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crs_R45457 | crs_R45457_0 | Introduction
In the past two decades, increasing global trade liberalization, among other factors, has led to a rise in U.S. agricultural imports. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) reports that U.S. agricultural imports reached nearly $121 billion in the 2017 calendar year ( Figure 1 ), which was twice the le... | The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) is the U.S. government authority tasked with regulating the import, transit, and release of regulated animals, animal products, veterinary biologics, plants, plant products, pests, organisms, soil, and genetically engine... |
crs_R45581 | crs_R45581_0 | Introduction
Many of the disputes involving public education and school choice stem from a fundamental question of whether education is a public or private good. While education has historically been considered a public good, it has characteristics of both a public and a private good. That is, the benefits of educati... | The District of Columbia Opportunity Scholarship Program (DC OSP) is the only federally funded voucher program for elementary and secondary education. It operates exclusively in the District of Columbia. The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2004 (P.L. 108-199), which included the FY2004 District of Columbia Appropriati... |
crs_R45713 | crs_R45713_0 | A s the Supreme Court has observed, while the First Amendment protects the "freedom of speech," it "does not protect violence." But when speech promotes violence, a tension can form between the values of liberty and security. In an oft-quoted passage from a dissenting opinion, Justice Robert Jackson argued that the pro... | Recent acts of terrorism and hate crimes have prompted a renewed focus on the possible links between internet content and offline violence. While some have focused on the role that social media companies play in moderating user-generated content, others have called for Congress to pass laws regulating online content pr... |
crs_R45662 | crs_R45662_0 | Introduction
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), most recently comprehensively amended by the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA; P.L. 114-95 ), is the primary source of federal aid to elementary and secondary education. Title I-A is the largest program in the ESEA, funded at $15.8 billion for FY2018. Ti... | The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), most recently comprehensively amended by the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA; P.L. 114-95), is the primary source of federal aid to K-12 education. The Title I-A program is the largest grant program authorized under the ESEA and was funded at $15.8 billion for FY2018.... |
crs_R40683 | crs_R40683_0 | Introduction
Several hundred informal Member organizations exist within the House of Representatives, Senate, or between both the chambers; these organizations typically reflect Members' shared legislative objectives or representational interests. These groups may commonly be described as congressional caucuses, work... | This report examines the historical development and contemporary role of Congressional Member Organizations (CMOs) in the House, as well as informal Member groups in the House, Senate, and across the chambers. Commonly, these groups are referred to as caucuses, but they will be referred to collectively as informal Memb... |
crs_R40860 | crs_R40860_0 | What Is a Small Business?
The Small Business Act of 1953 (P.L. 83-163, as amended) authorized the U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA) and justified the agency's existence on the grounds that small businesses are essential to the maintenance of the free enterprise system. In economic terms, the congressional inte... | Small business size standards are of congressional interest because they have a pivotal role in determining eligibility for Small Business Administration (SBA) assistance as well as federal contracting and, in some instances, tax preferences. Although there is bipartisan agreement that the nation's small businesses pla... |
crs_RL33275 | crs_RL33275_0 | Introduction to LIHEAP
The Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP) is a block grant program administered by the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) under which the federal government gives annual grants to states, the District of Columbia, U.S. territories and commonwealths, and Indian tribal org... | The Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP) provides funds to states, the District of Columbia, U.S. territories and commonwealths, and Indian tribal organizations (collectively referred to as grantees) primarily to help low-income households pay home energy expenses. The LIHEAP statute provides for two type... |
crs_RL32341 | crs_RL32341_0 | Background
Firefighting activities are traditionally the responsibility of states and local communities. As such, funding for firefighters is provided mostly by state and local governments. During the 1990s, shortfalls in state and local budgets, coupled with increased responsibilities of local fire departments, led ... | The Assistance to Firefighters Grant (AFG) Program, also known as fire grants or the FIRE Act grant program, was established by Title XVII of the FY2001 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 106-398). Currently administered by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), Department of Homeland Security (DHS), the... |
crs_R44736 | crs_R44736_0 | Background
Congressional rules establish a general division of responsibility under which questions of policy are kept separate from questions of funding. Broadly, the term authorization is used to describe legislation that establishes, continues, or modifies the organization or activities of a federal entity or prog... | Although congressional rules establish a general division of responsibility under which questions of policy are kept separate from questions of funding, House rules provide for exceptions in certain circumstances. One such circumstance allows for the inclusion of legislative language in general appropriations bills or ... |
crs_RS21534 | crs_RS21534_0 | Introduction
Oman is located along the Arabian Sea, on the southern approaches to the Strait of Hormuz, across from Iran. Except for a brief period of Persian rule, Omanis have remained independent since expelling the Portuguese in 1650. The Al Said monarchy began in 1744, extending Omani influence into Zanzibar and ... | The Sultanate of Oman has been a strategic ally of the United States since 1980, when it became the first Persian Gulf state to sign a formal accord permitting the U.S. military to use its facilities. Oman has hosted U.S. forces during every U.S. military operation in the region since then, and it is a partner in U.S. ... |
crs_RL34544 | crs_RL34544_0 | Background
Iran's nuclear program began during the 1950s. Construction of a U.S.-supplied research reactor, called the Tehran Research Reactor (TRR), located in Tehran began in 1960; the reactor went critical in 1967. During the 1970s, Tehran pursued an ambitious nuclear power program. According to contemporaneous U.... | Iran's nuclear program began during the 1950s. The United States has expressed concern since the mid-1970s that Tehran might develop nuclear weapons. Iran's construction of gas centrifuge uranium enrichment facilities is currently the main source of proliferation concern. Gas centrifuges can produce both low-enriched u... |
crs_R41759 | crs_R41759_0 | Introduction
This report provides historical documents and other resources related to past government shutdowns, along with brief annotations that describe the contents of the documents. The report includes links to full-text documents when available. There is limited information and guidance related to shutdowns, an... | When federal government agencies and programs lack budget authority after the expiration of either full-year or interim appropriations, they experience a "funding gap." Under the Antideficiency Act (31 U.S.C. §§1341 et seq.), they must cease operations, except in certain circumstances when continued activities are auth... |
crs_RL34273 | crs_RL34273_0 | Overview
The federal government owns roughly 640 million acres, more than a quarter of the land in the United States. These lands are heavily concentrated in 12 western states (including Alaska), where t he federal government owns roughly half of the overall land area. Four federal agencies—the National Park Service ... | The federal government owns roughly 640 million acres, heavily concentrated in 12 western states. Four agencies—the National Park Service (NPS), Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), and Bureau of Land Management (BLM) in the Department of the Interior, and the U.S. Forest Service (FS) in the Department of Agriculture—admin... |
crs_R45633 | crs_R45633_0 | Overview
After over 15 years characterized by conflict, violence, and zero-sum political competition, Iraqis are working to open a new chapter in their country's development and are debating the future of their relationship with the United States. The Iraqi government declared military victory against the Islamic Sta... | Iraq's government declared military victory against the Islamic State organization (IS, also ISIS/ISIL) in December 2017, but insurgent attacks by remaining IS fighters continue to threaten Iraqis as they shift their attention toward recovery and the country's political future. Approximately 5,000 U.S. troops remain in... |
crs_R45698 | crs_R45698_0 | F ederal agricultural conservation assistance began in the 1930s with a focus on soil and water issues ass ociated with production and environmental concerns on the farm. During the 1980s, agricultural conservation policies were broadened to include environmental issues beyond soil and water concerns, especially issues... | The Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018 (2018 farm bill, P.L. 115-334, Title II) included a number of changes to agricultural conservation programs, including reauthorizing and amending existing programs, directing existing program activities to specific resource concerns, shifting funds within the title, and authorizi... |
crs_R45525 | crs_R45525_0 | Introduction
Congress has been active in establishing federal policy for the agricultural sector on an ongoing basis since the 1930s. Over the years, as economic conditions and technology have evolved, Congress has regularly revisited agricultural policy through periodic farm legislation. Across these decades, the br... | Congress sets national food and agriculture policy through periodic omnibus farm bills that address a broad range of farm and food programs and policies. The 115th Congress established the direction of farm and food policy for five years through 2023 by enacting the Agricultural Improvement Act of 2018, which the Presi... |
crs_RL31055 | crs_RL31055_0 | Introduction
One of the most common methods for redistributing spending priorities in appropriations bills on the House floor is through offset amendments. House offset amendments generally change spending priorities in a pending appropriations measure by increasing spending for certain activities (or creating spendi... | One of the most common methods for changing spending priorities in appropriations bills on the House floor is through offset amendments. House offset amendments may generally change spending priorities in a pending appropriations measure by increasing spending for certain activities (or creating spending for new activi... |
crs_R45699 | crs_R45699_0 | Overview of the Federal Communications Commission
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is an independent federal agency, with its five members appointed by the President, subject to confirmation by the Senate. It was established by the Communications Act of 1934 (1934 Act, or "Communications Act") and is charg... | The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is an independent federal agency established by the Communications Act of 1934 (1934 Act, or "Communications Act"). The agency is charged with regulating interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable. The mission of the FCC is to... |
crs_RL31980 | crs_RL31980_0 | Introduction
Article II, Section 2, of the Constitution provides that the President shall appoint officers of the United States "by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate." The method by which the Senate provides advice and consent on presidential nominations, referred to broadly as the confirmation process, s... | Article II, Section 2, of the Constitution provides that the President shall appoint officers of the United States "by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate." This report describes the process by which the Senate provides advice and consent on presidential nominations, including receipt and referral of nominati... |
crs_R45653 | crs_R45653_0 | Introduction
Through its investigative powers, Congress gathers information it considers necessary to oversee the implementation of existing laws or to evaluate whether new laws are necessary. This "power of inquiry" is essential to the legislative function and derives directly, though implicitly, from the Constituti... | Congress gathers much of the information necessary to oversee the implementation of existing laws or to evaluate whether new laws are necessary from the executive branch. While executive branch officials comply with most congressional requests for information, there are times when the executive branch chooses to resist... |
crs_98-35 | crs_98-35_0 | Introduction
Social Security provides insured workers and their eligible family members with a measure of protection against the loss of income due to the worker's retirement, disability, or death. The amount of the monthly benefit payable to workers and their family members is based on the worker's career-average ea... | The windfall elimination provision (WEP) is a modified benefit formula that reduces the Social Security benefits of certain retired or disabled workers who are also entitled to pension benefits based on earnings from jobs that were not covered by Social Security and thus not subject to the Social Security payroll tax. ... |
crs_R45296 | crs_R45296_0 | Introduction
A variety of issues related to housing were active during the 115 th Congress, including issues related to housing finance, housing-related tax provisions, housing assistance and grant programs (including in response to presidentially declared major disasters), and actions undertaken by the Department of... | A variety of housing-related issues were active during the 115th Congress. These issues included topics related to housing finance, tax provisions related to housing, housing assistance and grant programs administered by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), and regulatory review efforts underway at HU... |
crs_R45518 | crs_R45518_0 | Introduction
Banks play a central role in the financial system by connecting borrowers to savers and allocating available funds across the economy. As a result, banking is vital to the U.S. economy's health and growth. Nevertheless, banking is an inherently risky activity involving extending credit and undertaking li... | Regulation of the banking industry has undergone substantial changes over the past decade. In response to the 2007-2009 financial crisis, many new bank regulations were implemented pursuant to the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010 (Dodd-Frank Act; P.L. 111-203) or under the existing auth... |
crs_R44383 | crs_R44383_0 | Introduction
Persistent annual budget deficits and a large and increasing federal debt have generated discussions over the long-term sustainability of current budget projections. Federal budget deficits declined from 9.8% of gross domestic product (GDP) in FY2009 to 3.8% of GDP in FY2018. However, recent estimates fo... | The federal government incurs a budget deficit when its total outgoing payments (outlays) exceed the total money it collects (revenues). If instead federal revenues are greater than outlays, then the federal government generates a surplus. Deficits are measured over the course of a defined period of time—in the case of... |
crs_R42647 | crs_R42647_0 | Introduction
The program activities of most federal agencies are generally funded on an annual basis through the enactment of 12 regular appropriations acts . When those annual appropriations acts are not enacted by the beginning of the fiscal year (i.e., by October 1), one or more continuing appropriations acts may ... | The program activities of most federal agencies are generally funded on an annual basis through the enactment of regular appropriations acts. When those annual appropriations acts are not enacted by the beginning of the fiscal year (i.e., by October 1), one or more continuing appropriations acts (commonly known as cont... |
crs_R43661 | crs_R43661_0 | CRA Background and Objectives
Congress passed the Community Reinvestment Act of 1977 (CRA; P.L. 95-128 , 12 U.S.C. §§2901-2908) in response to concerns that federally insured banking institutions were not making sufficient credit available in the local areas in which they were chartered and acquiring deposits. Accord... | The Community Reinvestment Act (CRA; P.L. 95-128, 12 U.S.C. §§2901-2908) addresses how banking institutions meet the credit needs of the areas they serve, particularly in low- and moderate-income (LMI) neighborhoods. The federal banking regulatory agencies—the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, the Feder... |
crs_R45665 | crs_R45665_0 | Introduction
With its adoption as part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title VI invested the federal government with a uniquely powerful role in addressing race and national origin discrimination. Like other statutory provisions in the Civil Rights Act, Title VI seeks to end race discrimination among institutions an... | Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits federally funded programs, activities, and institutions from discriminating based on race, color, or national origin. In its current form, largely unchanged since its adoption, Title VI incorporates a number of unique features. Besides barring federally funded programs... |
crs_R45693 | crs_R45693_0 | Introduction
The federal government subsidizes a wide range of activities through the tax code. The majority of available tax incentives are claimed directly by the party engaged in the activity targeted by the subsidy. There are several tax credits, however, that often require or encourage the intended beneficiary o... | This report provides an introduction to the general tax equity financing mechanism. The term tax equity investment describes transactions that pair the tax credits or other tax benefits generated by a qualifying physical investment with the capital financing associated with that investment. These transactions involve o... |
crs_R45100 | crs_R45100_0 | Introduction
Antipoverty interventions that provide resources to local communities, based on the characteristics of those communities, have been of interest to Congress. One such policy, dubbed the "10-20-30 provision," was implemented in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA, P.L. 111-5 ). Title I... | Antipoverty interventions that provide resources to local communities, based on the characteristics of those communities, have been of interest to Congress. One such policy, dubbed the "10-20-30 provision," was implemented in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA, P.L. 111-5). Title I, Section 105 of... |
crs_RL33745 | crs_RL33745_0 | Introduction
This report provides background information and issues for Congress on the Aegis ballistic missile defense (BMD) program, which is carried out by the Missile Defense Agency (MDA) and the Navy, and gives Navy Aegis cruisers and destroyers a capability for conducting BMD operations. The issue for Congress ... | The Aegis ballistic missile defense (BMD) program, which is carried out by the Missile Defense Agency (MDA) and the Navy, gives Navy Aegis cruisers and destroyers a capability for conducting BMD operations. Under the FY2020 budget submission, the number of BMD-capable Navy Aegis ships is projected to increase from 38 a... |
crs_R44175 | crs_R44175_0 | Introduction
Issue for Congress
This report provides background information and issues for Congress on three new ship-based weapons being developed by the Navy—solid state lasers (SSLs), the electromagnetic railgun (EMRG), and the gun-launched guided projectile (GLGP), also known as the hypervelocity projectile (H... | Three new ship-based weapons being developed by the Navy—solid state lasers (SSLs), the electromagnetic railgun (EMRG), and the gun-launched guided projectile (GLGP), also known as the hypervelocity projectile (HVP)—could substantially improve the ability of Navy surface ships to defend themselves against surface craft... |
crs_R44585 | crs_R44585_0 | F or more than forty-five years, all three branches of government have struggled with how to interpret the meaning of "waters of the United States" in the Clean Water Act. In 1972, Congress eliminated the requirement that waters must be navigable in the traditional sense —meaning they are capable of being used by vesse... | For more than forty-five years, all three branches of government have struggled with how to interpret the meaning of "waters of the United States" in the Clean Water Act. In a shift from early water pollution legislation, the 1972 amendments to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, which came to be known as the Clea... |
crs_R44017 | crs_R44017_0 | Introduction
Successive Administrations have identified Iran as a key national security challenge. The Trump Administration encapsulated its assessment of the threat posed by Iran in a late September 2018 State Department report entitled "Outlaw Regime: A Chronicle of Iran's Destructive Activities." It outlines Iran'... | Iran's national security policy is the product of many overlapping and sometimes competing factors such as the ideology of Iran's Islamic revolution, perception of threats to the regime and to the country, long-standing national interests, and the interaction of the Iranian regime's factions and constituencies. Iran's ... |
crs_R43166 | crs_R43166_0 | Introduction
The U.S. State Department welcomed opposition figure Felix Tshisekedi's victory in DRC's December 2018 presidential election, applauding the Congolese people "for their insistence on a peaceful and democratic transfer of power." Election day was indeed largely peaceful, and alternate scenarios that outgo... | The United States and other donors have focused substantial resources on stabilizing the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) since the early 2000s, when "Africa's World War"—a conflict that drew in multiple neighboring countries and reportedly caused millions of deaths—drew to a close. DRC hosts the world's largest U.N.... |
crs_R43725 | crs_R43725_0 | Introduction
The hundreds of Iraqi interpreters who work for the U.S. military conceal their identities in distinctive ways.
One wears a bulletproof Kevlar helmet and a black mask. Another wears sunglasses and a balaclava that covers his entire head.
What they share is the extraordinary danger of their job. Targeted ... | Congress has enacted a series of legislative provisions since 2006 to enable certain Iraqi and Afghan nationals to become U.S. lawful permanent residents (LPRs). These provisions make certain Iraqis and Afghans who worked as translators or interpreters, or who were employed by, or on behalf of, the U.S. government in I... |
crs_R43315 | crs_R43315_0 | Introduction
Water infrastructure issues, particularly regarding funding, continue to receive attention from some Members of Congress and a wide array of stakeholders. Localities are primarily responsible for providing wastewater and drinking water infrastructure services. According to the most recent estimates by st... | The Water Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (WIFIA) program provides financial assistance for water infrastructure projects, including projects to build and upgrade wastewater and drinking water treatment systems. Congress established the WIFIA program in the Water Resources Reform and Development Act of 2014 (... |
crs_R45462 | crs_R45462_0 | Introduction
Economic growth and expanded global trade have led to substantial increases in goods movement over the past few decades. The growth in freight transportation demand, along with growing passenger demand, has caused congestion in parts of the transportation system, making freight movements slower and less ... | Economic growth and expanded global trade have led to substantial increases in goods movement over the past few decades. The growth in freight transportation demand, along with growing passenger demand, has caused congestion in many parts of the transportation system, making freight movements slower and less reliable. ... |
crs_R44795 | crs_R44795_0 | Introduction
The federal government is vested with the exclusive power to create rules governing alien entry and removal. However, the impact of alien migration—whether lawful or unlawful—is arguably felt most directly in the communities where aliens reside . State and local responses to unlawfully present aliens wit... | There is no official or agreed-upon definition of what constitutes a "sanctuary" jurisdiction, and there has been debate as to whether the term applies to particular states and localities. Moreover, state and local jurisdictions have varied reasons for opting not to cooperate with federal immigration enforcement effort... |
crs_R45459 | crs_R45459_0 | T he federal crop insurance program offers subsidized crop insurance policies to farmers. Historically, the federal crop insurance program has covered primarily traditional field crops such as wheat, corn, and soybeans. In contrast, s pecialty crops —covering fruits, vegetables, tree nuts, and nursery crops—have not be... | The federal crop insurance program offers subsidized crop insurance policies to farmers. Farmers can purchase policies that pay indemnities when their yields or revenues fall below guaranteed levels. While the majority of federal crop insurance policies cover yield or revenue losses, the program also offers policies wi... |
crs_R40616 | crs_R40616_0 | Introduction
As congressional policymakers continue to debate telecommunications reform, a major discussion point revolves around what approach should be taken to ensure unfettered access to the internet. The move to place restrictions on the owners of the networks that compose and provide access to the internet, to ... | As congressional policymakers continue to debate telecommunications reform, a major discussion point revolves around what approach should be taken to ensure unfettered access to the internet. The move to place restrictions on the owners of the networks that compose and provide access to the internet, to ensure equal ac... |
crs_RL33964 | crs_RL33964_0 | Overview
Nigeria is considered a key power in Africa, not only because of its size, but also because of its political and economic role on the continent. Nigeria has overtaken South Africa as Africa's largest economy, and it is one of the world's major sources of high-quality crude oil. The country's commercial cente... | Successive Administrations have described the U.S. relationship with Nigeria, Africa's largest producer of oil and its largest economy, to be among the most important on the continent. The country is Africa's most populous, with more than 200 million people, roughly evenly divided between Muslims and Christians. Nigeri... |
crs_RL33313 | crs_RL33313_0 | Introduction
Congress has created a wide array of advisory bodies, separate from each chamber's committees and officers, in order to better exercise its legislative, oversight, and investigative mandates, and to attend to both temporary and ongoing administrative tasks and responsibilities. During the past two decade... | Over the past several decades, Congress, by statute, has established a wide array of commissions, boards, and advisory bodies to provide it with assistance in meeting various legislative, investigative, and administrative responsibilities. Some of these entities are temporary and created to serve specific functions, su... |
crs_R42037 | crs_R42037_0 | Congressional Interest in Surety Bonds
The Small Business Administration (SBA) administers several programs to support small businesses, including loan guaranty programs to enhance small business access to capital; contracting programs to increase small business opportunities in securing federal contracts; direct loa... | The Small Business Administration's (SBA's) Surety Bond Guarantee Program is designed to increase small businesses' access to federal, state, and local government contracting, as well as private-sector contracts, by guaranteeing bid, performance, and payment bonds for small businesses that cannot obtain surety bonds th... |
crs_R45485 | crs_R45485_0 | Introduction
Telecommunication providers and technology companies around the world have been working together to research and develop new technology solutions to meet growing demands for mobile data from consumers and industrial users. Fifth-generation (5G) mobile technologies represent the next iteration of mobile c... | Since the first mobile phones were made available in the 1980s, telecommunication providers have been investing in mobile networks to expand coverage, improve services, and attract more users. First-generation networks supported mobile voice calls but were limited in coverage and capacity. To address those limitations,... |
crs_R45664 | crs_R45664_0 | L aw enforcement officials have described money laundering—the process of making illegally obtained proceeds appear legitimate—as the "lifeblood" of organized crime. According to one estimate, criminals launder roughly $1 trillion to $2 trillion annually worldwide, a sum that represents between 2% and 5% of global gros... | Law enforcement officials have described money laundering—the process of making illegally obtained proceeds appear legitimate—as the "lifeblood" of organized crime. Recently, money launderers have increasingly turned to a new technology to conceal the origins of illegally obtained proceeds: virtual currency. Virtual cu... |
crs_R45488 | crs_R45488_0 | Introduction
The combination of growing supplies of liquefied natural gas (LNG) and new requirements for less polluting fuels in the international maritime shipping industry has heightened interest in LNG as a maritime fuel. For decades, LNG tanker ships have been capable of burning boil-off gas from their LNG cargoe... | The combination of growing liquefied natural gas (LNG) supplies and new requirements for less polluting fuels in the maritime shipping industry has heightened interest in LNG as a maritime fuel. The use of LNG as an engine ("bunker") fuel in shipping is also drawing attention from federal agencies and is beginning to e... |
crs_R45707 | crs_R45707_0 | Introduction
Prior to the September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, insurers generally did not exclude or separately charge for coverage of terrorism risk. The events of September 11, 2001, changed this as insurers realized the extent of possible terrorism losses. Estimates of insured losses from the 9/1... | Prior to the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, coverage for losses from such attacks was normally included in general insurance policies without additional cost to the policyholders. Following the attacks, such coverage became expensive, if offered at all. Moreover, some observers feared that the absence of insura... |
crs_R45666 | crs_R45666_0 | T he prices paid by consumers for prescription drugs have been a recent area of significant congressional interest. Several committees in the House and Senate have held hearings this year on drug pricing issues, and a number of bills have been introduced in the 116 th Congress that seek to address the perceived high co... | Intellectual property (IP) rights play an important role in the development and pricing of pharmaceutical products such as prescription drugs and biologics. In order to encourage innovation, IP law grants the rights holder a temporary monopoly on a particular invention or product, potentially enabling him to charge hig... |
crs_R45659 | crs_R45659_0 | Introduction
Program eligibility requirements and payment limits are central to how various U.S. farm programs operate. These requirements fundamentally address various equity concerns and reflect the goals of government intervention in agriculture. They determine who receives federal farm program payments and how mu... | Under the Agricultural Improvement Act of 2018 (P.L. 115-334; 2018 farm bill), U.S. farm program participants—whether individuals or multiperson legal entities—must meet specific eligibility requirements to receive benefits under certain farm programs. Some requirements are common across most programs, while others are... |
crs_R45702 | crs_R45702_0 | T his report describes actions taken by the Administration and Congress to provide FY2020 appropriations for Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies (CJS) accounts.
The dollar amounts in this report reflect only new appropriations made available at the start of the fiscal year. Therefore, the amounts do not in... | This report describes actions taken by the Trump Administration and Congress to provide FY2020 appropriations for Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies (CJS) accounts. The annual CJS appropriations act provides funding for the Department of Commerce, which includes agencies such as the Census Bureau, the U.S... |
crs_R44623 | crs_R44623_0 | Introduction
Commemorative coins are coins that are "produced with the primary intention of creating a special souvenir to be sold (at a premium above face value) to observe or memorialize an anniversary, special occasion, or other event." Produced by the U.S. Mint pursuant to an act of Congress, these coins celebrat... | Commemorative coins are produced by the U.S. Mint pursuant to an act of Congress and are often proposed by Members of Congress as part of their representational duties. These coins are legal tender that celebrate and honor American people, places, events, and institutions. Overall, 152 commemorative coins have been aut... |
crs_RL31913 | crs_RL31913_0 | Introduction
Essentially all of the outstanding debt of the federal government is subject to a statutory limit, which is set forth as a dollar limitation in 31 U.S.C. 3101(b). From time to time, Congress considers and passes legislation to adjust or suspend this limit. Legislation adjusting the debt limit takes the f... | Essentially all of the outstanding debt of the federal government is subject to a statutory limit, which is set forth as a dollar limitation in 31 U.S.C. 3101(b). From time to time, Congress considers and passes legislation to adjust or suspend this limit.
At the beginning of the 116th Congress, the House adopted a sta... |
crs_R45456 | crs_R45456_0 | Introduction
The Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution provides that "[n]o person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury." This provision requires that a federal prosecutor, in order to charge a suspect with a serious federal crime,... | The Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution states that "[n]o person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury." This provision requires that a federal prosecutor, in order to charge a suspect with a serious federal crime, secure the assen... |
crs_R45480 | crs_R45480_0 | Introduction
The Department of the Interior (DOI) is a federal executive department responsible for the conservation and use of roughly three-quarters of U.S. public lands. DOI defines its mission as to protect and manage the nation's natural resources and cultural heritage for the benefit of the American people; to ... | The U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) is a federal executive department responsible for the conservation and administration of the public lands and mineral estate of the United States. DOI describes its mission as protecting and managing the nation's natural resources and cultural heritage for the benefit of the Am... |
crs_R41479 | crs_R41479_0 | Introduction
Social Security provides dependent benefits and survivors benefits , sometimes collectively referred to as auxiliary benefits , to the spouses, former spouses, widow(er)s, children, and parents of retired, disabled, or deceased workers. Auxiliary benefits are based on the work record of the household's p... | Social Security auxiliary benefits are paid to the spouse, former spouse, survivor, child, or parent of a Social Security-covered worker and are equal to a specified percentage of the worker's basic monthly benefit amount (subject to a maximum family benefit amount). For example, the spouse of a retired worker may rece... |
crs_R44125 | crs_R44125_0 | Introduction
The consumer data industry collects and subsequently provides information to firms about behavior when consumers conduct various financial transactions. Firms use this data to determine whether consumers have engaged i n behaviors that could be costly or beneficial to the firms. For example, lenders rely... | The consumer data industry—generally referred to as credit reporting agencies or credit bureaus—collects and subsequently provides information to firms about the behavior of consumers when they participate in various financial transactions. Firms use consumer information to screen for the risk that consumers will engag... |
crs_R45460 | crs_R45460_0 | Introduction
Congress enacted the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA; P.L. 92-583 , 16 U.S.C. §§1451-1466) in 1972 and has amended the act 11 times, most recently in 2009. Congress deliberated and passed the act at a time when concern about environmental degradation spurred passage of many of the nation's environmenta... | Congress enacted the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA; P.L. 92-583, 16 U.S.C. §§1451-1466) in 1972 and has amended the act 11 times, most recently in 2009. CZMA sets up a national framework for states and territories to consider and manage coastal resources. If a state or territory chooses to develop a coastal zone ma... |
crs_R45545 | crs_R45545_0 | Introduction
The House of Representatives has standing rules that govern how bills and resolutions are to be taken up and considered on the floor. However, to expedite legislation receiving floor action, the House may temporarily set aside these rules for measures that are not otherwise privileged for consideration. ... | Suspension of the rules is the most commonly used procedure to call up measures on the floor of the House of Representatives. As the name suggests, the procedure allows the House to suspend its standing and statutory rules in order to consider broadly supported legislation in an expedited manner. More specifically, the... |
crs_R44572 | crs_R44572_0 | Introduction1
This report focuses on selected U.S. airborne electronic attack programs. Such programs involve developing and procuring both the aircraft whose primary mission is electronic warfare (EW) and the EW systems that are mounted on U.S. aircraft. The President's FY2020 budget request for the Department of De... | U.S. airborne electronic warfare (EW) programs involve developing and procuring EW aircraft and EW systems that are mounted on U.S. aircraft. The President's FY2020 budget request for the Department of Defense (DOD) proposes funding for a number of airborne EW programs.
The Role of Airborne EW in Modern Warfare
EW is a... |
crs_R44037 | crs_R44037_0 | Overview
U.S. relations with the Kingdom of Cambodia have become increasingly strained in recent years in light of Prime Minister Hun Sen's suppression of the political opposition and his growing embrace of the People's Republic of China (PRC). During the previous decade, U.S. engagement with the Kingdom slowly stren... | U.S. relations with the Kingdom of Cambodia have become increasingly strained in recent years in light of Prime Minister Hun Sen's suppression of the political opposition and his growing embrace of the People's Republic of China (PRC). During the previous decade, U.S. engagement with the Kingdom slowly strengthened as ... |
crs_95-118 | crs_95-118_0 | Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation
The Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation (PBGC) is a federal agency established by the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA; P.L. 93-406 ). It was created to protect the pe nsions of participants and beneficiaries covered by private sector defined benefit (DB) pl... | The Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation (PBGC) is a federal agency established by the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA; P.L. 93-406). It was created to protect the pensions of participants and beneficiaries covered by private sector defined benefit (DB) plans. These pension plans provide a specif... |
crs_R40082 | crs_R40082_0 | Introduction
Medicare is a federal insurance program that pays for covered health care services of most individuals aged 65 and older and certain disabled persons. Medicare serves approximately one in six Americans and virtually all of the population aged 65 and over. In calendar year (CY) 2019, the program is expect... | Medicare is a federal insurance program that pays for covered health care services of most individuals aged 65 and older and certain disabled persons. In calendar year 2019, the program is expected to cover about 61 million persons (52 million aged and 9 million disabled) at a total cost of $798 billion. Most individua... |
crs_RL34619 | crs_RL34619_0 | Introduction
Both the Capitol Rotunda and the Capitol Grounds have been used as the setting for a variety of events, ranging from memorial ceremonies and the reception of foreign dignitaries to the presentation of awards and the hosting of public competitions. This report identifies and categorizes uses of the Capito... | The Capitol Rotunda and the Capitol Grounds have been used as the setting for a variety of events, ranging from memorial ceremonies and the reception of foreign dignitaries to the presentation of awards and the hosting of public competitions. This report identifies and categorizes uses of the Capitol Rotunda and Capito... |
crs_R41857 | crs_R41857_0 | Introduction
Between 1819 and 1857, the room currently called Statuary Hall served as the Hall of the House of Representatives. Upon the completion of the current House chamber in 1857, the fate of the old "Hall of the House" was debated for many years.
Perhaps the simplest was that it be converted into additional sp... | Statuary Hall has been used as the setting for a variety of events, including memorial ceremonies and receptions for new Members of Congress, award presentations, and as media space after presidential addresses. This report identifies and categorizes uses of Statuary Hall since 2005.
Use of Statuary Hall is at the disc... |
crs_R42580 | crs_R42580_0 | Political Conditions
President Jimmy Morales, then a relative political newcomer, ran in 2015 on a platform of governing transparently and continuing to root out corruption. He is now being investigated for corruption himself. During the election campaign, as mass protests calling for then-President Pérez Molina's re... | Guatemala, the most populous Central American country, with a population of 16.3 million, has been consolidating its transition to democracy since the 1980s. Guatemala has a long history of internal conflict, including a 36-year civil war (1960-1996) during which the Guatemalan military held power and over 200,000 peop... |
crs_RS20348 | crs_RS20348_0 | Background
The routine activities of most federal agencies are funded annually by one or more of the regular appropriations acts. When action on the regular appropriations acts is delayed, a continuing appropriations act, also sometimes referred to as a continuing resolution or CR, may be used to provide interim budg... | The Antideficiency Act (31 U.S.C. 1341-1342, 1511-1519) generally bars the obligation of funds in the absence of appropriations. Exceptions are made under the act, including for activities involving "the safety of human life or the protection of property." The interval during the fiscal year when appropriations for a p... |
crs_R43317 | crs_R43317_0 | Cybersecurity Legislation and Hearings in the 116th and 115th Congresses
This report provides links to cybersecurity-related bills with some type of committee, floor, or chamber action (i.e., action subsequent to introduction). It also provides links to cybersecurity-related hearings. Table 1 lists House bills in the... | Most major cybersecurity legislative provisions were enacted prior to 2002, despite many recommendations having been made over the past decade. More recently, in the 115th and 116th Congresses, cybersecurity legislation has received either committee or floor action or final passage, and both chambers have held multiple... |
crs_RL31734 | crs_RL31734_0 | Introduction
Federal agencies provide a range of assistance to individual survivors; state, territorial, and local governments; and nongovernmental entities after major disasters, including natural disasters and terrorist attacks. Types of aid can include, but are not limited to, operational, logistical, and technica... | This report is designed to assist Members of Congress and their staff as they address the needs of their states, communities, and constituents after a disaster. It includes a summary of federal programs that provide federal disaster assistance to individual survivors, states, territories, local governments, and nongove... |
crs_R45417 | crs_R45417_0 | Introduction
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international organization that administers the trade rules and agreements negotiated by its 164 members to eliminate trade barriers and create nondiscriminatory rules to govern trade. It also serves as an important forum for resolving trade disputes. The United S... | Historically, the United States' leadership of the global trading system has ensured the United States a seat at the table to shape the international trade agenda in ways that both advance and defend U.S. interests. The evolution of U.S. leadership and the global trade agenda remain of interest to Congress, which holds... |
crs_95-563 | crs_95-563_0 | Introduction
A complicated body of rules, precedents, and practices governs the legislative process on the floor of the House of Representatives. The official manual of House rules is more than 1,000 pages long and is supplemented by 30 volumes of precedents, with more volumes to be published in coming years. Yet the... | The daily order of business on the floor of the House of Representatives is governed by standing rules that make certain matters and actions privileged for consideration. On a day-to-day basis, however, the House can also decide to grant individual bills privileged access to the floor, using one of several parliamentar... |
crs_R45071 | crs_R45071_0 | Introduction
There are about 150 ombudsman offices located throughout the federal government. About a third of them are statutorily authorized. The others were created through executive action. Although there are differences among them in terms of their origin, staffing, funding, and organizational structure, they ar... | The Office of the National Ombudsman was created in 1996 as part of P.L. 104-121, the Contract with America Advancement Act of 1996 (Title II, the Small Business Regulatory Enforcement Fairness Act of 1996 [SBREFA]). Housed within the U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA), the office's primary purpose is to provide ... |
crs_R44491 | crs_R44491_0 | 1. What is an intern? How is an intern different from a volunteer, fellow, or a page?
A number of opportunities exist for individuals who are not regular congressional employees to provide assistance to congressional offices. The titles used to describe these positions are sometimes used interchangeably, but there ca... | Many interns serve Congress, assisting individual Members, committees, and other offices or support services. Interns serve the House or Senate in a temporary capacity, primarily for an educational benefit, although some interns may receive pay for their service. Like many aspects of congressional operations, individua... |
crs_R41057 | crs_R41057_0 | Small Business Microloans and Training Assistance
The Small Business Administration (SBA) administers programs that support small businesses, including loan guarantees to lenders to encourage them to provide loans to small businesses "that might not otherwise obtain financing on reasonable terms and conditions" and g... | The Small Business Administration's (SBA's) Microloan program provides direct loans to qualified nonprofit intermediary lenders who, in turn, provide "microloans" of up to $50,000 to small businesses and nonprofit child care centers. It also provides marketing, management, and technical assistance to microloan borrower... |
crs_R45712 | crs_R45712_0 | Introduction
The U.S. government administers multiple international food assistance programs that aim to alleviate hunger and improve food security in other countries. Some of these programs provide emergency assistance to people affected by conflict or natural disaster. Other programs provide nonemergency assistance... | The Agriculture appropriations bill—formally known as the Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act—funds the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) except for the Forest Service. This includes funding for certain U.S. international food aid programs.
In March ... |
crs_R44934 | crs_R44934_0 | Introduction
This report focuses on FY2019 discretionary appropriations for Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies. At issue for Congress were determining the amount of funding for agencies and programs in the bill, and the terms and conditions of such funding.
This report first presents a short overview of the... | The Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies appropriations bill contains funding for more than 30 agencies and entities. They include most of the Department of the Interior (DOI) as well as agencies within other departments, such as the Forest Service within the Department of Agriculture and the Indian Health Servi... |
crs_R45230 | crs_R45230_0 | Status of FY2019 Agriculture Appropriations
Congress passed and the President signed the FY2019 Consolidated Appropriations Act on February 15, 2019 ( P.L. 116-6 , H.Rept. 116-9 ). This action, more than four months into the fiscal year, followed three continuing resolutions (CRs) and a 34-day partial government shut... | The Agriculture appropriations bill funds the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) except for the Forest Service. It also funds the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and—in even-numbered fiscal years—the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC).
Agriculture appropriations include both mandatory and discretionary s... |
crs_R45474 | crs_R45474_0 | Overview1
Members of Congress may address numerous ongoing and new policy issues in the 116 th Congress. The changing dynamics and composition of international trade and finance can affect the overall health of the U.S. economy, the success of U.S. businesses and workers, and the U.S. standard of living. They also ha... | The U.S. Constitution grants authority to Congress to lay and collect duties and regulate foreign commerce. Congress exercises this authority in numerous ways, including through oversight of trade policy and consideration of legislation to implement trade agreements and authorize trade programs. Policy issues cover are... |
crs_R45726 | crs_R45726_0 | B anks play a critical role in the United States economy, channeling money from savers to borrowers and facilitating productive investment. Among other things, banks provide loans to businesses, help individuals finance purchases of cars and homes, and offer services such as checking and savings accounts, debit cards, ... | Banks play a critical role in the United States economy, channeling money from savers to borrowers and facilitating productive investment. While the nature of lawmakers' interest in bank regulation has shifted over time, most bank regulations fall into one of three general categories. First, banks must abide by a varie... |
crs_98-15 | crs_98-15_0 | Introduction
In the Federalist Papers , James Madison noted the importance of participation by upstanding citizens at all levels of government as a condition for legitimate governance. "The aim of every political constitution is, or ought to be, first to obtain for rulers men who possess most wisdom to discern, and m... | The United States Constitution (Article 1, Section 5, clause 1) provides each House of Congress with the sole authority to establish rules, judge membership requirements, and punish and expel Members. From 1789 to 1967, the House of Representatives dealt with disciplinary action against Members on a case-by-case basis,... |
crs_R41153 | crs_R41153_0 | Introduction
The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened interest in, and concerns about, the region's future. Issues such as Arctic territorial disputes; commercial shipping through the Arctic; Arctic oil, gas, and mineral exploration; endangered Arctic ... | The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened interest in, and concerns about, the region's future. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial interests in the region.
Record low extents of Arctic sea ice over the past de... |
crs_R43491 | crs_R43491_0 | Background on Trade Promotion Authority (TPA)
What is Trade Promotion Authority?
Trade promotion authority (TPA), sometimes called "fast track," refers to the process Congress has made available to the President for limited periods to enable legislation to approve and implement certain international trade agreemen... | Legislation to reauthorize Trade Promotion Authority (TPA)—sometimes called "fast track"—the Bipartisan Congressional Trade Priorities and Accountability Act of 2015 (TPA-2015), was signed into law by former President Obama on June 29, 2015 (P.L. 114-26). If the President negotiates an international trade agreement tha... |
crs_R45725 | crs_R45725_0 | Introduction
The Jones Act, which refers to Section 27 of the Merchant Marine Act of 1920 (P.L. 66-261), requires that vessels transporting cargo from one U.S. point to another U.S. point be U.S.-built, and owned and crewed by U.S. citizens. The act provides a significant degree of protection from foreign competition... | The Jones Act, which refers to Section 27 of the Merchant Marine Act of 1920 (P.L. 66-261), requires that vessels transporting cargo from one U.S. point to another U.S. point be U.S.-built, and owned and crewed by U.S. citizens. The act provides a significant degree of protection for U.S. shipyards, domestic carriers, ... |
crs_RS22937 | crs_RS22937_0 | What Is a "Section 123" Agreement?
Under existing law (Atomic Energy Act [AEA] of 1954, as amended [P.L. 83-703; 42 U.S.C. §2153 et seq.]), all significant U.S. nuclear cooperation with other countries requires a peaceful nuclear cooperation agreement. Significant nuclear cooperation includes the transfer of U.S.-ori... | In order for the United States to engage in significant civilian nuclear cooperation with other states, it must conclude a framework agreement that meets specific requirements under Section 123 of the Atomic Energy Act (AEA). Significant nuclear cooperation includes the export of reactors, critical parts of reactors, a... |
crs_R45595 | crs_R45595_0 | Introduction
Several federal laws address the services and protections received by students with disabilities. The application of these laws may change depending upon the student's situation, and most common ly at times of transition—whether the student moves to a new school district or state, or between preschool an... | The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act (Section 504), and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) each play a significant part in federal efforts to support the education of individuals with disabilities. These statutory frameworks, while overlapping, differ in s... |
crs_R45719 | crs_R45719_0 | Introduction
A growing number of Americans report that they use marijuana. As more states decriminalize the use of marijuana, the question of what impact marijuana usage has on the risk of a driver being involved in a motor vehicle crash has become more pertinent. In a survey, the majority of state highway safety off... | A growing number of Americans report that they use marijuana. Most states now allow the use of marijuana for treatment of medical conditions. Ten states and the District of Columbia, representing a quarter of the U.S. population, have decriminalized the recreational use of marijuana, and other states are considering fo... |
crs_R45185 | crs_R45185_0 | Introduction
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) is an agency within the Department of Defense with both military and civil works responsibilities. The agency's civil works mission has evolved with the changing needs of the nation. It began with improving and regulating navigation channels thereby facilitating t... | At the direction of Congress, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) in the Department of Defense (DOD) undertakes water resource development activities. USACE develops civil works projects principally to improve navigable channels, reduce flood and storm damage, and restore aquatic ecosystems. Congress directs USACE... |
crs_RS20120 | crs_RS20120_0 | House Offices and Websites
H ouse of Representatives Website http://www.house.gov House offices only (HouseNet): http://housenet.house.gov
Websites of Representatives, leadership offices and organizations, committees, and support offices. The restricted HouseNet website serves as a portal to the other "House Offices ... | This report provides a brief list of key House, Senate, legislative support agencies, and executive branch offices, as well as links to online resources of use to new congressional staff who work with legislative procedures and conduct legislative research. Some of the websites listed are available only to congressiona... |
crs_RS20844 | crs_RS20844_0 | Background
Federal law provides that all aliens must enter the United States pursuant to the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA). The two major categories of aliens in the INA are (1) immigrants, who are admitted to the United States permanently, and (2) nonimmigrants, who are admitted for temporary reasons (e.g., ... | When civil unrest, violence, or natural disasters erupt in countries around the world, concerns arise over the ability of foreign nationals in the United States from those countries to safely return. Provisions exist in the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) to offer temporary protected status (TPS) and other forms ... |
crs_RL30354 | crs_RL30354_0 | Introduction
The Federal Reserve's (the Fed's) responsibilities as the nation's central bank fall into four main categories: monetary policy, provision of emergency liquidity through the lender of last resort function, supervision of certain types of banks and other financial firms for safety and soundness, and provi... | Congress has delegated responsibility for monetary policy to the Federal Reserve (the Fed), the nation's central bank, but retains oversight responsibilities for ensuring that the Fed is adhering to its statutory mandate of "maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates." To meet its price st... |
crs_R45701 | crs_R45701_0 | The Budget and Homeland Security
(William L. Painter; February 28, 2019)
Congress at times has sought to ascertain how much the government spends on securing the homeland, either in current terms or historically. Several factors compromise the authoritativeness of any answer to this question. One such complication is... | In 2001, in the wake of the terrorist attacks of September 11, "homeland security" went from being a concept discussed among a relatively small cadre of policymakers and strategic thinkers to one broadly discussed among policymakers, including a broad swath of those in Congress. Debates over how to implement coordinate... |
crs_R45650 | crs_R45650_0 | O ne of the core purposes of the First Amendment's Free Speech Clause is to foster "an uninhibited marketplace of ideas," testing the "truth" of various ideas "in the competition of the market." Social media sites provide one avenue for the transmission of those ideas. The Supreme Court has recognized that the internet... | As the Supreme Court has recognized, social media sites like Facebook and Twitter have become important venues for users to exercise free speech rights protected under the First Amendment. Commentators and legislators, however, have questioned whether these social media platforms are living up to their reputation as di... |
crs_R45481 | crs_R45481_0 | Introduction
The last several years have seen renewed debate over the role that race plays in higher education—a debate over "affirmative action." A high-profile lawsuit challenging Harvard University's consideration of race in admitting its incoming classes, and the recent withdrawal of Obama Administration-era guid... | When federal courts have analyzed and addressed "affirmative action" in higher education, they have done so in two distinct but related senses, both under the Fourteenth Amendment's guarantee of "equal protection."
The first has its roots in the original sense of "affirmative action:" the mandatory use of race by publi... |
crs_R44121 | crs_R44121_0 | Introduction
The Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF) Act of 1965 was enacted to "assist in preserving, developing, and assuring accessibility to ... outdoor recreation resources." Two main goals of the law were to facilitate participation in recreation and "to strengthen the health and vitality" of U.S. citizens.... | The Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF) Act of 1965 (P.L. 88-578) created the LWCF in the Treasury as a funding source to implement the outdoor recreation goals set out by the act. The LWCF Act authorizes the fund to receive $900 million annually, with the monies available only if appropriated by Congress (i.e., di... |
crs_R45700 | crs_R45700_0 | Introduction
Disclosure provisions that require commercial actors to convey specified information to consumers occupy an uneasy and shifting space in First Amendment jurisprudence. The First Amendment's Free Speech Clause protects the right to speak as well as the right not to speak, and at least outside the context ... | Federal law contains a wide variety of disclosure requirements, including food labels, securities registrations, and disclosures about prescription drugs in direct-to-consumer advertising. These disclosure provisions require commercial actors to make statements that they otherwise might not, compelling speech and impli... |
crs_R45519 | crs_R45519_0 | Why Is This Issue Important to Congress?
The Army's Optionally Manned Fighting Vehicle (OMFV) is expected to be the third attempt to replace the M-2 Bradley Infantry Fighting Vehicle (IFV) which has been in service since the early 1980s. Despite numerous upgrades since its introduction, the Army contends the M-2 is n... | In June 2018, in part due to congressional concerns, the Army announced a new modernization strategy and designated the Next Generation Combat Vehicle (NGCV) as the program to replace the M-2 Bradley. In October 2018, Army leadership decided to redesignate the NGCV as the Optionally Manned Fighting Vehicle (OMFV) and t... |
crs_R45697 | crs_R45697_0 | Introduction
The U.S. farm sector is vast and varied. It encompasses production activities related to traditional field crops (such as corn, soybeans, wheat, and cotton) and livestock and poultry products (including meat, dairy, and eggs), as well as fruits, tree nuts, and vegetables. In addition, U.S. agricultural o... | This report uses the U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) farm income projections (as of March 6, 2019) and agricultural trade outlook update (as of February 21, 2019) to describe the U.S. farm economic outlook. According to USDA's Economic Research Service (ERS), national net farm income—a key indicator of U.S. far... |
crs_R45549 | crs_R45549_0 | Introduction
Election administration attracted significant attention in 2000, when issues with the vote count delayed the results of the presidential race. Administrative issues have also been reported in subsequent election cycles. For example, issues with voter registration were reported in multiple states in 2016 ... | The administration of elections in the United States is highly decentralized. Elections are primarily administered by thousands of state and local systems rather than a single, unified national system.
States and localities share responsibility for most election administration duties. Exactly how responsibilities are a... |
crs_R45478 | crs_R45478_0 | T he unemployment insurance (UI) system has two primary objectives: (1) to provide temporary, partial wage replacement for involuntarily unemployed workers and (2) to stabilize the economy during recessions. In support of these goals, several UI programs provide benefits for eligible unemployed workers.
Overview of U... | The 116th Congress has begun to consider several issues related to two programs in the unemployment insurance (UI) system: Unemployment Compensation (UC) and Unemployment Compensation for Federal Employees (UCFE). The lapse in federal appropriations that occurred from December 22, 2018, to January 25, 2019, created a p... |
crs_R43240 | crs_R43240_0 | Background
In 1956, the Army began the development of a family of air-transportable, armored multi-purpose vehicles intended to provide a lightweight, amphibious armored personnel carrier for armor and mechanized infantry units. Known as the M-113, it entered production in 1960 and saw extensive wartime service in Vi... | The Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle (AMPV) is the Army's proposed replacement for the Vietnam-era M-113 personnel carriers, which are still in service in a variety of support capacities in Armored Brigade Combat Teams (ABCTs). While M-113s no longer serve as infantry fighting vehicles, five variants of the M-113 are used... |
crs_R45737 | crs_R45737_0 | I n 1994, Congress passed and President Clinton signed the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 ( P.L. 103-322 ). The act, among other things, made federal and state prisoners ineligible to receive Pell Grants. The Pell Grant program is the single largest source of federal grant aid supporting postseco... | In 1994, Congress passed and President Clinton signed the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 (P.L. 103-322), which, among other things, made prisoners ineligible for Pell Grants. However, concerns about the financial and social costs of the growing prison population combined with concerns about the r... |
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