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Lagarostrobos franklinni
Huon Pine
What is Huon pine?
The Huon pine Lagarostrobos franklinii is a conifer and is endemic to Tasmania. It is the only member of the genus Lagarostrobos. Related species from the family Podocarpaceae, originating from the ancient supercontinent Gondwana, are found in Chile, Malaysia and New Zealand.
How long does it live?
The Huon pine is Australia's oldest living tree and is one of the oldest living organisms on earth. Individuals have been known to reach an age of 3,000 years. Fossil records from a tree found in the south-west of Tasmania were dated at 3,462 years. (Carder A., 1995). Only the bristle-cone pine of North America exceeds it in age.
Growth rate and reproduction
The Huon pine grows at the incredibly slow rate of between 0.3 – 2 mm per year in diameter. Despite such slow growth the tree may attain heights of 40 m and commonly reaches 20 m to 25 m in height. The foliage of the Huon pine consists of tiny scales closely pressed to the stalk.
Huon pines produce pollen and seeds from small cones that are about 3 mm long. Male and female cones are produced on separate trees. A small number of trees produce both male and female cones, though this is quite rare.
Reproduction occurs in 'mast years'. Every 5 – 7 years a mass seeding occurs. Seeds are dispersed a short distance around the tree except where they land in water and are transported downstream. Huon pines also reproduce vegetatively. They do this by layering. Tree branches reaching the ground start to root and establish themselves as a new tree, which eventually breaks away from the parent. Branches breaking off trees can also take root.
Where does it grow?
Huon pines are found in the west and southwest of Tasmania where they grow among river-bank rainforest and also in a few subalpine lake shore forests. They are usually killed by fire and are drought sensitive, so are restricted to cool, wet areas.
Huon pines are often associated with rainforest species such as myrtle (Nothofagus cunninghamii), leatherwood (Eucryphia lucida) and sassafras (Atherosperma moschatum).
In this way populations such as a forest stand at Mt Read, which have no female trees, continue to survive. It is believed that the Mt Read stand has been regenerating in the absence of female trees for more than 10,000 years, although no individual trees are more than 1,500 years old.
Some of the most accessible sites to see Huon pines are: the Tahune Forest Reserve near Geeveston on the Picton River; the Arthur-Pieman River State Reserve near Corinna; the Teepookana Forest Reserve; the heritage landing on the Gordon River on the west coast; and near Newall Creek on the Mount Jukes Road south of Queenstown.
Depar tment of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment
Use of Huon pine
Huon pine has been prized as a timber since the early 1800s. One of the reasons for establishing a convict settlement at Sarah Island in Macquarie Harbour was to harvest Huon pine from the Gordon River. From 1822 until 1833 convict piners were forced to cut timber and float log rafts from the lower reaches of the river to the Sarah Island settlement. There they were pit sawn into frames and planks to build ships for the Government. Pining continued as a commercial operation after the convict era. Felled trees continued to be floated down the river to Sarah Island where they were picked up and taken to the mill at Strahan. Huon pine is one of the few native timbers that floats when green. From 1890 till the present day, the small port of Strahan, on Tasmania's west coast has been the main centre of pining. However, from 1850 until 1880, the Davey River settlement in the southwest, supplied the majority of the market.
The rich creamy yellow wood is soft, durable, smooth, oily and light weight. The wood is very easy to work with and takes a high polish. Huon pine is probably the most durable of Australian timbers, and logs which apparently have lain on the ground for several hundred years are still being harvested and milled. The durability of the wood is due to the presence of the essential oil, methyl eugenol, which gives Huon pine its unique odour. The oil also has preservative qualities and deters insect attack. It has been said 'the only thing slower than a Huon pine's growth is its decay!' As a consequence it is recognised as an excellent timber for building boats, furniture, and for joinery and turning.
Huon pine is still available as a sawlog for the production of crafts. Sources include areas flooded by Hydro Tasmania schemes and previously heavily cut-over areas, particularly the Teepookana State Forest near Strahan.
The annual sawlog cut of 500 cubic metres per year from these sources is expected to last more than a century. Because it thrives in some of the roughest terrain, it has been more difficult to harvest than other Australian timbers. This has resulted in Huon pine traditionally being at least triple the price of common hardwoods, and, with its scarcity today, that has increased to a factor of six or seven.
How much Huon pine is left?
Estimates of the area of living Huon pine vary, but are in the order of 10,500 hectares. In addition there are about 800 hectares of standing, fire-killed pine. The current area of remaining pine is the remnant of a much wider original range that has been reduced by fire, inundation, logging and mining. Today most of the remaining stands are well protected within reserves, the majority within the World Heritage Area.
Further information
Kerr G. and McDermott H. (1999) The Huon Pine Story. A History of Harvest and Use of a Unique Timber. Mainsail Books, Melbourne.
Contact
Biodiversity Conservation Branch:DPIPWE 134 Macquarie Street, Hobart. 7000
Phone: (03) 6233 6556
Fax: (03) 6233 3477
March 2011 © State of Tasmania
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Money and the money supply
Contributed by the Central Bank of Seychelles as part of its Awareness Programme.
Money is any object or record that is generally accepted as payment for goods and services and repayment of debts. This can include notes and coins, as well as electronic forms of money. There are many different currencies of money such as the US dollar, the UK pound and the Euro. In Seychelles, the Seychelles rupee is used. Nearly all money systems are based on what is known as fiat money. Fiat money does not have any value as a physical commodity but has value simply because the government has declared that it must be accepted as a form of payment within the country. As such, because the Government has declared the Seychelles rupee to be the domestic currency and as such has declared its value, the rupee is used as a form of payment within Seychelles.
Money has been thought to have 3 main functions. Firstly, it acts as a medium of exchange. This simply means that it can be exchanged for goods and services. It therefore eliminates the need for barter which proved to be inefficient. Barter is the method of exchange whereby goods and services are directly exchanged for other goods and services. This is difficult because it requires a double coincidence of wants. For example, if money did not exist and a fisherman wanted fruit, he would have had to find someone that grew fruit and also wanted to exchange it for fish. The introduction of money removes the need to find someone who has what you want and wants what you have.
Its second function is that it acts as a store of value. This means that its value should remain stable over time unlike, for example, a car which loses value over time. Thirdly, money can act as a unit of account. This means that it can be recorded that a certain amount of money exists without that money having any actual physical existence. This can be seen when payment is made by cheque. The number representing how much money is in the corresponding bank account decreases without requiring the money to be obtained in physical form for payment.
Money must also be easily portable, durable and very difficult to counterfeit (since if people could produce it themselves it would lose value). That is why notes and coins have various security features to prevent counterfeiting, and are light, long-lasting and thus easy to transport. It also needs to be divisible. If only R500 notes existed, it would be very difficult to buy small items and that is why money is divided into notes and coins of lesser value.
Money must also be in limited in supply in that there is a sole supplier, which in most countries is the central bank. The money supply is the total amount of money available in an economy at a particular point in time. A country's central bank can increase the money supply by, for example, "printing" money or by buying government bonds from the private sector. The central bank can decrease the money supply by, for example, selling government bonds or by encouraging commercial banks to hold more money deposits at the central bank. The latter can be achieved through market operations or minimum reserve requirements.
However, the central bank does not have complete control of the money supply. Commercial banks can effectively create money by giving loans thus increasing the money supply. Loans increase the volume of deposits in the system, because not all money must be present in physical form, and by doing so increase the money supply.
Growth in the money supply, however, will generally cause inflation. This is because an increasing money supply, when the supply of goods and services remains constant usually means that people will have more money to spend on goods and services. The resulting increase in demand for goods and services will drive up prices.
There are several different measures of the money supply generally referred to by 'M' followed by a number, usually ranging from M0 to M3. In Seychelles we have M1, M2 and M3. M1 consists of the currency with the public and transferable deposits. M2 consists of M1 plus fixed term and savings deposits. M3 consists of M2 plus foreign currency deposits. Furthermore, within these measures there are components of money supply – transferable deposits, fixed deposits, foreign currency deposits and so on. These components and their variation over the past 10 years can be viewed in the graph below.
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This policy is based on statutory expectations from the New Curriculum 2014. Year groups have not been included, to allow the School flexibility in deciding appropriate methods for different groups of children.
Mereworth Community Primary School Progression towards a standard method of Calculation January 2015
Introduction:
The National Curriculum 2014 provides a structured and systematic approach to the teaching of calculation. At Mereworth Community Primary School, we have developed a consistent approach to the teaching of written calculation methods in order to establish consistency, continuity and progression throughout the school.
Aims:
Children should be able to choose an efficient method, mental, written or ICT (calculator) appropriate to the given task. By the end of Year 6, children working at Age Expected or Exceeding will have been taught, and be secure with, a compact standard method for each operation.
General Progression:
- Establish mental methods, based on a good understanding of place value
- Develop use of empty number line to help mental imagery and aid recording
- Use of informal jottings to aid mental calculations
- Use partitioning and recombining to aid informal methods
- Develop expanded methods into compact standard written form
- Introduce expanded written methods
Before carrying out a calculation, children will be encouraged to consider :
- Can I do it in my head? (using rounding, adjustment)
- The size of an approximate answer (estimation)
- Could I use jottings to keep track of the calculation?
- Do I need to use an expanded or compact written method?
When are children ready for written calculations?
Addition and subtraction:
- Do they know addition and subtraction facts to 20?
- Can they add three single digit numbers mentally?
- Do they understand place value and can they partition numbers?
- Can they add and subtract any pair of two digit numbers mentally?
- Can they explain their mental strategies orally and record them using informal jottings?
Multiplication and Division:
- Do they know the 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11 and 12 times tables and corresponding division facts?
- Do they understand 0 as a place holder?
- Do they know the result of multiplying by 1 and 0?
- Can they multiply two and three digit numbers by 10 and 100?
- Can they double and halve two digit numbers mentally?
- Can they use multiplication and division facts they know to derive mentally other multiplication and division facts that they do not know?
- Can they explain their mental strategies orally and record them using informal jottings?
These lists are not exhaustive but are a guide for the teacher to judge when a child is ready to move from informal to formal methods of calculation. It is also important that children's mental methods of calculation are practised and secured alongside their learning and use of an efficient written method for each operation.
Point to note:
The correct terminology should be used when referring to the value of digits to support the children's understanding of place value.
E.g. Tens and Ones and 68 + 47 should be read 'sixty add forty' not 'six add four' Teachers should refer to the key vocab document for key vocabulary for each year group.
Progression of Written Calculations
Progression in Addition
Stage 2 Develop pencil and paper methods for additions that cannot be done mentally
35 + 52
5 + 2 = 7
30 + 50 = 80
80 + 7 =87
(no formal layout, informal jottings)
- Continue informal partitioning, reinforce use of empty number line.
- Expanded written method, horizontal layout. (NO 'carrying').
Progression in Subtraction
Stage 1 Understand the operation of subtraction and use the related vocabulary
- Use of pictures and visual aids to record calculations
- Record simple mental subtractions in a number sentence using – and =
- Use jottings to support mental subtractions (empty numberline)
- Develop use of vocabulary
Children to decide how to set out numberlines i.e. the number of steps to use
34 - 27
Stage 2 Develop pencil and paper methods for subtractions that cannot, at this stage, be done mentally (two-digit numbers)
67 – 25
Counting on to find a difference
Using multiples of 10
-
Subtraction can also be recorded using partitioning to answer equivalent calculations that could then be carried out mentally
74 – 27 = 74 – 20 – 7 = 54 – 7 = 47
Children need to be introduced to the concept of the unknown number:
62 - = 27
Stage 3 Expanded written methods showing vertical layout but with no decomposition
- Expanded decomposition
- Extend to 3-digit number and hundreds to tens decomposition
Once children are aware that tens or hundreds are brought across, they can cross numbers out and write the adjusted amount in each column, to make this method less time consuming
Stage 4 Compact written methods involving decomposition
- Provide examples where children deal with 0 as a place holder
503 – 278
Here 0 acts as a place holder for the tens. The adjustment has to be done in two stages. First the 500 + 0 is partitioned into 400 + 100 and then the 100 + 3 is partitioned into 90 + 13.
- Extend written methods for subtraction, to include decimal numbers with up to 2 decimal places and larger numbers up to 10 000
- Choose the most efficient and appropriate method for each calculation
Stage 5
Progression in Multiplication and Division
Concepts in multiplication and division are very closely linked, and should be developed together
Stage
Progression in multiplication
Progression in division
| Foundation | Real life contexts and use of practical equipment to count in repeated groups of the same size: Count in twos, fives, tens | Share objects into equal groups Use related vocabulary |
|---|---|---|
| Stage 1 | Draw pictures to show equal sets: 3 sets of 3 make 9 2 sets of 4 make 8 Count in twos, fives and tens Identify patterns of 2s, 5s, 10s on a hundred square Solve practical problems that combine groups of 2s, 5s and 10s. | Draw pictures to show sharing and grouping: 9 shared between 3 How many groups of 4 in 8? Count in twos, fives and tens Solve practical problems sharing groups of 2, 5 and 10. |
Stage 3
Learn additional multiplication facts and work on different ways to derive new facts from those that they already know
- Know by heart multiplication facts for x2, x3, x4, x5, x6, x7, x8, x9, x10, x11 and x12.
- Understand effect of multiplying by 10
- Recognise multiples of 2, 5 and 10 up to 1000.
- Multiply a single digit by 1, 10, 100
- Double any multiple of 5 up to 50
- Derive related facts
7 x 5 = 35
5 x 7 = 35
355 = 7
357 = 5
Develop and refine written methods for multiplication, based on mental strategies:
- Multiply a 2-digit number by a single digit number, multiplying the tens first
- Using multiples of 10 (mentally) 4 x 30 = (4 x 3) x 10 = 120
- Use jottings to show stages of calculation e.g.
(Tens Ones x Ones) 32 x 3
NB: It is important that children continue to use jottings to support mental calculations for multiplication and division, throughout KS2
Derive quickly division facts corresponding to 2, 5, and 10 times table
- Continue to use empty number lines for division and introduce remainders.
- Divide a 3-digit multiple of 100 by 10 or 100
- Understand effect of dividing by 10
800100 = 8
30010 = 30
- Halve any multiple of 10 up to 100
502 = 25
- Given three numbers such as 4, 5, 20; say or write four different multiplication and division statements.
- Round remainders up or down depending on the context.
- Solve division calculations by using multiplication strategies
Develop and refine written methods for division, building upon mental strategies.
- Divide a 2-digit number by a single-digit, by using multiples of the divisor
Either:
- Use informal jottings
E.g.: 847=
70 + 14
7
10 + 2 =12
Or: use a method linked to the grid method for multiplication
As the mental method is recorded, ask: ‘How many sevens in seventy?’
and: 'How many sevens in fourteen?'
Or: Record mental division using partitioning:
Stage 4 Develop the extended written method of the grid method Tens Ones x Ones
Stage 5 Extend written methods, encouraging estimation first.
Grid method (HTOnes x Ones) e.g. 246 x 7
1400 + 280 + 42 = 1722
Grid method (TOnes x TOnes)
e.g. 62 x 36
This will then lead to a compact written method for multiplication;
Develop use of short division method
Short division
- short division giving quotient as fraction e.g. 90 7 = 12 6 /7
- giving quotient as decimal
- short division of numbers involving decimals (87.5 7)
Short division method can be used when children are confident to divide two and three digit numbers by a single digit.
Stage 6
Double digit multiplication
24 x17
Extend written methods for multiplication, encouraging estimation first.
- continue to use grid method as an expanded written method
- develop short multiplication
- leading to multiplication of numbers involving decimals
Pupils will be taught the more compact method of multiplication if and when the teacher feels they are ready for it.
27
35 x
Long Division:
Extend written methods, encouraging estimation first
So2 8 12/15 or 28.8
15 ) 4313 2
For fractions guidance please visit:
http://nrich.maths.org/2550/index?nomenu=1
Please contact the Maths Subject Leader for any clarification on any further methods to be used.
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Lesson: Two Carpets
Essential Questions: Why are carpets important in Islamic cultures? What are the basic characteristics of West Asian carpet design? What are the similarities and differences between the Ottoman Turkish and Iranian carpets discussed in this lesson?
Learning experience: Students will become familiar with two roughly contemporaneous carpets, one from Ottoman Anatolia and one from Iran. They will analyze their design and learn about some of the aesthetic priorities of the people who created them.
Anticipatory set: In your house, your apartment, or your room: what kind of objects do you surround yourself with? Which are useful? Which are decorative? Which are both?
Context: Carpets have been made for thousands of years throughout Central and West Asia. Flat-woven textiles (kilims—carpets without pile) were made in Turkey at least as early as 7000 BCE. The oldest surviving woolen pile carpet dates from the fifth century BCE, found in a burial site in the Altai mountains of southern Siberia.
For pastoral nomadic inhabitants of the Eurasian steppe, carpets served as "floor coverings, prayer mats, tent decorations, canopies, as symbols of power, privilege and riches" (Abas 2004: 11).
In the sedentary world of cities, towns, and farming villages, carpets were also more than floor covering. They were "an integral part of one's living arrangements, one which took the place of chairs, beds, and sometimes tables" (www: Erdmann).
Carpets, in short were necessities, not merely decorations, and so were worth the great care that was lavished on them. Those belonging to the wealthy never remained in one place all the time. At the Seraglio in Constantinople, for instance, they were changed every three months. The ones removed were first expertly cleaned and then sent to a treasure chamber for safekeeping. In Persia there were special "carpet houses" where the valuable carpets that needed a rest were stored. They were looked after by the house's own permanent staff and the director (custodian) also decided which carpets should be used, where and on which occasion (www: Erdmann).
An account of the visit of Byzantine ambassadors to the Abbasid dynasty's (750-1258) capital at Baghdad shows how carpets contributed to the display of royal wealth and power:
The number of the carpets and mats. . .was twenty-two thousand pieces; these were laid in the corridors and courts, being spread under the feet of the nobles, and the Greek Envoys walked over such carpets all the way from the limit of the new Official Gate, right to the presence of the Caliph—but this number did not include the fine rugs in the chambers and halls of assembly. . .spread over the other carpets, and these were not to be trodden with the feet (Grabar 1978: 168).
All three of the early modern Islamic empires—the Ottomans (1281-1924), the Safavids (1501-1739), and the Mughals (1526-1858)—developed thriving carpet industries.
Carpet weaving was transformed from a minor craft based on patterns passed down from generation to generation into a statewide industry with patterns created in court workshops. In this period [1600-1800], carpets were fabricated in greater quantity than ever before. They were traded to Europe and the Far East where, too precious to be placed on the ground, they were used to cover furniture or hung on walls. Within the Islamic world, especially fine specimens were collected in royal households (www: Sardar 2003).
Trade with Europe is reflected in the hundreds of paintings, both sacred and secular, where carpets appear. Such paintings are important to scholars, so much so that some carpet styles are labeled with the names of Western painters. Carpets such as the Ushak design (1) in this lesson "were being imported into Europe as early as the beginning of the sixteenth century" (Rogers 1995: 198).
Although individual domestic weavers and nomad households simplified the process, workshop production required considerable division of labor. One source lists the products of seven crafts—spinning thread and dyeing fabric, for instance—that were necessary before weaving could begin (Wulff 1966: 195).
Weaving itself was a complex process involving either a preparatory drawing or an actual knotted sampler. These indicated the sequence and density of knots. Sometimes a professional design caller was used to call out the knotting sequence (www: Ittig 1990).
Women played a central role in carpet-making:
In Anatolia and Iran, many women were employed as spinners, dyers, and knotters in a craft that tended to adhere to a strict gendered division of labor. While the precise assignment of tasks might differ from one locale to another. . .carpet making in general was a heavily feminized craft (Tucker 2006: 398).
Carpet-making shared the same visual vocabulary as the rest of Islamic art: vegetal design ("arabesque") and geometric patterning. Moreover, one writer suggests that carpets were central to the development of this aesthetic:
Carpets represented the most ancient and the most meaningful art form in the population that first embraced Islam. . .Long experience of carpet weaving gave tent dwellers skill and passion fortessellations [patterns made of interlocking parts fitting together with no gaps between them], interlaced patterns and the all-over covering of surfaces (Adapted from Abas 2004: 11).
Carpet patterns, with their wealth of vegetal decoration, have been compared to gardens. Some carpets were even made to look like stylized gardens.
The ruler of the last pre-Islamic dynasty to control Iran, the Sassanians (224-651), had a carpet called "The Spring Garden." It measured almost ninety feet to a side and was
embroidered with precious stones and gold. Victorious Arab soldiers found it too heavy to carry away, so it was cut up and the pieces awarded as booty (www: Morony).
The two carpets discussed here are different in style and visual impact. The Ottoman "Star Ushak" carpet is based on repetitions of an eight-pointed star design. The Safavid carpet has a central medallion surrounded by four lions and a calligraphic inscription. Both, however, encourage students to think critically about the importance of color and pattern in the arts of Islam.
Rationale: Carpets embody important aspects of Islamic visual culture. Also, since they are an art form admired for centuries in both East and West, they introduce students to a world of beauty that, on one hand, is specific to Islam and, on the other, transcends cultural boundaries.
Instructional resources: Two carpets, one from Turkey and one from Iran; four other carpets for comparison (1A, 1B; 2A, 2B); "Parts of a Carpet" (diagram); "Teacher's Background Sheet: Basic Carpet Terms."
(A) "Star Ushak" Carpet Ushak, Anatolia 1450-1500
(B) "Star Ushak" Carpet Ushak, Anatolia 16 th -17 th century
* Ushak was a carpet-producing center in northwestern Anatolia.
* These designs are believed to have been royal commissions.
* The multiple medallion design of (1) consists of an eight-pointed star repeating across the carpet's field. (1A) and (1B) are variations of this style.
* The eight-pointed star of (1) is simple: two superimposed squares.
* All three carpets are dominated by the deep blue of the star motifs and the red of the main field. The stars on all three are outlined in white.
* "Surprisingly, few Ushak carpets survive in Turkey compared with the numbers found in Western Europe, particularly in Italy" (Rogers 1995: 198).
* The stars of (1) and (1A) are filled with palmettes.
* Encourage students to look closely. Notice the subtle touches of color—tiny areas of white, pale blue, and yellow on the flowers in (1), for instance. These are probably translations in knotted wool yarn of a painted master design.
2. Safavid Medallion Carpet Iran, Kashan, Safavid 16 th century (KHAL.2006.0048)
Medallion Rug with a Field of Flowers
(A)
(Details)
Iran, Safavid Probably Kirman 17 th century
(B) The Sely Carpet Iran, Safavid Late 16 th century
* The Safavid dynasty was an important era in the arts of Islam:
The high point in Persian carpet design and manufacture was attained under the Safavid dynasty (1501-1739). It was the result of a unique conjunction of historical factors—royal patronage, the influence of court designers at all levels of artistic production, the wide availability of locally produced and imported materials and dyes. . .and commercial acceptance, particularly in foreign markets. . . Although there is no direct evidence that royal weaving workshops had yet been established [during the first century of Safavid rule], the influence of court designers on carpet weaving is clear. The two key design features of rugs in this period, the medallion design and figural elements, were borrowed directly from the arts of the book as practiced in the royal atelier (www: Walker).
* The carpet has a central medallion surrounded by four lions. The lions symbolize Ali (c. 600-661), the first Shi'ite caliph. Called the "Lion of God," he was a son-inlaw of Muhammad and the person Shi'ites believe is the Prophet's true successor. Shi'ism was established as Iran's state religion under the Safavids.
* Notice the pale blue stems of the vegetal scrolls in the main field and the use of gray in the border.
* A calligraphic inscription surrounds the carpet's medallion and central field.
* Carpet (2A) is a directional design. The medallion is couched in a garden-like spray of flowers.
* Carpet (2B) is dominated by the medallion and the four spandrels. Notice the prominent use of white in the border and inner stripe.
Procedure: Students will analyze and compare three Ottoman "Star Ushak" carpets (1), (1A), and (1B); and three Safavid medallion carpets (2), (2A), and (2B).
* Internet homework assignment: The class will (1) read about the two basic features of Islamic design that inform carpet-making: "Plant Motifs in Islamic Art" (Victoria and Albert Museum) and "Geometric Decoration"(Museum With No Frontiers); and (2) read the brief thematic essay on "Carpets from the Islamic World, 1600-1800" from the Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Students will be assigned to give brief reports on each of these readings.
* The class is divided into four groups. Groups can be assigned in advance of the homework assignment.
* In class, students give their reports on the homework readings. The teacher goes over some of the basics of carpet history and design.
* The teacher leads a whole class discussion about design formats and important motifs.
* The whole class then compares and contrasts (1) The "Star Ushak" carpet with (2) the Safavid medallion carpet.
* Each group reports. They compare and contrast carpets (1) and (2) with their respective related carpets.
| Group 1 | Group 2 | Group 3 | Group 4 |
|---|---|---|---|
| (1) Ottoman “Star Ushak” Carpet | | (2) Safavid Medallion Carpet | |
| Carpet (1A) | Carpet (1B) | Carpet (2A) | Carpet (2B) |
Whole group reflection: Islamic carpets share decorative styles with architecture, the arts of the book, painting, ceramics, and metalwork. What special characteristics do carpets have that distinguish them from these other arts?
Instructional modification: These activities may take more than one class session.
Application: Using the internet, students assemble "collections" of carpets. They create PowerPoints discussing the background of their chosen carpets and the reasons for their choices. This can also be done in groups.
Bibliography
Abas, S. Jan. Islamic Geometrical Patterns for theTeaching of Mathematics of Symmetry. Ethnomathematics Digital Library, 2004.
<http://www.ethnomath.org/resources/abas2001.pdf>
Erdmann, Kurt. "Carpets East Carpets West." Saudi Aramco World. March/April 1965. <http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/196502/carpets.east.carpets.west.htm>
Grabar, Oleg. The Formation of Islamic Art. Yale University Press, 1978.
Ittig, Annette. "CARPETS iv. Knotted-pile carpets: Designs, motifs, and patterns." Encyclopedia Iranica, 1990.
<http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/carpets-iv>
Morony, M.G. "Bahar-e Kesra." Encyclopedia Iranica, 2011.
<http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahar-e-kesra-the-spring-of-kosrow-tabari-fars-ezamestani-winter-carpet-balami-or-baharestan-spring-gar>
Rogers, J.M. Empire of the Sultans—Ottoman Art from the Collection of Nasser D. Khalili.Muséed'Artetd'Histoire, Geneva/The Nour Foundation, 1995.
Sardar, Marika. "Carpets from the Islamic World, 1600-1800." Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
<http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/crpt/hd_crpt.htm>
Tucker, Judith. "Rescued from Obscurity: Contributions and Challenges in Writing the History of Gender in the Middle East and North Africa." In Teresa A. Meade and Merry E. Weisner-Hanks (eds.). A Companion to Gender History. Wiley- Blackwell, 2006.
Verde, Tom. "Threads on Canvas."Saudi Aramco World. January/February 2010. <http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/201001/threads.on.canvas.htm#sbbeginner>
Walker, Daniel. "CARPETS ix. Safavid Period." Encyclopedia Iranica.
<http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/carpets-ix>
Wulff, Hans E. The Traditional Crafts of Persia. The M.I.T. Press, 1966.
Acknowledgements
This lesson was created by Eve Eisenstadt, its academic content approved by Kristina Richardson, and the final lesson edited by Martin Amster.
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Water & Pool Safety
(800) 774-7237
Riverside County is dedicated to preventing unintentional injuries to children in our county. The paramedics, fire fighters, law enforcement personnel, and hospital staff who work in our county know all too well the tragic results of a child's death from drowning. Childhood drowning can be eliminated because we know that childhood drowning is 100% preventable.
Make changes now, before a drowning happens. It could happen in your neighborhood or at your next gathering. Please don't wait. Read the following information. It could change your life.
FACTS
* Over 80% of all drowning and near-drowning incidents occur in backyard pools.
* Drowning is the leading cause of unintentional or accidental injury-related death to children ages 1-4 years old in Riverside County.
* There are over one million backyard pools in California without safety features because they were built before the Swimming Pool Safety Act of 1998. One could be in your neighborhood.
* A submerged child can lose consciousness in less than two minutes – the time it takes to answer a phone – and sustain permanent brain damage in only 4 to 6 minutes.
* Drowning is a quiet event. There is no splashing, no screaming, and no noise at all.
* Shimmering and sparkling, water is a magnet for toddlers and young children.
* Remember, it takes very little water for a child to drown. Less than one inch of water is all it takes to cover the mouth and nose of a toddler.
* Children under the age of five have no fear of water and no concept of death. Water is associated with play.
LAYERS OF PROTECTION FOR POOLS
* Fence the pool
* FENCE GATES: All gates to the pool or spa must be selfclosing and self-latching.
* POOL COVERS: If a pool cover is used, make sure it has been approved as a safety device.
* Shut the gate • Learn how to swim it's great! • FENCING: Enclose your pool with four-sided, non-climbable fencing at least 5 feet high. Isolation fencing around a pool or spa is the best protection. If possible, do not use your house as one of the four sides.
* Take CPR
* DOOR & WINDOW ALARMS: All windows and doors that lead to the pool area should have alarms that alert adults when they are opened.
* Adults should always supervise
(more on other side)
* Keep proper supplies
PREVENTION TIPS
* Assign an adult Water Watcher to keep their eyes on the water at all times.
* SUPERVISE! Never leave a child alone near a pool or spa, bathtub, pond, toilet, bucket of liquid, or any standing water.
* Do not allow children to play near the pool or spa.
* Empty wading pools immediately after use and store upside-down.
* Keep toilets lids down. Install safety latches on the toilet lids to prevent toddlers from opening and playing in the toilet.
* Bath rings are only bathing aids, not personal floatation devices.
* American Academy of Pediatrics advises against swim lessons until the 4 th birthday.
* Never rely on devices or swimming lessons to protect children without supervision.
* Never drink alcoholic beverages before or during swimming or supervising children.
BE PREPARED
* Know your neighborhood and the homes your child visits. Is there a pool? Is it properly protected? If the children will be swimming, who will be supervising them?
* Learn CPR & First Aid
* Learn how to swim and learn proper rescue techniques.
* Keep a portable telephone and emergency phone numbers nearby.
* Keep rescue equipment at near the pool. Do NOT use air-filled swimming aids (such as water rings) in place of life preservers. These devices can give parents and children a false sense of security, which may increase the risk of drowning.
IF A WATER EMERGENCY OCCURS
* Check for breathing; clear mouth and nose of any obstructions
* Pull the child from the water and place on his or her back
* Instruct another adult to call for emergency help
* Begin rescue breathing or CPR as needed until the child is revived or help arrives.
SAFETY RESOURCES
(800) 774-7237 or (951) 358-7171
Riverside County Children's Injury Prevention Network
Riverside County Building & Safety Department rivcoips.org
(951) 955-1800 or (951) 600-6245
Riverside/Corona (951) 955-6713
To report an unsafe pool call Code Enforcement:
Perris/Hemet/Temecula (951) 600-6140
American Red Cross in Riverside County
Pass & Desert Areas (760) 863-7180 (951) 656-4218 or (760) 773-9105
www.drowningpreventionalliance.com
National Drowning Prevention Alliance
Safe Kids Worldwide
U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission www.cpsc.gov
Safekids.org
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Introduction to the School Power Naturally Solar Learning Lab™
Virtual Array Tour: Lesson II in the Series
TEACHER INFORMATION
LEARNING OUTCOME
After experiencing the second of four routes through the Heliotronics SunViewer™ software application, students are able to interpret data from and cite environmental advantages of their school's solar array system.
LESSON OVERVIEW
In this lesson, students continue to investigate the components and functions of a solar array system, and enhance that learning through interpretation of data that helps them answer the question, why choose solar?
GRADE-LEVEL APPROPRIATENESS
This Level II and III lesson is appropriate as an introduction to solar energy for students in grades 5–12.
MATERIALS
A computer or computer lab that has Heliotronics SunViewer™ software installed and receiving data from a Heliotronics Feynman™ data logger Protractors
Sufficient copies of Student Handouts One and Two
SAFETY
No safety precautions are necessary for this lesson.
ADDITIONAL SUPPORT FOR TEACHERS
There are 64 School Power Naturally (SPN) lessons available for downloading at www.SchoolPowerNaturally.org. Some of the lessons that would mesh well with this solar array tour are listed below, along with a brief description of content. (Note: In addition to this new lesson (lesson II), three other new lessons that are closely related to lesson II are described in the Teaching the Lesson section.)
* SPN Lesson #2, Our Dependence on Fossil Fuels (Through a simulation, students become aware of their dependence on fossil fuels.)
* SPN Lesson #3, To Go Solar or Not to Go Solar (Through participating in a role-play of a community meeting, students decide on the feasibility of photovoltaics as an alternative source of energy.)
* SPN Lesson #5, Energy Resources: Where Are They and How Do We Get Them? (Students learn, through models and interpretive skills, the nature of various energy resources, how they form, and the science that allows them to be discovered and extracted.)
* SPN Lesson #6, Energy Solutions: A Brochure (Students communicate to others the benefits of photovoltaic systems as an alternative source of energy, as evidenced by brochures they develop.)
* SPN Lesson #8, The Absorption of Solar Energy (Students interact with a simplified model of photosynthesis that explores the relationship between energy transfer and the chemical reactions that produce energy-containing foods in green plants.)
* SPN Lesson #10, Solar Energy in New York (Students decide if increasing the amount of energy from photovoltaic systems would be a wise investment in New York State.)
* SPN Lesson #19, What Is pH and Why Is It Important? (After using pH paper to test liquids and soluble solids, researching acid deposition, and checking DAS emissionsavoidance data, students explain the comparative relationship of fossil fuels and PV systems to acid deposition.)
* SPN Lesson #20, Using Environmental Models to Determine the Effect of Acid Rain on an Ecosystem (After completing a reading on acid precipitation and pH, and conducting small-scale investigations of the effect of acid on ecosystems, students predict the environmental effects of acid precipitation.)
* SPN Lesson #21, An Environmental Puzzle: The Carbon Cycle (Through completing readings on our ultimate energy source and completing a carbon dioxide puzzle, students are able to describe the operation of the oxygen–carbon dioxide cycle and relate the use of alternative forms of energy to maintaining levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.)
* SPN Lesson #30, Chemical Consequences of Burning Fossil Fuels (Students are introduced to the chemical consequences of burning fossil fuels, as they complete chemical reactions such as forming acids, and show that fossil fuel combustion produces acid-forming oxides.)
* SPN Lesson #31, Avoiding Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Burning Fossil Fuels (After performing stoichiometric calculations for various alkanes that comprise fossil fuels and working with the emissions-avoidance component of the school's DAS system, students cite quantitative evidence showing how nonfossil fuel sources help to reduce air pollution created by carbon dioxide.)
* SPN Lesson #36, Fossil Fuels (Part II), The Geology of Oil: Topographic Mapping, Crustal Deformation, Rock Porosity, and Environmental Pollution (As part of this lesson, students use emissions-avoidance data supplied by the school's DAS system to evaluate the environmental cost of our dependence on petroleum-derived energy.)
* SPN Lesson #37, Fossil Fuels (Part III), The Geology of Coal: Interpreting Geologic History (As part of this lesson, students use emissions-avoidance data from the school's DAS system to calculate the environmental cost of coal energy.)
* SPN Lesson #38, Temperature and the Tomato (Students are provided experiences that help them predict whether given sets of conditions are conducive to tomato growth. As part of this lesson, they also relate energy production in tomato plants to energy production in photovoltaic panels.)
* SPN Lesson #39, Where Do Plants Get Their Food? (In this lesson about the historical development of the scientific method, students replicate van Helmont's classic experiment, and describe the role of light in plant growth.)
* SPN Lesson #40, A Photosynthesis Timeline (Students are led to understand that van Helmont's work was limited by the thinking of society at the time and the equipment available to him. They see that even though his conclusion was incorrect, his approach to science and his experiment showing that plants do not obtain food from the soil were significant contributions to our understanding of photosynthesis.)
* SPN Lesson #42, Permit Trading (Through a simulation that involves infusing renewable energy resources into the "mix" for electricity generation by employing a "renewable portfolio standard," students explain market-oriented regulation and its impact on the transition to alternative energy sources.)
* SPN Lesson #44, Prospects for a Sustainable Energy Future (After exposure to the term sustainable as defined by Thomas B. Johansson and José Goldemberg, students are able to cite criteria that characterize a sustainable energy system. They also evaluate the degree of support for sustainability in the recommendations of Johansson and Goldemberg in Energy for Sustainable Development.
* SPN Lesson #45, Heat Pollution and Communities (Students examine the issue of thermal pollution in the broad context of environmental impact, and distinguish between opinions and claims as opposed to facts and data. As part of this lesson, they also collect and compare data from their school's and other schools' DAS systems, citing differences in waste heat amounts for contrasting environments.)
TEACHING THE LESSON
This is the second in a series of three tour lessons that make use of the Heliotronics SunViewer™ software application. (A fourth lesson makes use of inquiry teaching and learning, using the online School Power Naturally database [SunViewer.net™] developed by Heliotronics. This database presents and archives data from your school's solar array and that of other participating schools throughout New York State.)
The first lesson in the series features a virtual array tour that includes screen shots and commentary. In this, the second lesson, the software application is used to facilitate navigation through, and understanding of, the second of four pathways—"Why Choose Solar?"—which provides students their first look at data from an operational photovoltaic array and prompts them to see how their solar array is having a positive impact on the environment. The third lesson features pathways 3 and 4 and includes a projected set of images and pages that relate to data display. In the fourth lesson, such things as portions of the software application that display real time and stored operational data are explored.
Lesson I usually is completed before lesson II is begun.
In advance, run copies of the Student Handouts for the students in your classroom.
In some portions of this lesson, the information provided for teachers suggests that the students expand their learning using the Internet. Typically, ideas have been offered for criteria to be entered into search engines. When dealing with more advanced students, the teacher may not want to provide the search criteria, but rather allow the students to come up with their own. Search criteria in this section are identified with the following font style: SEARCH CRITERIA.
The third lesson in the series explores such things as portions of the software application that display real time and stored operational data. The pathways "What Is It Doing?" and "How Well Is It Working?" are included in this lesson.
If you did not launch the Heliotronics SunViewer™ software application as part of the initial tour, do so now. Find the SunViewer™ icon (see figure 1).
Click the icon to launch the Heliotronics SunViewer™ software application. Watch the home page pop up (see figure 2):
Locate the "end" button (see figure 3):
You may click "end" to end the program now, or if you have time, follow the pathway suggested for this lesson. Note that you may end the program at any time by clicking the "home" button and then "end." For now, let's go on. We see that there are four buttons (see figure 4) on the home page:
This lesson is limited to the "Why Choose Solar?" pathway (the other three pathways are for use in the other lessons in the series). So we will click the "Why Choose Solar?" button. This takes us to figure 5:
The text boxes on the "Why Chose Solar?" page provide data on the electrical energy production of your solar array and the pollution that it prevents:
* Cumulative system energy (energy production)
* Carbon dioxide (pollution prevented)
* Nitrogen oxides (pollution prevented).
* Sulfur oxides (pollution prevented), and
Since your school's solar array is producing some of the electricity used by your school, the school does not need to purchase that amount of electricity from the utility company. Therefore, the utilities' fossil fuel power plants do not need to produce quite as much electricity, and the noxious emissions from those plants are reduced by the amounts shown.
Distribute Student Handout One, and have your students copy the data from the screen graphic (figure 5) onto the appropriate locations. Either carry out the following discussion now, or come back to it after you complete the "Why Choose Solar?" pathway of the tour. Guide the students by asking the following questions:
Virtual Array Tour: Lesson II
* How was the quantity recorded beside "Cumulative System Energy in Kilowatt-Hours" arrived at? (See figure 5.1 note, page 12.) Will the quantity increase, decrease, or stay the same over time? (See figure 5.2 note, page 12.)
* How were the quantities for the next three items—carbon dioxide in kilograms, sulfur oxides in kilograms, nitrogen oxides in kilograms—determined? (See figure 5.3 note, page 12.)
Have students solve the three items listed on page 3 of Student Handout One to determine how much carbon dioxide (as well as sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides) is saved by the production of one kWh of electricity from solar energy. (See item 3 below and figure 5.4 note, page 12.)
Discuss with your students how electricity is typically produced in your area. Follow these steps as you lead the discussion:
1. Use brainstorming and a chart, chalkboard, or overhead projector to generate a list of possible methods by which your electricity is generated at the present time. A site that will provide teachers and students with a useful overview of energy generation types is http://www.powerfrontiers.com/index.html. Have the students list the generation types (e.g., "fossil fuel plants") in three columns—Conventional, Renewable, Other—on Student Handout Two. (See electricity production note #1, page 12.)
2. Using the list generated by the students, discuss which of these are available now and which are still being researched or are in pilot use. Strive to find out from students which are available in your area, which are not, and why. (See electricity production note #2, page 13.)
3.
Have the students use the website http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-and-you/how
clean.html
to determine the current mix of energy sources for generating electricity for your zip code.
4. Have your students use the circle provided on Student Handout Two, along with protractors, to make a pie chart that represents your energy mix for generating electricity. For a review of pie charts, go to http://bdaugherty.tripod.com/KeySkills/pieCharts.html. (See electricity production note #3, page 13.)
5. Now have your students think about some other areas of the country that might be of interest to them, and also might have different proportions in their mix of energy sources. Use the website listed in step #3 above to learn more. Compare the mix that is present in your area with that of other areas and see if the students can explain the differences. For instance, proximity to Hoover Dam or to Niagara Falls could explain an increase of hydroelectricity in the mix and reduced emission of pollutants. (See electricity production note #4, page 13.)
Now that the students have accumulated knowledge about electricity generation and the mix of energy resources for your region, you should be able to prompt them for the question, why choose solar?, and expect an enhanced response to the question,—percentage increases in the component alternative energies within the mix of resources used to generate energy lessens degradation of the environment.
When you are ready to return to the tour, there are three graphics on this window that serve as buttons to choose from (see figure 6):
Click the first graphic on the left (see figure 7):
That choice results in the following window, which relates how global warming occurs and describes the long-term effects of solar warming (see figure 8):
You may want to have your students research and report on the long-term effects of global warming (typically referred to as "global climate change") that are described in figure 8.
Click "close," and then choose the second graphic as the one to click (see figure 9):
Virtual Array Tour: Lesson II
The window that comes up provides a narrative on emissions from automobiles (see figure 10):
The narrative for figure 10 describes the typical emissions from an automobile. Help the students see that reducing carbon dioxide emissions by 4,800 kilograms through the use of solar energy is equivalent to taking one car off the road for a year.
You might want to have the students record the cumulative amount of CO2 avoided by your solar array (go back to figure 5 to get this figure). A month from now, have them record the amount again and determine the difference to reinforce the positive environmental impact of using renewable solar energy. (See figure 10 note, page 14.)
Click "close" to return to the previous window, and then select the third graphic to click (see figure 11):
Clicking that graphic will bring up figure 12, "Plants and Carbon Sequestration":
You might want to consider using the following SPN lessons, which deal with plants and carbon sequestration:
* SPN Lesson #8, The Absorption of Solar Energy
Temperature and the Tomato
* SPN Lesson #38,
* SPN Lesson #39, Where Do Plants Get Their Food?
Click "close" and then "home" to end this tour.
Invite the students into a classroom discussion about why this pathway is entitled "Why Choose Solar?" Some ideas that may help you guide the discussion follow:
* The use of solar energy might impact climate change.
* PV-generated electricity is usually two to three times more expensive than conventionally generated electricity.
* Use of PV doesn't pollute.
* PV systems are like flat-panel computer displays and other manufactured products, in terms of how production is related to expense: the more you produce, the less expensive each item becomes.
* Some areas offer subsidies to help pay for solar energy. What are the arguments for and against this? See whether students can name some industries that are vital to the economy that have or are receiving subsidies. (See subsidy note #1, page 14.)
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Virtual Tour Notes for the Teacher
Figure 5.1 Note: A component of the photovoltaic array measures and records the amount of electrical energy produced by the solar array.
Figure 5.2 Note: It is a cumulative amount so it will increase.
Figure 5.3 Note: If students know the components of their solar array, they will realize that no component of the solar array directly measures and records quantities for these items. You might have to ask the students leading questions to get them to realize that, since the display states that these pollutants have been avoided due to electricity being generated by the solar array, the array's software must be able to mathematically estimate and record how much of each pollutant has been avoided. There is a direct relationship between the solar energy produced and the fossil fuels containing pollutants whose use has been avoided.
Figure 5.4 Note: If, in figure 1 of Student Handout One, the "Cumulative System Energy in Kilowatt-Hours" reads 34,567, and "Carbon Dioxide in Kilograms" reads 12,904, how much carbon dioxide would be saved by the next kWh of solar energy produced?
34,567 kWh are equivalent to 12,904 CO2 kg
1 kWh is equivalent to x kg CO2
Solving the equation for x gives an answer of .37 kg of CO2 per kWh.
Electricity Production Note #1: Older students should be able to come up on their own with lists that resemble the following:
a. CONVENTIONAL (Fossil fuel plants heat water to spin turbines, which turn generators. Such plants also burn gas to turn turbines similar to those that power jet planes. These turbines, in turn, turn electrical generators.)
i. Coal-fired power plant (COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT)
ii. Oil-fired power plant (OIL, ELECTRICITY)
iii. Gas-fired power plant (GAS ELECTRICITY GENERATION)
iv. Gas turbine (COMBINED CYCLE GAS TURBINE)
b. RENEWABLE
i. Wind (ELECTRIC WIND TURBINE MW MEGAWATT)
ii. Solar photovoltaic cells
1. Flat plate (GRID-CONNECTED PV)
2. Tracking (PV TRACKING ARRAYS)
3. Concentrating (PV CONCENTRATORS)
iii. Solar thermal
1. Parabolic trough (PARABOLIC TROUGH)
2. Dish Stirling (DISH STIRLING)
3. Power towers (SOLAR POWER TOWER)
iv. Biomass (BIOMASS POWER GENERATION)
c. OTHER
i. Nuclear (NUCLEAR POWER PLANT)
ii. Geothermal (GEOTHERMAL POWER GENERATION)
The classification of geothermal energy as "other" is debatable in that this kind of energy has been typically considered renewable. Discuss why the classification is debatable, asking questions such as the following: Where is the energy coming from? How does it renew? Can it be depleted? This likely will invite a discussion of physical geology.
Electricity Production Note #2: For example, dish Stirling engines are being deployed in commercial quantities in California but not in the East. In the East, the diffuse irradiance from frequent cloud cover renders such engines uneconomical. But in the Southwest, sparse cloud cover yields direct sunlight that is readily concentrated using mirrors; abundant sunshine makes the use of these engines very effective.
Electricity Production Note #3: Pie charts are circles sliced into segments whose areas represent proportions. Should you prefer not to work with protractors, have the students simply estimate and then check their estimates, or have them compare and correct each other's estimates. For instance, you might ask the question, approximately how much of our electricity is generated from nuclear energy? Then you could elicit that, for instance, 22% is a little less than one-fourth of the whole, and ask them to mark a little less than one-fourth of the circle as nuclear. Should oil and gas turn out to be 46%, which is a little less than half, they should make the oil and gas part a little less than half of the circle. Coal is likely to be most of the remaining part of the circle. Let's say that coal is 31%, which is a little less than one-third, so the coal wedge will be slightly less than one-third of the circle. Remind students to leave a little space for hydro, which might be 1%. If something is off, they can try again, adjusting the size of the wedges as necessary.
Electricity Production Note #4: For example, students might look up the zip codes 97221(Portland, OR), 02173 (Lexington, MA), or 80002 (Denver, CO). Expect your students to come up with other sites to check, and have them use search engines to look them up. You might want to prompt students with questions such as:
* Why does Portland have low CO2 emissions?
* What is a city name that interests you and what is its zip code?
* What are the relative proportions of the various power sources for that area?
* How do the emissions for that area relate to the national average? Why is this so?
Figure 10 Note: To determine the difference, subtract the two to determine how much CO2 has been avoided due to the power production from the solar array. Then have the students consider how many miles would have to be driven to produce that same amount of CO2.
Subsidy Note #1
Against Subsidies: Subsidies skew the market. Some say "let the market decide" and feel that subsidies are harmful to the economy. This assumes that we have a free market that monetizes all aspects of a purchase decision.
For Subsidies: In many cases, not all aspects of the purchase decision are monetized. For example, nuclear power producers only are required to insure for $500 million to cover accidents. In the unlikely event that a large accident were to occur, there could be $10s of billions in damages. Cleanup for larger accidents will be paid for by the federal government. So this risk is borne by the taxpayer even if they choose renewable energy that does not have this risk. In a fully monetized market, the nuclear power plant operator would be required to carry much more insurance and the cost of that insurance would be passed on to the ratepayer. And if someone chose a renewable energy source for their electricity, they would not need to pay for the insurance.
Those who favor subsidies point out that it is impractical to monetize all aspects of the purchase transition so it is typically easier to frame things differently and build in subsidies designed to achieve objectives such as cost reduction of clean energy. The majority of infrastructure industries that are of vital importance to our economy have been or are being subsidized. Examples include electric, aviation, rail, banking, farming, the Internet, housing, forestry, and auto.
SOURCE FOR THIS ADAPTED ACTIVITY
This activity is based on the Heliotronics SunViewer™ software that was provided to SPNparticipating schools.
LINKS TO MST LEARNING STANDARDS AND CORE CURRICULA
Standard 1—Analysis, Inquiry, and Design: Students will use mathematical analysis, scientific inquiry, and engineering design, as appropriate, to pose questions, seek answers, and develop solutions.
M1.1b: Identify relationships among variables including direct, indirect….
M1.1c: Apply mathematical equations to describe relationships among variables in the natural world.
S1.1a: Formulate questions about natural phenomena.
S3.1a: Organize results, using appropriate graphs, diagrams, data tables, and other models to show relationships.
S3.2h: Use and interpret graphs and data tables.
T1.2: Locate and utilize a range of printed, electronic, and human information resources to obtain ideas.
Standard 4—Science: Students will understand and apply scientific concepts, principles, and theories pertaining to the physical setting and living environment and recognize the historical development of ideas in science.
4.1a: The Sun is a major source of energy for Earth. Fossil fuels contain stored solar energy and are considered nonrenewable resources. They are a major source of energy in the United States. Solar energy, wind, moving water, and biomass are some examples of renewable energy resources.
4.1b: Fossil fuels contain solar energy and are considered nonrenewable resources. They are a major source of energy in the United States. Solar energy, wind, moving water, and biomass are some examples of renewable energy resources.
4.1c: Most activities in everyday life involve one form of energy being transformed into another. For example, the chemical energy in gasoline is transformed into mechanical energy in an automobile engine. Energy in the form of heat is almost always one of the products of energy transformation.
4.1d: Different forms of energy include heat, light, electrical, mechanical, sound, nuclear, and chemical. Energy is transformed in many ways.
4.4d: Electrical energy can be produced from a variety of energy sources and can be transformed into almost any other form of energy.
4.5a: Energy can not be created or destroyed, but only changed from one form into another.
5.1d: The methods for obtaining nutrients vary among organisms. Producers such as green plants use light energy to make their food….
6.1c: Matter is transformed from one organism to another and between organisms and their physical environment. Water, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and oxygen are examples of substances cycled between the living and nonliving environment.
6.2a: Photosynthesis is carried on by green plants and other organisms containing chlorophyll. In this process, the Sun's energy is converted into and stored as chemical energy in the form of sugar….
7.1e: The environment may contain dangerous levels of substances (pollutants) that are harmful to organisms. Therefore, the good health of the environment and individuals requires the monitoring of soil, air, and water and taking care to keep safe.
7.2c: Industry brings an increased demand for and use of energy and other resources including fossil and nuclear fuels. This usage can have positive and negative effects on humans and ecosystems.
7.2d: Since the Industrial Revolution, human activities have resulted in major pollution of air, water, and soil. Pollution has cumulative ecological effects such as acid rain, global warming, or ozone depletion. The survival of living things on our planet depends on the conservation and protection of Earth's resources.
Standard 5—Technology: Students will apply technological knowledge and skills to design, construct, use, and evaluate products and systems to satisfy human and environmental needs.
Standard 7—Interdisciplinary Problem Solving: Students will apply knowledge and thinking skills of mathematics, science and technology to address real-life problems and make informed decisions.
1.1: Make informed consumer decisions by seeking answers to appropriate questions about products, services, and systems, determining the cost-benefit and risk-benefit trade-offs; and applying this knowledge to a potential purchase.
Produced by the Research Foundation of the State University of New York with funding from the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) www.nyserda.org
Special thanks to Heliotronics, Inc. for their contribution in developing the content for this lesson
Should you have questions about this activity or suggestions for improvement, please contact Bill Peruzzi at firstname.lastname@example.org
(STUDENT HANDOUT SECTION FOLLOWS)
Name__________________________________________
Date___________________________________________
Introduction to the School Power Naturally Solar Learning Lab™ Virtual Array Tour: Lesson II in the Series
STUDENT HANDOUT ONE
Background Information
Your school, which participates in the School Power Naturally (SPN) program, has been provided:
* a Solar Learning Lab™, which includes a solar array that generates electricity from sunlight
* an educational data-monitoring system that monitors and displays the energy and power production of the solar array, the meteorological quantities that affect its output and the emissions avoided by use of the solar array
* a site license for Heliotronics SunViewer™ educational data display software.
In addition, archived data has been displayed on the Internet for viewing by anyone in the world.
Your teacher has been introducing you to the Solar Learning Lab by conducting a virtual tour by means of the Heliotronics SunViewer™ software application. This lesson is a continuation of that tour.
DEVELOP YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Materials
A computer or computer lab that has Heliotronics SunViewer™ software installed
Protractors
Sufficient copies of Student Handouts One and Two
Procedures
1. When your teacher pauses in the tour and tells you to record the numbers displayed on the "Why Choose Solar?" screen graphic, use figure 1 on Student Handout One to do so. Then use those numbers to respond to the three other items on page 3 of Student Handout One.
2. When your teacher pauses in the tour and asks you to gather information to construct a pie chart, use Student Handout Two for that purpose. Your teacher will expect you to gather information on energy resources for generating electricity in your area and the percentages of that energy mix in order to construct the pie chart.
Name__________________________________________
Date___________________________________________
WHY CHOOSE SOLAR? Avoiding Pollutants
Figure 1
Use the array tour's figure 5 to fill in the blank areas on figure 1 above. Consider that recorded information in responding to these items:
1. 1 kWh is equivalent to _____kg CO2
Show your work here:
Then, use the actual figures you recorded in figure 1 to complete items #2 and #3 below. Again, show your work.
2. 1 kWh is equivalent to _____kg sulfur oxides
Work:
3.
1 kWh is equivalent to ______kg nitrogen oxides
Work:
Name__________________________________________
Date___________________________________________
STUDENT HANDOUT TWO
WHY CHOOSE SOLAR?
Renewable Energy
What are the ways by which electricity is generated in your area at the present time? List the generation types (e.g., "fossil fuel plants") for your area in the three columns below:
CONVENTIONAL RENEWABLE OTHER
Fossil Fuel Plants
Once you know how electricity is generated in your area, your teacher will help you determine the amounts for the energy mix that produces electricity in your area. Record those amounts below as percentages, arranging them from greatest to smallest. The energy mix percentages for your area are as follows:
(Note: You may need more or less than five sources and percentages.)
Source 1 and percentage:
Source 2 and percentage:
Source 3 and percentage:
Source 4 and percentage:
Source 5 and percentage:
Lesson II: Student Handout Two
4
Using those percentages for your various energy sources, convert the circle below into a pie chart that displays the sources and their percentages:
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Ages of Famous Personalities
Junior Level
Part 1: Data Collection:
You will be seeing photographs of twenty famous people. As you see the photos, record the names of each individual and your best estimate as to the person's age. If you do not know the person, take your best guess as to the age from observing the photo. Actual ages will be the age at the end of the current year.
| Famous Personality | Estimated Age |
|---|---|
| 1 | |
| 2 | |
| 3 | |
| 4 | |
| 5 | |
| 6 | |
| 7 | |
| 8 | |
| 9 | |
| 10 | |
| 11 | |
| 12 | |
| 13 | |
| 14 | |
| 15 | |
| 16 | |
| 17 | |
| 18 | |
| 19 | |
Name________________________________
Ages of Famous Personalities
Junior Level
Part 2: Analysis of the Data:
1. Using the grid below, prepare a scatter plot using the estimated age on the x-axis and the actual age on the y-axis. Be sure to label your axes and scale, and place a title on the graph.
2. Choosing two points, find the equation of the line of best fit (model equation) for your data.
3. If you had guessed all of the ages correctly, what would be the equation of the line representing these correct guesses?
Name________________________________
4. Based upon your scatter plot, did you, in general, overestimate or underestimate the ages? _____________________ Explain how you made this decision by examining the scatter plot.
5. a. What percent of your estimated ages were correct?
b. What percent of your estimated ages were above the actual ages?
6. Interpolate: If you guessed that a person’s age was 26, what would the exact age be based upon your model equation from question #1?
7. Interpolate : If a person’s actual age was 37, what would have been the estimated age based upon your model equation from question #1?
8. Extrapolate: If a person’s estimated age was 80, what would have been the actual age based upon your model equation from question #1?
9. a. What is your age? __________
b. Based upon the your model equation from question #1, what would have been your estimated age?
10. a. Which personality had the greatest difference between the estimated age and the actual age?
b. What is the AVERAGE of the differences between the actual ages and the estimated ages for all of the personalities?
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What you need to know about the MB!
Scouts will operate in patrols. Patrols should be 4 to 8. Groups less than 8 will likely be combined with other smaller groups for labs. There are no formal MB prerequisites.
As with all MBs, Scouts should review the MB book ahead of time. Leaders are encouraged to consider a general review as part of a scout meeting (or two) prior to the event. See the requirements below.
Leaders should turn in Scout-completed Blue cards at check-in.
You'll find following each requirement below:
(b) If applicable, what scouts (and leaders) must know before the weekend and what they must bring with them (IN BOLDFACE);
(a) A brief summary of what will happen during DDD (UNDERLINED);
(c) If applicable, what activities scouts can do ahead of time to lighten their weekend load (IN ITALICS).
The Engineering Merit Badge Requirements
1. Select a manufactured item in your home (such as a toy or an appliance) and, under adult supervision and with the approval of your counselor, investigate how and why it works as it does. Find out what sort of engineering activities were needed to create it. Discuss with your counselor what you learned and how you got the information.
Under supervision from a DDD Instructor, scouts in patrols will dismantle a home appliance and discuss the engineering involved in its manufacture and its operation.
We are working with a northeastern Ohio appliance manufacturer who is attempting to provide us with an adequate supply of the same appliance, so that all scouts can work on the same appliance. If that manufacturer is unable to fulfill that request, each patrol will need to bring a used appliance to dismantle (check with your scouting parents and your local resale shops). If that is necessary, we will identify the type of appliance that must be brought. In either situation, patrols must bring a basic toolkit: check back for a list of required tools.
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Select an engineering achievement that has had a major impact on society. Using resources such as the Internet (with your parent's permission), books, and magazines, find out about the engineers who made this engineering feat possible, the special obstacles they had to overcome, and how this achievement has influenced the world today. Tell your counselor what you learned.
Scouts will watch the PBS American Experience Video on the making of the Hoover Dam. Scouts will then hike to Dover Dam, where DDD Instructors who are members of the Corp of Army Engineers will discuss the construction of both dams.
To lighten your Saturday load, troops may watch the DVD ahead of time. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/hoover/player/ About an hour long - ideal for a scout meeting. It is available at most public libraries.
____________________________________________________________________________
3. Explain the work of six types of engineers. Pick two of the six and explain how their work is related.
4. Visit with an engineer (who may be your counselor or parent) and do the following:
a. Discuss the work this engineer does and the tools the engineer uses.
c. Find out how the engineer's work is done and how results are achieved.
b. Discuss with the engineer a current project and the engineer's particular role in it.
d. Ask to see the reports that the engineer writes concerning the project.
e. Discuss with your counselor what you learned about engineering from this visit.
DDD Instructors/Engineers will present and discuss the information to satisfy these requirements. For those in Camp on Friday, this will be part of the Friday night session. For those unable to attend Friday night, this session will be presented at lunchtime on Saturday.
____________________________________________________________________________
5. b. Make an original design for a piece of patrol equipment. Use the systems engineering approach to help you decide how it should work and look. Draw plans for it. Show the plans to your counselor, explain why you designed it the way you did, and explain how you would make it.
Scouts will participate in a session where this requirement will be reviewed, and questions answered. On their own time, patrols will work on this requirement throughout the day. Scouts may approach any Instructor at the Dining Hall immediately prior to, or immediately after dinner, to show their plans and explain why they designed it the way they did, and explain how they would make it.
Patrols are encouraged (but not required) to work on this prior to the DDD weekend. Patrols may come to the event with their plan fully completed.
____________________________________________________________________________
6. a. Transforming motion. Using common material or a construction set, make a simple model that will demonstrate motion. Explain how the model uses basic mechanical concepts like levers and inclined planes to demonstrate motion. Describe an example where this mechanism is used in a real product.
Led by Carl H. Hager Jr., Ph.D., Tribology Specialist, of The Timken Company, patrols will construct a model to demonstrate motion.
____________________________________________________________________________
e. Converting energy. Do an experiment to show how mechanical, heat, chemical, solar, and/or electrical energy may be converted from one or more types of energy to another. Explain your results. Describe to your counselor what energy is and how energy is converted and used in your surroundings.
Lead by DDD instructors who are engineering students (and some who are Eagle scouts) patrol will make a Rube Goldbergesq device showing energy conversion.
Check back to see if scouts must bring anything for this requirement
____________________________________________________________________________
7. Explain what it means to be a registered Professional Engineer (PE). Name the types of engineering work for which registration is most important?
9. Find out about three career opportunities in engineering. Pick one and research the education, training, and experience required for this profession. Discuss this with your counselor, and explain why this profession might interest you.
8. Study the Engineer's Code of Ethics. Explain how it is like the Scout Oath and Scout Law.
DDD Instructors/Engineers will present and discuss the information to satisfy these requirements. For those in Camp on Friday, this will be part of the Friday night session. For those unable to attend Friday night, this session will be presented at lunchtime on Saturday.
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AVIAN ETHOGRAM AND RESEARCH PROJECT AT THE ZOO
Mildred Sears Funk Department of Biology Roosevelt University Chicago, IL 60605
INTRODUCTION
This ethogram and behavioral research project will be enjoyable for you, if you are interested in animal behavior, and will also help you learn how to more closely observe behavior. Observational skills will be helpful in many careers (e.g., clinical psychology, medicine, law, public relations, to name a few) that require closely watching behavior, accurately describing it, and understanding it in its context. You will practice these skills in the first part of the exercise, constructing an ethogram (a listing and description of species behavior). In this exercise, you will choose a particular species and, together with another student, you will describe the species' activities. The second part of the project, the behavioral research, helps you gain a better understanding of how scientists use the "scientific method." Scientists get their information by observing, experimenting and analyzing. You will choose a research question about some behavior of interest that can be answered through more specific observations of one or two individuals of the species. After collecting and analyzing data, you will interpret the results for the class in a poster session in which you display and discuss your work. You need to actively participate, carrying out observations and designing your project and planning your time well.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
You will:
* On the basis of the observation, construct a research question
* Practice skills of close observation and detailed description
* Design an experiment to answer this research question
* Graph experimental data and the research process on a poster
* Explain what you did and why to the class and what you'd do differently next time
MATERIALS
Field notebook and pen or pencil for observations and diagrams Timepiece (a second-hand is helpful but not necessary)
Optional: tape recorder, camera or camcorder, binoculars
2
2
METHODS
Getting started on your subjects
Choose an active species. Try to be unobtrusive and quiet because your behavior may affect the birds' activities. Stay close enough to see all the activities but not so close that you disturb your subjects by your proximity or staring at them or by any noise you make. They may flee or become immobile, neither of which is helpful for your data collection. They may become habituated to your presence after some time and then behave in their normal fashion even though aware of your presence. Describe the birds. Field guides in the library will be helpful. Diagram the habitat.
After your description of the birds, you need to familiarize yourself with the behavioral repertoire of your chosen species. Observing for an ethogram gives you the time and a framework in which to gain understanding of the animals by noting what they do and how they do it. To get started, watch the birds for an hour and take notes of their different activities. In your field notebook, note the date and time, conditions such as weather, crowd numbers, etc. and then keep track of the time and behavior you see. This is called AD LIB sampling, an informal note-taking procedure of as many behavior patterns as you see. You will be trying to describe at least a dozen. One student can describe the actions and the other can write them down and time them. The behavior may be motoric (e.g., flying and climbing, or concerned with body maintenance [feeding and elimination, bathing and preening] or exploratory, such as searching or scanning, or social: affiliative (friendly) or agonistic (threatening), or other behavior. Talk to the keepers. When are the birds most active? Consult two or three articles in scientific journals about the natural history of the species you have chosen. Then you are ready to begin your ethogram.
What is an ethogram?
An ethogram is a catalogue of the different action patterns of your species such as those listed above. When you think you are familiar with many of the species behavior patterns that are repeated in their daily routine, start listing these patterns as you watch the animals. Try not to be subjective or label the patterns at the beginning. Use descriptive names. Pretend that you are describing your chosen species and its behavior to a Martian who has never seen the species. Write down careful descriptions of the movements so that others could read your descriptions and recognize those exact same movements. Exactly how was the movement done? Was there any sound? (EXAMPLE: Open beak thrust. One bird is opening its beak and thrusting it in the direction of another bird.) Is there any movement of the rest of the body toward the other bird? Any change in the eyes or in the plumage? Any sound? Any other movement that goes along with the open beak? The above behavior could be a begging movement by young or by a mate for food or it may be a threat display. What was the context of the behavior? Your label for a behavior does not describe the behavior. If you call a behavior a "threat behavior" that label does not tell us what the actions were; it tries to tell us something about the situation, it passes judgment on the action. One must exercise care in labeling behavior patterns. Sometimes the movements may belong also to a different pattern of behavior and then they may be done for different reasons. So, try to keep a human bias out of your observations in the beginning. Simply note that one bird is opening its beak at another and describe what happens. Later, you can label the behavior when you are more familiar with it and the context in which it is performed.
Using your list of behavior patterns, you need to find out the frequency of those patterns in an hour's time. For this type of record, you will use FOCAL ANIMAL SAMPLING. You cannot record all activities of a group of animals at the same time, but you can get good behavior notes on one animal for a short period of time. Be sure you can identify the one subject --how does it differ from the rest? Choosing a time when the animals will most likely be active, simply note how the activity is done and when it changes. Again, write down date, time and conditions and then list behavior patterns and times. Abbreviations save time (feeding-FD), but provide a key to your abbreviations. Each person takes a turn at observing or recording activities until you have 3-4 hours of data so that you can calculate the time your subjects spend on the activities you have listed in their behavioral repertoire.
The teacher should check your ethograms before you begin the research question part of
the project. (No need to re-write all the descriptions if they are legible.) You may need a category for "Other" behavior, such as some activity done when your subject is out of sight. Be sure that all the behavior patterns you see will fit in one of your categories.
How will you display the data?
Using your data, make an activity chart with percentages of time devoted to each activity.
Add up the time spent on each behavior during the time you watched your subjects. Then divide the number of minutes spent in an activity by the total number of minutes spent in all the observations to get the percent of time spent on each activity. Make a Pie Chart of the percentages of time spent in various activities so that the observer can quickly understand the interrelationships of the behavior patterns and their relative frequency in the daily routine of the subject (Figure 2). The percentages on the Pie Chart should add up to 100%.
PERCENT OF T IME IN ACTIVITY
So far, you have 1) chosen a species, 2) observed group activities, 3) observed individuals for a time budget analysis, and 4) made activity charts and graphs. Now you are ready for the Research Project.
Research project: What is your hypothesis?
Figure out a question about behavior you have seen that you can eventually answer through tallying more observations. What question do you want to study about your subject? These observations will be taken on one or two animals and you will be looking for "ALL OCCURRENCES OF A SELECTED BEHAVIOR", another sampling method. Familiarized with your chosen species, you should design a simple research question, one that you will be able to answer with several more hours of data collection on the behavior in which you are interested. This question should be framed as a hypothesis, a statement that predicts a set of observations. You should be able to test your hypothesis with a limited set of data. Here are some possibilities:
(2) Another question might be comparative in nature: compare time spent on preening behavior (or other types of maintenance behavior) in two species. Null hypothesis: There is no difference in time spent preening in the ___ species and the ____species. Alternative hypothesis: There is a significant difference ................ Describe preening. What parts of the body are preened? Why do birds preen? When? Is there a precise timetable to preening? Do birds in your species allopreen (preen others)? Why would they do this? Does one species preen more often but for shorter periods?
(1) The question might concern time budgets: Is feeding intensity the same at noon as in late afternoon? You will then suggest a tentative or "null hypothesis" to be tested: There is no difference between feeding intensity at noon and in late afternoon. The alternative hypothesis: There is a significant difference between feeding intensities at noon and in late afternoon. In such a study, you may also want to consider comparing the zoo birds to what you observe of feeding behavior at your backyard feeder. Find out some of the factors that determine how long a bird in the wild remains in one spot to feed.
(3) There is no difference in vocal and motor activity between male and female (species)
(5) Juveniles are more exploratory (or playful or aggressive, etc.) than adults.
(4) Do juveniles stay closer to each other than to their parents? (There is no difference in proximity of the juvenile to the mother than in proximity to the other young.)
(6) _____- (Parrot) species is left-footed (or right-footed) when feeding.
Your hypothesis will be supported by your data or disproved. If it is rejected (still a result!), then the statement needs to be changed. Would more data be helpful? What is your new hypothesis?
DISCUSSION
The poster: How will you present the data?
After you collect your data, tabulate your results. You should calculate a statistical measure to determine if your findings can reject your null hypothesis. For help on statistics see Zar (1984) or Hailman and Strier (1997) for a short text on research writing and planning. Graph your data. Do sketches or take pictures of the area and the birds.
For the research project, you have (1) chosen your research question, (2) observed individuals to gather data, (3) analyzed that data. Now you are ready to design your poster. Your finished poster (22" X 28" is appropriate) should have 7 parts:
(1) Title.
(2) Abstract: a paragraph that summarizes your research question and findings.
(3) Methods: describe subjects, what you did for the project, where, how often, when.
(4) Results: what you found. Include ethogram: one or two sentences to describe each behavior. Draw the time budget graph and chart and give any other data.
(5) Discussion: Conclusions. What would you do differently next time?
(6) Brief natural history of subjects and bibliography of articles you read about your species.
(7) Picture of birds and a diagram of the habitat.
When you explain your poster to the class, you can tell them any other information you learned about your species in your research.
Special Terms
AD LIB (AD LIBITUM) sampling is an informal type of observation and note-taking; describing all the activity that is seen. This method is good at getting information on what leads up to an event and what happens during and after the event. It is a first step in finding out all you
can about the activities of various subjects.
FOCAL ANIMAL SAMPLING concentrates on getting all possible information about one subject's activities and how those activities are performed.
SAMPLING ALL OCCURRENCES OF A SELECTED BEHAVIOR gives the viewer data on just the one behavior of interest to the observer.
PIE CHART has each segment of the circle proportional to the frequency of a particular behavior.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank Bob Shonk for the illustration of morphological terms for birds and Rebecca Popovich and Ben Messmer for use of the activity charts of a mammal.
REFERENCES
Altmann, J. 1974. Observational study of behavior: sampling methods. Behaviour 49:227-267.
Hailman, J. P. and K. B. Strier. 1997. Planning, Proposing, and Presenting Science Effectively. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Washington Park Zoo and Minnesota Zoological Garden. 1947. Research methods for studying animal behavior in a zoo setting: Parts 1 and 2 {VHS}. University of Minnesota film and video catalogue.
Zar, Jerrold. 1984. Biostatistical Analysis. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
ADDITIONAL SOURCES
Brooks, R. and K. Yasakawa. Laboratory exercises in animal behavior. K. Yasakawa: Department of Biology, Beloit College, Beloit, WI 53511.
DeCoursey, P. 1994, July. A laboratory exercise: zoo ethograms. Paper presented at the Animal Behavior Society, Seattle, WA.
SUGGESTIONS FOR INSTRUCTORS
The main campus of Roosevelt University is located a short bus ride from Lincoln Park Zoo in Chicago. Lincoln Park Zoo offers free admission to the public so students can return to observe their chosen subjects whenever they want. If the zoo closest to your school does not have free admission, the instructor can very likely work out arrangements for a free pass for students for a limited time.
This exercise could also be adapted for use in watching birds at bird-feeders or watching ducks on a pond or pigeons in a park.
Expenditures for this project consist of transportation and posterboard, perhaps some photos of the animals and their enclosure.
Students need to understand the time requirements of this exercise. Figuring on groups of 2, each pair should gather 3-4 hours of data to compile for the ethogram activities and then the same amount of time for the research question. They'll need to spend more time finding other information on their chosen species and putting the data and results together and deciding on statistics and the design of the poster.
Students should understand that the time budget of a captive animal is not the same as that of a wild animal. This can be a part of a general discussion on zoos: benefits zoos offer (preservation of rare and endangered species, the chance to view these rare animals) and problems (captivity and boredom, excess animals, breaking up mated pairs in order to increase their reproductive potential, etc.).
Methods of data gathering should be discussed. Would they prefer to keep a running count of all behavior of one animal or do a "behavior scan" every minute or 30 seconds and record what the animal is doing at that time? Interesting discussions could be based on which method is better for getting duration of a behavior or for getting unusual behaviors, or catching a stimulus for a behavior. This exercise can introduce the many ways of sampling behavior. See discussion in Altmann (1974).
A helpful video on ethograms is from Washington Park Zoo (1947).
Ethograms are often assigned in animal behavior courses and only that part of the exercise may be done if time is short. When only the ethogram is used in the short session, students may work individually. They try to get an exhaustive catalogue of behavior for their subject species and also locate resources on the natural history of that species. A semester offers sufficient time to combine the ethogram with the research question. This combined exercise is an easy and enjoyable way to acquaint the nonBiology major with scientific investigation. I find that the several parts of the project (the ethogram, research project, oral presentation, and the poster), also make it easier to grade.
Students have enjoyed this research at the zoo and everyone seems very interested in the poster session at the end of the class.
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Informational Texts in the Reading Workshop
Dr. Frank Serafini Associate Professor – Arizona State University
www.frankserafini.com
Fiction or Non-Fiction
Non-Fiction vs. Fiction is based on the relationship between reality and representation. However, fiction may contain factual information and non-fiction often contains narrative features.
Narrative or Expository
Narrative or Expository is based on the intent and structures of the text, not necessarily the "truth-value" of the information provided.
Narrative Texts
Characters / plot / setting Tells a story Creates suspense / tension Paragraphs and chapters Story language (narrative) Illustrations add meaning to the story
Expository / Informational Texts
Designed to inform, report, describe - not necessarily to tell a story Not based on plot, sequence of events Chapters end with summaries, not suspense Includes variety of structures and textual elements Turn page because of interest in topic, not suspense in story Specialized vocabulary and writing Illustrations present information
Reasons for Reading Expository Texts in the Classroom
Awakens curiosity
Varies in complexity
Better writing than textbooks
Majority of standardized test passages are informational texts
More in-depth information
More up-to-date than textbooks
Can be used as a model for research
Majority of adult reading
Improvements in Quality of Texts
Selecting Expository Texts
Accuracy of Content Authority of Authors Appropriateness Quality of Written Language Quality of Illustrations Well Organized - Accessible Multiplicity of Sources
What Makes Expository Texts Challenging?
Lack of Prior Knowledge with Concepts and Information
Unfamiliar Text Structures & Organization
Specialized Vocabulary
Different Expectations for Reading Expository Texts
How to Make Expository Texts Accessible
Read aloud expository texts
Provide time for students to explore expository texts
Help students solve vocabulary challenges
Understand the structures and components of expository texts
Offer Lessons in Comprehending expository texts
Exposing Readers to Expository Texts: Reading Aloud
Review text before reading to understand possible challenges
Connect readings to one another to build upon ideas and concepts
Introduce necessary vocabulary
Keep sessions short and focused
Read Aloud as Advertisement
Should always include opportunities for discussion
Unit of Study: Expository Texts as a Genre
Possible Objectives:
Help students read expository texts for information (Understand Genre)
Help students gather information for inquiry project (Understand Topic)
Focus Units of Study Framework
Exposure
Exploration
Experimentation
Expository Texts – Exposure:
Read, Share and discuss expository texts on a wide variety of subjects List things we Notice about Expository Texts and how we read them Make list of all the Types of Expository Texts we are reading
Types of Expository Texts
Concept Books
Magazines, brochures, etc.
Reference materials / Activity / Experiment Books
Primary Source- Logs, Diaries
Photo Essays
Craft / Manuals / Recipes / How To
Informational Storybooks / Biographies / Autobiographies
Exploration: What Components Should We Call Readers' Attention to?
Cover - Title
Author's Notes - Introduction
Sidebars - Information Boxes
Headings, Italicized words
Reading Guides
Labels - Captions
Diagrams - Maps - Graphs, etc
Illustrations, Photography, Artwork
Glossary
Table of Contents / Index
Exploration: Expository Text Structures
(Ways of Organization Information)
Descriptive
Sequential
Compare - Contrast
Cause & Effect
Question & Answer
Blended Structures
Descriptive Language
Experimentation: Creating Expository Texts
Experimentation:
What inquiry projects can students engage in with expository texts?
What types of texts can students use as mentor texts?
What "modes of representation" can students use to share information?
Sharing Inquiry Projects
Student Published Reports
Classroom Museum
Science Fairs
Picture Books for Reading Buddies
Multi-Genre Writing Projects
Multi-Media Presentations
Informational Texts: Professional Resources
Bamford, R. & Kristo, J (2000) Checking out non-fiction K-8
Hoyt, L. (1999) Revisit, Reflect, Retell. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann
Hoyt, L. (2002) Make it Real: Strategies for Success with Informational texts.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann
Hoyt, L., Mooney, M. & Parkes, B. (2003) Exploring informational texts: From
theory to practice. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann
Hoyt, L. Snapshots: Literacy Mini-lessons up Close. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann
Moss, B. Teaching the Literature of Fact
Harvey, S. Non-Fiction Matters. York, ME: Stenhouse
Favorite Informational Text Authors
Aliki - George Ancona - Seymour Simon - Gail Gibbons - Lois Ehlert - B. Barton David Adler - Jerry Palotta - Jean Craighead George - Ruth Heller - David Macauley - Patricia Lauber - Jim Arnosky - Jean Fritz - B. Maestro - Peter Sis Leonard Everett Fisher - B. McMillan - P. Patent - Diane Stanley - S. Tanaka James Cross Giblin - Joanna Cole - Joseph Bruchac - Russell Freedman
Criteria for Analyzing Expository Texts
Content:
* up to date information
* accurate
* relevant to the reader
* authentic sources
* details
* what research was used
* author's qualifications for writing "facts"
Writing / Style:
* language used
* "readability"
* avoidance of stereotypes
* multiple points of view / perspectives
Organization:
* table of contents
* headings
* index / glossary
* sidebars
* structural layout
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COMMUNITY SERVICE REPORT FORM
Complete this form after each community service or service learning project. Send a copy to the UW Extension office.
4-H Club: _____________________________________________________________________________________
Project: ___________________________________________________________________________________
Participants: ____________ Youth ____________ Adults
1. Hours (total # of volunteers x # of hours):
________________________
2. Number of people benefiting from service:
________________________
3. Duration of the project (start and end date)
________________________
4. Service Learning consists of several components. Check and describe which you have done…
_____ Investigation: Volunteers and youth investigate the community problems that they might potentially
address. Describe how you determined the need_____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____ Planning and Preparation: Volunteers, youth and community members plan the learning and service
activities, and address the issues needed for a successful project. Describe what you did to prepare before
launching into the project. _______________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________
Who was involved in planning and preparation? ______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________
Who were the community partners? _______________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____ Action(Implementing the Service Activity): The "heart" of the project: engaging in the meaningful service
experience that will help youth develop important knowledge, skills, and attitudes, and will benefit the
community. What did youth do? Where did you do it? How did you go about it? Whom did you serve? What did you accomplish? What were your goals and learning objectives? ________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____ Reflection: Activities that help youth understand the service learning experience and to think about its meaning and connection to them, their society, and what they have learned.
Reflection is one of the most important parts of service learning. It’s when the volunteers think about their service and what it meant to them. What did they learn? Why did it matter? What will they do with what they learned? Tell us how your group reflected on their project. Here are some ideas for ways to reflect:
group discussions
paintings
poems
newspaper articles
video tapes photographs
bulletin boards
portfolios scrapbooks
art projects
murals
role playing journals
puppet show
collages essays sculptures drawings slide shows
jingles
guide for new volunteers
How did participants reflect on the service? __________________________________________________________
What did youth learn?
Did your group learn skills related to a 4-H project area? Did you learn "life skills" such as communication, problem
solving, or concern for others? What else did you learn? _______________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________
Discuss the project with the beneficiaries of the service. How do they rate the project?
It is important to know how the people you served felt about the project. Did they think it was effective in reaching
a goal? Did you help others as you had planned? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____ Demonstration/Celebration: The final experience when youth, community participants and others publicly
share what they have learned, celebrate the results of the service project, and look ahead to the future.
How did you share the progress and results of your project? ____________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
How did you celebrate your accomplishments? _______________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________
How did you promote or market your project to let the community know about your efforts: (Attach copies of
photos and news stories) _________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________
Report form adapted from University of Tennessee Extension 4-H http://www.utextension.utk.edu/4h/sos/resources/index.htm
An EEO/AA employer, the University of Wisconsin-Extension provides equal opportunities in employment and programming, including Title IX and American with Disabilities (ADA) requirements.
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Pardalotus quadragintus
Forty-Spotted Pardolote
What is a forty-spotted pardalote?
One of the smallest and rarest birds in Australia, the forty-spotted pardalote belongs to a group known as 'diamond birds' because of their tiny, jewel-like appearance.
Why is it endangered?
The forty-spotted pardalote is only found in Tasmania (endemic) and is classified 'Endangered'. Its distribution is restricted to four locations in eastern Tasmania: Flinders Island, Maria Island, Tinderbox and Bruny Island. The only colonies of more than 100 birds are on Bruny and Maria Islands. The greatest threat to the forty-spotted pardalote is the destruction of its habitat and competition from other species such as noisy mynahs who enter the 'fortyspots' fiercely defended territory. Cats may also take adults and nestlings.
What do they look like?
Measuring about 9 - 10 cm, the body is light olive green with pale yellow around the eye and on the rump. The wings are black with distinctive white dots. There are no head markings. The call is a low pitched 'where..... where..... where..... where'. Other calls it can be confused with are the spotted pardalote which has a higher pitch ed 'me.. me' call and the black-headed honeyeater. They can be seen most often in the upper foliage of white gum where they live and feed, and may be found alone or in small groups. Binoculars are essential to catch a glimpse of these tiny birds and identify them correctly.
Why are white gums important?
Forty-spotted pardalotes live in dry eucalypt forests and woodlands only where white gum (Eucalyptus viminalis) occurs. This tree is the key to the birds survival. They feed on a variety of insects, and also lerps (a protective insect coating) and manna, a sugary secretion produced by the tree in response to insect attack. The birds are called 'foliage gleaners' because of the way they pick the insects from the leaves and branches.
Identifying white gum
White gum is a common species in dry eucalypt forests throughout eastern Tasmania. It has a rough bark collar on the lower trunk with a smooth white and grey streaked surface extending to the branches and canopy. Leaves are slender and usually 10 - 20 cm long. Considered a moderate sized tree it can grow to approximately 50 m in height and 1 - 2 m in diameter.
Depar tment of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment
Other pardalotes
Two other pardalotes also occur throughout Tasmania. Both are common and widespread and are similar in appearance and habit. The spotted pardalote has a spotted head and the striated pardalote has streaked head markings. Both species have vivid yellow throats, rumps and small patches of red. Neither species are considered rare and both are found on mainland Australia.
What's being done?
The Parks and Wildlife Service, with funds from the Australian Nature Conservation Agency, has established a recovery team of representatives. This team manages the habitats and populations of the forty-spotted pardalote — thereby increasing awareness about the threats to the birds and ways we can help save them.
What can 'forty-spots' do for you?
Having a 'forty-spot' colony nearby has its advantages — especially for farmers and gardeners. 'Forty-spots' eat a variety of insects and so are a great natural way to help control pests.
How can you help?
Fortunately we can help save the 'forty-spots'. If you have white gums growing on your property don't cut them down or remove old growth or dead spars — these trees provide food and nest sites for the birds.
Plant white gums on your property to ensure food and homes for the future. A planting program is underway offering information and seedlings to people owning land near the colonies.
Further information
A video on the recovery program which shows rare footage of the bird and chicks is available from the Nature Conservation Branch.
Contact
Biodiversity Conservation Branch: DPIPWE 134 Macquarie Street, Hobart. 7000
Phone: (03) 6233 6556
Fax: (03) 6233 3477
November 2013 © State of Tasmania
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Ages of Famous Personalities
Name________________________________
Algebra 1 Level
Supplies: Graphing Calculator, PowerPoint presentation
Task: You will be seeing photographs of twenty famous people. As you see the photos, record the names of each individual and your best estimate as to the person's age. If you do not know the person, take your best guess as to the age from observing the photo. Actual ages will be the age at the end of the current year.
| Famous Personality | Estimated Age |
|---|---|
| 1 | |
| 2 | |
| 3 | |
| 4 | |
| 5 | |
| 6 | |
| 7 | |
| 8 | |
| 9 | |
| 10 | |
| 11 | |
| 12 | |
| 13 | |
| 14 | |
| 15 | |
| 16 | |
| 17 | |
| 18 | |
| 19 | |
| 20 | |
1. Using your graphing calculator, prepare a scatter plot using the estimated age on the x-axis and the actual age on the y-axis. Sketch the scatter plot on the grid at the right. Be sure to label your axes and scale.
2. Choosing two points, find the equation of the line of best fit (model equation) for your data.
Points: ( , ) & ( , ) Slope: __________
Equation:____________________________________
3. Using your graphing calculator, find the linear regression equation, the calculator’s line of best fit, for your data. _____________________________________________
4. What is the correlation coefficient? ___________ What does it tell you about the fit of the calculator’s linear regression?
5. What is an appropriate domain for graphing age data in general? _______________________
6. If you had guessed all of the ages correctly, what would be the equation of the line representing these correct guesses?___________________________________________________________
7. Did you, in general, overestimate or underestimate the ages? ____________________________
8. a. What percent of your estimated ages were correct?__________________________________
b. What percent of your estimated ages were above the actual ages?______________________
9. Interpolate: If you guessed that a person’s age was 26, what would the exact age be based upon the calculator’s model equation? ______________________________________________
10. Interpolate : If a person’s actual age was 37, what would have been the estimated age based upon the calculator’s model equation?____________________________________________
11. Extrapolate: If a person’s estimated age was 80, what would have been the actual age based upon the calculator’s model equation?___________________________________________
12. a. What is your age? __________
b. Based upon the calculator’s model equation, what is your estimated age? _____________
13. a. Which personality had the greatest difference between the estimated age and the actual age?
___________________________________________________________________________
b. What is the AVERAGE of the differences between the actual ages and the estimated ages for all of the personalities? ________________________________________________________
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Ethnobotany
Find these three plants in Tryon Creek State Park. Mark it on the map provided. Then learn more on the following page. Anwer the Questions.
Western Red Cedar
Oregon Grape
Sword Fern
Ethnobotany
Western Redcedar
that native people lived in. Because Cedar is a soft wood it is easily split and can be shaped for many uses. Can you think of another use that would allow native peoples to gather food? Remember the dependence that these people had on the river to provide food and transportation. Cedar trees were used for canoes, but how would you make a canoe out of this tree if you wanted to? The trees were usually burned on one side to bring the tree down to ground level where it was then hollowed out by fire and finished by carving. Cedar was used to make many objects, from arrow handles to eating utensils. One of it's most amazing qualities of this tree is that it is rot resistant. When Lewis and Clark arrived in the Pacific Northwest they were wearing clothing made from animal hides. As we all know, winter here is wet and those hides rot when exposed to continual rain and never get a chance to dry out. The native people living in this area used the bark to make fibers which could be made into clothing that didn't rot. How would you go about making clothing from bark?
Redcedar is a very easily identifiable tree. It has flat needles that branch and fork from the central stem. The reddish-brown bark looks as if it is made up of many strips peeling up the trunk. Redcedar contains a chemical that makes it especially resistant to both rot and insect infestations. What do you think this tree was used for by the Native Americans who called it the "Tree of Life"? One of the main uses of this tree was to make planks for the traditional long houses
Sword Fern
used as shelf paper for drying racks for other wild plants like nut and berries. Traditional pit ovens were used in the area of the northwest and were used to slow cook or roast many foods. The fronds of the Sword Fern were used by native people to line the pit ovens and in between layers of food cooking in the pit oven. The fiddle heads, the young spring shoots, of the sword fern were collected and eaten.
One of the most striking plants in the Pacific Northwest forest is the Sword Fern. It is easy to identify by the long fronds with up to 100 alternating leaflets. The leaves stay green and firm all year long. Feel the fern. How does it feel? What would do you think you could use this plant for? The fronds of the sword fern were used for bedding much like straw was used to fill mattresses. Fronds were
Oregon Grape
coast. The berries of the Oregon Grape were not eaten alone in large quantities but were more commonly mixed with sweeter fruits or were sometimes mashed and cooked into cakes or made into a juice. How do you make a piece of cloth a certain color? You dye it, but where does dye come from? Many dyes now are synthetically created in a laboratory, but many of these dyes originated from chemicals that were first derived from plants. The inner bark of Oregon Grape is yellow and when the twigs were boiled in water, the water could then be used as a yellow dye for clothing and baskets.
Do you know what the Oregon state flower is? It is a very common ground cover with a distinct texture and leaf shape. Not only does it bear fruit but it also has the name of the state it represents in its name. ..Oregon Grape. Oregon Grape is easy to identify because of the waxy coating on its leaves and because of the teeth or jagged edges on the leaf sides. Since we call it Oregon Grape, we know that is bears grapes, but theses grapes do not taste like the grapes we get from the grocery store. The fruit of the Oregon Grape is neither as fleshy nor as sweet as conventional grapes, but it was eaten as a food source by the native people of the Northwest
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Year Level: 1
Term 4, Week 3 & 4
Emotional
For the students to think about a
problem relating to the catastrophe
scale
Social
For the children to when sharing with
others
Cognitive
For the students to identify kindness in
their daily lives
Language
For the children to be specific when
asking for help and use questions
rather than statements.
Physical
For the children to be aware of
consequences of dangerous
behaviour such as pushing.
| Learning objectives | | Children’s current | | Staff/School/ Community |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| | | interests | | interests |
| Mathematics For the children to: -understand the difference between multiplication and division -revise addition -revise subtraction -revise place value English For the children to: -recognise the different ways poems are organised and published -become familiar with adjectives -recognise the different ways persuasive writing is organised and publish your own piece of writing Environmental For the children: - take responsibility when choosing the correct bins for their rubbish - to reuse paper wisely ie. get paper out of the scrap pile before getting a new piece Specialists Japanese: Practice their jikoshoukai (self introduction) ready for the Minato Ky visitors and to send to seesaw. To look at the Tanabata festival and write their wish to display in the classroom. To write a letter to give to the Minato Ku students and practice their jikoshoukai using the tellagami app Visual Arts: Explore ideas, experiences, observations and imagination and express them through subject matter in visual artworks they create Performing Arts: Explore roles, characters and dramatic action in dramatic play, improvisation and process drama Physical Education:Revise how to act in Sport Practice movement skills in gymnastics Health -Perform fundamental movement skills in different movement situations in indoor, outdoor and aquatic settings -Discuss the body’s reactions to participating in physical activities * Photographer and Reporter The children will demonstrate collaboration, conversation, negotiation and presentation skills when participating as either a photographer or reporter during investigation sessions. | - shops Halloween - basketball - Beanie Boos - books - cafe - craft - dragons - fairies and elves - flowers - gemstones - beading - Lego - Minecraft - movies - nippers - play dough - plays - post office - read - school - singing - Star Wars - tennis | | Tuesday 6th November -Melbourne Cup Day (no school) Monday 19th November -Bayside Swimming Begins | |
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BEAUMARIS PRIMARY SCHOOL BULLYING POLICY
(Student, Staff and Parent)
Definition:
A person is bullied when someone, or a group of people, deliberately upsets or hurts another person or damage their property, reputation or social acceptance on more than one occasion. There is an imbalance of power in incidents of bullying with the bully or bullies having more power at the time due to age, size, status or other reasons.
Rationale:
The school will provide a positive culture where bullying is not accepted, to ensure that all will have the right of respect from others, the right to learn or to teach, and a right to feel safe and secure in their school environment at all times.
Aims:
- To alert everyone within the school community about the signs and evidence of bullying and to ensure bullying is reported whether a person is a bystander or a victim.
- To reinforce within the school community what bullying is, and the fact that it is unacceptable.
- To ensure that all reported incidents of bullying are followed up appropriately.
- To seek parental and peer-group support and co-operation at all times.
Implementation:
- Bullying may consist of physical harm, harassment, verbal insults or hurtful remarks, or actions designed to hurt somebody's reputation, social standing or to cause humiliation. Bullying may be carried out directly or indirectly and may include the use of digital technologies such as social network sites, websites or on-line chat rooms.
- Our school has adopted a zero tolerance position on bullying.
- We have adopted a four-phase approach to bullying.
- Our school will combat bullying by providing a safe, secure and stimulating learning environment.
1. Primary Prevention:
- Each classroom teacher to clarify with students the types of bullying, as well as the consequences and impact of bullying.
- Professional development for staff relating to bullying, harassment and proven counter measures.
- Community awareness and input relating to bullying, its characteristics and the school's programs and responses, complemented by clear processes for reporting suspected bullying.
- Teachers will be trained in cybersafety. Cybersafety awareness programs will be provided for parents (biannually) and cybersafety will form part of each student's ICT curriculum.
- The provision of programs that promote inclusiveness, resilience, life and social skills, assertiveness, conflict resolution and problem solving will form an integral part of our curriculum. In particular, assertiveness training and bystander training that builds skills in students to challenge and/or report unacceptable behaviour will be central to our curriculum.
2. Less Serious Incidents:
- Parents are encouraged to contact the school if they suspect a bullying or behaviour problem.
- All instances of suspected bullying or inappropriate behaviour must be responded to by staff.
- The school will reinforce with students the importance of appropriately reporting incidents of inappropriate behaviour involving themselves or others, and it is imperative that staff respond appropriately and
proportionally to each allegation consistent with the school's Student Code of Conduct, including the proper reporting and recording of the incident on our on-line behaviour tracker.
- Parents are to be contacted if their child is alleged to have been bullied or experienced inappropriate behaviour, or if their child appears to have behaved inappropriately or bullied someone else.
- Appropriate and proportional consequences may include a verbal apology, writing a letter of regret, completing a Think Paper, loss of privileges etc.
3. Serious Incidents:
- Serious incidents and/or repetitive incidents of bullying or unacceptable behaviour must be reported, responded to by staff and documented.
- All such incidents or allegations will be properly investigated and documented. Depending upon the nature of each incident, they may also be reported to police, reported to the Student Critical Incident Advisory Unit, and/or reported to the Department's Emergency and Security Management Unit.
- Serious incidents are those that include physical assault, sexual assault, criminal activity involving theft or serious damage of property, serious threats, racial, religious or homophobic bullying etc.
- The school may contact support professionals such as Welfare officers, Welfare coordinators or Councillors and/or Student Support Officers for assistance and support.
- Both bullies and victims will be offered counselling and support.
- Students and staff and parents identified by others as bullies will be informed of allegations.
- All repetitive or serious incidents must be brought to the attention of the principal class members of the school.
- Regional Office will provide support as appropriate, and the Principal will monitor the investigation and review the situation until matters are appropriately resolved.
- The most appropriate staff member will contact parents of the targeted student. Principal class members will contact alleged bullies unless advised by police or other relevant authority not to do so.
- Consequences of repetitive or serious incidents may include criminal charges, suspension, expulsion, loss of privileges, counselling, conciliation or any other consequences consistent with the school's Student Code of Conduct.
- A management strategy for all parties will be developed in consultation with the students and parents involved.
- Parents or community members who bully or harass or abuse staff will be provided with official warnings, and if necessary referred to the police, and/or have trespass restrictions placed upon them by the Principal consistent with the Summary Offences Act.
4. Post Incident:
- conciliation meetings between all parties
It is important that appropriate strategies are put in place after the incident has been resolved for all students involved. Appropriate strategies may include:-
- ongoing monitoring of students involved.
- follow-up meetings regarding each student's management strategy.
- identification of an agreed key contact staff member for each student involved.
- ongoing communication with parents.
- reinforcement of positive behaviours and appropriate behaviour strategies.
- counselling from appropriate agencies of support officers etc for both parties.
- support and counselling will be offered in the event of malicious or fictitious claims.
Evaluation:
This policy will be reviewed as part of the school's review cycle.
Support materials: http://www.education.vic.gov.au/about/programs/bullystoppers/Pages/students.aspx
Ratified by School Council:
2016
To be reviewed: 2019
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air cadet publication ACP 33
flight volume 1 - history of flight
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CONTENTS
ACP 33 FLIGHT
Volume 1................. History of Flight
Volume 2 ................. Principles of Flight
Volume 3 ................. Propulsion
Volume 4 ................. Airframes
Volume 1
History of Flight
Chapter 1 ................ Lighter-than-Air Craft.
Chapter 2 ................ Heavier-than-Air Craft.
Instructors' Guide
Uncontrolled copy not subject to amendment
The first Hot-Air Balloon
LIGHTER-THAN-AIR CRAFT
Man takes to the air
1. For many years man had dreamed of flying through the air like the birds. It was not too surprising then that early attempts to fly tried to copy bird flight by using flapping wings. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) the Italian artist and inventor produced many designs for aircraft which relied on flapping wings.
Fortunately he never built or tested any of his designs for they would never have worked - man's muscles are far too small to operate the massive wings that would be required to get him airborne.
2. It was not until the Montgolfier brothers built a hot air balloon in 1783 that man could realise his dream of getting airborne. The first balloon flight occurred at Annonay in France on 25 April 1783 where a 12m (39 ft) diameter un-manned balloon filled with hot air climbed to a height of 305m (1000ft) before the hot air in the envelope cooled and it began to descend. The Montgolfier brothers are said to
The first Hydrogenfilled Balloon
Why does a balloon fly?
have been unaware that hot air alone was responsible for the balloon rising, believing that a special light gas was generated by burning a mixture of wool and straw below the open neck of the envelope.
3. In September 1783 a further demonstration saw the balloon lift a sheep, a duck and a cockerel - the first living creatures to become artificially airborne. Later in the same year Francois Pilatre de Rozier accompanied by the Maquis d'Arlandes made the first free flight in the balloon, remaining airborne for 25 minutes and travelling a distance of 9km. Free flight in a lighter-than-air craft had at last been realised.
4. Although this was the beginning of manned flight, it was also the end of the Montgolfier balloon; almost immediately superseded by a much superior and practical hydrogen-filled balloon developed by J Charles. In this balloon both Charles and his assistant made a free flight from the gardens of the Tuileries in Paris on 1 December 1783, covering a distance of 43km (27 miles) and witnessed by over 400,000 people. The Charles balloon was so well designed that the gas-filled balloons used to this day are essentially similar to it - the main difference being that modern balloons use helium gas which does not burn, instead of hydrogen.
Why balloons fly
5. An inflated balloon displaces its own volume of air and so experiences a lifting force or upthrust. This upthrust is equal to the weight of air displaced. A helium balloon inflated to the size of a house would contain about 1 / 2 tonne of gas and would displace about 4 tonnes of air.
Controlling the balloon in flight
The difference between these two weights would be the lifting force on the heliumfilled balloon. If this lifting force is greater than the total weight of the balloon, including the gas, envelope and gondola or basket, then the balloon will float.
6. As the balloon ascends, the atmospheric pressure falls and the balloon expands. To prevent the balloon from bursting, its gas must either be released gradually or allowed to expand into spare envelope space.
Hot-air Ballooning
7. Hot-air ballooning is now a very popular sport and many companies fly specially designed balloons to advertise their names. Heating up air causes it to expand and become less dense. When this lighter air fills the balloon envelope it provides lift by displacing the heavier air outside, in much the same way as hydrogen and helium gas but at a fraction of the cost. The air is heated using large propane gas burners attached below the open neck of the balloon and, while in flight, ignited in short bursts to replace the cooling air. In this way the balloon is able to maintain altitude.
Making a balloon navigable
8. It was not long after the de Rozier's first flight in the Montgolfier balloon that the potential of such a vehicle used for military reconnaissance was seen. But there had to some way of steering it - a basic balloon is simply carried along by the wind. Early ideas of sails, oars and propellers proved useless. It had to be understood that if a lighter-than-air machine was to be steered, then there had to be a controllable force capable of propelling it independantly of the wind. From this realisation and
Some advantages of airships
Modern airships use helium gas over 100 years after Montgolfier's first flight, the first airship designs were produced. Engines were attached to provide independent forward motion and control was provided by using rudders to act on the airflow caused by this forward motion.
Airships
9. Airships are not very common nowadays but in the early 1900s they were considered by many people to be the way forward for air travel. They were quiet and provided passengers with a high degree of comfort. Their ability to remain stationary relative to the ground while using very little fuel made them ideal for scientific and military work. Their size and lifting capacity enabled them to carry large cargoes relatively cheaply. Unfortunately, they were filled with hydrogen gas which made them extremely dangerous - hydrogen gas can be ignited with a tiny spark and will explode with tremendous force.
10. Because of this, there were many airship accidents and finally, when the passenger airship Hindenberg burst into flames at its moorings in 1937, many people lost confidence in them and the airship era was effectively over. Although helium gas was just becoming available as a completely safe alternative to hydrogen, it had unfortunately arrived too late.
How are Airships controlled?
11. Modern airships are benefitting from a revival. They are made with strong lightweight materials and have powerful engines which make them highly manoeuvrable.
Airship rising
Airship descending
12. Inside the main balloon are two ballonets - inflatable air bags that keep the pressure of the helium gas slightly higher than atmospheric pressure. This prevents the balloon from over inflating as the airship rises, or sagging as it descends. Also, pumping air from one ballonet to the other trims the airship balance.
13. Airship rising. To get the airship to rise, valves release air from the ballonets into the atmosphere, reducing the weight of the airship and allowing the helium gas to expand - giving more lift.
Fig 1-7 Pumps force air into the ballonets and the airship descends.
14. Airship descending. To make the airship descend, pumps force air into the ballonets, increasing the airship's weight and compressing the helium gas so that lift is reduced.
Do not mark the paper in any way - write your answers on a separate piece of paper.
Sample Questions
1. In which year did the Montgolfier brothers first fly their hot air balloon?
a. 1673
b. 1783
c. 1883
d. 1973
2. Who first flew a man-carrying hydrogen-filled balloon?
a. Leonardo da Vinci
b. Montgolfier
c. Charles
d. de Rozier
3. What gas are modern airships filled with?
a. Helium
b. Hydrogen
c. Butane
d. Propane
4. An airship rises when:
a. The ballonets empty and the helium gas expands.
b. The ballonets empty and the helium gas is compressed.
c. The ballonets are filled with air and the helium gas is compressed.
d. The ballonets are filled with air and the helium gas expands.
Features that make a kite fly
Sir George Cayley's model glider
HEAVIER-THAN-AIR CRAFT
1. It is believed that the first man-made flying object climbed skyward at least 3000 years ago on the end of a piece of string. The early Chinese people flew kites most probably as signalling devices or military banners heralding the approach of their armies. The technology of kite flying quickly spread throughout the world, with some kites almost certainly built large enough to lift a man used as a military observer.
How does a kite fly?
2. The most important features of this typical kite are its shape, its tail and the way in which the string is attached. Together, they make sure that the kite flies at the correct angle to the wind. The weight of the kite is balanced by the force of the wind underneath it, and also by a less obvious force called lift, caused by the kite's shape. Lift is produced by the wind passing over the top of the kite creating an area of low pressure, and by the air underneath the kite, at a slightly higher pressure, lifting the kite upwards.
Free flight
3. The next most obvious step forward in achieving flight in an heavier-than-air machine was to develop a kite which could fly without a line to the ground. In 1804 the English Baronet Sir George Cayley built what is generally considered to be the first model glider. It was little more than a broomstick, to which was mounted a kite shaped wing at one end and vertical and horizontal tail surfaces at the other; nevertheless it was capable of stable flight over many metres.
Forerunner of the HangGlider
4. With this device Cayley was able to confirm that the principles of heavierthan-air flight were definitely possible. From this first model he evolved a glider that was capable of carrying a small boy, although there was no way of controlling this craft in flight.
Lack of power
5. Also, around this time there were many men beginning to improve the construction of fixed-wing aircraft that could fly. Their main problem, however, was to find a reliable and light enough engine to provide the power they required. In June 1848, John Stringfellow from Chard in Somerset successfully flew his 10-foot wingspan model, powered by a tiny steam engine, across a long room in a disused lace mill. Attempts to make larger versions of steam powered craft were unfortunately unsuccessful. The problems of suitable engines dogged aviation pioneers for many years.
6. The more practical aviators however, accepted this lack of sufficient engine power and concentrated on improving airframe design. They experimented with lightweight construction and tried to discover practical methods of controlling the aircraft in flight. Nobody was more successful in this than the German Otto Lilienthal (1848-1896) who built extremely lightweight gliders enabling him to make many thousands of flights. His gliders were the forerunners of the modern hang-glider, designed so that the mass of the body could be moved to allow some degree of control. Despite many successful flights Lilienthal was killed in a flying accident on 9th August 1896, when he was 48 years old.
The first controlled flight
7. In 1885 a German by the name of Gottlieb Daimler developed the world's first single cylinder internal combustion engine which produced a power-to-weight ratio far superior to any other form of engine available for aircraft propulsion - the long awaited power plant for aircraft had finally arrived.
The beginning of controlled flight
8. On a cold Thursday morning on the 17th December 1903 Orville and Wilbur Wright rolled out their 'Flyer' for the first test flight. With Orville at the controls the Flyer flew a full 120 feet in controlled flight. Three other test flights followed, the last and the best of that day covering 260m (852 ft) and ending with the elevator being damaged as the Flyer landed. Later Orville wrote:
"The course of the flight up and down was exceedingly erratic. The control of the front rudder (elevator) was difficult. As a result the machine would rise suddenly to about ten feet, and then as suddenly dart for the ground. A sudden dart, when a little over 120 feet from the point at which it rose into the air, ended the flight."
9. The important feature of these flights was that man had been airborne and in control of a powered heavier-than-air machine for the very first time.
Bleriot crosses the Channel
10. With improvements to the design of the Flyer, by the end of 1908 and flying from Auvours in France, Wilbur Wright had made more than 100 flights, totalling in excess of 25 flying hours. His last flight of the year, on 31st December lasted 2 hours 20 minutes during which time he covered a distance of 77 miles (124 km) to set a new world record and win the Michelin prize. While Wilbur was busy in Europe, Orville was demonstrating the Flyer at Fort Myer in Virginia. These demonstrations attracted and thrilled many thousands of people who came from miles around to see an areoplane in flight. Tragically they ended after only a few weeks when the aircraft crashed, seriously injuring Orville and killing his passenger - Lt Thomas E Selfridge - the first man in the world to be killed in a powered aircraft accident.
Louis Bleriot
11. Things were also happening much closer to home. On the 25 July 1909 a frail looking monoplane landed close to Dover Castle in Kent.
The pilot was a Frenchman called Louis Bleriot and he had just completed the first crossing of the English Channel by a heavier-than-air machine. Bleriot's Type XI monoplane had taken 37 minutes to make the crossing, but had very nearly ended in failure when his 3 cylinder Anzani engine started to lose power as it overheated. Fortunately a shower of rain cooled the engine sufficiently to complete the crossing. Bleriot's monoplanes went on to achieve many important world firsts, including first over the Alps (1910), first London to Paris non-stop flight (1911), the first official carriage of airmail in Britain (1911) and almost inevitably, the first use of an aeroplane in war (1911). Man had finally realised his dream of mastering the skies.
1914 to 1939
A Maturing Industry
12. By the time war was declared in August 1914, the leading nations' armed forces had already established air arms. The stimulus of war accelerated the development of aeroplanes and engines and the industry expanded rapidly. Skirmishes between observation aircraft early in the war led to the development of more sophisticated gun technology such as the Fokker synchronised-gear machine gun, which ensures that bullets were fired between propeller blades. The SE5a was one of the most popular British fighters, which continued its career after the war. Bombing was adopted to a limited extent, with little military effect, but stimulated the design of much larger twin-engined aircraft. Some of these designs provided the basis for the first post-war airliners.
13. After World War One, new uses for aircraft were pioneered. The machine which made the biggest impact in 1919 was the Vickers Vimy bomber. A converted Vimy flown by Alcock and Brown made the first non-stop crossing of the Atlantic. This was the first of many feats which showed the growing potential of aviation. Between the two world wars a number of women broke records and made pioneering long-distance flights. Amy Johnson flew a Gipsy Moth when in 1930 she made the first solo flight from England to Australia by a woman. There was a growth in popular flying and flying clubs multiplied. The Moth was typical of the practicable, sturdy aircraft used for the purpose, and evolved into a whole family of de Havilland light aircraft including the famous Tiger Moth, which became the Royal Air Force's trainer in World War Two.
The Schneider Trophy
14. Aeroplanes were pushed to ever greater speeds and altitudes. The Schneider Trophy was devised in 1912 to stimulate the development of sound, practicable transport aircraft – instead it produced a series of beautiful but freakish high-speed racers.
The Birth of the Modern Airliner
15. Airliner development made great strides in the USA in the 1930s. Fast, allmetal monoplanes were developed by Northrop, Lockheed, Douglas and Boeing. Significant advances included the development of wing flaps (to improve low-speed
1939 to 1945
1945 to Present Day
lift and reduce landing speed), variable pitch propellers and retractable undercarriages.
From Pistons to Jet
16. In 1939, war again accelerated technological development in the aircraft industry. The Battle of Britain (1940) was a contest as much between engines as between aircraft. The Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, which powered both the Spitfire and Hurricane, represented the pinnacle of engineering design and production skill.
17. The most important development towards the end of the war was the jet. British and German teams raced to develop jet designs. In June 1944 Germany launched pilotless, explosive-carrying jet planes against Britain: the V-1, nicknamed the 'Doodle Bug' and 'Flying Bomb'. The first British fighter, the Gloster Meteor, entered service one month later in an effort to destroy the V-1s. In the late stages of the war Germany used the rocket-powered Messerschmitt Komet fighters to intercept enemy bombers.
THE JET AGE
The Birth of the Jet
18. The technology developed during World War Two transformed aviation in the subsequent years. The jet engine – with it speed capability and high power-toweight ratio – inspired new experimental ideas and shapes. The results included jet passenger services, supersonic flight and vertical take-off and landing.
The First Jet Airliner
19. The world's first jet airliner was the de Havilland Comet 1, which flew in July 1949 and entered service in 1952. On long flights the Comet could have the journey time of piston-engined airliners. Smooth and quiet, its pressurised cabin enabled it to fly in all weather conditions. The most successful aircraft of this first generation of jet airliners was the swept-wing Boeing 707, which entered service in 1958.
Bigger or Faster?
20. In the 1960s commercial aviation began to follow two different paths – one leading to greater passenger-carrying capacity, the other to greater speed. The
Gossamer Condor wins the Kremer Prize
British and French governments funded a supersonic transport project which eventually produced Concord – an aeroplane that can fly at twice the speed of sound, but has served with only two airlines, British Airways and Air France, because of its high operating costs. In the USA Boeing started planning for an entirely different approach: a huge airliner with 400 seats. The resulting 747 produced a second revolution in jet transport and made international travel an almost commonplace experience.
21. The design and development of aircraft have come a long way from those early days of Lilenthal and the Wright bothers. There is no doubt that powered flight has, in less than a century, transformed the world. Journeys have shrunk from weeks to hours and travel across the world has become a possibility for everyone. There will however, always be new challenges to meet and goals to aim for. In 1977 for example, Dr. Paul McCready's Gossamer Condor aircraft, powered and controlled by racing cyclist Bryan Allen, was flown in a figure-of-eight circuit around two pylons 0.8km (0.5 mile) apart. This was the first significant man-powered flight, and won the £50,000 Kremer Prize which had been so long in finding a home. Dr. McCready's Gossamer Albatross aircraft went on in 1979, to set the world distance record for man-powered flight.
22. Aviation pioneers will always be with us testing new designs and pushing the frontiers of technology to their limits. The progress made in aircraft design in the past 100 years has been breathtaking - who knows what the future holds!
Do not mark the paper in any way - write your answers on a separate piece of paper.
Sample Questions
1. Who is thought to have produced the first model glider in 1804?
a. Wright brothers
b. Sir George Cayley
c. Louis Bleriot
d. John Stringfellow
2. Otto Lilienthal is well known for:
a. building controllable gliders considered to be the forerunner of the modern hang-glider.
b. Developing the world's first single cylinder internal combustion engine.
c. Flying non-stop from London to Paris for the first time.
d. Building the first heavier-than-air powered aircraft large enough to carry a man.
3. Who was the first person to fly a powered aircraft across the English channel?
a. Orville Wright
b. Bryan Allen
c. Wilbur Wright
d. Louis Bleriot
4. The aircraft to win the Kremer prize was called:
a. Gossamer Condor
b. Wright's Flyer
c. Gossamer Albatross
d. McCready's Flyer
Page 33.1.1-1 Para 1
INSTRUCTORS GUIDE
Archimedes Principle
Archimedes, a Greek mathematician, discovered why things float. It is believed that he formulated his principle, while lowering himself in to his bath. The story goes, that in his excitement he leapt out of the bath and ran to his workshop shouting Eureka (I have found it!) - completely forgetting to dress.
His principle states:
Any object immersed in a fluid (liquid or gas) experiences an upthrust (it appears to weigh less). The size of this upthrust is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. This means that an object will float in a fluid when it displaces it's own weight of fluid. For example:
A 1000 tonne ship floats when it has displaced 1000 tonnes of water.
A one tonne balloon will float when it displaces one tonne of air.
From the earliest times man had aspirations to fly. By the beginning of the Sixteenth Century Leonardo da Vinci considered the problem of aviation in a more scientific spirit. By observation he learned much about the mechanics of the gliding and soaring flight of birds. He concluded that the long, narrow, slightly curved outstretched wings supported them because of the upward pressure of the air.
In the centuries which followed many adventurous men killed or injured themselves by leaping off towers with flapping wings attached to their arms and legs. In the end it came to be realised that man's unaided muscles could never sustain him in controlled flight.
CHAPTER 2
Page 33.1.2-1 Para 3
INSTRUCTORS GUIDE
The Father of Aerial Navigation
The English Baronet Sir George Cayley (1773-1857) did much to deserve the title "Father of Aerial Navigation". In 1804 he built what is generally regarded as the first successful model glider which he used to confirm the principles of heavier-than-air flight.
He suggested the use of an internal combustion engine for powered flight and demonstrated that a curved aerofoil shape provides lift. He went on to demonstrate that biplane or triplane wings would provide maximum lift from a lightweight, robust structure.
In the same year that Cayley died a French naval officer, Felix du Temple, flew the first model aeroplane powered by a clockwork motor. Seventeen years later he was flight testing a full-size man-carrying aeroplane powered by a steam-engine. Piloted by an unknown sailor, at Brest, this aircraft was the first in the world to achieve a short hop into the air, following it's launch down an inclined ramp.
Page 33.1.2-2 Para 6
Making a paper glider
Experiment with the effects of control surfaces on this model.
Starting with an A4 sheet of paper
Staple the folds together
33.1.2b NOTES
Self Assessment Questions - Answer Sheet
Chapter 1 Page 33.1.1-7
1. b
2. c
3. a
4. a
Chapter 2 Page 33.1.2-7
1. b
2. a
3. d
4. a
PIONEERS – AIRCRAFT HISTORY
A
Alcock, John
Made the first transatlantic flight, 1919.
Antoinette, Marie
Witnessed early flight of the Montgolfier balloon, 1783.
Arlandes, Marquis d'
Made the first human flight, in a balloon, 1783.
B
Bedford, Bill
Test pilot of first vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) jet aeroplane, 1961.
Bleriot, Louis
Made the first crossing of English Channel, 1909.
Brown, Arthur Whitten
Made the first transatlantic flight, 1919.
C
Cody, Leila Marie
First woman to fly, 1902.
Cody, Samuel Franklin
Made the first powered flight in Britain, 1908.
D
da Vinci, Leonardo
Made one of the first scientific studies of flight, c1500
Daedalus
Greek mythological character who created wings for himself and his son Icarus.
F
Fokker, Anthony
Developed the synchronised-gear machine gun for aircraft, 1915.
Frost, Edward Purkis
Experimented with ornithopters, c1900.
H
Harding, H J
Early twentieth-century aeroplane enthusiast.
Hill, Captain C T R
Designed the Hill Pterodactyl, early 1920s.
I
Icarus
Greek mythological character who flew too near the Sun.
J
Johnson, Amy
First woman to fly solo to Australia, 1930.
K
King Louis XIV 1783.
Witnessed early flight of the Montgolfier balloon,
L
Levavasseur, Leon
French artist-designer who created the Antoinette, c1909.
Lilienthal, Otto
Foremost experimenter in flight in the nineteenth century.
M
Mitchell, Reginald
Aircraft designer who created the Supermarine Spitfire and S6B, 1930s and 1940s.
Montgolfier, Joseph
Developed the first hot-air balloon, c1783.
N
Northcliffe, Lord
Owner of the Daily Mail and aviation propagandist, c1906.
P
Pitts, Curtis
Designed the Pitts Special Aerobatic Biplane 1944
R
Roe, Alliott Verdon
One of Britain's great pioneers of aviation, c1909.
S
Savage, Major Jack
Pioneered the art of skywriting, c1922.
Sayer, Gerry
Test pilot of the first British jet aircraft, 1941.
Short, Eustaceand Oswald Pioneers of balloon flight, c1900.
W
Watson-Watt, Robert
Pioneered the use of radar in World War Two.
Whittle, Sir Frank
Developed Britain's first jet engine, 1930s.
Wright, Orville and Wilbur
First powered and controlled flight, 1903.
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Point of Balance
Point of Balance is a simple mathematical / engineering problem that is set, and can be solved, just by folding a square of paper. Ideally that paper should be white on one side and coloured on the other.
Setting the problem
Begin with your square arranged white side up.
1. Fold your square in half edge to edge in both directions, unfolding both times, to locate the centre of the square.
3. Fold the top edge onto the top point of the front layer whilst making sure that the new crease starts from the left hand corner of the square, which must remain sharp.
2. Fold the bottom point into the centre.
4. The two coloured triangles are the ends of two prisms of uniform density. The problem is to work out whether the top prism is balanced, or if it is not, which way it will fall. Take a guess before you try to work it out. Balanced? Right? Or left?
Solving the problem
In order to solve the problem we need to find the centre of mass of the top prism. If the centre of mass is directly above the top point of the bottom prism it will be balanced, if not it will fall either right or left.
The centre of mass is the point at which the medians of the triangle Intersect. Any two medians will do.
Medians are lines, or creases, drawn from one corner of a triangle to the centre point of the opposite edge.
6
2 crease forms between the centre of the left sloping edge and the right corner of the triangle marked in grey in picture 6.
6. The centre point of the left sloping top edge has already been found as this edge is bisected by one of the creases made in step 1.
David Mitchell / Point of Balance
13
Copyright David Mitchell 2015 www.origamiheaven.com
13. The point where the creases made to mark the medians in steps 7 and 10 intersect is the centre of mass of the top prism. Dropping a line from this point shows that the centre of mass is to the left of the top point of the bottom prism and the top prism will therefore fall to the left.
Note that this problem could be made slightly more difficult to solve by finding the centre of the square in step 1 by folding in half diagonally in both directions, in which case extra folds to locate the centres of the two edges of the top prism would be necessary.
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Fridtjof Nansen (10 October 1861 – 13 May 1930)
Fridtjof Nansen was a Norwegian explorer, scientist, oceanographer, statesman, diplomat and humanitarian. He led the team that made the first crossing of the Greenland interior in 1888, and made several expeditions to the Arctic (1888, 1893-96) and oceanographic expeditions in the North Atlantic (1900, 1910-14). For his relief work after World War I he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace (1922).
At a glance…
- Nansen was born at Store Frøen, near Oslo. His father Baldur Nansen was a prosperous lawyer who became Reporter to the Supreme Court of Norway;
- Nansen's mother Adelaide Nansen was a strong-minded, athletic woman who introduced her children to the outdoor life and encouraged them to develop physical skills;
- Nansen started skiing at the age of two years old and had strong athletic prowess, becoming an expert in skating, tumbling, and swimming;
- He was a keen hunter and fisherman who possessed the physical endurance to ski fifty miles in a day and the psychological self-reliance to embark on long trips;
- He chose to study zoology in the expectation that fieldwork would give him the chance of an outdoor life and enable him to make use of his artistic talents;
- After 1896 his main scientific interest switched to oceanography; in the course of his research he made many scientific cruises, mainly in the North Atlantic, and contributed to the development of modern oceanographic equipment;
- In the spring of 1920, the League of Nations asked Nansen to undertake the task of repatriating the prisoners of war, many of them held in Russia. Moving with his customary boldness and ingenuity, and despite restricted funds, Nansen repatriated 450,000 prisoners in the next year and a half;
- In the final decade of his life, Nansen devoted himself primarily to the League of Nations, following his appointment in 1921 as the League's High Commissioner for Refugees
- For the stateless refugees under his care Nansen invented the 'Nansen Passport', a document of identification, which was eventually recognized by fifty-two governments
- In 1922 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work on behalf of the displaced victims of the First World War and related conflicts;
- He continued to work with refugees until his sudden death in 1930, after which the League established the Nansen International Office for Refugees to ensure that his work continued.
The Greenland crossing…
In 1882 Nansen shipped on the sealer Viking to the east coast of Greenland, whose interior had never been explored. On this trip of four and a half months, Nansen first saw at a distance Greenland's mighty ice cap and was entranced. The idea of crossing it and in 1887, after the submission of his doctoral thesis, he finally began organising this project.
Nansen rejected the complex organisation and heavy manpower of other Arctic ventures, and instead planned his expedition for a small party of six men with experience of outdoor life in extreme conditions, and who were experienced skiers. Supplies would be man-hauled on specially designed lightweight sledges. Much of the equipment, including sleeping bags, clothing and cooking stoves, also needed to be designed from scratch.
On 3 June 1888 Nansen's party was picked up from the north-western Icelandic port of Ísafjörður by the sealer Jason. A week later the Greenland coast was sighted. After a number of setbacks, including violent storms, treacherous terrain, and a necessary change of course the team completed the crossing. They had accomplished it in 49 days, making 78 days in total since they had left the Jason; throughout the journey the team had maintained careful meteorological, geographical and other records relating to the previously unexplored interior.
When they reached Godthaab, they were greeted by the town's Danish representative, whose first words were to inform Nansen that he had been awarded his doctorate, a matter that "could not have been more remote from my thoughts at that moment", said Nansen.
"Never stop because you are afraid – you are never so likely to be wrong. Never keep a line of retreat: it is a wretched invention. The difficult is what takes a little time. The impossible is what takes a little longer." – Fridtjof Nansen
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Environments and Ecosystems (STEM Principle: Science)
By: Matt Paulson
Your kids can learn best about the world's natural environments by going out and exploring them. Depending on where you are, you may be able to reach lots of different ecosystems, and helping your children identify them is a great place to start learning biology. In this lesson we'll talk about the ecosystem. The hikes you select may include a variety of ecosystems which you can point out along the way. Or one ecosystem may predominate, in which case you can delve into the various characteristics of that ecosystem as you hike.
Ecosystem is a big word with a short meaning: it is all the plants and animals of an area that work together to make a place special. An ecosystem with lots of trees would be called a forest, and a dry one with very few plants is a desert. In Washington state there are many rainforests. In Hawaii, climbing up one of the mountain ranges offers a wide variety of microsystems with each elevation change. An ecosystem is comprised of several elements you and your junior scientists can look for while out on the trail. The first one we'll consider is water.
Water is important to all life, and most ecosystems depend on how much water they get. Being near the ocean or a stream, for example, gives animals somewhere to drink and eat fish. The coastal environments also host birds, seals, otters, and other coastal animals. If you have a beach nearby, check it out together and see what you can find. Tip over rocks and see who lives underneath. Explore tide pools. Nature is all around, and even the little critters are fascinating if you explore their secret lives. If you're near a pond, lake or river, you will notice plants and animals which seem to thrive right near the water. This is called the riparian zone. Here, the roots of big trees like cedars and oaks hold the soil so that the water doesn't wash it all away. Animals like raccoons, frogs, and opossums make their homes here. Dense underbrush may also provide safe passage from the forest to the water for these animals.
Trees need water to grow, and they can get it in many ways. Forests that are not near a water source collect it from rainwater. In dryer areas, plants need to rely more on moisture in the air. Dense forests tend to be home to big animals like bears, moose and reindeer. But the dryer areas will be home to smaller animals like deer, squirrels and rabbits. Why do you suppose this might be? Ask your scientist.
Deserts exist in the rain shadow of mountains. Tall mountains capture rain before the air mass crosses over to the other side. Port Townsend and Port Ludlow in Washington state are in the rain shadow of the Olympic Mountains. This is a nice place to call home in the usually damp Pacific Northwest! In deserts, life adapts to the dryness. Lizards, snakes, and small rodents are all very good at conserving water, and rarely have to drink. The cactus is a common plant here, and it is very good at saving water.
Next time you hike, think about the ecosystem you'll be visiting. Ask the kids to identify the type. Are you in a desert? The mountains? A forest? The riparian zone? Ask them what animals they think live here, and try to see some if you can!
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End of preview. Expand
in Data Studio
YAML Metadata
Warning:
empty or missing yaml metadata in repo card
(https://huggingface.co/docs/hub/datasets-cards)
Finepdfs filtered using this code:
def my_filter(example):
lscore = example["page_average_lid_score"]*example["full_doc_lid_score"] > 0.85*0.85
lenglish = example["language"] == "eng_Latn" and example["page_average_lid"] == "eng_Latn" and example["full_doc_lid"] == "eng_Latn"
fwscore = (sum(example["fw_edu_scores"])/len(example["fw_edu_scores"])) > 3
return lscore and lenglish and fwscore
This remove 87% of the dataset in average. This filtering have been applied on 1/4 of the dataset.
- Downloads last month
- -
Size of downloaded dataset files:
3.58 GB
Size of the auto-converted Parquet files:
3.58 GB
Number of rows:
848,074