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188 Mituodian 彌陀殿, Chongfusi 1143 7 26 Shuoxian, Shanxi Sanshengdian 三聖殿, Shanhuasi 1143 5 26 Datong, Shanxi Puxiange 普賢閣, Shanhuasi 1154 3 22. 5 Gate, Shanhuasi 12th c. 5 25 Guanyindian 觀音殿, Chongfusi Jin 5 22 In three instances--the main halls of the Foguangsi and Huayansi, and the Qianfodian at the Fengguosi--the he...
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189 structurally complex buildings especially high-rises, it was always wise to build a model before committing to real construction. When used as a pilot model, the miniature preceded the full-scale: it was born directly out of a “mental image” and could in this case be regarded as the “original. ” The full-scale, on ...
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190 proportion, the model is less elegant than the one at the Chongfusi considering its thick and clumsy lintels, rafters, balustrades, and bracket arms. No written records as I know of tell us how the model ended up in a n imperially patronized Buddhist monastery, displayed in front of the Buddhas in the main worsh ip...
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191 2. It masks and perverts a basic reality. 3. It masks the absence of a basic reality. 4. It bears no relation to any reality whatever: it is its own pu re simulacrum. 24 This model can be said to have adhered to some of these points: it reflects the styles and characteristics of Tang architecture while distorting t...
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192 already commented on this issue, this section will continue to expl ore and unravel the nature of models and model-making through a number of historical texts and examples. To King, modeling is a way by which the modeler interacts with the society, with the world, and with him-or herself; it is a medium of communic...
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193 (依月令文, 造明堂木樣, 重檐複廟. 五房四達, 丈尺規矩, 皆有準憑, 以獻 ). 29 The model surely amazed the emperor, who was prepared to endorse the project; meanwhile, it also served as a platform for other court officials to participate in the design process and contribute their own opinions. Sometime betwe en 605 and 618, Yuwen Kai presented an...
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194 Northern Song, it was still a standard procedure to make a xiaoyang first, so that the design could be discussed, developed, and modified by a group of participants including the emperor himself. 32 A xiaoyan g, other than being a three-dimensional model, could denote a set of sketches or drawings for artists to st...
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195 replicated and refined. In this sense, builders, modelers, and painters were all miniaturists adept at manipulating scale and proportion; they must have shared certain knowledge and techniques to have arrived at such a significant commona lity in practice. 34 Drafts and sketches were also instrumental in building a...
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196 painting. 37 Techniques of miniaturization aside, it must have captured so nicely the mood and feeling of sublimity appropriate for a dream-like heavenly scene that it was admired by many, including the emperor, and turne d out to be the direct source of inspiration for the realized project. Liu Wentong's xiaoyang ...
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197 and the Qing mausoleums. 39 The models made by the Yangshi Lei were crafted on different scales for different purposes: a 1/100 model ( yifenyang 一分樣 or cunyang 寸樣 ) was to display the overall layout of a building comple x; a 1/20 or even larger model was to show structural details and/or propose different schemes ...
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198 elusiveness of a legendary or mythic architecture ( mingtang, Yuluo xiaotai), or from the carpent er's unfamiliarity with certain foreign forms (pagodas, transformation tableaux ). Especially, to build a pagoda was a highly intellectually challenging task which demanded both the techniques of building high-rises an...
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199 The form of the relic enshrinement is said to be “following the example set up by King Asoka in all aspects ” (建軌制度一准育王 ). 45 No pagodas built dur ing Sui Wendi's time have been preserved to this day to verify this statement, but according to some textual evidence, the pagodas probably looked more Chinese than “for...
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200 made of silver. 48 Upon a square base, on each side of the stupa is carved an archway framing a certain scene from the Jatakas. The capitals of t he four corner columns are shaped into four Garuda figures. Directly above are four accentuated, slender, and erect acroteria ( shanhua jiaoye ) bearing more narrative sc...
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201 stupas yielded from several other sites. 51 It seems likely that the stupas were first cast collectively in the imperial foundry and then distributed to various monasteries to be deposited. 52 The excavations have well corroborated the textual record that Qian Hongchu, “admiring King Asoka's feat of erecting the st...
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202 阿育王寺 in Ningbo, where there once was a minia ture stupa about twice as large as Qian Hongchu's bronze and iron stupas :54 The stupa in Maoxian (in modern-day Ningbo) emerged from the ground in the second year of the Taikang period of the Western Jin dynasty (281) after the monk Huida's epiphany. It was one chi and ...
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203 dome of the Indian stupa. 58 This is to say that the subject of emulation was in fact a miniature, a fragment of the whole, a metonym of a powerful religious monument. The “Asokan stupas,” therefore, was not so much of an imitation but a creative process in which literal transplantation was replaced by significatio...
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204 eleventh century. 61 Unlike architectural models, these were tools of studying the celestial bodies; but like architectural models, they were miniatures and simulations of the intended “real ity,” a reality that has never been fully observable or comprehensible but could nonetheless be approached by modeling. While...
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205 Su Song, however, was not the first person in Chinese history to invent such a device. His forerunners were said to have possessed even greater skills and finesse, but records about their knowledge and method had become largely f ragmentary and incomprehensible while the devices they made were passed down only in t...
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206 Rather than the normal wear and tear of the existing implements, or t he alleged political motives for proclaiming new eras, the principal reason for remaking the astronomical devices was the inaccuracies and deficiencies of the old ones which became gradually exposed and exacerbated with the passage of time. For e...
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207 The dynamics of qi and xiang has undergone sustained discussions by generations of Chinese scholars, who understood qi to be basically any type of designed object (including architecture, astron omical devices, and their models), and xiang not only images but also “imitations” and “simulations. ”69 Hence, when fash...
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208 some basic principle or mechanism of the universe that the ancient sages somehow “visualized” and expressed through an abstract image--a particular hexagram. Looking back to the architectural miniatures introduced in earlier chapters, especial ly the tiangong louge, it is now easy to understand them as simulations ...
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209 experience, on the other hand, had profound epistemological connotations: it forces us to reconsider the interrelationship between models and their “originals” or “copies,” between the small-scale hyper-reality and the more familiar “real” world it appears to imitate. From this perspective, what models and miniatur...
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210 Conclusion A close examination of the representative miniature architecture in 1000-1200 CE China--as demonstrated in this dissertation--has several significant contributions to the field of Chinese architectural and art history. While miniatures ha ve been largely regarded and studied as mere “copies” or “reflecti...
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211 evaluated as signifiers of specific ideas and vehicles for specific rituals or practices. While religious piety might have been the strongest drive for the fervent production of these miniatur es, other intellectual influence s--especially the Neo-Confucian ideal of the perfect world order--also has to be reckoned ...
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212 architecture dwindled and the focus of architecture transitioned from sheer mass to ornamentation and details. On the other hand, the fourth example is presented in the last chapter of the dissertation to alert readers of the potential limitations of the historical narrative of miniature architecture I have project...
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213 largely illiterate? How has the ir experience and knowledge of woodworking been preserved and transmitted orally or in written forms? As briefly brought up in this dissertation, an investigation into Chinese miniaturists problematizes--if not breaks down--the assumed dichotomy between the literati and illiterate ar...
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214 Miniatures (architectural and non-architectural) can be found anywhere on earth, and miniature-making has been part of the human delight and endeavor ever si nce the dawn of civilizations, evolving from the crafting of simple idols to the manufacture of smaller and smaller electronic devices measured in nanometers....
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215 Figures 1 Illustration of tiangong louge fodaozhang (Yingzao fashi, vol. 4, 95) 2 Illustration of tiangong bizang (Yingzao fashi, vol. 4, 101)
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216 3 Reconstructi ve drawings of douba zaojing, plan and section (Liang Sicheng 2001, 214)
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217 4 Reconstructive drawings of xiaodouba zaojing, plan and section (Liang Sicheng 2001, 216)
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218 5 Eight grades of cai in large-scale woodworking (Model by author) 6 Six grades of cai in small-scale woodworking (Model by author)
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219 7 Guo Zhongshu, Summer Palace of Emperor Minghuang, detail (Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons ) 8 Tamamushi Shrine, detail of roof (Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons )
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220 9 Illustration of huasheng (Yingzao fashi, vol. 4, 136) 10 Line drawing of mural on east ceiling slope of Mogao Cave 31, showing a woman holding a Moho uluo doll (Guo 2013, 14)
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221 11 Wang Zhenpeng, Dragon Boat Regatta, partial (http://theme. npm. edu. tw/exh102/dragonlake/ch/photo1. html ) 12 Wang Zhenpeng, Dragon Boat Regatta, detail
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222 (http://theme. npm. edu. tw/exh102/dragonlake/images/bphoto8. jpg) 13 Longxingsi sutra case, overview (Photo by author)
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223 14 Sectional drawing of Zhuanlunzangdian at Longxingsi (Chen 2010, 54)
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224 15 Plan of Zhuanlunzangdian at Longxingsi (Liang 1933, 21) 16 Bottom of pivot of Long xingsi sutra case (Photo by author)
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225 17 Master plan of Longxingsi (Liang 1933, 15)
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226 18 Rhino 3D model of Longxingsi sutra case (Model by author)
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227 19 Reconstructive drawings of zhuanlun jingzang, plans, elevation, section, and details of brackets (Takeshima 1971, 665)
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228 20 Reconstructive drawing of zhuanlun jingzang, elevation and section (Pan and He 2005, 145) 21 Rotating co re of Longxingsi sutra case (Photo by author)
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229 22 Longxingsi sutra case in the 1920s (Tokiwa and Sekino 1940, pl. 90)
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230 23 Longxingsi sutra case in the 1930s (Liang 1933, pl. 27)
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231 24 Longxingsi sutra case, detail of corner set (Photo by author) 25 Rhino 3D model of corner bracket sets of Longxingsi sutra case (Model by author)
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232 26 Longxingsi sutra case, detail of column-top and intercolumnar bracket sets (Photo by author) 27 Zhuanlunzangdian at Longxingsi, detail of exterior bracket sets (Photo by author)
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233 28 Diagram showing historical development of Chinese bracketing system (Liang 1984)
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234 29 Cornice of Tianwangdian at Longxingsi, showing Qing bracket sets arrayed among Song originals (Liang 1933, pl. 35) 30 Daoxuan's layout of ideal monastery, detail (Ho 1995, 2-3)
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235 31 Elevation of Yunyansi feitianzang (Guo 2009, 537)
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236 32 Beishan Cave 136, interior (Guo 1999, 84)
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237 33 Baodingshan Cave 14 (Guo 1999, 49)
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238 34 Drawing of Jinshansi revolving sutra case (Zhang 2000, 122)
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239 35 Pingwusi revolving sutra case (Zhongguo wenwu dituji: Sichuan fence, 496)
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240 36 Gaolisi revolving sutra case (http://andonglaowang. lofter. com/post/2fe384_6a10cc9 ) 37 Modern revolving sutra case installed by Tai Xiangzhou in a 2010 exhibition in Shanghai (Photo by luychen, https://www. flickr. com/photos/34076990@N05/4561707565/sizes/o/in/photostream/ )
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241 38 Yungang Cave 1, interior (Photo by author) 39 Yung ang C ave 2, detail of central pillar (Photo by author)
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242 40 Northern Wei miniature stupa from Gansu (Wang 1999, 70) 41 Yingxian Wooden Pagoda (Photo by author)
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243 42 Sanjie jiudi zhi tu 三界九地之圖 (P. 2824)
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244 43 Su Song's clock-tower (http://ctext. org/library. pl?if=gb&file=86840&page=89 ) 44 Wooden pagoda of Su So ng's clock-tower (http://ctext. org/library. pl?if=gb&file=86840&page=96 )
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245 45 Huayansi Bo jia jiaozang, interior view (Photo by author) 46 Sectional dra wing of Huayansi Bojia jiaozang (Liang and Liu 1933, pl. 5)
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246 47 Huayansi Bojia jiaozang, ambulatory alon g the back of the central altar (Photo by author)
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247 48 Huayansi Bojia jiaozang, ambul atory along the south wall (Photo by author)
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248 49 Huayansi sutra cabinets, detail of bracket sets (Photo by author)
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249 50 Arching brid ge of Huayansi sutra case (Photo by author) 51 Huayan Plaza in front of Huayansi (Photo by author)
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250 52 Arching bridge of Huayansi sutra case, detail (Photo by author) 53 Wooden miniatur e shrine in Binglingsi Cave 172 (Heireiji Sekkutsu, pl. 110)
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251 54 Yungang C ave 6, detail of central pillar (Photo by author)
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252 55 Erxianmiao miniature Daoist shrine (Zhongguo wenwu dituji: Shanxi fence, 449) 56 Huhuangmiao miniatur e shrine, detail of roof corner (Zhongguo wenwu dituji: Shanxi fence, 467)
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253 57 Elevation of miniatu re shrine in Buddhist dormitory (Zhang 2000, 146) 58 Plan of Jinshansi dormitory (Zhang 2000, 121)
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254 59 Drawings of Jingshansi miniature shrine (Zhang 2000, 142) 60 Plan of Jingshansi dormitory (Zhang 2000, 118)
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255 61 Line drawing of stone relief, north wall of east side-chamber, Dahuting To mb 1 (Mixian Dahuting hanmu, 143) 62 Line drawing of stone relief, north wall of north side-chamber, Dahuting Tomb 1 (Mixian Dahuting hanmu, 181)
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256 63 Front elevation, section, and plan of shenchu, accord ing to Lu Ban jing (Ruitenbeek, 201) 64 Yangshi Lei miniature shrine (http://cdm. lib. ntu. edu. tw/cdm/singleitem/collection/ysl/id/5 )
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257 65 Reconstructive drawing of bizang, section (Takeshima 1971, 734)
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258 66 Diagram of the typology of Japanese zushi (Ono 2002, 2)
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259 67 Five Dynasty silk painting of “Seven Locations and Nine Assembl ies” (Duan and Fan 2005, 75)
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260 68 Bianxiang of Huayanjing, Mogao Cave 85, d etail of Lotus Repository World (Duan and Fan 2001, 222) 69 Bianxiang of Amitabha's pure land, Mogao Cave 321 (Wang 2005, pl. 9)
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261 70 Comp ound eye of a fruit fly, detail (Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons) 71 Mordern insta llation of Fazang's mirror hall (Wang 2005, 259)
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262 72 Main H all of Jingtusi, west elevation (Photo by author) 73 Scematic plan of Jingtusi ceiling (Sketch by author)
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263 74 Central coffer of Jingtusi ceiling, abov e the main Buddha (Photo by author)
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264 75 Jingtus i Main Hall, interior view (Photo by author) 76 Miniature golden halls in cen tral coffer of Jingtusi ceiling (Photo by author)
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265 77 Miniature Buddhas painted in cen tral coffer of Jingtusi ceiling (Photo b y author) 78 Seven-tiered, fan-shaped bracket set at the south west corner of Jingtusi ceiling (Photo by author)
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266 79 Double bracket s in east coffer ( Coffer E) of Jingtusi ceiling (Photo by author) 80 West coffer of Jingtusi ceiling (Photo by author)
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267 81 Partial view of Jingtusi ceiling, showing a combination three different geometric shapes : diamond, octagonal, hexagonal (Photo by author)
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268 82 Baldachin roof above a painted Buddha at Jingtusi (Photo by author)
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269 83 Sixteenth-century map of Yingzhou, showing location of Jingt usi (Yingzhouzhi, unpaged) 84 Miniature br acket sets in the ceiling of Mituodian at Chongfusi (Photo by author)
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270 85 Miniature theater in Houma Tomb 1 (Hong 2011, fig. 1) 86 Actor figures and a theater pavilion in Macun Tomb 4 (Zhongguo wenwu di tuji: Shanxi fence, 424)
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271 87 Line drawing of mural on the west wall of Manjusri Hall, Yanshansi (Fu 1998, 290-91)
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272 88 Reconstructi ve plan of main building complex painted in Yanshansi murals (Fu 1998, 295) 89 Coffered ce iling in Main Hall of Shanhuasi (Sickman and Soper 1984, 456)
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273 90 Tiangong louge in ceiling coffer, Rear Hall of Fengshengsi (Liang and Liu 2007, 526) 91 Tiangong louge in ceiling, Offering Pavilion of Doudafuci (http://shanxi. abang. com/od/gujian/a/dc_p2. htm )
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274 92 Tiangong louge in ceiling, Main Hall of Yong'ansi (Zhongguo w enwu dituji : Shanxi fence, 498) 93 Tiangong louge in ceiling of Gongshutang (Zhongguo wenwu dituji : Shanxi fence, 481)
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275 94 Zhihuasi ceiling coffer, now in t he Philadelphia Museum of Art (Photo by Ruichua n Wu) 95 Zhihuasi ceiling coffer, d etail of tianggong louge (Photo by Ruichuan Wu)
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276 96 Tiangong louge in circular coffer, originally f rom Longfusi (Liang and Liu 2007, 528)
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277 97 Diagram of well-field system (Nongzheng quanshu, 4. 21a) 98 Diagram of Warring-states land-allocation system for administrative purpose, according to Zhouli (Nongzheng quanshu, 4. 30a)
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278 99 Plan of ideal capital city, according to Kaogongji (Sanlitu jizhu, 4. 6a) 100 Plan of imperial palace, according to Kaogongji (He 1985, 97)
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279 101 Reconstructive plan of Northern Song Dongjing (Zhang 2003, 160) 102 Thirteenth-centur y map of Northern Song Dongjing (Shilin guangji, 3. 143)
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280 103 Plan of five-chambered mingtang (Sanlitu jizhu, 4. 2a) 104 Reconstructive plan of Zhou-dynasty mingta ng (Yang 2008, 162)
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281 105 Reconstructive elevation of Wu Zetian's mingtang (Yang 2008, 505) 106 Mandala city painted in ceiling, Yulin Ca ve 3 (d. Xi Xia) (Anxi Yulinku, pl. 141)
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282 107 Model pavilion at Chongfusi (Photo by author)
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283 108 East-west cross section of Qianfoge (Chai 1996, 136) 109 North-south cross secti on of Qianfoge (Chai 1996, 136)
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284 110 Chon gfusi model, d etail of tr iple and double brackets (Photo by author) 111 Golden phoenix engraved between bracket-sets (Photo by author)
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285 112 Qianfoge at Chongfusi, exterior (Photo by author) 113 A typical ceyang (Yingzao fashi, vol. 4, 6)
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286 114 Model pagodas in Japan, Nara period (Left: M odel pagoda at Kairyooji ; Right: Model pagoda at Gangoji) (Fu 1992, figs. 13, 14)
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287 115 Model of Ming gatetower Qianlou, Huayansi Main Hall (Photo by author)
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