context stringlengths 79 829 | id_string stringlengths 16 18 | answers listlengths 5 5 | label int64 0 4 | question stringlengths 23 302 |
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Veterinarian: A disease of purebred racehorses that is caused by a genetic defect prevents afflicted horses from racing and can cause paralysis and death. Some horse breeders conclude that because the disease can have such serious consequences, horses with this defect should not be bred. But they are wrong because, in most cases, the severity of the disease can be controlled by diet and medication, and the defect also produces horses of extreme beauty that are in great demand in the horse show industry. | 199710_2-LR1_2_3 | [
"calling into question the motives of the horse breeders cited",
"demonstrating that the horse breeders' conclusion is inconsistent with evidence advanced to support it",
"providing evidence that contradicts the horse breeders' evidence",
"disputing the accuracy of evidence on which the horse breeders' argume... | 4 | The veterinarian's argument employs which one of the following techniques? |
Political scientist: The concept of freedom is hopelessly vague. Any definition of freedom will either exclude some acts that intuitively qualify as free, or admit some acts that intuitively fall outside the concept. The notions of justice, fairness, and equality are equally indeterminate. This is why political organization should be disavowed as futile. | 199710_2-LR1_3_4 | [
"generalizes from an unrepresentative sample to every political idea",
"makes the unsupported claim that the concept of freedom is hopelessly vague",
"ignores the fact that some people view freedom as indispensable",
"fails to show any specific link between the vagueness of concepts such as freedom and the re... | 3 | The reasoning in the argument is questionable because the argument |
A recently passed law requires all places of public accommodation to eliminate discrimination against persons with disabilities by removing all physical barriers to accessibility. Private schools, therefore, are legally obligated to make their campuses physically accessible to persons with disabilities. | 199710_2-LR1_4_5 | [
"No private school can legally deny admission to a person with a disability.",
"Private schools have historically been resistant to changes in government policy on discrimination.",
"Private schools, like public schools are places of public accommodation.",
"Private schools have enough funds to make their cam... | 2 | The conclusion above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Prehistoric chimpanzee species used tools similar to those used by prehistoric humans; prehistoric tools recently found in East Africa are of a type used by both species. The area where the tools were found, however, is a savanna, and whereas there were prehistoric humans who lived in savanna habitats, prehistoric chimpanzees lived only in forests. Therefore, the tools must have been used by humans rather than by chimpanzees. | 199710_2-LR1_5_6 | [
"Prehistoric humans did not carry their tools with them when they traveled from one place to another.",
"Since the evolution of the first primates, East Africa has been predominantly savanna.",
"Prehistoric humans never ventured into areas of the forest that were inhabited by prehistoric chimpanzees.",
"The a... | 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Computers perform actions that are closer to thinking than anything nonhuman animals do. But computers do not have volitional powers, although some nonhuman animals do. | 199710_2-LR1_6_7 | [
"Having volitional powers need not involve thinking.",
"Things that are not animals do not have volitional powers.",
"Computers possess none of the attributes of living things.",
"It is necessary to have volitional powers in order to think.",
"Computers will never be able to think as human beings do."
] | 0 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
The caterpillar of the monarch butterfly feeds on milkweed plants, whose toxins make the adult monarch poisonous to many predators. The viceroy butterfly, whose caterpillars do not feed on milkweed plants, is very similar in appearance to the monarch. Therefore, it can be concluded that the viceroy is so seldom preyed on because of its visual resemblance to the monarch. | 199710_2-LR1_7_8 | [
"Some predators do not have a toxic reaction to insects that feed on milkweed plants.",
"Being toxic to predators will not protect individual butterflies unless most members of the species to which such butterflies belong are similarly toxic.",
"Some of the predators of the monarch butterfly also prey on vicero... | 3 | Which one of the following, if it were discovered to be true, would most seriously undermine the argument? |
Every action has consequences, and among the consequences of any action are other actions. And knowing whether an action is good requires knowing whether its consequences are good, but we cannot know the future, so good actions are impossible. | 199710_2-LR1_8_9 | [
"Some actions have only other actions as consequences.",
"We can know that past actions were good.",
"To know that an action is good requires knowing that refraining from performing it is bad.",
"Only actions can be the consequences of other actions.",
"For an action to be good we must be able to know that ... | 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
All bridges built from 1950 to 1960 are in serious need of rehabilitation. Some bridges constructed in this period, however, were built according to faulty engineering design. That is the bad news. The good news is that at least some bridges in serious need of rehabilitation are not suspension bridges, since no suspension bridges are among the bridges that were built according to faulty engineering design. | 199710_2-LR1_9_10 | [
"Some suspension bridges are not in serious need of rehabilitation.",
"Some suspension bridges are in serious need of rehabilitation.",
"Some bridges that were built according to faulty engineering design are in serious need of rehabilitation.",
"Some bridges built from 1950 to 1960 are not in serious need of... | 2 | If the statements above are true, then, on the basis of those statements, which one of the following must also be true? |
A severe blow to the head can cause one to lose consciousness; from this some people infer that consciousness is a product of the brain and cannot survive bodily death. But a radio that becomes damaged may suddenly cease to broadcast the program it had been receiving, and we do not conclude from this that the program itself has ceased to exist. Similarly, more substantial evidence would be needed to conclude that consciousness does not survive bodily death. | 199710_2-LR1_10_11 | [
"It is cited as evidence that consciousness does in fact survive bodily death.",
"It is cited as a counterexample to a widely accepted belief about the nature of consciousness.",
"It is cited as a case analogous to loss of consciousness in which people do not draw the same sort of conclusion that some people dr... | 2 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the example of the damaged radio? |
Political theorist: The vast majority of countries that have a single political party have corrupt national governments, but some countries with a plurality of parties also have corrupt national governments. What all countries with corrupt national governments have in common, however, is the weakness of local governments. | 199710_2-LR1_11_12 | [
"Every country with weak local government has a single political party.",
"Some countries with weak local governments have a plurality of political parties.",
"Some countries with weak local governments do not have corrupt national governments.",
"The majority of countries with weak local governments have a s... | 1 | If all of the political theorist's statements are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
Committee member: We should not vote to put at the top of the military's chain of command an individual whose history of excessive drinking is such that that person would be barred from commanding a missile wing, a bomber squadron, or a contingent of fighter jets. Leadership must be established from the top down. | 199710_2-LR1_12_13 | [
"No one who would be barred from important jobs in an organization should lead that organization.",
"Whoever leads an organization must have served at every level in the organization.",
"Whoever leads an organization must be qualified to hold each important job in the organization.",
"No one who drinks excess... | 0 | The committee member's argument conforms most closely to which one of the following principles? |
Kim: In northern Europe during the eighteenth century a change of attitude occurred that found expression both in the adoption of less solemn and elaborate death rites by the population at large and in a more optimistic view of the human condition as articulated by philosophers. This change can be explained as the result of a dramatic increase in life expectancy that occurred in northern Europe early in the eighteenth century. Lee: Your explanation seems unlikely, because it could not be correct unless the people of the time were aware that their life expectancy had increased. | 199710_2-LR1_13_14 | [
"An increase in life expectancy in a population often gives rise to economic changes that, in turn, directly influence people's attitudes.",
"Present-day psychologists have noted that people's attitudes toward life can change in response to information about their life expectancy.",
"Philosophers in northern Eu... | 0 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the strongest defense of Kim's explanation against Lee's criticism? |
Kim: In northern Europe during the eighteenth century a change of attitude occurred that found expression both in the adoption of less solemn and elaborate death rites by the population at large and in a more optimistic view of the human condition as articulated by philosophers. This change can be explained as the result of a dramatic increase in life expectancy that occurred in northern Europe early in the eighteenth century. Lee: Your explanation seems unlikely, because it could not be correct unless the people of the time were aware that their life expectancy had increased. | 199710_2-LR1_13_15 | [
"It refers to sources of additional data that cannot easily be reconciled with the facts Kim cites.",
"It offers an alternative explanation that is equally supported by the evidence Kim cites.",
"It cites an analogous case in which Kim's explanation clearly cannot hold.",
"It suggests that Kim's explanation d... | 3 | Which one of the following most accurately describes Lee's criticism of Kim's explanation? |
Some health officials are concerned about the current sustained increase in reported deaths from alcohol-related conditions, attributing this increase to a rise in alcoholism. What these health officials are overlooking, however, is that attitudes toward alcoholism have changed radically. Alcoholism is now widely viewed as a disease, whereas in the past it was considered a moral failing. It is therefore likely that more deaths are being reported as alcohol-related because physicians are more likely to identify these deaths as alcohol-related. | 199710_2-LR1_14_16 | [
"The frequent use of alcohol by young people is being reported as occurring at increasingly early ages.",
"In some places and times, susceptibility to any kind of disease has been viewed as a moral failing.",
"More physicians now than in the past are trained to recognize the physical effects of alcoholism.",
... | 2 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the most support for the argument? |
Studies show that the most creative engineers get their best and most useful ideas only after doodling and jotting down what turn out to be outlandish ideas. Now that many engineers do their work with computers instead of on paper, however, doodling is becoming much less common, and some experts fear that the result will be fewer creative and useful engineering ideas. These experts argue that this undesirable consequence would be avoided if computer programs for engineering work included simulated notepads that would allow engineers to suspend their "serious" work on the computer, type up outlandish ideas, and then quickly return to their original work. | 199710_2-LR1_15_17 | [
"Most creative engineers who work with paper and pencil spend about as much time doodling as they spend on what they consider serious work.",
"Simulated notepads would not be used by engineers for any purpose other than typing up outlandish ideas.",
"No engineers who work with computers keep paper and pencils n... | 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the experts' reasoning depends? |
Columnist: The advent of television helps to explain why the growth in homicide rates in urban areas began significantly earlier than the growth in homicide rates in rural areas. Television sets became popular in urban households about five years earlier than in rural households. Urban homicide rates began increasing in 1958, about four years earlier than a similar increase in rural homicide rates began. | 199710_2-LR1_16_18 | [
"In places where the number of violent television programs is low, the homicide rates are also low.",
"The portrayal of violence on television is a cause, not an effect, of the violence in society.",
"There were no violent television programs during the early years of television.",
"The earlier one is exposed... | 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most supports the columnist's argument? |
Even in ancient times, specialized farms (farms that grow a single type of crop or livestock) existed only where there were large commercial markets for farm products, and such markets presuppose urban populations. Therefore the extensive ruins in the archaeological site at Kadshim are probably the remains of a largely uninhabited ceremonial structure rather than of a densely populated city, since the land in the region of Kadshim could never have supported any farms except mixed farms, which grow a variety of crops and livestock. | 199710_2-LR1_17_19 | [
"taking the fact that something is true of one sample of a class of things as evidence that the same is true of the entire class of things",
"taking the nonexistence of something as evidence that a necessary precondition for that thing also did not exist",
"interpreting an ambiguous claim in one way in one part... | 1 | Which one of the following is an error of reasoning in the argument? |
It has recently been found that job prospects for college graduates have never been better. The trend is likely to continue over the next decade. A recent survey found that most employers simply did not know that the number of students graduating would drop by 25 percent over the past ten years, and had not anticipated or planned for this trend. Most employers were not aware that, although the supply of graduates currently meets demand, this situation could change. The same survey revealed that the number of undergraduates choosing to study subjects in high demand, like mathematics and engineering, has dropped substantially. This trend is likely to continue over the next decade. | 199710_2-LR1_18_20 | [
"Soon, more graduates are likely to be competing for fewer jobs.",
"Soon, there is likely to be a shortage of graduates to fill certain vacancies.",
"Employers are aware of changing trends in subjects studied by undergraduates.",
"Soon, fewer graduates are likely to be competing for fewer available jobs.",
... | 1 | Which one of the following can properly be concluded from the passage above? |
The cities of Oldtown and Spoonville are the same in area and size of population. Since certain health problems that are caused by crowded living conditions are widespread in Oldtown, such problems must be as widespread in Spoonville. | 199710_2-LR1_19_21 | [
"presupposes without warrant that the health problems that are widespread in any particular city cannot be caused by the living conditions in that city",
"fails to distinguish between the size of the total population of a city and the size of the geographic region covered by that city",
"fails to indicate wheth... | 4 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Shortly after the Persian Gulf War, investigators reported that the area, which had been subjected to hundreds of smoky oil fires and deliberate oil spills when regular oil production slowed down during the war, displayed less oil contamination than they had witnessed in prewar surveys of the same area. They also reported that the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)—used as a marker of combustion products spewed from oil wells ignited during the war—were also relatively low, comparable to those recorded in the temperate oil-producing areas of the Baltic Sea. | 199710_2-LR1_20_22 | [
"Oil contaminants have greater environmental effects in temperate regions than in desert regions.",
"Oil contamination and PAH pollution dissipate more rapidly in temperate regions than in desert regions.",
"Oil contamination and PAH pollution dissipate more rapidly in desert regions than in temperate regions."... | 3 | Which one of the following, if true, does most to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above? |
An independent audit found no indication of tax avoidance on the part of the firm in the firm's accounts; therefore, no such problem exists. | 199710_2-LR1_21_23 | [
"The plan for the introduction of the new project has been unmodified so far; therefore, it will not be modified in the future.",
"The overall budget for the projects has been exceeded by a large amount; therefore, at least one of the projects has exceeded its budget by a large amount.",
"A compilation of the b... | 4 | The questionable reasoning in the argument above is most closely paralleled by that in which one of the following? |
One of the great difficulties in establishing animal rights based merely on the fact that animals are living things concerns scope. If one construes the term "living things" broadly, one is bound to bestow rights on organisms that are not animals (e.g., plants). But if this term is construed narrowly, one is apt to refuse rights to organisms that, at least biologically, are considered members of the animal kingdom. | 199710_2-LR1_22_24 | [
"Not all animals should be given rights.",
"One cannot bestow rights on animals without also bestowing rights on at least some plants.",
"The problem of delineating the boundary of the set of living things interferes with every attempt to establish animal rights.",
"Successful attempts to establish rights for... | 3 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following can be most reasonably inferred from them? |
Economist: No economic system that is centrally planned can efficiently allocate resources, and efficient allocation of resources is a necessary condition for achieving a national debt of less than 5 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). It follows that any nation with a centrally planned economy has a national debt that is at least 5 percent of GDP. | 199710_2-LR1_23_25 | [
"Not all mammals are without wings, because bats are mammals and bats have wings.",
"All of the rural districts are free of major air pollution problems because such problems occur only where there is a large concentration of automobiles, and there are no such places in the rural districts.",
"All of the ungula... | 1 | The pattern of reasoning exhibited by the economist's argument is most similar to that exhibited by which one of the following? |
Editorialist: Additional restrictions should be placed on driver's licenses of teenagers because teenagers lack basic driving skills. Even though drivers of age nineteen and younger make up only 7 percent of registered drivers, they are responsible for over 14 percent of traffic fatalities. | 199710_2-LR1_24_26 | [
"Teenagers tend to drive older and less stable cars than other drivers.",
"Teenagers and their passengers are less likely to use seat belts and shoulder straps than others.",
"Teenagers drive, on average, over twice as far each year as other drivers.",
"Teenagers cause car accidents that are more serious than... | 3 | Each of the following, if true, weakens the argument that teenagers lack basic driving skills EXCEPT: |
Owners of deeply indebted and chronically unprofitable small businesses sometimes try to convince others to invest money in their companies. Since the money thus acquired will inevitably be used to pay off debts, rather than to expand operations, this money will not stimulate sales growth in such companies. Thus, most people are reluctant to make these investments. Surprisingly, however, such investments often earn handsome returns in the very first year they are made. | 199710_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"Investors usually choose to reinvest their returns on such investments.",
"Expanding production in such companies would usually require more funds than would paying off debts.",
"Paying off debts, by saving a company the money it would otherwise owe in interest, decreases the company's overall expenses and the... | 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the surprising results of such investments? |
After purchasing a pot-bellied pig at the pet store in Springfield, Amy was informed by a Springfield city official that she would not be allowed to keep the pig as a pet, since city codes classify pigs as livestock, and individuals may not keep livestock in Springfield. | 199710_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"Amy lives in Springfield.",
"Pigs are not classified as pets in Springfield.",
"Any animal not classified as livestock may be kept in Springfield.",
"Dogs and cats are not classified as livestock in Springfield.",
"It is legal for pet stores to sell pigs in Springfield."
] | 0 | The city official's argument depends on assuming which one of the following? |
Historian: The central claim of the "end-of-history" theory is that history has reached its final stage of development. According to its adherents, democratic ideals have triumphed over their rivals, and history is effectively at an ideological end. But, this view fails to consider that it is impossible to stand outside all of history to judge whether history is really at an end. | 199710_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"We can never know whether the end-of-history theory is true.",
"Advocates of the end-of-history theory have too ideological an understanding of history.",
"If we were at the end of history, we would automatically know whether the end-of-history theory is true.",
"It is impossible for the end-of-history theor... | 0 | Which one of the following can be most reasonably inferred from the historian's statement? |
John: As I was driving to work this morning, I was stopped by a police officer and ticketed for speeding. Since there were many other cars around me that were going as fast as I was, the police officer clearly treated me unfairly. Mary: You were not treated unfairly, since the police officer was obviously unable to stop all the drivers who were speeding. Everyone who was speeding at that time and place had an equal chance of being stopped. | 199710_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"If all of those who violate a traffic law on a particular occasion are equally likely to be penalized for violating it, then the law is fairly applied to whoever among them is then penalized.",
"The penalties attached to traffic laws should be applied not as punishments for breaking the law, but rather as deterr... | 0 | Which one of the following principles, if established, would most help to justify Mary's position? |
A purse containing 32 ancient gold coins that had been minted in Morocco was discovered in the ruins of an ancient Jordanian city some 4,000 kilometers to the east of Morocco. In its time the Jordanian city was an important trading center along the trade route linking China and Europe, and it was also a popular stopover for pilgrims on the route between Morocco and Mecca. The purse of a trader in the city would probably have contained a more diverse set of coins. | 199710_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"Moroccan coins were more valuable in the ancient city than were Jordanian coins.",
"Most gold coins available during the time when the ancient city thrived were minted in Morocco.",
"The purse with the gold coins had been brought to the ancient city by a pilgrim on the route between Morocco and Mecca.",
"Gol... | 2 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following hypotheses? |
Studies indicate that the rate at which water pollution is increasing is leveling off: the amount of water pollution caused this year is almost identical to the amount caused last year. If this trend continues, the water pollution problem will no longer be getting more serious. | 199710_3-LR2_6_6 | [
"some types of water pollution have no noticeable effect on organisms that use the water",
"the types of water pollution caused this year are less dangerous than those caused last year",
"the leveling-off trend of water pollution will not continue",
"air and soil pollution are becoming more serious",
"the e... | 4 | The reasoning is questionable because it ignores the possibility that |
One researcher writes, "Human beings are innately aggressive." As evidence, the researcher cites the prevalence of warfare in history, and then discounts any current disinclination to fight: "The most peaceable peoples of today were often ravagers of yesteryear and will probably fight again in the future." But if some peoples are peaceable now, then aggression itself cannot be coded in our genes, only the potential for it. If "innate" only means possible, or even likely in certain environments, then everything we do is innate and the word has no meaning. | 199710_3-LR2_7_7 | [
"The accuracy of the historical data cited in the argument for innate aggressiveness is called into question.",
"The force of the concept of innateness used in the argument for innate aggressiveness is called into question.",
"An attempt is made to undermine the argument for innate aggressiveness by arguing tha... | 1 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the technique used in the passage to weaken the argument for the claim that aggressiveness is innate to human beings? |
If a person chooses to walk rather than drive, there is one less vehicle emitting pollution into the air than there would be otherwise. Therefore if people would walk whenever it is feasible for them to do so, then pollution will be greatly reduced. | 199710_3-LR2_8_8 | [
"Cutting down on pollution can be achieved in a variety of ways.",
"Taking public transportation rather than driving is not always feasible.",
"Walking is the only feasible alternative to driving that results in a reduction in pollution.",
"There are people who never drive but who often walk.",
"People some... | 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
If a person chooses to walk rather than drive, there is one less vehicle emitting pollution into the air than there would be otherwise. Therefore if people would walk whenever it is feasible for them to do so, then pollution will be greatly reduced. | 199710_3-LR2_8_9 | [
"If automobile passengers who never drive walk instead of ride, there will not be fewer vehicles on the road as a result.",
"Nonmoving running vehicles, on average, emit half as much pollution per second as moving vehicles, but the greater congestion is, the more nonmoving running vehicles there are.",
"Since d... | 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Editorial: The most vocal proponents of the proposed law are not permanent residents of this island but rather a few of the wealthiest summer residents, who leave when the vacation months have passed. These people will benefit from passage of this law while not having to deal with the problems associated with its adoption. Therefore, anyone who supports the proposed law is serving only the interests of a few outsiders at the cost of creating problems for the island's permanent residents. | 199710_3-LR2_9_10 | [
"The average income of the island's summer residents is greater than the average income of its permanent residents.",
"The problems associated with this law outweigh any benefits it might provide the island's permanent residents.",
"Most of the island's summer residents would benefit from passage of this law.",... | 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Vitamin XYZ has long been a favorite among health food enthusiasts. In a recent large study, those who took large amounts of vitamin XYZ daily for two years showed on average a 40 percent lower risk of heart disease than did members of a control group. Researchers corrected for differences in relevant health habits such as diet. | 199710_3-LR2_10_11 | [
"Taking large amounts of vitamins is probably worth risking the side effects.",
"Those who take large doses of vitamin XYZ daily for the next two years will exhibit on average an increase in the likelihood of avoiding heart disease.",
"Li, who has taken large amounts of vitamin XYZ daily for the past two years,... | 1 | Which one of the following inferences is most supported by the passage? |
In 1988, a significant percentage of seals in the Baltic Sea died from viral diseases; off the coast of Scotland, however, the death rate due to viral diseases was approximately half what it was for the Baltic seals. The Baltic seals had significantly higher levels of pollutants in their blood than did the Scottish seals. Since pollutants are known to impair marine mammals' ability to fight off viral infection, it is likely that the higher death rate among the Baltic seals was due to the higher levels of pollutants in their blood. | 199710_3-LR2_11_12 | [
"The large majority of Scottish seals that died were either old or unhealthy animals.",
"The strain of virus that killed Scottish seals overwhelms impaired immune systems much more quickly than it does healthy immune systems.",
"There were slight fluctuations in the levels of pollutants found in the blood of Ba... | 4 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the most additional support for the argument? |
If the proposed tax reduction package is adopted this year, the library will be forced to discontinue its daily story hours for children. But if the daily story hours are discontinued, many parents will be greatly inconvenienced. So the proposed tax reduction package will not be adopted this year. | 199710_3-LR2_12_13 | [
"Any tax reduction package that will not force the library to discontinue daily story hours will be adopted this year.",
"Every tax reduction package that would force the library to discontinue daily story hours would greatly inconvenience parents.",
"No tax reduction package that would greatly inconvenience pa... | 3 | Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the argument's conclusion to be properly drawn? |
Funding opponent: Some people favor city funding for the spaying and neutering of pets at the owners' request. They claim that the decrease in the number of stray animals to contend with will offset the cost of the funding. These people fail to realize that over 80 percent of pet owners already pay to spay or neuter their animals, so there will not be a significant decrease in the number of stray animals in the city if this funding is provided. | 199710_3-LR2_13_14 | [
"Very few of the stray animals in the city are offspring of pets.",
"Many pet owners would have their animals spayed or neutered sooner if funding were provided by the city.",
"The only way the number of stray animals can decrease is if existing strays are spayed or neutered.",
"Most pet owners who do not hav... | 1 | Each of the following, if true strengthens the argument of the funding opponent EXCEPT: |
Research indicates that college professors generally were raised in economically advantaged households. For it was discovered that, overall, college professors grew up in communities with average household incomes that were higher than the average household income for the nation as a whole. | 199710_3-LR2_14_15 | [
"inappropriately assumes a correlation between household income and economic advantage",
"fails to note there are some communities with high average household incomes in which no college professors grew up",
"presumes without justification that college professors generally were raised in households with incomes... | 2 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument |
Magazine article: Punishment for crimes is justified if it actually deters people from committing them. But a great deal of carefully assembled and analyzed empirical data show clearly that punishment is not a deterrent. So punishment is never justified. | 199710_3-LR2_15_16 | [
"depends on data that there is reason to suspect may be biased",
"mistakenly allows the key term \"punishment\" to shift in meaning",
"mistakes being sufficient to justify punishment for being required to justify it",
"ignores the problem of mistakenly punishing the innocent",
"attempts to be more precise t... | 2 | The reasoning in the magazine article's argument is flawed because the argument |
If the recording now playing on the jazz program is really "Louis Armstrong recorded in concert in 1989," as the announcer said, then Louis Armstrong was playing some of the best jazz of his career years after his death. Since the trumpeter was definitely Louis Armstrong, somehow the announcer must have gotten the date of the recording wrong. | 199710_3-LR2_16_17 | [
"The museum is reported as having acquired a painting \"by Malvina Hoffman, an artist who died in 1966.\" But Hoffman was a sculptor, not a painter, so the report must be wrong about the acquisition being a painting.",
"This painting titled La Toilette is Berthe Morisot's La Toilette only if a painting can be in ... | 2 | The pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following arguments? |
When a stone is trimmed by a mason and exposed to the elements, a coating of clay and other minerals, called rock varnish, gradually accumulates on the freshly trimmed surface. Organic matter trapped beneath the varnish on stones of an Andean monument was found to be over 1,000 years old. Since the organic matter must have grown on the stone shortly after it was trimmed, it follows that the monument was built long before the arrival of Europeans in the Americas in 1492. | 199710_3-LR2_17_18 | [
"Rock varnish itself contains some organic matter.",
"The reuse of ancient trimmed stones was common in the Andes both before and after 1492.",
"The Andean monument bears a striking resemblance to monuments found in ancient sites in western Asia.",
"The earliest written reference to the Andean monument dates ... | 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Legal rules are expressed in general terms. They concern classifications of persons and actions and they prescribe legal consequences for persons and actions falling into the relevant categories. The application of a rule to a particular case, therefore, involves a decision on whether the facts of that case fall within the categories mentioned in the rule. This decision establishes the legal effect of what happened rather than any matter of fact. | 199710_3-LR2_18_19 | [
"Legal rules, like matters of fact, are concerned with classifications of things such as actions.",
"Matters of fact, like legal rules, can sometimes be expressed in general terms.",
"Making legal decisions does not involve matters of fact.",
"The application of a rule to a particular case need not be left to... | 4 | The passage provides the most support for which one of the following? |
Helen: It was wrong of my brother Mark to tell our mother that the reason he had missed her birthday party the evening before was that he had been in a traffic accident and that by the time he was released from the hospital emergency room the party was long over. Saying something that is false can never be other than morally wrong, and there had been no such accident—Mark had simply forgotten all about the party. | 199710_3-LR2_19_20 | [
"Mark did not tell his mother the truth",
"the real reason Mark missed his mother's birthday party was that he had forgotten all about it",
"it is wrong to attempt to avoid blame for one's failure to do something by claiming that one was prevented from doing that thing by events outside one's control",
"it wa... | 3 | The main conclusion drawn in Helen's argument is that |
Helen: It was wrong of my brother Mark to tell our mother that the reason he had missed her birthday party the evening before was that he had been in a traffic accident and that by the time he was released from the hospital emergency room the party was long over. Saying something that is false can never be other than morally wrong, and there had been no such accident—Mark had simply forgotten all about the party. | 199710_3-LR2_19_21 | [
"ignores an important moral distinction between saying something that is false and failing to say something that one knows to be true",
"confuses having identified one cause of a given effect with having eliminated the possibility of there being any other causes of that effect",
"judges behavior that is outside... | 4 | The justification Helen offers for her judgment of Mark's behavior is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the justification |
Candidate: The government spends $500 million more each year promoting highway safety than it spends combating cigarette smoking. But each year many more people die from smoking-related diseases than die in highway accidents. So the government would save lives by shifting funds from highway safety programs to antismoking programs. | 199710_3-LR2_20_22 | [
"The government enforces the speed limit on freeways much more closely than on tollways. But many more people die each year in auto accidents on freeways than die in auto accidents on tollway. So the government would save lives by shifting funds from enforcement of speed limits on freeways to enforcement of speed l... | 1 | The flawed reasoning in which one of the following arguments most closely parallels the flawed reasoning in the candidate's argument? |
A person's failure to keep a promise is wrong only if, first, doing so harms the one to whom the promise is made and, second, all of those who discover the failure to keep the promise lose confidence in the person's ability to keep promises. | 199710_3-LR2_21_23 | [
"Ann kept her promise to repay Felicia the money she owed her. Further, this convinced everyone who knew Ann that she is trustworthy. Thus, Ann's keeping her promise was not wrong.",
"Jonathan took an oath of secrecy concerning the corporation's technical secrets, but he sold them to a competitor. His action was ... | 3 | Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle above? |
The end of an action is the intended outcome of the action and not a mere by-product of the action, and the end's value is thus the only reason for the action. So while it is true that not every end's value will justify any means, and even, perhaps, that there is no end whose value will justify every means, it is clear that nothing will justify a means except an end's value. | 199710_3-LR2_22_24 | [
"The value of some ends may justify any means.",
"One can always justify a given action by appeal to the value of its intended outcome.",
"One can justify an action only by appeal to the value of its intended outcome.",
"Only the value of the by-products of an action can justify that action.",
"Nothing can ... | 2 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? |
Press release: A comprehensive review evaluating the medical studies done up to the present time has found no reason to think that drinking coffee in normal amounts harms the coffee-drinker's heart. So coffee drinkers can relax and enjoy their beverage—it is safe to drink coffee. | 199712_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"The review was only an evaluation of studies and did not itself undertake to study patients.",
"The health of the heart is not identical with the general health of the body.",
"Coffee drinkers might choose to eat, along with their coffee, foods containing substances that harm the heart.",
"Other beverages be... | 1 | Which one of the following points to a weakness in the reasoning in the press release's argument? |
All people prefer colors that they can distinguish easily to colors that they have difficulty distinguishing. Infants can easily distinguish bright colors but, unlike adults, have difficulty distinguishing subtle shades. A brightly colored toy for infants sells better than the same toy in subtle shades at the same price. | 199712_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"Infants prefer bright primary colors to bright secondary colors.",
"Color is the most important factor in determining which toys an infant will prefer to play with.",
"Individual infants do not have strong preferences for one particular bright color over other bright colors.",
"The sales of toys for infants ... | 3 | Which one of the following conclusions is most strongly supported by the information in the passage? |
A group of unusual meteorites was found in Shergotty, India. Their structure indicates that they originated on one of the geologically active planets, Mercury, Venus, or Mars. Because of Mercury's proximity to the Sun, any material dislodged from that planet's surface would have been captured by the Sun, rather than falling to Earth as meteorites. Nor could Venus be the source of the meteorites, because its gravity would have prevented dislodged material from escaping into space. The meteorites, therefore, probably fell to Earth after being dislodged from Mars, perhaps as the result of a collision with a large object. | 199712_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"offering a counterexample to a theory",
"eliminating competing alternative explanations",
"contrasting present circumstances with past circumstances",
"questioning an assumption",
"abstracting a general principle from specific data"
] | 1 | The argument derives its conclusion by |
Because quitting smoking is very stressful and leads to weight gain, it is difficult to do. The key to quitting, however, may be as simple as replacing an unhealthy activity with a healthy one. In one study, half of those attempting to quit were assigned to a smoking-cessation program alone, and the other half were assigned to the same program plus fifteen weeks of aerobic exercise. At the one-month mark, none in the first group had quit, but 40 percent of those in the second group had not smoked. | 199712_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"Regular exercise prevents weight gain.",
"Each group in the study included four hundred randomly selected participants.",
"Nonsmokers accustomed to regular exercise do not gain weight when they stop exercising.",
"Aerobic exercise can stimulate the brain's production of endorphins, which reduce tension.",
... | 2 | Each of the following, if true, provides some support for the argument EXCEPT: |
Altogether, the students in Ms. Tarnowski's Milton Elementary School class collected more aluminum cans than did the students in any of the school's other classes. Therefore, the Milton student who collected the most aluminum cans was in Ms. Tarnowski's class. | 199712_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"Altogether, more trees were planted by the students in Mr. Kelly's class than were planted by those in Mr. Liang's class and Ms. Jackson's class combined. Therefore, Mr. Kelly's students planted more trees than Ms. Jackson's students planted.",
"More than half of Milton Elementary School's students play in the b... | 3 | Which one of the following arguments contains flawed reasoning that is most parallel to that in the argument above? |
Several excellent candidates have been proposed for the presidency of United Wire, and each candidate would bring to the job different talents and experience. If the others are compared with Jones, however, it will be apparent that none of them has her unique set of qualifications. Jones, therefore, is best qualified to be the new president of United Wire. | 199712_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"uses flattery to win over those who hold an opposing position",
"refutes a distorted version of an opposing position",
"seeks to distinguish one member of a group on the basis of something that applies to all",
"supports a universal claim on the basis of a single example",
"describes an individual in terms... | 2 | The argument is vulnerable to criticism on the ground that it |
A neighborhood group plans to protest the closing of the neighborhood's only recreation center on the grounds that to do so would leave the neighborhood without local access to a recreation center. "Our neighborhood already has the most residents per center of any neighborhood in the city," complained one resident, "and closing this center would make the situation unacceptable since access to recreational facilities is a necessity for this neighborhood." | 199712_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"A large number of the neighborhood's residents are unable to travel outside their locality to gain access to recreational facilities.",
"Children, the main users of recreational facilities, make up a disproportionately small segment of the neighborhood's population.",
"Often the recreation center in the neighb... | 0 | Each of the following, if true, weakens the resident's argument EXCEPT: |
Sociologist: The claim that there is a large number of violent crimes in our society is false, for this claim is based upon the large number of stories in newspapers about violent crimes. But since violent crimes are very rare occurrences, newspapers are likely to print stories about them. | 199712_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"presupposes that most newspaper stories are about violent crime",
"presupposes the truth of the conclusion it is attempting to establish",
"assumes without warrant that the newspaper stories in question are not biased",
"mistakes a property of each member of a group taken as an individual for a property of t... | 1 | The sociologist's argument is flawed because it |
Historian: Anyone who thinks that the terrors of the ancient regime of Q were exclusively the work of fanatics is overlooking a basic truth: the regime was made up primarily of ordinary people enthusiastically seeking paradise. The regime executed many people in pursuit of its goal; but it later became clear that paradise, as they defined it, is unrealizable. So at least some of the ordinary people of Q were in fact murderers. | 199712_2-LR1_9_9 | [
"The pursuit of paradise does not justify murder.",
"The pursuit of paradise justifies fanaticism.",
"Execution in pursuit of what is later found to be unattainable constitutes murder.",
"Fanaticism in pursuit of paradise constitutes inhumanity.",
"Enthusiasm in pursuit of what is eventually found to be una... | 2 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, provides the most support for the historian's argumentation? |
Economist: The economy seems to be heading out of recession. Recent figures show that consumers are buying more durable goods than before, indicating that they expect economic growth in the near future. | 199712_2-LR1_10_10 | [
"It is the phenomenon that the argument seeks to explain.",
"Its truth is required in order for the argument's conclusion to be true.",
"It is an inference drawn from the premise that the recession seems to be ending.",
"It is an inference drawn from the premise that consumers expect economic growth in the ne... | 4 | That consumers are buying more durable goods than before figures in the economist's argument in which one of the following ways? |
Not surprisingly, there are no professors under the age of eighteen. And, as well known, no one under eighteen can vote legally. Finally, some brilliant people are professors, some are legal voters, and some are under eighteen. | 199712_2-LR1_11_11 | [
"No professors are eighteen-year-olds.",
"All brilliant people are either professors, legal voters, or under eighteen.",
"Some legal voters are not professors.",
"Some professors are neither legal voters nor brilliant people.",
"Some brilliant people are neither professors nor legal voters."
] | 4 | If the statements above are true, then on the basis of them which one of the following must also be true? |
For years scientists have been scanning the skies in the hope of finding life on other planets. But in spite of the ever-increasing sophistication of the equipment they employ, some of it costing hundreds of millions of dollars, not the first shred of evidence of such life has been forthcoming. And there is no reason to think that these scientists will be anymore successful in the future, no matter how much money is invested in the search. The dream of finding extraterrestrial life is destined to remain a dream, as science's experience up to this point should indicate. | 199712_2-LR1_12_12 | [
"There is no reason to believe that life exists on other planets.",
"The equipment that scientists employ is not as sophisticated as it should be.",
"Scientists searching for extraterrestrial life will not find it.",
"Only if scientists had already found evidence of life on other planets would continued searc... | 2 | Which one of the following most accurately states the main point of the argument? |
Carl's Coffee Emporium stocks only two decaffeinated coffees: French Roast and Mocha Java. Yusef only serves decaffeinated coffee, and the coffee he served after dinner last night was far too smooth and mellow to have been French Roast. So, if Yusef still gets all his coffee from Carl's, what he served last night was Mocha Java. | 199712_2-LR1_13_13 | [
"Samuel wants to take three friends to the beach. His mother owns both a sedan and a convertible. The convertible holds four people so, although the sedan has a more powerful engine, if Samuel borrows a vehicle from his mother, he will borrow the convertible.",
"If Anna wants to walk from her house to the office ... | 3 | The argument above is most similar in its logical structure to which one of the following? |
Steven: The allowable blood alcohol level for drivers should be cut in half. With this reduced limit, social drinkers will be deterred from drinking and driving, resulting in significantly increased highway safety. Miguel: No, lowering the current allowable blood alcohol level would have little effect on highway safety, because it would not address the most important aspect of the drunken driving problem, which is the danger to the public posed by heavy drinkers, who often drive with a blood alcohol level of twice the current legal limit. | 199712_2-LR1_14_14 | [
"Social drinkers who drink an drive pose a substantial threat to the public.",
"There is a direct correlation between a driver's blood alcohol level and the driver's ability to drive safely.",
"A driver with a blood alcohol level above the current legal limit poses a substantial danger to the public.",
"Some ... | 0 | Steven and Miguel's statements provide the most support for holding that they would disagree about the truth of which one of the followings statements? |
The authors of a recent article examined warnings of an impending wave of extinctions of animal species within the next 100 years. These authors say that no evidence exists to support the idea that the rate of extinction of animal species is now accelerating. They are wrong, however. Consider only the data on fishes: 40 species and subspecies of North American fishes have vanished in the twentieth century, 13 between 1900 and 1950, and 27 since 1950. | 199712_2-LR1_15_15 | [
"There is evidence that the rate of extinction of animal species is accelerating.",
"The future rate of extinction of animal species cannot be determined from available evidence.",
"The rate of extinction of North American fishes is parallel to the rate of extinction of all animal species taken together.",
"F... | 0 | Which one of the following is the main point of the argument? |
The authors of a recent article examined warnings of an impending wave of extinctions of animal species within the next 100 years. These authors say that no evidence exists to support the idea that the rate of extinction of animal species is now accelerating. They are wrong, however. Consider only the data on fishes: 40 species and subspecies of North American fishes have vanished in the twentieth century, 13 between 1900 and 1950, and 27 since 1950. | 199712_2-LR1_15_16 | [
"Were the fish species and subspecies that became extinct unrepresentative of animal species in general with regard to their pattern of extinction?",
"How numerous were the populations in 1950 of the species and subspecies of North American fishes that have become extinct since 1950?",
"Did any of the species o... | 0 | The answer to which one of the following questions would contribute most to an evaluation of the argument? |
After the Second World War, the charter of the newly formed United Nations established an eleven-member Security Council and charged it with taking collective action in response to threats to world peace. The charter further provided that the five nations that were then the major powers would permanently have sole authority to cast vetoes. The reason given for this arrangement was that the burden of maintaining world peace would rest on the world's major powers, and no nation should be required to assume the burden of enforcing a decision it found repugnant. | 199712_2-LR1_16_17 | [
"it does not make sense to provide for democracy among nations when nations themselves are not all democracies",
"no nation that was not among the major powers at the end of the Second World War would become a major power",
"nations would not eventually gravitate into large geographical blocs, each containing m... | 1 | The reason given for the structure of the Security Council assumes that |
Environmental scientist: It is true that over the past ten years, there has been a sixfold increase in government funding for the preservation of wetlands, while the total area of wetlands needing such preservation has increased only twofold (although this area was already large ten years ago). Even when inflation is taken into account, the amount of funding now is at least three times what it was ten years ago. Nevertheless, the current amount of government funding for the preservation of wetlands is inadequate and should be augmented. | 199712_2-LR1_17_18 | [
"The governmental agency responsible for administering wetland-preservation funds has been consistently mismanaged and run inefficiently over the past ten years.",
"Over the past ten years, the salaries of scientists employed by the government to work on the preservation of wetlands have increased at a rate highe... | 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to reconcile the environmental scientist's conclusion with the evidence cited above? |
In Australia the population that is of driving age has grown larger over the last five years, but the annual number of traffic fatalities has declined. This leads to the conclusion that, overall, the driving-age population of Australia consists of more skillful drivers now than five years ago. | 199712_2-LR1_18_19 | [
"Three years ago, a mandatory seat-belt law went into effect throughout Australia.",
"Five years ago, Australia began a major road repair project.",
"Because of increases in the price of fuel, Australians on average drive less each year than in the preceding year.",
"The number of hospital emergency facilitie... | 4 | Each of the statements below, if true, weakens the argument EXCEPT: |
Anthropological studies indicate that distinct cultures differ in their moral codes. Thus, as long as there are distinct cultures, there are no values shared across cultures. | 199712_2-LR1_19_20 | [
"Anthropologists rely on inadequate translation techniques to investigate the values of cultures that use languages different from the anthropologists' languages.",
"As a result of advancing technology and global communication, we will someday all share the same culture and the same values.",
"Although specific... | 1 | Each of the following, if true, would weaken the argument EXCEPT: |
Newspaper editor: Law enforcement experts, as well as most citizens, have finally come to recognize that legal prohibitions against gambling all share a common flaw: no matter how diligent the effort, the laws are impossible to enforce. Ethical qualms notwithstanding, when a law fails to be effective, it should not be a law. That is why there should be no legal prohibition against gambling. | 199712_2-LR1_20_21 | [
"No effective law is unenforceable.",
"All enforceable laws are effective.",
"No legal prohibitions against gambling are enforceable.",
"Most citizens must agree with a law for the law to be effective.",
"Most citizens must agree with a law for the law to be enforceable."
] | 0 | Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the argument's conclusion to be properly drawn? |
Copernicus's astronomical system is superior to Ptolemy's and was so at the time it was proposed, even though at that time all observational evidence was equally consistent with both theories. Ptolemy believed that the stars revolved around the earth at great speeds. This struck Copernicus as unlikely; he correctly thought that a simpler theory is that the earth rotates on its axis. | 199712_2-LR1_21_22 | [
"Simplicity should be the sole deciding factor in choosing among competing scientific theories.",
"If one theory is likely to be true, and another competing theory is likely to be false, then the one likely to be true is the superior of the two.",
"If all observational evidence is consistent with two competing ... | 3 | This argument most closely conforms to which one of the following principles? |
Essayist: The existence of a moral order in the universe—i.e., an order in which bad is always eventually punished and good rewarded— depends upon human souls being immortal. In some cultures this moral order is regarded as the result of a karma that controls how one is reincarnated, in others it results from the actions of a supreme being who metes out justice to people after their death. But however a moral order is represented, if human souls are immortal, then it follows that the bad will be punished. | 199712_2-LR1_22_23 | [
"From the assertion that something is necessary to a moral order, the argument concludes that that thing is sufficient for an element of the moral order to be realized.",
"The argument takes mere beliefs to be established facts.",
"From the claim that the immortality of human souls implies that there is a moral... | 0 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the essayist's reasoning? |
No mathematical proposition can be proven true by observation. It follows that it is impossible to know any mathematical proposition to be true. | 199712_2-LR1_23_24 | [
"Only propositions that can be proven true can be known to be true.",
"Observation alone cannot be used to prove the truth of any proposition.",
"If a proposition can be proven true by observation, then it can be known to be true.",
"Knowing a proposition to be true is impossible only if it cannot be proven t... | 4 | The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
The publisher of a best-selling self-help book had, in some promotional material, claimed that it showed readers how to become exceptionally successful. Of course, everyone knows that no book can deliver to the many what, by definition, must remain limited to the few: exceptional success. Thus, although it is clear that the publisher knowingly made a false claim, doing so should not be considered unethical in this case. | 199712_2-LR1_24_25 | [
"Knowingly making a false claim is unethical only if it is reasonable for people to accept the claim as true.",
"Knowingly making a false claim is unethical if those making it derive a gain at the expense of those acting as if the claim were true.",
"Knowingly making a false claim is unethical in only those cas... | 0 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most strongly supports the reasoning above? |
Francis: Failure to become properly registered to vote prevents one-third of the voting-age citizens of Lagonia from voting. If local election boards made the excessively cumbersome registration process easier, more people would register and vote. Sharon: The high number of citizens not registered to vote has persisted despite many attempts to make registering easier. Surveys show that most of these citizens believe that their votes would not make a difference. Until that belief is changed, simplifying the registration process will not increase the percentage of citizens registering to vote. | 199712_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"whether changing the voter registration process would be cumbersome",
"why so many citizens do not register to vote",
"what percentage of those registered to vote actually vote",
"whether local election boards have simplified the registration process",
"why the public lacks confidence in the effects of vot... | 1 | The main issue in dispute between Francis and Sharon is |
Advertisement: Anyone who thinks moisturizers are not important for beautiful skin should consider what happens to the earth, the skin of the world, in time of drought. Without regular infusions of moisture the ground becomes lined and cracked and its lush liveliness fades away. Thus your skin, too, should be protected from the ravages caused by lack of moisture; give it the protection provided by regular infusions of Dewyfresh, the drought-defying moisturizer. | 199712_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"It treats something that is necessary for bringing about a state of affairs as something that is sufficient to bring about that state of affairs.",
"It treats the fact that two things regularly occur together as proof that there is a single thing that its the cause of them both.",
"It overlooks the fact that c... | 4 | The Dewyfresh advertisement exhibits which one of the following errors of reasoning? |
M: The Greek alphabet must have been invented by some individual who knew the Phoenician writing system and who wanted to have some way of recording Homeric epics and thereby preserving expressions of a highly developed tradition of oral poetry. P: Your hypothesis is laughable! What would have been the point of such a person's writing Homeric epics down? Surely a person who knew them well enough to write them down would not need to read them; and no one else could read them, according to your hypothesis. | 199712_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"attacking M's understanding of the literary value of oral poetry",
"disagreeing with M's thesis without attempting to refute it",
"challenging M's knowledge of the Phoenician writing system",
"attempting to undermine M's hypothesis by making it appear absurd",
"providing an alternative interpretation of ev... | 3 | Which one of the following is an argumentative strategy that P uses in responding to M? |
M: The Greek alphabet must have been invented by some individual who knew the Phoenician writing system and who wanted to have some way of recording Homeric epics and thereby preserving expressions of a highly developed tradition of oral poetry. P: Your hypothesis is laughable! What would have been the point of such a person's writing Homeric epics down? Surely a person who knew them well enough to write them down would not need to read them; and no one else could read them, according to your hypothesis. | 199712_3-LR2_3_4 | [
"It fails to demonstrate that the Phoenician alphabet alone could have provided the basis for the Greek alphabet.",
"It incorrectly assumes that the first text ever written in Greek was a Homeric poem.",
"It confuses the requirements for a complex oral tradition with the requirements of a written language.",
... | 4 | P's argument is vulnerable to which one of the following criticisms? |
Bacteria from food can survive for several days on the surface of plastic cutting boards, but bacteria can penetrate wooden cutting boards almost immediately, leaving the surface free of contamination. Therefore, wooden cutting boards, unlike plastic cutting boards, need not be washed in order to prevent their contaminating food that is cut on them; wiping them off to remove food debris is sufficient. | 199712_3-LR2_4_5 | [
"Washing plastic cutting boards does not remove all bacteria from the surface.",
"Prevention of bacteria contamination is the only respect in which wooden cutting boards are superior to plastic cutting boards.",
"Food that is not already contaminated with bacteria can be contaminated only by being cut on contam... | 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Asthmagon was long considered the most effective of the drugs known as beta-2 agonists, designed to alleviate asthma attacks. However, studies conducted in Rhiago between 1981 and 1987 revealed that nearly one out of every five of the asthma patients under observation who took asthmagon suffered serious side effects after taking the drug. Citing this statistic, some doctors argue that asthmagon should be banned as an anti-asthma drug. | 199712_3-LR2_5_6 | [
"In Rhiago, where asthmagon had been the most widely prescribed of the beta-2 agonists, the number of asthma deaths increased between 1981 and 1987.",
"Many of the patients under observation to whom asthmagon was administered had not previously taken a beta-2 agonist.",
"Despite the growing concern about the dr... | 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the case for the proposed ban of asthmagon? |
In response to requests made by the dairy industry, the government is considering whether to approve the synthetic hormone BST for use in dairy cows. BST increases milk production but also leads to recurring udder inflammation, decreased fertility, and symptoms of stress in cows who receive the hormone. All of these problems can be kept under control with constant veterinary care, but such levels of veterinary help would cost big farms far less per cow than they would small farms. | 199712_3-LR2_6_7 | [
"The government is unlikely to approve the synthetic hormone BST for use in cows.",
"The proportion of cows that suffer from udder inflammation, decreased fertility, and symptoms of stress is currently greater on big dairy farms than on small ones.",
"At the present time milk from cows raised on small farms is ... | 4 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following claims is most strongly supported by them? |
Jones is selling a house to Smith. The contract between the two specifies that for up to a year after ownership is transferred, Jones will be responsible for repairing any "major structural defects," defined as defects in the roof or roof-supporting components of the house, that might be found. Jones is not responsible for any other repairs. The house has a truss roof, which means that the only walls that support the roof are the exterior walls. | 199712_3-LR2_7_8 | [
"Jones did not know of any defects in the roof or roof-supporting components of the house at the time the contract was written",
"although other components of the house may contain defects, the roof and roof-supporting components of the house are currently free from such defects",
"the contract does not oblige ... | 2 | It can be properly concluded from the information above that |
The play Mankind must have been written between 1431 and 1471. It cannot have been written before 1431, for in that year the rose noble, a coin mentioned in the play, was first circulated. The play cannot have been written after 13471, since in that year King Henry VI died, and he is mentioned as a living monarch in the play's dedication. | 199712_3-LR2_8_9 | [
"The Royal Theatre Company includes the play on a list of those performed in 1480.",
"Another coin mentioned in the play was first minted in 1422.",
"The rose noble was neither minted nor circulated after 1468.",
"Although Henry VI was deposed in 1461, he was briefly restored to the throne in 1470.",
"In a ... | 4 | The argument would be most seriously weakened if which one of the following were discovered? |
All material bodies are divisible into parts, and everything divisible is imperfect. It follows that all material bodies are imperfect. It likewise follows that the spirit is not a material body. | 199712_3-LR2_9_10 | [
"Everything divisible is a material body.",
"Nothing imperfect is indivisible.",
"The spirit is divisible.",
"The spirit is perfect.",
"The spirit is either indivisible or imperfect."
] | 3 | The final conclusion above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Special kinds of cotton that grow fibers of green or brown have been around since the 1930s but only recently became commercially feasible when a long-fibered variety that can be spun by machine was finally bred. Since the cotton need not be dyed, processing plants avoid the expense of dyeing and the ecological hazards of getting rid of leftover dye and by-products. | 199712_3-LR2_10_11 | [
"It is ecologically safer to process long-fibered cotton than short-fibered cotton.",
"Green and brown cottons that can be spun only by hand are not commercially viable.",
"Hand-spun cotton is more ecologically safe than machine-spun cotton.",
"Short-fibered regular cottons are economically competitive with s... | 1 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the passage? |
People in the tourist industry know that excessive development of seaside areas by the industry damages the environment. Such development also hurts the tourist industry by making these areas unattractive to tourists, a fact of which people in the tourist industry are well aware. People in the tourist industry would never knowingly do anything to damage the industry. Therefore, they would never knowingly damage the seaside environment, and the people who are concerned about damage to the seaside environment thus have nothing to fear from the tourist industry. | 199712_3-LR2_11_12 | [
"No support is provided for the claim that excessive development hurts the tourist industry.",
"That something is not the cause of a problem is used as evidence that it never coexists with that problem.",
"The argument shifts from applying a characteristic to a few members of a group to applying the characteris... | 3 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? |
Health officials claim that because the foods and beverages mentioned or consumed on many television programs are extremely low in nutritional value, watching television has a bad influence on the dietary habits of television viewers. | 199712_3-LR2_12_13 | [
"the eating and drinking habits of people on television programs are designed to mirror the eating and drinking habits of television viewers",
"seeing some foods and beverages being consumed on, or hearing them mentioned on, television programs increases the likelihood that viewers will consume similar kinds of f... | 1 | The claim by health officials depends on the presupposition that |
In an effort to boost sales during the summer months, which are typically the best for soft-drink sales, Foamy Soda lowered its prices. In spite of this, however, the sales of Foamy Soda dropped during the summer months. | 199712_3-LR2_13_14 | [
"The soft-drink industry as a whole experienced depressed sales during the summer months.",
"Foamy Soda's competitors lowered their prices even more drastically during the summer months.",
"Because of an increase in the price of sweeteners, the production costs of Foamy Soda rose during the summer months.",
"... | 2 | Each of the following, if true, contributes to reconciling the apparent discrepancy indicated above EXCEPT: |
Dr. Z: Many of the characterizations of my work offered by Dr. Q are imprecise, and such characterizations do not provide an adequate basis for sound criticism of my work. | 199712_3-LR2_14_15 | [
"Some of Dr. Q's characterizations of Dr. Z's work provide an adequate basis for sound criticism of Dr. Z's work.",
"All of Dr. Q's characterizations of Dr. Z's work that are not imprecise provide an adequate basis for sound criticism of Dr. Z's work.",
"All of the characterizations of Dr. Z's work by Dr. Q tha... | 4 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from Dr. Z's statement? |
K, a research scientist, was accused of having falsified laboratory data. Although the original data in question have disappeared, data from K's more recent experiments have been examined and clearly none of them were falsified. Therefore, the accusation should be dismissed. | 199712_3-LR2_15_16 | [
"L, an accountant, was charged with having embezzled funds from a client. The charge should be ignored, however, because although the records that might reveal this embezzlement have been destroyed, records of L's current clients show clearly that there has never been any embezzlement from them.",
"M, a factory s... | 0 | Which one of the following contains questionable reasoning that is most similar to that in the argument above? |
The widespread staff reductions in a certain region's economy are said to be causing people who still have their jobs to cut back on new purchases as though they, too, had become economically distressed. Clearly, however, actual spending by such people is undiminished, because there has been no unusual increase in the amount of money held by those people in savings account. | 199712_3-LR2_16_17 | [
"concluding that since an expected consequence of a supposed development did not occur, that development itself did not take place",
"concluding that since only one of the two predictable consequences of a certain kind of behavior is observed to occur, this observed occurrence cannot, in the current situation, be... | 0 | The argument in the passage proceeds by doing which one of the following? |
The widespread staff reductions in a certain region's economy are said to be causing people who still have their jobs to cut back on new purchases as though they, too, had become economically distressed. Clearly, however, actual spending by such people is undiminished, because there has been no unusual increase in the amount of money held by those people in savings account. | 199712_3-LR2_16_18 | [
"If people in the region who continue to be employed have debts, they are not now paying them off at an accelerated rate.",
"People in the region who continue to be employed and who have relatives who have lost their jobs commonly assist those relatives financially.",
"If people in the region who have lost jobs... | 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies? |
Every student who walks to school goes home for lunch. It follows that some students who have part-time jobs do not walk to school. | 199712_3-LR2_17_19 | [
"Some students who do not have part-time jobs go home for lunch.",
"Every student who goes home for lunch has a part-time job.",
"Some students who do not have part-time jobs do not go home for lunch.",
"Some students who do not go home for lunch have part-time jobs.",
"Every student who goes home for lunch... | 3 | The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
When the Pinecrest Animal Shelter, a charitable organization, was in danger of closing because it could not pay for important repairs, its directors appealed to the townspeople to donate money that would be earmarked to pay for those repairs. Since more funds were ultimately donated than were used for the repairs, the directors plan to donate the surplus funds to other animal shelters. But before doing so, the directors should obtain permission from those who made the donations. | 199712_3-LR2_18_20 | [
"The directors of charitable organizations cannot allocate publicly solicited funds to any purposes for which the directors had not specifically earmarked the funds in advance.",
"People who solicit charitable donations from the public for a specific cause should spend the funds only on that cause, or, if that be... | 1 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the position advocated above and yet places the least restriction on the allocation of funds by directors of charitable organizations? |
The amount of electricity consumed in Millville on any day in August is directly proportional to peak humidity on that day. Since the average peak humidity this August was three points higher than the average peak humidity last August, it follows that more energy was consumed in Millville this August than last August. | 199712_3-LR2_19_21 | [
"The amount of art supplies used in any of the Aesthetic Institute's 25 classes is directly proportional to the number of students in that class. Since in these classes the institute enrolled 20 percent more students overall last year than in the previous year, more art supplies were used in the institute's classes... | 0 | Which one of the following arguments has a pattern of reasoning most similar to the one in the argument above? |
Letter to the editor: After Baerton's factory closed, there was a sharp increase in the number of claims filed for job-related injury compensation by the factory's former employees. Hence there is reason to believe that most of those who filed for compensation after the factory closed were just out to gain benefits they did not deserve, and filed only to help them weather their job loss. | 199712_3-LR2_20_22 | [
"Workers cannot file for compensation for many job-related injuries, such as hearing loss from factory noise, until they have left the job.",
"In the years before the factory closed, the factory's managers dismissed several employees who had filed injury claims.",
"Most workers who receive an injury on the job ... | 2 | Each of the following, if true, weakens the argument above EXCEPT: |
Historians of North American architecture who have studied early nineteenth-century houses with wooden floors have observed that the boards used onthe floors of bigger houses were generally much narrower than those used on the floors of smaller houses. These historians have argued that, since the people for whom the bigger houses were built were generally richer than the people for whom the smaller houses were built, floors made out of narrow floorboards were probably once a status symbol,designed to proclaim the owner's wealth. | 199712_3-LR2_21_23 | [
"More original floorboards have survived from big early nineteenth-century houses than from small early nineteenth-century houses.",
"In the early nineteenth century, a piece of narrow floorboard was not significantly less expensive than a piece of wide floorboard of the same length.",
"In the early nineteenth ... | 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to strengthen the historians' argument? |
Ethicist: A society is just when, and only when, first, each person has an equal right to basic liberties, and second, inequalities in the distribution of income and wealth are not tolerated unless these inequalities are to everyone's advantage and are attached to jobs open to everyone. | 199712_3-LR2_22_24 | [
"Society S guarantees everyone an equal right to basic liberties, while allowing inequalities in the distribution of income and wealth that are to the advantage of everyone. Further, the jobs to which these inequalities are attached are open to most people. Thus, society S is just.",
"Society S gives everyone an ... | 3 | Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle described above? |
Economist: In order to decide what to do about protecting the ozone layer, we must determine the monetary amount of the economic resources that we would willingly expend to protect it. Such a determination amounts to a calculation of the monetary value of the ozone layer. Environmentalists argue that the ozone layer does not have a calculable monetary value. However, we would not willingly expend an amount equal to all of the world's economic resources to protect the ozone layer, so the ozone layer is demonstrably worth less than that amount. Thus, the ozone layer has a calculable monetary value. | 199712_3-LR2_23_25 | [
"uses evidence that the monetary value of a particular natural resource is less than a certain amount in order to establish that the monetary value of any natural resource is less than that amount",
"presupposes that the ozone layer should not be protected and then argues to that claim as a conclusion",
"takes ... | 3 | The reasoning in the economist's argument is flawed in that the argument |
Columnist on the arts: My elected government representatives were within their rights to vote to support the arts with tax dollars. While funded by the government, however, some artists have produced works of art that are morally or aesthetically offensive to many taxpayers. Nonetheless, my conclusion is that no taxpayers have been treated unjustly whose tax dollars are used to fund some particular work of art that they may find abominable. | 199712_3-LR2_24_26 | [
"Taxpayers should be allowed to decide whether a portion of their tax dollars is to be used to fund the arts.",
"The funding of a particular activity is warranted if it is funded by elected representatives who legitimately fund that activity in general.",
"Elected representatives are within their rights to fund... | 1 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most supports the columnist's argument? |
Psychiatrist: We are learning that neurochemical imbalances can cause behavior ranging from extreme mental illness to less serious but irritating behavior such as obsessive fantasizing, petulance, or embarrassment. These findings will promote compassion and tolerance when looking at a mental illness, quirk, or mere difference between two persons, since being mentally healthy can now begin to be seen as simply having the same neurochemical balances as most people. | 199806_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"Understanding the role of the neurochemical in behavior will foster empathy toward others.",
"Neurochemical imbalances can cause mental illness and other behaviors.",
"Neurochemical balances and imbalances are the main determinants of mental behavior.",
"Being mentally healthy is a matter of having the same ... | 0 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the psychiatrist's argument? |
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