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died Aug. 28, 1818, St. Charles, Mo., U.S.
black pioneer trader and founder of the settlement that later became the city of Chicago.
Du Sable, whose French father had moved to Haiti and married a black woman there, is believed to have been a freeborn. At some time in the 1770s he went to the Great Lakes area of North America, settling on the shore of Lake Michigan at the mouth of the Chicago River, with his Potawatomi wife, Kittihawa (Catherine). His loyalty to the French and the Americans led to his arrest in 1779 by the British, who took him to Fort Mackinac. From 1780 to 1783 or 1784 he managed for his captors a trading post called the Pinery on the St. Clair River in present-day Michigan, after which he returned to the site of Chicago. By 1790 Du Sable's establishment there had become an important link in the region's fur and grain trade.
In 1800 he sold out and moved to Missouri, where he continued as a farmer and trader until his death. But his 20-year residence on the shores of Lake Michigan had established his title as Father of Chicago. | <urn:uuid:c7c44bd1-3600-48a9-b33a-acfce3aaa2c0> | {
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Tornadoes are the most intense storms on the planet, and they’re never discussed without at least some mention of the term wind shear. Many of us sitting at home, though, have no idea what wind shear is, or if we do, how it affects tornado production.
What is Wind Shear
Wind shear, although it might sound complex, is a simple concept. Wind shear is merely the change in wind with height, in terms of wind direction and speed. I think that we all understand that the wind is generally stronger in the atmosphere over our heads than it is here on the ground, and if we think of the atmosphere in terms of the three dimensions that it has, it should not be surprising that the wind above us might also be blowing from a different direction than the wind at the ground. When that happens–the wind speed and direction vary with height–wind shear is occurring.
Wind Shear and Supercell Thunderstorms
This wind shear is an important part of the process in the development of a supercell thunderstorm, from which the vast majority of strong tornadoes form.
All thunderstorms are produced by a powerful updraft–a surge of air that rises from the ground into the upper levels of the atmosphere, and when this updraft forms in an area where wind shear is present, the updraft is influence by this speed and different direction of the wind above, pushing the column of air in the updraft into a more vertical alignment.
Rain’s Influence on Tornado Production
Needless to say, thunderstorms typically produce very heavy rain, and rain-cooled air is much heavier than the warm air of the updraft, so the rain-cooled air, produces a compensating downdraft (what comes up, must come down). This downdraft pushes the part of the rotating air that was forced in its direction by the stronger wind aloft downward, and the result is a horizontal column of rotating air.
That’s Not a Tornado!
I know what you’re thinking that you’ve seen enough TLC or Discovery Channel shows to know that a horizontal column of air is NOT a tornado; you need a vertical column of air.
This Can Be a Tornado
You’re right, but remember the updraft that is driving the thunderstorm is still working, and it’s able to pull the horizontal, spinning column of air into the thunderstorm, resulting in a vertical column of spinning air.
(NOAA image showing vertical column of air in a supercell thunderstorm)
The result is a rotating thunderstorm capable of producing a tornado, and it would not be possible without wind shear.
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On this day in 1951, more than six years after the end of World War II in Europe, President Harry S. Truman signed a proclamation officially ending U.S. hostilities with Germany.
The official end to the war came nine years, 10 months and 13 days after Congress had declared war on Nazi Germany. The lawmakers had responded to a declaration of war issued by the Third Reich in the aftermath of the Dec. 7, 1941, Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and other U.S. bases in the Pacific.
The president explained why he had waited so long after the fighting had ended to act: It had always been America’s hope, Truman wrote, to create a treaty of peace with the government of a united and free Germany, but the postwar policies pursued by the Soviet Union “made it impossible.”
After the war, the United States, Britain, France and the Soviet Union divided Germany into four zones of occupation. Berlin, while located wholly within the Soviet zone, was jointly occupied by the wartime allies and also subdivided into four sectors because of its symbolic importance as the nation’s historic capital and seat of the former Nazi government.
The three western zones were merged to form the Federal Republic of Germany in May 1949, and the Soviets followed suit in October 1949 with the establishment of the German Democratic Republic.
The East German regime began to falter in May 1989, when the removal of Hungary’s border fences punched a hole in the Iron Curtain, allowing tens of thousands of East Germans to flee to the West. Despite the grants of general sovereignty to both German states in 1955, neither of the two German governments held unrestricted sovereignty under international law until after they were reunified in October 1990. | <urn:uuid:802d6d3f-73ff-4476-973b-a3c618ed8f7a> | {
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The significance of Alabama Unionists during the Civil War and Reconstruction has long been a subject of study among scholars. Largely centered in northern Alabama and to a lesser degree in the southeast region and in Montgomery and Mobile, Unionists were important both militarily and politically. Until recently, however, the details of this phenomenon have remained less well known, largely because the term Unionist (both then and now) has been used to refer to a range of different individuals and positions.
In the broadest sense, Unionist has meant any white person who opposed secession (including those who later supported the Confederacy) and those who came to support the Union during the war despite having originally supported the Confederacy. This broad definition includes a very wide range of Alabamians—from the most well-to-do planters who ultimately become officers in the Confederate Army to the subsistence farmer who deserted the southern cause midway through the war. It is also possible to define Unionism more narrowly, confining the label to those individuals who resisted both secession and the Confederacy during the war. Such unconditional loyalists probably represented no more than 15 percent of Alabama's adult white population. They were mostly nonslaveholding farmers (though a small minority owned slaves) living in the northern third of the state. A few Unionists also lived in the piney woods and coastal plain further south. In many respects, these men and women were very much like their neighbors who supported the Confederate cause. The reasons they remained loyal to the Union were also quite diverse. Many saw secession as illegal, whereas others felt that it would dishonor the American Revolution and their own ancestors. Still others were certain that secession would end in political or military disaster. Many were influenced by the respected figures in their families or neighborhoods.
Unionism in Alabama arose under the pressures of the presidential election of 1860. Nine months before, the state legislature had directed that, in the event of a Republican's election, a state secession convention would be called. By directly linking the presidential election to secession, the legislature fostered a political atmosphere that was particularly hostile to Unionists. Newspaper editorials and participants at community meetings condemned as traitors those who canvassed for Illinois senator Stephen Douglas, the nominee of the regular Democratic Party, rather than the southern-rights Democratic nominee, John Breckinridge. In the election, fully 80 percent of Alabama's eligible voters participated, giving Breckinridge a substantial victory, with 54 percent of the vote. John Bell, the Constitutional Union candidate who was supported by a number of Alabamians hostile to secession, received 31 percent of the vote. Douglas, the candidate most associated with a strongly Unionist position, polled slightly more than 15 percent. Republican Abraham Lincoln was not even on the ballot in Alabama.
As promised, Alabama secessionists called a convention in the wake of Lincoln's election. The campaign for convention delegates provoked heated and sometimes violent debates among neighbors, forcing many to defend their positions in public. Of the 100 delegates elected, 53 were secessionists and 47 were cooperationists, a term that refers to the delegates' desire to secede only in "cooperation" with other southern states. In fact, the men elected on this platform represented a wide range of ideas about if, when, and under what circumstances to cooperate with secession and included a minority faction—probably less than one-third (the vast majority of them from the northern third of the state)—of unconditional Unionists who opposed secession outright.
These delegates convened in Montgomery on January 7, 1861, and debated secession for four days. On January 11, 1861, the convention passed Alabama's Ordinance of Secession by a vote of 61 to 39. Many of those who voted against the ordinance, however, ultimately did support secession, and four immediately reversed themselves and signed with the majority. Among the opposition, 33 delegates subsequently signed the "Address to the People of Alabama," in which they pledged to consult with their supporters and then act on their wishes. Ten signatories of the address signed the ordinance to satisfy their constituents. Other delegates who rejected the ordinance eventually took active part in the war. Only three signers—Henry C. Sanford of Cherokee County, Elliot P. Jones of Fayette County, and Robert Guttery of Walker County—never signed the ordinance and maintained their Unionism throughout the war. Only two wartime Unionists—R. S. Watkins of Franklin County and Christopher C. Sheats of Winston County—signed neither the "Address" nor the Ordinance of Secession.
Most of the men and women who supported the Union after Alabama's secession faced great difficulties. Many were ostracized and ridiculed by neighbors, called before community vigilance committees for questioning and intimidation, or actually harmed for endorsing the Union. Such treatment was most commonly meted out to those who publicly asserted their views; those who kept quiet and did not interfere with volunteering were often left alone during the first year of the war. After Confederate conscription began in April 1862, however, community tolerance of Unionists waned. Individuals who resisted the draft, for whatever reason, were subject to arrest and imprisonment. Family members who supported resisters were frequently threatened with violence or exile by conscript cavalry who hoped to pressure men to come in from the woods or mountains and surrender. In addition, it was not at all uncommon for the families of Unionists to be targeted for punitive foraging or arson by Confederate forces or local conscript cavalry.
After the Union Army invaded Alabama in early 1862, Unionists had more opportunities to flee behind Union lines for safety and the possibility of employment as soldiers, spies, or laborers. Most well known of Alabama's Union troops was the First Alabama Cavalry, U.S.A., organized in late 1862 by Brig. Gen. Grenville M. Dodge, stationed at Corinth, Mississippi. The regiment served mostly in northern Alabama, western Tennessee, and northeastern Mississippi, though it marched with Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman to Savannah in 1864. Alabama Unionists also joined other federal regiments, particularly those from Tennessee, Indiana, Illinois, and Ohio. Those who remained at home, both within Union-occupied territory and behind Confederate lines, also actively assisted Union forces as spies and guides. In some cases, they collaborated with local African Americans (most often their own slaves) to aid and abet the Union Army or pro-Union men in their neighborhoods. Moreover, African Americans from Alabama also crossed the Union lines to serve as laborers and soldiers, and after the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in 1863, many were inducted into United States Colored Troops regiments. Almost 5,000 African Americans, or 6 percent of Alabama's black male population between the ages of 18 and 45, volunteered in the Union ranks.
As was the case throughout the South, by the midpoint of the war Alabama's original Unionists were increasingly joined in their dissent by deserters from the Confederate Army, mostly men whose families were struggling at home without their labor. Disillusioned by the realities of warfare, angered by the inequities of service under laws exempting slaveowners and selected professionals, such Alabamians generally wanted the war to end more than they desired Union victory, though some did cross lines and join the Union army rather than desert and avoid service altogether. A small peace movement also emerged at this time among men who had originally opposed secession but later supported the state.
After the war, Unionists continued to struggle politically and socially, for their wartime activities had alienated them from
their now-defeated neighbors. Most eagerly joined the Union League and the Republican Party. Some wartime Unionists helped reintroduce the Methodist-Episcopal Church (as contrasted with the Methodist-Episcopal Church, South) to northern Alabama, finding there a more hospitable environment
for worship. Many campaigned strenuously to convince the president and Congress to limit the political rights of former Confederates.
They also sought positions of local and state authority for others who had supported the Union during the war. At this point,
a number of men who had originally opposed secession but supported the state in 1861, as well as citizens who had become disillusioned
with the war, also moved to the fore of political life in Alabama. These moderates were, in general, encouraged by Pres. Andrew Johnson, who appointed such men to
positions of political authority in the immediate post-war provisional governments he established. The Republican Party in
Alabama was populated by such individuals, as well as core Unionists who had served in the Union Army or otherwise actively
resisted the Confederacy. Both groups were referred to by their Democratic opponents as sc alawags.
Under Congressional Reconstruction (1867-74) wartime loyalists gained greater political power than they had under Presidential Reconstruction, taking leading roles in the constitutional convention of 1867, the Freedmen's Bureau, and the Republican-dominated state legislature. Most also supported, though sometimes reluctantly, voting rights for African Americans as a means to gain political power over former Confederates. For their continued association with northern Republicans and support for African American equality, white Unionists were targeted for intimidation and physical violence by the Ku Klux Klan and other anti-Reconstruction vigilantes. As elsewhere in the South, Alabama Unionists and their Republican allies (white and black, northern and southern) received little in the way of federal assistance to defend against the onslaught of violence. As their party was overwhelmed by the Democratic opposition, Unionists retreated from the forefront of state politics, though those in communities with substantial loyalist populations continued in positions of local political leadership well into the late nineteenth century.
Barney, William L. The Secessionist Impulse: Alabama and Mississippi in 1860. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974.
Fitzgerald, Michael W. The Union League Movement in the Deep South: Politics and Agri cultural Change During Reconstruction. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989.
Mills, Gary B. Southern Loyalists in the Civil War: The Southern Claims Commission. A Composite Directory of Case Files Created by the U.S. Commissioner of Claims, 1871-1880, including those appealed to the War Claims Committee of the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Court of Claims. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Company, Inc. 1994.
Rogers, William Warren, Jr. The Confederate Home Front: Montgomery During the Civil War. Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 1999.
Storey, Margaret M. Loyalty and Loss: Alabama's Unionists in the Civil War and Reconstruction. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2004.
Margaret M. Storey
Published December 14, 2007
Last updated October 3, 2011 | <urn:uuid:dcf6578e-71df-4e20-904c-5952df38fb9c> | {
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Uveitis is inflammation of the uvea, which is made up of the iris, ciliary body and choroid. Together, these form the middle layer of the eye between the retina and the sclera (white of the eye).
The eye is shaped like a tennis ball, with three different layers of tissue surrounding the central gel-filled cavity, which is called the vitreous. The innermost layer is the retina, which senses light and helps to send images to your brain. The outermost layer is the sclera, the strong white wall of the eye. The middle layer between the sclera and retina is called the uvea.
The uvea contains many blood vessels — the veins, arteries and capillaries — that carry blood to and from the eye. Because the uvea nourishes many important parts of the eye (such as the retina), inflammation of the uvea can damage your sight.
There are several types of uveitis, defined by the part of the eye where it occurs.
- Iritis affects the front of your eye. Also called anterior uveitis, this is the most common type of uveitis. Iritis usually develops suddenly and may last six to eight weeks. Some types of anterior uveitis can be chronic or recurrent.
- If the uvea is inflamed in the middle or intermediate region of the eye, it is called pars planitis (or intermediate uveitis). Episodes of pars planitis can last between a few weeks to years. The disease goes through cycles of getting better, then worse.
- Posterior uveitis affects the back parts of your eye. Posterior uveitis can develop slowly and often lasts for many years.
- Panuveitis occurs when all layers of the uvea are inflamed.
Next Page: Uveitis Causes | <urn:uuid:33687e0d-90f9-4e53-ac31-257283325d4f> | {
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Marion Levine teaches English, Literature and Film Production at Los Angeles Center for Enriched Studies, Los Angeles, CA
Measure for Measure, Act 4 or 5
What's On for Today and Why
Students will choose a character from Measure for Measure and create a "back story" for that character. This will encourage students to read the text closely looking for clues regarding a specific character's history. Students will re-read a portion of the text and then write about what has happened to the character before the play begins. They will then create an artifact, such as a diary or journal entry, written by the charcacter they have selected. This will allow them the opportunity to think like the character and to view the events of the play from a specific point of view.
This lesson will take two 40 minute class periods.
What You Need
Measure for Measure, Folger Edition
What To Do
1. Explain the concept of a "back story" as the important events that occur to a character before the play begins. You may need to prompt students with questions such as:
What was the character like as a child?
In what situation did he/she grow up?
Students will need to show how the script supports their choices.
2. Have the students write a one or two page back story in either the first or third person.
3. Divide students into small groups of 4 or 5 and have them re-read Act 4 or Act 5, combing throught the text for character details.
4. Have students write a letter, diary or journal entry from their selected characters point of view (first person). This artifact should concern one or more characters in the play.
5. For increased authenticity, appropriate for an "Extra-Extended" book, students could write their letter, diary entry using calligraphy, a handwriting font or on a piece of yellowed paper.
6. Allow students time to read their pieces and share their artifacts with the class.
How Did It Go?
Were students able to justify their choices with reference to the text? Did their artifacts accurately portray character traits that can be interpreted from the text? Were students able to convey a sense of the character's perspective through this activity?
This lesson could be applied to any fictional text that the students read in class. Through close reading and attention to a specific character, students are able to identify with, and understand the concerns of a character on a deeper level. Possible choices could include Jay Gatsby, Hester Prynne,and Atticus Finch.
If you used this lesson, we would like to hear how it went and about any adaptations you made to suit the needs of YOUR students. | <urn:uuid:86849ab7-4070-40ee-9f28-f23c0e6d4e97> | {
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Jim Lake and Maria Rivera, at the University of California-Los Angeles (UCLA), report their finding in the Sept. 9 issue of the journal Nature.
Scientists refer to both bacteria and Archaea as "prokaryotes"--a cell type that has no distinct nucleus to contain the genetic material, DNA, and few other specialized components. More-complex cells, known as "eukaryotes," contain a well-defined nucleus as well as compartmentalized "organelles" that carry out metabolism and transport molecules throughout the cell. Yeast cells are some of the most-primitive eukaryotes, whereas the highly specialized cells of human beings and other mammals are among the most complex.
"A major unsolved question in biology has been where eukaryotes came from, where we came from," Lake said. "The answer is that we have two parents, and we now know who those parents were."
Further, he added, the results provide a new picture of evolutionary pathways. "At least 2 billion years ago, ancestors of these two diverse prokaryotic groups fused their genomes to form the first eukaryote, and in the processes two different branches of the tree of life were fused to form the ring of life," Lake said.
The work is part of an effort supported by the National Science Foundation--the federal agency that supports research and education across all disciplines of science and engineering--to re-examine historical schemes for classifying Earth's living creatures, a process that was once based on easily observable traits. Microbes, plants or animals wer
Contact: Leslie Fink
National Science Foundation | <urn:uuid:baf824b2-7e06-471a-8510-efd5abab1567> | {
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Mercury in the Morning
The planet Mercury -- the planet closest to the Sun -- is just peeking into view in the east at dawn the next few days. It looks like a fairly bright star. It's so low in the sky, though, that you need a clear horizon to spot it, and binoculars wouldn't hurt.
Mercury is a bit of a puzzle. It has a big core that's made mainly of iron, so it's quite dense. Because Mercury is so small, the core long ago should've cooled enough to form a solid ball. Yet the planet generates a weak magnetic field, hinting that the core is still at least partially molten.
The solution to this puzzle may involve an iron "snow" deep within the core.
The iron in the core is probably mixed with sulfur, which has a lower melting temperature than iron. Recent models suggest that the sulfur may have kept the outer part of the core from solidifying -- it's still a hot, thick liquid.
As this mixture cools, though, the iron "freezes" before the sulfur does. Small bits of solid iron fall toward the center of the planet. This creates convection currents -- like a pot of boiling water. The motion is enough to create a "dynamo" effect. Like a generator, it produces electrical currents, which in turn create a magnetic field around the planet.
Observations earlier this year by the Messenger spacecraft seem to support that idea. But Messenger will provide much better readings of what's going on inside Mercury when it enters orbit around the planet in 2011.
Script by Damond Benningfield, Copyright 2008
For more skywatching tips, astronomy news, and much more, read StarDate magazine. | <urn:uuid:d0a1999f-a775-4afc-bcfd-ee6ff6243a0b> | {
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Black holes growing faster than expected
Black hole find Existing theories on the relationship between the size of a galaxy and its central black hole are wrong according to a new Australian study.
The discovery by Dr Nicholas Scott and Professor Alister Graham, from Melbourne's Swinburne University of Technology, found smaller galaxies have far smaller black holes than previously estimated.
Central black holes, millions to billions of times more massive than the Sun, reside in the core of most galaxies, and are thought to be integral to galactic formation and evolution.
However astronomers are still trying to understand this relationship.
Scott and Graham combined data from observatories in Chile, Hawaii and the Hubble Space Telescope, to develop a data base listing the masses of 77 galaxies and their central supermassive black holes.
The astronomers determined the mass of each central black hole by measuring how fast stars are orbiting it.
Existing theories suggest a direct ratio between the mass of a galaxy and that of its central black hole.
"This ratio worked for larger galaxies, but with improved technology we're now able to examine far smaller galaxies and the current theories don't hold up," says Scott.
In a paper to be published in the Astrophysical Journal, they found that for each ten-fold decrease in a galaxy's mass, there was a one hundred-fold decrease in its central black hole mass.
"That was a surprising result which we hadn't been anticipating," says Scott.
The study also found that smaller galaxies have far denser stellar populations near their centres than larger galaxies.
According to Scott, this also means the central black holes in smaller galaxies grow much faster than their larger counterparts.
Black holes grow by merging with other black holes when their galaxies collide.
"When large galaxies merge they double in size and so do their central black holes," says Scott.
"But when small galaxies merge their central black holes quadruple in size because of the greater densities of nearby stars to feed on."
Somewhere in between
The findings also solve the long standing problem of missing intermediate mass black holes.
For decades, scientists have been searching for something in between stellar mass black holes formed when the largest stars die, and supermassive black holes at the centre of galaxies.
"If the central black holes in smaller galaxies have lower mass than originally thought, they may represent the intermediate mass black hole population astronomers have been hunting for," says Graham.
"Intermediate sized black holes are between ten thousand and a few hundred thousand times the mass of the Sun, and we think we've found several good candidates."
"These may be big enough to be seen directly by the new generation of extremely large telescopes now being built," says Graham. | <urn:uuid:e617c5fd-d556-4d43-be1f-042e7e7f2c60> | {
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Hoodoos may be seismic gurus
Hoodoo prediction Towering chimney-like sedimentary rock spires known as hoodoos may provide an indication of an area's past earthquake activity.
The research by scientists including Dr Rasool Anooshehpoor, from the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, may provide scientists with a new tool to test the accuracy of current hazard models.
Hoodoo formations are often found in desert regions, and are common in North America, the Middle East and northern Africa.
They are caused by the uneven weathering of different layers of sedimentary rocks, that leave boulders or thin caps of hard rock perched on softer rock.
By knowing the strengths of different types of sedimentary layers, scientists can determine the amount of stress needed to cause those rocks to fracture.
The United States Geological Survey (USGS) use seismic hazard models to predict the type of ground motion likely to occur in an area during a seismic event. But, according to Anooshehpoor, these models lack long term data.
"Existing hazard maps use models based on scant data going back a hundred years or so," says Anooshehpoor. "But earthquakes have return periods lasting hundreds or thousands of years, so there is nothing to test these hazard models against."
The researchers examined two unfractured hoodoos within a few kilometres of the Garlock fault, which is an active strike-slip fault zone in California's Red Rock Canyon.
Their findings are reported in the Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America.
"Although we can't put a precise age on hoodoos because of their erosion characteristics, we can use them to provide physical limits on the level of ground shaking that could potentially have occurred in the area," says Anooshehpoor.
The researchers developed a three-dimensional model of each hoodoo and determined the most likely place where each spire would fail in an earthquake.
They then tested rock samples similar to the hoodoo pillars to measure their tensile strength and compared their results with previously published data.
USGS records suggest at least one large magnitude earthquake occurred along the fault in the last 550 years, resulting in seven metres of slip, yet the hoodoos are still standing.
This finding is consistent with a median level of ground motion associated with the large quakes in this region, says Anooshehpoor.
"If an earthquake occurred with a higher level of ground motion, the hoodoos would have collapsed," he says.
"Nobody can predict earthquakes, but this will help predict what ground motions are associated with these earthquakes when they happen."
Dr Juan Carlos Afonso from the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at Sydney's Macquarie University says it's an exciting development.
"In seismic hazard studies, it's not just difficult to cover the entire planet, it's hard to cover even small active regions near populated areas," says Afonso.
"You need lots of instruments, so it's great if you can rely on nature and natural objects to help you."
He says while the work is still very new and needs to be proven, the physics seems sound. | <urn:uuid:85a979cb-9571-4e06-b38a-2f79912abb44> | {
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Science Fair Project Encyclopedia
The chloride ion is formed when the element chlorine picks up one electron to form the anion (negatively charged ion) Cl−. The salts of hydrochloric acid HCl contain chloride ions and are also called chlorides. An example is table salt, which is sodium chloride with the chemical formula NaCl. In water, it dissolves into Na+ and Cl− ions.
The word chloride can also refer to a chemical compound in which one or more chlorine atoms are covalently bonded in the molecule. This means that chlorides can be either inorganic or organic compounds. The simplest example of an inorganic covalently bonded chloride is hydrogen chloride, HCl. A simple example of an organic covalently bonded chloride is chloromethane (CH3Cl), often called methyl chloride.
Other examples of inorganic covalently bonded chlorides which are used as reactants are:
- phosphorus trichloride, phosphorus pentachloride, and thionyl chloride - all three are reactive chlorinating reagents which have been used in a laboratory.
- Disulfur dichloride (SCl2) - used for vulcanization of rubber.
Chloride ions have important physiological roles. For instance, in the central nervous system the inhibitory action of glycine and some of the action of GABA relies on the entry of Cl− into specific neurons.
The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details | <urn:uuid:4e76b8fd-c479-45d7-8ee7-faf61495aecb> | {
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Fun Classroom Activities
The 20 enjoyable, interactive classroom activities that are included will help your students understand the text in amusing ways. Fun Classroom Activities include group projects, games, critical thinking activities, brainstorming sessions, writing poems, drawing or sketching, and more that will allow your students to interact with each other, be creative, and ultimately grasp key concepts from the text by "doing" rather than simply studying.
1. A Year from Now
Where will Bone be and how will she be feeling a year from now? Write a one page description of Bone's life a year after the end of the book from Bone's perspective.
2. The Monster Within
When Bone's anger is described, it seems to grow and even take form. Take one of the descriptions for Bone's anger and rage and draw it.
3. Bone's Poetry
Write a poem as if you are Bone. The poem can be...
This section contains 555 words|
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What is bone cancer?
Bone is the framework that supports the body. Most bones are hollow. Bone marrow is the soft tissue inside hollow bones. The main substance of bone is made up of a network of fibrous tissue onto which calcium salts are laid down. This makes the bone very hard and strong. At each end of the bone is a softer bone-like tissue called cartilage that acts as a cushion between bones. The outside of the bone is covered with a layer of fibrous tissue.
The bone itself contains 2 kinds of cells. Osteoblasts are cells that form the bone. Osteoclasts are cells that dissolve bone. Although we think that bone does not change, the truth is that it is very active. New bone is always forming and old bone dissolving.
The marrow of some bones is only fatty tissue. In other bones the marrow is a mixture of fat cells and the cells that make blood cells. These blood-forming cells make red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
Types of bone tumors
Most of the time when someone is told they have cancer in their bones, the doctor is talking about a cancer that started somewhere else and then spread to the bone. This is called metastatic cancer (not bone cancer). This can happen to people with many different types of advanced cancer, such as breast cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, and many others. Under a microscope, theses cancer cells in the bone look like the cancer cells that they came from. If someone has lung cancer that has spread to the bone, the cells there will look and act like lung cancer cells and they will be treated the same way.
To learn more about cancer that has spread to bone, please see the American Cancer Society document Bone Metastasis, as well as the document on the place where the cancer started (Breast Cancer, Lung Cancer (Non-Small Cell), Prostate Cancer, etc.).
Other kinds of cancers that are sometimes called “bone cancers” start in the bone marrow – in the blood-forming cells – not the bone itself. These are not true bone cancers. The most common of these is multiple myeloma. Certain lymphomas (which more often start in lymph nodes) and all leukemias start in bone marrow. To learn more about these cancers, refer to the document for each.
A primary bone tumor starts in the bone itself. True (or primary) bone cancers are called sarcomas. A sarcoma is a cancer that starts in bone, muscle, tendons, ligaments, fat tissue, or some other tissues in the body.
There are different types of bone tumors. Their names are based on the bone or tissue that is involved and the kind of cells that make up the tumor. Some are cancer (malignant). Others are not cancer (benign). Most bone cancers are called sarcomas.
Benign bone tumors do not spread to other tissues and organs. They can usually be cured by surgery. The information here does not cover benign bone tumors.
Bone tumors that are cancer (malignant)
Osteosarcoma: Osteosarcoma (also called osteogenic sarcoma) is the most common true bone cancer. It is most common in young people between the ages of 10 and 30. But about 10% of cases are people in their 60s and 70s. This cancer is rare during middle age. More males than females get this cancer. These tumors start most often in bones of the arms, legs, or pelvis. This type of bone cancer is not discussed in this document, but is covered in detail in our document, Osteosarcoma.
Chondrosarcoma: This is cancer of the cartilage cells. Cartilage is a softer form of bone-like tissue. Chondrosarcoma is the second most common true bone cancer. It is rare in people younger than 20. After age 20, the risk of this cancer keeps on rising until about age 75. Women get this cancer as often as men.
Chondrosarcomas can develop in any place where there is cartilage. It most often starts in cartilage of the pelvis, leg, or arm, but it can start in many other places, too.
Chondrosarcomas are given a grade, which measures how fast they grow. The lower the grade, the slower the cancer grows. When cancer grows slowly, the chance that it will spread is lower and the outlook is better. There are also some special types of chondrosarcoma that respond differently to treatment and have a different outlook for the patient. These special types look different when seen under a microscope.
Ewing tumor: This cancer is also called Ewing sarcoma. It is named after Dr. James Ewing, the doctor who first described it in 1921. It is the third most common bone cancer. Most Ewing tumors start in bones, but they can start in other tissues and organs. This cancer is most common in children and teenagers. It is rare in adults older than 30. This type of bone cancer is not discussed in this document, but is covered in detail in our document, Ewing Family of Tumors.
Malignant fibrous histiocytoma (MFH): This cancer more often starts in the soft tissues around bones (such as ligaments, tendons, fat, and muscle) rather than in the bone itself. If it starts in the bones, it most often affects the legs or arms. It usually occurs in older and middle-aged adults. MFH mostly tends to grow into nearby tissues, but it can spread to distant sites, like the lungs. (Another name for this cancer is pleomorphic undifferentiated sarcoma.)
Fibrosarcoma: This is another type of cancer that starts more often in “soft tissues” than it does in the bones. Fibrosarcoma usually occurs in older and middle-aged adults. Leg, arm, and jaw bones are most often affected.
Giant cell tumor of bone: This type of bone tumor has both benign (not cancer) and malignant forms. The benign form is most common. These don’t often spread to distant sites, but after surgery they tend to come back where they started. Each time they come back after surgery they are more likely to spread to other parts of the body. These tumors often affect the arm or leg bones of young and middle-aged adults.
Chordoma: This tumor usually occurs in the base of the skull and bones of the spine. It is found most often in adults older than 30. It is about twice as common in men than in women. Chordomas tend to grow slowly and usually do not spread to other parts of the body. But they often come back in the same place if they are not removed completely. When they do spread, they tend to go to the lymph nodes, lungs, and liver.
Last Medical Review: 12/05/2012
Last Revised: 01/24/2013 | <urn:uuid:cc6f91ff-3151-4cd9-8163-a7274ef9de2f> | {
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In the American electoral system, a primary election is an election that determines the nominee for each political party, who then competes for the office in the general election. A presidential primary is a state election that picks the delegates committed to nominate particular candidates for president of the United States. A presidential caucus, as in Iowa, requires voters to meet together for several hours in face-to-face meetings that select county delegates, who eventually pick the delegates to the national convention. No other country uses primaries; they choose their candidates in party conventions.
Primaries were introduced in the Progressive Era in the early 20th century to weaken the power of bosses and make the system more democratic. In presidential elections, they became important starting in 1952, when the first-in-the-nation New Hampshire Primary helped give Dwight D. Eisenhower the Republican nomination, and knocked Harry S. Truman out of the Democratic race because of his poor showing. In 1964, Lyndon B. Johnson ended his reelection campaign after doing poorly in New Hampshire.
After 1968, both parties changed their rules to emphasize presidential primaries, although some states still use the caucus system.
In recent decades, New Hampshire holds the first primary a few days after Iowa holds the first caucus. That gives these two states enormous leverage, as the candidates and the media focus there. New Hampshire and Iowa receive about half of all the media attention given all primaries.
The primary allows voters to choose between different candidates of the some political parties, perhaps representing different wings of the party. For example, a Republican primary may choose between a range of candidates from moderate to conservative. Gallup's 2008 polling data indicated a trend in primary elections towards more conservative candidates, despite the more liberal result in the general election.
In recent years the primary seasons has come earlier and earlier, as states move up to earlier dates in the hope it will give them more leverage. For example, Barry Goldwater won the 1964 nomination because he won the last primary in California. The logic is faulty--in highly contested races the later primaries have more leverage. Thus in 2008 California gave up its traditional last-in-the-nation role and joined 20 other states on Super Tuesday. Neither the candidates not the voters paid it much attention. Michigan and Florida moved up their primaries in defiance of national Democratic Party rules and were penalized. The result is the primary season is extended, and is far more expensive, and no state gets an advantage--except for Iowa and New Hampshire, which now have dates in early January.
In late 2009 the two national parties are meeting to find a common solution.
- Duncan, Dayton. Grass roots: one year in the life of the New Hampshire presidential primary (1991) 436 pages; on 1988 campaign
- Johnson, Haynes, and Dan Balz. The Battle for America 2008: The Story of an Extraordinary Election (2009), excellent history of 2008 primaries
- Kamarck, Elaine C. Primary Politics: How Presidential Candidates Have Shaped the Modern Nominating System (2009) excerpt and text search | <urn:uuid:c66cbd20-f2be-4f73-902d-7b0198351323> | {
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Learning is the means whereby we acquire new working knowledge about the world. Memory is the means whereby we retain that knowledge over time. Our abilities to learn and remember are essential to our sense of self and our ability to function effectively in daily life. Memory is the glue that holds our mental life together. As a result, we are who we are in large part because of what we have learned and what we remember from past experience.
But what is memory? How does the brain capture and sustain it? Why does memory sometimes fail us? Those simple questions, of course, have exceedingly complex answers, and many biological details about the process of memory in humans and other animals remain unknown.
HHMI investigator Eric R. Kandel of Columbia University, however, has provided a good start. His studies of the molecular basis of learning and memory underpin much of what we know about how events are recorded by the brain, processed by individual nerve cells, and etched in gray matter. For his work on learning and memory, Kandel was awarded a share of the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
In the 1960s, Kandel began his studies of learning and memory by focusing on the behavior of the sea slug Aplysia, which he found to be a marvelously tractable system in which to study the cellular basis of these abilities. With only about 20,000 nerve cells — compared with the roughly thousand billion in humans — and a well-delineated neural circuitry, it proved possible to zero in on a biologically interesting reflex pathway. Like humans and other animals, Aplysia is capable of learning to modify this reflex, and this learning involves making memories.
Kandel found that the cellular basis for memory depends on persistent changes in synapses, the connections between nerve cells. The differences in the strength of these connections come about through learning. Kandel found that when, in the simple withdrawal reflex, the gill reacts to touch, the connection between the sensory nerve cell and motor nerve cell of the reflex are activated. When the sea slug was taught to ignore a harmless touch, the connections between the sensory nerve cell and motor cell weakened. When the same light touch was coupled to an unpleasant fearful stimulus the animal became sensitized. It would now react strongly to the light touch because the same set of connections had strengthened.
Kandel later discovered that short-term memory is kindled by the modulation of synapses and that long-term memory is sustained by the activation of genes. The formation of memories, Kandel determined, is a function of biochemical changes that occur at the synapse. To make short-term memories, the proteins involved in a chain of events at the nexus of nerve cells are chemically altered by the addition of phosphate groups. To cement a memory for the long haul, proteins are added at the synapse to make new connections with sensitization and lose connections with habituation.
In the 1990s, he turned from studying simple forms of learning to more complex forms using genetically modified mice and showed that similar principles for short and long term memory were at work here as well.
By laying a foundation for understanding the events that shape our ability to learn and remember, Kandel's work has helped us understand not only the cellular processes that occur during the acts of learning and remembering, but also - through his work on mice - where things can go wrong when dementia and other illnesses that affect memory arise. The cellular processes revealed by Kandel are among the targets of drugs used to alleviate these disorders of memory. Pinpointing the activity of individual nerve cells engaged in the process of learning and memory may help in the development of new, more effective agents to treat diseases that affect the brain.
Photo: Matthew Septimus | <urn:uuid:6eafc168-0fd9-4248-ab08-030a35cb48b2> | {
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The Matter at Issue: The Throne of France
The Hundred Years War was fought largely over who would be the king of France. The English kings, who had originally been French nobles that invaded and conquered England in 1066, still held lands in France. The English lands in France had long been viewed uncomfortably by the French king. Through the 13th century, strong French kings had reclaimed French lands held by the English kings. By the early 14th century, three events came together. First, the English kings noted that one more push by the French would deive the English completely out of France. Second, the French were entering a period of weak kings. Third, the English throne was now occupied by the young, vigorous, able and (ultimately) long lived Edward III. In any other circumstances it would appear absurd for the English king to come up with the idea of claiming the French throne in order to protect English lands in France. But Edward III was bold and, in one of those uniquely Medieval ironies, he had law and custom on his side. The English claim to the French throne was strong, as were the English armies and Edward IIIs resolve. The resulting war outlived Edward, and his great grandson, Henry V, came within a hair of actually taking the French throne.
The items below explain the situation in rather more detail.
Historical Kings of France
Historical Kings of England
The English Position of the Throne of France
The French Ultimatum
A Summary of Overlapping Claims to Various Thrones | <urn:uuid:1f4f86d3-c09c-44ad-95d3-340f176f8e84> | {
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Like the Republican party, the Democratic party also cracked beneath the weight of the issues at hand. States that favored slavery in the territories walked out of the Democratic convention at Charleston, preventing nominee Stephen Douglas from winning the party endorsement. A reconvened convention eventually nominated Douglas, but kept territory slavery out of the platform altogether.
As a result of disagreements over the issue of slavery, splinter parties formed. The Southern Democratic Party spun off from traditional Democrats to nominate John Breckenridge, an advocate of slavery in the West. Republican breakaways formed the Constitutional Union Party. They nominated John Bell who would not address the issue of slavery at all, but rather spoke of upholding the Constitution.
With four candidates in the race, Lincoln won the 1860 election. But by the time he took office in March of 1861, seven southern states had already seceded from the Union. When the first shot rang out at Fort Sumter, just one month after Lincoln took office, the Civil War began. Lincoln's hopes for peacefully preserving the union were dashed. In 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. He also promoted a Constitutional Amendment to permanently abolish slavery. These bold steps marked a shift from Lincoln's more moderate campaign position on slavery issues. They also shifted the focus of the war from preserving the union to freeing the slaves.
Remarkably, the election of 1864 was not suspended during the bloody Civil War. Union soldiers were given absentee ballots or furloughed to permit them to vote. With mounting Union victories, the votes of soldiers and the campaign slogan, "Don't switch horses in mid-stream," Lincoln won the election. Sadly, as this 1864 campaign song strangely foreshadows, Lincoln did not live to see passage of the 13th Amendment that abolished slavery forever. He was assassinated just five days after Ulysses S. Grant celebrated victory over Robert E. Lee at Appomattox.
Lincoln's presidency causes one to wonder:
- Why he changed his position on the issue of abolition during his presidency?
- Whether these changes might affect the way we view his original platform?
- What were Lincoln's priorities when he created his original platform? How did the advent and progress of the war affect these priorities?
- To what extent did Lincoln's original platform represent his personal views? To what extent did it reflect a desire and strategy to win the presidency?
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The following information was extracted from the publication "Threatened"
produced by BNZ in cooperation with the Department of Conservation
and Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society.
The Predation Threat
In 1987, a dog was on the loose in Waitangi State forest in the Bay of Islands. For six weeks it rampaged through the forest killing every kiwi it encountered. By the time the dog was found, perhaps as many as 500 of the 1000 kiwi living there had been slaughtered. This carnage at Waitangi illustrates just how vulnerable the kiwi is to predators and the speed at which seemingly healthy populations can fail.
Other predators introduced to New Zealand by humans may cause similar havoc. The main threat to the kiwi is posed by: Possums, stoats, ferrets, and feral (wild) cats who steal eggs and kill young. Larger predators include pigs and dogs.
Young kiwi leave the nest at just three weeks of age, weighing only 200g. Small and slow, they are easy prey. Very few survive this precarious journey from birth to 12 months, when they reach the critical size that enables them to stand up to most predators.
Humans, primarily through destroying forests and introducing predators in the first place, pose the single greatest threat to the kiwi. Ironically, we are also their greatest hope.
The kiwi is a one-off evolutionary design, holding all sorts of biological records. New Zealand's ancient isolation and lack of mammals allowed it to occupy a habitat and lifestyle that everywhere else in the world would be occupied by a mammal.
Whereas birds traditionally depend on sight, the kiwi is one of the few birds with a highly developed sense of smell. You can sometimes hear them sniffing around in the dark. Alarm them during the day and they will run off. Then, at a distance, just like a wolf or other mammal, they'll stick their bill (nose) in the air, sniffing to see if they are safe from pursuit.
Other reasons the kiwi could pass for a mammal is its loose, hair-like feathers, its long whiskers, the fact it can't fly and that it burrows in the ground.
Other kiwi curiosities include:
Being the only known bird to have external nostrils at the end of its bill. It literally sniffs out its food a bill-length below the surface.
It's huge eggs. The kiwi has one of the largest egg-to-body weight ratio of any bird. The mature egg averages 20% of the female's body weight. Compare that to 2% for an ostrich!
Being the smallest living member of the ratite family (which includes ostriches and emus).
They live in pairs — as monogamous couples — for most, if not all of their lives.
Sex role reversal: The female is bigger and dominates the male.
In some varieties, the male does most of the incubating of the eggs.
The eggs take an exceedingly long time to hatch — up to 80 days.
Kiwi tend to live in pairs, forming monogamous couples. These bonds are generally till death and have been known to last over 30 years. About every third day, the pair will shelter in the same burrow together. The relationship tends to be quite volatile and physical, the female generally calling the shots over her smaller partner.
During the night, as they are out foraging for food or patrolling their territory, they will perform duets, calling to each other. The female has a lower hoarser call than the male.
From the outside, it doesn't appear that kiwi domestic life is bliss. But the bond is long-lasting.
There are few surprises in the kiwi diet. It's mostly earthworms, spiders, fallen fruits and seeds, larvae of beetles and cicada and a mixture of forest invertebrates. But they will also take large food items like freshwater crays and even frogs. In captivity, kiwi have fished eels out of a pond, subdued them with a few thuds and eaten them.
Kiwi are extremely territorial birds, They protect their patch — which can be as much as 40 hectares — by calling or, if that fails, by chasing the intruder kiwi and giving it a good booting over. Very occasionally, kiwi kill each other fighting for territory.
Acutely aware of neighbours, they will often engage in calling duels. If a bird is intruding into another's space, it will rush back at full speed into its own space before returning a neighbour's call.
A gathering of kiwi is a rarity. However, on Stewart Island, they do live in small, mixed aged family groupings.
Kiwi Nests, er, Burrows!
Kiwi are burrowers. They may quickly clear a burrow at the end of a night's work, crash there during the day and then move on to a new burrow the next day.
Great Spotted Kiwi prefer dens. Unlike the Little Spotted Kiwi and the Brown Kiwi, who tends towards simple one-entrance burrows, the Great Spotted will put the time and effort into constructing a labyrinth of tunnels several metres long with more than one exit.
Common Kiwi Myths
Kiwi experts are keen to dispel myths surrounding the kiwi — particularly that they are half-blind and bumbling.
Here are a few common ones:
Myth: "Kiwi fight with their beaks."
To use their beaks to fight would be like head-butting someone with your nose.
At the end of the beak are the kiwi's external nostrils. Finely tuned and capable of detecting a few parts per million of scent, the beak, when probing the ground, can detect worms and other food.
Myth: "Kiwi are cute, gentle little creatures."
They are actually super-strong and often extremely bad tempered. The adults can look after themselves using their razor sharp claws as weapons. A couple of slashes can quickly draw blood — as conservationists have often found when putting their hands down kiwi burrows.
Because they are so aggressive, DOC staff can attract them simply by imitating their call. Incensed that another kiwi is on their turf, the response is instant and dramatic:
"It's amazing to hear them coming to kick the intruder out. They sound like a deer charging, almost exploding, through the dark. Standing there, it's quite intimidating. I guess it's part of the threat display."
"Pete" is a Great Spotted Kiwi in West Northland. "We've just got to walk into his territory and he comes catapulting in for a hit-and-run. He belts you in the leg and then runs off into the undergrowth. I think he views us as super-big kiwi. He's probably given some trampers a helluva scare."
Myth: "Kiwi are a bit thick."
According to Conservation Officers who know them best, they are capable of learning quickly and altering behaviour in the light of experience.
Myth: "Kiwi move slowly."
Superbly adapted to their natural habitat, the kiwi is extremely agile and quick moving. A kiwi can cover his territory — possibly the size of 60 football fields — in a night. This might take in three valley streams and all sorts of obstacles.
Myth: "Kiwi and half-blind."
The notion of their being half-blind probably stems from their being nocturnal and having small eyes. In fact, as Conservation Officers can testify, if you chase them at night, they can run very fast, swerving around trees and expertly navigating the undergrowth. Similarly, they are unfazed by daylight.
Kiwi Culture -- From a Maori Perspective
The Maori people have a very personal interest in seeing the kiwi survive and flourish.
According to many Maori traditions, the kiwi is the oldest of all Tanemahuta's bird family. It was Tane, the god of the forest who, with different wives, created much of the natural world, including birds, trees, stones and humans.
For Maori, kiwi are, in effect, our elder siblings. And, like a good older brother or sister, they are very protective of us. That's partly why they patrol the forests nightly.
Kiwi -- Six Unique Varieties
There are six identified varieties of kiwi.
The Little Spotted Kiwi
The smallest (about the size of a bantam) and most endangered species, the "Little Spots" have a very mellow, often docile nature. They have suffered terrible that the hands of possums, stoats, cats and larger predators.
Now extinct on mainland New Zealand, the largest remaining population is on Kapiti Island where 1000 birds occupy some 1900 ha of mixed forest, scrub and grassland. Sensitive management by DoC and the Maori Trustees of private land on Kapiti are ensuring that cats, dogs and other kiwi predators don't reach the island.
The Great Spotted Kiwi
The rugged mountaineer of the kiwi — found primarily in the high, often harsh hill country — the Great Spotted has forged a strange deal with evolution. The same harsh environment that makes it struggle from one day to the next also makes it tough going for the pigs, dogs and stoats that would otherwise be keen to pursue it.
Big bold and handsome, it is found only in the South Island, mainly in North West Nelson, Central Westland and Eastern Canterbury.
The North Island Brown Kiwi
Bug noses and short tempers is one way to sum up the Brown Kiwi. They are little toughies ... and have to be to survive against humans, introduced predators and the natural challenges of their often harsh bush existence.
The North Island Brown Kiwi is found only in the upper two-thirds of the North Island. They are widespread in Northland in a diverse range of vegetation types including exotic forests and rough farm land.
Okarito Brown Kiwi
In one sense, the new kid on the block. It was only in 1993 that the Okarito Brown, living in lowland forest just north of Franz Josef was identified as a distinct variety of kiwi. Tell-tale signs are its slightly greyish plumage sometimes accompanied by white facial feathers.
Squat and round and bigger than their northern Brown Kiwi cousins, they can grow to almost the same size as Great Spotted Kiwi. The Southern Tokoeka are found in Fiordland and on Stewart Island. They are the most communal of the somewhat reclusive kiwi.
The Haast Tokoeka, found in the rugged mountains behind Haast, was also identified as a distant variety of Kiwi in 1993. They spend their summers in the high sub alpine tussock grasslands but probably retreat to the lowland forests in winter.
Kiwi Sightings -- Where You Can See Kiwi
Few of us get the chance to see a kiwi in the wild but Brown Kiwi can be seen at the following places: | <urn:uuid:9a72a1b6-062c-472b-953a-6ed25e5be7b9> | {
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Too many of our young people are caught up in conflicts every day that they do not know how to manage -- teasing, jealousy, and physical aggression. Juvenile delinquency and violence are symptoms of youth's inability to manage conflict in their lives. Teaching youth how to manage conflict in a productive way can help reduce incidents of violent behavior. Conflict resolution education is a beneficial component of a comprehensive violence prevention and intervention program in schools and communities.
Conflict resolution education encompasses problem solving in which the parties in dispute express their points of view, voice their interests, and find mutually acceptable solutions. Conflict resolution education programs help the parties recognize that while conflict happens all the time, people can learn new skills to deal with conflict in nonviolent ways. The programs that appear to be most effective are comprehensive and involve multiple components such as the problem-solving processes and principles of conflict resolution, the basics of effective communication and listening, critical and creative thinking, and an emphasis on personal responsibility and self-discipline.
Effective conflict resolution education programs can:
Four Common Strategies for Approaching Conflict Resolution
Experts identify four school-based conflict resolution strategies that can be replicated in other settings. These are commonly referred to as: (1) Peer Mediation, (2) Process Curriculum, (3) Peaceable Classrooms, and (4) Peaceable Schools. In all four approaches, conflict resolution education is viewed as giving youth nonviolent tools to deal with daily conflicts that can lead to self-destructive and violent behaviors. It is up to each local school district to decide how conflict resolution education will be integrated into its overall educational environment. The expectation is that when youth learn to recognize and constructively address what takes place before conflict or differences lead to violence, the incidence and intensity of that situation will diminish.
The program examples provided below empower young people with the processes and skills of conflict resolution. However, youth need to know that conflict resolution does not take precedence over adult responsibility to provide the final word in a variety of circumstances or situations. Conflict resolution has a place in the home, school, and community, but it can only supplement, not supplant, adult authority.
1) Peer Mediation Approach
Recognizing the importance of directly involving youth in conflict resolution, many schools and communities are using the Peer Mediation approach. Under this approach, specially trained student mediators work with their peers to resolve conflicts. Mediation programs reduce the use of traditional disciplinary actions such as suspension, detention, and expulsion; encourage effective problem solving; decrease the need for teacher involvement in student conflicts; and improve school climate.
An example of a Peer Mediation program is We Can Work It Out, developed by the National Institute for Citizenship Education in the Law and the National Crime Prevention Council. The program promotes mediation, negotiation, or other non-litigating methods as strategies to settle unresolved confrontations and fighting.
One Albuquerque elementary school principal reported, "We were having 100 to 150 fights every month on the playground before we started the New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution's Mediation in the Schools Program. By the end of the school year, we were having maybe 10 (fights)." Other elementary schools using the same Peer Mediation approach to conflict resolution education reported that playground fighting had been reduced to such an extent that peer mediators found themselves out of a job.
Process Curriculum Approach
Teachers who devote a specific time -- a separate course, a distinct curriculum, or a daily lesson -- to the principles, foundation abilities, and problem-solving processes of conflict resolution are implementing the Process Curriculum approach. The Program for Young Negotiators, based on the Harvard Negotiation Project, is representative of this approach. Participating students, teachers, and administrators are taught how to use principled negotiation to achieve goals and resolve disputes. This type of negotiation helps disputants envision scenarios and generate options for achieving results that satisfy both sides.
In a North Carolina middle school with more than 700 students, conflict resolution education was initiated. The school used the Peace Foundation's Fighting Fair curriculum and a combination of components from various conflict resolution projects. After a school year, in-school suspensions decreased from 52 to 30 incidents (a 42-percent decrease), and out-of-school suspensions decreased from 40 incidents to 1 (a 97-percent decrease).
Peaceable Classroom Approach
The Peaceable Classroom approach integrates conflict resolution into the curriculum and daily management of the classroom. It uses the instructional methods of cooperative learning and "academic controversy." The Educators for Social Responsibility curriculum, Making Choices About Conflict, Security, and Peacemaking, is a peaceable classroom approach to conflict resolution. The program shows teachers how to integrate conflict resolution into the curriculum, classroom management, and discipline practices. It emphasizes opportunities to practice cooperation, appreciation of diversity, and caring and effective communication. Generally, peaceable classrooms are initiated on a teacher-by-teacher basis into the classroom setting and are the building blocks of the peaceable school.
Studies on the effectiveness of the Teaching Students To Be Peacemakers program, a Peaceable Classroom approach to conflict resolution, show that discipline problems requiring teacher management decreased by approximately 80 percent and referrals to the principal were reduced to zero.
Peaceable School Approach
The Peaceable School approach incorporates the above three approaches. This approach seeks to create schools where conflict resolution has been adopted by every member of the school community, from the crossing guard to the classroom teacher. A peaceable school promotes a climate that challenges youth and adults to believe and act on the understanding that a diverse, nonviolent society is a realistic goal.
In creating the Peaceable School Program of the Illinois Institute for Dispute Resolution, students are empowered with conflict resolution skills and strategies to regulate and control their own behavior. Conflict resolution is infused into the way business is conducted at the school between students, between students and teachers and other personnel, between teachers and administrators, and between parents and teachers and administrators.
In an evaluation of the Resolving Conflict Creatively Program in four multiethnic school districts in New York City, teachers of the Peaceable School approach to conflict resolution reported a 71-percent decrease in physical violence in the classroom and observed 66 percent less name calling and fewer verbal insults. Other changes in student behavior reported by the teachers included greater acceptance of differences, increased awareness and articulation of feelings, and a spontaneous use of conflict resolution skills throughout the school day in a variety of academic and nonacademic settings.
The effective conflict resolution education programs highlighted above have helped to improve the climate in school, community and juvenile justice settings by reducing the number of disruptive and violent acts in these settings; by decreasing the number of chronic school absences due to a fear of violence; by reducing the number of disciplinary referrals and suspensions; by increasing academic instruction during the school day; and by increasing the self-esteem and self-respect, as well as the personal responsibility and self-discipline of the young people involved in these programs.
Young people cannot be expected to promote and encourage the peaceful resolution of conflicts if they do not see conflict resolution principles and strategies being modeled by adults in all areas of their lives, such as in business, sports, entertainment, and personal relationships. Adults play a part in making the environment more peaceful by practicing nonviolent conflict resolution when minor or major disputes arise in their daily lives.
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A tracheostomy (TRA-ke-OS-to-me) is a surgically made hole that goes through the front of your neck and into your trachea (TRA-ke-ah), or windpipe. The hole is made to help you breathe.
A tracheostomy usually is temporary, although you can have one long term or even permanently. How long you have a tracheostomy depends on the condition that required you to get it and your overall health.
To understand how a tracheostomy works, it helps to understand how your airways work. The airways carry oxygen-rich air to your lungs. They also carry carbon dioxide, a waste gas, out of your lungs.
The airways include your:
Air enters your body through your nose or mouth. The air travels through your voice box and down your windpipe. The windpipe splits into two bronchi that enter your lungs. (For more information, go to the Health Topics How the Lungs Work article.)
A tracheostomy provides another way for oxygen-rich air to reach your lungs, besides going through your nose or mouth. A breathing tube, also called a trach (trake) tube, is put through the tracheostomy and directly into the windpipe to help you breathe.
Doctors use tracheostomies for many reasons. One common reason is to help people who need to be on ventilators (VEN-til-a-tors) for more than a couple of weeks.
Ventilators are machines that support breathing. If you have a tracheostomy, the trach tube connects to the ventilator.
People who have conditions that interfere with coughing or block the upper airways also may need tracheostomies. Coughing is a natural reflex that protects the lungs. It helps clear mucus (a slimy substance) and bacteria from the airways. A trach tube can be used to help remove, or suction, mucus from the airways.
Doctors also might recommend tracheostomies for people who have swallowing problems due to strokes or other conditions.
Creating a tracheostomy is a fairly common, simple procedure. It's one of the most common procedures for critical care patients in hospitals.
The windpipe is located almost directly under the skin of the neck. So, a surgeon often can create a tracheostomy quickly and easily.
The procedure usually is done in a hospital operating room. However, it also can be safely done at a patient's bedside. Less often, a doctor or emergency medical technician may do the procedure in a life-threatening situation, such as at the scene of an accident or other emergency.
As with any surgery, complications can occur, such as bleeding, infection, and other serious problems. The risks often can be reduced with proper care and handling of the tracheostomy and the tubes and other related supplies.
Some people continue to need tracheostomies even after they leave the hospital. Hospital staff will teach patients and their families or caregivers how to properly care for their tracheostomies at home.
The NHLBI updates Health Topics articles on a biennial cycle based on a thorough review of research findings and new literature. The articles also are updated as needed if important new research is published. The date on each Health Topics article reflects when the content was originally posted or last revised. | <urn:uuid:39ecdb48-857a-435c-acae-3974e2b40bfd> | {
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by I. Peterson
Unlike an ordinary, incandescent bulb, a laser produces light of a single wavelength. Moreover, the emitted light waves are coherent, meaning that all of the energy peaks and troughs are precisely in step.
Now, a team at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology has demonstrated experimentally that a cloud consisting of millions of atoms can also be made coherent. Instead of flying about and colliding randomly, the atoms display coordinated behavior, acting as if the entire assemblage were a single entity.
According to quantum mechanics, atoms can behave like waves. Thus, two overlapping clouds made up of atoms in coherent states should produce a zebra-striped interference pattern of dark and light fringes, just like those generated when two beams of ordinary laser light overlap.
By detecting such a pattern, the researchers proved that the clouds' atoms are coherent and constitute an "atom laser," says physicist Wolfgang Ketterle, who heads the MIT group. These matter waves, in principle, can be focused just like light.
Ketterle and his coworkers describe their observations in the Jan. 31 Science.
The demonstration of coherence involving large numbers of atoms is the latest step in a series of studies of a remarkable state of matter called a Bose-Einstein condensate. Chilled to temperatures barely above absolute zero, theory predicted, the atoms would collectively enter the same quantum state and behave like a single unit, or superparticle, with a specific wavelength.
First created in the laboratory in 1995 by Eric A. Cornell and his collaborators at the University of Colorado and the National Institute of Standards and Technology, both in Boulder, Bose-Einstein condensates have been the subject of intense investigation ever since (SN: 7/15/95, p. 36; 5/25/96, p. 327).
At MIT, Ketterle and his colleagues cool sodium atoms to temperatures below 2 microkelvins. The frigid atoms are then confined in a special magnetic trap inside a vacuum chamber.
To determine whether the atoms in the resulting condensate are indeed as coherent as photons in a laser beam, the researchers developed a novel method of extracting a clump of atoms from the trap.
In effect, they manipulate the magnetic states of the atoms to expel an adjustable fraction of the original cloud; under the influence of gravity, the released clump falls. The method can produce a sequence of descending clumps, with each containing 100,000 to several million coherent atoms.
The apparatus acts like a dripping faucet, Ketterle says. He and his colleagues describe the technique in the Jan. 27 Physical Review Letters.
To demonstrate interference, the MIT group created a double magnetic trap so that two pulses of coherent atoms could be released at the same time. As the two clumps fell, they started to spread and overlap. The researchers could then observe interference between the atomic waves of the droplets.
"The signal was almost too good to be true," Ketterle says. "We saw a high-contrast, very regular pattern."
"It's a beautiful result," Cornell remarks. "This work really shows that Bose-Einstein condensation is an atom laser."
From the pattern, the MIT researchers deduced that the condensate of sodium atoms has a wavelength of about 30 micrometers, considerably longer than the 0.04-nanometer wavelength typical of individual atoms at room temperature.
Ketterle and his colleagues are already planning several improvements to their primitive atom laser, including getting more atoms into the emitted pulses and going from pulses to a continuous beam.
Practical use of an atom laser for improving the precision of atomic clocks and for manipulating atoms is still distant, however, Cornell notes. | <urn:uuid:5a667bf7-c324-483a-8231-ce8448d754f3> | {
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The American Revolutionary War began in 1775 and ended in 1783. The British ruled the American colonists and they had become increasingly rebellious. General Gage had ordered 700 British soldiers to Concord to destroy a weapon's depot belonging to the colonists. On the way, they are met by some rebellious colonists and the British fire, killing eight Americans and wounding ten. This was known as ‘the shot heard round the world' and the war was on. The first major battle occurred on June 17, 1775 at Boston, Massachusetts. It was known as the Battle of Bunker Hill. The British are used to marching proudly out before taking aim and firing. The Americans have been ordered not to fire until they can see the whites of their eyes. They are dug in along the high ground of Breed's Hill. As the British close in, the Americans begin firing halting the advance. The British regroup and attack again. The same thing happens. By the third attack the Americans are out of ammunition and have to resort to stones and bayonets. Although the British take the hill, they've lost half their force with over a thousand casualties; the Americans have lost four hundred. On January 9, 1776, Thomas Paine's pamphlet, ‘Common Sense' criticizes King George III and encourages independence from Britain. It becomes a bestseller. By May, America has support from France and promises of support from Spain. After many battles, Congress formally endorses the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. But the war isn't over yet. On July 14, 1777, Congress mandates an American flag consisting of thirteen stars and thirteen stripes to represent the thirteen colonies.
The first major American victory in the Revolutionary war occurs on October 7, 1777 at the Battle of Saratoga. There are six hundred British casualties to one hundred fifty American. On November 15, 1777, Congress adopts the Articles of Confederation giving Congress the sole authority of the new government. In February, France officially recognizes the United States. On March 16, 1778, a Peace Commission from Britain is sent to negotiate with the Americans. They offer to meet all demands, except independence. Congress rejects their offer. On July 10, 1778, France declares war against Britain. By now the British have instigated attacks on Americans by the native Indians. On May 12, 1780, the Americans suffered a major defeat as Charleston, South Carolina was captured by the British. On October 17, 1781, the British at Yorktown send out a flag of truce. On January 1, 1782, the British begin leaving America. On February 27, 1782, the House of Commons in England votes against further war with America. On August 27, 1872, the last battle is waged in South Carolina. On February 4, 1783, England officially declares an end to hostilities in America. On April 11, 1783, Congress officially declares an end to the Revolutionary war. | <urn:uuid:1b7c2cbc-6535-49f1-a99b-cb3d06419f5a> | {
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This series enables children to use the computer for independent research into a range of curriculum related topics. They read the information from talking books and then link to writing grids so they can write about what they have read. High quality real speech gives added support on both the reading and writing activities. Perfect for the reading strand throughout the literacy curriculum!
This resource lets you find out about the different parts of a plant. Learn about plant habitats and some of the ways that plants are used by people. Use the information about growth and reproduction to write about pollination, fertilization, and seed dispersal.
"Find Out" information is presented in three levels of difficulty, designed to meet the needs of children with a wide range of abilities.
- Book One/Level One - The information is presented in short sentences. The associated writing grids enable children to work with sentence beginnings and endings to recreate the sentences from each information page.
- Book Two/Level Two - The information pages contain flowing text, and the writing grids offer a wider choice of words. This enables students to construct their own sentences.
- Book Three/Level Three - This level includes more in-depth information. The writing grids offer sentence starters and word banks than enable students to write an extended piece of text. Students use the keyboard as well as the grid as they interpret and respond to the text.
Find Out and Write About Series
Packed with rich multimedia content that is perfect for both literacy and subject teaching
The unique Find Out and Write About series for Clicker provides a range of multimedia CDs ideal for literacy teaching. Early readers of all ages can research the non-fiction material and then use the associated writing grids to write about what they have learnt.
A Find Out and Write About CD-ROM contains an interactive talking book of non-fiction text. Children can read the text or click the `listen` button to hear it spoken. Children can also click on a word with the right-hand mouse button to hear it.
Each page of the book contains a link to a Clicker writing grid that relates directly to that page, so children can write about the information they have just learned. Children write by clicking on a word with the left-hand mouse button. Words are colour-coded to help writers compose sentences successfully.
Emergent, struggling and fluent readers can all use the resources, as the information is provided at three differentiated levels. At level 1 for example, students are given short sentences, which they can choose to have read to them. The writing grids, relating directly to each page, enable students to work with sentence beginnings and endings. By Level 3, there is flowing in-depth information and the writing grid enables the student to interpret and respond to the text using the grid to scaffold their writing.
- Content-rich resources for both literacy and subject teaching
- Differentiated for children of all ages
- Listen to all text as real speech
- Printed outcome for monitoring by the teacher
- Hugely motivating for all ability levels
- Fully switch accessible for students with physical disabilities
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The Online Teacher Resource
Receive free lesson plans, printables, and worksheets by email:
- Over 400 Pages
- Great Writing Habits.
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- Excellent for students
Age Range: Kindergarten through Grade 2 (Early Elementary or Primary Level)
Overview and Purpose : In this activity, students imagine what they would like to have fall from the sky every day and describe what happens when too much of it falls at once.
Objective: The student will be able to write a short story and draw a picture of what favorite item they would like to have fall from the sky every day.
Drawing paper/writing paper
Read Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs to your students. Talk about what happened to the town. Have your students write a short story about what they would like to have fall from the sky everyday and what would happen if it got out of control. When they are finished writing, have them draw a picture of their story. Have the students share their stories with the class when they are finished.
This activity can also be done in small groups. The students can decide on one thing they would like to have fall from the sky and then tell their story. | <urn:uuid:51b12d2f-a0b8-428d-b6b2-849e0164d3d0> | {
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What is Rainwater Harvesting?
Rainwater harvesting is an ancient practice of catching and holding rain for later use. In a rainwater harvesting system, rain is gathered from a building rooftop or other source and is held in large containers for future use, such as watering gardens or washing cars. This practice reduces the demand on water resources and is excellent during times of drought.
Why is it Important?
In addition to reducing the demand on our water sources (especially important during drought), rainwater harvesting also helps prevent water pollution. Surprised?
Here’s why: the success of the 1972 Clean Water Act has meant that the greatest threat to New York’s waterbodies comes not from industrial sources, but rather through the small actions we all make in our daily lives. For example, in a rain storm, the oil, pesticides, animal waste, and litter from our lawns, sidewalks, driveways, and streets are washed down into our sewers. This is called non-point source (NPS) pollution because the pollutants come from too many sources to be identified. Rainwater harvesting diverts water from becoming polluted stormwater; instead, this captured rainwater may be used to irrigate gardens near where it falls.
In New York City, keeping rainwater out of the sewer system is very important. That’s because the city has an old combined sewer system that uses the same pipes to transport both household waste and stormwater to sewage treatment plants. During heavy rains, the system overloads; then untreated sewage and contaminated stormwater overflow into our rivers and estuary, with serious consequences:
Who is Harvesting Rainwater in New York City?
Back in 2002, a drought emergency pushed many community gardens to the brink of extinction. For the first time in twenty years, community gardeners were denied permission to use fire hydrants, the primary source of water for most community gardens. This crisis led to the formation of the Water Resources Group (WRG), an open collaboration of community gardening and environmental organizations. With help from the WRG, rainwater harvesting systems have now been built as demonstration sites in twenty NYC community gardens.
At community gardens that harvest rainwater, rain is diverted from the gutters of adjacent buildings and is stored in tanks in the gardens. A 1-inch rainfall on a 1,000-square-foot roof produces 600 gallons of water. The tanks are mosquito proof, so the standing water does not encourage West Nile virus. Because rainwater is chlorine free, it is better than tap water for plant growth, meaning healthier plants. And it’s free!
What are Other Cities Doing?
Many cities have adopted creative, low-cost ways to stop wasting rainwater by diverting it from their sewage systems and putting it to use where it falls. Here are some examples:
What Can I Do?
Spread the word! Educate those around you on the importance of lifestyle decisions.
Tell people not to litter, dump oil down storm drains, or overfertilize their lawns.
Install a rainwater harvesting system at your home, school, business, or local community center.
Contact your local elected officials, and let them know you support rainwater harvesting!
Supporting rainwater harvesting Jade Boat Loans | <urn:uuid:14a860e9-8430-426b-8c1a-80c7f022fb96> | {
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July 31, 1998
Explanation: Do you recognize the constellation Orion? This striking but unfamiliar looking picture of the familiar Orion region of the sky was produced using survey data from the InfraRed Astronomical Satellite (IRAS). It combines information recorded at three different invisible infrared wavelengths in a red, green, and blue color scheme and covers about 30x24 degrees on the sky. Most of Orion's visually impressive stars don't stand out, but bright Betelgeuse does appear as a small purplish dot just above center. Immediately to the right of Betelgeuse and prominent in the IRAS skyview, expanding debris from a stellar explosion, a supernova remnant, is seen as a large bright ring-shaped feature. The famous gas clouds in Orion's sword glow brightly as the yellow regions at the lower right. No longer operational, IRAS used a telescope cooled by liquid helium to detect celestial infrared radiation.
Authors & editors:
NASA Technical Rep.: Jay Norris. Specific rights apply.
A service of: LHEA at NASA/ GSFC
&: Michigan Tech. U. | <urn:uuid:f2519e47-47f4-4694-91cc-e23c91d5d788> | {
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Combined Gas Law
The Combined Gas Law combines Charles Law, Boyle s Law and Gay Lussac s Law. The Combined Gas Law states that a gas pressure x volume x temperature = constant.
Alright. In class you should have learned about the three different gas laws. the first one being Boyle's law and it talks about the relationship between pressure and volume of a particular gas. The next one should be Charles law which talks about the volume and temperature of a particular gas. And the last one should be Gay Lussac's law which talks about the relationship between pressure and temperature of a particular gas. Okay. But what happens when you have pressure, volume and temperature all changing? Well, we're actually going to combine these gas laws to form one giant gas law called the combined gas law. Okay.
If you notice then these three gas laws the pressure and volume are always in the numerator. So we're going to keep them on the numerator. p1v1. And notice the temperature is in the denominator over t1. So all these things are just squished into one and then p2v2 over t2. Okay. So this is what we're going to call the combined gas law. So let's actually get an example and do one together.
Alright, so I have a problem up here that says a gas at 110 kilo pascals and 33 celsius fills a flexible container with an initial volume of two litres, okay? If the temperature is raised to 80 degrees celsius and the pressure is raised to 440 kilo pascals, what is the new volume? Okay. So notice we have three variables. We're talking about pressure, temperature and volume. Okay, so now we're going to employ this combined gas law dealing with all three of these variables. So we're going to look at our first, our first number 110 kilo pascals and that's going to, that is the unit of pressure. So we know that's p1. Our p1 is 110 kilo pascals, at 30 degree celsius. I don't like things with celsius so I'm going to change this to kelvin. So I'm going to add 273 to that which makes it 303 kelvin. That's our temperature. And my initial volume is two litres so I'm going to say v1=2 litres. Okay then I continue reading. If the temperature is raised at 80 degree celsius, again we want it in kelvin, so we're going to add 273 making it to 353. So our t2 is 353 kelvin and the pressure increased to 440 kilo pascals, the pressure p2 is equal to 440 kilo pascals which I'm very happy that I kept it in kilo pascals that I kept it in kilo pascals. I've got to make sure these units are the same because pressure can be measured in several different units. I'm going to make sure all units are the same. And what is the new volume? So our v2 is our variable, what we're trying to find. Okay.
So let's basically plug all these variable in into our combined gas law to figure out what the new volume would be. Okay. So I'm going to erase this and say our pressure one is 110 kilo pascals. Our volume one is two litres. Our temperature one is 303 kelvin. Our pressure two is 440 kilo pascals. We don't know our volume so we're just going to say v2 over 353 kelvin. Okay. When I'm looking for a variable I'm going to cross multiply these guys. So I'm going to say 353 times 110 times 2 and that should give me seven, 77660, if you put that in a calculator. So I just cross multiply these guys. And I cross multiply these guys 303 times 440 times v2 gives me 133320v2. Okay, so then I want to get my, I want to isolate my variable, so I'm going to divide 133320. 133320. And I find that my new volume is 0.58. 0.58 metres. And that is how you do the combined gas law. | <urn:uuid:5f1963a4-8da7-4d73-9dda-3c8691608115> | {
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Disease outbreaks, such as cholera, are commonly thought to happen after earthquakes and other natural disasters, but studies have found no evidence to support this. And the persistence of this belief may be hurting relief efforts.
The devastating earthquake in Haiti in January 2010 was followed by a deadly cholera outbreak. Many saw this as an inevitable outcome of the disaster, as poor sanitary conditions combined with numerous dead bodies and survivors housed in cramped quarters to produce an incubator for deadly diseases.
“It’s what all of us worried about when we arrived in Haiti just hours after the quake,” said NBC's Brian Williams, according to Popular Science. “Beyond the death toll, the inevitable spread of disease.”
However, a forensic analysis of the outbreak has shown that it had very little to do with either the earthquake or the conditions in Haiti afterwards.
The spread of the disease was traced back to a small military base, that was built years before, and its faulty sanitation system that allowed human fecal matter to pollute the nearby river. Analysis of the strain of Vibrio cholerae that swept through the Haitian population showed that it was identical to the one that was infecting people in Nepal, where some of the soldiers at the base were stationed before they joined the Haiti relief efforts.
[ More Geekquinox: Man maps out stunning Earth-like Mars ]
The problem with the belief in the 'inevitability' of the outbreak, according to what journalist and author Jonathan M. Katz wrote in his PopSci article, is "most journalists and responders shrugged off cholera as a natural product of the disaster. The attitude made epidemiologists and aid workers less likely to seek out the source of what was in fact a particular infection not only new to Haiti, but the entire hemisphere."
"And it has since continued to provide cover for the United Nations as advocates press for reparations, and public health experts try to reform the peacekeeping system to prevent such a catastrophic error from happening again." he added.
"Conditioned to look for a problem that wasn’t there, responders ignored the greatest public health threat of all: themselves." | <urn:uuid:ab2f6e4b-0c56-4387-9ee3-1c5083ea9e1c> | {
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Woodrow Wilson, as described in the introductory section of the text, was the leader of the immediate post-war period and was the architect of an internationalist vision for a new world order. Yet, as discussed in the paragraphs below, he was not able to persuade the other Allied leaders at the peace settlement negotiations in Paris to embrace his vision. But it was not just the opposition of Clemenceau and Lloyd George to some of his ideas that moved the conference away from Wilson's vision. Wilson became so blindingly caught up in his vision, thinking that everything he advocated was what democracy and justice wanted, that he completely alienated the other negotiators in Paris, and they stopped listening to him. Another historian points to a different problem, that Wilson himself stopped listening to his earlier vision, having become convinced that a harsh peace was justified and desirable. Even if that historical view is accurate, Wilson was probably still more moderate in his conception of a harsh peace than were Clemenceau and Lloyd George. But as the conference dragged on and the departure from Wilsonianism became more and more pronounced, Wilson clung to his proposal for the League of Nations. In fact, he seemed to place all his faith in his pet project, believing it would solve all the evils the negotiators were unable to solve during the conference. Unfortunately, Wilson made it clear that the League was his primary objective, and it came to be his only bargaining chip. He then compromised on numerous issues that had no corollary in his vision in order to maintain the support for the creation of the League. Thus, though full of good intentions and a vision for a just and peaceful future, Wilson's arrogance and ineffective negotiating skills largely contibuted to the downfall of his vision. Finally, it must be mentioned that Wilson's inability to negotiate with the Senate in its discussion of the ratification of the Treaty of Versailles caused the Senate to reject the Treaty, leaving the United States noticeably absent from the newly created League of Nations, which greatly undermined the effectiveness and importance of Wilson's principal goal. Nonetheless, Wilson was awarded the 1919 Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to secure a lasting peace and the success in the creation of the League of Nations.
David Lloyd George, the British Prime Minister,
entered the negotiations in Paris with the clear support of the British
people, as evidenced by his convincing win in the so-called khaki election
of December 1918.
During the weeks leading up to the election, though, he had publicly committed
himself to work for a harsh peace against Germany, including obtaining
payments for war damages committed against the British. These campaign
promises went against Lloyd George's personal convictions. Knowing
that Germany had been Britain's best pre-war trading partner, he thought
that Britain's best chance to return to its former prosperity was to restore
Germany to a financially stable situation, which would have required a
fairly generous peace with respect to the vanquished enemy.
Nonetheless, his campaign statements showed Lloyd George's understanding
that the public did not hold the same convictions as he did, and that,
on the contrary, the public wanted to extract as much as possible out of
the Germans to compensate them for their losses during the war. So
Lloyd George and Clemenceau were in agreement on many points, each one
seeming to support the other in their nationalist objectives, and thereby
scratching each other's back as the "game of grab" of Germany's power played
itself out. But most historians do not attribute to Lloyd George
a significant role in the Treaty negotiations.
In their defense, Clemenceau and Lloyd George were only following popular sentiment back home when they fought for harsh terms against Germany. It is clear from historical accounts of the time that after seeing so many young men not return from the trenches on the Western front, the French and British wanted to exact revenge against the Germans through the peace settlement, to ensure that their families would never again be destroyed by German aggression. In that respect, democracy was clearly functioning as it is intended in a representative democracy. In fact, Lloyd George is the quintessential example of an elected leader serving the interests of his people, putting his personal convictions second to British public opinion. Yet it was that same public opinion (in France and Britain) that Wilson had believed would support his internationalist agenda, placing Germany in the context of a new and more peaceful world order which would prevent future aggression. Wilson's miscalculation was one of the single greatest factors leading to the compromise of his principles and the resulting harsh and, in the eyes of many, unjust treatment of Germany within the Treaty of Versailles.
[See also the biographies of the Big Three listed
on the Links
1. James L. Stokesbury, A Short History of World War I, 1981, p. 309.
2. Manfred F. Boemeke, "Woodrow Wilson's Image of Germany, the War-Guilt Question, and the Treaty of Versailles,"inThe Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment After 75 Years, Ch. 25, Boemeke, Feldman & Glaser, eds., 1998, pp. 603-614.
3. Robert H. Ferrell, Woodrow Wilson and World War I: 1917-1921, 1985, p. 146.
4. Lawrence E. Gelfand, "The American Mission to Negotiate Peace: An Historian Looks Back," in The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment After 75 Years, Ch. 8, Boemeke, Feldman & Glaser, eds., 1998, p. 191.
5. See Ferrell, supra note 3, Ch. 10, "The Senate and the Treaty."
6. Information from this paragraph is taken from Ferrell, supra note 3, at 142, 144, 151.
7. Id. at 151.
8. Stokesbury, supra note 1, at 311-312. | <urn:uuid:54521255-4567-40ea-9b12-eccf47e11bd7> | {
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Biological species emerge and disappear in the natural course of evolution. There have been times in the Earth’s past when mass extinctions have occurred, causing a large number of species to disappear in a short time. This is generally believed to have happened due to external pressures on ecosystems, or sudden shocks and catastrophic events. We are currently going through such a period due primarily to the impact humans have had on the environment, and on plant and animal habitats. Some scientists believe that 50% of existing species may become extinct in the next 100 years.
Credit: Wikimedia Commons | <urn:uuid:258b17b0-2498-42ca-8464-cff1008bae7c> | {
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Introduction / History
Jews represent the oldest monotheistic religion of modern times. Because of the uniqueness of their history and culture, all Jews have a strong sense of identity. Persecution of and discrimination against the Jews have been the historical reasons for their migrations and settlements around the world.
The Jews of Europe arrived on the continent at least 2,000 years ago during the early days of the Roman empire. Since then, they have been a significant influence in the history and culture of Europe. Much of what is considered "Jewish" today finds its roots among the European Jews.
One of the unique features among European Jews is the distinction between the Ashkenazic Jews and the Sephardic Jews. The word Ashkenaz is derived from a Biblical word for the larger Germanic region of Europe. Therefore, Ashkenazim Jews are those whose ancestry is linked to that area. This group traditionally speaks the Yiddish language, which is a German dialect that has Hebrew and Slavic elements. The word Sephard was the name used by Jews in medieval times for the Iberian peninsula. Sephardim Jews, then, are the descendants of the Jews who lived in Spain or Portugal prior to expulsion in 1492 by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. Sephardim also have a distinctive language called Ladino, or Judeo-Spanish. This is a dialect of Castilian Spanish with Hebrew and Turkish elements.
What are their lives like?
During the last few centuries, Eastern Europe had the largest Jewish population in the world. National attitudes toward the Jews were ambivalent, depending on the usefulness of the Jewish inhabitants to the nations' rulers. Anti-Semitism was prevalent and frequently led to either persecution or expulsion. The Holocaust of World War II was the climax of Jewish persecution in Europe, leading to the extermination of six million Jews. Many Eastern European countries lost the majority of their Jewish population in this tragedy.
As a result of the Holocaust, thousands of Jewish survivors and their descendants have emigrated from Eastern Europe to Israel, the United States, or Western Europe. The recent memories of the Holocaust as well as the centuries of discrimination and persecution play a strong part in modern Jewish identity. European Jews are strong supporters of "Zionism," a revival of Jewish culture and support of Israel as a national, secure, Jewish homeland.
Since the dissolution of the Soviet empire, former Soviet Jews no longer live under oppressive government rule. Anti-Semitism is still a concern, but Jewish life has been revitalized in recreated countries like the Ukraine. Synagogues are functioning and kosher (traditional, acceptable) food is once again available.
The Jewish emigration from Eastern Europe is cause for concern among the remaining aged Jewish population. As the older Jews die, the Jewish community dwindles. Many of the younger Jews are unlearned in their Jewish identity. They are either non-observant or have assimilated into the prevailing culture. However, strong efforts are being made to maintain a Jewish presence and clarify their identity. Jewish schools are being opened and Judaic studies are being promoted in universities. Jewish hospitals and retirement homes are being built. Community centers also promote cultural events such as the Israeli dance, theater, Yiddish and Hebrew lessons, and sports.
Western Europe now has the largest concentration of European Jewish residents. The Netherlands received a large influx of Sephardic Jews from Portugal in the late 1500's, and another contingent of Ashkenazic Jews after World War II. They have been very influential in the development of Dutch commerce. England's Jews are concentrated in the Greater London area and have been politically active for over 100 years. They have been avid supporters of Zionism and solidly committed to the settlement of Diaspora Jews in Israel. A large percentage of England's Jews are affiliated with the traditional Orthodox synagogues. Italy's Jewish population is primarily Sephardic due to its absorption of Spanish Jews in the 1500's. France's Ashkenazic community received 300,000 Sephardic Jews from North Africa in recent decades.
What are their beliefs?
For religious Jews, God is the Supreme Being, the Creator of the universe, and the ultimate Judge of human affairs. Beyond this, the religious beliefs of the Jewish communities vary greatly. European Jews are extremely diverse in religious practice. The Ashkenazic Jews are the most prevalent, representing the Orthodox, ultra-Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform movements. The unusual and adamantly traditional Hasidic movement was born in Poland and has gained a strong following in the United States and Israel. The Sephardic denomination is similar to the Orthodox Ashkenazic, but is more permissive on dietary rules and some religious practices. Each Jewish denomination maintains synagogues and celebrates the traditional Jewish holiday calendar. While most European Jews are religiously affiliated, there is a significant minority which is not religious.
What are their needs?
The Jews have a wonderful understanding of their connection with the Abrahamic covenant. However, they also have a history of rejecting Jesus Christ as Messiah, the one who has fulfilled that covenant. Pray that as the Gospel is shared, it will not be viewed as anti-Semitic, but rather as the fulfillment of what God promised through Abraham centuries ago.
Prayer PointsView Jew, Eastern Yiddish-Speaking in all countries.
* Ask the Lord of the harvest to send forth loving Christians to work among the Jewish communities.
* Ask the Holy Spirit to grant wisdom and favor to the missions agencies that are focusing on the European Jews.
* Pray that the Jewish people will understand that Jesus is the long-awaited Messiah.
* Ask the Lord to soften the hearts of the Jews towards Christians so that they might hear and receive the message of salvation.
* Pray that the Lord Jesus will reveal Himself to the Jews through dreams and visions.
* Pray that God will grant Jewish believers favor as they share their faith in Christ with their own people.
* Pray that strong local churches will be raised up in each Jewish community.
* Pray for the availability of the Jesus Film in the primary language of this people. | <urn:uuid:58c97692-7ec3-45e2-add2-5f67fd45724c> | {
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The Oregon Trail opened the way west for intrepid settlers and enterprising miners. Once it was well established and the roads were cleared and expanded, once towns had grown up along the route and locations in the Rockies and further west were settled, it was only natural that a new method of transportation would take over: stagecoaches.
The technology behind stagecoaches wasn’t new. Carriages were the primary form of mass transportation in the pre-locomotive age. What made stagecoaches different from regular carriages were their size and the way they were supported on the wheel frame. Rather than relying on springs, which jostled a rider up and down, stagecoaches made use of thoroughbraces, leather straps that supported the body of the stagecoach and gave it more of a rocking motion.Stagecoaches could generally fit nine passengers inside and six outside. Inside, as you can probably guess, meant that passengers traveled inside the body of the coach. They would ride on three benches, two facing forward and the foremost one facing backwards, three riders to a bench. As you can imagine, it was a tight squeeze. Passengers in the first two benches would often have to wedge their knees between one another to make room. They would carry their baggage and often have mail under their feet. But if that wasn’t bad enough, the six passengers riding outside of the carriage would be just as cramped and exposed to the elements.
But what passengers lost in comfort, they made up for in speed. The most common type of stagecoach was the Concord stagecoach, manufactured in Concord, New Hampshire. These stagecoaches rarely broke down. They were drawn by a team of six horses and could cut through the new roadways of the west much faster than any wagon train ever could.
This is part of the reason that almost all stagecoaches carried mail as well as passengers. More than just mail, in fact. It was common for stagecoaches to carry gold and cash being transported on behalf of one bank or another. This, of course, meant that there was a real danger of robberies along the road.
The first major stagecoach robbery in California took place in 1852 when Reelfoot Williams and his gang robbed a Nevada City coach. The gang had set up a network of informants to monitor when stages were coming and what money and passengers they were carrying. They carried off the heist, setting a precedent that many would follow. For that reason, and because of the very real threat of attacks by Native Americans, passengers were advised to carry guns and knives with them and drivers were well armed.
So, you might ask yourself. Who was in charge of all these stagecoaches? You probably already know the answer without knowing it. There were several stagecoach companies in the east that had been in operation even before the 19th century. But one of the biggest and most successful companies developed in the 1830s as a service to deliver packages between Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. Adams & Company gradually moved west as steamships replaced overland routes for fast transportation between the major eastern cities.
Adams & Company did well in California after the gold rush, until mismanagement and the emergence of a serious competitor changed everything. That competitor was a little company started by two men, Henry Wells and William G. Fargo. The company that Wells and Fargo started offered more than just stagecoach service. It offered banking and mail services as well. In fact, by the time the 1850s rolled around, Wells Fargo was widely known to be faster and more reliable about delivering the mail than the U.S. Postal service.
Then came the Panic of 1855. The California banking system, puffed up on speculation of continued profits from the Gold Rush, collapsed. Many businesses, including Adams & Company, folded. But Wells Fargo managed to hold on. Not only did it hold on, it emerged as one of the only viable options in stagecoach transportation.
Since Wells Fargo pretty much had a monopoly on stagecoach transportation in the west after 1855, they could make the rules. And some of those rules were:
Abstinence from liquor is requested, but if you must drink share the bottle. To do otherwise makes you appear selfish and unneighborly.
If ladies are present, gentlemen are urged to forego smoking cigars and pipes as the odor of same is repugnant to the gentler sex. Chewing tobacco is permitted, but spit with the wind, not against it.
Gentlemen must refrain from the use of rough language in the presence of ladies and children.
Buffalo robes are provided for your comfort in cold weather. Hogging robes will not be tolerated and the offender will be made to ride with the driver.
Don’t snore loudly while sleeping or use your fellow passenger’s shoulder for a pillow; he or she may not understand and friction may result.
Firearms may be kept on your person for use in emergencies. Do not fire them for pleasure or shoot at wild animals as the sound riles the horses.
In the event of runaway horses remain calm. Leaping from the coach in panic will leave you injured, at the mercy of the elements, hostile Indians and hungry coyotes.
Forbidden topics of conversation are: stagecoach robberies and Indian uprisings.
Gents guilty of unchivalrous behavior toward lady passengers will be put off the stage. It’s a long walk back. A word to the wise is sufficient.*
So there you have it. Stagecoach transportation in the Old West. Traveling by stagecoach was the only way to go in those days … until the railroad came along and changed everything…. | <urn:uuid:44892bde-dc4e-4668-88dc-48f754c76b11> | {
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After the British Pyrrhic (costly) victory at Bunker Hill in 1775, British General William Howe decided a lethal blow needed to be delivered to the Patriot cause. Howe proposed to launch an attack on New York City using tens thousands of troops. He began mobilizing the massive fleet in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Meanwhile, American Commander-in-Chief George Washington had ordered General Charles Lee to prepare for the defense of the city. That June, Howe and 9,000 troops set sail for New York. Howe’s army was to be met in the city by additional regiments of German and British troops. Reinforcements from Halifax led by Howe’s brother would follow them.
Howe’s initial fleet arrived in New York Harbor and began landing troops on Staten Island. On April 27, 1776, British forces engaged the Americans at the Battle of Brooklyn Heights (also called the Battle of Long Island). Howe’s army successfully outflanked Washington’s, eventually causing the Patriots, after some resistance, to withdraw to Manhattan under the cover of darkness, thereby avoiding a potentially costly siege at the hands of the British.
After failed peace negotiations, the British Army next struck at Lower Manhattan, where 12,000 British troops quickly overtook the city. Most of the Continental Army had retreated to defensible positions at Harlem Heights and then to White Plains, well north of the city, but some soldiers remained at Fort Washington in Manhattan. Howe’s army chased Washington and the Continental Army into positions north of White Plains before returning to Manhattan. In Manhattan, Howe set his sights on Fort Washington, the last Patriot stronghold in Manhattan. In the furious, three-pronged attacked, British forces easily took the fort, capturing nearly 3,000 American prisoners and at least 34 cannons in the process. Most of the prisoners were taken to squalid British prison ships where all but 800 or so died of disease or starvation. General Washington, now at Fort Lee, directly across the Hudson River from Fort Washington, witnessed the events that happened. Following the fall of Fort Washington, British forces ferried up the Hudson River in barges toward Fort Lee. Washington ordered the evacuation of the fort’s 2,000 soldiers across the Hackensack River at New Bridge Landing. Washington would lead his army clear across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania.
Following the events in and around New York City, the outlook was bleak for the Continental Army. Morale in the army was extremely low, enlistments were ending, and desertions were commonplace. Even General Washington admitted his army’s chances of success were slim. Meanwhile, General Howe ordered his army into their winter quarters that December and established several outposts from New York City south to New Brunswick, New Jersey. | <urn:uuid:d9f94478-8f2d-45d3-b081-710593609b23> | {
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The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) spacecraft is expected to discover its 1,000TH comet this summer.
The SOHO spacecraft is a joint effort between NASA and the European Space Agency. It has accounted for approximately one-half of all comet discoveries with computed orbits in the history of astronomy.
"Before SOHO was launched, only 16 sun grazing comets had been discovered by space observatories. Based on that experience, who could have predicted SOHO would discover more than 60 times that number, and in only nine years," said Dr. Chris St. Cyr. He is senior project scientist for NASA's Living With a Star program at the agency's Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md. "This is truly a remarkable achievement!"
About 85 percent of the comets SOHO discovered belongs to the Kreutz group of sun grazing comets, so named because their orbits take them very close to Earth's star. The Kreutz sun grazers pass within 500,000 miles of the star's visible surface. Mercury, the planet closest to the sun, is about 36 million miles from the solar surface.
SOHO has also been used to discover three other well-populated comet groups: the Meyer, with at least 55 members; Marsden, with at least 21 members; and the Kracht, with 24 members. These groups are named after the astronomers who suggested the comets are related, because they have similar orbits.
Many comet discoveries were made by amateurs using SOHO images on the Internet. SOHO comet hunters come from all over the world. The United States, United Kingdom, China, Japan, Taiwan, Russia, Ukraine, France, Germany, and Lithuania are among the many countries whose citizens have used SOHO to chase comets.
Almost all of SOHO's comets are discovered using images from its Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph (LASCO) instrument. LASCO is used to observe the faint, multimillion-degree outer atmosphere of the sun, called the corona. A disk in the instrument is used to make an artificial eclipse, blocking direct light from the sun, so the much fainter corona can be seen. Sun grazing comets are discovered when they enter LASCO's field of view as they pass close by the star.
"Building coronagraphs like LASCO is still more art than science, because the light we are trying to detect is very faint," said Dr. Joe Gurman, U.S. project scientist for SOHO at Goddard. "Any imperfections in the optics or dust in the instrument will scatter the light, making the images too noisy to be useful. Discovering almost 1,000 comets since SOHO's launch on December 2, 1995 is a testament to the skill of the LASCO team."
SOHO successfully completed its primary mission in April 1998. It has enough fuel to remain on station to keep hunting comets for decades if the LASCO continues to function.
For information about SOHO on the Internet, visit:
Explore further: Long-term warming, short-term variability: Why climate change is still an issue | <urn:uuid:78cbe1bd-1849-4138-b59a-5521e93122a3> | {
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Teaching Strategies: Effective Discussion Leading
While lecturing is a fast and direct way to communicate a body of knowledge, discussion encourages students to discover solutions for themselves and to develop their critical thinking abilities. They learn how to generate ideas, consider relevant issues, evaluate solutions, and consider the implications of these solutions. Thus, although discussion is not as efficient as lecture in conveying facts, it helps students learn how to think better and more clearly about the facts that they should learn from their reading and their lectures.
Leading a discussion, however, offers its own set of challenges: participants can spend too much time exploring small, sometimes irrelevant issues, forget that they are progressing toward an identifiable goal, and become bored. The leader must guide the conversation carefully without stifling creativity and students' initiative and without surrendering to some students' desire for answers that they can write down and memorize.
Here are four strategies that can help faculty and TAs encourage students explore issues themselves:
We all know that creating a fine lecture requires research and planning; we sometimes forget that leading a good discussion requires the same research and planning and demands spontaneous responses in the classroom. The beauty of the extra demand is that developing the skills for intervening and directing discussions leads to exciting, productive exchanges that help students learn to think clearly and creatively, while simultaneously inspiring you to teach more thoroughly and carefully.
"Discussions: Leading and Guiding, but Not Controlling," The
Teaching Professor VI, 8 [October 1992].) | <urn:uuid:03dc16ec-33ae-4c39-a06b-93924571a72e> | {
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For many, 1066 is the date when the Middle Ages began. Centuries of castles, cathedrals and churches followed, busy with chivalry, the Crusades and crop-rotation, all ending some time around 1500.
This, of course, is an over-simplification, just as the term Middle Ages itself is. For a long time, the civilisations of the Romans and the Renaissance were admired; everything in between – the ages in the middle - was regarded as inferior, a period of decline, disease and instability. Only with the Victorians was there some attempt to reconsider these centuries. They, like us, were transfixed by the imaginative leaps of medieval buildings and their intense spirituality.
Certain themes dominate medieval architecture. First, the church was central to everyday life. Usually the most impressive building in the neighbourhood was the parish church, and the finest buildings created were the great stone cathedrals. Secondly, society was strictly ordered. For most of the Middle Ages, the hierarchy of the Feudal System dominated: the majority were poor peasants living in simple dwellings that have long disappeared. A few, the lords and clergy, were rich. Their castles, manor houses, monasteries and colleges by comparison were splendid constructions, and have survived in some form. Thirdly, although technology was limited, building methods and styles did evolve. Throughout the Gothic style dominated, but in a myriad of forms. | <urn:uuid:3430628b-d0a6-4d37-891c-b80e7d9c973f> | {
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Presenting - 'Amasia', The Next Supercontinent!
Ever since Earth has been in existence there have been the formation and breaking apart of many supercontinents - While Pangaea, that existed between 150-300 million years ago is the most well-known, prior to that was Nuna (1.8 billion years ago), Rodina (1 billion years ago) and many more that cannot be verified because 2 billion year-old rocks containing evidence of magnetic fields, are hard to find.
And while most scientists are in agreement that Rodina, Nuna and Pangaea did exist, there is very little consensus on the continents they comprised of - Some experts believe that they were the same ones, while others think that the wandering landmasses reassembled on the opposite sides each time - about 180° away from where the previous supercontinent had come together.
Now, a group of geologists led by Yale University graduate student Ross Mitchell have a new theory - They think that each supercontinent came together about 90° from its predecessor. That is, the geographic center of Rodina was about 88° away from the center of Nuna, whilst the center of Panagea, believed to have been located near modern-day Africa, was about 88° away from the center from its super giant predecessor, Rodina.
These calculations that were reported earlier this year were based not only on the paleolatitude (The latitude of a place at some time in the past, measured relative to the earth's magnetic poles in the same period) of the ancient supercontinents, but also, for the first time the paleolongitude, that Ross measured by estimating how the locations of the Earth's magnetic poles have changed through time.
While the theory is interesting, what is even more so is that the team has also come up with a model of the next supercontinent. If their estimates are accurate, over the next few hundred million years, the tectonic plates under the Americas and Asia will both drift northward and merge. This means that modern day North and South America will come together and become one giant landmass, displacing the Caribbean Sea completely. A similar movement in Eurasia (Australia and South Eastern Asia) will cause the Arctic Ocean to disappear causing the continents to fuse with Canada. The result? A ginormous continent that they call 'Amasia'. The one thing that is not too clear is if Antarctica will be part of this or just be left stranded.
While many researchers believe that the Yale team's theory is quite feasible, nobody will ever know for sure - Because unfortunately, none of us are going to be around few 100 million years from now - But it's sure fun to envision the new world, isn't it? | <urn:uuid:2d0e9c93-cfc6-4a81-aac7-dc1b77fe6e90> | {
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Researchers at New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) have developed an inexpensive solar cell that can be painted or printed on flexible plastic sheets.
“Someday, homeowners will even be able to print sheets of these solar cells with inexpensive home-based inkjet printers. Consumers can then slap the finished product on a wall, roof or billboard to create their own power stations,” said Somenath Mitra, Ph.D., lead researcher, professor and acting chair of NJIT’s Department of Chemistry and Environmental Sciences.
Harvesting energy directly from abundant solar radiation using solar cells is increasingly emerging as a major component of future global energy strategy, Mitra said. Yet, when it comes to harnessing renewable energy, challenges remain.
Expensive, large-scale infrastructures, such as windmills or dams, are necessary to drive renewable energy sources, such as wind or hydroelectric power plants. Purified silicon, also used for making computer chips, which continue to rise in demand, is a core material for fabricating conventional solar cells. However, the processing of a material such as purified silicon is beyond the reach of most consumers.
“Developing organic solar cells from polymers, however, is a cheap and potentially simpler alternative,” Mitra said. “We foresee a great deal of interest in our work because solar cells can be inexpensively printed or simply painted on exterior building walls and/or rooftops. Imagine some day driving in your hybrid car with a solar panel painted on the roof, which is producing electricity to drive the engine. The opportunities are endless.”
The solar cell developed at NJIT uses a carbon nanotubes complex, which is a molecular configuration of carbon in a cylindrical shape. Although estimated to be 50,000 times smaller than a human hair, just one nanotube can conduct current better than any conventional electrical wire.
Mitra and his research team took the carbon nanotubes and combined them with tiny carbon fullerenes (sometimes known as buckyballs) to form snake-like structures. Buckyballs trap electrons, although they can’t make electrons flow. Add sunlight to excite the polymers, and the buckyballs will grab the electrons. Nanotubes, behaving like copper wires, then will be able to make the electrons or current flow.
“Someday, I hope to see this process become an inexpensive energy alternative for households around the world,” Mitra said. EC | <urn:uuid:ebbdca74-3fac-402d-ad43-fe49594f0872> | {
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|This is a measure of the brightness of a celestial object. The lower the value, the brighter the object, so magnitude -4 is brighter than magnitude 0, which is in turn brighter than magnitude +4. The scale is logarithmic, and a difference of 5 magnitudes means a brightness difference of exactly 100 times. A difference of one magnitude corresponds to a brightness difference of around 2.51 (the fifth root of 100).
The system was started by the ancient Greeks, who divided the stars into one of six magnitude groups with stars of the first magnitude being the first ones to be visible after sunset. In modern times, the scale has been extended in both directions and more strictly defined.
Examples of magnitude values for well-known objects are;
|Sun||-26.7 (about 400 000 times brighter than full Moon!)|
|Brightest Iridium flares||-8|
|Venus (at brightest)||-4.4|
|International Space Station||-2|
|Sirius (brightest star)||-1.44|
|Limit of human eye||+6 to +7|
|Limit of 10x50 binoculars||+9|
|Limit of Hubble Space Telescope||+30| | <urn:uuid:a13e5774-8a15-4ad6-bc01-def7c66a2edb> | {
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One of the basic tenets of teaching is that the student must learn the basics and foundation of a subject in order for them to master it eventually and reach full human potential.
New research from the University of Missouri supports this notion, revealing that kids who understood numbers and quantity in the first grade were more likely to get good grades in math when they hit fifth grade.
“This study reinforces the idea that math knowledge is incremental, and without a good foundation, a student won’t do well because the math gets more complex,” said researcher David Geary. “The kids that can go back and forth easily and quickly in translating numerals, the number five, for example, into quantities and in breaking complex problems into smaller parts had a very good head start.”
The study involved 177 elementary school students from kindergarten. Researchers hope to follow the group until they reach 10th grade algebra classes in an attempt to gain a deeper understanding of how kids learn, especially when it comes to math. Additionally, the findings may help educators discover better methods of teaching.
Personal growth activities such as studying, doing homework and attending school are integral to a young person's development and can even set them on the right path toward a fulfilled life.
Philosopher, educator and trailblazer Ilchi Lee believes that human potential is limitless and that individuals can push the boundaries of their abilities with practice and hard work. Results of this study support such thoughts, providing further proof that the brain works gradually.
Students may want to consider ridding their minds of distractions and negativity before engaging in study sessions or attending class in order to reap the full benefits of education. | <urn:uuid:513a84c9-3d3f-460a-87c7-d93d6bdabc54> | {
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Leaf Characteristics (PK1) This set introduces simple vocabulary to describe the physical features of 40 North American tree, garden, and house plant leaves. First - The child sorts 9 leaf characteristics cards (3" x 4") onto 3 control cards (10-3/8” x 5¼”) that identify characteristics of Leaf Types, Leaf Veins, and Leaf Margins. Second - After learning the 9 characteristics of leaves, it is time to describe the 3 characteristics of just one leaf. A leaf card is selected from the 40 leaf cards provided (3" x 4"). The child selects the 3 characteristics cards (type, venation, margin) that describe that leaf, and places them on the blank Leaf Identification card (10-3/8” x 5¼”). Real leaves can be used in this exercise as well. Background information is included for the teacher.
Leaves (PK1C) This set consists of 40 DUPLICATE leaf cards (80 cards total). One group of 20 cards illustrates familiar leaves such as dandelion, marigold, and ivy. The second group illustrates common North American tree leaves such as oak, maple, and cottonwood. These are the same leaf cards found in In-Print for Children's “Leaf Characteristics” activity.
Flowers (FL1) This set is designed to help children recognize and to name 20 common flowers, many of which are commercially available throughout the year. This duplicate set of picture cards can be used in simple matching exercises, or in 3-part matching activities if one set is cut apart. The 40 photocards (3¼” x 4") are in full-color and laminated. Flower background information is included for the teacher.
Nuts (PK3) Nuts are nourishing snacks and learning how they grow will make eating them all the more fun! This set of 22 two-color cards (5½” x 3½”) of plant and nut illustrations represents eleven edible nuts/seeds. The child pairs the illustration cards of the nuts in their growing stage to the cards of the nuts in and out of their shells. Make the activity even more successful by bringing the real nuts into the classroom.
Kitchen Herbs & Spices (PK5) This set help children to learn about 20 plants that give us herbs and spices. The delicately drawn, 2-color illustrations clearly show the parts of the plants that give us edible leaves, seeds, stems, bark, bulbs, and berries. Create an aromatic and tasty exercise by having the children pair real herbs and spices with these cards (4½” x 6¼”).
Plants We Eat (PK9) Learn more about food plants and their different edible parts. This set classifies 18 plant foods into six groups: roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. A duplicate set of 18 labeled picture/definition cards (6" x 6") shows plants in their growing stage with only their “food” portion in color. One set of picture/ definition cards is spiral bound into 6 control booklets that include definitions of the root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit, and seed. The other set of picture/ definition cards are to be cut apart for 2 or 3-part matching exercises. Plant description cards can be used for “Who am I?” games with our plant picture cards or with real foods. Both cards and booklets are laminated.
Plants We Eat Replicards (PK9w) Six replicards are photocopied to produce worksheets for an extension exercise using our set Plants We Eat (PK9). Children color and label the worksheets, which illustrate three plant examples for each of the following groups: roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. The Plants We Eat booklets serve as controls. After worksheets (8½” x 11") are colored and labeled, they can be cut apart, stapled together, and made into six take-home booklets. These booklets may generate lively family dinner-table discussions: “A potato is a what?”
Plants - Who am I? (WP) This beginning activity for lower elementary strengthens both reading and listening skills, and provides children with simple facts about 10 plants. The set consists of duplicate, labeled picture cards with descriptive text and features plants different from those in the First Knowledge: Plant Stories (see below). The set of cards with text ending in “Who am I?” is cut apart into 10 picture cards, 10 plant name cards, and 10 text cards. The other set is left whole. Cards are used for picture-to-text card matching exercises and for playing the “Who am I” game. Cards measure 6½” x 4" and are in full color and laminated.
First Knowledge: Plant Stories (PK7) This set consists of 19 duplicate plant picture/text cards. One set is cut apart for 3-part matching activities, and the other set is placed in the green, 6-ring mini-binder labeled Plants. The teacher has the option of changing the cards in the binder as needed. The children can match the 3-part cards (6" x 3¾”) to the cards in the binder, practice reading, learn about the diverse characteristics of these plants, and then play “Who am I?” The eight angiosperms picture cards can be sorted beneath two cards that name and define Monocots and Dicots. These activities prepare children for later work with our Plant Kingdom Chart & Cards (see below), which illustrates the same plants.
Plant Kingdom Chart and Cards (PK6) Our 4-color plastic paper chart and cards represents the current classification of the plant kingdom (not illustrated here) – the same as is used in secondary and college level biology courses. This classification organizes the plant kingdom in a straightforward manner with simple definitions and examples under each heading. Firs the plants are categorized as either Nonvascular Plants (Bryophytes) or Vascular Plants. Then the Vascular plants are divided into two groups: Seedless Plants or Seed Plants. Seed Plants are divided into two groups: Gymnosperms and Angiosperms with sub-categories. Nineteen picture cards (2¼” x 3") illustrate the currently recognized phyla of the plant kingdom. Children match the 19 plant picture cards to the pictures on the chart (18" x 32"). Text on the back of the picture cards describes each plant. Advanced students can recreate the chart with the title cards provided, using the chart as a control of error. Background information is provided.
Parts of a Mushroom Parts of a gilled mushroom are highlighted and labeled on six 2-color cards (3" x 5"). Photocopy the Replicard (8½” x 11") to make quarter page worksheets. The child colors and labels the worksheets, using the picture cards as a guide. Completed worksheets can be stapled together to make a booklet for “Parts of a Mushroom”. (In-Print product code FK1)
Fungi (FK4) Members of the Fungus Kingdom have a wide variety of forms. Children see fungi everywhere, such as mold on food, or mushrooms on the lawn. This duplicate set of labeled picture cards shows 12 common fungi found indoors and out. Fungi illustrated: blue cheese fungus, bolete, coral fungus, cup fungus, jelly fungus, lichens, mildew, milky mushrooms, mold, and morel. Background information is included. Pictures cards (3½” x 4½”) are in full color and laminated.
Classification of the Fungus KingdomChart and Cards (FK3) This classification of the Fungus Kingdom organizes 18 representative fungi into four major groups and two important fungal partnerships: Chytrids, Yoke Fungi, Sac Fungi, Club Fungi, Lichens, Mycorrhizae. Children match the 18 picture cards (2-7/8” x 2-3/8”) to the pictures on the 2-color chart (18" x 16"). After this activity, they can sort the picture cards under the label cards for the 5 fungus groups, using the chart as the control. Description of each fungus type is printed on the back of the picture cards. Background information is included for the teacher. This chart is printed on vinyl and does not need to be laminated. | <urn:uuid:d8d399d3-71ef-4f88-8432-8aa6553e707a> | {
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Scientists gets further evidence that Mars once had oceans
Mars, our neighbor, once the dreams of science fiction writers and astronomers, one of which only wrote about the live that could have lived on Mars, and still might; while the other seeks to prove that there might actually have been life on that red planet eons ago.
Part of proving that idea is being able to show that there was water on the surface of Mars, water that would have been the foundation of life, just as it is here on earth.
To help find the facts behind whether there was, or even still is, water on Mars the European Space Agency (ESA) Mars Express space craft which houses the Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and Ionsphere Sounding (MARSIS) has detected sediment on the planet, the type of sediment that you would find on the floor of an ocean.
It is within the boundaries of features tentatively identified in images from various spacecraft as shorelines that MARSIS detected sedimentary deposits reminiscent of an ocean floor.
“MARSIS penetrates deep into the ground, revealing the first 60 – 80 meters (197 – 262 ft) of the planet’s subsurface,” says Wlodek Kofman, leader of the radar team at the Institut de Planétologie et d’Astrophysique de Grenoble (IPAG). “Throughout all of this depth, we see the evidence for sedimentary material and ice.”
The sediments detected by MARSIS are areas of low radar reflectivity, which typically indicates low-density granular materials that have been eroded away by water and carried to their final resting place.
Scientists are interpreting these sedimentary deposits, which may still be ice-rich, as another indication that there once an ocean in this spot.
At this point scientists have proposed that there were two main oceans on the planet. One was aroun the 4 billion year ago range with the second at around 3 billion years ago.
For the scientist the MARSIS findings provide some of the best evidence yet that Mars did have large bodies of water on its surface and that the water played a major role in the planet’s geological history. | <urn:uuid:40e4be34-8172-4949-b887-cd566fea95cb> | {
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The Current Surface Analysis map shows current weather conditions
, including frontal and high/low pressure positions, satellite infrared
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, and cloud cover
onto a geographical map to help find synoptic scale features such as weather fronts.
The first weather maps in the 19th century were drawn well after the fact to help devise a theory on storm systems. After the advent of the telegraph, simultaneous surface weather observations
became possible for the first time, and beginning in the late 1840s, the Smithsonian Institution became the first organization to draw real-time surface analyses. Use of surface analyses began first in the United States, spreading worldwide during the 1870s. Use of the Norwegian cyclone model for frontal analysis began in the late 1910s across Europe, with its use finally spreading to the United States during World War II.
Surface weather analyses have special symbols which show frontal systems, cloud cover
, or other important information. For example, an H may represent high pressure, implying good and fair weather. An L on the other hand may represent low pressure, which frequently accompanies precipitation
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The knowledge, skills and understandings relating to students’ writing have been drawn from the Statements of Learning for English (MCEECDYA 2005).
Students are taught to write a variety of forms of writing at school. The three main forms of writing (also called genres or text types) that are taught are narrative writing, informative writing and persuasive writing. In the Writing tests, students are provided with a ‘writing stimulus' (sometimes called a prompt – an idea or topic) and asked to write a response in a particular genre or text type.
In 2013, students will be required to complete a persuasive writing task.
The Writing task targets the full range of student capabilities expected of students from Years 3 to 9. The same stimulus is used for students in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9. The lines in the response booklet for Year 3 students are more widely spaced than for Years 5, 7 and 9 and more capable students will address the topic at a higher level. The same marking guide is used to assess all students' writing, allowing for a national comparison of student writing capabilities across these year levels.
Assessing the Writing task
Students’ writing will be marked by assessors who have received intensive training in the application of a set of ten writing criteria summarised below. The full Persuasive Writing Marking Guide ( 5.7 MB) and the writing stimulus used to prompt the writing samples in the Marking Guide are both available for download.
Descriptions of the Writing criteria
||Description of marking criterion
|The writer’s capacity to orient, engage and persuade the reader
||The organisation of the structural components of a persuasive text (introduction, body and conclusion) into an appropriate and effective text structure
||The selection, relevance and elaboration of ideas for a persuasive argument
||The use of a range of persuasive devices to enhance the writer’s position and persuade the reader
||The range and precision of contextually appropriate language choices
||The control of multiple threads and relationships across the text, achieved through the use of grammatical elements (referring words, text connectives, conjunctions) and lexical elements (substitutions, repetitions, word associations)
||The segmenting of text into paragraphs that assists the reader to follow the line of argument
||The production of grammatically correct, structurally sound and meaningful sentences
||The use of correct and appropriate punctuation to aid the reading of the text
||The accuracy of spelling and the difficulty of the words used
The Narrative Writing Marking Guide (used in 2008 - 2010 ) is also available.
Use of formulaic structures
Beginning writers can benefit from being taught how to use structured scaffolds. One such scaffold that is commonly used is the five paragraph argument essay. However, when students becomes more competent, the use of this structure can be limiting. As writers develop their capabilities they should be encouraged to move away from formulaic structures and to use a variety of different persuasive text types, styles and language features, as appropriate to different topics.
Students are required to write their opinion and to draw on personal knowledge and experience when responding to test topics. Students are not expected to have detailed knowledge about the topic. Students should feel free to use any knowledge that they have on the topic, but should not feel the need to manufacture evidence to support their argument. In fact, students who do so may undermine the credibility of their argument by making statements that are implausible.
Example topics and different styles:
City or country (see example prompt )
A beginning writer could write their opinion about living in either the city or country and give reasons for it. A more capable writer might also choose to take one side and argue for it. However, this topic also lends itself to a comparative style response from a more capable writer. It can be argued there are benefits and limitations to living in the city and living in the country. A writer could also choose to introduce other options, for example living in a large country town that might have the benefits of city and rural life. Positions taken on this topic are likely to elicit logical, practical reasons and anecdotes based on writers’ experiences.
Books or TV (see example prompt )
A beginning writer could write about their opinion of one aspect and give reasons for it. However, this topic lends itself to a comparative style response from a more capable writer. It can be argued there are benefits and limitations to both books and TV. The reasons for either side of the topic are likely to elicit logical, practical reasons and personal anecdotes based on the writer's experiences of both books and TV.
It is cruel to keep animals in cages and zoos (see example prompt )
A beginning writer could take on one side of the topic and give reasons for it. However, this topic lends itself to be further redefined. For example, a more capable writer might develop the difference between open range zoos and small cages and then argue the merits of one and limitations of the other. The animal welfare issues raised by this topic are likely to elicit very empathetic and emotive arguments based on the writer's knowledge about zoos and animals.
More information on persuasive writing can be found in the FAQ section for NAPLAN - Writing test.
National minimum standards
The national minimum standards for writing describe some of the skills and understandings students can generally demonstrate at their particular year schooling. The standards are intended to be a snapshot of typical achievement and do not describe the full range of what students are taught or what they may achieve.
For further information on the national minimum standards see Performance Standards. | <urn:uuid:817d308c-adeb-427a-9b89-415a8f96d2ec> | {
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LESSON ONE: Transforming Everyday Objects
Marcel Duchamp: Bicycle Wheel, bicycle wheel on wooden stool, 1963 (Henley-on-Thames, Richard Hamilton Collection); © 2007 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris, photo credit: Cameraphoto/Art Resource, NY
Man Ray: Rayograph, gelatin silver print, 29.4×23.2 cm, 1923 (New York, Museum of Modern Art); © 2007 Man Ray Trust/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris, photo © The Museum of Modern Art, New York
Meret Oppenheim: Object (Le Déjeuner en fourrure), fur-lined cup, diam. 109 mm, saucer, diam. 237 mm, spoon, l. 202 mm, overall, h. 73 mm, 1936 (New York, Museum of Modern Art); © 2007 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ProLitteris, Zurich, photo © Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY
Dada and Surrealist artists questioned long-held assumptions about what a work of art should be about and how it should be made. Rather than creating every element of their artworks, they boldly selected everyday, manufactured objects and either modified and combined them with other items or simply se-lected them and called them “art.” In this lesson students will consider their own criteria for something to be called a work of art, and then explore three works of art that may challenge their definitions.
Students will consider their own definitions of art.
Students will consider how Dada and Surrealist artists challenged conventional ideas of art.
Students will be introduced to Readymades and photograms.
Ask your students to take a moment to think about what makes something a work of art. Does art have to be seen in a specific place? Where does one encounter art? What is art supposed to accomplish? Who is it for?
Ask your students to create an individual list of their criteria. Then, divide your students into small groups to discuss and debate the results and come up with a final list. Finally, ask each group to share with the class what they think is the most important criteria and what is the most contested criteria for something to be called a work of art. Write these on the chalkboard for the class to review and discuss.
Show your students the image of Bicycle Wheel. Ask your students if Marcel Duchamp’s sculp-ture fulfills any of their criteria for something to be called a work of art. Ask them to support their obser-vations with visual evidence.
Inform your students that Duchamp made this work by fastening a Bicycle Wheel to a kitchen stool. Ask your students to consider the fact that Duchamp rendered these two functional objects unus-able. Make certain that your students notice that there is no tire on the Bicycle Wheel.
To challenge accepted notions of art, Duchamp selected mass-produced, often functional objects from everyday life for his artworks, which he called Readymades. He did this to shift viewers’ engagement with a work of art from what he called the “retinal” (there to please the eye) to the “intellectual” (“in the service of the mind.”) [H. H. Arnason and Marla F. Prather, History of Modern Art: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Photography (Fourth Edition) (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1998), 274.] By doing so, Duchamp subverted the traditional notion that beauty is a defining characteristic of art.
Inform your students that Bicycle Wheel is the third version of this work. The first, now lost, was made in 1913, almost forty years earlier. Because the materials Duchamp selected to be Readymades were mass-produced, he did not consider any Readymade to be “original.”
Ask your students to revisit their list of criteria for something to be called a work of art. Ask them to list criteria related specifically to the visual aspects of a work of art (such as “beauty” or realistic rendering).
Duchamp said of Bicycle Wheel, “In 1913 I had the happy idea to fasten a Bicycle Wheel to a kitchen stool and watch it turn.” [John Elderfield, ed., Studies in Modern Art 2: Essays on Assemblage (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1992), 135.] Bicycle Wheel is a kinetic sculpture that depends on motion for effect. Although Duchamp selected items for his Readymades without regard to their so-called beauty, he said, “To see that wheel turning was very soothing, very comforting . . . I en-joyed looking at it, just as I enjoy looking at the flames dancing in a fireplace.” [Francis M. Naumann, The Mary and William Sisler Collection (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1984), 160.] By en-couraging viewers to spin Bicycle Wheel, Duchamp challenged the common expectation that works of art should not to be touched.
Show your students Rayograph. Ask your students to name recognizable shapes in this work. Ask them to support their findings with visual evidence. How do they think this image was made?
Inform your students that Rayograph was made by Man Ray, an American artist who was well-known for his portrait and fashion photography. Man Ray transformed everyday objects into mysterious images by placing them on photographic paper, exposing them to light, and oftentimes repeating this process with additional objects and exposures. When photographic paper is developed in chemicals, the areas blocked from light by objects placed on the paper earlier on will remain light, and the areas exposed to light will turn black. Man Ray discovered the technique of making photograms by chance, when he placed some objects in his darkroom on light-sensitive paper and accidentally exposed them to light. He liked the resulting images and experimented with the process for years to come. He likened the technique, now known as the photogram, to “painting with light,” calling the images rayographs, after his assumed name.
Now that your students have identified some recognizable objects used to make Rayograph, ask them to consider which of those objects might have been translucent and which might have been opaque, based on the tone of the shapes in the photogram.
Now show your students Meret Oppenheim’s sculpture Object (Déjeuner en fourrure). Both Rayograph and Object were made using everyday objects and materials not traditionally used for making art, which, when combined, challenge ideas of reality in unexpected ways. Ask your students what those everyday objects are and how they have been transformed by the artists.
Ask your students to name some traditional uses for the individual materials (cup, spoon, saucer, fur) used to make Object. Ask your students what choices they think Oppenheim made to transform these materials and objects.
In 1936, the Swiss artist Oppenheim was at a café in Paris with her friends Pablo Picasso and Dora Maar. Oppenheim was wearing a bracelet she had made from fur-lined, polished metal tubing. Picasso joked that one could cover anything with fur, to which Oppenheim replied, “Even this cup and saucer.” [Bice Curiger, Meret Oppenheim: Defiance in the Face of Freedom (Zurich, Frankfurt, New York: PARKETT Publishers Inc., 1989), 39.] Her tea was getting cold, and she reportedly called out, “Waiter, a little more fur!” Soon after, when asked to participate in a Surrealist exhibition, she bought a cup, saucer, and spoon at a department store and lined them with the fur of a Chinese gazelle. [Josephine Withers, “The Famous Fur-Lined Teacup and the Anonymous Meret Oppenheim” (New York: Arts Magazine, Vol. 52, Novem-ber 1977), 88-93.]
Duchamp, Oppenheim, and Man Ray transformed everyday objects into Readymades, Surrealist objects, and photograms. Ask your students to review the images of the three artworks in this lesson and discuss the similarities and differences between these artists’ transformation of everyday objects.
Art and Controversy
At the time they were made, works of art like Duchamp’s Bicycle Wheel and Oppenheim’s Object were controversial. Critics called Duchamp’s Readymades immoral and vulgar—even plagiaristic. Overwhelmed by the publicity Object received, Oppenheim sunk into a twenty-year depres-sion that greatly inhibited her creative production.
Ask your students to conduct research on a work of art that has recently been met with controversy. Each student should find at least two articles that critique the work of art. Have your students write a one-page summary of the issues addressed in these articles. Students should consider how and why the work chal-lenged and upset critics. Was the controversial reception related to the representation, the medium, the scale, the cost, or the location of the work? After completing the assignment, ask your students to share their findings with the class. Keep a list of shared critiques among the work’s various receptions.
Make a Photogram
If your school has a darkroom, have your students make photograms. Each student should collect several small objects from school, home, and the outside to place on photographic paper. Their collection should include a range of translucent and opaque objects to allow different levels of light to shine through. Stu-dents may want to overlap objects or use their hands to cover parts of the light-sensitive paper. Once the objects are arranged on the paper in a darkroom, have your students expose the paper to light for several seconds (probably about five to ten seconds, depending on the level of light) then develop, fix, rinse, and dry the paper. Allow for a few sheets of photographic paper per student so that they can experiment with different arrangements and exposures. After the photograms are complete, have your students discuss the different results that they achieved. Students may also make negatives of their photograms by placing them on top of a fresh sheet of photographic paper and covering the two with a sheet of glass. After ex-posing this to light, they can develop the paper to get the negative of the original photogram.
Encourage your students to try FAUXtogram, an activity available on Red Studio, MoMA's Web site for teens.
GROVE ART ONLINE: Suggested Reading
Below is a list of selected articles which provide more information on the specific topics discussed in this lesson. | <urn:uuid:31fab53b-eb78-4e38-ae2c-77d787710125> | {
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OurDocuments.gov. Featuring 100 milestone documents of American history from the National Archives. Includes images of original primary source documents, lesson plans, teacher and student competitions, and educational resources.
In 1866 the Russian government offered to sell the territory of Alaska to the United States. Secretary of State William H. Seward, enthusiastic about the prospects of American Expansion, negotiated the deal for the Americans. Edouard de Stoeckl, Russian minister to the United States, negotiated for the Russians. On March 30, 1867, the two parties agreed that the United States would pay Russia $7.2 million for the territory of Alaska.
For less that 2 cents an acre, the United States acquired nearly 600,000 square miles. Opponents of the Alaska Purchase persisted in calling it “Seward’s Folly” or “Seward’s Icebox” until 1896, when the great Klondike Gold Strike convinced even the harshest critics that Alaska was a valuable addition to American territory.
The check for $7.2 million was made payable to the Russian Minister to the United States Edouard de Stoeckl, who negotiated the deal for the Russians. Also shown here is the Treaty of Cession, signed by Tzar Alexander II, which formally concluded the agreement for the purchase of Alaska from Russia. | <urn:uuid:8182aa95-78e2-42b3-a86d-30bb1a0fa8f8> | {
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Filed under: Foundational Hand
After studying the proportions of the Foundational Hand letters, the next step is to start writing the letters.
Each letter is constructed rather than written. The letters are made up of a combination of pen strokes, which are only made in a top – down or left – right direction. The pen is never pushed up.
When we studied the proportions of the Foundational Hand we could group the letters according to their widths. Now, we can group them according to the order and direction of the pen strokes.
You may find it useful to look at the construction grid whilst studying the order and direction of the letters.
The first group consists of the letters c, e, and o.
These letters are based on the circle shape. This shape is produced with two pen strokes. Visualise a clock face and start the first stroke at approximately the 11, and finish it in an anti-clockwise direction at 5. The second stroke starts again at the 11 and finishes in a clockwise direction on the 5 to complete the letter o.
The first pen-stroke for the letters c and e are the same as the first of the letter o. The second pen-stroke on the c and e are shorter and finish around the 1 position on the imaginary clock face.
Finally, the letter e has a third stroke, starting at the end of the second stroke and finishes when it touches the first stroke.
The next group of letters are d, q, b and p. All these letters combine curved and straight pen strokes. When writing these letters it can be useful to think of the underlying circle shape, which your pen will leave or join at certain points depending upon which letter is being written.
The first stroke of the b starts at the ascender height of the letter, which can be eyed in at just under half the x-height (body height of letters with no ascender or descender). Continue the ascender stroke of the b until it ‘picks up’ the circle shape, follow round the circle until the pen reaches the 5 on the imaginary clock face. The second stroke starts on the first stroke following the circle round until it touches the end of the first stroke.
The letter d is similar to the c except it has a third stroke for the ascender, which will touch the ends of the first and second stroke being for finishing on the write-line.
Letter p starts with a vertical stroke from the x-height down to the imaginary descender line, which is just under half the x-height below the write-line. The second and third strokes are curved, starting on the descender stroke and following round the imaginary circle.
The letter q is almost the same as the d, except it has a descender stroke rather than an ascender stroke.
Letters a, h, m, n, r
All these letters combine curved and straight pen strokes. Once again, think of the underlying circle shape, which your pen will leave or join at certain points depending upon the letter being written.
The Letter h consists of two pen strokes. The first is a vertical ascender stroke. The second stroke starts curved, follows the circle round, then leaves it and becomes straight.
The letter n is produced exactly the same way as the letter h, except the first stroke is not so tall as it starts on the x-height line. The first two pen strokes of the letter m are the same as the letter n. Then a third stroke is added which is identical to the second stroke.
The letter r is also written the same way as the letter n except the second stroke finishes at the point where the circle would have been left and the straight is picked up.
The first stroke of letter a is the same as the second stroke of the letters h, m and n. The second stroke follows the circle. Finally, the third stroke starts at the same point as the second stroke, but is a straight line at a 30° angle and touches the first stroke.
The next group of letters are l, u and t. These letters are straight-forward. The letter l is the same as the first stroke of letter b.
The letter u is also similar to the first stroke of letter b except it starts lower down. The second stroke starts on the x-height line and finishes on the write-line.
Letter t has the same first stroke as letter u. It is completed by a second horizontal stroke.
The following letters k, v, w, x, y and z are made of at least one diagonal pen stroke.
The letter k starts with a vertical ascender stroke, then a second stroke diagonal stroke which joins the vertical stroke. The final stroke is also diagonal and starts where the first and second stroke meet and stops when it touches the write-line. If you look closely you will see it goes further out than the second stroke. This makes the letter look more balanced. If the end of these two pen-strokes lined up the letter would look like it is about to fall over.
Letter v is simply two diagonal strokes and these are repeated to produce the letter w.
The letter y is the same as the v except the second stroke is extended until to create a descender stroke.
Letter x is a little different, you need to create it in such a way that the two stroke cross slightly above the half-way mark on the x-height. This means the top part will be slightly smaller than the bottom which will give the letter a better balance.
Finally, in this group is letter z. The easiest way to produce this is with the two horizontal pen strokes, thenjoin these two strokes with a diagonal pen-stroke to complete the letter.
Now for the hardest letters; f, g and s. Out of these three letters, f is the simplest. It starts with a vertical ascender stroke – except this is not as tall as the other ascender strokes we have produced so far. This is because we have to allow for the second curved stroke. The overall height of these two strokes should be the same as other letters that have an ascender. Finally, we need a horizontal stroke to complete the letter.
Which will you find the hardest letter g or s? These are trickier because unlike all the other letters we have written they do not relate so well to the grid.
The letter g is made of a circle shape, with an oval/bowl shape under the write-line. You can see the letter g is made of three pen-strokes. The first stroke is just like the first stroke of the letter o for example, except it is a smaller. The second stroke starts like the second stroke of the letter o, but when it joins the first stroke it continues and changes direction in the gap between the bottom of the shape and the write-line. The third stroke completes the oval shape. Finally, we have a little fourth stroke to complete the letter.
The letter s is made up of three strokes. The first stroke is sort of an s shape! The second and third strokes complete the letter s. These are easier to get right than the first stroke because they basically follow the circle shape on our construction grid. The secret to this letter is to make both ‘ends’ of the first stroke not too curved. Because the other two strokes are curved they will compensate and give the overall correct shape.
Finally, we are left with the letters i and j, which are made from one pen-stroke. You just need to remember to curve the end of the stroke when writing the letter j. | <urn:uuid:ebc9b632-c27d-4adb-85bd-b11864ab1adf> | {
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In January 1992, a container ship near the International Date Line, headed to Tacoma, Washington from Hong Kong, lost 12 containers during severe storm conditions. One of these containers held a shipment of 29,000 bathtub toys. Ten months later, the first of these plastic toys began to wash up onto the coast of Alaska. Driven by the wind and ocean currents, these toys continue to wash ashore during the next several years and some even drifted into the Atlantic Ocean.
The ultimate reason for the world's surface ocean currents is the sun. The heating of the earth by the sun has produced semi-permanent pressure centers near the surface. When wind blows over the ocean around these pressure centers, surface waves are generated by transferring some of the wind's energy, in the form of momentum, from the air to the water. This constant push on the surface of the ocean is the force that forms the surface currents.
Learning Lesson: How it is Currently Done
Around the world, there are some similarities in the currents. For example, along the west coasts of the continents, the currents flow toward the equator in both hemispheres. These are called cold currents as they bring cool water from the polar regions into the tropical regions. The cold current off the west coast of the United States is called the California Current.
Likewise, the opposite is true as well. Along the east coasts of the continents, the currents flow from the equator toward the poles. There are called warm current as they bring the warm tropical water north. The Gulf Stream, off the southeast United States coast, is one of the strongest currents known anywhere in the world, with water speeds up to 3 mph (5 kph).
These currents have a huge impact on the long-term weather a location experiences. The overall climate of Norway and the British Isle is about 18°F (10°C) warmer in the winter than other cites located at the same latitude due to the Gulf Stream.
Take it to the MAX! Keeping Current
While ocean currents are a shallow level circulations, there is global circulation which extends to the depths of the sea called the Great Ocean Conveyor. Also called the thermohaline circulation, it is driven by differences in the density of the sea water which is controlled by temperature (thermal) and salinity (haline).
In the northern Atlantic Ocean, as water flows north it cools considerably increasing its density. As it cools to the freezing point, sea ice forms with the "salts" extracted from the frozen water making the water below more dense. The very salty water sinks to the ocean floor.
Learning Lesson: That Sinking Feeling
It is not static, but a slowly southward flowing current. The route of the deep water flow is through the Atlantic Basin around South Africa and into the Indian Ocean and on past Australia into the Pacific Ocean Basin.
If the water is sinking in the North Atlantic Ocean then it must rise somewhere else. This upwelling is relatively widespread. However, water samples taken around the world indicate that most of the upwelling takes place in the North Pacific Ocean.
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In mathematics, hyperbolic functions are analogs of the ordinary trigonometric, or circular, functions. The basic hyperbolic functions are the hyperbolic sine "sinh" (typically pronounced /ˈsɪntʃ/ or /ˈʃaɪn/), and the hyperbolic cosine "cosh" (typically pronounced /ˈkɒʃ/), from which are derived the hyperbolic tangent "tanh" (typically pronounced /ˈtæntʃ/ or /ˈθæn/), etc., in analogy to the derived trigonometric functions. The inverse hyperbolic functions are the area hyperbolic sine "arsinh" (also called "asinh", or sometimes by the misnomer of "arcsinh") and so on.
Just as the points (cos t, sin t) form a circle with a unit radius, the points (cosh t, sinh t) form the right half of the equilateral hyperbola. Hyperbolic functions occur in the solutions of some important linear differential equations, for example the equation defining a catenary, and Laplace's equation in Cartesian coordinates. The latter is important in many areas of physics, including electromagnetic theory, heat transfer, fluid dynamics, and special relativity.
Hyperbolic functions were introduced in the 18th century by the Swiss mathematician Johann Heinrich Lambert.
The hyperbolic functions are:
Via complex numbers the hyperbolic functions are related to the circular functions as follows:
where is the imaginary unit defined as .
Note that, by convention, sinh2x means (sinhx)2, not sinh(sinhx); similarly for the other hyperbolic functions when used with positive exponents. Another notation for the hyperbolic cotangent function is , though cothx is far more common.
Hyperbolic sine and cosine satisfy the identity
which is similar to the Pythagorean trigonometric identity.
It can also be shown that the area under the graph of cosh x from A to B is equal to the arc length of cosh x from A to B.
For a full list of integrals of hyperbolic functions, see list of integrals of hyperbolic functions
In the above expressions, C is called the constant of integration.
It is possible to express the above functions as Taylor series:
A point on the hyperbola xy = 1 with x > 1 determines a hyperbolic triangle in which the side adjacent to the hyperbolic angle is associated with cosh while the side opposite is associated with sinh. However, since the point (1,1) on this hyperbola is a distance √2 from the origin, the normalization constant 1/√2 is necessary to define cosh and sinh by the lengths of the sides of the hyperbolic triangle.
and the property that cosh t ≥ 1 for all t.
The hyperbolic functions are periodic with complex period 2πi (πi for hyperbolic tangent and cotangent).
The parameter t is not a circular angle, but rather a hyperbolic angle which represents twice the area between the x-axis, the hyperbola and the straight line which links the origin with the point (cosh t, sinh t) on the hyperbola.
The function cosh x is an even function, that is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
The function sinh x is an odd function, that is −sinh x = sinh(−x), and sinh 0 = 0.
The hyperbolic functions satisfy many identities, all of them similar in form to the trigonometric identities. In fact, Osborn's rule states that one can convert any trigonometric identity into a hyperbolic identity by expanding it completely in terms of integral powers of sines and cosines, changing sine to sinh and cosine to cosh, and switching the sign of every term which contains a product of 2, 6, 10, 14, ... sinhs. This yields for example the addition theorems
the "double angle formulas"
and the "half-angle formulas"
The derivative of sinh x is cosh x and the derivative of cosh x is sinh x; this is similar to trigonometric functions, albeit the sign is different (i.e., the derivative of cos x is −sin x).
The Gudermannian function gives a direct relationship between the circular functions and the hyperbolic ones that does not involve complex numbers.
The graph of the function a cosh(x/a) is the catenary, the curve formed by a uniform flexible chain hanging freely under gravity.
From the definitions of the hyperbolic sine and cosine, we can derive the following identities:
These expressions are analogous to the expressions for sine and cosine, based on Euler's formula, as sums of complex exponentials.
Since the exponential function can be defined for any complex argument, we can extend the definitions of the hyperbolic functions also to complex arguments. The functions sinh z and cosh z are then holomorphic.
Relationships to ordinary trigonometric functions are given by Euler's formula for complex numbers: | <urn:uuid:34eefbfb-968b-4240-9caa-0182a3ca0559> | {
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in Data Studio
YAML Metadata Warning: empty or missing yaml metadata in repo card (https://huggingface.co/docs/hub/datasets-cards)
Dataset created by filtering the fineweb-edu-dedup subset of smoll-corpus using this filter.
def my_filter(example):
return example["metadata"]["token_count"] <= 3000 and example["metadata"]["score"] * example["metadata"]["language_score"] > 0.95*3.8 and example["metadata"]["language"] == "en"
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