context stringlengths 79 829 | id_string stringlengths 16 18 | answers listlengths 5 5 | label int64 0 4 | question stringlengths 23 302 |
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Negotiations between the union and the trucking industry will not resume unless one or the other of these parties agrees to make concessions. The trucking industry will not make any concessions without certain prior concessions being made by the union, and the union will make concessions only if the government agrees to act as mediator. | india3_3-LR2_22_23 | [
"Negotiations between the union and the trucking industry will not resume.",
"The trucking industry will make no concessions.",
"Differences between the union and the trucking industry will be successfully negotiated if the government agrees to act as mediator.",
"If the union makes concessions, then the truc... | 4 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true on the basis of them? |
Editorial: Despite the fact that recent military success has made the prime minister personally popular, her party will lose the next election unless the economy is no longer in recession; the electorate will blame the state of the economy on her, even though she is hardly responsible for it and her policies will be beneficial in the long run. | india3_3-LR2_23_24 | [
"The prime minister's party will not win the next election if the electorate believes the prime minister is responsible for a continuing recession.",
"In the next election, voters will place as much weight on economic performance as on military success.",
"Voters tend to place excessive weight on economic issue... | 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the editorial's argument depends? |
The total amount of fat that the average North American consumes each year has held steady since 1950, but nowadays North Americans consume less animal fat than in 1950, and more vegetable fat containing high levels of saturated fat. Both saturated and unsaturated fats are necessary to the human diet, since they are the only source of essential fatty acids (EFAs); however, most vegetable fats now consumed, unlike animal fats, do not contain EFAs. Because of this dietary shift from animal fat to vegetable fat, cardiovascular disease, neurological dysfunctions, and skin disorders are on the rise. | india3_3-LR2_24_25 | [
"North Americans who consume inadequate amounts of EFAs are, on average, more susceptible to skin disorders than other North Americans are.",
"Almost all animal fats contain sufficient EFAs to prevent cardiovascular disease, neurological dysfunctions, and skin disorders.",
"Today, North Americans consume, on av... | 0 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
The body responds to the physical stress of moderate exercise by improving its physical condition. But one cannot increase the severity of exercise indefinitely and still improve one's physical fitness. This is because, under excessive stress, the body puts most of its energy into preventing organ damage. The ideal exercise is one that is just slightly more stressful than one's body can handle comfortably. Of course, the ideal intensity of exercise varies from person to person. | india3_3-LR2_25_26 | [
"Any physical stress will improve fitness as long as the body does not have to put most of its energy into preventing organ damage.",
"Younger athletes can exercise harder before their bodies begin to put any energy into preventing organ damage than older athletes can.",
"Human bodies vary in the amount of phys... | 2 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
For the average person who needs a transfusion, blood from a relative is more likely to be infected with hepatitis than is blood from a blood bank. Therefore, the risk of contracting hepatitis from a transfusion is higher for people receiving blood from relatives than for people receiving blood from blood banks. | india4_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"People receiving blood transfusions often specify that blood from their relatives be used.",
"Blood transfusions only rarely result in the recipient being infected with hepatitis.",
"Blood taken from a relative is highly likely to match a transfusion recipient's blood type.",
"Donors to blood banks are alway... | 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Herons must eat large numbers of fish to survive. Therefore, according to naturalists, when many herons nest near each other in a marsh, large numbers of fish must be available to them. But many herons successfully nest in the Pahargaon marsh, and that marsh has been nearly empty of fish for many years. | india4_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"Pesticides used on nearby farms have seeped into the waters of the Pahargaon marsh and killed most of the fish.",
"The Pahargaon marsh has been growing saltier over the years, killing off much of the vegetation that the fish needed to eat.",
"The herons in the Pahargaon marsh have been successfully raising unu... | 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to reconcile the apparent discrepancy described above? |
Journalist: Until recently, doctors enjoyed high status in Canada. Although once admired as altruistic, in the last few decades doctors have fallen in public esteem. While it is acknowledged that doctors are indispensable, they are seen by critics as always wanting higher fees from the provincial governments, and even shielding incompetence in some cases, thereby being more dedicated to self-interest than the public interest. | india4_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"Doctors in Canada are perceived by critics as being less competent than they used to be.",
"Without the public esteem doctors previously enjoyed, fewer Canadians will become doctors.",
"Doctors in Canada are perceived by critics as not being sufficiently devoted to the interest of others.",
"Nonmedical profe... | 2 | Which one of the following is most supported by the journalist's statements? |
Lakshmi: I know that wildflowers are threatened because of the reduced number of suitable spaces where they can grow and that people should generally leave them where they are growing. This large field, however, is full of plants of one wildflower species, and it would be all right for me to take just one plant, since there are so many. Malini: There will not be many there in the future if many people act on your principle. | india4_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"arguing that if a resource can be used on a sustainable basis and not depleted, no harm is done",
"contending that Lakshmi is presupposing that an exception can properly be made for her but not for anyone else",
"pointing out that apparently insignificant individual acts of a certain kind can have a large cumu... | 2 | Malini's criticism proceeds by |
Lakshmi: I know that wildflowers are threatened because of the reduced number of suitable spaces where they can grow and that people should generally leave them where they are growing. This large field, however, is full of plants of one wildflower species, and it would be all right for me to take just one plant, since there are so many. Malini: There will not be many there in the future if many people act on your principle. | india4_2-LR1_4_5 | [
"Even if I took a plant from the field, I would not tell others about the field, so that you would be the only person who would know about my action and I would not be advocating my principle to a large number of people.",
"If everyone, as I would, carefully leaves an abundance of mature plants to reseed the fiel... | 1 | Which one of the following, if true, is the strongest response Lakshmi can make to counter Malini's criticism? |
If one has recently been overwhelmed by overstimulation, peaceful rest feels pleasant by contrast. Similarly, recent experience of boredom makes most forms of excitement pleasurable, even dangerous ones. No level of stimulation is intrinsically pleasant or unpleasant. | india4_2-LR1_5_6 | [
"Danger generally appears more pleasurable than boredom.",
"How pleasant a person finds a situation can depend on previous levels of stimulation.",
"Boredom can be just as overwhelming as overstimulation.",
"A high level of stimulation is never pleasant, but it often precedes pleasant relaxation.",
"One can... | 1 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
Farah: Health officials know that in East Asia cancer is much less common than it is in North America. And it is widely known that typical East Asian diets include a larger proportion of whole grains than typical North American diets do. So North American health officials are derelict in their duty to protect the public health if they do not encourage North Americans to increase the proportion of whole grains in their diets. Prasad: Tea contains substances that can help prevent several types of cancer, and tea is consumed much more widely in East Asia than in North America. | india4_2-LR1_6_7 | [
"attempting to show that the evidence Farah presents is self-contradictory",
"undermining Farah's argument by providing evidence that supports an alternative explanation",
"introducing further evidence that supports Farah's conclusion",
"calling into question the accuracy of Farah's claim concerning the propo... | 1 | Prasad responds to Farah by |
Farah: Health officials know that in East Asia cancer is much less common than it is in North America. And it is widely known that typical East Asian diets include a larger proportion of whole grains than typical North American diets do. So North American health officials are derelict in their duty to protect the public health if they do not encourage North Americans to increase the proportion of whole grains in their diets. Prasad: Tea contains substances that can help prevent several types of cancer, and tea is consumed much more widely in East Asia than in North America. | india4_2-LR1_6_8 | [
"confuses a difference in proportion with a difference in absolute amount",
"overlooks the possibility that some people in North America include about the same proportion of whole grains in their diets as is found in typical East Asian diets",
"fails to distinguish between preventing particular cases of a disea... | 3 | Farah's reasoning is questionable because it |
Domesticated animals, such as dogs, have come into existence by the breeding of only the individuals of a wild species that are sufficiently tame. For example, if when breeding wolves one breeds only those that display tameness when young, then after a number of generations the offspring will be a species of dog. Therefore, all animals can, in principle, be bred for domesticity. | india4_2-LR1_7_9 | [
"Domesticated animals cannot be turned into wild species by breeding only those animals that display some wild characteristics.",
"In some animal species, wild members mate more frequently than tame members.",
"In some animal species, no members ever display tameness.",
"In some animal species, tame members a... | 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? |
Anthropologist: It has been claimed that religious prohibitions against eating certain types of food are evidence against the belief that all cultural phenomena have a purely economic explanation. After all, the reasoning goes, only a moral or spiritual motive could persuade people to forgo readily available sources of nutrients. But the species whose consumption is prohibited are usually essential elements of ecosystems containing other species that are used as food. The preservation of the prohibited species thus tends to help preserve the other species. Therefore, such prohibitions do indeed have an economic motivation. | india4_2-LR1_8_10 | [
"infers, merely from the claim that a practice has a certain desirable consequence, that this consequence must provide a motivation for the practice",
"takes for granted that people could have a reason for adopting a certain policy and nevertheless not realize what that reason is",
"infers, merely from the clai... | 0 | The reasoning in the anthropologist's argument is flawed because the argument |
What defines the offenses of libel, discrimination, and harassment is more the motivation than the act itself. Since finding evidence of motivation in these acts is difficult, judges must often apply relevant laws without specific guiding criteria. Therefore, public trust in judges is essential to public satisfaction with the outcome of trials involving these offenses. | india4_2-LR1_9_11 | [
"It is cited as the reason that not all legal proceedings are settled reliably by judges.",
"It is specified as a feature of certain offenses that makes determination that an offense has occurred difficult.",
"It is cited to counter the view that trials can sometimes be settled without relying on public trust i... | 1 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the statement that what defines some offenses is more the motivation than the act? |
In seventeenth-century France, many remunerative government positions in the provinces were sold by the king and then passed from father to son. Historians have concluded that this system was more effective than a purely meritocratic system in ensuring not only that most of the officials were competent, but that they were more sympathetic to the local people than to the king. | india4_2-LR1_10_12 | [
"To raise revenues, new offices were often created and sold by the king.",
"People who assumed government positions were often trained from childhood for the performance of their duties.",
"It was difficult for the king to oust a disloyal government official from an inherited office.",
"Most government offici... | 0 | Each of the following, if true of seventeenth-century France, helps to support the historians' conclusion EXCEPT: |
Scientists are more likely to consider their experiments well designed if the results are consistent with their expectations than otherwise. The results of this experiment were inconsistent with the expectations of the scientists who conducted it. Therefore, it is more likely that they consider the experiment poorly designed than that they consider it well designed. | india4_2-LR1_11_13 | [
"some scientists rarely consider their experiments well designed even when the results are consistent with their expectations",
"the results of even those experiments scientists consider poorly designed are usually consistent with their expectations",
"scientists sometimes consider their experiments poorly desi... | 3 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument ignores the possibility that |
Tarang claims not to like Hindi pop music, but that cannot be true, because Tarang's friends Anjali and Lokesh like Hindi pop music. Since Tarang, Anjali, and Lokesh are all teenagers, and most teenagers like the same kind of music that their friends like, Tarang must also like Hindi pop music. | india4_2-LR1_12_14 | [
"Most grandparents see each of their grandchildren an average of once a year. Venkat and Chitra are grandparents and did not see any of their grandchildren this year. Therefore, they will probably see all of their grandchildren twice next year.",
"Most families that have a dog also have at least one cat. The Chau... | 3 | Which one of the following contains flawed reasoning most similar to that in the argument above? |
Naresh: In the near future we will be able to construct machines capable of conversing as humans do. Teaching computers English syntax is not as problematic as once thought, and we are making great strides in discovering what background knowledge these machines will require. Ashok: But being able to converse as humans do is not solely about possessing the correct syntax and background knowledge. It also involves the capacity to communicate the often emotional and confused knowledge one has; plainly, no computer will ever be able to do that. | india4_2-LR1_13_15 | [
"computers will become more adept at communicating emotional and confused knowledge",
"in the near future humans and machines will be able to converse with one another",
"there will ever be a computer capable of conversing as humans do",
"syntax and background knowledge are important in teaching computers to ... | 2 | Naresh and Ashok most clearly disagree on whether |
In an experiment, Dr. Farouk studied houseplants that had flourished for years. Over a three-day period he spoke to the plants encouragingly. He then transplanted them outside into a garden and stopped talking to them. Although he continued watering and fertilizing the plants, they soon wilted. When they had not recovered after two days, Dr. Farouk became so concerned that he started talking to them every hour; the next day they began to recover. | india4_2-LR1_14_16 | [
"Talking to plants enhances their health.",
"Plants always need at least two days to adjust to transplantation.",
"Changes in growing conditions can affect the flourishing of plants.",
"Watering plants too much is as hazardous to their well-being as not watering them enough.",
"There are many aspects of pla... | 2 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
No democracy should require national identification cards, for such cards are characteristic of totalitarian societies and have served only to track and control civilians. | india4_2-LR1_15_17 | [
"Every democracy requiring national identification cards becomes increasingly totalitarian as a result.",
"National identification cards can serve only to track and control citizens.",
"No democracy should track and control its civilians.",
"Those who propose national identification cards aim to make society ... | 4 | The conclusion drawn above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
One view of scientific revolutions is that they are brought about by new scientific observations; another is that they are scientific versions of popular ideas. If popular ideas lead to revolutionary scientific ideas, then revolutionary scientific ideas should be immediately accepted by the nonscientific public. However, if the driving force in the production of revolutionary scientific ideas is scientific observations, then similarity between those scientific ideas and popular ideas is coincidence. Nearly all revolutionary ideas in science have met with years of rejection from the nonscientific community. | india4_2-LR1_16_18 | [
"Scientific ideas that resemble popular ideas are revolutionary.",
"Popular ideas rarely lead to the development of revolutionary scientific ideas.",
"Scientific ideas immediately accepted by the nonscientific community are scientific versions of popular ideas.",
"Revolutionary scientific ideas are rarely rej... | 1 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
Food cooked in iron pots absorbs significant amounts of iron during cooking, and people whose food is cooked in iron pots consume enough iron in this way to satisfy their nutritional requirements for iron. Therefore, there is no need for these people to eat the kinds of foods that naturally contain iron. | india4_2-LR1_17_19 | [
"Food that has been cooked in iron pots does not absorb any non-nutritive elements from the pots.",
"Any essential nutrients other than iron in foods that naturally contain iron can be obtained from other foods.",
"People who prefer to use iron pots for cooking food do not use pots made of any other material.",... | 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Criminologist: Those who propose a rule mandating a life sentence for any criminal who has multiple convictions for serious crimes argue that it would be a welcome crackdown on career criminals. In reality, however, few repeat offenders are convicted of anything other than minor violations. | india4_2-LR1_18_20 | [
"The sentencing of most repeat offenders would be unaffected by the proposed rule if it became law.",
"Many first-time offenders are convicted of serious crimes as well as minor violations.",
"People who have never been convicted of minor violations are unlikely to become career criminals.",
"Most people who ... | 0 | The criminologist's statements, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
If I borrow a generator from a neighbor, then I am morally obligated to return it when my immediate need for it is over. But suppose, instead, I borrow a car, and when I go to return it, the neighbor from whom I borrowed it is very drunk and wants to drive the car; then the obligation to return the car immediately is much less clear. So not all cases of borrowing are equivalent. | india4_2-LR1_19_21 | [
"Though some cases may seem to be exceptions, the rule that one ought to return to others what one borrowed from them is an exceptionless rule.",
"There is an obligation to refrain from acting in a manner that could result in harm to people, and this obligation overrides lesser obligations when they conflict with... | 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the argument? |
Political scientist: While voters have a legal right to know what is being done by those whom they elect, there must be limits placed on public access to the detailed workings of the legislative process. Legislators receive little credit for reaching compromises but much criticism for failing to stick to their principles, and thus become less willing to modify their demands so that needed legislation can be passed. | india4_2-LR1_20_22 | [
"Legislation should be written so as to benefit the welfare of all citizens, rather than only a few.",
"It is acceptable to restrict some legal rights if doing so makes the political process more efficient.",
"Compromise between factions with equally compelling interests can only be effected by unprincipled leg... | 1 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, would most help to justify the political scientist's reasoning? |
Murali: You are wrong to assert that the question of the painting's authenticity is a factual matter. You may believe that the painting is authentic, but this is an opinion and not a fact. Experts disagree about whether or not the painting is authentic. Prakash: Whether a painting is beautiful or not is merely a matter of opinion, but the question of who painted it is not. A painting is either authentic or not. Thus the authenticity of the painting is a factual matter. | india4_2-LR1_21_23 | [
"It is offered as a way of conceding to Murali that the painting may not be authentic.",
"It is presented as a refutation of Murali's view that whether the painting is authentic or not is a matter of opinion.",
"It is used to clarify what Prakash means by \"factual matter,\" by contrasting it with a matter of o... | 2 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in Prakash's argument by the claim that whether a painting is beautiful or not is merely a matter of opinion? |
Advertisement: Every time you use your X card to charge any purchase, you accumulate credit with Worldwide Airlines in proportion to the cost of the purchase. This credit can then be used to reduce the cost of your Worldwide Airlines tickets. So with this new program you can now afford purchases you couldn't afford before: the extra money you can save on travel is money you can spend on these purchases! | india4_2-LR1_22_24 | [
"Some of the destinations to which you would be likely to travel are serviced by airlines that compete with Worldwide Airlines.",
"The balance on purchases you charge with an X card is subject to an interest rate that is below average.",
"The purchases you normally make are invariably from businesses that accep... | 4 | The advertisement's argument depends on assuming which one of the following? |
Once children begin to read they acquire new vocabulary most naturally as the indirect result of reading difficult, challenging material. The major alternative—direct studying of new vocabulary items—is less natural; most people are not so inclined. From age six to age thirteen, children learn thousands of new words a year, mostly through reading; direct studying accounts for less than one-tenth of all new words learned. So it is bound to be inefficient for young students to learn new vocabulary by direct studying. | india4_2-LR1_23_25 | [
"Experts disagree on the estimates of how many words children typically learn from age six to age thirteen.",
"Children can learn new words from listening to adult conversations and to television.",
"Reading difficult material sometimes leaves one confused as to the meaning of certain words.",
"Children from ... | 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Some music theorists argue that music can arouse pity in the listener. But since pity can be felt only when there is someone or something to be pitied, and since nothing but the music is available to be the object of the listener's pity, if anything is pitiable, then it is the music itself. But it makes no sense to say that a piece of music is pitiable; so music cannot arouse pity in the listener. | india4_2-LR1_24_26 | [
"Some people claim that the quality of one's life can be estimated by summing all the positive aspects of one's life and subtracting all the negative aspects. This implies that it is possible to place a numerical value on such things as health and emotional well-being; but trying to put a numerical value on such th... | 0 | The pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following arguments? |
Most psychologists believe that perception is unchanging throughout adulthood. However, the ability to detect the various flavors of wine, and to perceive the complex way in which those flavors are balanced, develops only with much exposure to the taste of wine as an adult. For this reason, inexperienced wine drinkers are often disappointed when they taste a great wine—they are unable to perceive the wine the way an expert can. | india4_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"showing that nothing can remain unchanged throughout adulthood",
"presenting evidence that many experts disagree with the claim",
"presenting a specific instance that is not correctly described by the claim",
"showing how the claim is disproven by other general claims about perception",
"offering a princip... | 2 | The argument challenges the claim that perception is unchanging throughout adulthood by |
Currently, warm-blooded pets are allowed to enter the country only if they have a certificate showing that they have been vaccinated against rabies. This policy is flawed because vaccinations sometimes fail to take effect. If the vaccination is successful, the animal has a high level of rabies antibodies in its blood. Therefore, a more effective means of preventing pets with rabies from entering the country would be to administer blood tests and refuse entry to any pets whose blood did not contain a high level of rabies antibodies. | india4_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"Under the proposed policy, some pets that have not been infected with rabies might be prevented from entering the country.",
"There is no way to distinguish between high antibody levels caused by active infection and high levels caused by successful immunization.",
"Under existing policies, some species of ani... | 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most substantially weakens the argument? |
A recent study has found that, surprisingly, the risk of serious injuries to workers is higher in industries that are monitored by government safety inspectors than in industries that are not so monitored. | india4_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"Government safety inspectors not only monitor but also train employees of the inspected firms to follow safe practices.",
"Government safety inspectors do not have the authority to enforce safety regulations.",
"Only those industries with an inherently high risk of on-the-job injury are monitored by government... | 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the surprising finding described above? |
Some thinkers hold that whatever brings pleasure to people is good, and vice versa, and that whatever brings pain is evil, and vice versa. This, however, is obviously untenable. The concepts of good and evil are contradictory, whereas those of pleasure and pain are not. Clearly it is possible to be in a state of pleasure and pain at once. | india4_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"good does not apply to any of the same things that \"pleasure\" does",
"evil does not apply to any of the same things that \"pain\" does",
"it is merely accidental that \"pleasure\" and \"pain\" are applied in the same way as \"good\" and \"evil\" are applied",
"pleasure and \"pain\" possess a property not p... | 4 | The argument challenges a claim that two pairs of concepts are equivalent by claiming that |
A study of 8,000 randomly chosen adults in a European country found that 75 percent of those who consumed alcohol an average of twice or more per week over a six-month period suffered at least one cold during that period. We can tentatively conclude from this that consuming alcohol tends to increase one's susceptibility to colds. | india4_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"Eighty percent of those in the study who consumed alcohol three times or more per week suffered colds over the six-month period.",
"Seventy-five percent of those in the study who never consumed alcohol suffered at least one cold over the six-month period.",
"Fifty percent of those in the study who consumed alc... | 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument? |
Researchers wanted to know if secondhand tobacco smoke is a significant factor in contracting lung diseases. They conducted a study comparing the health of a group of nonsmoking spouses of smokers with that of a group of nonsmoking spouses of nonsmokers. It was discovered that the spouses of smokers were significantly more susceptible to lung diseases than were the spouses of nonsmokers. The researchers concluded that secondhand tobacco smoke is indeed a factor in the development of lung diseases. | india4_4-LR2_6_6 | [
"Significantly more of the spouses of smokers were raised by smokers than were the spouses of nonsmokers.",
"Spouses of nonsmokers are significantly less likely to engage in exercises that promote cardiovascular fitness than are spouses of smokers.",
"The members of the group of spouses of smokers were on avera... | 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most calls into question the researchers' conclusion? |
Spokesperson: The claim by the minister of education that teachers' attitudes are causing a decline in student performance is belied by events at any meeting of our Teachers Association. The workshops at these meetings are filled with teachers struggling to find new ways to teach their students. No one, not even a very unsympathetic observer, could detect any negative attitudes toward students. | india4_4-LR2_7_7 | [
"The argument focuses on the opponent rather than on the opponent's argument.",
"The argument takes for granted that the minister of education would be an unsympathetic observer.",
"The argument takes for granted that only when teachers' attitudes toward students are negative will those attitudes cause a declin... | 2 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the spokesperson's argument? |
Essayist: Human history is filled with the longing for eternal youth and immortality. Yet aging and death are normal and inevitable, indeed even desirable. Just imagine the ethical, social, and economic consequences that would result if it ever became possible to prevent them. | india4_4-LR2_8_8 | [
"It introduces the subject of the argument, but plays no logical role in establishing the main conclusion.",
"It is one of the conclusions of the argument, though it is not the main conclusion.",
"It is a claim that the argument as a whole is directed toward discrediting.",
"It sets out a problem to which the... | 0 | The claim that human history is filled with the longing for eternal youth and immortality figures in the essayist's argument in which one of the following ways? |
A certain type of prehistoric basket has been found in only two locations, one on private property and the other on a protected archaeological site. An electron microscope was used to examine one such basket. Unless an artifact has been thoroughly cleaned, an electron microscope will detect on the artifact minerals characteristic of the soil of the site where the artifact was excavated. Yet no minerals characteristic of the soil of the protected site were detected on the basket, although the basket was still encrusted with soil from the site from which it had been excavated. | india4_4-LR2_9_9 | [
"The basket was excavated on private property.",
"The basket was excavated on the protected site.",
"The basket was too encrusted with soil to be examined accurately.",
"No minerals characteristic of the soil of the private site were detected on the basket.",
"Some minerals characteristic of the soil of the... | 0 | The information in the passage, if correct, most strongly supports which one of the following? |
While studies indicate that university professors spend much of their time engaged in personal research not clearly related to teaching, it is unlikely that additional financial compensation for, say, a larger course load or longer office hours would be the most effective of various possible means of shifting the focus of their activities; this would be the best means only if their motivation to educate were no more than a mechanical response to the prospect of more money, which surely is not the case. | india4_4-LR2_10_10 | [
"Most professors now feel an obligation to educate that is at least somewhat unrelated to their desire for money.",
"Increased financial compensation would be a somewhat effective way to motivate professors to focus their activities on teaching.",
"The research conducted by most professors should be clearly rel... | 4 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? |
The governmental archives of a country recently freed from dictatorship contain no material incriminating the country's most notorious dictator in certain crimes that political observers believed him to have instigated. In fact, the archives contain documents implicating others in these crimes. Therefore, even though this dictator was probably guilty of many other crimes, the political observers' belief that he was also guilty of these crimes is almost certainly wrong. | india4_4-LR2_11_11 | [
"presumes, without providing justification, that rulers should not be held responsible for unjust actions carried out by their subordinates",
"fails to justify its presumption about the reliability of the archives as a source of information regarding the dictator's criminal involvement",
"fails to take into acc... | 1 | The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Praveen excels at volleyball. Anyone who plays volleyball daily excels at volleyball. Thus, Praveen plays volleyball daily. | india4_4-LR2_12_12 | [
"D'Souza sings every day. Anyone who sings every day is a good singer. Thus, D'Souza is a good singer.",
"D'Souza is a jogger. Anyone who dances is not a jogger. Thus, D'Souza is not a dancer.",
"Anyone who hikes exercises. D'Souza does not exercise. Thus, D'Souza does not hike.",
"Anyone who is a superb gour... | 3 | The reasoning error in the above argument is most similar to that in which one of the following? |
Tabloid magazines that report alien landings and celebrity sightings may be considered plebeian, but the public evidently prefers them to weekly newsmagazines that report more conventional news. A comparison of newsstand revenues shows far higher sales volumes for tabloids than for weekly newsmagazines. | india4_4-LR2_13_13 | [
"the news is any less conventional in tabloid magazines than in weekly newsmagazines",
"more newsmagazines than tabloid magazines are sold by subscription",
"any magazine ever reports conventional news about celebrities",
"tabloid magazines ever derive news stories from conventional sources",
"some tabloid ... | 1 | The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it fails to consider whether |
A naturally occurring deposit of radioactive material similar in composition to the dangerous waste produced by applications of nuclear technology has been found deep within the Earth's crust. No ill effects have been traced to this naturally occurring deposit. Since engineers have now developed a way to store manufactured nuclear waste as deeply within the Earth's crust as the recently found natural radioactive deposit, the safe disposal of nuclear waste can now be initiated. | india4_4-LR2_14_14 | [
"The total amount of dangerous waste produced annually has been declining in recent years.",
"It cannot currently be determined what the geological conditions are under which the naturally occurring radioactive deposit has apparently been safely contained.",
"It is now economically feasible to drill into the Ea... | 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Archaeologist: The allegation that members of the excavation team recovered artifacts outside the authorized site is unfounded. Archaeologists, unlike most treasure hunters, excavate artifacts to publish the results of their findings. But material recovered illegally could not be used in a publication without the illegal act being discovered. So it would be of no use to an archaeologist. | india4_4-LR2_15_15 | [
"ignores the possibility that not all members of the excavation team were archaeologists",
"fails to consider that not all treasure hunters act illegally",
"presumes without providing adequate justification that most treasure hunters excavate artifacts to sell them",
"assumes without providing warrant that an... | 0 | The archaeologist's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism because it |
The vast majority of first-year engineering students at Bighorn University are registered in Physics 121. Simone is registered in Physics 121; thus it seems likely that she is a first-year engineering student. | india4_4-LR2_16_16 | [
"Every engineering student at Bighorn University must pass Physics 121 or an equivalent in order to meet degree requirements.",
"The number of first-year engineering students at Bighorn University is slightly larger than the total number of students registered in Physics 121.",
"The engineering program at Bigho... | 1 | Which one of the following statements, if assumed, enables the conclusion above to be properly drawn? |
Moral integrity in business is of the highest concern, for businesses that lose their integrity cannot survive. By definition, a business that has lost its integrity is no longer integrated; hence businesses that lose their integrity literally disintegrate. | india4_4-LR2_17_17 | [
"takes for granted that the survival of businesses is the only important ethical concern",
"confuses a cause of integrity with an effect of integrity",
"contains a key term that shifts in meaning from one sense to another",
"overlooks the possibility that integrity is not a public-relations or management goal... | 2 | The argument's reasoning is flawed because the argument |
Some studies show that students are more creative after being given monetary rewards for their academic performance, but other studies show that students are less creative after receiving monetary rewards. Therefore, to avoid the risk of discouraging students' creativity, monetary rewards should not be given to them for academic performance. | india4_4-LR2_18_18 | [
"Studies are producing contrary results about the level of exercise that is optimal for maintaining fitness. Therefore, it is better to concentrate on diet as a means of maintaining fitness.",
"If Donna's supervisor learns that Donna is applying for another job, then the supervisor might offer Donna incentives to... | 1 | The reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the argument above? |
Hari: An awkward social situation develops when two people exchange gifts and the gift given by the first is obviously more valuable than that given by the second. Yet whenever two people exchange gifts of equal value, the gift givers soon realize that they would have done as well to keep their gifts, not give them away. Gift exchange, therefore, invariably results in either social awkwardness or else a useless transfer of commodities. Mili: But that is not true of my experience. For example, an old childhood friend and I recently exchanged presents that I am sure were vastly different in price. Yet since we gave one another gifts each of which expressed the giver's taste, we both considered the exchange highly appropriate. | india4_4-LR2_19_19 | [
"Every gift accepted incurs an obligation on the part of the recipient to reciprocate with a gift of equal value at a later date.",
"Only people who largely agree in matters of taste should exchange gifts.",
"The chief consideration when selecting a gift is that the gift reflect the giver.",
"Except in the mo... | 2 | Mili's judgment concerning the appropriateness of her gift exchange is most in accordance with which one of the following principles? |
Generally, of any two animal species, the species whose ratio of brain mass to body mass is greater will be the more intelligent. However, it has been established that many great mathematicians have brains considerably smaller, relative to their bodies, than the average human. This indicates that while the ratio of brain mass to body mass is a reliable indication of intelligence across species, this is not so within species. | india4_4-LR2_20_20 | [
"The ratio of brain mass to body mass is the most reliable indicator of intelligence across animal species.",
"There are no salient physiological differences between members within a species that reliably indicate which member is the more intelligent.",
"There are some great mathematicians with a relatively low... | 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
Some psychologists claim that empathic responses are forms of moral behavior. Having observed that young children who witness another's distress respond by expressing sadness and offering help, these psychologists believe that moral behavior begins early in life. A second group of psychologists claims that empathic response is not, by itself, moral behavior and that in order to count as moral, behavior must be based on a clear understanding of moral principles and a certain degree of moral reasoning skill. On the basis of children's unsophisticated verbal responses to hypothetical moral dilemmas, these psychologists conclude that children lack the degree of moral reasoning skill necessary for their behavior, however compassionate, to be considered moral. | india4_4-LR2_21_21 | [
"Cats and dogs, which are incapable of moral reasoning but capable of empathic responses, are capable of moral behavior.",
"People with strong empathic responses are more likely to be skilled in moral reasoning than are people with weaker empathic responses.",
"People with strong empathic responses are less lik... | 0 | Which one of the following is consistent with the claims of the first group of psychologists and inconsistent with the claims of the second group of psychologists? |
Some psychologists claim that empathic responses are forms of moral behavior. Having observed that young children who witness another's distress respond by expressing sadness and offering help, these psychologists believe that moral behavior begins early in life. A second group of psychologists claims that empathic response is not, by itself, moral behavior and that in order to count as moral, behavior must be based on a clear understanding of moral principles and a certain degree of moral reasoning skill. On the basis of children's unsophisticated verbal responses to hypothetical moral dilemmas, these psychologists conclude that children lack the degree of moral reasoning skill necessary for their behavior, however compassionate, to be considered moral. | india4_4-LR2_21_22 | [
"The children studied by the second group of psychologists displayed a slightly higher level of moral reasoning when they were well rested than when they were tired.",
"Adults who respond to hypothetical moral dilemmas display a much higher level of moral reasoning than do children who responded to the same hypot... | 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the conclusion drawn by the second group of psychologists? |
Newspaper report: The government's health department is unable to explain the recent finding that over time a 10 percent increase in the price of cigarettes caused a 5 percent reduction in the number of smokers. This is a surprising finding because cigarettes are known to be highly addictive and numerous studies have demonstrated that an increase in the price of cigarettes almost never causes people to quit smoking. | india4_4-LR2_22_23 | [
"The 10 percent price increase followed a recent 15 percent price increase.",
"The extent to which cigarettes are addictive depends on the brain physiology unique to the human species.",
"Previous price increases have also, over time, caused a reduction in the number of smokers.",
"As cigarette prices rise, s... | 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the finding that the increase in the price of cigarettes reduced the number of smokers? |
Only if Mallika knew where Jayesh's car was parked could she have stolen it from the parking garage. But Jayesh claims he did not tell her where his car was parked. If he is telling the truth, she would not have known unless she had been watching as his car was parked. But she was not watching. So either Jayesh told Mallika where his car was parked or someone besides Mallika stole the car from the parking garage. | india4_4-LR2_23_24 | [
"If Jayesh told Mallika where his car was parked, Mallika did not steal his car.",
"If Jayesh told Mallika where his car was parked, she could have stolen it from the parking garage.",
"Jayesh could not have told anyone other than Mallika where his car was parked.",
"Someone other than Mallika was watching as... | 4 | Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the argument's conclusion to be properly drawn? |
The important parts of any university professor's job include not only classroom teaching but also research, publication, and lectures to colleagues and the public. This is why university professors who are good classroom teachers but have not engaged in any other scholarly activities are usually denied tenure. | india4_4-LR2_24_25 | [
"University professors who have not failed to perform important parts of their jobs are not usually denied tenure.",
"Some university professors have been denied tenure even though they have done an important part of their jobs well.",
"University professors who do not engage in other scholarly activities are u... | 1 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
Historian: A democracy's citizens must know some history if the democracy is to meet its challenges. However, popular historical awareness is inevitably distorted, for most people learn history through popular narratives that sustain readers' interest by implying that a few famous heroes and notorious villains have shaped all of history. | india4_4-LR2_25_26 | [
"Historical awareness is distorted by the view that there have been only a few famous heroes or notorious villains.",
"History cast in the narrative format inevitably distorts historical reality.",
"Most historical narratives sustain interest by implying that a few famous heroes and notorious villains have shap... | 4 | The historian's argument depends on assuming which one of the following? |
Jay: The development of a plain writing style in seventeenth-century England was mainly due to an increase in the literacy rate. To reach moderately educated readers, writers simplified their style. Chandra: No, the pivotal factor was the increasing interest in science among the most highly educated people; a complex, artificial style, however beautiful, interfered with the presentation of scientific facts. | india5_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"whether the quality of written works in seventeenth-century England increased or decreased as a result of the development of a plain writing style",
"the extent of the changes in writing style that took place in seventeenth-century England",
"whether there was an increase in the percentage of people who were a... | 4 | Jay's and Chandra's comments indicate that they disagree about |
On the nights immediately following the mysterious Tunguska event, which destroyed a tract of Siberian wilderness in 1908, eyewitnesses reported seeing noctilucent clouds—brilliant night-visible clouds made up of ice particles that form rarely and only at very high altitudes. Recently, noctilucent clouds have been observed on the nights following launches of rockets that release large amounts of water vapor into the upper atmosphere. This shows that it was a comet impact and not the impact of an asteroid that caused the destruction in Siberia. | india5_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"Comets but not asteroids release large amounts of water vapor into the upper atmosphere when they collide with Earth.",
"Noctilucent clouds are visible for many consecutive nights following the release of water vapor into the upper atmosphere.",
"Comets collide with Earth more frequently than asteroids do.",
... | 0 | The argument depends on assuming which one of the following? |
Children in the first six standards of school who are publicly singled out for enthusiastic praise by their teachers show marked improvement in their schoolwork. But students in higher standards tend to react negatively to such praise, and their academic performance tends to decline as a result | india5_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"Younger children respond more to the tone of voice with which criticism is offered than to its explicit content.",
"Older students are less concerned with the approval of teachers than with the details of the criticisms and suggestions the teachers make.",
"Older students are more likely than younger students ... | 3 | Which one of the following most helps to explain the differing reactions described above? |
Bunty: The primary job of police officers is keeping the peace. Since their subsidiary jobs, such as controlling traffic, hinder their performance of the primary one, people other than police officers should be hired to perform the subsidiary jobs. Naina: To perform their primary job well, police officers must have the trust of citizens. They gain that trust by performing their subsidiary jobs, which are the only functions most citizens see them fulfill. | india5_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"whether the primary job of police officers is keeping the peace",
"whether the subsidiary jobs police officers perform enable them to perform their primary job effectively",
"whether police officers need to win the trust of law-abiding citizens in order to keep the peace effectively",
"whether police officer... | 1 | Bunty and Naina disagree with each other about |
Any organization must consider changing its basic structure if there is a dramatic change in its size. Doubling or tripling in size can lead to inefficiency and mismanagement, which restructuring often alleviates. Experience further shows that the more dramatic the change in size, the more fundamental the restructuring needs to be. Therefore, any organization must consider changing its basic structure once it is 20 years old. | india5_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"No organization that has remained the same size for 20 years is efficient.",
"Any organization that has been restructured is prepared to double or triple in size.",
"No organization that has not changed in size needs restructuring.",
"Any organization that has existed for 20 years has undergone a dramatic ch... | 3 | The argument's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
If deep-sea divers ascend too rapidly from ocean depths, the decreasing pressure causes nitrogen to be released as gas bubbles in the blood. This condition is known as "the bends." Sea snakes, who, like humans, breathe air that contributes nitrogen to the blood, are nevertheless able to make extremely rapid ascents and descents in ocean waters without suffering from the bends. | india5_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"Sea snakes, unlike humans, can excrete nitrogen from their blood into the sea by means of extremely small blood vessels beneath their skin.",
"Human deep-sea divers are trained to make several stops on ascending from deep water in order to adjust to decreasing pressure gradually, whereas sea snakes ascend from o... | 0 | Which one of the following, if true, contributes most to an explanation of the difference described between humans and sea snakes? |
Knowledge in all fields is expanding and Ph.D. students take longer than ever before—sometimes eight years' to complete degree requirements. Yet, instead of agreeing that the longer period is needed, some noted scholars are recommending that Ph.D. programs reduce their requirements and have students finish within three years. | india5_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"Quality of research matters more than quantity, even though, on average, the more time a Ph.D. student spends on research, the greater the quantity of research produced.",
"Some unusually talented Ph.D. students already complete all Ph.D. requirements within three years.",
"For at least the last 50 years, no r... | 4 | Which one of the following, if true, would most contribute to a justification of the noted scholars' recommendation? |
Loggerhead turtles are an endangered species. Aquarium officials presumably know and are concerned about the declining number of wild loggerheads. Nevertheless, aquariums keep loggerheads and display them. These turtles are being kept in captivity and are thus prevented from adding to the population of wild turtles. | india5_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"The adult loggerheads in captivity are too severely injured to survive in the wild.",
"The baby loggerheads in captivity are hatchlings too weak to survive in the wild.",
"The population of loggerheads in captivity has declined slightly over the last 20 years.",
"The captive loggerheads are used to help educ... | 2 | Each of the following, if true, contributes to an explanation of why aquarium officials keep loggerheads in captivity EXCEPT: |
Politician: Members of the national legislature have received a very large number of phone calls and letters from people wanting to express their opinions about the new bill before the legislature, which would increase the current tax on bidis and cigarettes by one rupee per pack to pay for new antismoking advertisements. Since a great majority of these people expressed opposition to the bill, it is clear that the public overwhelmingly opposes this tax increase. | india5_2-LR1_9_9 | [
"People who do not smoke bidis or cigarettes but work in tobacco-related industries are just as likely as smokers to oppose a bidi and cigarette tax.",
"Increasing the tax on bidis and cigarettes by one rupee per pack would reduce bidi and cigarette consumption so that total revenue from such taxes would not incr... | 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Anju: The Adkjos corporation does not fund social programs. Therefore, although Adkjos does make fine products, it is not socially responsible. Sanjeev: That doesn't mean that Adkjos is not socially responsible. If a business offers good pay and benefits to its employees, and fine service and value to customers, it is socially responsible. Adkjos does those things. | india5_2-LR1_10_10 | [
"To be socially responsible, it is not enough for a company to make fine products.",
"Socially responsible companies offer better pay than companies that are not socially responsible.",
"Not all companies that make fine products fund social programs.",
"Funding social programs is required for a business to be... | 3 | On the basis of their statements, Anju and Sanjeev are committed to disagreeing about which one of the following? |
Two crucial claims of relativity theory can be directly confirmed. Utilizing elementary particles in high-energy accelerators, we can demonstrate that at high velocities objects are subject to time dilation and an increase in mass. However, a third claim of the theory, the Lorentz contraction thesis, which is connected to the other two, is not directly confirmable. But the fact that the theory in general is supported by experimental results indirectly confirms the contraction thesis. | india5_2-LR1_11_11 | [
"A thesis that is related to other theses can be indirectly confirmed by the direct verification of the others.",
"The theses of a physical theory that cannot be confirmed by observable phenomena can only be confirmed indirectly.",
"One must confirm all the theses of a theory before accepting the theory general... | 0 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the principle underlying the reasoning above? |
Exposure to a large dose of something that causes bodily damage—such as excessive heat, poison, or nuclear radiation—is of course harmful to an organism. But, surprisingly, exposure to small doses of such stressors has been shown to extend life span in various species, including fruit flies, protozoans, worms, and rodents. | india5_2-LR1_12_12 | [
"In most of the species in which exposure to small doses of stressors increases longevity, the increase is so small that it is barely measurable.",
"Exposure to small doses of stressors stimulates an organism's natural repair mechanisms to fix any damage caused by the stressors as well as some unrelated damage.",... | 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the surprising phenomenon described above? |
Most people prefer to hire people they know. Thus it is difficult for people without business contacts to find good jobs. The only way to help such people find jobs is through nonfinancial incentives to change employers' behavior. | india5_2-LR1_13_13 | [
"It is cited as an explanation of why employers never hire those whom they do not know.",
"It is cited as an example of the general principle that nonfinancial incentives to change employers' behavior are necessary.",
"It is a conclusion for which the only support offered is that there is a need for nonfinancia... | 4 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the claim that most people prefer to hire people they know? |
An energy company proposes placing 250 giant turbines into the Gulf Stream to generate electricity for North America. Some Europeans worry, however, about the potential threat to their climate. Without the warming effects of the Gulf Stream, much of Europe would be as cold as Labrador and the Yukon, areas at the same latitude that are unaffected by warming currents. However, their concern is unwarranted: the company claims that 250 turbines would slow the Gulf Stream about 1 percent, which is not enough to affect the European climate. | india5_2-LR1_14_14 | [
"The argument relies on an authority that may be biased.",
"The argument presumes, without providing justification, that latitude and temperature are linked.",
"The argument takes for granted that Europe's climate is more important than meeting the energy needs of North America.",
"The argument ignores the po... | 0 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the reasoning of the argument? |
Like airplane accidents, most accidents in medical care result from human error, particularly failures in communication, leadership, and decision making. Following the introduction of standard procedures governing these three areas, the airline industry succeeded in significantly reducing the number and severity of accidents. Since airplane flights and health care delivery both require the cooperation of groups of people with diverse knowledge and skills, the medical care community should adopt a similar set of procedures in order to reduce errors. | india5_2-LR1_15_15 | [
"defending a general principle by presenting two separate successful applications of that principle",
"justifying the introduction of a set of procedures by outlining undesirable results in an analogous situation in which those procedures were not followed",
"attempting to undermine a generalization by providin... | 3 | Which one of the following is a technique of reasoning used in the argument? |
In a certain democratic country the legislature passed a new tax law over the principled objections of the parliamentary opposition. Some opposition leaders broke the new law by refusing to pay the new tax. They defended their lawbreaking by citing the historical precedent in the country of activists' having to break laws in winning for women the right to vote. | india5_2-LR1_16_16 | [
"Although they had principled objections to the new law, the opposition leaders derived a personal monetary benefit from breaking the law.",
"The activists fought for equality of the sexes, a principle easier to define than the goal pursued by the opposition leaders.",
"The opposition leaders, unlike the activi... | 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the opposition leaders' argument in defense of their actions? |
Small species, such as fathead minnows and waterfleas, can be used to uncover the quantity of toxic chemicals being dumped into rivers and streams. Under new rules issued in a certain country, these "indicator" species will be used to test the effluent pouring out of sewage treatment plants and factories among the country's waterways. If many of these animals die as a result of the test, the country is going to require that pollution levels be reduced. The new rules will apply to about 450 of the 2,000 factories and sewage treatment plants that legally discharge into the country's rivers and streams. | india5_2-LR1_17_17 | [
"Under the new rules, certain small species will be introduced into water samples taken from 2,000 sites around the country.",
"If, after the test, the country does not require that pollution levels be reduced, then few or none of the individuals of the indicator species died as a result of the test.",
"If few ... | 1 | Which one of the following can be inferred from the passage above? |
Aesthetician: Zahib's rejection of contemporary literature's aesthetic value depends on his claim that today's writing generally fails to grapple seriously enough with life's deepest ethical questions—whereas great books, he maintains, present profound moral lessons and "the stuff of conscience." But what resounding moral lesson does Vikram Seth's A Suitable Boy or Devaki Nandan Khatri's Chandrakanta impart? People read these two great novels because they are engaging, even thrilling, stories. The absence of a profound moral lesson in no way detracts from the aesthetic value of a novel. | india5_2-LR1_18_18 | [
"a novel that presents a profound moral lesson can have aesthetic value",
"today's writing generally fails to confront deep ethical questions",
"for a literary work to have aesthetic value it must present a profound ethical message",
"only novels that have aesthetic value fail to present profound moral lesson... | 2 | The aesthetician criticizes Zahib's position by arguing that it depends on the questionable premise that |
Paternalism is the practice by some governments of imposing regulations meant to promote their citizens' own good regardless of whether the citizens consent to those regulations. However, many members of free societies disapprove when individual freedom is curtailed for the sake of what the government deems to be the citizens' own good. They generally believe that they, not the government, know what activities are in their best interest | india5_2-LR1_19_19 | [
"The good of citizens is usually not advanced by the practice of paternalism.",
"The goals of free societies and the goals of their citizens always conflict.",
"No truly free societies have governments that practice paternalism.",
"In free societies, many of a government's citizens disapprove of their governm... | 3 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
Historian: Concern with achievement and power surged dramatically in the latter part of the eighteenth century, which is around the time that the Industrial Revolution began in Europe. So, it is clear that this surge in concern with achievement and power was a result of the Industrial Revolution | india5_2-LR1_20_20 | [
"it fails to adequately take into account that the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Europe cannot be located with any great precision",
"it fails to consider that there was some concern with achievement and power before the Industrial Revolution",
"increasing concern with achievement and power may very... | 2 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because |
Many famous painters employ preliminary sketches before embarking on the final version of their work. Yet frequently these preliminary sketches are beautiful and accomplished works of art in their own right. Museums with small budgets will display these preliminary works instead of what the artists consider to be their finished works of art. | india5_2-LR1_21_21 | [
"Artists are not the best judges of the value of their own work.",
"Museums with small budgets cannot be as interesting as those with large budgets.",
"A finished work of art cannot be produced without the execution of a high-quality preliminary sketch.",
"Artifacts may have uses different from those intended... | 3 | Which one of the following propositions is best illustrated by the situation described above? |
In a recent experiment, half the subjects were expert chess players; the other half had never played. First, the subjects were shown chessboards at various stages of actual games for ten seconds. Each expert was able to recall the positions of the pieces at least twice as well as any nonplayer. Second, the subjects were shown chessboards with the pieces randomly arranged, again for ten seconds. In this case the experts recalled the positions only marginally better, on average, than did the nonplayers. | india5_2-LR1_22_22 | [
"People who play chess have better memories than people who do not play chess.",
"People who play chess do not have better memories than people who do not play chess.",
"People remember information better when they can organize it according to rules that they know.",
"An expert is more likely than a nonexpert... | 2 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the results of the experiment? |
Professor: Different countries have different economic systems, but all economic systems have prosperity as their primary goal. Because people all want the same thing, there cannot be radical disagreement among people from different economic systems about practical economic matters. Thus all apparent disagreement in practical economic issues is illusory. | india5_2-LR1_23_23 | [
"The argument contradicts itself about whether there are in fact differences between economic systems in different countries.",
"The argument bases a general conclusion about economic systems on one example of such a system, which there is reason to think is atypical.",
"The argument depends on using the key te... | 4 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a reasoning error in the professor's argument? |
Journalist: Many people working on difficult problems in mathematics report going to sleep without a solution, but upon awaking discover they have a solution in mind. This phenomenon occurs among all age groups past infancy | india5_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"Everyone's mind works unconsciously on difficult problems while sleeping.",
"Certain types of mathematical problems cannot be solved while one is consciously seeking a solution.",
"Being well rested is a necessary condition for finding a solution to a difficult problem.",
"Consciously seeking a solution is n... | 3 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the journalist's statements? |
Over the past few decades dozens of people have claimed to have sighted the Yeti in the Himalayas. This provides strong evidence that the creature exists. | india5_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"take into account similar sightings in mountains other than the Himalayas",
"consider alternative explanations for the reported sightings",
"consider the absence of photographs of the Yeti",
"evaluate historical evidence for the existence of the Yeti",
"account for why most people still do not believe in t... | 1 | The reasoning in the argument is questionable because the argument fails to |
Migraines are caused by changes in certain blood vessels of the brain that result in a local disturbance in the action of a specific nerve-activating chemical. Two migraine remedies, drug K and drug L, have exactly the same restorative effects on the local action of this chemical, but L also disrupts the action of several other chemicals in the brain that govern mental activity and the body's metabolism. | india5_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"Treatment with L is likely to be slower-acting in its effect on a migraine than is treatment with K.",
"Neither treatment with L nor treatment with K is likely to have a significant effect on the symptoms of a migraine.",
"People whose migraines are treated with L are more likely to experience relief from pain... | 3 | The information above most strongly supports which one of the following hypotheses? |
Advertisement: The new Reflex computer represents a conceptual advance. Unlike traditional computers, the Reflex has a built-in monitoring function that continuously checks all other computer operations and lets you know if they are malfunctioning in any way, thus preventing the loss of data. With the Reflex, therefore, you'll never lose data again! | india5_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"The monitoring function can always determine the cause of the Reflex's malfunctioning.",
"The Reflex computer continues to process data while it is warning of a malfunction.",
"The monitoring function provides suggestions on how to prevent future malfunctions.",
"The monitoring function of the Reflex does no... | 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the advertisement's argument depends? |
Editorialist: Research reveals that patients of hospital cardiac units in which doctors perform many aggressive, high-tech procedures are less likely to be alive a month after leaving the hospital than are patients of hospital cardiac units that rely almost exclusively on standard treatments. This indicates that aggressive, high-tech treatments of cardiac disease are less effective than standard treatments. | india5_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"Some cardiac patients have lived for many years after receiving aggressive, high-tech treatments.",
"Hospitals that have high rates of long-term survival for cardiac patients do not always have high rates of long-term survival for other patients.",
"All cardiac patients have access to hospitals in which relati... | 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the editorialist's argument? |
Economist: When people save their money instead of spending it, that money is not being used to make the purchases of goods and services that help businesses remain profitable. Because these purchases are needed to generate tax revenues that can be used for government-funded scientific research, it is clear that industrial growth, which relies on the application of this government-funded research, will falter if the global political climate begins to make people anxious or cautious. | india5_4-LR2_6_6 | [
"People become less inclined to spend their money on goods and services when the global political climate makes them anxious or cautious.",
"The purpose of scientific research that is funded by tax money is to lend itself to applications that will sustain industrial growth.",
"People are often made anxious and ... | 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the economist's argument? |
Until recently, endosulfan was one of the most widely used pesticides. Some others—toxaphene, dieldrin, and chlordane—were banned or restricted in many countries in the 1980s but linger in the environment. All four have a weak effect individually in increasing estrogen levels in women. Scientists have found, however, that their potential to cause health hazards increases dramatically when the chemicals are combined. For example, a mixture of endosulfan and dieldrin had 160 to 1,600 times more estrogen-boosting potency than either chemical did individually. Increased estrogen is associated with an increased cancer risk in women. | india5_4-LR2_7_7 | [
"Pesticides that boost estrogen levels are more dangerous than others.",
"Any two pesticides in combination pose greater health risks than do the same pesticides uncombined.",
"Because of its hazards when combined with other chemicals, endosulfan is more dangerous than most other pesticides.",
"If certain pes... | 3 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
Columnist: In a recent article an economist argues that corporations have no responsibility to society beyond obeying the law and maximizing profit for shareholders. But in a different article the same economist endorses the view that corporations ought to make financial contributions to social programs in the communities in which they are located. Thus the economist is caught in a contradiction. | india5_4-LR2_8_8 | [
"corporations make nonfinancial contributions to social programs within their local communities",
"many shareholders of corporations are in favor of their corporations making contributions to community social programs",
"social programs have an economic effect on a community and are therefore part of the domain... | 3 | The columnist's argument is questionable because it fails to rule out the possibility that |
While conditions on Mars are no longer favorable for the evolution of life, scientists point out that in many ways Mars resembles portions of Antarctica, which do manage to support colonies of microbes. But these organisms require liquid water, as do all forms of life. And if there is liquid water on Mars at all, it is only seasonal and in small amounts. | india5_4-LR2_9_9 | [
"If there is no life on Mars, then there is no liquid water on Mars.",
"It is unreasonable to suppose that Mars has ever supported any forms of life.",
"If there are colonies of microbes in Antarctica, then there are colonies of microbes on Mars.",
"If there is life on Mars, then there is liquid water on Mars... | 3 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
Politician: The cohesion of a society depends on its members' accepting a set of basic principles. When these principles are routinely called into question, the society begins to erode. Any society, therefore, that allows schools to present the society's set of basic principles as simply one of several alternatives, with the suggestion that students may choose which to accept on the basis of the principles' worth, is inviting its own demise. | india5_4-LR2_10_10 | [
"Given the chance to assess the merits of the principles governing their societies, individuals will rarely find those principles acceptable.",
"One cannot evaluate a set of political principles without having first established criteria of evaluation.",
"Some flourishing societies do not encourage questioning o... | 0 | Which one of the following would, if true, most strengthen the politician's argument? |
Economist: In general, several apprentices working together produce about the same amount in an hour as a single more highly trained worker. Hence the more highly trained worker can usually command several times the hourly wage of an apprentice. Thus if the apprentice wage is increased, the hourly wages of more highly trained workers will generally rise by a proportionate amount. Therefore the reason that more highly trained workers favor an increased apprentice wage is that it would increase their own wages. | india5_4-LR2_11_11 | [
"if a policy change that people support would work in their favor, that is why they support it",
"if one event causes another event, then the first event occurs whenever the second event occurs",
"an increase in the apprentice wage would result in an increase in the wages of all better-paid workers",
"the wag... | 0 | The economist's reasoning is flawed because the economist takes for granted that |
Oxygenated petrol, although it reduces pollution, causes frequent stalling in poorly maintained automobiles. However, in laboratory tests of automobiles that had been driven 100,000 kilometers, those that had regularly used oxygenated petrol stalled less than those that had regularly used nonoxygenated petrol. | india5_4-LR2_12_12 | [
"The adverse effects from oxygenated petrol can be distinguished from mechanical engine problems in the laboratory tests.",
"Automobile owners who pay a high price for oxygenated petrol have less money for automobile maintenance than do automobile owners who buy the less expensive nonoxygenated petrol.",
"Drive... | 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the results of the laboratory tests described above? |
It has been hypothesized that dinosaurs became extinct simply because they grew too large and slow to function effectively as predators, but this cannot be right. If that hypothesis were correct, then small dinosaurs would have survived even though their large counterparts died off. But it is an undisputed fact that all dinosaurs—even very small ones—became extinct. | india5_4-LR2_13_13 | [
"stating a hypothesis and then supporting it by means of an example",
"introducing a hypothesis and then questioning the accuracy of the data on which it is based",
"refuting a hypothesis by showing that one of the consequences suggested by that hypothesis is false",
"disputing a hypothesis by offering a plau... | 2 | The argument above proceeds by |
If, when the twenty-third century arrives, the history of the Mughal Empire is better known than that of our time, it will be because of our enthusiasm for electronically stored digital files. The contents of most digital media vanish long before words written on high-quality paper would, and they become obsolete and unusable even sooner due to rapid technological innovation. While information written on paper can be read directly, access to digital information is doubly indirect: the sequence of digits representing the information must be retrieved, and then that sequence must be decoded by the appropriate software. | india5_4-LR2_14_14 | [
"The obsolescence brought about by ongoing technological innovation will make historical research increasingly difficult in the future.",
"Information written on paper is more readily accessible than the contents of digital documents.",
"Historically important records from the present era may be lost because of... | 2 | Which one of the following statements most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? |
Patel: It is often thought that direct experience, unlike language and culture, can always serve as common ground for communication among human beings. But people from different cultures inhabit different sensory worlds. Because selective screening of sensory data admits some perceptions while filtering out others, one person's experience, perceived through one set of culturally patterned sensory screens, is quite different from what anyone from another culture would experience when encountering the same sensory data. | india5_4-LR2_15_15 | [
"No two people from different cultures have the same sensory screens.",
"No two people from different cultures ever encounter the same sensory data.",
"Two people who have different perceptions of the same event must be from different cultures.",
"Two people from the same culture sometimes have different sens... | 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by Patel's argument? |
If the country's income taxes are decreased, the country's economy will not be strengthened, because many of the country's public employees would become unemployed, thereby further weakening the country's economy. | india5_4-LR2_16_16 | [
"Tax incentives will lure new businesses to the region, thereby increasing the region's employment, but even if no tax incentives are offered, employment in the region is likely to increase.",
"A slight increase in employment will not increase confidence in the current government, because people are aware that an... | 2 | The pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following arguments? |
Historian: The only evidence we have for claims about the past exists in the present. How things actually occurred is beyond our knowledge. Historians construct coherent stories that explain the available evidence and why the present is as it is. Such stories about the past, however, do not need to be true to be good history; they need only explain the evidence about the past and what we know about the present better than do rival accounts. | india5_4-LR2_17_17 | [
"It is likely that the 1857 War of Independence did not actually occur in the way we think it did.",
"It is not necessary to know what actually occurred during the 1857 War of Independence to write a good history of it.",
"An account of the 1857 War of Independence that is true is better as history than one tha... | 1 | Which one of the following judgments conforms most closely to the historian's position? |
University administrator: Saying that writing cannot be taught is as silly as saying that playing the violin cannot be taught. Of course writing can be taught. Writing classes have been taught at this university ever since it was founded. | india5_4-LR2_18_18 | [
"relies on using a key term in two different senses",
"rests entirely on a weak analogy",
"generalizes on the basis of mere speculation",
"treats a view with contempt instead of offering evidence against it",
"takes for granted that those who can teach one thing can teach another"
] | 0 | The reasoning in the university administrator's argument is flawed in that the argument |
Any ornamental garden has both plants and structural elements such as rocks and fences. Because the plants constantly change with growth and decay, it is difficult to keep a proper balance in the garden between the plants and the structures. Balance can be achieved only with careful planning, and even when established, balance has to be constantly maintained by pruning and thinning. | india5_4-LR2_19_19 | [
"It is difficult to keep a proper balance in a garden between structures and plants.",
"The proper balance in a garden between structures and plants is best achieved and maintained by careful planning.",
"The reason why it is difficult to keep a proper balance in a garden between structures and plants is that t... | 0 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? |
A dog who is emotionally indifferent and not securely attached to its human companion neither whimpers when the human leaves the room nor looks up to acknowledge the human's return. Some dogs do not whimper when their human companions leave them at kennels. These dogs, therefore, are emotionally indifferent and not securely attached to their human companions. | india5_4-LR2_20_20 | [
"A happy person is neither bitter nor depressed. Some successful people are bitter. These people, therefore, are not happy.",
"Creative people do not fear attempting to solve new problems and do not confine their thinking to solutions other people propose. Neena is not afraid of trying to solve new problems. Ther... | 1 | The flawed pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following? |
Old rose varieties have less vibrant colors than modern rose varieties, but are superior in fragrance. This situation has arisen because the modern rose varieties were developed to meet customer demand and marketed mainly through catalogs: colors, but not fragrances, can be photographed. | india5_4-LR2_21_21 | [
"People in earlier times were interested in the fragrances of roses as well as their colors.",
"Breeding roses to enhance one trait often has unanticipated consequences for other traits.",
"Old rose varieties are becoming increasingly popular as people discover their fragrances.",
"People in earlier times wou... | 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the support for the causal claim made above? |
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