context stringlengths 79 829 | id_string stringlengths 16 18 | answers listlengths 5 5 | label int64 0 4 | question stringlengths 23 302 |
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Manager: One reason productivity in our office is not as high as it could be is that office workers spend too much time taking unauthorized breaks. Since the number of office workers assigned to each manager will soon be reduced, managers will be able to supervise workers more closely in the future to make sure that they are not taking unauthorized breaks. Therefore, productivity in our office will soon increase. | 199602_1-LR1_5_5 | [
"The best way to improve productivity is to reduce the number of employees and give more work to employees who remain on the job.",
"Office workers are spending more time now taking unauthorized breaks than they used to.",
"Giving financial incentives to workers whose divisions increase their productivity would... | 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the manager's argument depends? |
Tom: Executives in this country make around 85 times what the average worker earns. This is an extraordinarily large disparity, and therefore public resentment over the size of executives' salaries is justified. Martha: Such resentment is not justified, since wealth is created by taking risks and making decisions, actions most people prefer to avoid. Generous rewards for those who choose not to avoid these actions are both fair and necessary. Tom: I think you misunderstood me. I'm not saying that people resent that there is a large disparity here between executives' salaries and workers' salaries, but rather they resent that it is atypically large: in other countries executives earn only 20 or 30 times what the average worker earns. | 199602_1-LR1_6_6 | [
"whether executives in this country make 85 times the average worker's salary",
"whether public resentment of the size of executive salaries is justified",
"whether a wage gap between executives and workers is necessary to promote the creation of wealth",
"whether executives deserve higher salaries than worke... | 1 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point at issue between Tom and Martha? |
Tom: Executives in this country make around 85 times what the average worker earns. This is an extraordinarily large disparity, and therefore public resentment over the size of executives' salaries is justified. Martha: Such resentment is not justified, since wealth is created by taking risks and making decisions, actions most people prefer to avoid. Generous rewards for those who choose not to avoid these actions are both fair and necessary. Tom: I think you misunderstood me. I'm not saying that people resent that there is a large disparity here between executives' salaries and workers' salaries, but rather they resent that it is atypically large: in other countries executives earn only 20 or 30 times what the average worker earns. | 199602_1-LR1_6_7 | [
"He strengthens his own position by tacitly agreeing to drop one of his original premises and introduces a new line of argument defending his original conclusion.",
"He introduces evidence showing that a generalization Martha has made regarding the creation of wealth is unwarranted because it is not based on any ... | 3 | Tom responds to Martha's critique in which one of the following ways? |
Fossilized bones from the hominids Australopithecus robustus and Homo erectus were chemically analyzed. The robustus bones contained a lower ratio of strontium to calcium than did the erectus bones. The lower the ratio of strontium to calcium in fossilized hominid bones, the more meat the hominid had in its diet. H. erectus is known to have eaten meat. | 199602_1-LR1_7_8 | [
"The diet of A. robustus included at least some meat.",
"The meat in the diet of H. erectus was higher in strontium than was the meat in the diets of other hominids.",
"The diet of H. erectus was richer in calcium than was the diet of A. robustus.",
"The diets of A. robustus and H. erectus both contained less... | 0 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
Letter to the editor: I was shocked to learn that Judge Mosston was convicted of criminal assault, but I disagree with my fellow citizens who believe that he should be forced to resign. I have played cards with Judge Mosston for many years, and he has always shown himself to be fair toward me and our fellow cardplayers. Our judicial system simply cannot afford to lose any just and fair judges. | 199602_1-LR1_8_9 | [
"Judge Mosston is a fair judge.",
"Judge Mosston should not be forced to resign.",
"Fairness is the most important quality in a judge.",
"A conviction for criminal assault is never sufficient grounds for damaging anyone's professional career.",
"Individuals who have interacted with a judge outside that judg... | 1 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the letter writer's argument? |
Letter to the editor: I was shocked to learn that Judge Mosston was convicted of criminal assault, but I disagree with my fellow citizens who believe that he should be forced to resign. I have played cards with Judge Mosston for many years, and he has always shown himself to be fair toward me and our fellow cardplayers. Our judicial system simply cannot afford to lose any just and fair judges. | 199602_1-LR1_8_10 | [
"confuses duties specific to legal professionals with the responsibilities of private citizens",
"insists upon a distinction between \"fair\" and \"just\" which cannot plausibly be maintained",
"makes a general claim about an individual's professional competence based on an unrepresentative sampling of the indi... | 2 | The reasoning in the letter is most vulnerable to the criticism that it |
Building a space station, in which astronauts would live for a considerable time, is essential even if the space station project were to contribute no new knowledge about space or Earth that could not otherwise be obtained. For future missions to explore Mars, we will need the medical knowledge that the space station project will give us about the limits of human capacities to live in spacecraft for an extended time. | 199602_1-LR1_9_11 | [
"the exploration of Mars will be carried out by people traveling in spacecraft and not by robots alone",
"the capacities of astronauts are typical of those of ordinary human beings",
"no unforeseen medical problems will arise on the first mission to explore Mars",
"a mission to Mars will be the first of many ... | 0 | The argument makes the assumption that |
The hearts of patients who are given vitamin E before undergoing heart surgery are less susceptible to certain postoperative complications than are the hearts of patients who are not given vitamin E before heart surgery. From six hours after surgery onward, however, the survivors from both groups show the same level of heart function, on average, and also recover equally well. Despite this lack of long-term effect, doctors often recommend vitamin E for patients about to undergo heart surgery. | 199602_1-LR1_10_12 | [
"Postoperative complications pose the greatest threat to patients during the first six hours after heart surgery.",
"Postoperative complications occur six or more hours after surgery for some patients who have not been given vitamin E.",
"It sometimes takes less than six hours for a patient's heart function to ... | 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the doctors' recommendation? |
Architect: Obviously, a dirty stone building is less attractive than a clean one. But the process of cleaning stone buildings with water drives the water deep into the stone, eventually causing irreparable damage. Dirt also damages stone buildings, but less than water does. So I am afraid stone buildings must remain dirty if they are to last as long as possible. Engineer: Not so fast. Advances in technology make it possible to clean stone buildings without water, using mild chemicals that do not penetrate the stone. | 199602_1-LR1_11_13 | [
"disputing the accuracy of the evidence that the architect cites in support of the conclusion",
"showing that the architect's argument is internally inconsistent",
"describing undesirable consequences that follow from accepting the architect's conclusion",
"adducing facts selected to show that the architect's... | 3 | The engineer responds to the architect by doing which one of the following? |
Anthropologist: The culture responsible for the inscriptions at the site must have used fire to fashion iron implements. Of the Xa, Ye, and Zi, the three cultures known to have inhabited the area surrounding this site, the Xa could obtain iron but could not use fire to fashion implements and the Ye had no access to iron. Therefore the Zi is the only culture known to be from the surrounding area that could have made these inscriptions. | 199602_1-LR1_12_14 | [
"Whoever committed the burglary wore size nine shoes. Of the three suspects in custody, Jensen, Kapp, and Lomax, neither Jensen nor Lomax could have worn size nine shoes. Of the three suspects in custody, therefore, nobody but Kapp could be the burglar.",
"Anyone wishing to file a claim must first send a check an... | 0 | The reasoning in which one of the following arguments most closely parallels the reasoning used in the argument above? |
Antiwhaling activist: Not all species of whales are threatened with extinction. Nevertheless, given the highly mechanized technology used in whaling, a ban on the whaling of endangered species cannot be enforced without banning the whaling of all other species. Hence, since hunting endangered whale species should be banned, all whale-hunting should be banned. | 199602_1-LR1_13_15 | [
"The fishing industry has a right to hunt members of species that are not endangered.",
"If a certain activity ought to be prohibited, so should any other activity that interferes with the enforcement of that prohibition.",
"No industry should adopt new technologies if the adoption of those technologies would c... | 1 | Which one of the following principles, if established, would do the most to justify the conclusion drawn by the antiwhaling activist? |
Giordano Bruno, the Renaissance philosopher, must have been a spy for England during the time he served in the French embassy there. English state records show that a spy who foiled at least two assassination plots against Queen Elizabeth of England was in place in the French embassy in London at that time. Since the spy is identified in confidential English state documents only as "the only clergyman working at the French embassy" at that time, Bruno must have been the spy: Bruno had been ordained a member of the clergy long before he started work at the French embassy. | 199602_1-LR1_14_16 | [
"Long before his employment at the embassy, Bruno had been excommunicated from his church and thereafter neither dressed nor functioned as a member of the clergy.",
"During Bruno's tenure in the French embassy, a high degree of tension and an atmosphere of mutual suspicion prevailed between France and England.",
... | 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the force of the evidence advanced in the argument? |
Giordano Bruno, the Renaissance philosopher, must have been a spy for England during the time he served in the French embassy there. English state records show that a spy who foiled at least two assassination plots against Queen Elizabeth of England was in place in the French embassy in London at that time. Since the spy is identified in confidential English state documents only as "the only clergyman working at the French embassy" at that time, Bruno must have been the spy: Bruno had been ordained a member of the clergy long before he started work at the French embassy. | 199602_1-LR1_14_17 | [
"During the Renaissance the staff of each French embassy always included at least one member of the clergy to officiate as chaplain for the ambassador and his staff.",
"Several years after his embassy service ended, Bruno was condemned for his philosophical ideas by the pope, who was at that time generally hostil... | 4 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the most support for the argument? |
Theories in certain scientific fields may be in flux today, but this unsettled state must be attributed to scientific progress, not to a lack of theoretical rigor. Several decades of scientific research have recently culminated in a wealth of new discoveries in these fields, and whenever many new facts come to light in a field, the ways in which that field organizes its knowledge inevitably need adjustment. | 199602_1-LR1_15_18 | [
"presenting the situation to be explained as part of a general pattern",
"referring to the unacceptable consequences of adopting a particular explanation",
"showing that two alternate explanations for a situation are equally probable",
"citing a law of nature to explain a particular kind of change",
"explai... | 0 | The argument proceeds by |
All art criticism is political because all art has political implications. Clearly, the critic who chooses to address overtly an artwork's political implications is engaged in political discourse. But those critics who attempt a purely aesthetic evaluation of a work, and therefore ignore the work's political implications, necessarily, though perhaps inadvertently, end up endorsing the politics of the artist. | 199602_1-LR1_16_19 | [
"Critics who overtly address an artwork's political implications rarely endorse art for art's own sake.",
"Critics who are politically naive always attempt purely apolitical critiques of art.",
"Art that makes an overt social or political statement is the sort of art with which critics are typically concerned."... | 4 | If the statements above are all true, which one of the following must also be true? |
In the country of Boldavia at present, only 1 percent of 80-year-olds are left-handed, whereas 10 percent of 50-year-olds and 15 percent of 20-year-olds are left-handed. Yet over the past 80 years, the proportion of Boldavians who are born left-handed has not increased, nor have Boldavian attitudes toward left-handedness undergone any important changes. | 199602_1-LR1_17_20 | [
"In Boldavia, where men have a shorter average life expectancy than do women, left-handedness is less common among women than among men.",
"In Boldavia, left-handed people are no more likely than right-handed people to be involved in accidents",
"Ambidexterity is highly valued in Boldavia.",
"The birthrate in... | 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the variation in incidence of left-handedness among Boldavians? |
Eugenia: Reliable tests have shown that Koolair brand refrigerators are the best-made of any of the major brands because they last longer and, on the whole, require fewer repairs than do refrigerators of any other major brand. Neil: That is impossible. I have owned refrigerators of several different major brands, including Koolair, and the Koolair needed more repairs than did any of the others. | 199602_1-LR1_18_21 | [
"uses a different notion of a product's quality from that used by Eugenia",
"contradicts Eugenia's claim on the basis of a snap judgment and without making any attempt to offer supporting argumentation",
"rejects a generalization on the basis of a single negative instance when that generalization has reasonable... | 2 | The reasoning in Neil's response is flawed because he |
Advertisement: RediMed is the cold treatment to choose. People who treat their colds with RediMed have symptoms half as severe as those suffered by people who leave their colds untreated. | 199602_1-LR1_19_22 | [
"When cooking spaghetti, you should add the salt to the water when the water is already boiling, since the spaghetti takes on a bitter flavor otherwise.",
"National Financial is the place for your everyday banking, since it has more checking account customers than any other bank.",
"Tuff-Grip tires are the ones... | 3 | The flawed pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the advertisement above? |
Health association: In certain studies, most volunteers who used to eat meat have permanently excluded meat from their diets and now eat only vegetables and fruits. These volunteers suffered no ill effects and many even prefer the new regimen. So people who eat meat can change their diets to meatless ones and not suffer as a result. Critic: Participants in these studies were all favorably disposed to the substitution before they started, and even so, many of them failed to make a complete transition to a vegetarian diet. | 199602_1-LR1_20_23 | [
"The diets of most people who eat meat would be improved if those people ate only vegetables and fruits instead.",
"Among those who make the attempt to exclude meat from their diets, the more favorably disposed to the meatless regimen a person is the more likely that person is to succeed in the attempt.",
"The ... | 4 | The critic's response would most seriously call into question which one of the following conclusions, if that conclusion were drawn on the basis of the evidence given by the health association? |
The shoe factory in Centerville is the town's largest firm, and it employs more unskilled workers on a full-time basis than all of the other businesses in town combined. Therefore, if the shoe factory closes down and ceases all operations, more than half of Centerville's residents who are unskilled workers with full-time jobs in Centerville will lose their jobs. | 199602_1-LR1_21_24 | [
"More people who now are residents of Centerville are employed than are unemployed.",
"Centerville has more unskilled workers among its population than it has skilled workers.",
"The shoe factory in Centerville employs more unskilled workers than skilled workers.",
"The shoe factory in Centerville employs no ... | 3 | The conclusion above logically follows from the premises if which one of the following is assumed? |
In one-round sealed-bid auctions, each prospective buyer submits in strict confidence a single bid, and the sale goes to the highest bidder. A reserve price—a minimum price below which there will be no sale—can be set by the seller as protection against a token bid, which is an unreasonably low bid sometimes made by a bidder who gambles that there will be no other bid. Paradoxically, such protection is most needed when extremely desirable items are auctioned off this way. | 199602_1-LR1_22_25 | [
"The bidder who submitted the winning bid on an item cannot, on being informed of this fact, decline acceptance of the item in favor of the next-highest bidder.",
"The identity of unsuccessful bidders is not disclosed unless those bidders themselves choose to disclose it.",
"The reserve price on an extremely de... | 4 | Which one of the following, if true about one-round sealed-bid auctions, most helps to explain why the generalization characterized above as paradoxical holds? |
Preschool children who spend the day in daycare nurseries are ill more often than those who do not. They catch many common illnesses, to which they are exposed by other children in the nurseries. However, when these children reach school age they tend to be ill less often than their classmates who did not spend the day in daycare nurseries during their preschool years. | 199602_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"There are many common infectious illnesses that circulate quickly through a population of school-age children, once one child is infected.",
"Those children who have older siblings are likely to catch any common infectious illnesses that their older siblings have.",
"By school age, children who have been in da... | 2 | Which one of the following, if true, best explains the discrepancy in the information above? |
The vision test for obtaining a driver's license should not be limited to measuring the adequacy of vision in daylight conditions, as is the current practice. Many people whose daylight vision is adequate have night vision that is inadequate for safe night driving. Most car accidents occur at night, and inadequate vision plays a role in 80 percent of these accidents. | 199602_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"the vision test for obtaining a driver's license should measure the adequacy of vision in night conditions",
"inadequate vision does not play a role in most of the accidents that occur in daylight",
"most drivers who have adequate vision in daylight conditions also have adequate vision in night conditions",
... | 0 | The main point of the argument is that |
Pit vipers are so called because of the small pits on the sides of their heads which function as infrared sensors, giving the viper a thermal impression of objects in its vicinity. Because all species of pit vipers are predators, scientists have long thought that these sensors were used to find prey. One researcher has hypothesized, however, that the infrared sensor serves primarily to assist the viper in judging the size of approaching predators and how far away they are. | 199602_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"Pit vipers of both sexes have infrared sensors, and both sexes exhibit aggressive and defensive behaviors.",
"Pit vipers do not differ in their predatory behavior from closely related vipers without pits, but they do differ markedly from these other species in their strategies of defense against predators.",
"... | 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would most support the researcher's hypothesis? |
Many scholars believe that official medieval persecutions of various minority groups were undertaken very reluctantly by medieval authorities and only in order to soothe popular unrest caused by underlying popular hostility to the groups in question. This belief is highly questionable. For one thing, there are few indications of any profound underlying popular hostility toward persecuted groups in cases where persecutions were particularly violent and sustained. For another, the most serious and widespread persecutions carried out by medieval authorities seem to have had as targets exactly those groups that most effectively disputed these authorities' right to govern. | 199602_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"referring to the large numbers of scholarly adherents of a certain view to support the claim that the view is correct",
"providing reasons to suspect the reliability of any conclusions based on evidence concerning the distant past",
"attempting to make a particular comparison seem absurd by adducing evidence t... | 3 | The argument proceeds by |
Many scholars believe that official medieval persecutions of various minority groups were undertaken very reluctantly by medieval authorities and only in order to soothe popular unrest caused by underlying popular hostility to the groups in question. This belief is highly questionable. For one thing, there are few indications of any profound underlying popular hostility toward persecuted groups in cases where persecutions were particularly violent and sustained. For another, the most serious and widespread persecutions carried out by medieval authorities seem to have had as targets exactly those groups that most effectively disputed these authorities' right to govern. | 199602_4-LR2_4_5 | [
"Official persecutions in medieval times were usually preceded by officially sanctioned campaigns vilifying the groups to be persecuted.",
"Medieval minority communities often existed under the direct protection of official institutions.",
"Some groups, such as those accused of witchcraft, were the victims of s... | 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument that the scholars' belief is questionable? |
The frozen, well-preserved body of a man was recently discovered in a glacier as the glacier melted. Artifacts found on the body reveal that the man lived at least 4,000 years ago. The nature of the glacier indicates that the man died on virtually the same spot where his body was discovered. If the body had not been sealed in the glacier shortly after the man died, or if the body had thawed in the intervening millennia, it would not still be preserved. | 199602_4-LR2_5_6 | [
"None of the artifacts found on the body were more than 4,000 years old.",
"The man whose body was discovered in the glacier did not freeze to death.",
"The glacier that melted to reveal the ancient is at least 4,000 years old.",
"The artifacts found on the frozen body would not have been preserved if they ha... | 2 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported if all of the statements above are true? |
One hundred people listened to a single musical composition, "Study I," on a certain morning. Later that day, they listened to "Study I" again and to another musical composition, "Study II," and were asked which they preferred. A substantial majority preferred "Study I." These results support the hypotheses that people prefer music they have heard on an earlier occasion to music they are hearing for the first time. | 199602_4-LR2_6_7 | [
"Half of the members of a large group of people who heard only \"Study II\" in the morning and heard both \"Study I\" and \"Study II\" later the same day preferred \"Study I.\"",
"Ninety percent of the members of a large group of people who listened to \"Study I\" and \"Study II\" without having heard either of t... | 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
After an area has been hit by a natural disaster, there is often a great demand for plywood for repairing damaged homes. Retailers in the area often raise prices on new shipments of plywood to well above their predisaster prices, and some people denounce these retailers for taking advantage of a disaster to make more money on each sheet of plywood they sell. In fact, however, these retailers do not make more money on each sheet of plywood than before the disaster, because transporting the plywood into devastated areas is difficult and expensive, and therefore the plywood's cost to retailers is higher than it was before the disaster. | 199602_4-LR2_7_8 | [
"Residents of areas affected by natural disasters are often unable to pay the prices the retailers in those areas set for scarce necessities.",
"Retailers must pay the full amount of any increase in shipping costs.",
"No retailer makes enough money on each sheet of plywood sold to absorb for long an increase in... | 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
After an area has been hit by a natural disaster, there is often a great demand for plywood for repairing damaged homes. Retailers in the area often raise prices on new shipments of plywood to well above their predisaster prices, and some people denounce these retailers for taking advantage of a disaster to make more money on each sheet of plywood they sell. In fact, however, these retailers do not make more money on each sheet of plywood than before the disaster, because transporting the plywood into devastated areas is difficult and expensive, and therefore the plywood's cost to retailers is higher than it was before the disaster. | 199602_4-LR2_7_9 | [
"a counterexample to a claim",
"the main conclusion toward which the argument as a whole is directed",
"a subsidiary conclusion used to support the main conclusion of the argument",
"an example used to illustrate the implausibility of the position argued against",
"background information used to provide a c... | 2 | The clause "the plywood's cost to retailers is higher than it was before the disaster" serves in the argument as which one of the following? |
Industrial scientists have hypothesized that much of the nitrous oxide that contributes to air pollution originates from the burning of organic matter in forest fires. The results of one extensive study in which smoke samples taken from forest fires were bottled and then analyzed in a research laboratory supports this hypothesis, since the analysis showed that all of the samples contained high concentrations of nitrous oxide. | 199602_4-LR2_8_10 | [
"The production of synthetic products such as nylon is responsible for up to 10 percent of the nitrous oxide present in the atmosphere.",
"Many of the pollutants that are present in the atmosphere are produced by the combustion of fossil fuels, such as petroleum, which are derived from organic matter.",
"Soil b... | 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most undermines the argument? |
By examining the fossilized leaves of any prehistoric plant it is possible to determine the climate in which that specimen grew because the size and shape of a leaf are unique to a given climate. Since the climate at a given location depends on the altitude at that location, it follows that the size and shape of a fossilized leaf also indicates the altitude at which the plant grew. | 199602_4-LR2_9_11 | [
"fails to demonstrate that no species of plant can long survive a violent change in its environment",
"overlooks the possibility that locations at different altitudes can have the same climate",
"treats the size and shape of a leaf as if they were the only physical characteristics of a leaf that depend on clima... | 1 | The reasoning in the argument is vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Box office receipts at movie theaters increased 40 percent last year over the previous year. Thus, the film industry overall evidently is prospering. Yet twice as many movie theaters went bankrupt last year as in the preceding two years combined. | 199602_4-LR2_10_12 | [
"Films cost, on average, twice as much to produce today as they did ten years ago.",
"Ticket prices at some theaters fell last year.",
"Those of last year's films that were successful were very profitable films that were shown by exclusive engagement at only a selection of the largest theaters.",
"The amount ... | 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above? |
Suffering from kidney failure and having fallen into a coma, Mr. Smith urgently required a kidney transplant. When Mr. Smith's cousin volunteered to donate a kidney, Mr. Smith's daughter had to decide whether to sign the consent form permitting the transplant. She knew that her father strongly objected to transplantation of organs from live donors on the grounds that these operations caused serious disability to the organ donor. Although she knew her father's objection was based on a mistaken belief about the danger to kidney donors, she decided not to consent to the surgery. | 199602_4-LR2_11_13 | [
"A son or a daughter must do everything possible to protect the life and health of a parent unless the parent has prohibited the son or daughter from doing so.",
"Anyone called on to make a medical decision concerning another person should always treat the interests of that person as paramount and decide accordin... | 4 | Mr. Smith's daughter's decision conforms to which one of the following principles? |
Letter to the editor: According to last Thursday's editorial, someone who commits a burglary runs almost no risk of being caught. This is clearly false. Police reports show that at least 70 percent of people who commit crimes are caught. All burglars are criminals, so although some burglars will undoubtedly escape, a large percentage of them will eventually be caught. | 199602_4-LR2_12_14 | [
"A large percentage of professional persons are self-employed. Thus, since nurses are professional persons, a large percentage of nurses are self-employed.",
"Psychiatrists have medical training, and a large percentage of them also have social-work training. Therefore, some people who have social-work training al... | 0 | Which one of the following arguments exhibits a flawed pattern of reasoning parallel to that exhibited in the argument that a large percentage of burglars will be caught? |
Letter to the editor: According to last Thursday's editorial, someone who commits a burglary runs almost no risk of being caught. This is clearly false. Police reports show that at least 70 percent of people who commit crimes are caught. All burglars are criminals, so although some burglars will undoubtedly escape, a large percentage of them will eventually be caught. | 199602_4-LR2_12_15 | [
"It is evidence presented in support of the letter writer's conclusion.",
"It is the conclusion of a subsidiary argument.",
"It provides an example of the kind of case under discussion.",
"It restates the position against which the letter writer's argument as a whole is directed.",
"It concedes a point that... | 4 | The claim that some burglars will undoubtedly escape plays which one of the following roles in the letter writer's argument? |
Scientists have recently discovered that, in doses massive enough to kill cells, almost any chemical is carcinogenic because cell death causes rapid division among surviving cells, promoting cancer-causing mutations. A few chemicals are also carcinogenic without causing cell death. Until now studies of the carcinogenicity of food additives have always involved administering to test animals doses of additives larger than the largest possible human exposure levels and massive enough to kill large numbers of cells in the animals, and then observing the animals' cancer rates. | 199602_4-LR2_13_16 | [
"In the doses heretofore used in carcinogenicity studies of food additives, cell death often does not occur in test animals.",
"Until now results of carcinogenicity studies encouraged overestimation of the degree to which some food additives are carcinogenic.",
"Truly carcinogenic chemicals usually cause some i... | 1 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following conclusions is most strongly supported by them? |
Drivers in the country of Holston want highway tolls eliminated. The cost of maintaining the highways is paid entirely out of revenue from the highway tolls. Holston must maintain its highways. Thus, it follows that if the tolls are eliminated, then the entire cost of maintaining the highways will have to be paid for by an increase in general taxes. | 199602_4-LR2_14_17 | [
"Work on highway maintenance can be authorized only if the money needed to pay for it has already been collected.",
"The amount of money saved by eliminating the costs associated with toll collection would not be available to pay part of the total cost of maintaining the highways.",
"If the highway tolls are el... | 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption made by the argument? |
Efraim: The popular press continually advises people to avoid various health risks. Yet by seeking to avoid health risks, people inevitably become anxious, and anxiety, in turn, poses a major health risk. Thus, paradoxical as it seems, simply disregarding journalists' advice about reducing health risks is bound to pose less of a health risk than does trying to follow any such advice. Felicity: But history shows that you are wrong. It was articles in the popular press that made people aware of the health risks posed by smoking cigarettes. Many people stopped smoking in response, and they led longer and healthier lives than they would have otherwise. | 199602_4-LR2_15_18 | [
"whether products and practices described by journalists as posing health risks do in fact pose health risks",
"whether the people most likely to suffer anxiety in stressful situations are also the ones most likely to try to avoid health risks",
"whether there are any people who ignore journalists' advice about... | 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the point at issue between Efraim and Felicity? |
Efraim: The popular press continually advises people to avoid various health risks. Yet by seeking to avoid health risks, people inevitably become anxious, and anxiety, in turn, poses a major health risk. Thus, paradoxical as it seems, simply disregarding journalists' advice about reducing health risks is bound to pose less of a health risk than does trying to follow any such advice. Felicity: But history shows that you are wrong. It was articles in the popular press that made people aware of the health risks posed by smoking cigarettes. Many people stopped smoking in response, and they led longer and healthier lives than they would have otherwise. | 199602_4-LR2_15_19 | [
"A significant proportion of the people who, following journalists' advice, seek to avoid specific health risks cannot avoid those risks completely.",
"Journalists who advise people to avoid various health risks render their advice in needlessly alarming language.",
"The popular press is not unanimous in its re... | 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which Efraim's argument depends? |
All orchid species that are pollinated solely by insects have features that attract insects. The flower of a recently discovered orchid species contains edible tendrils that invariably attract insects to the inside of the flower. Hence, it follows that this orchid species is one that is pollinated solely by insects. | 199602_4-LR2_16_20 | [
"makes an unwarranted assumption that a characteristic that is shared by two classes of things is their only common feature",
"assumes without warrant that a characteristic that distinguishes one class of things from another is the only characteristic that distinguishes that class from the other",
"mistakes a c... | 3 | The argument is flawed because it |
In 1578 Moroccan troops defeated a Portuguese army on Moroccan soil. Accounts written by Portuguese contemporaries report the defeat but omit mention of the fact that King Sebastian of Portugal was killed in the battle. Such omissions cannot simply be the result of ignorance of Sebastian's death. Sebastian's death is not even mentioned in the battle accounts written by two captured Portuguese officers while waiting to be ransomed from a Moroccan prison. These two officers actually shared their cells with the Portuguese soldiers who identified the king's body to Moroccan officials. The omissions therefore had to have had a psychological cause: the Portuguese evidently found Sebastian's death so humiliating that they could not bring themselves to write about it. | 199602_4-LR2_17_21 | [
"providing grounds for eliminating an alternative explanation",
"supplying indirect evidence that a disputed death actually occurred",
"resolving an apparent contradiction between two of the argument's main premises",
"giving evidence supporting a general psychological principle on which the main conclusion i... | 0 | The discussion about the two Portuguese officers advances the argument by |
A tiny, tree-living thrips is the first species identified that can reproduce both by laying eggs and by bearing live young, although for any one instance of reproduction, a given female will use only one of the two methods. Interestingly, biologists have observed that all of the offspring of this insect that are hatched from eggs are females, and all of the offspring that are live-born are males. It has also been noted that any particular live-born brood will comprise fewer individuals than any particular brood hatched from eggs. However, a much larger proportion of male offspring than of female offspring survives to adulthood, and among thrips reaching adulthood the ratio of males to females is about even. | 199602_4-LR2_18_22 | [
"It is the only species capable of using two different methods of reproduction.",
"Any female of the species that can reproduce by laying eggs can also reproduce by bearing live young but not necessarily vice versa.",
"On average, across the species, more of the offspring are born by hatching from eggs than are... | 2 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred about the species of thrips described in the passage? |
Since the zoo has more animals than enclosures, and every animal lives in an enclosure, it must be true that at least one of the enclosures contains more than one animal. | 199602_4-LR2_19_23 | [
"Every person has two biological parents, so some people who have no brothers or sisters have more parents than their parents have children.",
"Since every year there are more marriages than divorces, there must be some marriages that will not end in divorce.",
"Since boys under ten slightly outnumber girls und... | 3 | The argument above exhibits a pattern of reasoning that is most closely paralleled by which one of the following? |
In the Hartshorn Building, most but not all of the third-floor offices are larger than any office on the second floor. The fourth-floor offices are all larger than any office on the second floor. However, all the second-floor offices are larger than any office on the first floor. | 199602_4-LR2_20_24 | [
"Some first-floor offices are as large as the smallest fourth-floor offices.",
"Some first-floor offices are as large as the smallest third-floor offices.",
"Some third-flour offices are not as large as the largest first-floor offices.",
"Some third-floor offices are not as large as the smallest fourth-floor ... | 3 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
Louis: People's intentions cannot be, on the whole, more bad than good. Were we to believe otherwise, we would inevitably cease to trust each other, and no society can survive without mutual trust among its members. | 199602_4-LR2_21_25 | [
"It fails to rule out the possibility that a true belief can have deleterious consequences.",
"It mistakenly assumes that if two claims cannot at the same time both be true, then they cannot at the same time both be false.",
"It challenges the truth of a claim merely by calling into question the motives of thos... | 0 | The argument is most vulnerable to which one of the following criticisms? |
Director of Ace Manufacturing Company:Our management consultant proposes that we reassign staff so that all employees are doing both what they like to do and what they do well. This, she says, will "increase productivity by fully exploiting our available resources." But Ace Manufacturing has a long-standing commitment not to exploit its workers. Therefore, implementing her recommendations would cause us to violate our own policy. | 199606_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"failing to distinguish two distinct senses of a key term",
"attempting to defend an action on the ground that it is frequently carried out",
"defining a term by pointing to an atypical example of something to which the term applies",
"drawing a conclusion that simply restates one of the premises of the argum... | 0 | The director' s argument for rejecting the management consultant's proposal is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? |
A large number of drivers routinely violate highway speed limits. Since driving at speeds that exceed posted limits is a significant factor in most accidents, installing devices in all cars that prevent those cars from traveling faster than the speed limit would prevent most accidents. | 199606_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"A person need not be a trained mechanic to install the device properly.",
"Most accidents are caused by inexperienced drivers.",
"A driver seldom needs to exceed the speed limit to avoid an accident when none of the other drivers involved are violating the speed limit.",
"Most drivers who exceed the speed li... | 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
In a recession, a decrease in consumer spending causes many businesses to lay off workers or even to close. Workers who lose their jobs in a recession usually cannot find new jobs. The result is an increase in the number of people who are jobless. Recovery from a recession is defined by an increase in consumer spending and an expansion of business activity that creates a need for additional workers. But businesspeople generally have little confidence in the economy after a recession and therefore delay hiring additional workers as long as possible. | 199606_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"Recessions are usually caused by a decrease in businesspeople's confidence in the economy.",
"Governmental intervention is required in order for an economy to recover from a recession.",
"Employees of businesses that close during a recession make up the majority of the workers who lose their jobs during that r... | 3 | The statements above, if true, provide most support for which one of the following conclusions? |
Scientists analyzing air bubbles that had been trapped in Antarctic ice during the Earth's last ice age found that the ice-age atmosphere had contained unusually large amounts of ferrous material and surprisingly small amounts of carbon dioxide. One scientist noted that algae absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The scientist hypothesized that the ferrous material, which was contained in atmospheric dust, had promoted a great increase in the population of Antarctic algae such as diatoms. | 199606_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"Diatoms are a microscopic form of algae that has remained largely unchanged since the last ice age.",
"Computer models suggest that a large increase in ferrous material today could greatly promote the growth of oceanic algae.",
"The dust found in the air bubbles trapped in Antarctic ice contained other mineral... | 3 | Which one of the following, if true, would most seriously undermine the scientist's hypothesis? |
Adults who work outside the home spend, on average, 100 minutes less time each week in preparing dinner than adults who do not work outside the home. But, contrary to expectation, comparisons show that the dinners eaten at home by the two groups of adults do not differ significantly with respect to nutritional value, variety of menus, or number of courses. | 199606_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"The fat content of the dinners eaten at home by adults who do not work outside the home is 25 percent higher than national guidelines recommend.",
"Adults who do not work outside the home tend to prepare breakfast more often than adults who work outside the home.",
"Adults who work outside the home spend 2 hou... | 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above? |
Legislator: Your agency is responsible for regulating an industry shaken by severe scandals. You were given funds to hire 500 investigators to examine the scandals, but you hired no more than 400. I am forced to conclude that you purposely limited hiring in an attempt to prevent the full extent of the scandals from being revealed. Regulator: We tried to hire the 500 investigators but the starting salaries for these positions had been frozen so low by the legislature that it was impossible to attract enough qualified applicants. | 199606_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"shifting the blame for the scandals to the legislature",
"providing information that challenges the conclusion drawn by the legislator",
"claiming that compliance with the legislature's mandate would have been an insufficient response",
"rephrasing the legislator's conclusion in terms more favorable to the r... | 1 | The regulator responds to the legislator's criticism by |
A commonly accepted myth is that left-handed people are more prone to cause accidents than are right-handed people. But this is, in fact, just a myth, as is indicated by the fact that more household accidents are caused by right-handed people than are caused by left-handed people. | 199606_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"makes a distinction where there is no real difference between the things distinguished",
"takes no account of the relative frequency of left-handed people in the population as a whole",
"uses the word \"accidents\" in two different senses",
"ignores the possibility that some household accidents are caused by... | 1 | The reasoning is flawed because the argument |
Ornithologist: The curvature of the claws of modern tree-dwelling birds enables them to perch in trees. The claws of Archeopteryx, the earliest known birdlike creature, show similar curvature that must have enabled the creature to perch on tree limbs. Therefore, Archeopteryx was probably a tree-dwelling creature. Paleontologist: No, the ability to perch in trees is not good evidence that Archeopteryx was a tree-dwelling bird. Chickens also spend time perched in trees, yet chickens are primarily ground-dwelling. | 199606_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"questions the qualifications of the ornithologist to evaluate the evidence",
"denies the truth of the claims the ornithologist makes in support of the hypothesis",
"uses a parallel case to illustrate a weakness in the ornithologist's argument",
"shows that the hypothesis contradicts one of the pieces of evid... | 2 | In responding to the ornithologist's hypothesis that Archeopteryx was tree-dwelling, the paleontologist |
Ornithologist: The curvature of the claws of modern tree-dwelling birds enables them to perch in trees. The claws of Archeopteryx, the earliest known birdlike creature, show similar curvature that must have enabled the creature to perch on tree limbs. Therefore, Archeopteryx was probably a tree-dwelling creature. Paleontologist: No, the ability to perch in trees is not good evidence that Archeopteryx was a tree-dwelling bird. Chickens also spend time perched in trees, yet chickens are primarily ground-dwelling. | 199606_2-LR1_8_9 | [
"Modern tree-dwelling birds are the direct descendants of Archeopteryx.",
"Archeopteryx made use of the curvature of its claws.",
"There have never been tree-dwelling birds without curved claws.",
"Archeopteryx was in fact the earliest birdlike creature.",
"The curvature of the claws is the only available e... | 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the ornithologist's reasoning depends? |
There are rumors that the Premier will reshuffle the cabinet this week. However, every previous reshuffle that the Premier has made was preceded by meetings between the Premier and senior cabinet members. No such meetings have occurred or are planned. Therefore the rumors are most likely false. | 199606_2-LR1_9_10 | [
"When a conclusion follows logically from a set of premises, the probability that the conclusion is true cannot be any less than the probability that the premises are all true.",
"A hypothesis is undermined when a state of affairs does not obtain that would be expected to obtain if the hypothesis were true.",
"... | 1 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses a principle of reasoning employed by the argument? |
Carl: Researchers who perform operations on animals for experimental purposes are legally required to complete detailed pain protocols indicating whether the animals will be at risk of pain and, if so, what steps will be taken to minimize or alleviate it. Yet when human beings undergo operations, such protocols are never required. If lawmakers were as concerned about human beings as they seem to be about animals, there would be pain protocols for human beings too. Debbie: But consider this: a person for whom a doctor wants to schedule surgery can simply be told what pain to expect and can then decide whether or not to undergo the operation. So you see, pain protocols are unnecessary for human beings. | 199606_2-LR1_10_11 | [
"showing that one of the claims on which Carl bases his conclusion is inaccurate",
"pointing out a relevant difference to undermine an analogy on which Carl bases his conclusion",
"claiming that Carl's argument should be rejected because it is based on an appeal to sentimentality rather than on reasoned princip... | 1 | Debbie attempts to counter Carl' s argument by |
Carl: Researchers who perform operations on animals for experimental purposes are legally required to complete detailed pain protocols indicating whether the animals will be at risk of pain and, if so, what steps will be taken to minimize or alleviate it. Yet when human beings undergo operations, such protocols are never required. If lawmakers were as concerned about human beings as they seem to be about animals, there would be pain protocols for human beings too. Debbie: But consider this: a person for whom a doctor wants to schedule surgery can simply be told what pain to expect and can then decide whether or not to undergo the operation. So you see, pain protocols are unnecessary for human beings. | 199606_2-LR1_10_12 | [
"Not all operations that are performed on human beings are painful.",
"Some experimentation that is now done on animals need not be done at all.",
"Preparing pain protocols is not a time-consuming or costly procedure.",
"Some surgical operations performed on infants are painful.",
"Unalleviated pain after a... | 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument made by Debbie in response to Carl's argument? |
A company with long-outstanding bills owed by its customers can assign those bills to a collection agency that pays the company a fraction of their amount and then tries to collect payment from the customers. Since these agencies pay companies only 15 percent of the total amount of the outstanding bills, a company interested in reducing losses from long-outstanding bills would be well advised to pursue its debtors on its own. | 199606_2-LR1_11_13 | [
"a company that pursues its debtors on its own typically collects more than 15 percent of the total amount of the long-outstanding bills that it is owed",
"the cost to a company of pursuing its debtors on its own for payment of long-outstanding bills does not exceed 15 percent of the total amount of those bills",... | 0 | The argument depends on the assumption that |
Herbalist: Many of my customers find that their physical coordination improves after drinking juice containing certain herbs. A few doctors assert that the herbs are potentially harmful, but doctors are always trying to maintain a monopoly over medical therapies. So there is no reason not to try my herb juice. | 199606_2-LR1_12_14 | [
"attempts to force acceptance of a claim by inducing fear of the consequences of rejecting that claim",
"bases a conclusion on claims that are inconsistent with each other",
"rejects a claim by attacking the proponents of the claim rather than addressing the claim itself",
"relies on evidence presented in ter... | 2 | The reasoning in the herbalist's argument is flawed because the argument |
Because of the lucrative but illegal trade in rhinoceros horns, a certain rhinoceros species has been hunted nearly to extinction. Therefore an effective way to ensure the survival of that species would be to periodically trim off the horns of all rhinoceroses, thereby eliminating the motivation for poaching. | 199606_2-LR1_13_15 | [
"Most poachers who are discouraged from hunting rhinoceroses are not likely to hunt other animals for their horns.",
"At least some rhinoceroses whose horns are periodically trimmed off will be able to attract mates.",
"Poachers hunt at least some immature rhinoceroses whose horns have not yet started to develo... | 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
Motorcoach driver: Professional drivers spend much more time driving, on average, than do other people and hence are more competent drivers than are other, less experienced drivers. Therefore, the speed limit on major highways should not be reduced, because that action would have the undesirable effect of forcing some people who are now both law-abiding and competent drivers to break the law. Police officer: All drivers can drive within the legal speed limit if they wish, so it is not true to say that reducing the speed limit would be the cause of such illegal behavior. | 199606_2-LR1_14_16 | [
"it would be desirable to reduce the speed limit on major highways",
"professional drivers will drive within the legal speed limit if that limit is reduced",
"reducing the speed limit on major highways would cause some professional drivers to break the law",
"professional drivers are more competent drivers th... | 2 | The point at issue between the motorcoach driver and the police officer is whether |
People cannot devote themselves to the study of natural processes unless they have leisure, and people have leisure when resources are plentiful, not when resources are scarce. Although some anthropologists claim that agriculture, the cultivation of crops, actually began under conditions of drought and hunger, the early societies that domesticated plants must first have discovered how the plants they cultivated reproduced themselves and grew to maturity. These complex discoveries were the result of the active study of natural processes. | 199606_2-LR1_15_17 | [
"whenever a society has plentiful resources, some members of that society devote themselves to the study of natural processes",
"plants cannot be cultivated by someone lacking theoretical knowledge of the principles of plant generation and growth",
"agriculture first began in societies that at some time in thei... | 2 | The argument is structured to lead to the conclusion that |
In the past decade, a decreasing percentage of money spent on treating disease X went to pay for standard methods of treatment, which are known to be effective though they are expensive and painful. An increasing percentage is being spent on nonstandard treatments, which cause little discomfort. Unfortunately, the nonstandard treatments have proved to be ineffective. Obviously, less money is being spent now on effective treatments of disease X than was spent ten years ago. | 199606_2-LR1_16_18 | [
"Varieties of disease X requiring expensive special treatment have become less common during the past decade.",
"Nonstandard methods of treating disease X are more expensive now than they were a decade ago.",
"Of total medical expenditures, the percentage that is due to treatment of disease X increased during t... | 4 | Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the conclusion above to be properly drawn? |
When an ordinary piece of steel is put under pressure, the steel compresses; that is, its volume slightly decreases. Glass, however, is a fluid, so rather than compressing, it flows when put under pressure; its volume remains unchanged. Any portion of a sheet of glass that is under sustained pressure will very slowly flow to areas under less pressure. Therefore, if a single, extremely heavy object is placed in the middle of a horizontal sheet of glass of uniform thickness and if the glass is able to support the weight without cracking, then the sheet of glass will eventually ____. | 199606_2-LR1_17_19 | [
"become larger in size yet still be of uniform thickness",
"flow toward the point at which the pressure of the object is greatest",
"compress, although not as much as a piece of steel would",
"divide into exactly two pieces that are equal in neither size nor shape to the original piece of glass",
"be thinne... | 4 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
Anyone who insists that music videos are an art form should also agree that television gave rise to an art form, since television gave rise to music videos. | 199606_2-LR1_18_20 | [
"Anyone who claims that all vegetables are nutritious should also agree that some vegetables are harmful if eaten in large quantities.",
"Anyone who holds that avocados are a fruit should also hold that pound cake is lower in fat than some fruit, since pound cake is lower in fat than avocados.",
"Anyone who dis... | 1 | The pattern of reasoning displayed in the argument above most closely parallels that displayed in which one of the following? |
Medieval Arabs had manuscripts of many ancient Greek texts, which were translated into Arabic when there was a demand for them. Medieval Arab philosophers were very interested in Aristotle's Poetics, an interest that evidently was not shared by medieval Arab poets, because a poet interested in the Poetics would certainly have wanted to read Homer, to whose epics Aristotle frequently refers. But Homer was not translated into Arabic until modern times. | 199606_2-LR1_19_21 | [
"A number of medieval Arab translators possessed manuscripts of the Homeric epics in their original Greek.",
"Medieval Arabic story cycles, such as the Arabian Nights, are in some ways similar to parts of the Homeric epics.",
"In addition to translating from Greek, medieval Arab translators produced Arabic edit... | 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the argument above? |
Congenial guests and a plentiful supply of good things to eat and drink will ensure a successful dinner party. Since Sylvia has prepared more than enough to eat and drink and her guests are all congenial people, her dinner party is certain to be a success. | 199606_2-LR1_20_22 | [
"The right ingredients, properly combined and baked in a reliable oven will always produce a well-baked cake. Since Emily has properly combined the right ingredients, her cake is certain to come out well if she bakes it in a reliable oven.",
"If corn is baked with its husks on, the resulting dish will always be m... | 3 | The pattern of flawed reasoning exhibited by the argument above is most similar to that exhibited by which one of the following? |
A museum director, in order to finance expensive new acquisitions, discreetly sold some paintings by major artists. All of them were paintings that the director privately considered inferior. Critics roundly condemned the sale, charging that the museum had lost first-rate pieces, thereby violating its duty as a trustee of art for future generations. A few months after being sold by the museum, those paintings were resold, in an otherwise stagnant art market, at two to three times the price paid to the museum. Clearly, these prices settle the issue, since they demonstrate the correctness of the critics' evaluation. | 199606_2-LR1_21_23 | [
"It concludes that a certain opinion is correct on the grounds that it is held by more people than hold the opposing view.",
"It rejects the judgment of the experts in an area in which there is no better guide to the truth than expert judgment.",
"It rejects a proven means of accomplishing an objective without ... | 4 | The reasoning in the argument is vulnerable to the criticism that the argument does which one of the following? |
The United States ranks far behind countries such as Sweden and Canada when it comes to workplace safety. In all three countries, joint labor-management committees that oversee workplace safety conditions have been very successful in reducing occupational injuries. In the United States, such committees are found only in the few companies that have voluntarily established them. However, in Sweden and several Canadian provinces, joint safety committees are required by law and exist in all medium-sized and large workplaces. | 199606_2-LR1_22_24 | [
"The establishment of joint safety committees in all medium-sized and large workplaces in the United States would result in a reduction of occupational injuries.",
"A joint safety committee that is required by law is more effective at reducing occupational injuries than is a joint safety committee that is volunta... | 0 | Which one of the following is supported by the information above? |
Three-year-old Sara and her playmate Michael are both ill and have the same symptoms. Since they play together every afternoon, Sara probably has the same illness as Michael does. Since Michael definitely does not have a streptococcal infection, despite his having some symptoms of one, the illness that Sara has is definitely not a streptococcal infection either. | 199606_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"presupposes what it sets out to prove",
"mistakes the cause of a particular phenomenon for the effect of that phenomenon",
"fails to distinguish between acute streptococcal infections on the one hand, and less severe streptococcal infections on the other",
"treats evidence that the conclusion is probably tru... | 3 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument |
Lambert: The proposal to raise gasoline taxes to support mass transit networks is unfair. Why should drivers who will never use train or bus lines be forced to pay for them? Keziah: You have misunderstood. The government has always spent far more, per user, from general revenue sources to fund highways than to fund mass transit. The additional revenue from the gasoline tax will simply allow the government to make its distribution of transportation funds more equitable. | 199606_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"elaborating the context of the issue in order to place the proposal in a more favorable light",
"appealing to the principle that what benefits society as a whole benefits all individuals within that society",
"challenging the presupposition that fairness is an appropriate criterion on which to judge the matter... | 0 | Keziah uses which one of the following argumentative strategies in replying to Lambert? |
The number of calories in a gram of refined cane sugar is the same as in an equal amount of fructose, the natural sugar found in fruits and vegetables. Therefore, a piece of candy made with a given amount of refined cane sugar is no higher in calories than a piece of fruit that contains an equal amount of fructose. | 199606_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"fails to consider the possibility that fruit might contain noncaloric nutrients that candy does not contain",
"presupposes that all candy is made with similar amounts of sugar",
"confuses one kind of sugar with another",
"presupposes what it sets out to establish, that fruit does not differ from sugar-based ... | 4 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument |
In order to increase production, ABC Company should implement a flextime schedule, which would allow individual employees some flexibility in deciding when to begin and end their workday. Studies have shown that working under flextime schedules is associated with increased employee morale. | 199606_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"the employees who prefer a flextime schedule are the most productive employees at ABC Company",
"an increase in the morale of ABC Company's employees could lead to increased production",
"flextime schedules tend to be associated with reduced lateness and absenteeism",
"employees are most productive during th... | 1 | The argument depends on the assumption that |
Attorneys for a criminal defendant charged that the government, in a coverup, had destroyed evidence that would have supported the defendant in a case. The government replied that there is no evidence that would even tend to support the defendant in the case. | 199606_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"It leaves open the question of whether the government had destroyed such evidence.",
"It establishes that the attorneys' charge is an exaggeration.",
"It shows that the attorneys did not know whether their charge was true.",
"It demonstrates the government's failure to search for evidence in its files.",
"... | 0 | Which one of the following is the most accurate evaluation of the government' s reply? |
Videocassette recorders (VCRs) enable people to watch movies at home on videotape. People who own VCRs go to movie theaters more often than do people who do not own VCRs. Contrary to popular belief, therefore, owning a VCR actually stimulates people to go to movie theaters more often than they otherwise would. | 199606_4-LR2_6_6 | [
"concludes that a claim must be false because of the mere absence of evidence in its favor",
"cites, in support of the conclusion, evidence that is inconsistent with other information that is provided",
"fails to establish that the phenomena interpreted as cause and effect are not both direct effects of some ot... | 2 | The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
The cumbersome spears that were the principal weapons used by certain tribes in the early Bronze Age precluded widespread casualties during intertribal conflicts. But the comparatively high number of warrior tombs found in recent excavations of the same tribes' late Bronze Age settlements indicates that in the late Bronze Age, wars between these tribes were frequent, and the casualty rate was high. Hence some archaeologists claim that by the late Bronze Age, these tribes had developed new methods of warfare designed to inflict many casualties. | 199606_4-LR2_7_7 | [
"A royal tomb dating to the early Bronze Age contained pottery depicting battle scenes in which warriors use spears.",
"There is evidence that many buildings dating to the late Bronze Age were built by prisoners of war taken in battles between enemy tribes.",
"Scenes of violent warfare, painted in bright hues, ... | 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most supports the archaeologists' claim? |
Based on data collected from policyholders, life insurance companies have developed tables that list standard weight ranges for various heights. Policyholders whose weight fell within the range given for their height lived longer than those whose weight fell outside their given range. Therefore, if people whose weight falls outside their given range modified their weight to fall within that range, their overall life expectancies would improve. | 199606_4-LR2_8_8 | [
"Some people would be unwilling to modify their weights solely to increase the general population's overall life expectancies.",
"Life insurance companies intended their tables to guide individuals in adjusting their weights in order to increase their life spans.",
"The tables include data gathered from policyh... | 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies? |
Measurements of the motion of the planet Uranus seem to show Uranus being tugged by a force pulling it away from the Sun and the inner planets. Neptune and Pluto, the two known planets whose orbits are farther from the Sun than is the orbit of Uranus, do not have enough mass to exert the force that the measurements indicate. Therefore, in addition to the known planets, there must be at least one planet in our solar system that we have yet to discover. | 199606_4-LR2_9_9 | [
"Pluto was not discovered until 1930.",
"There is a belt of comets beyond the orbit of Pluto with powerful gravitational pull.",
"Neither Neptune nor Pluto is as massive as Uranus.",
"The force the Sun exerts on Uranus is weaker than the force it exerts on the inner planets.",
"Uranus' orbit is closer to Ne... | 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Audiences find a speaker more convincing if the speaker begins a speech by arguing briefly against his or her position before providing reasons for accepting it. The reason this technique is so effective is that it makes the speaker appear fair-minded and trustworthy. Therefore, candidates for national political office who wish to be successful in winning votes should use this argumentative technique in their speeches. | 199606_4-LR2_10_10 | [
"Political candidates typically have no control over which excerpts from their speeches will be reported by the news media.",
"Many people do not find arguments made by politicians convincing, since the arguments are often one-sided or oversimplify the issues.",
"People decide which political candidate to vote ... | 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously limits the effectiveness of adopting the argument's recommendation? |
Five thousand of the 50,000 books published in country Z in 1991 were novels. Exactly 25 of the films released in country Z in 1992 were based on those novels. Since 100 films were released in country Z in 1992, no more than one-quarter of them were based on books published in country Z in 1991. | 199606_4-LR2_11_11 | [
"None of the scripts used in films released in 1992 were written by professional novelists.",
"None of the films released in country Z in 1992 were based on books other than novels.",
"None of the books that were published in country Z in 1992 were based on plots of films released in 1991.",
"Some of the film... | 1 | Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the conclusion above to be properly drawn? |
On their way from their nest to a food source, ants of most species leave a trail of chemicals called pheromones. The ants use the scent of the pheromones to guide themselves between the food and their nest. All pheromones evaporate without a trace almost immediately when temperatures rise above 45 degrees Celsius (113 degrees Fahrenheit), as is typical during afternoons in places such as the Sahara Desert. | 199606_4-LR2_12_12 | [
"Most ants forage for food either only in the morning or only during the night.",
"Most ants that do not use pheromones to mark the paths they take between their nest and food live in the Sahara Desert.",
"If any ants live in the Sahara Desert and forage for food at no time but in the afternoon, those ants gene... | 2 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
Some people think that in every barrel of politicians there are only a few rotten ones. But if deceit is a quality of rottenness, I believe all effective politicians are rotten. They must be deceitful in order to do the job properly. Someone who is scrupulously honest about obeying the rules of society will never be an effective politician. | 199606_4-LR2_13_13 | [
"Some people think all politicians are rotten.",
"Some politicians are scrupulously honest.",
"Some people define a politician's job as obeying the rules of society.",
"Some deceitful politicians are ineffective.",
"Some scrupulously honest politicians are effective."
] | 4 | Assuming that the author's statements are accurate, which one of the following statements CANNOT be true? |
The Biocarb Company wants to build a sterilization plant to treat contaminated medical waste in a city neighborhood where residents and environmental activists fear that such a facility will pollute the area. Biocarb's president argues that the operation of the plant cannot cause pollution because the waste would be sterile after processing by the plant. He claims that after exposure for an hour to superheated steam in the autoclave, such refuse would be far cleaner than food prepared in the cleanest kitchen. | 199606_4-LR2_14_14 | [
"Environmental activists believe that waste treated with steam will not pollute.",
"Handling of the waste before treatment in the proposed facility will not pose a threat of pollution to the area.",
"Fear of pollution is the only argument against construction of an autoclave facility for medical waste.",
"No ... | 1 | The president's argument depends on which one of the following assumptions? |
Grow-Again ointment is a proven treatment for reversing male hereditary baldness. Five drops daily is the recommended dose, and exceeding this quantity does not increase the product's effectiveness. Therefore, offering a manufacturer's rebate on the purchase price of Grow-Again will not increase sales and consequently would be unprofitable for the manufacturer. | 199606_4-LR2_15_15 | [
"When using an ointment, people tend to believe that applying it in greater quantities can make it more effective.",
"Grow-Again is more effective on some of the men who use it than it is on others.",
"The rebate, if offered, would not attract purchasers who otherwise might not use Grow-Again.",
"Baldness in ... | 2 | Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the argument? |
Henry: Some scientists explain the dance of honeybees as the means by which honeybees communicate the location of whatever food source they have just visited to other members of the hive. But honeybees do not need so complicated a mechanism to communicate that information. Forager honeybees returning to their hive simply leave a scent trail from the food source they have just visited. There must therefore be some other explanation for the honeybees' dance. Winifred: Not necessarily. Most animals have several ways of accomplishing critical tasks. Bees of some species can navigate using either the position of the Sun or the memory of landmarks. Similarly, for honeybees, scent trails are a supplementary not an exclusive means of communicating. | 199606_4-LR2_16_16 | [
"theories of animal behavior can be established on the basis of evidence about only one species of animal",
"there is more than one valid explanation for the dance of the honeybees",
"honeybees communicate the location of food sources through their dance",
"the honeybee is the only species of bee that is capa... | 2 | The point at issue between Henry and Winifred is whether |
Henry: Some scientists explain the dance of honeybees as the means by which honeybees communicate the location of whatever food source they have just visited to other members of the hive. But honeybees do not need so complicated a mechanism to communicate that information. Forager honeybees returning to their hive simply leave a scent trail from the food source they have just visited. There must therefore be some other explanation for the honeybees' dance. Winifred: Not necessarily. Most animals have several ways of accomplishing critical tasks. Bees of some species can navigate using either the position of the Sun or the memory of landmarks. Similarly, for honeybees, scent trails are a supplementary not an exclusive means of communicating. | 199606_4-LR2_16_17 | [
"It addresses an ambiguity in Henry's use of the expression \"communicate the location.\"",
"It provides evidence in support of a general claim.",
"It calls into question the accuracy of key evidence cited by Henry.",
"It points out that Henry's conclusion directly contradicts one of his premises.",
"It pro... | 1 | In Winifred's response to Henry, the statement about how bees of some species navigate plays which one of the following roles? |
Politician: A government that taxes incomes at a rate of 100 percent will generate no revenue because all economic activity will cease. So it follows that the lower the rate of income tax, the more revenue the government will generate by that tax. Economist: Your conclusion cannot be correct, since it would mean that an income tax of 0 percent would generate the maximum revenue. | 199606_4-LR2_17_18 | [
"stating a general principle that is incompatible with the conclusion the politician derives",
"providing evidence that where the politician's advice has been adopted, the results have been disappointing",
"arguing that the principle derived by the politician, if applied in the limiting case, leads to an absurd... | 2 | Which one of the following argumentative strategies is used by the economist in responding to the politician? |
Sponges attach to the ocean floor, continually filtering seawater for food and ejecting water they have just filtered to avoid reingesting it. Tubular and vase-shaped sponges can eject filtered water without assistance from surrounding ocean currents and thus are adapted to slow-moving, quiet waters. Because of their shape, however, these sponges cannot live in strong currents, since strong currents would dislodge them. Both of these varieties of sponge were widespread during the late Jurassic period. | 199606_4-LR2_18_19 | [
"Few tubular or vase-shaped sponges lived before the late Jurassic period.",
"Tubular and vase-shaped sponges were more common during the late Jurassic period than in succeeding geological eras.",
"During the late Jurassic period there were many areas of the ocean floor where currents were weak.",
"All sponge... | 2 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following claims? |
There is strong evidence that the cause of migraines (severe recurrent headaches) is not psychological but instead is purely physiological. Yet several studies have found that people being professionally treated for migraines rate higher on a standard psychological scale of anxiety than do people not being professionally treated for migraines. | 199606_4-LR2_19_20 | [
"People who have migraine headaches tend to have relatives who also have migraine headaches.",
"People who have migraine headaches often suffer these headaches when under emotional stress.",
"People who rate higher on the standard psychological scale of anxiety are more likely to seek professional treatment tha... | 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above? |
Not all tenured faculty are full professors. Therefore, although every faculty member in the linguistics department has tenure, it must be the case that not all of the faculty members in the linguistics department are full professors. | 199606_4-LR2_20_21 | [
"Although all modern office towers are climate-controlled buildings, not all office buildings are climate-controlled. Therefore, it must be the case that not all office buildings are modern office towers.",
"All municipal hospital buildings are massive, but not all municipal hospital buildings are forbidding in a... | 2 | The flawed pattern of reasoning exhibited by the argument above is most similar to that exhibited by which one of the following? |
When a planetary system forms, the chances that a planet capable of supporting life will be formed are high. The chances that a large planet the size of Jupiter or Saturn will be formed, however, are low. Without Jupiter and Saturn, whose gravitational forces have prevented Earth from being frequently struck by large comets, intelligent life would never have arisen on Earth. Since planetary systems are unlikely to contain any large planets, the chances that intelligent life will emerge on a planet are, therefore, low. | 199606_4-LR2_21_22 | [
"whether all planetary systems are formed from similar amounts of matter",
"whether intelligent species would be likely to survive if a comet struck their planet",
"whether large comets could be deflected by only one large planet rather than by two",
"how high the chances are that planetary systems will conta... | 3 | Knowing which one of the following would be most useful in evaluating the argument? |
Construction contractors working on the cutting edge of technology nearly always work on a "cost-plus" basis only. One kind of cost-plus contract stipulates the contractor's profit as a fixed percentage of the contractor's costs; the other kind stipulates a fixed amount of profit over and above costs. Under the first kind of contract, higher costs yield higher profits for the contractor, so this is where one might expect final costs in excess of original cost estimates to be more common. Paradoxically, such cost overruns are actually more common if the contract is of the fixed-profit kind. | 199606_4-LR2_22_23 | [
"Clients are much less likely to agree to a fixed-profit type of cost-plus contract when it is understood that under certain conditions the project will be scuttled than they are when there is no such understanding.",
"On long-term contracts, cost projections take future inflation into account, but since the figu... | 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent paradox in the situation described above? |
That wall is supported by several joists. The only thing that can have caused the bulge that the wall now has is a broken joist. Therefore, at least one of the joists is broken. | 199606_4-LR2_23_24 | [
"At least one of the players in the orchestra must have made a mistake, since nothing else would have made the conductor grimace in the way she just did.",
"The first piece must have been the easiest, since it was the only piece in the entire concert in which the orchestra did not make many mistakes",
"The play... | 0 | Which one of the following arguments is most similar in logical features to the argument above? |
Sasha: Handwriting analysis should be banned in court as evidence of a person's character: handwriting analysts called as witnesses habitually exaggerate the reliability of their analyses. Gregory: You are right that the current use of handwriting analysis as evidence is problematic. But this problem exists only because there is no licensing board to set professional standards and thus deter irresponsible analysts from making exaggerated claims. When such a board is established, however, handwriting analysis by licensed practitioners will be a legitimate courtroom tool for character assessment. | 199606_4-LR2_24_25 | [
"He ignores evidence introduced as support for Sasha's recommendation.",
"He defends a principle by restricting the class to which it is to be applied.",
"He abstracts a general principle from specific evidence.",
"He identifies a self-contradictory statement in Sasha's argument.",
"He shows that Sasha's ar... | 1 | Gregory does which one of the following in responding to Sasha's argument? |
Sasha: Handwriting analysis should be banned in court as evidence of a person's character: handwriting analysts called as witnesses habitually exaggerate the reliability of their analyses. Gregory: You are right that the current use of handwriting analysis as evidence is problematic. But this problem exists only because there is no licensing board to set professional standards and thus deter irresponsible analysts from making exaggerated claims. When such a board is established, however, handwriting analysis by licensed practitioners will be a legitimate courtroom tool for character assessment. | 199606_4-LR2_24_26 | [
"Courts routinely use means other than handwriting analysis to provide evidence of a person's character.",
"Many people can provide two samples of their handwriting so different that only a highly trained professional could identify them as having been written by the same person.",
"A licensing board would inev... | 3 | Which one of the following, if true, would provide Sasha with the strongest counter to Gregory's response? |
French divers recently found a large cave along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The cave is accessible only through an underwater tunnel. The interior of the cave is completely filled with seawater and contains numerous large stalagmites, which are stony pillars that form when drops of water fall repeatedly on a single spot on a cave floor, leaving behind mineral deposits that accumulate over time. | 199610_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"The Mediterranean Sea was at a higher level in the past than it is now.",
"The water level within the cave is higher now than it once was.",
"The French divers were the first people who knew that the tunnel leading to the cave existed.",
"There was once an entrance to the cave besides the underwater tunnel."... | 1 | The information above most strongly supports which one of the following? |
A director of the Rexx Pharmaceutical Company argued that the development costs for new vaccines that the health department has requested should be subsidized by the government, since the marketing of vaccines promised to be less profitable than the marketing of any other pharmaceutical product. In support of this claim the director argued that sales of vaccines are likely to be lower since each vaccine is administered to a patient only once, whereas medicines that combat diseases and chronic illnesses are administered many times to each patient. | 199610_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"Vaccines are administered to many more people than are most other pharmaceutical products.",
"Many of the diseases that vaccines are designed to prevent can be successfully treated by medicines.",
"Pharmaceutical companies occasionally market products that are neither medicines nor vaccines.",
"Pharmaceutica... | 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the support offered by the company director for the claim concerning the marketing of vaccines? |
Manager: Our new computer network, the purpose of which is to increase productivity, can be installed during the day, which would disrupt our employees' work, or else at night, which would entail much higher installation charges. Since saving money is important, we should have the network installed during me day. | 199610_1-LR1_3_3 | [
"The monetary value of the network equipment would not exceed the cost of having the equipment installed at night.",
"The monetary value of any productivity lost during a daytime installation would be less than the difference between daytime and nighttime installation costs.",
"A daytime installation would be c... | 1 | The manager's argument assumes which one of the following? |
An ingredient in marijuana known as THC has been found to inactivate herpes viruses in experiments. In previous experiments researchers found that inactivated herpes viruses can convert healthy cells into cancer cells. It can be concluded that the use of marijuana can cause cancer. | 199610_1-LR1_4_4 | [
"Several teams of scientists performed the various experiments and all of the teams had similar results.",
"The carcinogenic effect of THC could be neutralized by the other ingredients found in marijuana.",
"When THC kills herpes viruses it weakens the immune system, and it might thus diminish the body's abilit... | 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
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