stereotype of the "slow adult learner" persist? According to Barry McLaughlin, a Psychology Professor at the University of California, Santa Cruz, there are a few reasons: - Children in general communicate on a much more basic level than adults. Their sentences are shorter and simpler. Their vocabulary is simpler. Therefore, in order to appear proficient, the bar is much lower for children than it is for adults. - Children generally have both more incentive and more opportunity to speak English than their immigrant parents. At school, children need to interact with teachers and fellow students in English. Their parents can often shelter themselves by taking jobs that require little or no English proficiency and by surrounding themselves with friends and relatives who speak their native language. - Children may be more adept than adults in general at losing their foreign accents, so they may come across as more fluent. Pronunciation involves patterns in the brain that become established in the brain over time. With age, it may become more difficult to change the neurological pathways forged by the learner's native tongue. However, Professor McLaughlin points out that with new technologies, such as computer-assisted learning, teachers can likely address this issue with adults and help them "do better at acquiring a native-like accent in the second language."
8th grade U.S history posted by Anonymous . 1. Compare and contrast the cultures of two native tribes. Tell what you did to communicate the United States' sovereignty in the region to two different tribes. 2. Name two tribes that you think would enter into exclusive fur trade with the United States. What evidence makes you think they are willing to have friendly relations? 3. Name two tribes that you think will resist entering into exclusive fur trade with the United States. What evidence makes you think they are unwilling to have friendly relations? The Indians has to be from the Lewis and Clark Expedition How would you like us to help you with this assignment? to answer the questions I see the word "you" five times in these questions. Your teacher is expecting YOU to answer them. Jiskha tutors help students -- but we do not do entire homework assignments. Thanks for the compliment. who was the 25th president
Questions: Section 8 - Who contributed to the success of the homestead? - Name some items that usually needed to be purchased during the first years on a homestead claim. - What did early homesteaders gather to sell for $8 to $12 a ton? - Who was generally in charge of milking cows and raising poultry? How often did cows need to be milked? - What did women make out of lye, animal fat, and rain water? - What household tasks did bachelors learn to do themselves? - Name some jobs often held by single women. - Name some of the earliest chores given to children. Critical Thinking Questions - Imagine you were a pioneer child on a homestead. Describe how your life would be different from what it is today. Remember the expectations of a 10-year-old child. - If you were a pioneer child, would you rather live on a homestead or in town? Explain.
Making a weather forecast that turns out to be accurate is very rewarding for a meteorologist, but at the same time, a forecast that ends up way off the mark can be very frustrating. While weather forecasting has improved by leaps and bounds in the past several decades, there are still limitations to how accurately we can predict the weather. Creating a forecast boils down to figuring out the movement of air currents in the atmosphere. Sounds simple enough, right? But consider that we need to know not only how the air moves horizontally, but vertically as well, since the atmosphere is three-dimensional. To make a precipitation forecast, we basically need to know 1) where the air is rising, 2) if there is enough moisture in the air, and 3) how these two factors will change over time from the surface through about 7 miles up in the atmosphere. If we are going to make a prediction for the next three or four days, we need to know what these ingredients and air currents are doing over the entire North American continent. For a seven day forecast, we need to know what they are doing over the entire northern hemisphere! To help us evaluate these ingredients, we use computer forecast models. A model is a computer algorithm that predicts the weather in three dimensions by using mathematical laws that govern how the atmosphere works. The computer takes input of the current observed conditions from satellite, radar, surface and upper air observations, then uses equations to project how these conditions will change in the future. There are a number of factors that limit what the computer models can do, and how accurate they can be. First, the equations that govern how the atmosphere works make assumptions and estimations, which introduce errors. We have to make these assumptions because we don't completely understand how the atmosphere works. The farther out in time the computer model predicts, the less accurate it will be, because the errors continue to compound on one another as the forecast gets farther away from the initial observed conditions. This is why two computer models can predict two very different weather patterns - different models use different sets of equations, and thus their errors are different. Looking at different models is an important part of making a forecast. When models are in agreement, we have higher confidence that what they're telling us is accurate, but if they are different, we have to decide which one is closer to the truth. Another limitation is computing power. While there have been tremendous improvements to this in the past several years, it still isn't perfect. Ideally, we want to have a high resolution model (one with a lot of detail), but also one that covers a large area, and one that can predict as far out in time as possible. If we could have all of these factors like we wanted them, it would take a computer days to finishing crunching the numbers to give us a forecast! So we have to compromise by using models that cover a smaller area, or are lower resolution, or don't predict as far out in time. These compromises can reduce a model's accuracy. We are also limited by how much data can go into the model from observations, as more input will also slow the model down. We can't sample the atmosphere over every single cubic inch of the earth and miles up into the atmosphere. So the data going into the models are also limited. Increasing the amount of data and the computing power can increase accuracy, but it also costs a lot of money (computer models in the U.S. are run and funded by the government). So how do meteorologists overcome these problems with the models? We use our experience. Humans are better are recognizing a pattern and recalling similar conditions that occurred in the past with the same pattern than a computer. We can add value to a computer forecast by using our experience to determine when the computer model might be leading us down the wrong path. From experience, we learn the patterns in which one model might be able to perform better than another. It takes training and experience to properly interpret what the computer models are telling us. We learn how the models work, what their limitations are, and when they can or cannot be trusted to make a good prediction. Of course, humans are prone to errors as well, so we'll never be able to be 100% accurate 100% of the time. And since all meteorologists have different experiences, meteorologists will often make different forecasts. We make our best estimate based on our training, experience, and available data. Most of the time, we can get pretty close, and like horseshoes and hand grenades, close can often be good enough in meteorology.
The Medici were a prominent family that produced four popes and two French queens. They controlled the Italian city-state of Florence from 1434 to 1737 and were among the most wealthy and powerful families of Europe during the Renaissance. Florence has been a prosperous city in the Tuscany region of central Italy for centuries. After the fall of the Roman Empire in the west, a number of prominent families took control of the city and often fought wars among themselves. In the 15th century, the leading families of Florence decided they needed a strong person in charge to take charge of their city. They chose Cosimo de Medici to take control of the government. The Medici had been a prominent family in the region for centuries. Their name suggests a relationship with medicine; perhaps an ancestor might have been a doctor. The later Medici were shrewd businessmen whose Medici Bank was the largest and most respected financial institution of the Renaissance. When Cosimo took control of the city, he maintained the appearance of republican government by appointing relatives and people he could control to important positions. And sure enough, when Cosimo died after thirty years in power, his son and grandson continued his policies. Cosimo’s grandson, Lorenzo, was not only a shrewd banker and clever politician; he was also a scholar and a poet. Under Lorenzo’s leadership, Florence became one of the most beautiful and prosperous cities on the Italian peninsula, as well as a center of the Renaissance. The Medici were patrons who funded artists and scientists. Lorenzo was a patron of Leonardo di Vinci. Galileo Galilei tutored several generations of Medici, though the family withdrew their financial support for the scientist when the church charged Galileo with heresy. The last Medici ruler died without an heir in 1737. Florence came under Austrian and later French control for more than a century. In 1861, the Florence briefly became the capital of the newly unified kingdom of Italy. A portrait of Cosimo de' Medici by Agnolo Bronzino Florence and the Italian Language In 1861, the newly united Italian government began a national literacy program to unify a kingdom with many languages and dialects. Even the King, Victor Emmanuel, spoke either French, or Piedmont, a dialect of Italian spoken in northwest Italy. They declared the Tuscan dialect spoken in Florence—not the Latin dialect spoken in Rome—to be Italian, the national language of the Italy. A portrait of Lorenzo de' Medici by Agnolo Bronzino
The Vikings were seafaring north Germanic people who raided, traded, explored, and settled in wide areas of Europe, Asia, and the North Atlantic islands from the late 8th to the mid-11th centuries. The Vikings employed wooden longships with wide, shallow-draft hulls, allowing navigation in rough seas or in shallow river waters. The ships could be landed on beaches, and their light weight enabled them to be hauled over portages. These versatile ships allowed the Vikings to travel as far east as Constantinople and the Volga River in Russia, as far west as Iceland, Greenland, and Newfoundland, and as far south as Nekor. This period of Viking expansion, known as the Viking Age, constitutes an important element of the medieval history of Scandinavia, Great Britain, Ireland, Russia, and the rest of Europe. According to this passage, which of the following is NOT an advantage of longships? \|They could hold many Viking warriors.\| \|They could navigate in both seas and rivers.\| \|They could be landed on beaches.\| \|They were light in weight.\|
Flowering plants keep the world cooler and wetter than it would be otherwise. Flower-powered rainfall. I'm Bob Hirshon and this is Science Update. Without flowers, the world would be a little more drab. It would also be a lot drier and hotter, according to University of Chicago paleontologist Kevin Boyce. He explains that the leaves of flowering plants have a much higher vein density than any other plants, past or present. And that matters because in order to take in carbon dioxide, they have to be able to lose the water. And the more veins they have, the more water they're capable of losing. That water comes out through the leaves, evaporates, and eventually returns as rain. Using climate models, Boyce and his colleague Jung-Eun Lee showed that just replacing flowering plants with non-flowering types would dramatically decrease rainfall around the world. It's a step toward learning how flowering plants shaped today's climate. I'm Bob Hirshon, for AAAS, the science society. Making Sense of the Research Even little kids understand that rain helps flowers grow. But this study suggests that the reverse is also true: that flowering plants increase rainfall throughout the world. Flowering plants (a division of the plant kingdom known as angiosperms) dominate most of the world's ecosystems today, but this wasn't always the case. In fact, flowering plants first appeared on the Earth about 120 million years ago, well into the reign of the dinosaurs. No other type of plant in Earth's history had anywhere near the vein density of these new flowering species. Within about 20 million years, flowering plants had become the world's most prevalent and diverse plant type. Flowering plants had some key advantages over their competition. The flowers themselves, which are the plant's reproductive organs, allowed them to disperse themselves much more efficiently. Their high vein density also allowed them to make their own food, through photosynthesis, very efficiently. That's because photosynthesis requires the loss of water, which happens through transpiration—the release of water vapor through small pores in their leaves. (Think of it as plant sweat.) The more veins a plant has, the more water it can lose. As flowering plants thrived and spread, they pumped more and more water vapor into the atmosphere through transpiration. This affected the climate in far-reaching and complex ways, but the most basic result was that the world became wetter. The researchers here used a sophisticated climate model to compare what the world would be like today if only one variable were changed: that all the flowering plants were replaced, one-for-one, with non-flowering plants. Among the findings: tropical rainforests would be 80 percent smaller than they are today, and the American Northeast would get 40 percent less rainfall. The effects of flowering plants were strongest in the tropics, but their influence could be seen just about everywhere. The findings suggest that our climate depends on flowering plants to function. Not only that, flowering plants may have helped themselves out by increasing rainfall, which helps still more flowering plants to grow. The diversity of the world's plant and animal species also owes a lot to flowering plants, since they made the climate more hospitable for a greater variety of living creatures. Unfortunately, we may be turning back the clock: recent research suggests that deforestation has reduced rainfall in many parts of the world, and that clear-cutting one area can alter the climate thousands of miles away. Now try and answer these questions: - What's the key difference between flowering plants and non-flowering plants that's relevant to this research? - How does that difference affect rainfall? - When humans clear-cut wild forests, we sometimes do so to create farmland. Farm crops generally consist of flowering plants. Yet, the farm crops are not as diverse, or densely populated, as the plants in the wild forest. Would this also affect rainfall, based on the study's findings? - In what ways might flowering plants have helped other species emerge and thrive?
5. Darwin's Finch Discoveries The Galapagos Islands comprise an archipelago of 13 major and about a hundred smaller islands in the Pacific Ocean, off the coast of South America’s Ecuador. It was a study of the biodiversity of the species of these islands that gave rise to the famous scientific theory of evolution through natural selection by Charles Darwin. On December 27, 1831, Darwin set out on an expedition aboard the HMS Beagle with the ship’s captain and his companion, Robert Fitz Roy, to explore the seas, islands and coasts of South America and record the geological, biological and geographical findings of the journey. When Darwin arrived on the Galapagos Islands, he started collecting specimens from the islands, many of them being birds of different varieties which were sent back to England for further study. On the island, Darwin, not a professional ornithologist by profession, concentrated more on studying the geology of the place and the island invertebrates. After he went back to England, Darwin decided to present his collected specimens of mammals and birds before the Zoological Society. It was then that the expert ornithologist, John Gould, explained that the birds Darwin thought were a collection of black birds, wrens, gros-beaks and finches, were in fact, a collection of a number of species of finches. This fact surprised Darwin and led him to study these birds extensively which gave rise to his world-renowned natural selection theory. The finches thus discovered were then known as “Darwin’s finches”. 4. The 15 Finch Species Darwin’s finches are a collection of 15 different species of finches, all of them belonging to the Passeriformes order and tanager family. Each of these bird species have a different food habit and lifestyle that has led to the evolution of different beak shapes and sizes. The body size of these mostly dull colored birds range between 10 and 20 centimeters, and they weigh around 8 to 38 grams. The warbler finches are the smallest of the Darwin’s finches, while the vegetarian finch is the largest among this group of birds. All of Darwin’s finches are native to the Galapagos Islands except for one, the Cocos finch which is found in the nearby Cocos Island in the east Pacific Ocean. The islands experience a warm, tropical climate during the summer months of December to May when the average temperature is around 25° Celsius, days are sunny and rainfall is infrequent but heavy. During the winter months of June to December, the sea temperature is around 22° Celsius and the weather remains foggy with drizzles lasting almost the entire day. The temperature also drops with altitude in the higher elevations. The vegetation of the islands includes lush green tropical forests over large areas and arid and semi-arid vegetation in the lowlands. 2. Research Role The Darwin’s finches helped Charles Darwin derive his theories on evolution and natural selection. He proposed that all of the species of the finches on the island of Galapagos were the descendants of a single species that arrived from mainland South and Central America and underwent adaptive radiation into different species. These birds occupied varying niche on the islands, had distinct distinct dietary habits and lifestyles that led to the evolution of different beak patterns and other features of these birds suited to their habitat. Darwin proposed that what happens to the finches happens to all species in nature and this ultimately led to the revolutionary theory of human evolution from the apes that though widely accepted today, created a discrepancy in Darwin’s time. More recent research in 2004 has revealed the gene responsible for the variation in beak morphology of Darwin’s finches to be the bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4). 1. Avian Conservation Though the Galapagos Islands is itself affected by climate change and global warming, the finches on the island face an even greater threat from a parasite that is killing their young in large numbers. A species of nest fly lays parasitic larvae in the eggs and nestlings of these birds which grows inside the young ones and attack them, leading to their death. If human intervention does not take place, there is every chance that these birds might disappear within a span of 50 years. Scientists have devised out various plans to eliminate the pests from infecting the birds. One way to do this is by supplying cotton balls sprayed with chemicals for the birds to incorporate in their nests which would eliminate the parasites. The other is the introduction of wasps on the island that would destroy the fly larvae.
echo sounder(redirected from Echo-sounding) Also found in: Dictionary, Thesaurus. echo sounder,an older instrumentation system for indirectly determining ocean floor depth. Echo sounding is based on the principle that water is an excellent medium for the transmission of sound waves and that a sound pulse will bounce off a reflecting layer, returning to its source as an echo. The time interval between the initiation of a sound pulse and echo returned from the bottom can be used to determine the depth of the bottom. An echo-sounding system consists of a transmitter, a receiver that picks up the reflected echo, electronic timing and amplification equipment, and an indicator or graphic recorder. The first patent for an echo-sounding device was granted in 1907. The Fathometer, a registered trademark often loosely applied to all depth-sounding gear, was developed (1914) as a result of research by the Canadian engineer R. A. Fessenden in the application of echo-sounding principles to iceberg detection. Application of echo-sounding principles to submarine detection during World War II resulted in the development of equipment to sound all ocean depths. In 1954 an advanced, highly accurate echo sounder called the precision depth recorder (PDR) was developed. By the early 1960s, the U.S. Navy used the new technique of Sonar Array Survey System (SASS). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has recently used an unclassified version of SASS, Sea Beam, to map more detailed representations of the seafloor. Sea Beam employs an array of sound transducers across the hull of the survey vessel which radiate sound in a swathe, thereby allowing a wide region of the seafloor to be mapped. This type of swathe-mapping technology is now the norm for seafloor mapping. Another sonar instrument called SeaMARC uses a torpedo-shaped "fish" to measure the strength of sound signals, rather than the elapsed time of the returning signals, and covers larger areas of the ocean floor. echo sounder[′ek·ō ‚sau̇nd·ər] a navigation and position-finding device that determines depth by measuring the time taken for a pulse of high-frequency sound to reach the sea bed or a submerged object and for the echo to return
It vanished into thin air. Around 90 per cent of the Red Planet’s atmosphere was probably lost to space over just a few hundred million years, according to a key measurement from NASA’s Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) spacecraft. Today Mars is a freezing, arid desert with an atmosphere 1 per cent as dense as Earth’s and its water mostly locked up in polar ice caps. But most planetary scientists think it was not always so. Certain Mars soils contain minerals that on Earth are produced in the presence of water, and some Martian features seem to point towards ancient lakebeds and even fast-flowing rivers. To have retained this liquid water, the planet’s carbon dioxide-dominated atmosphere must once have been much thicker to limit surface evaporation. MAVEN has been orbiting Mars since 2014 on a quest to find out where all that CO2 went. It could have gone into the ice caps, into the rocks as carbonate minerals or it could have been lost to space.
What : To detect gravitational waves When : February 12,2016 After four months of analysis, a consortium of scientists— including from India — confirmed Thursday that they had detected a signal from space from 1.3 billion years ago. The signal, which travelled as a gravitational wave was from the fusion of two black holes into a single one — the first time ever that such a phenomenon was observed — and registered as a “çhirp’’ at two highly sensitive detectors, called the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO) located in Washington and Louisiana. Scientists say that this detection is as momentous as Galileo, 400 years ago. first using the telescope and getting a glimpse of what several celestial objects looked like magnified. “This is the first time that the universe has spoken to us in the language of gravitational waves,” said David Reitze, Executive Director of the LIGO Project. The discovery is proof that researchers, through gravitational waves, can now observe a new class of astronomical phenomena just as observing x-ray signals from space brought alive pulsar, neutron stars and a host of other unprecedented celestial objects. Though the detectors were American, Indian scientists have contributed significantly in terms of designing algorithms that were used to analyse the signals registered by the detector and be sure that it was indeed from a gravitational wave. Indians have also made, three decades ago, theoretical contributions to understand how such black holes may collide into each other. “It is an extremely significant find and Nobel worthy,”” said Bala Iyer, a theoretical physicist and among the leaders of the Indian consortium that contributed to the find. Immediately after the confirmation of the waves were formally announced, Prime Minister Narendra Modi tweeted his congratulations and announced approval for a project to have a gravitational-wave detector in India, a project that has been on the anvil for several years. Gravitational waves are the last, unobserved prediction from Albert Einstein’s iconic general relativity equations that were developed 100 years ago. These equations are the reason space and time — in the eyes of contemporary science — are seen as malleable shape-shifting entities rather than fixed and eternal, as our senses suggest to us. Black holes, which result when stars die, can collide with each other and sometimes birth new universes. These collisions are so violent that they can distort space and time around it, just as dropping a heavy ball on a tarpaulin sheet can massively wrinkle it. These wrinkles propagate, as gravitational waves through space-time but are extremely hard to detect. The LIGO detectors built between 2002-2010 to spot these waves but to no avail. Last year, both detectors got a $200 million upgrade, so much so, that they were renamed advance-LIGO. Research and analysis of data from the detectors is carried out by a global group of scientists, including the LIGO Scientific Collaboration (LSC), which includes several Indian scientists. The detectors are made to be extremely sensitive to the slightest of vibrations and that makes it a technical challenge to be sure that these detectors have caught a gravitational wave and not a, say the rumble of a passing truck. THe black holes that were detected were roughly 25 to 30 times the mass of the sun and squeezed into a diameter of 150 kms. Their collision was after they swirled into each other at half the speed of light releasing the gargantuan shockwaves. - What are gravitational waves?Gravitational waves are small ripples in space-time that are believed to travel across the universe at the speed of light. They are like tiny waves on a lake — from far away, the lake’s surface looks glassy smooth; only up very close can the details of the surface be seen. They were predicted to exist by Albert Einstein in 1916 as a consequence of his General Theory of Relativity. - What does Einstein say about gravity?While Sir Isaac Newton visualised gravitational force as a pulling force between objects, Albert Einstein opined it to be a pushing force due to the curvature of four dimensional spacetime fabric. The curvature of spacetime stems from the dent heavy objects produce on spacetime fabric, which can be compared to the dent one could see on a plastic sheet when a massive ball is placed. - How are these waves detected?Scientists have been trying to detect them using two large laser instruments in the United States, known together as the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO), as well as another in Italy.The twin LIGO installations are located roughly 3,000 km apart in Livingston, Louisiana, and Hanford, Washington. Having two detectors is a way to sift out terrestrial rumblings, such as traffic and earthquakes, from the faint ripples of space itself.The LIGO work is funded by the National Science Foundation, an independent agency of the U.S. government. - Why is the study of gravitational waves important?Discovery of gravitational waves would represent a scientific landmark, opening the door to an entirely new way to observe the cosmos and unlock secrets about the early universe and mysterious objects like black holes and neutron stars. - Did scientists ever detect gravitational waves?Although, physics supports the existence of gravitational waves, the strength of such waves even due to astronomically heavy bodies is awfully weak to be detected.On March 17, 2014, Harvard-Smithsonian Centre for Astrophysics erroneously claimed discovery of gravitational waves. The Harvard group, working at BICEP2 (Background Imaging of Cosmic Extragalactic Polarisation) telescope, had reported that they had observed a twist in the polarisation of ancient light that goes back to the time of the big bang. But within a month, studies pointed out flaws in the study.
It took nine months to reproduce our galaxy, but it was well worth the effort! Researchers at the University of California, Santa Cruz and the Institute for Theoretical Physics in Zurich created this stunning reconstruction of the Milky Way galaxy by running a simulation on a supercomputer for nine long months. The result is not only beautiful, but also significant in scientific terms. And just for the records, this is the first time such a simulation has been achieved! There have been many previous attempts. Every one of them resulted in failure, usually ending up with a huge central bulge. Javiera Guedes, the first author of the paper on the simulation, says it better: Previous efforts to form a massive disk galaxy like the Milky Way had failed, because the simulated galaxies ended up with huge central bulges compared to the size of the disk The paper has ben submitted to the Astrophysical Journal and has been accepted for publication. The simulation is remarkably close to the Milky Way. The authors call their simulation Eris’. Take a look as to how close it is to the actual thing in the picture below: Cold Dark Matter The model simulation is important for the support it lends to the ‘cold dark mattertheory of cosmology. Dark matter is a hypothesis used to explain the rotation of galaxies amongst many other things like Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation. The amount of matter we see in the galaxy cannot provide enough gravitation to hold the spinning galaxy together, so scientists postulated the presence of another type of matter one which does not interact with other matter at all, but provides the necessary gravitational pull. Since, it doesn’t interact and cannot be seen’, it is called Dark Matter. There are many models for Dark Matter too. One of them involves particles moving at low speeds, or are cold’. The key to the success of this team, where many previous attempts have failed, has been the correct simulation of the star formation process in real galaxies. Star formation happens in gas clouds in clumps in the galactic region. These pockets are supported by Dark Matter. Dark Matter halos create gravitational wells, or regions where the gravitational potential is low. These are the regions that matter can reside in and are the hotbeds of gas clouds. What took nine months? The remarkable success of the team was the amazing resolution they could achieve. Resolution means tracking several stars and simulating their interactions with each other, both extremely tough jobs. NASA’s Pleiades supercomputer and other supercomputers at UC Santa Barbara and the Swiss National Supercomputing Centre came to the rescue, but together they took nine months to process the data. Simulations are always satisfying since they assure us that what we know is not wrong. This one is a strong case in point.
In this HTML5 melting and boiling simulation, an ice cube is melted into a beaker as a flame is applied. Molecules of water are overlaid onto the image of the ice cube and the image of the water. Once the liquid water reaches the boiling point, it evaporates as steam. 1. As the ice cube melts, the water molecules are freed from their trapped state and can now roam about the glass beaker as a liquid. During this melting process, temperature stays constant at 0 degrees celsius. 2. Once the ice is completely melted, the liquid water molecule can now move faster and faster as heat is applied. This is seen as a rise in temperature. 3. Once the liquid reaches 100 degrees celsius, it no longer rises in temperature. Instead, the water molecules are moving so fast that they leave the container as steam.
EPA's Report on the Environment Quantity of Municipal Solid Waste Generated and Managed Municipal solid waste (also called trash or garbage) is defined at the national level as wastes consisting of everyday items such as product packaging, grass clippings, furniture, clothing, bottles and cans, food scraps, newspapers, appliances, consumer electronics, and batteries. These wastes come from homes; institutions such as schools and hospitals; and commercial sources such as restaurants and small businesses. EPA’s definition of municipal solid waste (MSW) does not include municipal wastewater treatment sludges, industrial process wastes, automobile bodies, combustion ash, or construction and demolition debris. Once generated, MSW must be collected and managed. Common management methods include recovery for recycling or composting, combustion (with the resulting energy used to generate electricity or steam in some cases), and landfill disposal. Many wastes that are disposed of in landfills represent a loss of materials that could be reused, recycled, or converted to energy to displace the use of virgin materials. Before the 1970s, MSW disposal generally consisted of depositing wastes in open or excavated landfills, accompanied by open burning to reduce waste volumes. Often industrial hazardous wastes were co-disposed with municipal garbage and refuse in landfills. Historically, environmental problems associated with these older landfills have included ground water contamination, emissions of toxic fumes and greenhouse gases, land contamination, and increases in pest and disease vector populations (e.g., rodents, flies, mosquitoes). Landfills are now subject to federal or state requirements to minimize these environmental impacts. Beyond the environmental impacts of disposal, patterns in MSW generation can help reveal a component of the total materials a society creates and uses, which is an important aspect of sustainability. Generally speaking, as a society creates and consumes more materials, it demands more resources (e.g., water, energy, minerals, land) and generates greater quantities of pollutants and waste. In the U.S., more than 90 percent of the raw materials extracted from the environment, transported, and processed are eventually discharged as waste or atmospheric emissions (Fiksel, 2006). Historically, economic growth and increased prosperity have been correlated with increased material consumption (Fiksel, 2009). An important goal of sustainable development is a reduction in material use without a reduction in economic well-being. Because nationwide material flow data are somewhat limited, one alternative method to track material use reduction is to look at nationwide “waste material intensity,” which can be measured in terms of waste generation per capita and per dollar of gross domestic product (GDP) (i.e., the total value of all goods and services produced in the U.S.). Generally, lower levels of waste intensity imply that society is using materials more efficiently and more sparingly. By consuming fewer materials, households, businesses, and society at large can achieve cost savings and reduce effects on the environment. The way in which MSW is managed provides some insights into society's move toward sustainability through how those wastes are managed—for example, recycling and composting represent the recovery of materials that can offset the use of new raw materials. This indicator shows trends in the national generation and management of MSW, as well as trends in waste generation intensity on an annual basis from 1960 to 2014. MSW generation and management totals are estimated annually using a materials flow methodology and a mass balance approach that relies on production data (by weight) for materials and products that eventually enter the waste stream. These data are collected from industry associations, businesses, and government agencies. Exhibit 2 compares MSW trends with the official U.S. population and real (inflation-adjusted) GDP. These data are indexed such that 1960 equals 1, which allows all variables to be plotted on the same scale. What the Data Show The total quantity of MSW generated in the U.S. grew steadily from 88 million tons (MT) in 1960 to a peak of 259 MT in 2014 (Exhibit 1). Of the MSW generated in 1960, 6 percent was recovered through recycling, and 94 percent was landfilled or disposed of using other methods (including burning) (Exhibit 1). In 2014, 26 percent of MSW was recycled, 9 percent was composted, 13 percent was combusted with energy recovery, and 53 percent was landfilled or disposed of using other methods (Exhibit 1). The last several decades have seen steady growth in recycling and composting, while the total amounts landfilled peaked in 1990 (145 MT) and have generally declined since then (136 MT in 2014). The total amounts combusted have remained fairly steady. Disposal practices have also been influenced by the development of large waste-to-energy facilities, particularly during the 1980s. Overall, from 1960 to 2014, total MSW generation in the U.S. increased by 193 percent. During this time, the U.S. population increased by 76 percent, and the size of the U.S. economy as measured by real GDP grew by 414 percent. MSW generation per capita increased by 70 percent from 1960 to 1990 (from 2.7 to 4.6 pounds per person per day), but has leveled off since then. MSW generation per dollar GDP has decreased steadily over the last five decades, with a 43-percent decrease from 1960 to 2014 (Exhibit 2). - The data in this indicator are derived from economic statistics on materials generation and estimates of the life cycle of goods, rather than from direct measurements of wastes disposed of. As a result of differences in methodologies, the figures reported in this indicator do not match estimates of MSW reported elsewhere (e.g., BioCycle). However, the four management methods shown in Exhibit 1 are rigorously defined and consistent from year to year, allowing for reliable long-term trend analyses. - The data presented on landfills represent the amount of waste disposed of in landfills, but do not indicate the capacity or volume of landfills or the amount of land used for managing MSW. Land used for recycling facilities and waste transfer stations also is not included in this indicator. Data to describe the amount of land used or total capacity of landfills are not available nationally. - The data also do not indicate the status or effectiveness of landfill management or the extent to which contamination of nearby lands does or does not occur. - Exhibit 2 does not necessarily indicate the extent to which waste is being generated and managed at environmentally “sustainable” levels (i.e., levels that will not adversely impact the environment for future generations). - MSW intensity can only reflect national-scale materials use intensity to a limited degree. Because of international trade, materials extracted or produced in one country may end up being managed as waste in another. This indicator covers waste managed in the U.S., regardless of country of origin. Exhibits 1 and 2 are derived from estimates developed for EPA’s annual MSW characterization reports (U.S. EPA, 2016). Although the documents EPA publishes annually show primarily decadal data, EPA maintains annual data since 1960 (unpublished) that are used for this indicator. Additionally, Exhibit 2 incorporates GDP data obtained from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA, 2017) and population data from the U.S. Census Bureau (2000, 2001, 2011, 2016). For More Information - EPA's Advancing Sustainable Materials Management: Facts and Figures Report - EPA: Land, Waste, and Cleanup Topics - Sustainable Materials Management - This indicator relates to the ROE question on Wastes This page provides links to non-EPA websites that provide additional information about this topic. You will leave the EPA.gov domain, and EPA cannot attest to the accuracy of information on that non-EPA page. Providing links to a non-EPA website is not an endorsement of the other site or the information it contains by EPA or any of its employees. Also, be aware that the privacy protection provided on the EPA.gov domain (see Privacy and Security Notice) may not be available at the external link. You will need the free Adobe Reader to view some of the files on this page. See EPA's PDF page to learn more.
Why Do We Get A Fever? The normal core human body temperature of the healthy person is considered 98.6ºF and it hovers within the range of +/- 1 deg. F and small variations due to age, activity, time of the day, etc. are acceptable. The temperature recorded from different parts of the body like orally, vaginally; rectally show almost same with minor variance. The temperature of the skin, usually recorded under the armpits show slight lower readings. When the core body temperature rises above 99.5ºF the body condition is called “fever”. Usually, when the body suffers from the attack of foreign infections like virus or bacteria, the temperature of the body rises to stimulate the immune system to fight the infection. It is also helpful in mitigating the growth of temperature-sensitive bacteria or virus which cannot survive the increased body temperature environment. The hypothalamus, a small organ situated at the base of the human brain, is considered to be the thermostat of the human body and keeps the body temperature within the normal range, despite ambient environmental changes, so that its major organs can function properly. Whenever the immune system of the body perceives any threat from any part of the body, the tissues of the cells around the identified area release a biochemical substance called pyrogens. Many pathogens also produce pyrogens. When the floating pyrogens are detected by the hypothalamus through the blood stream, the hypothalamus directs the body to generate more heat which results in fever. Children are typically more prone to quick and frequent fevers due to an effect of pyrogens since the immune system of the body is relatively inexperienced in childhood. Fevers or high body temperature signals presence of infection within the body and also is the result of the natural response of the body to spruce up it is the immune system to fight that infection. The elevated body temperature also supports the immune system to neutralize the harmful virus or bacteria present in the body. The higher body temperature does not allow the body to remain a receptive host to the harmful pathogens and impedes their multiplying capability within the body. Thus, all fevers are not bad and sometimes lowering the body temperature by taking the drug like Aspirin is not favorable since it hampers the body mechanism to get rid of the harmful bacteria. However, when the body temperature rises above 104º F, medical or drug intervention is necessary to bring down the temperature. The body temperature above 104ºF is not good for the body since it interferes with proper functioning of other vital organs with lethal consequences. Seizures, infarctions, cellular stress, etc. are the potential problems which can occur when the body is suffering from prolonged and severe high fevers. There are other causes of fever as well like fever due to heat stroke. Similarly, abuse of amphetamines or alcohol withdrawal also induces higher body temperature or fever. Many diseases like Tuberculosis, typhoid, malaria, etc. are accompanied by high fevers with characteristic trends and allied symptoms.
What’s this all about? Having a classroom that encourages students to be themselves. Allow students to complete assignments in their own way whenever possible; written, verbal, online, hard copy etc. Encourage the differences between individuals to be celebrated and learned from! “Ensure that classroom displays reflect the diversity of the student population and the population of the province. Students should be able to recognize themselves in their learning environment.”1 The environment can be used to help students see their similarities and differences. One person may have strengths or weaknesses which help others around them. For example if someone is happier being busy provide them with the opportunity to move around during class. Allowing the differences within your class will help to show through differences you can find strengths. Seeing other people learn and grow will help your class become more of a community. Encouraging individuality will also foster self-confidence. Everyone feels and is safe within the school The atmosphere is supportive, allowing both teachers and students to push themselves to their best ability. “Everyone has a role to play in building a positive school climate.”2 The administration, teachers and student body are working towards or maintaining the safe, positive environment. If anyone notices behaviors which do not support the environment they try to stop it or report it. To build this atmosphere everyone in the school works on creating strong relationships. “Building a positive school climate requires a focus on developing healthy relationships throughout the school community among students and adults, and between adults and students.”3 This will help all involved feel included, accepted and safe. Within the relationships being built are the core values of inclusion and equity. Inclusive learning allows for all types of learners and exceptionalities to be able to learn within the same classroom, which will help everyone feel valued. “Inclusive teaching strategies refer to any number of teaching approaches that address the needs of students with a variety of backgrounds, learning styles, and abilities. These strategies contribute to an overall inclusive learning environment, in which students feel equally valued.”4 Equity is allowing all your students the tools they need to finish the tasks assigned. The tools given to each individual will very according to the individual needs of the student. With the feeling of security comes comfort and if students are comfortable they will be able to open up to learning. Rethinking the way we deal with conflict When students act out or misbehave how do you react? Are you sending people to the office, dismissing their behavior or reacting in ways which facilitate a learning moment? Conflict within the classroom is something which cannot be avoided but the challenge comes with how we choose to respond. Educators have a choice to help the student learn from their conflict or to simply get the “problem” out of the classroom. The province of Ontario requires schools to have a progressive discipline policy to help teachers react in ways which will better support students. The definition for progressive discipline is as follows “A whole school approach that utilizes a continuum of prevention programs, interventions, supports, and consequences to address inappropriate student behavior and to build upon strategies that promote and foster positive behaviors.”5 According to the Ministry document Caring and Safe Schools in Ontario. This policy allows administration to focus on the students and how they are learning or growing from these experiences. A resource which helps schools maintain the philosophies of progressive discipline (allowing students to have consequences which relate to their conflict and helping the student learn from their conflict and keeping students within the school system whenever possible) are restorative classroom practices. “The guiding principle of restorative justice and restorative practices is the belief that human beings are happier, more cooperative and productive, and more likely to make positive changes in their behavior when those in positions of authority do things with them, rather than to them or for them.”6 They can help schools continue to foster healthy relationships between individuals who have been involved in conflict this includes the teacher. Creating a community within your school and classroom Community will come in combination of restorative practices, encouraging the individual, celebrating and learning from the differences found within your class, open communication and the opportunity for second chances with relationships and learning. Getting to know your students and how they interact will help you be able to use the community to foster deeper learning. Community will encourage your students to take ownership for the environment they learn in. Your students will enjoy being a member of the community and will focus on continuing its success.
Was Jane Austen a feminist? In order to answer that question, we first need a definition of feminism. Here is how Merriam-Webster defines it: “the belief that men and women should have equal rights and opportunities.” By this definition, most modern women (and men) are feminists. Of course, “feminist” is a moving target. In the 1900s, feminist meant someone with the radical idea that women should vote. In the 60s and 70s, it meant someone who believed women could work outside the home. But back in Jane Austen’s time there would have been many men (and women) who disputed the basic premise: that men and women could or should be equal in rights and opportunities. Austen’s world did not provide equality. Unmarried women of Austen’s class could not easily support themselves and lived lives that were circumscribed in many ways. Married women had it even worse: once they married, all of their property became their husband’s. While the word feminist was not in use during Austen’s era, there is plenty of evidence that she was aware of and unhappy about disparities in rights and opportunities between men and women. Austen’s life itself may be the best argument for Austen as a feminist. Women weren’t supposed to write novels, which many considered to be lurid and in bad taste. They especially weren’t supposed to publish them. Women were supposed to confine their lives to the private sphere of family and the home. (In Persuasion, Austen writes: “We live at home, quiet, confined…”) The “public” aspect of publication should have disqualified Austen as an author—according to the customs of the time. But Austen did publish, and she published as “a lady,” rather than using a male pseudonym, as the Bronte sisters did later. It was obviously important to her that readers knew her books were written from a female perspective. In Austen’s works you can also find many demonstrations of feminist beliefs. While none of her characters agitate overtly for changes in gender norms, they also do not blindly follow the dictates of convention. Elizabeth Bennet is too outspoken for a woman and refuses to bow to societal pressure to marry for the sake of money. Fanny Price sticks to her internal sense of right and wrong no matter what her “betters” say. Sense and Sensibility is a very eloquent examination of how women wrestle with questions of being ruled by head or heart. In all of her books, the heroines are struggling to find a place in the world where they can be true to themselves—without compromising their values and needs. However, I believe there is no better way to represent Austen’s feminist beliefs than a quote from Persuasion. Hargrave says, “I do not think I ever opened a book in my life which had not something to say upon woman’s inconstancy. Songs and proverbs, all talk of woman’s fickleness. But perhaps you will say, these were all written by men.” Anne replies, “Perhaps I shall. Yes, yes, if you please, no reference to examples in books. Men have had every advantage of us in telling their own story. Education has been theirs in so much higher a degree; the pen has been in their hands. I will not allow books to prove anything.” When I saw this scene in the movie version of Persuasion, I wanted to stand up and cheer. I don’t think it was until I was in college that I realized how thoroughly disenfranchised women are in the history of literature. With rare exceptions, women’s voices were not heard and women’s experiences were not represented until the 1800s and the popularization of the novel as a form of literature. Yes, men have written—sometimes wonderful—female characters. But we have no way of knowing what women themselves would have written if they’d had the opportunity through the centuries. All we do know is that it would be different from what men wrote. Austen herself demonstrates this truth. A man could not have written her novels. They are about a female world and a female experience. Readers may swoon over Mr. Darcy, but it is Austen’s exploration of the feminine that makes her books unique. Thank goodness Austen had the courage to “go public” with her stories, otherwise we wouldn’t have them. We can all be thankful that Austen was a feminist.
Students identify the qualities that contribute to effective verbal and non-verbal communication. They use those qualities as criteria by which to judge an in-class political debate on education. 31 Views 90 Downloads Passive Voice Worksheet Sentences can be transformed simply by changing from passive voice to active voice, or the other way around. Challenge your grammarians to take these seven passive sentences and make them active. The sentences provide some situations... 6th - 11th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable Grammar-Active and Passive Voice Use this lesson to reinforce the effect of passive and active voice in writing. First, middle schoolers write several sentences, and then use the attached worksheet to identify whether the sentences are written in active or passive voice. 5th - 8th English Language Arts Daily Warm-Ups: Grammar and Usage If grammar practice is anywhere in your curriculum, you must check out an extensive collection of warm-up activities for language arts! Each page focuses on a different concept, from parts of speech to verbals, and provides review... 3rd - 6th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable Sentence Starters - The Passive Voice Discuss the active and passive voices with this packet. There are several exercises to complete! First, identify which sentences are active and which are passive. Then, create sentences in the passive voice with the given topic. Finally,... 4th - 8th English Language Arts Voices In the Park Explore the impact a narrator's point of view has on a story with a reading of the children's book, Voices in the Park by Anthony Browne. Written in four different voices, the story is told and retold from different perspectives to... 1st - 6th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable
The earliest hunters used simple wooden sticks sharpened into spears, and they then began using stone tips sometime between 500,000 and 300,000 years ago. Primitive stone tools were used to butcher animals approximately 2.6 million years ago, but most scientists believe early humans were scavengers.Continue Reading The earliest evidence of humans hunting large animals comes from around 500,000 years ago, which coincides with the age of the first stone spear tip ever found. Approximately 100,000 years ago, humans experienced a wide increase in tool usage and began making different tools from bone, ivory, antler and other materials. Previously, all tools had only been very roughly carved or chipped out of stone. This sudden technological explosion led to people beginning to produce much more effective tools and weapons, including needles and awls. These tools were particularly important in the development of clothing, as they made it possible to stitch together leather, fur and other materials. This also led to the first recorded evidence of actual fishing, as people began making barbed fishing hooks from bones. Although the first spears were long sticks used for thrusting at animals, over time humans developed more advanced weaponry. With these advancements came axes, throwing spears and, eventually, the bow and arrow.Learn more about Prehistory
A galaxy is a dense grouping of stars, held together by powerful gravitational attraction. Because of the extreme distance between galaxies, most of the lifeforms known to science are in our home galaxy, the Milky Way. There has been limited contact with objects, forces and life from outside this galaxy, however. Milky Way Galaxy The Milky Way Galaxy is a large barred spiral galaxy that is approximately 100,000 light years in diameter, and contains over 400 billion stars. The galaxy is composed of three major parts: the core, the disc, which is the ring of stars and interstellar dust that gives the galaxy its spiral shape, and the halo, which includes many older stars orbiting the core, but outside the disc, of which most are concentrated in massive globular clusters. The Milky Way's disc is surrounded by a massive energy field of negative energy called the Galactic barrier, which makes travel into and out of the galaxy difficult. In 2269, the center of the galaxy was explored and found to be a creation point. By 2287, the core had become surrounded by the Great Barrier, containing a planet thought to be Sha Ka Ree by Sybok. In the science of stellar cartography, the Milky Way is divided into four major areas called quadrants: Alpha, Beta, Gamma and Delta, each of which compose one-quarter of the galaxy. Between 2064 and 2364, Humans had charted 11% of the galaxy, Within a year, the Federation had charted an additional 8% of the galaxy. Only one out of every 43,000 planets in the galaxy supports intelligent lifeforms. According to Dr. Leonard McCoy, there is a mathematical probability of three million Class M planets in the galaxy. An expedition sent by the Kelvan Empire, from the radiation-imperiled Andromeda Galaxy, scouted the Milky Way for possible invasion in 2268. See the original version at Memory Alpha
Origin The term “stereotype” was taken from the Greek words στερεός (stereos), "firm, solid" and τύπος (typos), "impression ", thus "solid impression". The term comes from the printing trade and was first adopted in 1798 by Firmin Didot to describe a printing plate that duplicated any typography. The duplicate printing plate, or the stereotype, is used for printing instead of the original. The term “stereotype” was taken from the Greek words στερεός (stereos), "firm, solid" and τύπος (typos), "impression ", thus "solid impression". Outside of printing, the first mention of "stereotype" was in 1850, as a noun that meant "image perpetuated without change." However, it was not until 1922. The "stereotype" was first used in the modern psychological sense by American journalist Walter Lippmann in his work ”Public Opinion”. In social psychology, a stereotype is a thought that can be adopted about specific types of persons or certain ways of doing things. These thoughts or beliefs may or may not accurately reflect reality. Origin Age stereotypes In some cultures age is a virtue, while in others it may seem to be a curse. We all find that as we get older, certain things are expected of us. Many older people feel themselves discriminated against in areas such as work, housing and sports. With the average age of populations around the world increasing and health care improving, many countries are finding that the expectations and laws regarding age need to be reconsidered. Ethnic stereotypes An ethnic stereotype is a system of beliefs about typical characteristics of members of a given ethnic group or nationality, their status, society and cultural norms. National stereotypes may be either about their own nationality or about others. Stereotypes about their own nation may aid in maintaining the national identity. Various anti-national phobias and prejudices operate with ethnic stereotypes. Gender stereotypes The age-old battle of the sexes is a major subject under diversity. Equality between the sexes is still relatively new concept in some societies (women did not have the right to vote in the United States until 1920). Stereotyping is a form of prejudice and many people stereotype what is expected of a woman and what is expected of a man. In many countries around the world the dominant culture sets the standards and norms for day-to-day living. People who are not part the dominant culture find themselves stereotyped and victims of prejudice when it comes to jobs, educational opportunities, housing, and so forth. Religious stereotypes Religious stereotyping is the act of discrimination against members of other religions and is commonly based on generalised ideas and appearances of other religious beliefs and practices. It is important to understand that religious stereotypes, as well as many other stereotypes, are misleading and that one cannot judge a person by their religious background. If you don’t like or don’t trust somebody because of stereotypes, you have a prejudice against that person (or group of person). It is dangerous because it leads to discrimination and conflicts.
Trilobites were savvy killers who hunted down their prey and used their many legs to wrestle them into submission, newly discovered fossils suggest. The fossils come from a site in southeastern Missouri, not far from the city of Desloge. They are trace fossils, which means they preserve not the organisms themselves, but their burrows. The burrows were made by various species of trilobite as well as by unknown, wormlike creatures. A statistical analysis of these burrows and their intersections shows that they cross one another more than expected, a sign that the trilobites were deliberately hunting down their wormy prey. In a subset of those cases, the trilobites seemed to sidle up to the burrows in parallel, perhaps so they could latch onto the worms lengthwise with their row of legs. [Video: Primitive Sea Creatures Were Advanced Ninja Attackers] "This is legitimately the moment of interaction between the trilobite and the animal that it ate," said study researcher James Schiffbauer, a paleobiologist at the University of Missouri. The discovery of these fossils came about by accident. During a department field trip to visit a local lead mine, the researchers made a side trip to a known fossil spot. While there, study co-author John Huntley, also a professor at the University of Missouri, stumbled across a block of fossilized burrows, frozen in silty shale. The sediment was set down during the Cambrian period, between 540 million and 485 million years ago, when the area was a shallow nearshore environment. The shallow bottom was likely covered with a dense microbial mat, which made for a rich food source for wormy (or "vermiform") creatures. These worms were, in turn, prey for trilobites. "It became sort of a small shallow-water hunting ground for the trilobites," Schiffbauer told Live Science. Graduate student Tara Selly took on the painstaking task of cataloguing and counting the burrows and their intersections. Her findings revealed that the worm and trilobite tunnels intersected about 30 percent of the time - more than would be expected based on chance alone. "Likely one-third of [the burrows] were actually capturing predatory events," Selly told Live Science. The trilobites known from this area belong to species with particularly large eyes, Schiffbauer said. Those eyes may have made them adept hunters, he said, able to seek out burrow entrances or impressions. The critters would then burrow down to grasp their prey. "What we're seeing is really sophisticated behavior fairly early on in what some people would say is a very simple creature," Schiffbauer said. The trilobites might also have used scent to sniff out their prey, he said. Predation is important to understand, Huntley told Live Science, but it can be hard to see in the fossil record. Some Cambrian fossils have recorded animals inside the gut tracts of other animals, but it's not clear whether they were hunted and eaten or scavenged. Other signs of predation in the fossil record are wounds or drill holes in skeletons or shells, Huntley said. "In this case, what we're getting is actually impressions of the body," Huntley said. "It's a different window into this process that we know is important ecologically and really important evolutionarily as well." The research iss detailed online in the Feb. 15 issue of the journal Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. In Images: A Filter-Feeding Cambrian Creature Cambrian Creatures Gallery: Photos of Primitive Sea Life Beastly Feasts: Amazing Photos of Animals and Their Prey Copyright 2016 LiveScience, a Purch company. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed. Article first appeared on LiveScience.
Comet 1P/Halley can be observed from Earth once every 75-76 years and is probably the most well known ‘household name’ comet. The reason for this is it is the brightest short period comet that regularly visits the solar system and the only short period comet that is so clearly visible to the naked eye on each passage. The image above taken by NASA was from Halley’s last visit in 1986. It was during this passage that it was the first to be observed by a spacecraft which provided vital data on the structure and behaviour of a comet nucleus, coma and tail. There are records of Halley’s Comet dating back as far as 240BC. There are historic records from the ancient Chinese, Babylonion and medieval Europeans alike of the comet which can be accurately matched to Halley’s back-dated orbits. The Comet’s Name The comet’s orbital period was first discovered by an English astronomer by the name of Edmund Halley in 1705 which why now the comet is crowned its famous name. He examined reports of a comet approaching Earth in 1531, 1607 and 1682. He concluded that these three comets were actually the same comet returning to the solar system in an orbit, and predicted the comet would come again in 1758 and of course, when the time came his theory was vindicated despite him not living to see the event for himself and the comet was named after him. Comet Halley’s next apparition Just like Edmund Halley’s clockwork predictions, Comet Halley will return again in the year 2061 with perihelion occurring on 28th July that year. It will be better placed for observation compared to that of the 1986 appearance and is expected to reach visual magnitude -0.3. Comet Halley’s orbit comes close to Earth’s in two places. For this reason, Halley is the parent body of two meteor showers as viewed from Earth: the Eta Aquariids in early May, and the Orionids in late October. Observations conducted around the time of Halley’s appearance in 1986, however, suggest that the Eta Aquarid meteor shower might not originate from Halley’s Comet but may well be perturbed by it.
The Archimedes' principle was named after Greek philosopher Archimedes. The principle is closely related to buoyancy as you can see in the statement below. Here is what Archimedes states: Whether the object is partially submerged or not, the principle is still true. For example, suppose you submerge a rock in water whose weight is 10 pounds and the water that is displaced has a weight of 4 pounds, what is the buoyant force? Since the rock displaced 4 pounds of water and the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the liquid that the object displaces, the buoyant force is 4 pounds. Notice that it is not the weight of the object that determine the buoyant force, but the weight of the displaced water. This situation is illustrated below: The strength of the force beneath the rock that pushes the rock up is equal to 4 pounds.
Groundhogs (Marmota monax) have short pregnancies and spend twice as much time caring for their young after they are born. Unlike many of their other rodent relatives, who are prolific breeders and give birth to several litters of offspring per year, groundhogs give birth to just one litter annually. Male groundhogs emerge from hibernation in late winter or early spring, normally coming out of their burrows in March throughout much of their range, and begin the mating process by establishing territories and dominance among other males. The latitude and altitude of the groundhogs' habitat will determine when hibernation ends, with southern populations emerging earlier in the year than northern populations and those at high altitudes. Females emerge from hibernation in the days and weeks after, and mating will occur in March or April. Groundhog females have just one fertile period per year, and mating occurs only in the spring. Dominant male groundhogs will mate with multiple females during this time, as groundhogs do not form monogamous pairs. After mating, female and male groundhogs have no further interaction with one another. Gestation Period and Nesting A typical groundhog female will have a gestation period of 30 to 33 days following successful mating. During this time, the female groundhog will establish a nest of plant fibers inside an underground burrow or den, where she will give birth and nurse her young. These dens are usually established in well-drained soil along hedgerows, in pastures or along woodland edges, and may include multiple exits and entries. Birth and Litter Size Groundhogs give birth in their dens to between one and nine infants, with four or five being the most common litter size. Younger females tend to give birth to smaller litters of pups. Groundhog newborns emerge from their mothers weighing approximately 1 ounce. At this stage, groundhog pups are pink, naked, deaf, blind and helpless. Care and Maturation Female groundhogs are the sole caregivers of groundhog pups. For the first month of life, groundhog pups are blind and rely on their mothers for survival. As they mature, groundhogs will begin exploring their dens, digging and spending small amounts of time aboveground, as well as eating solid vegetation that the mother brings into the nest. The young groundhogs will stay with their mothers until they are completely weaned -- approximately 44 days after they're born. Once the groundhog pups have become fully weaned, the mother will begin to show aggression toward her young, prompting them to disperse from the den and become independent at approximately 2 months of age. Both male and female groundhogs reach sexual maturity between the ages of 1 year and 2 years. - Adirondack Ecological Center: Woodchuck - Massachusetts Department of Fish and Game: Woodchucks in Massachusetts - University of Michigan Museum of Zoology: Marmota Monax - "Wild Mammals of North America"; George A. Feldhamer et al., eds. - Tom Brakefield/Stockbyte/Getty Images
Muscle enables complex movements that are either voluntary—under conscious control—such as turning the pages of this book, or involuntary, such as the contraction of the heart or the peristalsis in the gut. To understand how muscle accomplishes these various activities, you need to know the physiology behind a muscle contraction. This requires a detailed knowledge of the muscle's microscopic anatomy. Of course, muscle contractions will not take place without adequate nervous stimulation or a sufficient supply of ATP, the muscles' fuel. ATP is obtained via cellular respiration, which is accomplished by several different metabolic pathways. There are three types of muscles: - Skeletal muscles are attached mainly to the skeletal bones but some are also attached to other structures (such as the eyes for eye movement) and causes movements of the body. Skeletal muscle is also called striated muscle, because of its banding pattern when viewed under a microscope (for clarification, see cardiac muscle below), or voluntary muscle (because muscle contractions can be consciously controlled). - Cardiac muscle is responsible for the rhythmic contractions of the heart. Cardiac muscle is involuntary—it generates its own stimuli to initiate a muscle contraction. While cardiac muscle also consists of striations, the main characteristic (to differentiate these striations from skeletal muscle) is the presence of intercalated disks. - Smooth muscle lines the walls of hollow organs. For example, it lines the walls of blood vessels and of the digestive tract, where it serves to advance the movement of substances. A smooth muscle contraction is relatively slow and involuntary.
As the Roman Empire collapsed and we were plunged into The Dark Ages, an evolution of the use of images for communication unfolded. The Middle Ages is split into 3 parts: The Early Middle Ages (estimated around 500-1000), The High Middle Ages (c.1001 – 1300) and the Later Middle Ages (c.1300-1500). During the Early Middle Ages, Christianity was a leading Religion in Western Europe and imagery and text (or the verbal words) had a strong connection. Religious images were created to tell their stories to those who were illiterate, or for those who wanted to pray upon an image (for example images of the crucifix, or Virgin Mary) during times of worship, such as being in Church, to directly communicate with God. Particular images created at this time would have set scenes, laid out one after another almost like a comic book, for example what is seen in the scenes from”The Life of St. Jerome”, however different from our idea of a comic today as characters would not have speech bubbles or might appear twice in the same panel, but this would not have been a problem for the viewers in this era. It is most likely that some images required a verbal translation by the artist or the Church, or perhaps Christians at the time were just simply skilled at interpreting the symbolic nature of their religious imagery or expertise in religious ideology. Sadly what ancient images once represented can be clouded by our modern eyes as empathy for cultural differences has been lost. Many art styles arose during the medieval period. Byzantine(c.500-1453) is the first major style to merge after the fall of the Roman Empire. The Byzantine empire’s leader and founder, Constantine The Great (306-337 AD) is seen in Byzantine Art. He endorsed Christianity: “By the 4th century, the new religion had made such rapid strides that practically the entire Roman Empire was Christianized” (Byzantine Art, p8) Byzantine art is almost wholly Religious and typically uses rich materials such as gold leaf for the Holy figures in the imagery as well as emphasising the leaders power and wealth. Pagan views were soon after rendered criminal and were defaced as the Christian Church spread and grew with power, thanks to Constantine. As the Byzantine Empire reined in the East for the long period of a thousand years (324-1453), the art style is seen throughout Early Medieval artwork. Most critics view the art style as uncreative as it is an exhaustive collection of regurgitated and cliché religious imagery. Justinian the Great was the Byzantine Emperor (reined 527-565) whom attempted to fix the crumbling state of the Roman Empire(Justinian might be a possible origin of the word “Justice”). However ultimately failed as territory was lost in the fall of the Roman Empire. As his reign ended, so did the Byzantine Empire. In his portrait you can see the use of gold, colourful and large jewellery, and framed with a Halo around his head to highlight his power, wealth and his Holiness. Romanesque Art (c.1000 to 1150) is from the Western part of the Roman Empire. Romanesque and Gothic Styles went together back to back for quite a while(Gothic Art: c.1150 to 1400) as they both tied in together during the High middle Ages until the Later Middle Ages. Romanesque was a common art style throughout Medieval Europe and was popular in Spain. The piece “Christ as Orpheus” (4th century) was an attempt to warm up the pagan culture that was the public to this new religion, Christianity. The faces of figures they knew and worshiped were vandalised and replaced with Christ. It it amusing in an ironic way, as subjectively Pagan’s had just enough right to do the same thing to Jesus’ face. Romanesque art also features animals from myths and legends which does not break away from the classic Roman style. Insular (or Hiberno-Saxon) Art was around in the British Isles by the Celtic cultures that lived there during the Early Middle Ages (c.500-1170). They had Anglo-northern roots and had nothing to do with the Roman Empire, so that art style was noticeably different and refreshingly unique. Insular artwork typically gives off a natural, organic feel with pagan animals intertwined. A great example of the Insular art style is The Book of Kells. The Book of Kells is a religious manuscript of gospels that is filled with beautiful imagery, delicate detail and powerful symbolism that is unique to the book. Of course the imagery would have made sense to viewers of the time, but The Book of Kells remains a beautiful and important medieval manuscript to this day with a thick history. Gothic Art (c.1150 to 1400) emerged at the end of the Middle Ages, and is mainly seen in cathedral architecture, but it spurted a reaction and was seen as ugly (Gothic translates as barbaric). It was a rebuilding of the choir of Benedictine church of St. Denis, and the style we recognise as Gothic began to spread, as Romanesque art was beginning to fade: “It was a period of intense experiment, unevenly and untidily distributed” (Gothic Art, p7) immense detail and pattern was applied in an attempt to create a sense of importance to buildings. the insides of Gothic buildings is smothered with over-the-top detail with barely any surface untouched, giving a rough appearance. “Jesse tree window” is a stain-glass window seen in Chatres Cathedral, an example of the Gothic style in churches. The image features Christ and was designed to be read by the illiterate, so needed multiple images. The window is far too complex with unnessessary thick black outlines against opposing bright coloured glass and is just an eyesore, especially since the window is huge and would have been seen at a distance. The tree of Jesse is seen throughout cathedrals in France and England and is supposed to represent the family tree of Jesus Christ. Life in the Middle Ages would have been rough and with a limited access to knowledge to lay people, diseases spread quickly and many people suffered and died from them, such as the Black Death. So death was common in everyday life and a big deal, as it is a painful subject matter. The Holy Bible was a guidance point on how to live your life, so many people believed sin was the cause of disease. “Damned are swallowed by a Hell mouth” (c.1200’s) was an image that would have been sold as the absolute truth of your fate, and sinners would have been sent to Hell. Used as a horrifying deterrent, as it shows a large monstrous mouth being opened to reveal a pile of green, rotting corpses of those who have sinned. This demonic mouth represents the entrance to Hell. What is interesting is how it features a Holy figure(a priest) painted in gold leaf that holds the key for opening this portal. This expresses the immense power that the Church had over the masses. Diebold,William J. (2000) Word and Image: An Introduction to Early Medieval. Westview Press Durand, Jannic (1999) Byzantine Art. Paris : Editions Pierre Terrail Lowden, John (1997) Early Christian & Byzantine Art. Phaidon Press Martindale, Andrew (1967) Gothic Art. London : Thames and Hudson Petzold, Andreas (1995) Romanesque Art
New experimental and theoretical findings on the structure of eyes and the dynamics of eyesight can help to explain the origin of severe eye diseases and could lead to new ways of preventing blindness. Light-sensing cells in the eye rely on their outer segment to convert light into neural signals that allow us to see. But because of its unique cylindrical shape, the outer segment is prone to breakage, which can cause blindness in humans. A study published by Cell Press on January 22nd in the Biophysical Journal provides new insight into the mechanical properties that cause the outer segment to snap under pressure. Researchers believe the findings can explain the origin of severe eye diseases and could lead to new ways of preventing blindness. "To our knowledge, this is the first theory that explains how the structural rigidity of the outer segment can make it prone to damage," says senior study author Aphrodite Ahmadi of the State University of New York Cortland. "Our theory represents a significant advance in our understanding of retinal degenerative diseases." The outer segment of photoreceptors consists of discs packed with a light-sensitive protein called rhodopsin. Discs made at nighttime are different from those produced during the day, generating a banding pattern that was first observed in frogs but is common across species. Mutations that affect photoreceptors often destabilize the outer segment and may damage its discs, leading to cell death, retinal degeneration, and blindness in humans. But until now, it was unclear which structural properties of the outer segment determine its susceptibility to damage. To address this question, Ahmadi and her team examined tadpole photoreceptors under the microscope while subjecting them to fluid forces. They found that high-density bands packed with a high concentration of rhodopsin were very rigid, which made them more susceptible to breakage than low-density bands consisting of less rhodopsin. Their model confirmed their experimental results and revealed factors that determine the critical force needed to break the outer segment. The findings support the idea that mutations causing rhodopsin to aggregate can destabilize the outer segment, eventually causing blindness. "Further refinement of the model could lead to novel ways to stabilize the outer segment and could delay the onset of blindness," says Ahmadi.
We can teach about the world! Students learn to write their own science or social studies topic based non-fiction/informational chapter books to teach others. They will learn to use non-fiction features such as bold words and diagrams to elaborate their writing. This unit is aligned to the National Common Core Standards and Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills. Choose from 26 lessons for your second grade class. Each lesson is paired with a premade student friendly anchor chart. The charts are differentiated for English-language learners, at-risk students and students with special needs. This is the third unit in a series of monthly units. Recommended Time Frames Unit Calendar Overview Overarching Essential Question 26 Lessons (4-6 weeks) 18 Colorful Teaching / Anchor Charts Suggested Mentor Texts Student Writing Samples 19 Paper Choices (Lines, diagram, life cycle, flow chart, and more!) Publishing and Celebration Ideas Frequently Used Words List National Common Core Standards Correlation Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills Correlation (Tip: Choose to print color and single-sided) If you like what you see here, click the “Follow Me” button near the top of the page to get email updates about our store, new products, and sales! Or visit Teaching Charts store to check out our other writing units. We are also on Instagram (teachingcharts) and Facebook (Teaching Charts)!
Lesson 6 of 12 Objective: SWBAT explain how sound can make objects vibrate. Next Generation Science Standard Connection This lesson connects to 1-PS4-1, because students discover that sound can make materials vibrate. Prior to this lesson I have taught about five lessons where the students discover vibrating objects make sound. Now, I am transitioning into the other part of the standard where sound can make objects vibrate. I try to use material that are relevant to my students lives or things they are familiar with, so I am going to use a speaker. When paper is held in front of a loud speaker it can make the paper vibrate. The students are going to discover this after they make a prediction. Making a prediction first helps engage students, and it gives them an opportunity to think at a higher level. This lesson like most of my lessons begins in the lounge or carpet area where I introduce the lesson. Then we move the center of the room for the explore, explain, and elaborate. The lesson closes back at the lounge. These transition help my students persevere through lengthy lessons, because they get to move often. Throughout the lesson the students work with a heterogeneous ability group partner. I call one peanut butter and the other jelly. So, I can say, "Talk to your peanut butter jelly partner." If I notice one partner is not participating then I can specifically tell the peanut or the jelly partner to tell their partner something. It's a nice strategy, because all of the students are participating in discourse. Plus, students can help each other, and many students enjoy working with a partner. This is the time when I try to excite the class and really get them activating their knowledge about sound. First, I want to help my students connect back to our previous learning, so they learn to do this as a habit. It helps students make connections when they reflect upon what they have learned in prior lessons. So, I say, "Turn and tell your partner what we have previously learned about sound." I hope they say, "Vibrating objects can make sound." Then I write down on the board what I heard my students say, so I have documentation of their prior knowledge. Then I allow several students to share, since students enjoy sharing their knowledge. Plus, students tend to remember more when they are reminded about things by their peers. Then I direct the class to the lesson image which I project on the Smart Board. I ask, "Tell your partner everything you know about speakers." I anticipate my students saying, "Speakers make noise louder." Then I ask them to tell their partner, "How can speakers make objects vibrate?" I am assessing their prior knowledge now, and I expect the student to not be able to answer the question. I just want to see if anyone actually already knows that sound travels through objects and can make them vibrate. If somebody does already know I just say, "Great we are going to explore some examples of vibrations and sound today." Then I share the plan for the lesson by saying, "Today we are going to observe some video and make observations about how sound can effect objects." As this section begins I tell the class to get out their science journal and write at the top of the page "sound observation." Then they need to write the date on the top right of the page. Organizing their science journal is one way I am teaching the students to keep up with their science observation. Plus, we often reflect upon our data as we go deeper into our observations, or we may use it in a culmination activity. So, I first play about twenty seconds of video 1 and ask the students to record their observations. I am hoping the students write that they see the sound is making the paper move. The closer the paper gets to the speaker the more the paper vibrates. While they are recording their observation I walk around. If I see a student "stuck" I may replay the video and say, "Look specifically at the paper." Then I play video two and ask the students to record their observations in their science journal. I say, "Be sure to look at what the rings on the outside of the speaker are doing as the music gets louder and as it gets softer." I hope my students observe that the louder the music the more the speaker vibrates. But, I also walk around to make sure the students are able to record something, and I may replay the video as many times as they need me to. During this section I try to get my students to talk to each other and really share their observations. I want the class to learn to build upon each others ideas, because this can strengthen their understanding of how sound can make objects vibrate. After talking about their observations students seem to really understand what they are observing. First, they talk to their shoulder partner, then students share across their table, and last we engage in a whole class discussion. I say, "Turn and tell your shoulder partner what you observed in in both videos. You can read straight from your notes if you need to." This helps students learn to reflect back on their observations, but they are also learning to compare observations. I often find that students change their observations or discover that what they observed really was not what they were supposed to be observing. This is fine, and this is one benefit to shoulder talk. If I observe that somebody needs to look at a video again I just play it one or two more times. Their partner often naturally explains what they see. Now, I usually say, "So, what do you see happening here to the paper or speaker?" then the partner or confused students is able to explain their observations. Next, I ask the students to turn and tell the group across the table what they observed. Again, they are checking to make sure they observed the same thing. I am walking around to ensure that the groups are talking about the paper and the speaker vibrating. If I see a group not talking then I just stops and ask, "What did you record?" Last, we engage in a whole group discussion where volunteers share what they observed. I ask, "Will somebody share what they observed?" Then we listen and I ask, "Will somebody add to that?" I am basically getting the students to build upon the ideas of their peers. Now we are going to engage in an application activity. We are going to answer a research question. I first write the question on the board. Why does sound make objects vibrate? Now, I am using this question, because I know all of my students are going to ask me that after they watch the video. I ask, "Please record our research question in your science journal." Then for sake of time I provide each child with a text: speakers make paper vibrate. Highlighting: student work is how my students find evidence in the text. I ask the students to read the text and see if they can find the answer to our research question: questions and a model. I am doing this in early February, and this would not have been appropriate for my class any earlier in the year. But, they have had support finding answers to questions, so I am going to let them try it with a partner. I walk around and monitor to see it they need help reading, since many first graders are not fluent readers at this point. Although, I adjusted the text by changing words and shortening sentences. I want the students to be able to find the answer and not get stuck decoding. Next, I say, "Please record the answer under the question in your science journal: student work. If you finish early you may illustrate a picture of the speakers, and show how they vibrate. Be sure to use the correct colors as you draw. Our scientific illustrations need to correctly model the materials we are studying." This is the final section of the lesson and my students get to share their answer to the question from elaboration section. I also need to assess my students on their understanding of the fact that sound makes objects vibrate, speaking skills, and the ability to give their peers' evaluation. The third big component of this section is to get the students to comply with my instructions, so I use positive behavior support. As soon as we transition to the lounge I say, "Criss cross apple sauce pockets on the floor hands in your laps talking no more." The class chants it with me, because this is a fun way to get students to think about what I want them to do behaviorally. Then I add, "Remember to look at the speaker in the eyes, think about what they are saying, and be ready to give them feedback." Next, I allow three students to stand in front of the group and share their answer to the question. I often have to redirect students to their notes and remind them to look at their notes. To make sure each child gets the same number of opportunities to present I use a spreadsheet that has all of the students names on it. When they present I just check their name off and we move on to the next person. After each person presents I do say, "Please give your peer some verbal feedback."What do you agree with, disagree with, or want to add to their presentation." I use a spreadsheet to assess the students. It has their names on the left, and the columns at the top are labeled with the the assessment criteria. I put the standard 1-PS4-1, speaking, and peer feedback in the columns. So, when I see the student has mastered the standard I just put a check in the box by their name. Then I write their total score beside their name, so I can see who needs more work on the skills. I actually plan small group lessons to help my students overcome their weaknesses.
Born: September 30, 1882 Neustadt an-der-Haardt, Germany Died: September 24, 1945 German experimental physicist Hans Geiger was a German nuclear physicist (a person who studies the inner core of the atom) best known for his invention of the Geiger counter, a device used for detecting and counting atomic particles, and for his work in nuclear physics with Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937). Johannes Wilhelm Geiger was born in Neustadt an-der-Haardt (now Neustadt ander-Weinstrasse), Germany, on September 30, 1882. His father, Wilhelm Ludwig Geiger, was a professor at the University of Erlangen from 1891 to 1920. The eldest of five children, Geiger was educated first at Erlangen Gymnasium, from which he graduated in 1901. After completing his required military service, he studied physics (the study of the relationship between matter and energy) at the University of Munich and at the University of Erlangen, receiving a doctorate from Erlangen in 1906 for his study of electrical releases through gases. Geiger moved to Manchester University in England, where he met Ernest Rutherford, head of the physics department. Rutherford and Geiger began a lifelong personal and professional friendship. They began experiments based on Rutherford's detection of the release of alpha particles (particles with "positive" electric charges) from radioactive substances (substances whose atoms give off particles of matter and harmful rays of energy). Since alpha particles can penetrate thin walls of solids, Rutherford and Geiger presumed that they could also move through atoms. Geiger designed a machine that would shoot alpha particles through gold foil onto a screen, where they were observed as tiny flashes of light. Counting the thousands of flashes per minute was a long, hard task. Geiger decided to try to invent an easier, more accurate way to count them. His solution was an early version of the "Geiger counter," an electrical machine designed to count released alpha particles. In 1912 Geiger returned to Germany as director of the new Laboratory for Radioactivity at the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin, Germany, where he invented an instrument for measuring not only alpha particles but other types of radiation (the giving off of energy and particles from atoms) as well. Geiger's research was interrupted by the start of World War I (1914–18; a war fought between the German-led Central Powers and the Allies—England, the United States, Italy, and other nations), during which he fought with the German troops. Crouching in trenches on the front lines left Geiger with painful rheumatism (stiffness and pain in the joints). With the war over, Geiger returned to the Reichsanstalt. In 1920 he married Elisabeth Heffter, with whom he had three sons. In 1925 Geiger became professor of physics at the University of Kiel, Germany. While there he developed, with Walther Mueller, the Geiger-Mueller counter, commonly referred to as the Geiger counter. The counter can locate a speeding alpha particle within about one centimeter in space and to within a hundred-millionth second in time. In 1925 Geiger used his counter to confirm the existence of light quantum, or packets of energy. Geiger left Kiel for the University of Tubingen in October of 1929 to serve as professor of physics and director of research at its physics institute. Installed at the Institute, Geiger worked constantly to increase the Geiger counter's speed and ability to detect. As a result of his efforts, he was able to discover bursts of radiation called cosmic-ray showers, and he concentrated on their study for the rest of his career. Geiger returned to Berlin in 1936 upon being offered the chair of physics at the Technische Hochschule. He continued experimenting and improving the counter. He also became involved with politics after Adolf Hitler's (1889–1945) rise to power in Germany's National Socialist Party. Geiger and many other scientists did not want the government to interfere with or influence their work. He helped compose a position paper that was signed by seventy-five of Germany's most notable physicists. The paper was presented to Hitler's Education Ministry in late 1936. The document urged the government to keep its hands off science, complaining that there were too few new physicists and that students were avoiding the subject in Germany because of newspaper attacks on physics by National Socialists. Geiger continued working at the Technische Hochschule through World War II (1939–45; a war fought between the Axis powers—Germany, Italy, and Japan—and the Allied powers—Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States), although he was often confined to bed with rheumatism. He had just started to show signs of improvement in his health when his home near Babelsberg, Germany, was occupied in June 1945. Geiger was forced to flee to Potsdam, Germany, where he died on September 24, 1945. Beyerchen, Alan D. Scientists under Hitler: Politics and the Physics Community in the Third Reich. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1979. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. vol. 5. New York: Scribner, 1972, pp. 330–333. Williams, Trevor I. A Biographical Dictionary of Scientists. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1982, p. 211.
Future Mars explorers may be able to get all the water they need out of the red dirt beneath their boots, a new study suggests. NASA's Mars rover Curiosity has found that surface soil on the Red Planet contains about 2% water by weight. That means astronaut pioneers could extract roughly two pints of water out of every cubic foot of Martian dirt they dig up, said study lead author Laurie Leshin, of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, N.Y. "For me, that was a big 'wow' moment," Leshin told SPACE.com. "I was really happy when we saw that there's easily accessible water here in the dirt beneath your feet. And it's probably true anywhere you go on Mars." The new study is one of five papers published in the journal Science Thursday that report what researchers have learned about Martian surface materials from the work Curiosity did during its first 100 days on the Red Planet. Soaking Up Atmospheric Water Curiosity touched down inside Mars' huge Gale Crater in August 2012, kicking off a planned two-year surface mission to determine if the Red Planet could ever have supported microbial life. It achieved that goal in March, when it found that a spot near its landing site called Yellowknife Bay was indeed habitable billions of years ago. But Curiosity did quite a bit of science work before getting to Yellowknife Bay. Leshin and her colleagues looked at the results of Curiosity's first extensive Mars soil analyses, which the 1-ton rover performed on dirt that it scooped up at a sandy site called Rocknest in November 2012. Using its Sample Analysis at Mars instrument, or SAM, Curiosity heated this dirt to a temperature of 1,535 degrees Fahrenheit and then identified the gases that boiled off. SAM saw significant amounts of carbon dioxide, oxygen and sulfur compounds — and lots of water on Mars. SAM also determined that the soil water is rich in deuterium, a "heavy" isotope of hydrogen that contains one neutron and one proton (as opposed to "normal" hydrogen atoms, which have no neutrons). The water in Mars' thin air sports a similar deuterium ratio, Leshin said. "That tells us that the dirt is acting like a bit of a sponge and absorbing water from the atmosphere," she said. SAM detected some organic compounds in the Rocknest sample as well — carbon-containing chemicals that are the building blocks of life here on Earth. But as mission scientists reported late last year, these are simple, chlorinated organics that likely have nothing to do with Martian life. Instead, Leshin said, they were probably produced when organics that hitched a ride from Earth reacted with chlorine atoms released by a toxic chemical in the sample called perchlorate. Perchlorate is known to exist in Martian dirt; NASA's Phoenix lander spotted it near the planet's north pole in 2008. Curiosity has now found evidence of it near the equator, suggesting that the chemical is common across the planet. (Indeed, observations by a variety of robotic Mars explorers indicate that Red Planet dirt is likely similar from place to place, distributed in a global layer across the surface, Leshin said.) The presence of perchlorate is a challenge that architects of future manned Mars missions will have to overcome, Leshin said. "Perchlorate is not good for people. We have to figure out, if humans are going to come into contact with the soil, how to deal with that," she said. "That's the reason we send robotic explorers before we send humans — to try to really understand both the opportunities and the good stuff, and the challenges we need to work through," Leshin added. A Wealth of Discoveries The four other papers published in Science report exciting results as well. For example, Curiosity's laser-firing ChemCam instrument found a strong hydrogen signal in fine-grained Martian soils along the rover's route, reinforcing the SAM data and further suggesting that water is common in dirt across the planet (since such fine soils are globally distributed). Another study reveals more intriguing details about a rock Curiosity studied in October 2012. This stone — which scientists dubbed "Jake Matijevic" in honor of a mission team member who died two weeks after the rover touched down — is a type of volcanic rock never before seen on Mars. However, rocks similar to Jake Matijevic are commonly observed here on Earth, especially on oceanic islands and in rifts where the planet's crust is thinning out. "Of all the Martian rocks, this one is the most Earth-like. It's kind of amazing," said Curiosity lead scientist John Grotzinger, a geologist at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. "What it indicates is that the planet is more evolved than we thought it was, more differentiated." The five new studies showcase the diversity and scientific value of Gale Crater, Grotzinger said. They also highlight how well Curiosity's 10 science instruments have worked together, returning huge amounts of data that will keep the mission team busy for years to come. "The amount of information that comes out of this rover just blows me away, all the time," Grotzinger told SPACE.com. "We're getting better at using Curiosity, and she just keeps telling us more and more. One year into the mission, we still feel like we're drinking from a fire hose." The Road to Mount Sharp The pace of discovery could pick up even more. This past July, Curiosity left the Yellowknife Bay area and headed for Mount Sharp, which rises 3.4 miles into the Martian sky from Gale Crater's center. Mount Sharp has been Curiosity's main destination since before the rover's November 2011 launch. Mission scientists want the rover to climb up through the mountain's foothills, reading the terrain's many layers along the way. "As we go through the rock layers, we're basically looking at the history of ancient environments and how they may be changing," Grotzinger said. "So what we'll really be able to do for the first time is get a relative chronology of some substantial part of Martian history, which should be pretty cool." Curiosity has covered about 20% of the planned 5.3-mile trek to Mount Sharp. The rover, which is doing science work as it goes, may reach the base of the mountain around the middle of next year, Grotzinger said. Image: Tom Blackwell - Glowing Nebula Decorates Space in Hubble Image - The Most Amazing Space Photos This Week! - Lunar Laser Link: Virtual Reality from the Moon - The Most Amazing Space Stories of the Week! This article originally published at Space.com here
Hey, how do I download it? This is a warmer, and there is nothing to download. It's just an idea for your lesson, not a worksheet. When introducing a new topic, such as language acquisition, present on the board two versions of the fact or theory, correct and incorrect: for example “It takes about one year to learn a second language fluently” and “It takes about five years to learn a second language fluently.” Have students discuss with peers and try to guess the correct version before presenting the correct one. With this strategy, students are not only introduced to the topic but some common misconceptions on it it while practicing speaking skills.
Children are not blind to the world around them. They see the news. They hear what adults are talking about. Yet children can't sort out what is really a threat. They need help from parents and other caring adults to cope with their fears. This information is intended to help you recognize when children are upset, and gives suggestions on how to talk with them about their fears. How can I tell if my child is worried? Here are a few things to look for that might mean your child is fearful: · Loss of interest in normal activities · Change in appetite or sleep habits · Return to earlier habits such as bedwetting, thumb sucking or difficulty sharing with other children · Unwillingness to leave parents What can I do to help my child? Create a safe environment for your child at home where it is okay to ask questions. By listening carefully to what your child says, you can reassure him or her and explain any misconceptions. Make it clear to your child that he or she is safe and keep daily activities as close to normal as possible. Pay attention to how much television your child is watching. You may want to turn off the television or at least watch it together and talk about what you see. What else can I do? Show your child that you aren't overly concerned. Remember that children often pick up cues from the adults around them. Even if you've worked hard to protect your child from fear, he or she may sense your fears or those of other adults or relatives. Often, children think discomfort is a sign that they shouldn't ask questions or talk about their worries. It can even seem to children that they've done something wrong. Give your child plenty of chances to ask questions and express his or her feelings. Sometimes it can be easier to ask about how other children are reacting as a way to begin the conversation How much information should I give my child? The amount and type of information you give your child depends on many things. This includes the child's age, past experiences and stage of development. Begin with basic facts and then ask questions to check your child's understanding. Remember that graphic details are not necessary. What if I need more help? If you are unable to talk with your child about his or her fears or need more advice, talk to your family doctor.
Planaria are able to reproduce either sexually or asexually, depending on the species and the circumstances of reproduction. Sexually reproducing planaria are hermaphrodites, and mating consists of partners exchanging sperm with each other before departing to lay eggs.Continue Reading Despite the similarity of planarian sexual reproduction to that of other animals, planaria are capable of reproducing asexually by binary fission. This mechanism takes advantage of the planarians' extreme facility to regenerate lost sections of their bodies. Once a planarian is split in half – a division that can take place along any axis of its body: latitudinal, longitudinal or coronal – each section of the body activates special cells called neoblasts. Neoblasts are adult stem cells that can divide into new cell lineages that later specialize into all the body's tissues. Neoblasts at the site of the break begin generating new tissue to replace the structures each half has lost, which results in two new flatworms. This process of reproducing via whole-body division can happen as a result of traumatic injury, or it can be initiated by the planarian itself as a normal process called transverse fission. When the planarian initiates the process, its body splits latitudinally between head and tail sections.Learn more about Animal Reproduction
8.a. Solving a Line Maze The next step up from simple line following is to teach your 3pi to navigate paths with sharp turns, dead ends, and intersections. Make a complicated network of intersecting black lines, add a circle to represent the goal, and you have a line maze, which is a challenging environment for a robot to explore. In a line maze contest, robots travel as quickly as possible along the lines from a designated start to the goal, keeping track of the intersections that they pass along the way. Robots are given several chances to run the maze, so that they can follow the fastest possible path after learning about all of the dead ends. The mazes that we will teach you to solve in this tutorial have one special feature: they have no loops. That is, there is no way to re-visit any point on the maze without retracing your steps. Solving this type of maze is much easier than solving a looped maze, since a simple strategy allows you to explore the entire maze. We’ll talk about that strategy in the next section. We also usually construct our mazes using only straight lines drawn on a regular grid, but this is mostly just to make the course easy to reproduce – the maze-solving strategy described in this tutorial does not require these features. For information on building your own course, see our tutorial on Building Line Following and Line Maze Courses. An additional resource for understanding simple, non-looped maze solving is this presentation (505k pdf) written by customer (and robotics professor) R. Vannoy. It doesn’t include any code, but it goes over some important concepts and contains a number of visuals to help illustrate the important points.
Ratio Tables are my FAVORITE math thing to do and to teach! They are an invaluable tool for ALL students. They can be intimidating to work with at first and therefore, require practice. Ratio Tables can be used for: - Solving fractions (fractions are ratios!) - Organizing your work - Brainstorming how to solve a problem The basics of Ratio Tables can be helpful later when your child is doing: - Coordinate Planes - All Fraction Operations Here is an example of using a Ratio Table when working with a recipe. Ratio Tables use multiplication and division operations. As well as adding and subtracting groups of ratios. You might see ratio tables more complex with decimals and fractions within them. I will show those next time! Here is another example. This table shows equivalent ratios, which are the same thing as fractions. 4/6 is equal to 2/3 and 12/18 by scaling down (division) or scaling up (multiplication). The COOLEST part of ratios tables is you can combine, or add, any equal ratios from the table, like 2/3 and 12/18, to get another equal ratio, 14/21. I challenge YOU to try them! As a mom of a busy toddler, I’m always looking for ways to engage him. My son loves to be challenged with scavenger hunts. Of course, I put a math twist on it! Simply have your child go find math related items in their room. (This could be played at a restaurant or other location of the well.) Here is a list of ideas for kids to find: - A certain number of objects - Objects with actual numbers on them Here are some other ideas to add to your game! - Offer a reward such as a treat or 10 minutes of cartoons - Make it a relay game by timing your child or setting up a running obstacle course as they find each object - Make it a timed race against other kids - Make it more of “Hide and Seek” with objects Here is a printable of different 2D and 3D shapes! SHAPES PRINTABLE Ready? Set? Go! I have the luxury of having iPads in my classroom. The app, Virtual Manipulatives! (VM), makes teaching fractions more interactive for students and it’s FREE! VM offers students fractions bars at their finger tips to create and compare. Fractions can be written as percents and decimals as well. Here is an example of what a 4th or 5th grader will have to solve. Adding and subtracting fractions with unlike denominators. They have to find a common denominator in order to solve. There are some algorithm steps to solving this but learning to model it first is key to understanding the “why“. To model this example: - Drag a 1/3 and 1/4 fraction bar - Decide what both fractions can be set equal to; in this case twelvthes (1/12) - 1/3 becomes 4 of the 1/12 - 1/4 becomes 3 of the 1/12 - Now add how many 1/12 there are - Answer is 7/12 Additionally, the app can be used to compare fractions, decimals, and percents. (A common mistake I see in older kids is the idea of percents being the same as whole numbers. For example, some students think 25% is the same as 25. IT IS NOT!) For a younger child, this is a great way to introduce the concept of having less than one. Taking half of something can be reinforced at a young age in many situations. This app is a great tool for parents to help their child. Virtual Manipulatives! is a must! I recently shared this video of my two-year old son doing a basic addition problem. A good friend asked if he really knew what he was doing or if he was repeating what I said. I argued that he absolutely knows the concept behind adding because we have modeled it many times. He doesn’t necessarily know what the word “plus” means yet but he understands the idea of putting more together. His understanding of “more” will help with addition problem-solving in the future. We moved on to modeling two fingers and adding thee more. I ask my son how many we have altogether. He counts and says, “five”. “More” and “altogether” will later translate to “add” and “equals”. Can your grade school student read an analog clock? I have middle school students who have strong “clock skills” and use them in other situations for problem solving. Students who know how to read a clock can do the following skills in their head when solving fraction, multiplication, ratio, and proportion problems. Using a clock to solve multiples of 5: Understanding fourths on a clock: Understanding thirds on a clock: Take the TIME to teach your kids how to read a clock! Subtraction is repeatedly taking some away. Subtraction leads to division, which is repeatedly subtracting the same number. Therefore! Start teaching your toddler the idea of taking something away. Food and treats work great! Here my son is about to eat his treats. First we count how many he has: 12 gummies. Then I let him eat 2 gummies. We talk about how they are gone and they aren’t coming back! We count the gummies again. I have him eat two more, count what’s left, and repeat until he has eaten all of them. Use these vocabulary words and phrases to describe subtracting: - Take away For older children, ask them the following questions: - What did we take away or eat over and over? (2 gummies) - How many did we start with? (12 gummies) - How many times did you eat 2 gummies? (6 times) Get creative and use fruit, candy, cereal, marshmallows, cookies, and more!
Statistics/Different Types of Data/PS Data can be classified as either primary or secondary. Primary data means original data that has been collected specially for the purpose in mind. It means someone collected the data from the original source first hand. Data collected this way is called primary data. The people who gather primary data may be an authorized organization, investigator, enumerator or they may be just someone with a clipboard. Those who gather primary data may have knowledge of the study and may be motivated to make the study a success. These people are acting as a witness so primary data is only considered as reliable as the people who gathered it. Research where one gathers this kind of data is referred to as field research. For example: your own questionnaire. Secondary data is data that has been collected for another purpose. When we use Statistical Method with Primary Data from another purpose for our purpose we refer to it as Secondary Data. It means that one purpose's Primary Data is another purpose's Secondary Data. Secondary data is data that is being reused. Usually in a different context. Research where one gathers this kind of data is referred to as desk research. For example: data from a book. Why Classify Data This Way? Knowing how the data was collected allows critics of a study to search for bias in how it was conducted. A good study will welcome such scrutiny. Each type has its own weaknesses and strengths. Primary Data is gathered by people who can focus directly on the purpose in mind. This helps ensure that questions are meaningful to the purpose but can introduce bias in those same questions. Secondary Data doesn't have the privilege of this focus but is only susceptible to bias introduced in the choice of what data to reuse. Stated another way, those who gather Secondary Data get to pick the questions. Those who gather Primary Data get to write the questions.
What is gravity? For you and me, the question is relatively straightforward—it’s what keeps our feet on the ground, computers on our laps, and water in our glass. But for physicists, it’s not that simple. Gravity forms the foundation of general relativity, the theory that much of modern physics is built on. It warps spacetime and allows galaxies, stars, and planets to form. It’s helped us make sense of the universe, but it’s also hard to reconcile with quantum mechanics, the leading theory that describes most of what general relativity doesn’t—the really small stuff. Physicists have been searching for years for ways to get gravity to agree with quantum mechanics. That search has produced string theory, causal dynamical triangulation, and others which seek to break gravity down into its component parts. Now, Stefano Liberati of the International School for Advanced Studies and Luca Maccione of Ludwig Maximilian University think they have a better approach. Spacetime, they say, can be understood as a liquid. A superfluid, really, composed of fundamental objects we may not have discovered yet. Spacetime’s properties then emerge, like water, which has emergent properties like fluidity and cohesion when H2O molecules are grouped together at the right temperature and pressure. Clara Moskowitz, reporting for Scientific American: In this analogy particles would travel through spacetime like waves in an ocean, and the laws of fluid mechanics—condensed matter physics—would apply. Previously physicists considered how particles of different energies would disperse in spacetime, just as waves of different wavelengths disperse, or travel at different speeds, in water. In the latest study Liberati and Maccione took into account another fluid effect: dissipation. As waves travel through a medium, they lose energy over time. This dampening effect would also happen to photons traveling through spacetime, the researchers found. Although the effect is small, high-energy photons traveling very long distances should lose a noticeable amount of energy, the researchers say. Liberati and Maccione have their eyes and instruments trained on the Crab Nebula, a source of high-energy X-rays and gamma rays. They’re hoping that changes in that radiation as it travels to Earth will help test their superfluid theory. Currently, the superfluid theory doesn’t seem to have many supporters. But then again, neither did Einstein at first. If Liberati and Maccione are proven correct, they could finally unite the two theories of physics into one.
Role Of Teacher. The Oxford English dictionary defines ‘teacher’ as the function or position that somebody has or is expected to have in an organization, in society or in a relationship. It further explains that a teacher is a person whose job is teaching, especially in the school. Teachers have two major roles in the classroom firstly, to create the conditions under which learning can take place; this is known as the social side of teaching. The second role is to impart, by a variety of means, knowledge to their learners; the task oriented side of teaching. Both roles complement each other and are difficult to separate from each other. The role of the teacher varies with the nature of the classroom activity at any given moment. The role can vary from controller to facilitator. The teacher can have many roles and these include; controller, assessor, organizer, prompter, participant, resource, tutor and observer. We should now look at some of these roles in greater detail. The teacher is the controller of what is said and done; when students speak and the language student’s use. As an assessor the teacher will check student’s performance and progress. We must distinguish between two forms of correction; the first of these is direct correction or on the spot correction for example pronunciation or grammar. The second of these is organized correction which consists of general feedback on essays, reports and assignments. The next role of the teacher is that of the organizer in which the teacher organizes the class, in every sense, and this is one of the teacher’s central roles. Success in this role underlies one’s overall success as a teacher. Examples of organizational aspects of the teacher’s role include giving clear instructions, organizing and setting up activities, managing the class in terms of seating and ensuring the teacher is visible and can be heard at all times. In the role of the prompter the teacher will encourage students to participate in all activities and the teacher is responsible to provide this encouragement. However, it must be noted that too much encouragement can sometimes be aggressive or can cause overreliance on the teacher. As the participant the teacher would become part of the class in activities. Care must be taken not to be over dominant. The next role to consider is that of the resource; for language students, the teacher is a walking resource on language. Very often, the teacher is called on to explain a new word or grammar point or give a translation. By allowing the students to get on with the activity, the teacher is free to move around and be available to anyone who needs consultation. As tutor the role is similar to that of resource. For example, when doing a project students may need some specific advice and guidance. As the observer the teacher, even when in other roles, needs to observe what is going on in the classroom at the same time. It is necessary to be alert at all times to the effects of our actions and student interactions. Through constantly observing and questioning our procedures and looking out for what leads to successful learning [and what does not], we can develop as teachers. The teacher becomes a performer “sage on the stage” and would have to perform at different levels at different times in the classroom. The teacher can therefore assume a role and act out that role. For all teachers the challenge is to go one developing into the teacher you most want to be. And there are many things a teacher must be responsible for. These areas of responsibility include organization, security, motivation, instruction and encouragement. Further responsibilities are modelling, guidance, information, feedback and evaluation. It is important to understand teacher-student role relationship as this relationship is at the heart of the classroom process and the role of the teacher or student is influenced by many factors including institution, learning tasks, motivation and physical setting. An understanding and awareness of the intricacies of the social and psychological processes of the classroom is central to effective teacher development. The teacher has to be many things including friendly, approachable, flexible, fair but firm, was prepared and sensitive to individual needs. The teacher must also be respectful, encouraging, motivating, resourceful and willing to explain and offer rationale. Learning styles in the classroom can vary from group to group and individual to individual and it is the teacher’s responsibility to include as many learner styles as possible. It is necessary to do this in order to facilitate all the different learning styles of the students and to draw out their individual strengths. This can be achieved by varying teaching methods and techniques and especially by using teacher roles as best as possible. Posted on March 31, 2012, in Teaching and tagged Classroom, Education, Learning, Organization, Oxford English Dictionary, Role, Student, Teacher, The Class (2008 film). Bookmark the permalink. 1 Comment.
Behaviour problems are a significant issue in classrooms everywhere. However, some teachers seem to have better control of a group of children than others. When teachers learn behaviour intervention strategies, it can improve the climate of the classroom, lead to less frustration, and promote more learning for all students. Some students need additional support to make good choices. Not all students are intrinsically motivated to make good choices, for a variety of reasons. Sometimes, the student has differing expectations at home, they may have underlying impulsivity issues, or they may be seeking negative attention. Listen And Learn Centre provides consultations to primary, secondary, independent and catholic schools regarding programs and interventions to assist with classroom management and also for children who are struggling with learning, behavioural or emotional difficulties. The aim of the consultation is to create increased learning and developmental opportunities for children within their current school setting. Listen And Learn Centre acts as an independent, experienced consultant to support the school to enhance a learning environment or a particular child’s wellbeing. This is likely to include: Establishing a cooperative partnership The centre collaborates and develops a cooperative partnership with staff at the school. They share the mutual goal of wanting to promote success for a student. Relationship building is an essential part of this process. Clarifying the problem Listen And Learn Centre assists staff at the school to define the problem in clear, concise, and measurable terms and then to develop goals and expectations. It is important to collect baseline data for future evaluation of the intervention and to help clarify the problem. It is also important to look for precursors to the behaviour. Listen And Learn Centre may conduct a range of psychoeducational assessments (see our psychoeducational assessments page) and school visits and observations. Environmental, instructional, and personal factors are all taken into consideration. Brainstorming and exploring intervention options The level of intervention must be determined first, and then brainstorming can begin. Several interventions may be suggested. Strategies may include recommendations on alternative ways to deliver instructions or monitor classroom tasks, behaviour modification strategies, recommendations on helpful seating arrangements in the room, programs and activities which strengthen a particular child’s skills in particular areas and so on. Selecting an intervention The suggested interventions are discussed and evaluated via meetings between the Listen And Learn Implementing the strategy The intervention is implemented for an agreed amount of time. Evaluating intervention effectiveness and follow-up The effectiveness of the intervention is measured by comparing current data with the baseline data. Modifications to the intervention are then made where needed. For more information regarding our consultations to schools in Melbourne and Regional Victoria Please contact us
Washington: Researchers have combined observations from two NASA missions to check out the moon's lopsided shape and how it changes under Earth's sway. The team drew on studies by NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, which has been investigating the moon since 2009, and by NASA's Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory, or GRAIL, mission. Because orbiting spacecraft gathered the data, the scientists were able to take the entire moon into account, not just the side that can be observed from Earth. Erwan Mazarico, a scientist with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Mass., who works at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md, said the deformation of the moon due to Earth's pull is very challenging to measure, but learning more about it gives us clues about the interior of the moon. The lopsided shape of the moon is one result of its gravitational tug-of-war with Earth. The mutual pulling of the two bodies is powerful enough to stretch them both, so they wind up shaped a little like two eggs with their ends pointing toward one another. On Earth, the tension has an especially strong effect on the oceans, because water moves so freely, and is the driving force behind tides. Earth's distorting effect on the moon, called the lunar body tide, is more difficult to detect, because the moon is solid except for its small core. Even so, there is enough force to raise a bulge about 20 inches (51 centimeters) high on the near side of the moon and similar one on the far side. The position of the bulge actually shifts a few inches over time. Although the same side of the moon constantly faces Earth, because of the tilt and shape of the moon's orbit, the side facing Earth appears to wobble. From the moon's viewpoint, Earth doesn't sit motionless but moves around within a small patch of sky. The bulge responds to Earth's movements like a dance partner, following wherever the lead goes. To search for the tide's signature, the scientists turned to data taken by LRO's Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter, or LOLA, which is mapping the height of features on the moon's surface. The team chose spots that the spacecraft has passed over more than once, each time approaching along a different flight path. More than 350,000 locations were selected, covering areas on the near and far sides of the moon.
The “Ring of Fire” refers to the physical geography of the region surrounding the Pacific Ocean, specifically, the undersea faults created by plate tectonics and the string of volcanoes that runs the 25,000 mile length of what is called “the Pacific Rim.” Its significance lies in its inherently unstable structure, which results in the greatest concentration of earthquakes and volcanic activity in the world. As the current continents formed 200 million years ago, the shifting plates in the region of what is now the Pacific Ocean pressed into each other, with smaller plates sliding under larger one. The resulting formations created the arc that runs along the western coasts of North and South America, the Russian Far East and China, and under Japan and Indonesia and ending several thousand miles off of Australia’s coast, and under New Zealand. The large number of active volcanoes in Chile, Mexico, Mexico, Central America, Washington State, Alaska, Japan, the Philippines, Indonesia and New Zealand give the arc its designation as the “Ring of Fire.” While major eruptions of active volcanoes are relatively rare, lava flows are active throughout the Pacific Basin and the volcanoes in Washington State and the southern Philippine island of Luzon have erupted in relatively recent years. The more constant threat to humanity lies in the large number of earthquakes that occur along the Ring of Fire, evident in the 2004 undersea earthquake and resulting tsunami that devastated portions of Asia, killing an estimated 150,000 people and leaving hundreds of thousands more homeless. Similarly, the 2011 undersea earthquake and tsunami that struck northeastern Japan caused considerable damage, including to the Fukushima nuclear power plant. The Pacific “Ring of Fire” is the most geologically unstable region on the planet. That is its significance, and that is a situation that will exist as long as the Earth exists.
Presentation on theme: "Language and Literature Introduction"— Presentation transcript: 1Language and Literature Introduction Lesson Objective:To explore an unseen textTo become familiar with how to approach a text 2Language and Literature Write down your definition of each term: Language and LiteratureShare with a partner and refine your definitionPair up with another pair and discuss your ideasLink up with the whole class. 3Language – the method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in an agreed wayLiterature – written works, esp. those whose value lies in beauty of language or in emotional effectCan these definitions ever be challenged?For example have you ever read something that you have valued and enjoyed but which may not be accepted as literature?Or have you ever read a text which uses language that is not beautiful but which had an emotional effect? 4What does FOOD mean to you? CultureSatisfying hungerCelebrationSharing with friendsExpensive vs CheapAt home or in a restaurant 5YOUR attitudes to FOOD What is your favourite food? Is there any food you absolutely hate?Is there a food which is traditional to your family?Which member of your family cooks the food?Do you have any bad memories of food from when you were a child? 6Approaching and Analysing Texts Pre-Reading:S – Subject - What is it about?P – Purpose - What is the purpose(s) of the text?A – Audience - Who is it written for?G – Genre - What genre does the text belong to?Post-Reading:When approaching any text, apply the following 5 questions:What does the text tell us?What does the author wish to convey?What does the author want us to think?How does the author structure the text to shape our response?What features of language are chosen to achieve desired effects? 7Key Terms 1 Lexis = the total ‘stock’ of words in a language (WORDS) Lexical field = a broad area of meaning that includes a number of words or phrases (WORDS THAT ARE SIMILAIR IN MEANING)Semantics = the study of the meaning of words (WHAT WORDS MEAN)Denotation = the literal meaning of a word (THE PRIMARY MEANING)Connotation = the associations and feelings linked to a word (ASSOCIATED MEANING) 8Meat is Murder Morrissey – well known for being a vegetarian Banned the other members of The Smiths from eating meat when on tour 9And the calf that you carve with a smile Is MURDER And the turkey you festively slice Is MURDER Do you know how animals die ? Kitchen aromas aren't very homely It's not comforting, cheery or kind It's sizzling blood and the unholy stench Of MURDER It's not natural, normal or kind The flesh you so fancifully fry The meat in your mouth As you savour the flavour Of MURDER NO, NO, NO, IT'S MURDER NO, NO, NO, IT'S MURDER Oh ... and who hears when animals cry?Heifer whines could be human cries Closer comes the screaming knife This beautiful creature must die This beautiful creature must die A death for no reason And death for no reason is MURDER And the flesh you so fancifully fry Is not succulent, tasty or kind It's death for no reason And death for no reason is MURDER 10On your copy of the lyrics... AlliterationRepetitionExaggerationEmotive languagePersonal pronounsOpinionsThese are all examples of what type of writing?So, the PURPOSE of this text is to ? 11Attitudes? Eating meat is ‘murder.’ Food can cause controversy Food can be the topic of debate / argumentFood is a lifestyle choiceHOMEWORK:Read TEXT 9 (Why we all need to eat red meat...) from the anthology and be prepared to discuss it next lesson.Complete a SPAG on the text. 12To use key terminology when analysing the grammar of a text Anthology – Text 9Lesson Objective:To use key terminology when analysing the grammar of a text 13The Anthology What is an ANTHOLOGY? Etymology The word anthology comes from Greek: ‘anthos’ means flower and ‘logia’ means gathering, so the literal meaning is ‘a gathering of flowers’.TASK – in pairsSkim through the contents page and look at the front coverDiscuss which texts will be LITERARY texts and which will be NON-LITERARY textsMake links between texts based on their titles and brief dicriptions 14The Anthology – An Introduction 33 TextsThe theme is FOOD‘Food Glorious Food’Different text typesPoemsPlaysNovelsNon-FictionTranscripts 15Key Terms 2Context = the social situation, including audience and purpose, in which language is used; this situation is an important influence on the language choices made by the speakers or writersPragmatics = the study of implied meanings and what is understood by language in a particular context 16Contexts of production and reception Who has produced it?Who is reading/hearing it?When was it produced?When is it being read or heard?Where was it produced?Where is it being read or heard?Why was it produced?Why is it being read or listened to?For whom was it intended?Who is reading or hearing it? 17Using linguistic frameworks Level of analysisExplanationGraphology and typographyConcerned with visual presentationPhonologyConcerned with the sounds of words and the effects they produceLexisThe choice of vocabularyGrammarConcerned with:Sentence typesSyntax – the order of wordsMorphology – the changes we make to words in a sentence according to the job they doPunctuationSemantics and PragmaticsThe literal and implied meanings of a text or individual wordsText structure and organisationHow a text begins, continues and ends – the ‘flow’ of ideas 18Grammar – sentence types Turn to page 4 of your bookletsSentence typeExample from text 9Effect of the sentence typecomplexcompoundsimpleexclamatoryimperativedeclarative 21Text 9 – what was it all about? Pre-Reading: S – Subject - What is it about? P – Purpose - What is the purpose(s) of the text? A – Audience - Who is it written for? G – Genre - What genre does the text belong to? 22Writing about grammar You have identified different sentence types. There are examples of each different sentence type in Text 9.Now, how do you write an ANALYSIS of this information?What is essential is that you write about linguistic features with the PURPOSE and AUDIENCE of the text in mind. 23Compound sentences – example analysis In the article ‘Text 9’, John Torode is trying to advise the reader about how to eat a balanced diet. He ends the article with two compound sentences. “We don’t have huge hunks of meat, but we do enjoy a roast. It’s all about balance – and not eating too much of anything.” The use of these two compound sentences helps him to advise his readers because it provides simple information which is easy to understand. It is almost as if he is ‘dumbing down’ the advice. This links to the rest of the article of which the subtext is that British people are like children when it comes to food, especially beef.
CARBON DIOXIDE AND TEMPERATURE LEVELS ARE INCREASING Carbon is continually recycled through what is known as the carbon cycle. Plants convert carbon dioxide into organic matter. When animals eat plants and perform respiration to obtain energy or when decomposers break down dead plants or animals, the carbon in organic matter is converted to carbon dioxide once again. Does all of this organic matter get recycled? No. Think of a swamp for a minute. Every year, new organic matter ends up at the bottom of the swamp. Not all of it returns to carbon dioxide of the air-every year the "muck" just gets thicker and thicker. For hundreds of millions of years, living things have been buried before their organic molecules could be decomposed. The remains of countless living things of the past were compressed over long periods of time to produce petroleum and coal. Coal and the derivatives of petroleum (gasoline, kerosene, propane, methane) are carbon-based molecules, just as were the organic molecules from which they were produced. In the following drawings, black dots represent carbon atoms and red dots represent hydrogen atoms. Over hundreds of millions of years, carbon atoms were taken from the air and were buried deep underground. Humans are changing that. Our energy needs drive us to dig and drill for this ancient coal, oil, and natural gas. When we burn these fossil fuels for energy (as in the combustion of two octane molecules in gasoline depicted below), the fossil fuels react with oxygen to form water and carbon dioxide. The combustion of fuel puts additional carbon dioxide into the air. The tar in the following picture is a petroleum derivative; this carbon originated in ancient living things and had been buried for millions of years. A gigaton of carbon is equal to about 2200 billion pounds. There is more carbon stored in fossil fuels than in the atmosphere, forests, soils, and surface ocean combined. (The deep ocean contains almost 8 times more carbon than stored in fossil fuels.) If all of fossil fuels were used, the global temperature would rise between 4.5 and 15oC which is warmer than the planet has been in the past 200 million years. One gallon of gas (which includes molecules of octane whose combustion is depicted below) weighs 7 pounds and produces 22 pounds of carbon dioxide (Bowen, 2005). Human activity is currently releasing an excess of 6-7 billion metric tons of C/year to the atmosphere which results in about a 3 billion ton/year gain in the atmosphere. Seventy percent of the global emissions of carbon dioxide results from fossil fuel use (WHO 1990a) although some results from deforestation (1-2 billion tons). Coal and oil currently contribute equal amounts of carbon into the atmosphere. Since world coal reserves are so much greater than world oil reserves, the percentage of carbon dioxide produced by coal emissions will probably increase. The average car releases 5 tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere per year. The burning of forests returns carbon into the air and the cropland and grassland which typically replace the lost forests only absorb 20% the CO2 that is absorb by the forest. What are the effects of putting additional carbon dioxide molecules into 1) CARBON DIOXIDE LEVELS ARE RISING Globally, humanity is releasing more carbon dioxide than in the past. Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, CO2 levels have risen 25%. In 2005, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was 379 parts per million which is significantly more than the amount prior to the preindustrial value of 280 ppm or the range during the last 650,000 years of 180-300 ppm (IPCC, Document I, 2007). . The amount of carbon dioxide released through human activity increased from 32 million tons/yr in the 1800s to 3.4 billion tons a year in the early 1900s. From the period of 1945 to the oil crisis in 1973 (at which point emissions were at 18.6 billion tons/yr), carbon dioxide emissions increased 5% a year (Bowen, 2005). Eight gigatons of carbon are being added to the year each year.If growth continues along its current path, this value will grow to 10 gigatons by 2025 and 15 by 2050 (Matthews, 2008). Obviously, as the global population increases, so will its production of carbon dioxide. For each 1% increase in global population, carbon dioxide output increases 1.4%. This population driven increase in carbon dioxide output is greatest in developing countries (Shi, 2003). Since 1980, the carbon emissions of China have increased 80%. Humanity is currently burning four times the amount of fossil fuel used in 1950. The past and current generation are estimated to have contributed two thirds of the carbon dioxide responsible for modern climate change (Friedlingstein, 2005). Regarding the total amount of emissions, the greatest amount of heat-trapping gases was released in the year 2004 (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2007).Those who live in cities are, on average, richer than those who live in rural areas; they also use more consumer goods and produce more trash and greenhouse gases (Normille, 2008). China and the US are about equal in the amount of carbon dioxide they produce and China will soon surpass the US in this category (Normille, 2008). America produces a disproportionate amount of carbon dioxide emissions. The average American releases more than 5 tons of carbon into the air per year (about 5.37 tons), making America the highest per capita emitter in the world. The average car releases 5 tons of carbon into the air per year. The United States produced 32% of the world's carbon dioxide during the period of 1950 to 2000 with an estimated total of 182 billion tons (Blatt, 2005). The amount of greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. (with its 260 million people) is equivalent to those of 2.6 billion people living in more than 150 countries (Speth, 2004). The amount of carbon dioxide release from fossil fuel use in America increased more than 17% from 1990 to 2000 (U.S. Greenhouse Gas Inventory Program, 2002). There is a plant which generates electricity in Ohio which burns 7.5 million tons of coal a year and produces almost as much carbon dioxide as the entire world produced in the year 1800 (Bowen, 2005). Although the Unites States only composes 5% of the world's population, we use 25% of the world's energy. In 2004, the U.S. used 20 billion barrels of petroleum, of which 13 billion were required for transportation (Lattin, 2007). --after Kemp, 2004 --after Raven, 2001 Of the global population, the billion people who live in the most developed countries use about half the global energy supply while the billion people who live in the least developed countries use only 4% of the global energy supply (IPCC, Document III, 2007). The following comparisons of per capita carbon emissions are drawn from the United Nations report on Population growth in 2005. Coal provides 60% of the energy used in China and China’s oil demand is second only to that of the United States (Soytas, 2006). Between 1950 and 1997, the number of cars in the world increased from 50 million to 580 million. In China, the number of cars has increased from 2.1 million in 2001 to 7.2 million in 2006. Passenger air travel is growing at 5% per year, faster than any other form of transportation. Not only have the number of personal vehicles greatly increased, but the weight and speed have increased at the expense of fuel economy. If the vehicles of the U.S. had remained comparable to the 1987 standard in weight and performance, modern fuel economy would be 24% greater than it is. Instead, the increase in vehicle weight (27%) and time required to increase speed from 0 to 60 mph (30%) has increased fuel consumption. A 10% weight reduction could decrease fuel consumption by 4-8%. In the U.S. and Japan, vehicle weight has increased 10-20% in the past 10 years (IPCC, Document III, 2007). The increase in the energy required for transport is expected to grow at 2% per year (with most of the increase in developing nations) and result in an 80% increase by the year 2030 (IPCC, Document III, 2007). Greenhouse gas emissions are currently increasing at a rate of 1.6% per year and the emissions released from fossil fuel consumption are increasing at 1.9% per year. The rate of increase after the year 2000 has been higher than that of the 1990s. Greenhouse gas emissions have increased 70% since 1970. Unless serious efforts to reduce emissions are enacted, emissions are expected to rise by 50% by the year 2030. Since the mid-1800s, fossil fuel consumption has released about 1100 gigatons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere (IPCC, Document III, 2007). One of the strategies to combat global warming which is being researched is that of carbon sequestration in which large quantities of carbon could somehow be stored in a form which would not affect levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Carbon sequestration could be accomplished by pumping carbon dioxide into strata of impermeable rock. Another technique could be to convert carbon from biomass into black, solid carbon and incorporate it into soil. Many soils already have high values of black carbon in them without ill effects (Fowles, 2007). 2) THE GLOBAL TEMPERATURE IS RISING The planet has gotten warmer in recent decades. Average global temperature increased 0.6 degrees Celsius in the 1900s. One third of this change occurred in the period from 1990 to 2000 (IPCC, 2001). The 24 warmest years since 1900 have all occurred since 1973. Nineteen of the twenty warmest years have occurred since 1980. The ten warmest years have all occurred since 1990 with 1998 and 2005 being tied for the hottest year on record. In the Northern Hemisphere, 2005 was the hottest year on record (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2007; Blatt, 2005; Nordell, 2003; Liu, 2005; Patz, 2002). Prior to 1990, the 1980s was the warmest decade on record. The temperature of wells in Northern Canada has increased about 2 degrees Celsius (Majorowicz, 2004). The average temperature in Antarctica has increased 5oF since 1945 (Blatt, 2005). The years 2005 and 1998 are the two warmest years on record (IPCC, Document I, 2007). Global temperature is predicted to increase throughout the 21st century. Global warming models predict that the climate will warm at a rate of .15 degrees or more per decade over the next several decades (Hansen, 2001; WHO, 1990a) It is currently estimated that the average global temperature will increase by 1.4 to 5.8 degrees Celsius by the end of the 21st century (IPCC, 2001; Huntington, 2003). By the end of the 21st century, the global temperature will be higher and increasing more quickly than at any time in the past 140,000 years (Last, 1993). --after Kemp, 2004 Between 1961 and 2003, the oceans have warmed about 0.1 degree Celsius. If emission regulations could result in a peak of emissions in the next 15 years followed by a 50% reduction by the year 2050, the global temperature rise could be limited to 2.8 to 3.2 oC above the level prior to the Industrial Revolution. If delays in implementation do not peak emissions in the next 15 years, global temperature rise will be greater (IPCC, Document III, 2007).
Protein in Foods Lesson 6 of 11 Objective: SWBAT identify foods and liquids which contain protein. Because my students tend to know a lot about protein, I begin the lesson by asking my students to share what they already know using the protein KWL. I ask students to think about what they already know about protein and to record their ideas in the "K"(know) section of that chart. Next, I ask students to think about what they would like to learn about protein. I tell students that this is their opportunity to ask questions about things they are curious about. After students record their questions in the "W"(want to know) section, I ask students to share their charts with their science groups. This activity is beneficial because it activates student prior knowledge and uncovers misconceptions. I purposefully do not correct any students misconceptions until the end of the lesson. This strategy allows students to conduct the lab and refine their own thinking prior to any teacher corrections. The procedures in the protein test lab differ greatly from those in the other labs in this unit. Because of these difference, I provide a lot of instruction to students prior to the lab to ensure that all students can successfully complete the lab. In this lab, students will use both test strips and developing solution (equal parts white vinegar and rubbing alcohol) to determine whether or not the foods and liquids contain protein. I begin the lab portion of the lesson by discussing how to handle test strips and read the results. If the students handle the test srips directly, this can affect the test results. I ask students to use tweezers to place the test strips into the test tray and to transfer the test strips to the test solution. I also set up a protein test station with a tray of solution prepared for each food and liquid the students will test. I distribute a copy of the protein lab worksheet to each student. I ask students to predict which foods and liquids have protein and to record their predictions on their lab sheet. I then review procedures for the lab. I inform students that they must place a test strip in each section of the test trays after adding the food and liquid samples. I give students 10 -15 minutes to accomplish this part of the lab. I then announce each food and liquid sample and have all students bring their test strips to the developer solution at the same time. This is useful because the test strips must be immersed in the developer solution for 5 minutes and then be read promptly. Having all students add their test strips to the solution at the same time makes it easier to read the results. After the test strips have been immersed for 5 minutes, I call students to read and record the results. After all students have viewed the test strips, I ask students to share their results with one another. As students share, I record the results on the class chart. Since all test strips are developed in the same solution, there is little variation in results. I close the lesson by asking students to complete the "L" section of KWL chart. To do so, students write anything that they have learned. These statements can range from the obvious ("Milk has protein") to more complex generalizations based on the results ("No junk foods we tested have proteins"). I also encourage students to revisit both of the two previously completed sections of the KWL chart. In the "K" section, I ask students to idenitfy any misconceptions that they recorded in the section. I also ask students to look in the "W" section and put a star by any questions that were answered in the day's lab. By revisiting the KWL chart, students can address misconceptions, refine their thinking, and select questions that need further research or exploration. A photo of a student's completed KWL can be found HERE.
to THE MAKING OF A NATION – American history in VOA Special English. Abraham Lincoln won the presidential election in November of eighteen sixty. When he took office several months later, he faced the most serious crisis in American history. The southern states had finally acted on their earlier threats. They had begun to leave the Union over the issue of slavery. This week in our series, Harry Monroe and Kay Gallant talk about this critical time in American history. The southern states did not want Abraham Lincoln to win the election of eighteen sixty. Lincoln was a Republican. And the Republican Party opposed slavery. Lincoln never said he wanted to end slavery in the South. He did not believe anyone had the right to do so. Yet he did not want to see slavery spread to other parts of the United States. Lincoln told southerners: "You think slavery is right and should be extended, while we think it is wrong and should be limited. That, I suppose, is the trouble. It surely is the only important difference between us." Pro-slavery extremists felt this difference was enough. And they were sure Lincoln and his Republicans would soon win control of Congress and the Supreme Court. Before long, they thought, the Constitution would be changed. Slavery would become illegal everywhere. Even if this did not happen, southerners were worried. Unless slavery could spread, they said, the slave population in the South would become too large. In time, blacks and whites would battle for control. One or the other would be destroyed. So even before the presidential election, southerners began discussing what they would do if Abraham Lincoln won. Early in October, the governor of South Carolina, William Gist, wrote letters to the governors of other southern states. He said they should agree on what action to take if Lincoln became Gist said South Carolina would call a state convention as soon as the election results were made official. If any state decided to leave the Union, he said, South Carolina would follow. If no other state decided to leave, then South Carolina would secede by itself. Governor Gist received mixed answers. Two states -- Alabama and Mississippi -- said they would not secede alone. But they said they would join others that made this decision. Two more states -- Louisiana and Georgia -- said they would not secede unless the north acted against them. And one state -- North Carolina -- said it had not yet decided what to do. No southern governor, except William Gist of South Carolina, seemed willing to lead the South out of the Union. Abraham Lincoln was elected president on November sixth, eighteen sixty. South Carolina exploded with excitement at the news. To many of the people there, Lincoln's victory was a signal that ended the state's ties to the Union. To them, it was the beginning of southern Both United States Senators from South Carolina resigned. So did a federal judge and the collector of federal taxes. United States flags were lowered. State flags were raised in their place. The state legislature agreed to open a convention on December seventeenth. The convention would make the final decision on leaving the Union. Several other southern states did the same. This idea of leaving the Union -- secession -- split North and South just as much as slavery. Southerners claimed they had the right to secede peacefully. Northerners disagreed. They said secession was treason. They said it would lead to civil war. In the months before Lincoln's inauguration, President James Buchanan tried to deal with the situation. First he proposed a convention of all the states. The purpose of the convention would be to work out differences between North and South. The southern members of Buchanan's cabinet rejected this idea. The second proposal was a strong policy statement on secession. The statement would include an opinion by the attorney general. It said the government could use force, if necessary, to keep states in the Union. The southern cabinet members rejected this idea, too. President Buchanan had to settle for a moderate policy statement on secession. It said the president could send troops into a state to help federal marshals enforce the rulings of federal courts. But if federal judges resigned, there would be no federal court rulings to enforce. Therefore, to send troops to a state where federal officers had resigned -- such as South Carolina -- would be an act of war against the state. And only Congress had the constitutional power to declare war. Buchanan accepted this statement. He was only too happy to let Congress decide what to do. There was little chance that Congress could do anything. Congressmen from both North and South already had made decisions that could not, and would not, be changed easily. Most of the congressmen from states in the deep south supported secession. They did not want to remain in the Union. Many congressmen from states in the North had been elected because they promised to keep slavery from spreading to the western territories. They did not plan to break their A few lawmakers hoped President Buchanan, in his yearly message to Congress, might propose a compromise. Buchanan began by denouncing northern Abolitionists. He said they were responsible for the present problem. Their interference, he said, had created a great fear of slave rebellions in the South. Then Buchanan called on the South to accept the election of Abraham Lincoln. He said the election of a citizen to the office of president should not be a reason for dissolving the Union. Buchanan declared that the constitution gave no state the right to leave. But, he admitted, if a state did secede, there was little the federal government could "The fact is," Buchanan said, "that our Union rests upon public opinion. It can never be held together by the blood of its citizens in civil war. If it cannot live in the hearts of its people, then it must one day die." Buchanan proposed to Congress that it offer a constitutional amendment on the question of slavery. He said the amendment should recognize the right to own slaves as property in states where slavery was permitted. It should protect this right in all territories until the territories became states. And it should end all state laws that interfered with the return of escaped slaves to their owners. No one liked President Buchanan's message to Congress. Northerners did not like his declaration of federal weakness in the face of secession. Southerners did not like his declaration that secession The message did nothing to change the situation. Soon after it was read to Congress, South Carolina opened its Delegates to the convention would make the final decision if South Carolina would remain in the Union or secede. There was little question how they would vote. A committee wrote a secession resolution. The resolution said simply that the people of South Carolina were ending the agreement of seventeen eighty-eight in which the state had approved the Constitution of the United States. It said the Union existing between South Carolina and the United States of America was being dissolved. The committee offered the resolution to the convention on December twentieth, eighteen sixty. There was no debate. The delegates voted immediately. No one voted against it. South Carolina had seceded. But what must it do now. There was the problem of property in South Carolina owned by the federal government. The convention continued to meet to work out details of South Carolina's new position in the world. That will be our story next week. Our program was written by Frank Beardsley. The narrators were Harry Monroe and Kay Gallant. Transcripts, MP3s and podcasts of our programs can be found, along with historical images, at voaspecialenglish.com. Join us again next week for THE MAKING OF A NATION -- an American history series in VOA Special English. is program #93 of THE MAKING OF A NATION
Out of Africa Somewhere between 80,000 and 50,000 years ago, a single migration out of Africa became the forebears of all non-Africans. What drove this first migration and what does that tell us about our evolution? In 1967 a team led by Richard Leakey found two hominid skulls and some bones near the Omo River in Ethiopia. And 38 years later dating techniques established that they were 195,000 years old. More recent dating of fossils found at Jebel Irhoud in Morocco suggest that Homo sapiens, or anatomically modern man, evolved in networks across Africa beginning 300,000 years ago. In 2016 studies were published by three separate teams of geneticists who collected and examined DNA from 787 people from hundreds of indigenous populations around the globe. They revealed that all non-Africans today trace their ancestry to a single population. Our species tried multiple times to leave Africa as climatic changes made it necessary and possible. A jaw bone recently found in a cave in Israel dates from between 177,000 and 194,000 years ago. People in Papua New Guinea carry a trace of DNA from an earlier wave of Africans who left the continent as long as 140,000 years ago, and then disappeared. One group of H. sapiens, discovered in Israel, left Africa across the area we now know as the Sahara desert at a time when it was fertile. They died out when drought returned to the region, leaving skeletal remains that are between 120,000 and 90,000 years old. Sophisticated tools that date back as far as 100,000 years ago have been found in Saudi Arabia and India; and Chinese scientists have found teeth belonging to H. sapiens that appear to be as old as 120,000 years. Current studies of climate change and fossil data indicate that from about 125,000 years ago Homo sapiens traveled out of Africa at least four times and reached China and Europe simultaneously around 90,000 to 80,000 years ago. These migrations occurred from 106,000 to 94,000 years ago, 89,000 to 73,000 years ago, 59,000 to 47,000 years ago, and 45,000 to 29,000 years ago. According to University of Hawaii at Mano climate scientist Axel Timmermann the era around 60,000 to 70,000 years ago— generally thought to be the main timeframe for modern human dispersal out of Africa—was one of the most extended drought periods in northern Africa, Saudi Arabia, and the eastern Mediterranean in the last 125,000 years, “Walking into the Arabian Peninsula around 60,000 to 70,000 years ago,” he remarks, “would have been a bad choice.” At whatever precise period they left, our successful human journey out of Africa was possible thanks to falling sea levels when, researchers estimate, we managed to cross into Arabia via the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait on the Red Sea. Scientists estimate that lower sea levels due to the onset of the ice age would have meant that the gap between the continents was only about 8 miles, which they somehow managed to cross. It seems that from the very start, human beings have moved on in search of better living conditions: food, space and relative safety. As new births swelled their numbers, a group would divide and so prevent the discord that emerges in large foraging populations. One group would remain and the other would move on to unclaimed territory. Geneticists’ maps show that we travelled from Arabia to India to Japan and Australia. 40,000 years ago we were sharing the planet with Neanderthals, Denisovans, Homo floresiensis and possibly the last remnants of Homo erectus. Genetic differences that distinguish modern humans from Neanderthals are the same as those that distinguish other animals from each other, such as dogs from wolves. Known as the neural crest, this cluster of cells causes physical differences, like our comparatively smaller brain, and affects the adrenal glands which play a key role in fear and stress. This suggests that as humans recognized the benefits of collaborative behavior, population densities increased, and, as they did so, it became beneficial for us to favor individuals with greater abilities to form and contribute to groups. As the psychologist Thomas Suddendorf points out in his book The Gap, it’s only because all the other hominids went extinct – along with, until quite recently, all evidence of their existence – that we began to think of ourselves as vastly different and superior from other primates. Thanks to DNA studies, we know that the common ancestor of all non-Africans interbred with Neanderthals at least four times and that the Melanesian peoples also interbred with Denisovans. The complete story continues to unfold: genomes of present-day Aboriginal Australians, for example, are thought to perhaps include traces of an ancient liaison with an unknown hominid group. “What you can see from the DNA of all non Africans is that they all originate from one small band of Africans that came across the Red Sea. … If it was easy to get out of Africa we would have seen multiple African lineages in the DNA of non-Africans but that there was only one successful exit suggests it must have been very tough to get out. It was much drier and colder then.” says Dr. Stephen Oppenheimer, a geneticist at the school of anthropology at Oxford University, who has also led research on the genetic origins of humans outside Africa. Carl Zimmer, New York Times Chipped rocks found in western China indicate that human ancestors ventured from Africa earlier than previously believed. Genelle Weule and Felicity James, ABC News New excavations of a rock shelter near Kakadu National Park indicate humans reached Australia up to 18,000 years earlier than archaeologists previously thought. Unprecedented Study of Aboriginal Australians Points to One Shared Out of Africa Migration for Modern Humans Tom Kirk, Phys.Org Outside Africa, Australia has one of the longest histories of continuous human occupation, dating back about 50,000 years.The first significant investigation into the genomics of Aboriginal Australians has uncovered several major findings about early human populations. Melissa Hogenboom, BBC Archaeological evidence of people living in the Bluefish Caves in the northern Yukon Territory of western Canada as early as 24,000 years ago now suggests that the people who left Siberia did so 10,000 years earlier than previously thought. They remained genetically and geographically isolated in Beringia until about 16–15,000 years ago before dispersing south. Leslea Hlusko, RealClear Science Finds over the past decade suggest that the urge to go to sea and the cognitive and technological means to do so predates modern humans and may have begun with Neanderthals thousands of years earlier than we thought. Carl Zimmer, New York Times Skin pigmentation genes are shared across the globe; one of them, for example, lightens skin in both Europeans and hunter-gatherers in Botswana. The gene variants were present in humanity’s distant ancestors, even before our species evolved in Africa 300,000 years ago. Our ancient human ancestors once lived only in Africa, in tiny bands of a few thousand hunter-gatherers. Then we moved out, spreading rapidly to every corner of the planet. How did we acquire the skills, technology and talent to thrive in every environment on earth – cross the Sahara on foot, survive frigid ice ages, and sail to remote Pacific islands? See also the NOVA Evolution website. Carl Zimmer, New York Times Studies of ancient European DNA, extracted from 170 skeletons found in countries from Spain to Russia, indicate that today’s Europeans descend from three groups who moved into Europe at different stages of history beginning with hunter-gatherers who arrived some 45,000 years ago. Bob Holmes, New Scientist Stone tools dating from about 125,000 years ago excavated in the desert near the Straits of Hormuz suggest that Homo sapiens managed to spread across the world much earlier than previously thought – and it was a favorable climate, not a sophisticated culture, that allowed them to go. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History Explore how environmental changes influenced evolution, and how dramatic climate instability over the past 6 million years increased our ability to adapt.
Seventy four years ago today, on the 3 September 1939, Britain and France had declared war on Germany after it ignored their ultimatums to withdraw German troops from Poland. This kicked off six long years of World War II. Germany’s accelerating power fuelled by Hitler's aggressive acquisition of territory began in 1936 when he used his army to reoccupy the Rhineland area of Germany. It was a risky endeavor for Hitler, because the Rhineland bordering France had been designated as a demilitarised zone by the ‘Versailles Treaty’, which had previously put an end to World War I. Amazingly, Hitler's bombastic plan was met without resistance which encouraged him to set his sights on absorbing Austria and the German dominated Sudetenland area of Czechoslovakia into his Third Reich, in 1938. Germany's power was growing as fast as Hitler's ego, and while Britain and France never reacted with much gusto they were starting to become uneasy over Hitler's territorial ambitions. France and Britain though were unprepared for war so decided to follow a foreign policy of appeasement to try and maintain peace in Europe by making limited concessions to German demands. Negotiations took place in Munich on September 29 1938, and Chamberlain, Hitler, and Mussolini were joined by French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier. Mussolini presented a plan which called for the Sudetenland to be ceded to Germany in exchange for guarantees that it would mark the end of German territorial expansion. The Czechoslovaks were forced to submit when informed that should a war occur they would be held responsible. Quickly picking up on Britain and France's fear of war, Hitler soon occupied the remainder of Czechoslovakia by the following year in March 1939. The Munich Agreement never put power-hungry Hitler off, and on August 23,1939, he announced that he had signed a non-aggression treaty with the Soviet Union. This meant that he could now invade Poland without fear of Russian resistance. Concerned that Poland would now be swallowed up by Germany, Chamberlain concluded an Anglo-Polish military alliance on August 25, 1939 that declared that Britain guaranteed Poland's independence and vowed to come to her aid if attacked. France soon joined Britain in support of Poland. Originally scheduled to begin in the early morning hours of August 26, the attack on Poland was delayed after Britain announced that her guarantee of Polish independence had been formalised by an alliance between the two countries on August 25. Hitler postponed his attack to September 1. The Germans came up with a story that Polish troops had crossed their border so that they could say they were attacking in retaliation. Tensions were now running high in Europe. Britain and France began mobilisation of their armies while Italy's Mussolini desperately tried to intervene with Hitler to forestall war. At 9am on September 3, Britain delivered an ultimatum stating that if hostilities did not stop by 11 AM, a state of war would exist between Great Britain and Germany. Germany did not respond and at 11:15 on September 3, 1939 Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain announced on the radio that Britain was at war with Germany."This morning the British Ambassador in Berlin handed the German Government a final Note stating that, unless we heard from them by 11 o'clock that they were prepared at once to withdraw their troops from Poland, a state of war would exist between us. I have to tell you now that no such undertaking has been received, and that consequently this country is at war with Germany. You can imagine what a bitter blow it is to me that all my long struggle to win peace has failed. Yet I cannot believe that there is anything more or anything different that I could have done and that would have been more successful. Up to the very last it would have been quite possible to have arranged a peaceful and honourable settlement between Germany and Poland, but Hitler would not have it..." Hear Chamberlain's radio message here: News of war came as a shock to many people in Britain and the country was ill prepared and its war potential only matched the power of Germany when combined with that of France. Do you have an ancestor who fought for Britain in World War II? Why not log on to Forces War Records and search our vast collection of WWII records to find out more about your ancestors – there could be a war hero in your family just waiting to be discovered, and remembered…
Scientists are studying the deepest erupting volcano ever discovered, West Mata Volcano, located 4000 feet down in the Pacific Ocean, in an area bounded by Fiji, Tonga and Samoa. The volcano was discovered and recorded using ‘Jason’, a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) piloted by Albert Collasius. Using a joystick, he moved Jason to within 10 feet of the eruption where the ROV’s robotic arms could collect rock, water, and biological specimens. Unexpectedly, the West Mata Volcano is producing boninite lava. This type of lava has only been seen in extinct volcanoes, never before in active ones. It is extremely hot, and the surrounding water is as acidic as battery acid or stomach acid. Nevertheless, diverse microbes and a type of shrimp were found in the vent water. Genetic tests are underway to determine whether these shrimp are the same species as the specimens collected from seamounts 3,000 miles away. Because geologists believe that most volcanic activity occurs in the deep ocean, they were very keen to observe a deep sea eruption. Until now, they haven’t been able to catch an eruption in the act.They hope this new data will provide a better understanding of how the Earth’s crust is recycled and formed on the sea floor. For more photos, look here.

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.