context stringlengths 79 829 | id_string stringlengths 16 18 | answers listlengths 5 5 | label int64 0 4 | question stringlengths 23 302 |
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Some people have questioned why the Homeowners Association is supporting Cooper's candidacy for mayor. But if the Association wants a mayor who will attract more businesses to the town, Cooper is the only candidate it could support. So, since the Association is supporting Cooper, it must have a goal of attracting more businesses to the town. | 199402_1-LR1_4_5 | [
"the reasons the Homeowners Association should want to attract more businesses to the town are not given",
"the Homeowners Association could be supporting Cooper's candidacy for reasons unrelated to attracting businesses to the town",
"other groups besides the Homeowners Association could be supporting Cooper's... | 1 | The reasoning in the argument is in error because |
Advertisement: Most power hedge trimmers on the market do an adequate job of trimming hedges, but many power hedge trimmers are dangerous to operate and can cause serious injury when used by untrained operators. Bolter Industries' hedge trimmer has been tested by National Laboratories, the most trusted name in safety testing. So you know, if you buy a Bolter's, you are buying a power hedge trimmer whose safety is assured. | 199402_1-LR1_5_6 | [
"Has National Laboratories performed safety tests on other machines made by Bolter Industries?",
"How important to the average buyer of a power hedge trimmer is safety of operation?",
"What were the results of National Laboratories' tests of Bolter Industries' hedge trimmer?",
"Are there safer ways of trimmin... | 2 | The answer to which one of the following questions would be most useful in evaluating the truth of the conclusion drawn in the advertisement? |
Slash-and-burn agriculture involves burning several acres of forest, leaving vegetable ash that provides ample fertilizer for three or four years of bountiful crops. On the cleared land nutrients leach out of the soil, however, and the land becomes too poor to support agriculture. New land is then cleared by burning and the process starts again. Since most farming in the tropics uses this method, forests in this region will eventually be permanently eradicated. | 199402_1-LR1_6_7 | [
"forests in the tropics do not regenerate well enough to restore themselves once they have been cleared by the slash-and-burn method",
"some other methods of agriculture are not as destructive to the environment in tropical regions as the slash-and-burn method is",
"forests in the tropics are naturally deficien... | 0 | The argument depends on the assumption that |
Of 2,500 people who survived a first heart attack, those who did not smoke had their first heart attack at a median age of 62. However, of those 2,500, people who smoked two packs of cigarettes a day had their first heart attack at a median age of 51. On the basis of this information, it can be concluded that nonsmokers tend to have a first heart attack eleven years later than do people who smoke two packs of cigarettes a day. | 199402_1-LR1_7_8 | [
"the relative severity of heart attacks suffered by smokers and nonsmokers",
"the nature of the different medical treatments that smokers and nonsmokers received after they had survived their first heart attack",
"how many of the 2,500 people studied suffered a second heart attack",
"the earliest age at which... | 4 | The conclusion is incorrectly drawn from the information given because this information does not include |
Paleontologists have discovered fossils of centipedes that are 414 million years old. These fossils are at least 20 million years older than the earliest land-dwelling animals previously identified. The paleontologists are confident that these centipedes lived on land, even though the fossilized centipedes were discovered in rock that also contained fossilized remains of animals known to be water-dwelling. | 199402_1-LR1_8_9 | [
"The legs of the fossilized centipedes were particularly suited to being a means of locomotion on land.",
"All of the centipedes that had previously been discovered were land dwellers.",
"The rock in which the fossilized centipedes were found was formed from mud flats that were occasionally covered by river wat... | 3 | The paleontologists' view would be LEAST supported by the truth of which one of the following? |
Broadcaster: Our radio station has a responsibility to serve the public interest. Hence, when our critics contend that our recent exposé of events in the private lives of local celebrities was excessively intrusive, we can only reply that the overwhelming public interest in these matters makes it our responsibility to publicize them. | 199402_1-LR1_9_10 | [
"assuming without argument that there is a right to privacy",
"ignoring grounds for criticism of the exposé aside from intrusion into people's private lives",
"intentionally failing to specify what is meant by \"excessively intrusive\"",
"confusing legal responsibility with moral obligation",
"improperly ex... | 4 | Which one of the following is a flaw in the broadcaster's defense of the radio station's practice? |
The fire that destroyed the Municipal Building started before dawn this morning, and the last fire fighters did not leave until late this afternoon. No one could have been anywhere in the vicinity of a fire like that one and fail to notice it. Thomas must have seen it, whatever he now says to the contrary. He admits that, as usual, he went from his apartment to the library this morning, and there is no way for him to get from his apartment to the library without going past the Municipal Building. | 199402_1-LR1_10_11 | [
"Thomas was in the vicinity of the fire this morning",
"Thomas claimed not to have seen the fire",
"Thomas saw the fire this morning",
"Thomas went directly from his apartment to the library this morning",
"Thomas went by the Municipal Building this morning"
] | 2 | The main conclusion of the argument is that |
The fire that destroyed the Municipal Building started before dawn this morning, and the last fire fighters did not leave until late this afternoon. No one could have been anywhere in the vicinity of a fire like that one and fail to notice it. Thomas must have seen it, whatever he now says to the contrary. He admits that, as usual, he went from his apartment to the library this morning, and there is no way for him to get from his apartment to the library without going past the Municipal Building. | 199402_1-LR1_10_12 | [
"presenting several different pieces of evidence, each of which by itself would allow the conclusion to be properly drawn",
"establishing that one thing occurred by showing that another thing occurred and that this second thing was enough to ensure the occurrence of the first thing",
"justifying a claim that a ... | 1 | The argument employs which one of the following reasoning techniques? |
Editorial: In rejecting the plan proposed by parliament to reform the electoral process, the president clearly acted in the best interests of the nation. Anyone who thinks otherwise should remember that the president made this decision knowing it would be met with fierce opposition at home and widespread disapproval abroad. All citizens who place the nation's well-being above narrow partisan interests will applaud this courageous action. | 199402_1-LR1_11_13 | [
"it confuses a quality that is merely desirable in a political leader with a quality that is essential to effective political decision-making",
"it fails to distinguish between evidence concerning the courage required to make a certain decision and evidence concerning the wisdom of making that decision",
"it ig... | 1 | The reasoning in the editorial is in error because |
Once consumers recognize that a period of inflation has begun, there is generally an increase in consumer spending. This increase can be readily explained by consumers' desire not to postpone purchases that will surely increase in price. But during protracted periods of inflation, consumers eventually begin to put off making even routine purchases, despite the fact that consumers continue to expect prices to rise and despite the fact that salaries also rise during inflationary periods. | 199402_1-LR1_12_14 | [
"During times of inflation consumers save more money than they do in noninflationary periods.",
"There is usually a lag between the leading economic indicators' first signaling the onset of an inflationary period and consumers' recognition of its onset.",
"No generalization that describes human behavior will be... | 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the apparent inconsistency in consumer behavior described above? |
A favored theory to explain the extinction of dinosaurs, together with many other species, has been the globally catastrophic collision of a large asteroid with the Earth. Supporting evidence is an extraterrestrial chemical element in a layer of dust found worldwide at a geological level laid down contemporaneously with the supposed event. A new competing theory contends that any asteroid impact was irrelevant, because it was massive volcanic activity that caused the extinctions by putting enough dust into the atmosphere to cool the planet. The Deccan region of India contains extensive volcanic flows that occurred within the same time period as the supposed asteroid impact and the extinctions. | 199402_1-LR1_13_15 | [
"the massive volcanic activity was not caused by the impact of an asteroid",
"no individual dinosaurs survived the impact of the asteroid, if it occurred",
"the extinctions took place over a longer time period than they would have if caused by the impact of an asteroid",
"other volcanic eruptions were not occ... | 0 | The new theory assumes that |
A favored theory to explain the extinction of dinosaurs, together with many other species, has been the globally catastrophic collision of a large asteroid with the Earth. Supporting evidence is an extraterrestrial chemical element in a layer of dust found worldwide at a geological level laid down contemporaneously with the supposed event. A new competing theory contends that any asteroid impact was irrelevant, because it was massive volcanic activity that caused the extinctions by putting enough dust into the atmosphere to cool the planet. The Deccan region of India contains extensive volcanic flows that occurred within the same time period as the supposed asteroid impact and the extinctions. | 199402_1-LR1_13_16 | [
"Large concentrations of dinosaur nests with fossil eggs found in Alberta indicate that at least some species of dinosaurs congregated in large groups during some part of their lives.",
"Dinosaur remains indicate that some species of dinosaur could have migrated in herds over wide ranges, so that they could have ... | 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most strongly indicates that the asteroid-impact theory is at least incomplete, if not false? |
A contract, whether expressed or unexpressed, exists when two parties engage with each other for the reciprocal transfer of benefits. Thus, in accepting support from public funds, an artist creates at least an unexpressed contract between himself or herself and the public, and the public can rightly expect to benefit from the artist's work. | 199402_1-LR1_14_17 | [
"attempting to justify a rule of conduct on the grounds that it confers benefits on all of the parties involved",
"concluding that a definition is fully applicable to a situation when it is known only that the situation conforms partially to that definition",
"speaking only in abstract terms about matters that ... | 1 | Which one of the following most accurately describes an error in reasoning in the passage? |
People cannot be morally responsible for things over which they have no control. Therefore, they should not be held morally responsible for any inevitable consequences of such things, either. Determining whether adults have any control over the treatment they are receiving can be difficult. Hence in some cases it can be difficult to know whether adults bear any moral responsibility for the way they are treated. Everyone, however, sometimes acts in ways that are an inevitable consequence of treatment received as an infant, and infants clearly cannot control, and so are not morally responsible for, the treatment they receive. | 199402_1-LR1_15_18 | [
"An infant should never be held morally responsible for an action that infant has performed.",
"There are certain commonly performed actions for which no one performing those actions should ever be held morally responsible.",
"Adults who claim that they have no control over the treatment they are receiving shou... | 4 | Anyone making the claims above would be logically committed to which one of the following further claims? |
Fares on the city-run public buses in Greenville are subsidized by city tax revenues, but among the beneficiaries of the low fares are many people who commute from outside the city to jobs in Greenville. Some city councillors argue that city taxes should be used primarily to benefit the people who pay them, and therefore that bus fares should be raised enough to cover the cost of the service. | 199402_1-LR1_16_19 | [
"Many businesses whose presence in the city is beneficial to the city's taxpayers would relocate outside the city if public-transit fares were more expensive.",
"By providing commuters with economic incentives to drive to work, higher transit fares would worsen air pollution in Greenville and increase the cost of... | 3 | Each of the following, if true, would weaken the argument advanced by the city councilors EXCEPT: |
Government official: Clearly, censorship exists if we, as citizens, are not allowed to communicate what we are ready to communicate at our own expense or if other citizens are not permitted access to our communications at their own expense. Public unwillingness to provide funds for certain kinds of scientific, scholarly, or artistic activities cannot, therefore, be described as censorship. | 199402_1-LR1_17_20 | [
"All actions that cause unnecessary harm to others are unjust; so if a just action causes harm to others, that action must be necessary.",
"Since there is more to good manners than simply using polite forms of address, it is not possible to say on first meeting a person whether or not that person has good manners... | 3 | The flawed reasoning in the government official's argument is most parallel to that in which one of the following? |
The Japanese haiku is defined as a poem of three lines with five syllables in the first line, seven syllables in the second line, and five syllables in the third line. English poets tend to ignore this fact. Disregarding syllable count, they generally call any three-line English poem with a "haiku feel" a haiku. This demonstrates that English poets have little respect for foreign traditions, even those from which some of their own poetry derives. | 199402_1-LR1_18_21 | [
"confuses matters of objective fact with matters of subjective feeling",
"draws a conclusion that is broader in scope than is warranted by the evidence advanced",
"relies on stereotypes instead of presenting evidence",
"overlooks the possibility that the case it cites is not unique",
"fails to acknowledge t... | 1 | The reasoning is flawed because it |
No one knows what purposes, if any, dreams serve, although there are a number of hypotheses. According to one hypothesis, dreams are produced when the brain is erasing "parasitic connections" (meaningless, accidental associations between ideas), which accumulate during the day and which would otherwise clog up our memories. Interestingly, the only mammal that does not have rapid eye movement sleep, in which we humans typically have our most vivid dreams, is the spiny anteater, which has been seen as anomalous in that it has a very large brain relative to the animal's size. This fact provides some confirmation for the parasitic-connection hypothesis, since the hypothesis predicts that for an animal that did not dream to have an effective memory that animal would need extra memory space for the parasitic connections. | 199402_1-LR1_19_22 | [
"The animals with the smallest brains spend the most time sleeping.",
"Immediately after a person awakens from normal sleep, her or his memory contains virtually no accidental associations between ideas.",
"When a mammal that would normally dream is prevented from dreaming, the functioning of its memory will be... | 2 | The parasitic-connection hypothesis, if true, most strongly supports which one of the following? |
No one knows what purposes, if any, dreams serve, although there are a number of hypotheses. According to one hypothesis, dreams are produced when the brain is erasing "parasitic connections" (meaningless, accidental associations between ideas), which accumulate during the day and which would otherwise clog up our memories. Interestingly, the only mammal that does not have rapid eye movement sleep, in which we humans typically have our most vivid dreams, is the spiny anteater, which has been seen as anomalous in that it has a very large brain relative to the animal's size. This fact provides some confirmation for the parasitic-connection hypothesis, since the hypothesis predicts that for an animal that did not dream to have an effective memory that animal would need extra memory space for the parasitic connections. | 199402_1-LR1_19_23 | [
"Facts about one species of animal can provide confirmation for hypotheses about all species that are similar in all relevant respects to the particular species in question.",
"A hypothesis from which several predictions can be drawn as logical conclusions is confirmed only when the majority of these predictions ... | 3 | The reasoning in the argument most closely conforms to which one of the following principles? |
The body of anyone infected by virus X will, after a week, produce antibodies to fight the virus; the antibodies will increase in number for the next year or so. There is now a test that reliably indicates how many antibodies are present in a person's body. If positive, this test can be used during the first year of infection to estimate to within a month how long that person has had the virus. | 199402_1-LR1_20_24 | [
"Antibodies increase in number only until they have defeated the virus.",
"Without the test for antibodies, there is no way of establishing whether a person has virus X.",
"Antibodies are produced only for viral infections that cannot be fought by any other body defenses.",
"If a person remains infected by vi... | 4 | Which one of the following conclusions is best supported by the statements above? |
Large inequalities in wealth always threaten the viability of true democracy, since wealth is the basis of political power, and true democracy depends on the equal distribution of political power among all citizens. | 199402_1-LR1_21_25 | [
"Consumer culture and an emphasis on technological innovation are a dangerous combination, since together they are uncontrollable and lead to irrational excess.",
"If Sara went to the bookstore every time her pocket was full, Sara would never have enough money to cover her living expenses, since books are her lov... | 4 | The reasoning in which one of the following arguments most closely parallels the reasoning in the argument above? |
A physician who is too thorough in conducting a medical checkup is likely to subject the patient to the discomfort and expense of unnecessary tests. One who is not thorough enough is likely to miss some serious problem and therefore give the patient a false sense of security. It is difficult for physicians to judge exactly how thorough they should be. Therefore, it is generally unwise for patients to have medical checkups when they do not feel ill. | 199402_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"Some serious diseases in their early stages have symptoms that physicians can readily detect, although patients are not aware of any problem.",
"Under the pressure of reduced reimbursements, physicians have been reducing the average amount of time they spend on each medical checkup.",
"Patients not medically t... | 0 | Which one of the following, if true, would most seriously weaken the argument in the passage? |
A physician who is too thorough in conducting a medical checkup is likely to subject the patient to the discomfort and expense of unnecessary tests. One who is not thorough enough is likely to miss some serious problem and therefore give the patient a false sense of security. It is difficult for physicians to judge exactly how thorough they should be. Therefore, it is generally unwise for patients to have medical checkups when they do not feel ill. | 199402_4-LR2_1_2 | [
"Not all medical tests entail significant discomfort.",
"Sometimes, unnecessary medical tests cause healthy people to become ill.",
"Some patients refuse to accept a physician's assurance that the patient is healthy.",
"The more complete the series of tests performed in a medical checkup, the more likely it i... | 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would provide the most support for the conclusion in the passage? |
People often pronounce a word differently when asked to read written material aloud than when speaking spontaneously. These differences may cause problems for those who develop computers that recognize speech. Usually the developers "train" the computers by using samples of written material read by the people who will be using the computer. | 199402_4-LR2_2_3 | [
"it will be impossible to develop computers that decode spontaneous speech",
"when reading written material, people who have different accents pronounce the same word in the same way as one another",
"computers may be less reliable in decoding spontaneous speech than in decoding samples that have been read alou... | 2 | The observations above provide most evidence for the conclusion that |
One of the requirements for admission to the Lunnville Roller Skating Club is a high degree of skill in roller skating. The club president has expressed concern that the club may have discriminated against qualified women in its admissions this year. Yet half of the applicants admitted to the club this year were women. This proves that there was no discrimination against qualified women applicants in the club's admissions this year. | 199402_4-LR2_3_4 | [
"Only a few applicants were found to be qualified and were admitted to the club this year.",
"No more than half of all the roller skaters in Lunnville are women.",
"No more than half of all the roller skaters in Lunnville are men.",
"This year no more than half of the applicants who met all the qualifications... | 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the conclusion of the argument depends? |
When girls are educated in single-sex secondary schools, they tend to do better academically than girls who attend mixed-sex schools. Since Alice achieved higher grades than any other woman in her first year at the university, she was probably educated at a single-sex school. | 199402_4-LR2_4_5 | [
"When students have individual tutoring in math, they usually get good grades on their final exams. Celia had individual tutoring in math so she will probably get a good grade.",
"When babies are taught to swim, they have more than the average number of ear infections as they grow up. Janice has more ear infectio... | 1 | Which one of the following most closely parallels the flawed reasoning used in the argument above? |
In the past century, North America has shifted its main energy source first from wood to coal, then from coal to oil and natural gas. With each transition, the newly dominant fuel has had less carbon and more hydrogen than its predecessor had. It is logical to conclude that in the future the main energy source will be pure hydrogen. | 199402_4-LR2_5_6 | [
"If a series of transitions from one state of a system to another state of that system is allowed to continue without interference, the initial state of the series will eventually recur.",
"If each of two desirable attributes belongs to a useful substance, then the most useful form of that substance will have tho... | 3 | Which one of the following expresses a general principle that could underlie the argument? |
X: Since many chemicals useful for agriculture and medicine derive from rare or endangered plant species, it is likely that many plant species that are now extinct could have provided us with substances that would have been a boon to humanity. Therefore, if we want to ensure that chemicals from plants are available for use in the future, we must make more serious efforts to preserve for all time our natural resources. Y: But living things are not our "resources." Yours is a selfish approach to conservation. We should rather strive to preserve living species because they deserve to survive, not because of the good they can do us. | 199402_4-LR2_6_7 | [
"whether the benefits humans derive from exploiting nonhuman species provide a good reason for preserving nonhuman species",
"whether the cost of preserving plant species outweighs the cost of artificially synthesizing chemicals that could otherwise be derived from those species",
"whether it is prudent to cons... | 0 | Which one of the following is an issue about which X and Y disagree? |
X: Since many chemicals useful for agriculture and medicine derive from rare or endangered plant species, it is likely that many plant species that are now extinct could have provided us with substances that would have been a boon to humanity. Therefore, if we want to ensure that chemicals from plants are available for use in the future, we must make more serious efforts to preserve for all time our natural resources. Y: But living things are not our "resources." Yours is a selfish approach to conservation. We should rather strive to preserve living species because they deserve to survive, not because of the good they can do us. | 199402_4-LR2_6_8 | [
"Medicine would now be more advanced than it is if there had been a serious conservation policy in the past.",
"All living things exist to serve humankind.",
"The use of rare and endangered plant species as a source for chemicals will not itself render those species extinct.",
"The only way to persuade people... | 2 | X's argument relies on which one of the following assumptions? |
There is relatively little room for growth in the overall carpet market, which is tied to the size of the population. Most who purchase carpet do so only once or twice, first in their twenties or thirties, and then perhaps again in their fifties or sixties. Thus as the population ages, companies producing carpet will be able to gain market share in the carpet market only through purchasing competitors, and not through more aggressive marketing. | 199402_4-LR2_7_9 | [
"Most of the major carpet producers market other floor coverings as well.",
"Most established carpet producers market several different brand names and varieties, and there is no remaining niche in the market for new brands to fill.",
"Two of the three mergers in the industry's last ten years led to a decline i... | 3 | Which one of the following, if true, casts the most doubt on the conclusion above? |
Decision makers tend to have distinctive styles. One such style is for the decision maker to seek the widest possible input from advisers and to explore alternatives while making up his or her mind. In fact, decision makers of this sort will often argue vigorously for a particular idea, emphasizing its strong points and downplaying its weaknesses, not because they actually believe in the idea but because they want to see if their real reservations about it are idiosyncratic or are held independently by their advisers. | 199402_4-LR2_8_10 | [
"If certain decision makers' statements are quoted accurately and at length, the content of the quote could nonetheless be greatly at variance with the decision eventually made.",
"Certain decision makers do not know which ideas they do not really believe in until after they have presented a variety of ideas to t... | 0 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the statements above? |
The foreign minister of Zeria announced today that her country was severing diplomatic relations with Nandalo because of Nandalo's flagrant violations of human rights. But Zeria continues to maintain diplomatic relations with many countries that the minister knows to have far worse human-rights records than Nandalo does. Therefore, despite the foreign minister's claim, this latest diplomatic move cannot be explained exclusively by Zeria's commitment to upholding human rights. | 199402_4-LR2_9_11 | [
"The country that currently buys most of Zeria's exports recently suggested that it might severely restrict its imports from Zeria unless Zeria broke off diplomatic relations with Nandalo.",
"Two weeks after the Zerian minister's announcement, several other countries cited human-rights violations as a reason for ... | 0 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the most support for the argument in the passage? |
The foreign minister of Zeria announced today that her country was severing diplomatic relations with Nandalo because of Nandalo's flagrant violations of human rights. But Zeria continues to maintain diplomatic relations with many countries that the minister knows to have far worse human-rights records than Nandalo does. Therefore, despite the foreign minister's claim, this latest diplomatic move cannot be explained exclusively by Zeria's commitment to upholding human rights. | 199402_4-LR2_9_12 | [
"Henry's parents insist that he eat breakfast before leaving for school because not doing so would be bad for his health. But his parents themselves almost never eat breakfast, so their insistence cannot be completely explained by their concern for his health.",
"Professor Walsh says that only typed term papers w... | 3 | The argumentative structure of which one of the following most closely parallels that of the argument in the passage? |
Few politicians will support legislation that conflicts with their own self-interest. A case in point is August Frenson, who throughout his eight terms in office consistently opposed measures limiting the advantage incumbents enjoy over their challengers. Therefore, if such measures are to be enacted, they must result from direct popular vote rather than from legislative action. | 199402_4-LR2_10_13 | [
"It provides evidence, the falsity of which would guarantee the falsity of the author's conclusion.",
"It is cited as an example illustrating the generalization that is invoked.",
"It gives essential background information concerning a measure being advocated.",
"It demonstrates the extent to which incumbents... | 1 | The case of August Frenson plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
In a learning experiment a researcher ran rats through a maze. Some of the rats were blind, others deaf, others lacked a sense of smell, and others had no sensory deficiencies; yet all the rats learned the task in much the same amount of time. Of the senses other than sight, hearing, and smell, only kinesthesia had not previously been shown to be irrelevant to maze-learning. The researcher concluded on the basis of these facts that kinesthesia, the sensation of bodily movement, is sufficient for maze-learning. | 199402_4-LR2_11_14 | [
"The small differences in proficiency found by the researcher did not appear to fall into a systematic pattern by group.",
"The possibility that the interaction of kinesthesia with at least one other sense is required for maze-learning cannot be ruled out on the basis of the data above.",
"It can be determined ... | 1 | The researcher's reasoning is most vulnerable to which one of the following criticisms? |
New legislation would require a seven-day waiting period in the sale of handguns to private individuals, in order that records of prisons could be checked and the sale of handguns to people likely to hurt other people thereby prevented. People opposed to this legislation claim that prison records are so full of errors that the proposed law would prevent as many law-abiding citizens as criminals from having access to handguns. | 199402_4-LR2_12_15 | [
"The rights of law-abiding citizens are more worthy of protection than are the rights of criminals.",
"Nothing should be done to restrict potential criminals at the cost of placing restrictions on law-abiding citizens.",
"Legislation should not be enacted if no benefit could accrue to society as a result of tha... | 1 | If the claim made by people opposed to the new legislation is true, which one of the following is a principle that, if established, would do the most to justify opposition to the new legislation on the basis of that claim? |
The Gulches is an area of volcanic rock that is gashed by many channels that lead downhill from the site of a prehistoric glacier to a river. The channels clearly were cut by running water. It was once accepted as fact that the cutting occurred gradually, as the glacier melted. But one geologist theorized that the channels were cut in a short time by an enormous flood. The channels do show physical evidence of having been formed quickly, but the flood theory was originally rejected because scientists knew of no natural process that could melt so much ice so quickly. Paradoxically, today the scientific community accepts the flood theory even though scientists still do not know of a process that can melt so much ice so quickly. | 199402_4-LR2_13_16 | [
"Only running water can cause deep channels in volcanic rock.",
"The river did not exist before the channels were cut.",
"Geologists cannot determine the amount of heat required to melt a glacier quickly.",
"The physical effects of water on rock vary with the speed with which those effects are produced.",
"... | 3 | Which one of the following is supported by the information in the passage? |
The Gulches is an area of volcanic rock that is gashed by many channels that lead downhill from the site of a prehistoric glacier to a river. The channels clearly were cut by running water. It was once accepted as fact that the cutting occurred gradually, as the glacier melted. But one geologist theorized that the channels were cut in a short time by an enormous flood. The channels do show physical evidence of having been formed quickly, but the flood theory was originally rejected because scientists knew of no natural process that could melt so much ice so quickly. Paradoxically, today the scientific community accepts the flood theory even though scientists still do not know of a process that can melt so much ice so quickly. | 199402_4-LR2_13_17 | [
"Ripples, which indicate that the channels were cut by water, have been discovered in the floors of the channels.",
"The Gulches is known to be similar in certain respects to many other volcanic rock formations.",
"More than one glacier was present in the area during prehistoric times.",
"Volcanic rock is mor... | 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent paradox in the passage? |
Advertisement: Attention pond owners! Ninety-eight percent of mosquito larvae in a pond die within minutes after the pond has been treated with BTI. Yet BTI is not toxic to fish, birds, animals, plants, or beneficial insects. So by using BTI regularly to destroy their larvae, you can greatly reduce populations of pesky mosquitoes that hatch in your pond, and you can do so without diminishing the populations of fish, frogs, or beneficial insects in and around the pond. | 199402_4-LR2_14_18 | [
"The most effective way to control the numbers of mosquitoes in a given area is to destroy the mosquito larvae in that area.",
"Populations of mosquitoes are not dependent on a single body of water within an area as a place for their larvae to hatch and develop.",
"There are no insect pests besides mosquitoes t... | 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Many people change their wills on their own every few years, in response to significant changes in their personal or financial circumstances. This practice can create a problem for the executor when these people are careless and do not date their wills: the executor will then often know neither which one of several undated wills is the most recent, nor whether the will drawn up last has ever been found. Therefore, people should not only date their wills but also state in any new will which will it supersedes, for then there would not be a problem to begin with. | 199402_4-LR2_15_19 | [
"treats a partial solution to the stated problem as though it were a complete solution",
"fails to distinguish between prevention of a problem and successful containment of the adverse effects that the problem might cause",
"proposes a solution to the stated problem that does not actually solve the problem but ... | 0 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument |
Some flowering plant species, entirely dependent on bees for pollination, lure their pollinators with abundant nectar and pollen, which are the only source of food for bees. Often the pollinating species is so highly adapted that it can feed from—and thus pollinate—only a single species of plant. Similarly, some plant species have evolved flowers that only a single species of bee can pollinate—an arrangement that places the plant species at great risk of extinction. If careless applications of pesticides destroy the pollinating bee species, the plant species itself can no longer reproduce. | 199402_4-LR2_16_20 | [
"The earliest species of flowering plants appeared on Earth contemporaneously with the earliest bee species.",
"If the sole pollinator of a certain plant species is in no danger of extinction, the plant species it pollinates is also unlikely to become extinct.",
"Some bees are able to gather pollen and nectar f... | 4 | The information above, if true, most strongly supports which one of the following? |
The proper way to plan a scientific project is first to decide its goal and then to plan the best way to accomplish that goal. The United States space station project does not conform to this ideal. When the Cold War ended, the project lost its original purpose, so another purpose was quickly grafted onto the project, that of conducting limited-gravity experiments, even though such experiments can be done in an alternative way. It is, therefore, abundantly clear that the space station should not be built. | 199402_4-LR2_17_21 | [
"attacks the proponents of a claim rather than arguing against the claim itself",
"presupposes what it sets out to prove",
"faults planners for not foreseeing a certain event, when in fact that event was not foreseeable",
"contains statements that lead to a self-contradiction",
"concludes that a shortcoming... | 4 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument |
Only an expert in some branch of psychology could understand why Patrick is behaving irrationally. But no expert is certain of being able to solve someone else's problem. Patrick wants to devise a solution to his own behavioral problem. | 199402_4-LR2_18_22 | [
"Patrick does not understand why he is behaving in this way.",
"Patrick is not an expert in psychology.",
"Patrick is not certain of being able to devise a solution to his own behavioral problem.",
"Unless Charles is an expert in some branch of psychology, Charles should not offer a solution to Patrick's beha... | 4 | Which one of the following conclusions can be validly drawn from the passage? |
Throughout European history famines have generally been followed by periods of rising wages, because when a labor force is diminished, workers are more valuable in accordance with the law of supply and demand. The Irish potato famine of the 1840s is an exception; it resulted in the death or emigration of half of Ireland's population, but there was no significant rise in the average wages in Ireland in the following decade. | 199402_4-LR2_19_23 | [
"Improved medical care reduced the mortality rate among able-bodied adults in the decade following the famine to below prefamine levels.",
"Eviction policies of the landowners in Ireland were designed to force emigration of the elderly and infirm, who could not work, and to retain a high percentage of able-bodied... | 3 | Which one of the following, if true, would LEAST contribute to an explanation of the exception to the generalization? |
When the rate of inflation exceeds the rate of return on the most profitable investment available, the difference between those two rates will be the percentage by which, at a minimum, the value of any investment will decline. If in such a circumstance the value of a particular investment declines by more than that percentage, it must be true that ____. | 199402_4-LR2_20_24 | [
"the rate of inflation has risen",
"the investment in question is becoming less profitable",
"the investment in question is less profitable than the most profitable investment available",
"the rate of return on the most profitable investment available has declined",
"there has been a change in which particu... | 2 | Which one of the following logically completes the argument? |
Philosopher: The eighteenth-century thesis that motion is absolute asserts that the change in an object's position over time could be measured without reference to the position of any other object. A well-respected physicist, however, claims that this thesis is incoherent. Since a thesis that is incoherent cannot be accepted as a description of reality, motion cannot be absolute. | 199402_4-LR2_21_25 | [
"attempting to persuade by the mere use of technical terminology",
"using experimental results to justify a change in definition",
"relying on the authority of an expert to support a premise",
"inferring from what has been observed to be the case under experimental conditions to what is in principle true",
... | 2 | The argument uses which one of the following argumentative techniques? |
Sea turtles nest only at their own birthplaces. After hatching on the beach, the turtles enter the water to begin their far-ranging migration, only returning to their birthplaces to nest some 15 to 30 years later. It has been hypothesized that newborn sea turtles learn the smell of their birth environment, and it is this smell that stimulates the turtles to return to nest. | 199406_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"Beaches on which sea turtles nest tend to be in secluded locations such as on islands.",
"Sea turtles exposed to a variety of environments under experimental conditions preferred the environment that contained sand from their own birthplaces.",
"Electronic tags attached to sea turtles did not alter their nesti... | 4 | Which one of the following, if true, would cast the most serious doubt on the hypothesis in the passage? |
Sea turtles nest only at their own birthplaces. After hatching on the beach, the turtles enter the water to begin their far-ranging migration, only returning to their birthplaces to nest some 15 to 30 years later. It has been hypothesized that newborn sea turtles learn the smell of their birth environment, and it is this smell that stimulates the turtles to return to nest. | 199406_2-LR1_1_2 | [
"how long the expected life span of sea turtles is",
"what the maximum migratory range of mature sea turtles is",
"whether many beaches on which sea turtles were hatched have since been destroyed by development",
"whether immediately before returning to nest, sea turtles are outside the area where the smell o... | 3 | Which one of the following would be most important to know in evaluating the hypothesis in the passage? |
For Juanita to get to the zoo she must take either the number 12 bus or else the subway. Everyone knows that the number 12 bus is not running this week; so although Juanita generally avoids using the subway, she must have used it today, since she was seen at the zoo this afternoon. | 199406_2-LR1_2_3 | [
"assert that if something is true, it will be known to be true",
"demonstrate that certain possibilities are not exclusive",
"show that something is the case by ruling out the only alternative",
"explain why an apparent exception to a general rule is not a real exception",
"substitute a claim about what inv... | 2 | The method of the argument is to |
If the regulation of computer networks is to be modeled on past legislation, then its model must be either legislation regulating a telephone system or else legislation regulating a public broadcasting service. If the telephone model is used, computer networks will be held responsible only for ensuring that messages get transmitted. If the public broadcast model is used, computer networks will additionally be responsible for the content of those messages. Yet a computer network serves both these sorts of functions: it can serve as a private message service or as a publicly accessible information service. Thus neither of these models can be appropriate for computer networks. | 199406_2-LR1_3_4 | [
"Regulation of computer networks is required in order to ensure the privacy of the messages transmitted through such networks.",
"The regulation of computer networks should not be modeled on any single piece of past legislation.",
"Computer networks were developed by being modeled on both telephone systems and ... | 1 | The passage is structured to lead to which one of the following conclusions? |
The government has proposed a plan requiring young people to perform services to correct various current social ills, especially those in education and housing. Government service, however, should be compelled only in response to a direct threat to the nation's existence. For that reason, the proposed program should not be implemented. | 199406_2-LR1_4_5 | [
"Government-required service by young people cannot correct all social ills.",
"The nation's existence is directly threatened only in times of foreign attack.",
"Crises in education and housing constitute a threat to the nation's existence.",
"The nation's young people believe that current social ills pose no... | 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Cigarette smoking has been shown to be a health hazard; therefore, governments should ban all advertisements that promote smoking. | 199406_2-LR1_5_6 | [
"Advertisements should not be allowed to show people doing things that endanger their health.",
"Advertisers should not make misleading claims about the healthfulness of their products.",
"Advertisements should disclose the health hazards associated with the products they promote.",
"All products should confo... | 4 | Which one of the following principles, if established, most strongly supports the argument? |
Every adult male woolly monkey is larger than even the largest female woolly monkey. In colonies of woolly monkeys, any adult male will dominate any female. | 199406_2-LR1_6_7 | [
"Size is the primary determinant of relations of dominance among woolly monkeys.",
"Some large adolescent male woolly monkeys dominate some smaller females of the species.",
"If a male woolly monkey is larger than a female of the species, that male will dominate that female.",
"If a female woolly monkey domin... | 3 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must on the basis of them be true of woolly monkeys in colonies? |
S: Our nation is becoming too averse to risk. We boycott any food reported to contain a toxic chemical, even though the risk, as a mathematical ratio, might be minimal. With this mentality, Columbus would never have sailed west. T: A risk-taker in one context can be risk-averse in another: the same person can drive recklessly, but refuse to eat food not grown organically. | 199406_2-LR1_7_8 | [
"a distinction should be made between avoidable and unavoidable risks",
"to risk cannot be reliably assessed without reference to context",
"there is confusion about risk in the minds of many members of the public",
"mathematical odds concerning risk give an unwarranted impression of precision",
"risk canno... | 1 | T responds to S by showing that |
Any announcement authorized by the head of the department is important. However, announcements are sometimes issued, without authorization, by people other than the head of the department, so some announcements will inevitably turn out not to be important. | 199406_2-LR1_8_9 | [
"does not specify exactly which communications are to be classified as announcements",
"overlooks the possibility that people other than the head of the department have the authority to authorize announcements",
"leaves open the possibility that the head of the department never, in fact, authorizes any announce... | 3 | The reasoning is flawed because the argument |
The labeling of otherwise high-calorie foods as "sugar-free," based on the replacement of all sugar by artificial sweeteners, should be prohibited by law. Such a prohibition is indicated because many consumers who need to lose weight will interpret the label "sugar-free" as synonymous with "low in calories" and harm themselves by building weight-loss diets around foods labeled "sugar-free." Manufacturers of sugar-free foods are well aware of this tendency on the part of consumers. | 199406_2-LR1_9_10 | [
"Product labels that are literally incorrect should be prohibited by law, even if reliance on those labels is not likely to cause harm to consumers.",
"Product labels that are literally incorrect, but in such an obvious manner that no rational consumer would rely on them, should nevertheless be prohibited by law.... | 3 | Which one of the following principles, if established, most helps to justify the conclusion in the passage? |
The labeling of otherwise high-calorie foods as "sugar-free," based on the replacement of all sugar by artificial sweeteners, should be prohibited by law. Such a prohibition is indicated because many consumers who need to lose weight will interpret the label "sugar-free" as synonymous with "low in calories" and harm themselves by building weight-loss diets around foods labeled "sugar-free." Manufacturers of sugar-free foods are well aware of this tendency on the part of consumers. | 199406_2-LR1_9_11 | [
"Food manufacturers would respond to a ban on the label \"sugar-free\" by reducing the calories in sugar-free products by enough to be able to promote those products as diet foods.",
"Individuals who are diabetic need to be able to identify products that contain no sugar by reference to product labels that expres... | 1 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the strongest basis for challenging the conclusion in the passage? |
In the Centerville Botanical Gardens, all tulip trees are older than any maples. A majority, but not all, of the garden's sycamores are older than any of its maples. All the garden's maples are older than any of its dogwoods. | 199406_2-LR1_10_12 | [
"Some dogwoods are as old as the youngest tulip trees.",
"Some dogwoods are as old as the youngest sycamores.",
"Some sycamores are not as old as the oldest dogwoods.",
"Some tulip trees are not as old as the oldest sycamores.",
"Some sycamores are not as old as the youngest tulip trees."
] | 4 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true of trees in the Centerville Botanical Gardens? |
Emissions from automobiles that burn gasoline and automobiles that burn diesel fuel are threatening the quality of life on our planet, contaminating both urban air and global atmosphere. Therefore, the only effective way to reduce such emissions is to replace the conventional diesel fuel and gasoline used in automobiles with cleaner-burning fuels, such as methanol, that create fewer emissions. | 199406_2-LR1_11_13 | [
"Reducing the use of automobiles would not be a more effective means to reduce automobile emissions than the use of methanol.",
"There is no fuel other than methanol that is cleaner-burning than both diesel fuel and gasoline.",
"If given a choice of automobile fuels, automobile owners would not select gasoline ... | 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Dr. Libokov: Certain islands near New Zealand are home to the tuatara, reptiles that are the sole surviving members of the sphenodontidans. Sphenodontidans were plentiful throughout the world during the age of the dinosaurs. But the survival of sphenodontidans near New Zealand, and their total disappearance elsewhere, is no mystery. New Zealand and nearby islands have no native land mammals. Land mammals, plentiful elsewhere, undoubtedly became major predators of sphenodontidans and their eggs, leading to their extinction. Dr. Santos: In fact, the tuatara thrive only on a few islands near New Zealand. On all those where land mammals, such as rats, dogs, or cats, have been introduced in recent years, the tuatara are now extinct or nearly so. | 199406_2-LR1_12_14 | [
"It identifies a flaw in Dr. Libokov's reasoning.",
"It restates Dr. Libokov's major hypothesis and thus adds nothing to it.",
"It contradicts one of Dr. Libokov's assertions.",
"It offers a hypothesis that is incompatible with Dr. Libokov's position.",
"It provides additional evidence in support of Dr. Lib... | 4 | Which one of the following most accurately characterizes Dr. Santos' response to the hypothesis advanced by Dr. Libokov? |
A standard problem for computer security is that passwords that have to be typed on a computer keyboard are comparatively easy for unauthorized users to steal or guess. A new system that relies on recognizing the voices of authorized users apparently avoids this problem. In a small initial trial, the system never incorrectly accepted someone seeking access to the computer's data. Clearly, if this result can be repeated in an operational setting, then there will be a way of giving access to those people who are entitled to access and to no one else. | 199406_2-LR1_13_15 | [
"makes a faulty comparison, in that a security system based on voice recognition would not be expected to suffer from the same problems as one that relied on passwords entered from a keyboard",
"bases a general conclusion on a small amount of data",
"fails to recognize that a security system based on voice reco... | 3 | The reasoning above is flawed because it |
Body temperature varies over a 24-hour period, with a low point roughly between 4 a.m. and 5 a.m. Speed of reaction varies in line with body temperature, such that whenever body temperature is low, speed of reaction is low. If low body temperature caused slow reaction, the speed of reaction should increase if we artificially raised body temperature during the period 4 a.m. to 5 a.m. But the speed of reaction does not increase. | 199406_2-LR1_14_16 | [
"Low speeds of reaction cause low body temperature.",
"Low speeds of reaction do not cause low body temperature.",
"Low body temperatures do not cause low speeds of reaction.",
"Low body temperatures cause low speeds of reaction.",
"Artificially raising body temperature causes increased speed of reaction."
... | 2 | Which one of the following conclusions can properly be drawn from the above statements? |
Of the two proposals for solving the traffic problems on Main Street, Chen's plan is better for the city as a whole, as is clear from the fact that the principal supporter of Ripley's plan is Smith Stores. Smith Stores, with its highly paid consultants, knows where its own interest lies and, moreover, has supported its own interests in the past, even to the detriment of the city as a whole. | 199406_2-LR1_15_17 | [
"Surely Centreville should oppose adoption of the regional planning commission's new plan since it is not in Centreville's interest, even though it might be in the interest of some towns in the region.",
"The school board should support the plan for the new high school since this plan was recommended by the well-... | 4 | The faulty reasoning in which one of the following is most parallel to that in the argument above? |
The format of network television news programs generally allows advocates of a point of view only 30 seconds to convey their message. Consequently, regular watchers become accustomed to thinking of issues in terms only of slogans and catch phrases, and so the expectation of careful discussion of public issues gradually disappears from their awareness. The format of newspaper stories, on the other hand, leads readers to pursue details of stories headed by the most important facts and so has the opposite effect on regular readers—that of maintaining the expectation of careful discussion of public issues. Therefore, in contrast to regular newspaper reading, regular watching of network television news programs increases the tendency to think of public issues in oversimplified terms. | 199406_2-LR1_16_18 | [
"Viewers of network television news programs would be interested in seeing advocates of opposing views present their positions at length.",
"Since it is not possible to present striking images that would symbolize events for viewers, and since images hold sway over words in television, television must oversimplif... | 3 | The argument assumes which one of the following? |
The format of network television news programs generally allows advocates of a point of view only 30 seconds to convey their message. Consequently, regular watchers become accustomed to thinking of issues in terms only of slogans and catch phrases, and so the expectation of careful discussion of public issues gradually disappears from their awareness. The format of newspaper stories, on the other hand, leads readers to pursue details of stories headed by the most important facts and so has the opposite effect on regular readers—that of maintaining the expectation of careful discussion of public issues. Therefore, in contrast to regular newspaper reading, regular watching of network television news programs increases the tendency to think of public issues in oversimplified terms. | 199406_2-LR1_16_19 | [
"Regular watchers of network television news programs are much more likely than other people to be habitual readers of newspapers.",
"Including any 30-second quotations from proponents of diverse views, the total amount of time devoted to a single topic on regular network television news programs averages less th... | 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
A recent report on an environmental improvement program was criticized for focusing solely on pragmatic solutions to the large number of significant problems that plague the program instead of seriously trying to produce a coherent vision for the future of the program. In response the report's authors granted that the critics had raised a valid point but explained that, to do anything at all, the program needed continued government funding, and that to get such funding the program first needed to regain a reputation for competence. | 199406_2-LR1_17_20 | [
"addressing the critics' concern now would be premature",
"the critics' motives are self-serving",
"the notion of a coherent vision would be inappropriate to a program of the sort at issue",
"the authors of the report are more knowledgeable than its critics",
"giving the report a single focus is less desira... | 0 | The basic position taken by the report's authors on the criticism leveled against the report is that |
A recent report on an environmental improvement program was criticized for focusing solely on pragmatic solutions to the large number of significant problems that plague the program instead of seriously trying to produce a coherent vision for the future of the program. In response the report's authors granted that the critics had raised a valid point but explained that, to do anything at all, the program needed continued government funding, and that to get such funding the program first needed to regain a reputation for competence. | 199406_2-LR1_17_21 | [
"The government does not actually provide a full 100 percent of the program's funding.",
"The program will continue to have numerous serious problems precisely because it lacks a coherent vision for its future.",
"The program had a coherent vision at its inception, but that vision has proved impossible to susta... | 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would best serve the critics of the report in their attempt to undermine the position taken by the report's authors? |
Oil company representative: We spent more money on cleaning the otters affected by our recent oil spill than has been spent on any previous marine mammal rescue project. This shows our concern for the environment. Environmentalist: You have no such concern. Your real concern is evident in your admission to the press that news photographs of oil-covered otters would be particularly damaging to your public image, which plays an important role in your level of sales. | 199406_2-LR1_18_22 | [
"oil company cannot have more than one motive for cleaning the otters affected by the oil spill",
"otter population in the area of the oil spill could not have survived without the cleaning project",
"oil company has always shown a high regard for its profits in choosing its courses of action",
"government wo... | 0 | The environmentalist's conclusion would be properly drawn if it were true that the |
A group of scientists studying calcium metabolism in laboratory rats discovered that removing the rats' parathyroid glands resulted in the rats' having substantially lower than normal levels of calcium in their blood. This discovery led the scientists to hypothesize that the function of the parathyroid gland is to regulate the level of calcium in the blood by raising that level when it falls below the normal range. In a further experiment, the scientists removed not only the parathyroid gland but also the adrenal gland from rats. They made the surprising discovery that the level of calcium in the rats' blood decreased much less sharply than when the parathyroid gland alone was removed. | 199406_2-LR1_19_23 | [
"The adrenal gland acts to lower the level of calcium in the blood.",
"The adrenal gland and the parathyroid gland play the same role in regulating calcium blood levels.",
"The absence of a parathyroid gland causes the adrenal gland to increase the level of calcium in the blood.",
"If the adrenal gland, and n... | 0 | Which one of the following, if true, explains the surprising discovery in a way most consistent with the scientists' hypothesis? |
Since Mayor Drabble always repays her political debts as soon as possible, she will almost certainly appoint Lee to be the new head of the arts commission. Lee has wanted that job for a long time, and Drabble owes Lee a lot for his support in the last election. | 199406_2-LR1_20_24 | [
"Mayor Drabble has no political debt that is both of longer standing than the one she owes to Lee and could as suitably be repaid by an appointment to be the new head of the arts commission.",
"There is no one to whom Mayor Drabble owes a greater political debt for support in the last election than the political ... | 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
The fact that tobacco smoke inhaled by smokers harms the smokers does not prove that the much smaller amount of tobacco smoke inhaled by nonsmokers who share living space with smokers harms the nonsmokers to some degree. Many substances, such as vitamin A, are toxic in large quantities but beneficial in small quantities. | 199406_2-LR1_21_25 | [
"The fact that a large concentration of bleach will make fabric very white does not prove that a small concentration of bleach will make fabric somewhat white. The effect of a small concentration of bleach may be too slight to change the color of the fabric.",
"Although a healthful diet should include a certain a... | 4 | In which one of the following is the pattern of reasoning most similar to that in the argument above? |
Why should the government, rather than industry or universities, provide the money to put a network of supercomputers in place? Because there is a range of problems that can be attacked only with the massive data-managing capacity of a supercomputer network. No business or university has the resources to purchase by itself enough machines for a whole network, and no business or university wants to invest in a part of a network if no mechanism exists for coordinating establishment of the network as a whole. | 199406_2-LR1_22_26 | [
"It does not furnish a way in which the dilemma concerning the establishment of the network can be resolved.",
"It does not establish the impossibility of creating a supercomputer network as an international network.",
"It fails to address the question of who would maintain the network if the government, rather... | 4 | Which one of the following indicates a weakness in the argument? |
Megatrash Co., the country's largest waste-disposal company, has been sued by environmental groups who have accused the firm of negligent handling of hazardous waste. The fines and legal fees that have resulted from the legal attacks against Megatrash have cost the company substantial amounts of money. Surprisingly, as successful lawsuits against the company have increased in number, the company has grown stronger and more profitable. | 199406_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"Although waste-disposal firms merely handle but do not generate toxic waste, these firms have been held legally responsible for environmental damage caused by this waste.",
"Megatrash has made substantial contributions to environmental causes, as have other large waste-disposal companies.",
"Some of the judgme... | 3 | Which one of the following, if true, does the most to resolve the apparent paradox? |
Lewis: Those who do not learn from past mistakes-their own and those of others-are condemned to repeat them. In order to benefit from the lessons of history, however, we first have to know history. That is why the acquisition of broad historical knowledge is so important. Morris: The trouble is that the past is infinitely various. From its inexhaustible storehouse of events it is possible to prove anything or its contrary. | 199406_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"there are any uncontested historical facts",
"historical knowledge can be too narrow to be useful",
"history teaches any unequivocal lessons",
"there are conventional criteria for calling a past action a mistake",
"events in the present are influenced by past events"
] | 2 | The issue that Morris raises in objecting to Lewis' view is whether |
A group of scientists who have done research on the health effects of food irradiation has discovered no evidence challenging its safety. Supporters of food irradiation have cited this research as certain proof that food irradiation is a safe practice. | 199406_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"assume that the scientists doing the research set out to prove that food irradiation is an unsafe practice",
"are motivated by a biased interest in proving the practice to be safe",
"overlook the possibility that objections about safety are not the only possible objections to the practice",
"neglect to provi... | 4 | A flaw in the reasoning of the supporters of food irradiation is that they |
Cooking teacher: Lima beans generally need about an hour of boiling to reach the proper degree of doneness. The precise amount of time it takes depends on size: larger beans require a longer cooking time than smaller beans do. It is important that lima beans not be overcooked since overcooking robs beans of many of their nutrients. Undercooking should also be avoided, since undercooked beans cannot be completely digested. | 199406_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"Lima beans that are completely digestible have lost many of their nutrients in cooking.",
"The nutrients that are lost when lima beans are overcooked are the same as those that the body fails to assimilate when lima beans are not completely digested.",
"Large lima beans, even when fully cooked, are more diffic... | 3 | If the statements above are true, they most strongly support which one of the following? |
Large quantities of lead dust can be released during renovations in houses with walls painted with lead-based paint. Because the dust puts occupants at high risk of lead poisoning, such renovations should be done only in unoccupied houses by contractors who are experienced in removing all traces of lead from houses and who have the equipment to protect themselves from lead dust. Even when warned, however, many people will not pay to have someone else do renovations they believe they could do less expensively themselves. Therefore, Homeowners' Journal should run an article giving information to homeowners on how to reduce the risk of lead poisoning associated with do-it-yourself renovation. | 199406_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"Most homeowners know whether or not the walls of their houses are painted with lead-based paint, even if the walls were painted by previous owners.",
"Most people who undertake do-it-yourself renovation projects do so for the satisfaction of doing the work themselves and so are unlikely to hire a professional to... | 2 | Which one of the following, if true, argues most strongly against the passage's recommendation about an article? |
Large quantities of lead dust can be released during renovations in houses with walls painted with lead-based paint. Because the dust puts occupants at high risk of lead poisoning, such renovations should be done only in unoccupied houses by contractors who are experienced in removing all traces of lead from houses and who have the equipment to protect themselves from lead dust. Even when warned, however, many people will not pay to have someone else do renovations they believe they could do less expensively themselves. Therefore, Homeowners' Journal should run an article giving information to homeowners on how to reduce the risk of lead poisoning associated with do-it-yourself renovation. | 199406_4-LR2_5_6 | [
"Potentially dangerous jobs should always be left to those who have the training and experience to perform them safely, even if additional expense results.",
"If people refuse to change their behavior even when warned that they are jeopardizing their health, information that enables them to minimize the risks of ... | 1 | Which one of the following principles most helps to justify the passage's recommendation about an article? |
The scientific theory of evolution has challenged the view of human origin as divine creation and sees us as simply descended from the same ancestors as the apes. While science and technology have provided brilliant insights into our world and eased our everyday life, they have simultaneously deprived us of a view in which our importance is assured. Thus, while science has given us many things, it has taken away much that is also greatly valued. | 199406_4-LR2_6_7 | [
"Science and technology are of less value than religion.",
"People have resisted the advances of science and technology.",
"The assurance that people are important is highly valued.",
"The world was a better place before the advent of science and technology.",
"The need of people to feel important is now me... | 2 | Which one of the following is assumed in the passage? |
That long-term cigarette smoking can lead to health problems including cancer and lung disease is a scientifically well-established fact. Contrary to what many people seem to believe, however, it is not necessary to deny this fact in order to reject the view that tobacco companies should be held either morally or legally responsible for the poor health of smokers. After all, excessive consumption of candy undeniably leads to such health problems as tooth decay, but no one seriously believes that candy eaters who get cavities should be able to sue candy manufacturers. | 199406_4-LR2_7_8 | [
"no one should feel it necessary to deny the scientifically well-established fact that long-term cigarette smoking can lead to health problems",
"people who get cavities should not be able to sue candy manufacturers",
"the fact that smokers' health problems can be caused by their smoking is not enough to justif... | 2 | The main point of the argument is that |
That long-term cigarette smoking can lead to health problems including cancer and lung disease is a scientifically well-established fact. Contrary to what many people seem to believe, however, it is not necessary to deny this fact in order to reject the view that tobacco companies should be held either morally or legally responsible for the poor health of smokers. After all, excessive consumption of candy undeniably leads to such health problems as tooth decay, but no one seriously believes that candy eaters who get cavities should be able to sue candy manufacturers. | 199406_4-LR2_7_9 | [
"fails to establish that the connection between tooth decay and candy eating is as scientifically well documented as that between smoking and the health problems suffered by smokers",
"depends on the obviously false assumption that everyone who gets cavities does so only as a result of eating too much candy",
"... | 4 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Lydia: Each year, thousands of seabirds are injured when they become entangled in equipment owned by fishing companies. Therefore, the fishing companies should assume responsibility for funding veterinary treatment for the injured birds. Jonathan: Your feelings for the birds are admirable. Your proposal, however, should not be adopted because treatment of the most seriously injured birds would inhumanely prolong the lives of animals no longer able to live in the wild, as all wildlife should. | 199406_4-LR2_8_10 | [
"He directs a personal attack against her rather than addressing the argument she advances.",
"He suggests that her proposal is based on self-interest rather than on real sympathy for the injured birds.",
"He questions the appropriateness of interfering with wildlife in any way, even if the goal of the interfer... | 3 | Jonathan uses which one of the following techniques in his response to Lydia? |
Logging industry official: Harvesting trees from old-growth forests for use in manufacture can reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, since when large old trees die in the forest they decompose, releasing their stored carbon dioxide. Harvesting old-growth forests would, moreover, make room for rapidly growing young trees, which absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than do trees in old-growth forests. | 199406_4-LR2_9_11 | [
"Many old-growth forests are the home of thousands of animal species that would be endangered if the forests were to be destroyed.",
"Much of the organic matter from old-growth trees, unusable as lumber, is made into products that decompose rapidly.",
"A young tree contains less than half the amount of carbon d... | 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the official's argument? |
A survey of a group of people between the ages of 75 and 80 found that those who regularly played the card game bridge tended to have better short-term memory than those who did not play bridge. It was originally concluded from this that playing bridge can help older people to retain and develop their memory. However, it may well be that bridge is simply a more enjoyable game for people who already have good short-term memory and who are thus more inclined to play. | 199406_4-LR2_10_12 | [
"challenging the representativeness of the sample surveyed",
"conceding the suggested relationship between playing bridge and short-term memory, but questioning whether any conclusion about appropriate therapy can be drawn",
"arguing that the original conclusion relied on an inaccurate understanding of the moti... | 3 | In countering the original conclusion the reasoning above uses which one of the following techniques? |
There are tests to detect some of the rare genetic flaws that increase the likelihood of certain diseases. If these tests are performed, then a person with a rare genetic flaw that is detected can receive the appropriate preventive treatment. Since it costs the health-care system less to prevent a disease than to treat it after it has occurred, widespread genetic screening will reduce the overall cost of health care. | 199406_4-LR2_11_13 | [
"The cost of treating patients who would, in the absence of screening, develop diseases that are linked to rare genetic flaws would be more than the combined costs of widespread screening and preventive treatment.",
"Most diseases linked to rare genetic flaws are preventable.",
"The resources allocated by hospi... | 0 | The argument assumes which one of the following? |
In the 1960s paranoia was viewed by social scientists as ungrounded fear of powerlessness, and the theme of paranoia as it relates to feelings of powerlessness was dominant in films of that period. In the 1970s paranoia instead was viewed by social scientists as a response to real threats from society. Films of this period portray paranoia as a legitimate response to a world gone mad. | 199406_4-LR2_12_14 | [
"Images of paranoia presented in films made in a period reflect trends in social science of that period.",
"Responses to real threats can, and often do, degenerate into groundless fears.",
"The world is becoming more and more threatening.",
"Paranoia is a condition that keeps changing along with changes in so... | 0 | Which one of the following is a conclusion that the statements above, if true, most strongly support? |
A certain experimental fungicide causes no harm to garden plants, though only if it is diluted at least to ten parts water to one part fungicide. Moreover, this fungicide is known to be so effective against powdery mildew that it has the capacity to eliminate it completely from rose plants. Thus this fungicide, as long as it is sufficiently diluted, provides a means of eliminating powdery mildew from rose plants that involves no risk of harming the plants. | 199406_4-LR2_13_15 | [
"There is not an alternative method, besides application of this fungicide, for eliminating powdery mildew from rose plants without harming the plants.",
"When the fungicide is sufficiently diluted, it does not present any risk of harm to people, animals, or beneficial insects.",
"Powdery mildew is the only fun... | 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
When glass products are made from recycled glass, the resulting products can be equal in quality to glass products made from quartz sand, the usual raw material. When plastics are recycled, however, the result is inevitably a plastic of a lower grade than the plastic from which it is derived. Moreover, no applications have been found for grades of plastic that are lower than the currently lowest commercial grade. | 199406_4-LR2_14_16 | [
"Products cannot presently be made out of plastic recycled entirely from the currently lowest commercial grade.",
"It is impossible to make glass products from recycled glass that are equal in quality to the best glass products made from the usual raw material.",
"Glass products made from recycled glass are les... | 0 | Which one of the following is a conclusion that can be properly drawn from the statements above? |
Teacher: Journalists who conceal the identity of the sources they quote stake their professional reputations on what may be called the logic of anecdotes. This is so because the statements reported by such journalists are dissociated from the precise circumstances in which they were made and thus will be accepted for publication only if the statements are high in plausibility or originality or interest to a given audience—precisely the properties of a good anecdote. Student: But what you are saying, then, is that the journalist need not bother with sources in the first place. Surely, any reasonably resourceful journalist can invent plausible, original, or interesting stories faster than they can be obtained from unidentified sources. | 199406_4-LR2_15_17 | [
"confusing a marginal journalistic practice with the primary work done by journalists",
"ignoring the possibility that the teacher regards as a prerequisite for the publication of an unattributed statement that the statement have actually been made",
"confusing the characteristics of reported statements with th... | 1 | The student's response contains which one of the following reasoning flaws? |
Teacher: Journalists who conceal the identity of the sources they quote stake their professional reputations on what may be called the logic of anecdotes. This is so because the statements reported by such journalists are dissociated from the precise circumstances in which they were made and thus will be accepted for publication only if the statements are high in plausibility or originality or interest to a given audience—precisely the properties of a good anecdote. Student: But what you are saying, then, is that the journalist need not bother with sources in the first place. Surely, any reasonably resourceful journalist can invent plausible, original, or interesting stories faster than they can be obtained from unidentified sources. | 199406_4-LR2_15_18 | [
"A journalist undermines his or her own professional standing by submitting for publication statements that, not being attributed to a named source, are rejected for being implausible, unoriginal, or dull.",
"Statements that are attributed to a fully identified source make up the majority of reported statements i... | 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the teacher's argument? |
The proposal to extend clinical trials, which are routinely used as systematic tests of pharmaceutical innovations, to new surgical procedures should not be implemented. The point is that surgical procedures differ in one important respect from medicinal drugs: a correctly prescribed drug depends for its effectiveness only on the drug's composition, whereas the effectiveness of even the most appropriate surgical procedure is transparently related to the skills of the surgeon who uses it. | 199406_4-LR2_16_19 | [
"does not consider that new surgical procedures might be found to be intrinsically more harmful than the best treatment previously available",
"ignores the possibility that the challenged proposal is deliberately crude in a way designed to elicit criticism to be used in refining the proposal",
"assumes that a s... | 0 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument |
If the majority of the residents of the apartment complex complain that their apartments are infested with ants, then the management of the complex will have to engage the services of an exterminator. But the majority of the residents of the complex indicate that their apartments are virtually free of ants. Therefore, the management of the complex will not have to engage the services of an exterminator. | 199406_4-LR2_17_20 | [
"A theater will be constructed in the fall if funds collected are at least sufficient to cover its cost. To date, the funds collected exceed the theater's cost, so the theater will be constructed in the fall.",
"The number of flights operated by the airlines cannot be reduced unless the airlines can collect highe... | 3 | Which one of the following arguments contains a flawed pattern of reasoning parallel to that contained in the argument above? |
When the supply of a given resource dwindles, alternative technologies allowing the use of different resources develop, and demand for the resource that was in short supply naturally declines. Then the existing supplies of that resource satisfy whatever demand remains. Among the once-dwindling resources that are now in more than adequate supply are flint for arrowheads, trees usable for schooner masts, and good mules. Because new technologies constantly replace old ones, we can never run out of important natural resources. | 199406_4-LR2_18_21 | [
"The masts and hulls of some sailing ships built today are still made of wood.",
"There are considerably fewer mules today than there were 100 years ago.",
"The cost of some new technologies is often so high that the companies developing them might actually lose money at first.",
"Dwindling supplies of a natu... | 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the conclusion? |
Paulsville and Longtown cannot both be included in the candidate's itinerary of campaign stops. The candidate will make a stop in Paulsville unless Salisbury is made part of the itinerary. Unfortunately, a stop in Salisbury is out of the question. Clearly, then, a stop in Longtown can be ruled out. | 199406_4-LR2_19_22 | [
"The chef never has both fresh radishes and fresh green peppers available for the chef's salad at the same time. If she uses fresh radishes, she also uses spinach. But currently there is no spinach to be had. It can be inferred, then, that she will not be using fresh green peppers.",
"Tom will definitely support ... | 1 | The reasoning in the argument above most closely parallels that in which one of the following arguments? |
A study of adults who suffer from migraine headaches revealed that a significant proportion of the study participants suffer from a complex syndrome characterized by a set of three symptoms. Those who suffer from the syndrome experienced excessive anxiety during early childhood. As adolescents, these people began experiencing migraine headaches. As these people approached the age of 20, they also began to experience recurring bouts of depression. Since this pattern is invariant, always with excessive anxiety at its beginning, it follows that excessive anxiety in childhood is one of the causes of migraine headaches and depression in later life. | 199406_4-LR2_20_23 | [
"It does not specify the proportion of those in the general population who suffer from the syndrome.",
"It fails to rule out the possibility that all of the characteristic symptoms of the syndrome have a common cause.",
"It makes a generalization that is inconsistent with the evidence.",
"It fails to demonstr... | 1 | The reasoning in the argument is vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? |
Mainstream economic theory holds that manufacturers, in deciding what kinds of products to manufacture and what form those products should have, simply respond to the needs and desires of consumers. However, most major manufacturers manipulate and even create consumer demand, as anyone who watches television knows. Since even mainstream economic theorists watch television, their motive in advancing this theory must be something other than disinterested concern for scientific truth. | 199406_4-LR2_21_24 | [
"It is one of the claims on which the conclusion is based.",
"It is the conclusion of the argument.",
"It states the position argued against.",
"It states a possible objection to the argument's conclusion.",
"It provides supplementary background information."
] | 0 | The claim that manufacturers manipulate and create consumer demand plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
It is probably within the reach of human technology to make the climate of Mars inhabitable. It might be several centuries before people could live there, even with breathing apparatuses, but some of the world's great temples and cathedrals took centuries to build. Research efforts now are justified if there is even a chance of making another planet inhabitable. Besides, the intellectual exercise of understanding how the Martian atmosphere might be changed could help in understanding atmospheric changes inadvertently triggered by human activity on Earth. | 199410_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"it is probably technologically possible for humankind to alter the climate of Mars",
"it would take several centuries to make Mars even marginally inhabitable",
"making Mars inhabitable is an effort comparable to building a great temple or cathedral",
"research efforts aimed at discovering how to change the ... | 3 | The main point of the argument is that |
Adults have the right to vote; so should adolescents. Admittedly, adolescents and adults are not the same. But to the extent that adolescents and adults are different, adults cannot be expected to represent the interests of adolescents. If adults cannot represent the interests of adolescents, then only by giving adolescents the vote will these interests be represented. | 199410_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"The right to vote is a right that all human beings should have.",
"Adolescents and adults differ in most respects that are important.",
"Adolescents should have their interests represented.",
"Anyone who has the right to vote has all the rights an adult has.",
"Adolescents have never enjoyed the right to v... | 2 | The argument relies on which one of the following assumptions? |
Adults have the right to vote; so should adolescents. Admittedly, adolescents and adults are not the same. But to the extent that adolescents and adults are different, adults cannot be expected to represent the interests of adolescents. If adults cannot represent the interests of adolescents, then only by giving adolescents the vote will these interests be represented. | 199410_1-LR1_2_3 | [
"It presents the conclusion of the argument.",
"It makes a key word in the argument more precise.",
"It illustrates a consequence of one of the claims that are used to support the conclusion.",
"It distracts attention from the point at issue.",
"It concedes a point that is then used to support the conclusio... | 4 | The statement that adolescents and adults are not the same plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
When deciding where to locate or relocate, businesses look for an educated work force, a high level of services, a low business-tax rate, and close proximity to markets and raw materials. However, although each of these considerations has approximately equal importance, the lack of proximity either to markets or to raw materials often causes municipalities to lose prospective businesses, whereas having a higher-than-average business-tax rate rarely has this effect. | 199410_1-LR1_3_4 | [
"Taxes paid by businesses constitute only a part of the tax revenue collected by most municipalities.",
"In general, the higher the rate at which municipalities tax businesses, the more those municipalities spend on education and on providing services to businesses.",
"Businesses sometimes leave a municipality ... | 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the statements above? |
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