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1m6dmi
|
Why is hot metal softer?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is somewhat tricky to answer because metals have many different structures and atomic arrangements, depending on the material. In an ideal metal, the atoms are held together by a metallic bond in a perfect, repeating crystallized structure. In an actual metal, these crystallized structures still exist, but they are not uniform throughout. Instead they are localized into little \"grains\" in the material, usually micrometers in size (but varying depending on the metal, etc). So in a realistic metal you have a bunch of small pockets of atoms, bonded in a perfect crystal-lattice pattern, all separated by what are called \"grain boundaries\". These grain boundaries hold neighboring grains together via the metallic bond, but this bond is much weaker than the metallic bond keeping the atoms together inside a grain. Here's a [picture](_URL_0_) of grains in a metal to give you an idea.\n\nThese grain boundaries are brittle compared to the rest of the metal because they are not as strongly bonded. The metal *wants* to be completely uniform as opposed to being made up of millions of these grains, but the atoms are too low energy to rearrange themselves. It's like a ball stuck in a mudpit at the top of a mountain - the ball wants to roll down the hill, but it doesn't have enough energy to get out of the mudpit to do so. When you heat up a metal, you give enough energy to the atoms to allow them to rearrange themselves and become more uniform. This removes the grain boundaries, which were the limiting factor in the materials malleability. The end result is increased malleability. In addition, many metals (it might be most metals, but I'm not certain) will retain this improved malleability even when they are cooled back down (as long as it's a relatively slow and gradual cooling process). \n\nNow, again, there are a lot of types of metals and atomic structures so there are always exceptions. But the above explanation holds for most metals.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "23130107",
"title": "Makera Assada",
"section": "Section::::Occupations.:Blacksmithing in Makera Assada.:Process of blacksmthing in Assada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Other than to increase its malleability, another reason for heating the metal is for heat treatment purposes. The metal can be hardened, tempered, normalized, annealed, case hardened and subject to other process that changes the crystalline structure of the steel to give it specific characteristics required for different uses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12235954",
"title": "Cold working",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Depending on the material and extent of deformation, the increase in strength due to work hardening may be comparable to that of heat treating. Therefore, it is sometimes more economical to cold work a less costly and weaker metal than to hot work a more expensive metal that can be heat treated, especially if precision or a fine surface finish is required as well. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "182203",
"title": "Differential heat treatment",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "During heat treating, when red-hot steel (usually between and ) is quenched, it becomes very hard. However, it will be too hard, becoming very brittle like glass. Quenched-steel is usually heated again, slowly and evenly (usually between and ) in a process called tempering, to soften the metal, thereby increasing the toughness. However, although this softening of the metal makes the blade less prone to breaking, it makes the edge more susceptible to deformation such as dulling, peening, or curling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145092",
"title": "Blacksmith",
"section": "Section::::Smithing process.:Bending.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Some metals are \"hot short\", meaning they lose their tensile strength when heated. They become like Plasticine: although they may still be manipulated by squeezing, an attempt to stretch them, even by bending or twisting, is likely to have them crack and break apart. This is a problem for some blade-making steels, which must be worked carefully to avoid developing hidden cracks that would cause failure in the future. Though rarely hand-worked, titanium is notably hot short. Even such common smithing processes as decoratively twisting a bar are impossible with it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240123",
"title": "Plasticity (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Physical mechanisms.:In metals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Most metals show more plasticity when hot than when cold. Lead shows sufficient plasticity at room temperature, while cast iron does not possess sufficient plasticity for any forging operation even when hot. This property is of importance in forming, shaping and extruding operations on metals. Most metals are rendered plastic by heating and hence shaped hot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43707763",
"title": "Hot hardness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In materials engineering and metallurgy, hot hardness or red hardness (when a metal glows a dull red from the heat) corresponds to hardness of a material at high temperatures. As the temperature of material increases, hardness decreases and at some point a drastic change in hardness occurs. The hardness at this point is termed the \"hot\" or \"red\" hardness of that material. Such changes can be seen in materials such as heat treated alloys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17801764",
"title": "Hot working",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Hot working process metals are plastically deformed above their recrystallization temperature. Being above the recrystallization temperature allows the material to recrystallize during deformation. This is important because recrystallization keeps the materials from strain hardening, which ultimately keeps the yield strength and hardness low and ductility high. This contrasts with cold working.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1zsxbm
|
Are there any entirely fictional people commonly taught in history classes in North America?
|
[
{
"answer": "Do you mean as a way of illustrating an \"average\" person? It's a common thing to 'create' people in order to help children understand more complex ideas from a relatable viewpoint. For instance life in a 13th century English manor-village is more easily understandable if you create a villager who's life the children can follow. \n\nOr do you mean creating someone who had an effect on history as a whole but never really existed, like a fake king or something?",
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},
{
"answer": "There really was a Johnny Appleseed, but he was nothing like the myth. Compare the actual Davy Crockett to the character in the TV drama. Do the same with Daniel Boone. And yet, these people were taught as fact in schools in the 60's, and likely later. If you think about it, you can find dozens of examples. They all make very nice propaganda, just like the figures you mention.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60481628",
"title": "List of fictional Native Americans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "This is the list of fictional Native Americans from notable works of fiction (literatures, films, television shows, video games, etc.). It is organized by the examples of the fictional characters that are based on the indigenous people of the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17123468",
"title": "My America",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "My America is a series of fictional diaries of children that take place during significant moments in American history. Created by Scholastic, it is a spin-off of the series, \"Dear America\", geared toward younger children (grades 3-5). The series covers: Jamestown, the American Revolution, the American Civil War, Westward Expansion, Underground Railroad, and slavery. Each topic has three books and is authored by a different writer. Writers include well respected and popular children's authors, such as Mary Pope Osborne of Magic Tree House fame. The series was discontinued in 2004, but the books continue to be a popular teaching device for introducing American history to elementary school age children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38302925",
"title": "Wab Kinew",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Writing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "In 2018, Kinew's children's book \"\" about notable figures in First Nations history, including John Herrington, Sacagawea, Carey Price, and Crazy Horse. He was inspired to write the stories of such people by Barack Obama's \"Of Thee I Sing\", and K’naan’s song \"Take a Minute\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5629954",
"title": "Native Americans in children's literature",
"section": "Section::::Children’s literature about American Indians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "There are a great many works of children's literature that feature American Indians. Some are considered classics, such as \"Little House on the Prairie\" by Laura Ingalls Wilder, and some are award winners, such as \"The Matchlock Gun\" by Walter D. Edmonds. These classics, however, contain images of American Indians that are biased, stereotypical, and inaccurate (Reese, 2008).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37430147",
"title": "American Indian Stories",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "First published in 1921, \"American Indian Stories\" details the hardships encountered by Zitkala-Ša and other Native Americans in the missionary and manual labour schools Ricardo Anaya \" them. The autobiographical details contrast her early life on the Yankton Indian Reservation and her time as a student at White's Manual Labour Institute and Earlham College.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1750573",
"title": "Kenneth C. Davis",
"section": "Section::::\"America's Hidden History\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Davies' book, \"America's Hidden History: Untold Tales of the First Pilgrims, Fighting Women, and Forgotten Founders Who Shaped a Nation\" (2008), has a more serious tone than the earlier books, is more expansive, and focuses not only on well-known names but also on forgotten figures such as Hannah Duston.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "138093",
"title": "Reardan, Washington",
"section": "Section::::Famous connections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "Famous Indigenous American writer Sherman Alexie attended Reardan High School, which is featured in a few of his stories and in his 2007 novel for young adults, \"The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ahfd0l
|
what are and how effective are sabermetrics, and can they be applied to other sports?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sabermetrics in baseball is a statistical analysis of performance. The idea is to shift away from aggregate measures like \"hits per at bat\" which have tactical dependencies that consider who's on which base and the overall state of the game. Instead, statisticians look at measures like OPS+ (runs per out relative to the league average). This measure can be statistically shown to be a better performance predictor than batting average.\n\nTo apply the concept to other sports you'd need three things: data, more data, and a game model. Baseball is a slow game, in terms of time between plays to write down data about what just happened. As a result, baseball statisticians have lots of data for many past years with batter-by-batter detail and recent data with pitch-by-pitch detail. This would be harder to do in a faster game like basketball or a game with more things going on at the same time (which makes the game model harder to interpret) like soccer or football.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28692",
"title": "Sabermetrics",
"section": "Section::::Traditional measurements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Sabermetrics was created in an attempt for baseball fans to learn about the sport through objective evidence. This is performed by evaluating players in every aspect of the game, specifically batting, pitching, and fielding. These evaluation measures are usually phrased in terms of either runs or team wins as older statistics were deemed ineffective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28692",
"title": "Sabermetrics",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Sabermetrics can be used for multiple purposes, but the most common are evaluating past performance and predicting future performance to determine a player's contributions to his team. These may be useful when determining who should win end-of-the-season awards such as MVP and when determining the value of making a certain trade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28692",
"title": "Sabermetrics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 380,
"text": "Sabermetricians collect and summarize the relevant data from this in-game activity to answer specific questions. The term is derived from the acronym SABR, which stands for the Society for American Baseball Research, founded in 1971. The term \"sabermetrics\" was coined by Bill James, who is one of its pioneers and is often considered its most prominent advocate and public face.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3850",
"title": "Baseball",
"section": "Section::::Statistics.:Sabermetrics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Sabermetrics refers to the field of baseball statistical study and the development of new statistics and analytical tools. The term is also used to refer directly to new statistics themselves. The term was coined around 1980 by one of the field's leading proponents, Bill James, and derives from the Society for American Baseball Research (SABR).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337090",
"title": "Society for American Baseball Research",
"section": "Section::::Membership.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "While the acronym \"SABR\" may have lent its root to the word sabermetrics (for the use of sophisticated mathematical tools to analyze baseball), the Society is about much more than statistics. Well known figures in the baseball world such as Bob Costas, Keith Olbermann, Craig R. Wright, and Rollie Hemond are members, along with highly regarded \"sabermetricians\" such as Bill James and Rob Neyer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3850",
"title": "Baseball",
"section": "Section::::Statistics.:Sabermetrics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "The growing popularity of sabermetrics since the early 1980s has brought more attention to two batting statistics that sabermetricians argue are much better gauges of a batter's skill than batting average:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28692",
"title": "Sabermetrics",
"section": "Section::::Recent advances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Many sabermetricians are still working hard to contribute to the field through creating new measures and asking new questions. Bill James' two \"Historical Baseball Abstract\" editions and \"Win Shares\" book have continued to advance the field of sabermetrics, 25 years after he helped start the movement. His former assistant Rob Neyer, who is now a senior writer at ESPN.com and national baseball editor of SBNation, also worked on popularizing sabermetrics since the mid-1980s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
] | null |
ze3xi
|
How was marriage viewed in the 1800s - early 1900s as opposed to now?
|
[
{
"answer": "For much of Korean history, marriage for most was quite like a business arrangement between families. Women as well as men worked in the fields or in craft industries - men and woman with strength and skills were valued. Family leaders looked to marry their sons and daughters to people who could contribute to the well-being of the clan or village.\n\nAs far as parties are concerned, the wealthy would have all-day affairs, with the groom escorted by his friends to the house of the bride and the usual feasts and songs. Both bride and groom would wear silk (often brocaded, if they could afford it) and the bride would get an elaborate tied-up hairstyle. For most people among the local nobility this might be the most expensive outfit they ever owned.\n\n When time to consummate the marriage, close relatives would hide near the room to make sure the deed was done. It's said that the old ladies of the village were permitted to poke holes in the waxpaper doors of the bridal suite to 'check up' on the young ones.\n\nFor most people though, things were much simpler. The bride would move to her new husband's home and help his mother with farmwork and chores. The family might build an addition to the home before the ceremony if possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a lively and (comparatively) lengthy scholarship on the history of marriage in the US; it was one of the first topics picked up by women's and social historians, beginning mostly in the 1970s.\n\nThe major transition is from an economic alliance to the model of the \"companionate\" marriage. You can see this transition in the subtitle of one of the best books on the subject, Stephanie Coontz' \n*Marriage, a History: From Obedience to Intimacy, or How Love Conquered Marriage *, now in a newish edition.\n\nThere's lots of other good books on the subject, by Nancy Cott, Glenda Riley, and others. I like Riley and Dunlap's work on divorce in particular. There's also a few books on regional variation; marriage and divorce in the south, or in the colonies.\n\nBy \"parties\" do you mean, like, marriage ceremonies? Because that's dependent on ethnicity and culture, with lots of variation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Antony giddens gave a good [description](_URL_0_) of the way the family has changed in the last few centuries.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You might considered contemporary fiction's view - e.g. Pride and Prejudice, written in 1813, lays out comparisons of different reasons for marriage quite clearly.\n\nCharlotte Lewis marries for financial security, not love, and is content but a little pitied by the POV character.\n\nLydia Bennet allows herself to be carried away by passion and the results are disastrous.\n\nOur heroine and her sister both manage to find the perfect combination of love _and_ financial security, and end up quite happily.\n\nOther fiction of the time backs up the view that while marriage certainly has business elements, the 'ideal' is still to marry for love.\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "282220",
"title": "Colonial history of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Colonial life.:Women's roles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 162,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 162,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "By the mid-18th century, the values of the American Enlightenment became established and weakened the view that husbands were natural \"rulers\" over their wives. There was a new sense of shared marriage. Legally, husbands took control of wives' property when marrying. Divorce was almost impossible until the late eighteenth century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2539563",
"title": "Sociology of the family",
"section": "Section::::Sociology of interracial intimacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 860,
"text": "The construction of race in Western society and, to a degree, globally, has led to a distinct view of interracial intimacy. Although interracial relationships and marriages have become far more popular and socially acceptable in the United States and Western Europe since the Civil Rights era, these unions continue to be viewed with less than total acceptance by significant portions of the population. More historically, \"American Families\" by Stephanie Coontz treats the difficulties these couples went through during the time before \"Loving v. Virginia\", when interracial marriage bans were declared unconstitutional. These bans functioned to enforce the one-drop rule and reenforce identity and privilege. Internationally, the far right continues to promote ideas of racial purity by working against the normalization of interracial couples and families.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "843486",
"title": "Ban (law)",
"section": "Section::::Banning marriages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "For much of the 1800s and 1900s there were bans on marriage between people of different races (interracial marriage) in many of the United States. However, the ban on interracial marriage was overturned by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1967 in the landmark civil rights case \"Loving vs. Virginia\", in which the Court ruled Virginia's miscegenation law an unconstitutional violation of the fundamental right to marriage. Historically child marriage was common, but is now banned in many countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17547",
"title": "Love",
"section": "Section::::Political views.:Free love.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Many people in the early 19th century believed that marriage was an important aspect of life to \"fulfill earthly human happiness.\" Middle-class Americans wanted the home to be a place of stability in an uncertain world. This mentality created a vision of strongly defined gender roles, which provoked the advancement of the free love movement as a contrast.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25415024",
"title": "Cousin marriage law in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1020,
"text": "Cousin marriage was legal in all states before the Civil War. Anthropologist Martin Ottenheimer argues that marriage prohibitions were introduced to maintain the social order, uphold religious morality, and safeguard the creation of fit offspring. Writers such as Noah Webster (1758–1843) and ministers like Philip Milledoler (1775–1852) and Joshua McIlvaine helped lay the groundwork for such viewpoints well before 1860. This led to a gradual shift in concern from affinal unions, like those between a man and his deceased wife's sister, to consanguineous unions. By the 1870s, Lewis Henry Morgan (1818–1881) was writing about \"the advantages of marriages between unrelated persons\" and the necessity of avoiding \"the evils of consanguine marriage\", avoidance of which would \"increase the vigor of the stock\". To many, Morgan included, cousin marriage, and more specifically parallel-cousin marriage, was a remnant of a more primitive stage of human social organization. Morgan himself had married his cousin in 1853.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1130298",
"title": "English society",
"section": "Section::::Victorian era.:Women and the family.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "Reformers organized many movements to obtain greater rights for women; voting rights did not come until the next century. The Married Women's Property Act 1882 meant that women did not lose their right to their own property when they got married and could divorce without fear of poverty, although divorce was frowned upon and very rare during the 19th century. It is too much to claim that the Victorians \"invented childhood,\" but they deemed it the most significant phase of life. The trend was towards smaller families, probably because of the rise of modern inner-directed families, coupled with lower infant mortality rates and longer life spans. Legislation reduced the working hours of children while raising the minimum working age, and the passing of the Education Act 1870 set the basis for universal primary education.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32737",
"title": "Victoria Woodhull",
"section": "Section::::Marriages.:Free love.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Woodhull's support of free love likely started after she discovered the infidelity of her first husband, Canning. Women who married in the United States during the 19th century were bound into the unions, even if loveless, with few options to escape. Divorce was limited by law and considered socially scandalous. Women who divorced were stigmatized and often ostracized by society. Victoria Woodhull concluded that women should have the choice to leave unbearable marriages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ljk2n
|
what are the financial advantages for video game developers to make their game for one system only?
|
[
{
"answer": "People answered for consoles, I'll give my answer for PC.\n\nSome PC games will not play well on consoles. When the consoles got Civilization it was an entirely different game. If they tried to make a Civ gMe that works on consoles and PC the PC fan base would be pissed off because of the consessions needed for controlling the game with a gamepad. Console players would not like it because they see it as too slow paced.\n\nOther developers do not have the funds to release on consoles, and if they are an independent developer that releases digital only they will be shooed as far away as possible from the online store because consoles hate independent developers for no reason. One independent developer reported making almost no sales when they ported their game to one of the consoles.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Generally, they get a bucketload of money from some platform's parent company to release exclusively on that platform for some period of time, then they use that time to develop the versions for the other platforms.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well normally the company that gets the exclusive rights have offered some money to get this, plus one system means a lot less development time, and it's far easier to focus on one piece of hardware. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "\nIt's almost always because of deal between the platform owner and the developer. There are a number of reasons to do this, but it usually boils down to money. You can guarantee X dollars for your game from the exclusive deal you sign with a platform owner, and that greatly reduces the risk associated with releasing the game. There's no way that Naughty Dog didn't release \"The Last of Us\" on PC or Xbox because of the costs associated with porting the game over, as many other comments here are saying.\n\nFor a less popular example, here's a pretty decent [blog post](_URL_0_) about a developer that decided to go exclusive on OUYA.\n\n > Also, how would Porsche (or the NFL, MLB etc) benefit from only licensing their product for one video game only, instead of offering it to all video games who request it?\n\nNamely, you can charge a ton of money for exclusive rights to an IP. If you share those rights with other people, then the value of those rights goes down substantially. I don't know how much EA pays for NHL rights, but I'd be willing to wager it's a boatload.\n\nThe secondary reason is that it prevents brand fatigue. If you whored out your IP to everyone who wanted it, then you'd be getting a crap-ton of games out there, many of which might not be very good. You'd potentially over-saturate your target market and, therefore, get greatly diminished returns on more and more titles.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "32399",
"title": "Video game developer",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Third-party developers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "A common exit strategy for a successful video-game developer is to sell the company to a publisher, becoming an in-house developer. In-house development teams tend to have more freedom in the design and content of a game compared to third-party developers. One reason is that since the developers are employees of the publisher, their interests are aligned with those of the publisher; the publisher may spend less effort ensuring that the developer's decisions do not enrich the developer at the publisher's expense.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "407326",
"title": "Mod (video gaming)",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Game support for modifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Games have varying support from their publishers for modifications, but often require expensive professional software to make. One such example is \"Homeworld 2\", which requires the program Maya to build new in-game objects. However, there are free versions of Maya and other advanced modeling software available. There are also free and even open-source modeling programs (such as Blender) that can be used as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48449792",
"title": "Video game monetization",
"section": "Section::::History.:2010s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1500,
"text": "This approach is considered \"games as a service\", as analysts have found that players put more value in games that provide a regular stream of new content than a title that does not receive updated. This model helps to assure a long revenue stream from the publisher as well as to allow them to publish fewer games and reduce development costs while still providing new content to players, with the potential to profit twice as fast from the traditional model. This approach also helps to insulate publishers from impacts of discounts and sales on digital game redemption keys from third-party sellers by requiring additional purchase of content as part of their services to gamers. Digital River estimated that the industry's value in 2017 had tripled from previous years due to the use of the \"games as a service\" model. Take-Two Interactive, in an investor call in November 2017, reported that 42% of their revenues were from \"recurrent consumer spending\" in their latest financial quarter, obtained through the \"Grand Theft Auto Online\" component of \"Grand Theft Auto V\", and the \"MyCareer\" mode of \"NBA 2K18\", both which offer players additional content and activities over time. Take-Two anticipates they will be using this model going forward for future games. Ubisoft, around the same time, reported that revenue from microtransactions and other in-game sales exceeded their revenue from direct digital sales of games during the first two quarters of their financial year for the first time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "773853",
"title": "Game programming",
"section": "Section::::Tools.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Game development companies are often very willing to spend thousands of dollars to make sure their programmers are well equipped with the best tools. A well outfitted programmer may have two to three development systems and multiple monitors dominating their office or cubicle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "473526",
"title": "Video game design",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Funding game publishers must be taken into account, who may have specific expectations from a game as most video games are \"market-driven\" — developed to sell for profit. However, if financial issues do not influence designer's decisions, the game becomes \"design-\" or \"designer-driven\"; few games are designed this way because of lack of funding. Alternatively, a game may be \"technology-driven\", such as Quake (1996), to show off a particular hardware achievement or to market the game engine. Finally, a game may be \"art-driven\", such as \"Myst\" (1993), mainly to show off impressive visuals designed by artists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "392690",
"title": "Console game",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "The core development process for a console game is very similar to its counterparts and primarily differs in the high level concept due to demographics and the technical back-end. Consoles developers will usually make a development kit available to game developers which they can use to test their games on with more ease than a consumer model.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32408640",
"title": "History of Western role-playing video games",
"section": "Section::::Resurgence (2000s–present).:Independent games and European game studios.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 1142,
"text": "The technical sophistication required to make modern video games and the high expectations of players make it difficult for independent developers to impress audiences viscerally, to the degree that large game makers with extensive budgets and development teams are able to, but innovation and quality need not necessarily be stymied. Europe, and Germany in particular, remains more receptive to PC-exclusives and, in general, to older, more \"hardcore\" design decisions. Like the movie industry, the indie video game scene plays a crucial role in formulating new ideas and concepts that mainstream publishers and marketing departments, stuck in their old ways, might otherwise deem unworkable or too radical. There are many examples that movies that never gained approval with the corporate decision makers were financially successful or became iconic on the film industry. Indie video game developers can provide more development time and effort whereas larger corporate enterprises are constrained by the expenses and expectations of voice-overs and advanced graphics. Independent developers can be successful in focusing on niche markets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6yaybj
|
what's the deal with those tar pits in the usa?
|
[
{
"answer": "Those are most likely the La Brea tar pits. It's a popular tourist attraction and they're in a public park, so they're happy to get the money.\n\nThe pits are naturally-formed (tar is naturally formed along with other petroleum from primarily plant biomass) but they're exposed due to the result of excavation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[The La Brea tar pits](_URL_0_) are natural, and pre-date current estimates of human colonization of North America.\n\nTar pits happen when oil leaks to the surface. Gases and lighter hydrocarbons evaporate, leaving the heavier oily and tar-like fractions. Being thick and sticky, over the millennia they've trapped careless animals. Excavations have yielded all sorts of interesting fossils.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Others have already answered your main question so I just want to say that when you come to visit Los Angeles, go to the Los Angeles Brea Tar Pits. There is a very nice museum and you can see interesting fossils, as well as the Tar Pits themselves. It's kind of weird to have this odd and smelly natural feature in the middle of America's second-largest city, but there it is. There is a lot of oil underneath Los Angeles and there are many oil wells throughout the city.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "224043",
"title": "Tar pit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "A tar pit, or more accurately an asphalt pit or asphalt lake, is the result of a type of petroleum seep where subterranean bitumen leaks to the surface, creating a large area of natural asphalt. This happens because, after the material reaches the surface, its lighter components vaporize, leaving only the thick asphalt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "298509",
"title": "La Brea Tar Pits",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Tar pits are composed of heavy oil fractions called gilsonite, which seeped from the Earth as oil. In Hancock Park, crude oil seeps up along the 6th Street Fault from the Salt Lake Oil Field, which underlies much of the Fairfax District north of the park. The oil reaches the surface and forms pools at several locations in the park, becoming asphalt as the lighter fractions of the petroleum biodegrade or evaporate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28812282",
"title": "McKittrick Tar Pits",
"section": "Section::::Geography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Most of the tar pits are located along the southwestern part of the intersection of California State Route 58 and 33 and generate from the underlying McKittrick Oil Field. The pits stretch over a distance of about .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28622103",
"title": "Stringfellow Acid Pits",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "The Stringfellow Acid Pits are a toxic waste dump, and a Superfund site, located in Jurupa Valley, California, United States, just north of the neighborhood of Glen Avon, California. The site became the center of national news coverage in the early 1980s, in part because it was considered one of the most polluted sites in California, and because it became linked with mismanagement and scandal in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "298509",
"title": "La Brea Tar Pits",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "La Brea Tar Pits are a group of tar pits around which Hancock Park was formed in urban Los Angeles. Natural asphalt (also called asphaltum, bitumen, pitch, or tar—\"brea\" in Spanish) has seeped up from the ground in this area for tens of thousands of years. The tar is often covered with dust, leaves, or water. Over many centuries, the tar preserved the bones of trapped animals. The George C. Page Museum is dedicated to researching the tar pits and displaying specimens from the animals that died there. La Brea Tar Pits are a registered National Natural Landmark.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28812282",
"title": "McKittrick Tar Pits",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "The McKittrick Tar Pits are one of the five natural asphalt lake areas in the world, the others being Tierra de Brea in Trinidad and Tobago, Lake Guanoco in Venezuela and the La Brea Tar Pits (Los Angeles) and Carpinteria Tar Pits (Carpinteria) both also located in the US state of California.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28812416",
"title": "Carpinteria Tar Pits",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "The Carpinteria Tar Pits were known to the local Native American \"Chumash people\", who mined the asphalt and used it as a sealant for waterproofing their tomols (plank-built boats) and other purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
974dmv
|
"Under God" was added to the US Pledge of Allegiance in 1954; what was the background behind this change? Was there any controversy accompanying it at the time?
|
[
{
"answer": "The change to the pledge was part of a broader movement over the past decade in the United States to distinguish Americans from \"godless Communists\" during the Cold War. There was a rise of civil religion—church attendance and profession of belief in general Christian principles tied closely to one's American identity. Which denomination one might attend was far less important than just believing at all; it wasn't, in other words, a competition over theology, rites, or practices.\n\nBilly Graham rose to fame beginning in 1949, a symbol of this notion of civil religion. He frequently denounced Communism and intertwined American democracy with Christianity. Prior to this time, the phrase, \"under God\" was used sparingly by American politicians and presidents. But it was Truman who began to use it more frequently, and like Graham, it was often used to denounce Communism.\n\nThe Pledge of Allegiance wasn't the only thing that was changed. It was during this time that the phrase \"In God We Trust\" was added to paper money. The phrase was also added to the speaker's dais in the House of Representatives, and above the entrance to the US Senate chamber. The National Prayer Breakfast became a larger part of American politics. These movements were often spearheaded by fraternal organizations. It was the Knights of Columbus that pushed to have the pledge amended with the phrase, \"under God.\" Another organization, the Fraternal Order of Eagles, worked with American director Cecil B. DeMille to place monuments of the Ten Commandments across the country. DeMille's film, \"The Ten Commandments,\" was coming out in 1955 and so he readily partnered with the Eagles to have the monuments—monuments that in the last thirty years have been the subject of several court challenges—placed on public land, both because he believed in their mission and because he saw it as an opportunity to promote his film.\n\nIn other words, the changes to the pledge were just one part of a sharp focus in the late 1940s and 1950s on publicly demonstrating, both as a nation and as individual citizens, one's commitment to God, religion, and America. Historian Kevin Kruse has also written about the role of businesses and the capitalist angle in the shift (Kruse, \"One Nation Under God: How Corporate America Invented Christian America) that is excellent.\n\nThere was minor push back on these changes, but nothing that made a dent or gave pause to the shift. Some Jewish organizations wrote letters of protest. There were, of course, actual Communists in the United States as well as atheists who also spoke out, but that was the extent of the protests: speaking out. No large, well-organized or well-funded campaign emerged to offer legal challenges.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "168714",
"title": "Separation of church and state",
"section": "Section::::In various countries.:United States.:Pledge of Allegiance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Critics of the American Pledge of Allegiance have argued that the use of the phrase \"under God\" violates the separation of church and state. While the pledge was created by Francis Bellamy in 1891, in 1954, the Knights of Columbus, a Catholic organization, campaigned with other groups to have the words \"under God\" added to the pledge. On June 14, 1954, President Dwight Eisenhower signed the bill to make the addition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7145312",
"title": "George MacPherson Docherty",
"section": "Section::::Ministry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "When President Dwight Eisenhower attended on Lincoln Sunday, February 7, 1954, Docherty preached a sermon calling for the addition of \"under God\" to the Pledge. As a result of his sermon, the next day President Eisenhower and his friends in Congress began to set the wheels in motion to amend the Pledge of Allegiance to include the phrase. On February 8, 1954, Representative Charles Oakman (R-Mich), introduced a bill to that effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10197171",
"title": "Charles G. Oakman",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "On February 8, 1954, Oakman introduced a bill to the U.S. House that would add the words \"under God\" to the Pledge of Allegiance. U.S. Senator from Michigan Homer S. Ferguson introduced the bill to the U.S. Senate. The bill became law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59581",
"title": "Pledge of Allegiance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "The Pledge of Allegiance of the United States is an expression of allegiance to the flag of the United States and the republic of the United States of America. It was originally composed by Captain George Thatcher Balch, a Union Army Officer during the Civil War and later a teacher of patriotism in New York City schools. The form of the pledge used today was largely devised by Francis Bellamy in 1892, and formally adopted by Congress as the pledge in 1942. The official name of \"The Pledge of Allegiance\" was adopted in 1945. The most recent alteration of its wording came on Flag Day in 1954, when the words \"under God\" were added.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "404992",
"title": "Jim McDermott",
"section": "Section::::U.S. House of Representatives.:Tenure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "On April 28, 2004, Congressman McDermott omitted the phrase \"under God\" while leading the House in reciting the Pledge of Allegiance. The incident occurred after atheist Michael Newdow lost his court case to have the phrase \"under God\" dropped from the Pledge, and after McDermott had voted against a congressional resolution that called for overturning a court ruling that declared the phrase unconstitutional. In 1954, during the McCarthy era and communism scare, Congress had passed a bill, which was signed into law, to add the words \"under God.\" McDermott later stated that he had \"reverted to the pledge as it was written and taught in the public schools throughout my childhood\", as the phrase \"under God\" was added in 1954, the year in which McDermott graduated from high school; he turned 18 in late December of that year, after graduating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56768356",
"title": "Political activity of the Knights of Columbus",
"section": "Section::::Domestic policy.:Pledge of Allegiance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "The order was influential in the early stages of the movement that eventually led to the decision by the US Congress to add the phrase \"under God\" to the Pledge of Allegiance in 1954. Though others had proposed the idea before, the idea bubbled up in the order from Fourth Degree assemblies. In April 1951, the Supreme Board of Directors adopted a resolution directing the Fourth Degree to add the words to their recitations. The Knights were the first group to voluntarily do so on a regular basis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39961576",
"title": "November 1964",
"section": "Section::::November 23, 1964 (Monday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "BULLET::::- The U.S. Supreme Court declined to review, and let stand, a lower court ruling that rejected a change in the Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag of the United States, specifically taking back out the phrase \"under God\" from the pledge that schoolchildren were required to recite at the beginning of the day. Courts in the state of New York had rejected a suit premised on the idea that the reference to God was a violation of the First Amendment guarantees of the separation of church and state in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7vgs6j
|
why are brass, copper, and bronze used in pluming?
|
[
{
"answer": "They're very corrosion resistant, considering the constant exposure to water. They're also very malleable (meaning they're easily shaped into tube and pipe) and not toxic, plus it is easy enough to be bent by hand rather than having to fabricate exact curves and lengths. In addition, the three metals are also resistant to the growth of bacteria and other microbes.\n\nBrass, copper, and bronze are all mostly copper. Admiralty brass, the type of brass you'd normally see in plumbing, is only 30% zinc. Bronze is typically no more than 12% tin. Keeping the metal mostly the same also helps limit corrosion. Typically you'll see copper tubing and brass fittings, because pure copper doesn't hold its shape very well under the higher stress at a fitting.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "185775",
"title": "Crucible",
"section": "Section::::History.:Iron Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1745,
"text": "During the Roman period a new process of metalworking started, cementation, used in the production of brass. This process involves the combination of a metal and a gas to produce an alloy (Zwicker et al. 1985: p107). Brass is made by mixing solid copper metal with zinc oxide or carbonate which comes in the form of calamine or smithsonite (Rehren 2003: p209). This is heated to about 900 °C, the zinc oxide vaporises into a gas, and the zinc gas bonds with the molten copper (Rehren 1999: p1085). This reaction has to take place in a part-closed or closed container otherwise the zinc vapour would escape before it can react with the copper. Cementation crucibles therefore have a lid or cap which limits the amount of gas loss from the crucible. The crucible design is similar to the smelting and melting crucibles of the period utilizing the same material as the smelting and melting crucibles. The conical shape and small mouth allowed the lid to be added. These small crucibles are seen in Colonia Ulpia Trajana (modern-day Xanten), Germany, where the crucibles are around 4 cm in size, however these are small examples. There are examples of larger vessels such as cooking pots and amphorae being used for cementation to process larger amounts of brass; since the reaction takes place at low temperatures lower fired ceramics could be used. The ceramic vessels which are used are important as the vessel must be able to lose gas through the walls otherwise the pressure would break the vessel. Cementation vessels are mass-produced due to crucibles having to be broken open to remove the brass once the reaction has finished as in most cases the lid would have baked hard to the vessel or the brass might have adhered to the vessel walls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "515339",
"title": "Zinc oxide",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "The Romans produced considerable quantities of brass (an alloy of zinc and copper) as early as 200 BC by a cementation process where copper was reacted with zinc oxide. The zinc oxide is thought to have been produced by heating zinc ore in a shaft furnace. This liberated metallic zinc as a vapor, which then ascended the flue and condensed as the oxide. This process was described by Dioscorides in the 1st century AD. Zinc oxide has also been recovered from zinc mines at Zawar in India, dating from the second half of the first millennium BC. This was presumably also made in the same way and used to produce brass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3292",
"title": "Brass",
"section": "Section::::History.:Brass making in the Roman world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1068,
"text": "Brass was produced by the cementation process where copper and zinc ore are heated together until zinc vapor is produced which reacts with the copper. There is good archaeological evidence for this process and crucibles used to produce brass by cementation have been found on Roman period sites including Xanten and Nidda in Germany, Lyon in France and at a number of sites in Britain. They vary in size from tiny acorn sized to large amphorae like vessels but all have elevated levels of zinc on the interior and are lidded. They show no signs of slag or metal prills suggesting that zinc minerals were heated to produce zinc vapor which reacted with metallic copper in a solid state reaction. The fabric of these crucibles is porous, probably designed to prevent a buildup of pressure, and many have small holes in the lids which may be designed to release pressure or to add additional zinc minerals near the end of the process. Dioscorides mentioned that zinc minerals were used for both the working and finishing of brass, perhaps suggesting secondary additions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "803661",
"title": "History of technology",
"section": "Section::::By period and geography.:Ancient.:Copper and bronze Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 904,
"text": "Metallic copper occurs on the surface of weathered copper ore deposits and copper was used before copper smelting was known. Copper smelting is believed to have originated when the technology of pottery kilns allowed sufficiently high temperatures. The concentration of various elements such as arsenic increase with depth in copper ore deposits and smelting of these ores yields arsenical bronze, which can be sufficiently work hardened to be suitable for making tools. Bronze is an alloy of copper with tin; the latter being found in relatively few deposits globally caused a long time to elapse before true tin bronze to became widespread. (See: Tin sources and trade in ancient times) Bronze was a major advance over stone as a material for making tools, both because of its mechanical properties like strength and ductility and because it could be cast in molds to make intricately shaped objects. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38918352",
"title": "Bronze and brass ornamental work",
"section": "Section::::European brass and bronze.:Brass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 2094,
"text": "Brass is an alloy composed of copper and zinc, usually for sheet metal, and casting in the proportion of seven parts of the former to three of the latter. Such a combination secures a good, brilliant colour. There are, however, varieties of tone ranging from a pale lemon colour to a deep golden brown, which depends upon a smaller or greater amount of zinc. In early times this metal seems to have been sparingly employed, but from the Middle Ages onward the industry in brass was a very important one, carried out on a vast scale and applied in widely different directions. The term \"latten\", which is frequently met with in old documents, is rather loosely employed, and is sometimes used for objects made of bronze; its true application is to the alloy we call brass. In Europe its use for artistic purposes centered largely in the region of the Meuse valley in south-east Belgium, together with north-eastern France, parts of the Netherlands and the Rhenish provinces of which Cologne was the center. As far back as the 11th century the inhabitants of the town of Huy and Dinant are found working this metal; zinc they found in their own country, while for copper they went to Cologne or Dortmund, and later to the mines of the Harz Mountains. Much work was produced both by casting and repoussé, but it was in the former process that they excelled. Within a very short time the term \"dinanderie\" was coined to designate the work in brass which emanated from the foundries of Dinant and other towns in the neighbourhood. Their productions found their way to France, Spain, England and Germany. In London the Dinant merchants, encouraged by Edward III, established a \"Hall\" in 1329 which existed until the end of the 16th century; in France they traded at Rouen, Calais, Paris and elsewhere. The industry flourished for several centuries, but was weakened by quarrels with their rivals at the neighboring town of Bouvignes; in 1466 the town was sacked and destroyed by Charles the Bold. The brass-founders fled to Huy, Namur, Middleburg, Tournai and Bruges, where their work was continued.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34420",
"title": "Zinc",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The manufacture of brass was known to the Romans by about 30 BC. They made brass by heating powdered calamine (zinc silicate or carbonate), charcoal and copper together in a crucible. The resulting calamine brass was then either cast or hammered into shape for use in weaponry. Some coins struck by Romans in the Christian era are made of what is probably calamine brass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12386637",
"title": "Bilbie family",
"section": "Section::::Bell making.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Supplies of the tin and copper used to make bell metal were probably obtained from brass foundries in Kelston and Bristol. The metal was melted in a wood-burning furnace to over and then poured into a mould made from loam, or foundry mud, from the River Chew.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
689ih3
|
what happens to a file when it is uninstalled from a computer?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your computer saves things by changing the ones and zeroes on disk. It doesn't matter what those bits were before you saved something, so there is no such thing as \"empty\" memory. As such, there's no point in \"deleting\" anything, as it would be equivalent to just saving random bits on top of the old ones.\n\nInstead of actually removing the data from the disk the computer just marks that part as free. Eventually, when something needs to be saved again, those bits might be used.",
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"answer": "We tend to say the file is deleted. \nThe computer has a disk that acts like a like a filing cabinet. The computer keeps a list or table that tells it where the files is stored on the disk - similar to which draw on hanger in the filing cabinet. \nSo the table might say - file1 is stored at address 100 and is 40 pages long, and file 2 is stored at address 140 and is 50 pages long, file 3 is stored at address 190 and so on. \n\nIf you ask the computer to delete file 2 then it will just delete the name of the file from the table. After deleting the file the table might be - file1 is stored at address 100 and is 40 pages long and file 3 is stored at address 190.\n\nSo the file is still on the disk but the computer cannot find it from the table anymore. Next time a file is to be saved it might put it in the space the file 2 is using. If say file 4 is also 50 pages long then the computer might use the space file 2 uses and the table might be - file1 is stored at address 100 and is 40 pages long, and file 4 is stored at address 140 and is 50 pages long, file 3 is stored at address 190. File 2 has then been overwritten.\n\nUnlike real files the file on a computer is a row of switches that can be set to 0 or 1. When a new file needs to use the row of switches they are just switched to the new values.\n\nHope my analogy helps and doesn't confuse - the main point is that in most systems the file is not deleted, the index is deleted, and the space reused. \nThere are also other ways for the computer to manage the disk. ",
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"answer": "Usually, \"installed\" implies many files that are associated with each other: an application (like Word or Photoshop; they are many files and settings, not one).\n\nModern applications, when they are installed, also include \"uninstall\" information, so that they can take themselves back off when you don't want them, and not leave much behind.\n\nWhen that happens, most of the files that were part of the application are marked \"deleted\", including the ones that tell the computer (and you) how to run the application in the first place.\n\nAs for the files themselves, your computer uses one of a few ways to know what a \"file\" is, and how to look at it. Commonly, a storage device is split into small (pretend) sectors and/or clusters. A file takes up a certain number of those, to store all its information--as many as it needs. When you make a file, a table keeps track of where the file starts. The file fills up a cluster, marks it \"used,\" and asks for another. The storage device gives it the next one it sees that isn't marked \"used.\" It fills that, marks it \"used,\" and asks for another, repeat until there's nothing else that needs to go in the file. **There are other ways to do this but they have similar results.**\n\nWhen you delete a file, a couple of things happen:\nThe clusters that the file has marked \"used,\" get marked \"not used.\"\nThe table that tells you where the file starts, gets told to stop telling you that file is there.\n\nThe data that the file put in each cluster is still there, so right away, you could mark it all back the way it was, and you'd have your file back. There are tools to do this.\n\nBut now that those clusters aren't marked \"used,\" the next time a file asks the storage device for a new cluster, the device might give it one of the ones from the old file. That old file is now \"overwritten\" and can't easily be restored anymore.\n\nWhen people talk about \"secure deletion,\" they're worried about this; that the clusters that had your data were only switched from \"used\" to \"not used,\" and the actual data is still there if you turn them back to \"used.\" Secure deletion, among other things, takes all those clusters, writes garbage to them, and then marks them \"not used\" again. This takes longer, and most files aren't secret.\n\n(Secure deletion also worries about shadows of your data in those clusters, like a TV screen still showing things a little while after you turn it off. So it writes garbage over and over till the only shadows are shadows of more garbage. This takes a LOT longer than just marking it \"not used,\" so people only do it when they're really worried about something).",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "7077",
"title": "Computer file",
"section": "Section::::File corruption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "When a file is said to be corrupted, it is because its contents have been saved to the computer in such a way that they can't be properly read, either by a human or by software. Depending on the extension of the damage, the original file can sometimes be recovered, or at least partially understood. A file may be created corrupt, or it may be corrupted at a later point through overwriting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23039636",
"title": "File carving",
"section": "Section::::Motivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "When a file is deleted, only the entry in the file system metadata is removed, while the actual data is still on the disk. After a format and even a repartitioning it might be that most of raw data is untouched and can be recovered using file carving.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3068409",
"title": "Open (system call)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "If the file is being created, the filesystem may allocate the default initial amount of storage or a specified amount depending on the file system capabilities. If this fails an error will be returned. Updating the directory with the new entry may be performed or it may be delayed until the close is performed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157935",
"title": "Plaintext",
"section": "Section::::Secure handling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 967,
"text": "Discarded computers, disk drives and media are also a potential source of plaintexts. Most operating systems do not actually erase anything—they simply mark the disk space occupied by a deleted file as 'available for use', and remove its entry from the file system directory. The information in a file deleted in this way remains fully present until overwritten at some later time when the operating system reuses the disk space. With even low-end computers commonly sold with many gigabytes of disk space and rising monthly, this 'later time' may be months later, or never. Even overwriting the portion of a disk surface occupied by a deleted file is insufficient in many cases. Peter Gutmann of the University of Auckland wrote a celebrated 1996 paper on the recovery of overwritten information from magnetic disks; areal storage densities have gotten much higher since then, so this sort of recovery is likely to be more difficult than it was when Gutmann wrote. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2160183",
"title": "Data recovery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "In a third scenario, files have been accidentally \"deleted\" from a storage medium by the users. Typically, the contents of deleted files are not removed immediately from the physical drive; instead, references to them in the directory structure are removed, and thereafter space the deleted data occupy is made available for later data overwriting. In the mind of end users, deleted files cannot be discoverable through a standard file manager, but the deleted data still technically exists on the physical drive. In the meantime, the original file contents remain, often in a number of disconnected fragments, and may be recoverable if not overwritten by other data files.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58506548",
"title": "EaseUS Data Recovery Wizard",
"section": "Section::::Recovery process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "When data is deleted from storage devices, the references to the data are removed from the directory structure. The space can then be used, or overwritten, with data from other files or computer functions. The deleted data itself is not immediately removed from the physical drive and often exists as a number of disconnected fragments. This data, so long as it is not overwritten, can be recovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305743",
"title": "Disk formatting",
"section": "Section::::Recovery of data from a formatted disk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "As in file deletion by the operating system, data on a disk are not fully erased during every high-level format. Instead, the area on the disk containing the data is merely marked as available, and retains the old data until it is overwritten. If the disk is formatted with a different file system than the one which previously existed on the partition, some data may be overwritten that wouldn't be if the same file system had been used. However, under some file systems (e.g., NTFS, but not FAT), the file indexes (such as $MFTs under NTFS, inodes under ext2/3, etc.) may not be written to the same exact locations. And if the partition size is increased, even FAT file systems will overwrite more data at the beginning of that new partition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
610nc0
|
what are moments, skewness and kurtosis in statistics? ;-;
|
[
{
"answer": "Did you find this [article](_URL_0_) ?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Somewhat vague explanation: If you're familiar with the basic shapes of polynomial graphs ([example showing degrees 1-6](_URL_0_)), then you can think of each moment as \"how well does my distribution 'resemble' this graph?\" \n\nFor example, the graph of a generic third-degree polynomial (like y=x^3 - x) has an up-down hump in it, but unlike a degree-two parabola this hump isn't symmetrical. So when you find the third moment of a distribution it can tell you whether your distribution \"leans\" to one side or another the way a cubic hump does--which is why the third moment gives a measure of skewness. \n\nAlso in this example, note that a generic cubic graph has two asymmetric humps, one that leans left and another that leans right. Whether the moment is positive or negative depends on which of these two humps your distribution most resembles. Having a negative third moment = having more mass in the left tail than a symmetric distribution would = having left skew, for instance. (Note that this works because the moments are \"centered\" at the mean of the distribution, which for an symmetric distribution is usually in a different spot than the median.)\n\n",
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"answer": "Moments describe various aspects of the shape of your distribution.\n\nM0 is the total probability which is always equal to 1.\n\nM1 is the mean which describes the *location* of the distribution. The center of gravity if you will.\n\nM2 is the variance which describes the *spread* of the distribution. The square root of the variance is the standard deviation (which you can think of as the average spread). High values are more spread out than smaller values.\n\nM3 is the skewness which describes the *lean* of the distribution. A positive skew means you have a left lean and a long right tail (a chi-square distribution is positively skewed). This means that the mean (center of gravity) is to the right of the bulk of your data.\n\nM4 is the kurtosis which describes how *fat* the distribution's tails are. It tells you how likely it is to find extreme values in your data. Higher values make outliers more likely ( the tails are fatter). This sounds a lot like spread (variance) but is subtly different. The student-t distribution has the same mean (0), variance (1) and skewness (0) of the standard normal distribution but has a higher kurtosis (it is lower and wider).",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24350828",
"title": "L-moment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "In statistics, L-moments are a sequence of statistics used to summarize the shape of a probability distribution. They are linear combinations of order statistics (L-statistics) analogous to conventional moments, and can be used to calculate quantities analogous to standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis, termed the L-scale, L-skewness and L-kurtosis respectively (the L-mean is identical to the conventional mean). Standardised L-moments are called L-moment ratios and are analogous to standardized moments. Just as for conventional moments, a theoretical distribution has a set of population L-moments. Sample L-moments can be defined for a sample from the population, and can be used as estimators of the population L-moments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "734854",
"title": "Subitizing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Subitizing is the rapid, accurate, and confident judgments of numbers performed for small numbers of items. The term was coined in 1949 by E.L. Kaufman et al., and is derived from the Latin adjective \"subitus\" (meaning \"sudden\") and captures a feeling of immediately knowing how many items lie within the visual scene, when the number of items present falls within the subitizing range. Number judgments for larger set-sizes are referred to either as estimating if insufficient time is available for observers to accurately count all the items present, or counting otherwise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40990955",
"title": "Factorial moment measure",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "In probability and statistics, a factorial moment measure is a mathematical quantity, function or, more precisely, measure that is defined in relation to mathematical objects known as point processes, which are types of stochastic processes often used as mathematical models of physical phenomena representable as randomly positioned points in time, space or both. Moment measures generalize the idea of factorial moments, which are useful for studying non-negative integer-valued random variables.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9210865",
"title": "Shape parameter",
"section": "Section::::Estimation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Many estimators measure location or scale; however, estimators for shape parameters also exist. Most simply, they can be estimated in terms of the higher moments, using the method of moments, as in the skewness (3rd moment) or kurtosis (4th moment), if the higher moments are defined and finite. Estimators of shape often involve higher-order statistics (non-linear functions of the data), as in the higher moments, but linear estimators also exist, such as the L-moments. Maximum likelihood estimation can also be used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40969212",
"title": "Moment measure",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "An example of a moment measure is the first moment measure of a point process, often called mean measure or intensity measure, which gives the expected or average number of points of the point process being located in some region of space. In other words, if the number of points of a point process located in some region of space is a random variable, then the first moment measure corresponds to the first moment of this random variable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "16848",
"title": "Kurtosis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "In probability theory and statistics, kurtosis (from , \"kyrtos\" or \"kurtos\", meaning \"curved, arching\") is a measure of the \"tailedness\" of the probability distribution of a real-valued random variable. In a similar way to the concept of skewness, kurtosis is a descriptor of the shape of a probability distribution and, just as for skewness, there are different ways of quantifying it for a theoretical distribution and corresponding ways of estimating it from a sample from a population. Depending on the particular measure of kurtosis that is used, there are various interpretations of kurtosis, and of how particular measures should be interpreted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40990955",
"title": "Factorial moment measure",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "The first factorial moment measure of a point process coincides with its first moment measure or \"intensity measure\", which gives the expected or average number of points of the point process located in some region of space. In general, if the number of points in some region is considered as a random variable, then the moment factorial measure of this region is the factorial moment of this random variable. Factorial moment measures completely characterize a wide class of point processes, which means they can be used to uniquely identify a point process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
79mzam
|
What was the decision making process behind choosing Normandy as a target for invasion as opposed to Calais, Belgium, Netherlands, Denmark, etc?
|
[
{
"answer": "Forgot to mention in the title, in World War 2 of course",
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"answer": "Choosing a landing site required finding a compromise on a number of factors. The chosen site had to be within aircraft range of the UK, so the beachhead could receive fighter cover and air support. The closer it was to the UK, the better, as less shipping would be needed, and it would be less exposed to attack by U-boats, E-boats, mines or aircraft. It needed to be close to Germany, so that the Allied armies wouldn't have to spend a lot of time fighting across France to get there. There needed to be ports in the vicinity of the landing site, so that the troops could receive the supplies they needed. The landing beaches had to be suitable - shingle would jam tank tracks, while mud would tire men out and immobilise tanks by causing them to sink in, and a long shallow beach would cause the landing craft to beach too far offshore. The landings also needed to be in a place where the Germans were not well dug-in, and had comparatively few troops in the vicinity. If it was too close to Germany, the landing ships would be more easily attacked by the Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine.\n\nThe Pas de Calais was the obvious area for a landing. It had good ports, at Calais, Dunkirk and Boulogne. It was very close to the UK, close enough that heavy guns from Dover could fire upon it. It was the closest bit of the French coast to Germany. It had good beaches, as shown by the Allied evacuation from the beaches of Dunkirk in 1940. However, all of these qualities were equally obvious to the Germans. The Atlantic Wall was at its thickest in the area around Calais. It had the heaviest coastal batteries on the French coast, the most bunkers, the thickest minefields. The largest concentration of German troops in France lay behind the beaches of the Pas de Calais. All this made a landing there too risky.\n\nLandings further down the French coast, between Dieppe and Le Havre, might have been possible. However, as the 1942 raid on Dieppe showed, the beaches in this region were not good for landings. Many of the beaches were shingle, making them unsuitable for landings with tanks. The coastline was lined with cliffs, making getting off the beaches very difficult. There were also worries that the 1942 raid had alerted the Germans to the possibility of a landing in this area, causing them to strengthen their defences.\n\nGoing much further west, to Brittany, was considered. Brittany had good beaches, and excellent ports, at Brest and Lorient. Taking these would also help reduce the threat posed by German U-boats to the Atlantic convoy routes, as these ports were key U-boat bases. It was relatively undefended. However, it was considered to be too far from the UK. Air support could not be effectively guaranteed, and the shipping requirements for the desired force would be be too large for the Allies to supply. Brittany was also too far from Germany - the Allies would have had to fight all the way across France to reach it, greatly stretching their supply lines.\n\nLanding in Belgium or Holland was also a possibility. The same caveats applied to landings in the west of Belgium as applied to the Pas de Calais. However, landing in eastern Belgium or southern Holland would have advantages. The area had major ports in Rotterdam, and especially Antwerp. It was close enough to the UK, especially for shipping, and less well defended than the areas around Calais. It was also close to Germany. However, good beaches were hard to find, thanks to the estuaries of the Meuse, Rhine and Scheldt filling the area with mud and silt. Landing here might require a number of sequential landings on different islands in the estuaries, further complicating operations. Landing in northern Holland, Germany or Denmark was not ideal, as to do so would be fighting too far from the Allied bases in the UK, and too close to German air and naval bases. \n\nAs such, landing in Normandy was the best possible option. Ports were available, at Caen and Cherbourg. There were good landing beaches across the area. It was within fighter range of the UK, and close enough that ships wouldn't take too long in transit. It was better defended than say, Brittany, but not as well defended as the Calais region. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "103948",
"title": "Sword Beach",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1297,
"text": "Having succeeded in opening up an offensive front in southern Europe, gaining valuable experience in amphibious assaults and inland fighting, Allied planners returned to the plans to invade Northern France. Now scheduled for 5 June 1944, the beaches of Normandy were selected as landing sites, with a zone of operations extending from the Cotentin Peninsula to Caen. Operation Overlord called for the British Second Army to assault between the River Orne and Port en Bessin, capture the German-occupied city of Caen and form a front line from Caumont-l'Éventé to the south-east of Caen, in order to acquire airfields and protect the left flank of the United States First Army while it captured Cherbourg. Possession of Caen and its surroundings would give Second Army a suitable staging area for a push south to capture the city of Falaise, which could then be used as a pivot for an advance on Argentan, the Touques River and then towards the Seine River. Overlord would constitute the largest amphibious operation in military history. After delays, due to both logistical difficulties and poor weather, the D-Day of Overlord was moved to 6 June 1944. Eisenhower and Bernard Montgomery, commander of 21st Army Group, aimed to capture Caen within the first day, and liberate Paris within 90 days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56060616",
"title": "British logistics in the Normandy Campaign",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1044,
"text": "British logistics in the Normandy Campaign played a key role in the success of Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of France in June 1944. The objective of the campaign was to secure a lodgement on the mainland of Europe for further operations. The Allies had to land sufficient forces to overcome the initial opposition and build it up faster than the Germans could respond. Planning for this operation had begun in 1942. The Anglo-Canadian force, the 21st Army Group, consisted of the British Second Army and Canadian First Army. Between them they had six armoured divisions (including the Polish 1st Armoured Division), ten infantry divisions, two airborne divisions, nine independent armoured brigades and two commando brigades. Logistical units included six supply unit headquarters, 25 Base Supply Depots (BSDs), 83 Detail Issue Depots (DIDs), 25 field bakeries, 14 field butcheries and 18 port detachments. The army group was supported over the beaches and through the Mulberry artificial port specially constructed for the purpose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6723726",
"title": "Operation Overlord",
"section": "Section::::Campaign close.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 1148,
"text": "Victory in Normandy stemmed from several factors. German preparations along the Atlantic Wall were only partially finished; shortly before D-Day Rommel reported that construction was only 18 per cent complete in some areas as resources were diverted elsewhere. The deceptions undertaken in Operation Fortitude were successful, leaving the Germans obliged to defend a huge stretch of coastline. The Allies achieved and maintained air superiority, which meant that the Germans were unable to make observations of the preparations underway in Britain and were unable to interfere via bomber attacks. Transport infrastructure in France was severely disrupted by Allied bombers and the French Resistance, making it difficult for the Germans to bring up reinforcements and supplies. Much of the opening artillery barrage was off-target or not concentrated enough to have any impact, but the specialised armour worked well except on Omaha, providing close artillery support for the troops as they disembarked onto the beaches. The indecisiveness and overly complicated command structure of the German high command was also a factor in the Allied success.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "483468",
"title": "Operation Cobra",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Following the successful Allied invasion of Normandy on 6 June 1944, progress inland was slow. To facilitate the Allied build-up in France and to secure room for further expansion, the deep water port of Cherbourg on the western flank of the American sector and the historic town of Caen in the British and Canadian sector to the east, were early objectives. The original plan for the Normandy campaign envisioned strong offensive efforts in both sectors, in which the Second Army (Lieutenant-General Sir Miles Dempsey) would secure Caen and the area south of it and the First US Army (Lieutenant General Omar Bradley) would \"wheel round\" to the Loire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11471923",
"title": "1st Airborne Task Force (Allied)",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "In the initial plans for the invasion of France it was proposed that two forces would land simultaneously in Normandy and in southern France in June 1944, attacking the Germans from the north and south in a classic pincer movement, after which the southern forces would head east to aid Allied forces in Italy. However it was soon realized that there were not enough landing ships or men available to carry out both operations at the same time, so the southern invasion (\"Operation Anvil\") was postponed. The southern invasion (now \"Operation Dragoon\") was planned for August 1944, and all airborne forces were allocated to a new unit formed on 11 July 1944 as the Seventh Army Airborne Division (Provisional). This was redesignated the 1st Airborne Task Force on the 21st.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4177379",
"title": "Dutch resistance",
"section": "Section::::After Normandy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "Following the Normandy invasion in June 1944, the Dutch civilian population was put under increasing pressure by Allied infiltration and the need for intelligence regarding the German military defensive buildup, the instability of German positions and active fighting. Portions of the country were liberated as part of the Allied Drive to the Siegfried Line. The unsuccessful Allied airborne Operation \"Market Garden\" liberated Eindhoven and Nijmegen, but the attempt to secure bridges and transport lines around Arnhem in mid-September failed, partly because British forces disregarded intelligence offered by the Dutch resistance toward German strength and position of enemy forces. The Battle of the Scheldt, aimed at opening the Belgian port of Antwerp, liberated the south-west Netherlands the following month.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252162",
"title": "Operation Bodyguard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "German coastal defences were stretched thin in 1944, as they prepared to defend all of the coast of north-west Europe. The Allies had already employed deception operations against the Germans, aided by the capture of all of the German agents in the United Kingdom and the systematic decryption of German Enigma communications. Once Normandy had been chosen as the site of the invasion, it was decided to attempt to deceive the Germans into thinking it was a diversion and that the true invasion was to be elsewhere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
l4s0b
|
How would I go about testing and documenting a theory/hypothosis without being a scientist?
|
[
{
"answer": "One option is to contact a research centre at a local university/hospital/etc that performs research in the particular field, and attempt to get them on board. Unless it is blindingly obvious that your study would be beneficial, you will want to be extremely well prepared to have any chance of convincing them. Visit libraries/universities and do a thorough literature review so you have the necessary background knowledge to discuss the study at the level that will be expected from the researchers.\n\nResearch centres are approached often by non-academics with ideas, so you need to be thoroughly prepared, well-versed in the topic, and convincing to separate your proposal from the \"chaff\". Be polite if they reject your proposal. Most research fields are small communities and you don't want to develop a reputation that may hinder your chances of collaboration in the future.\n\nUnderstand that even a feasible study with little possibility of generating revenue via grants, etc or much recognition in the field is likely to be rejected. Resources are limited, and ultimately the centres have to channel their available resources into studies that keep the doors open.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One option is to contact a research centre at a local university/hospital/etc that performs research in the particular field, and attempt to get them on board. Unless it is blindingly obvious that your study would be beneficial, you will want to be extremely well prepared to have any chance of convincing them. Visit libraries/universities and do a thorough literature review so you have the necessary background knowledge to discuss the study at the level that will be expected from the researchers.\n\nResearch centres are approached often by non-academics with ideas, so you need to be thoroughly prepared, well-versed in the topic, and convincing to separate your proposal from the \"chaff\". Be polite if they reject your proposal. Most research fields are small communities and you don't want to develop a reputation that may hinder your chances of collaboration in the future.\n\nUnderstand that even a feasible study with little possibility of generating revenue via grants, etc or much recognition in the field is likely to be rejected. Resources are limited, and ultimately the centres have to channel their available resources into studies that keep the doors open.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "386398",
"title": "Hypothetico-deductive model",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "The hypothetico-deductive model or method is a proposed description of scientific method. According to it, scientific inquiry proceeds by formulating a hypothesis in a form that can be falsifiable, using a test on observable data where the outcome is not yet known. A test outcome that could have and does run contrary to predictions of the hypothesis is taken as a falsification of the hypothesis. A test outcome that could have, but does not run contrary to the hypothesis corroborates the theory. It is then proposed to compare the explanatory value of competing hypotheses by testing how stringently they are corroborated by their predictions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "242901",
"title": "Schizoaffective disorder",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "An initial assessment includes a comprehensive history and physical examination. Although no biological laboratory tests exist which confirm schizoaffective disorder, biological tests should be performed to exclude psychosis associated with or caused by substance use, medications, toxins or poisons, surgical complications, or other medical illnesses. Since non-medical mental health practitioners are not trained to exclude medical causes of psychosis, people experiencing psychosis should be referred to an emergency department or hospital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26833",
"title": "Scientific method",
"section": "Section::::Scientific inquiry.:Beliefs and biases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Scientific methodology often directs that hypotheses be tested in controlled conditions wherever possible. This is frequently possible in certain areas, such as in the biological sciences, and more difficult in other areas, such as in astronomy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23848777",
"title": "Working hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Application.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "These projects are a type of case study and use multiple methods of evidence collection. The working hypotheses are used as a device to direct evidence collection. As a result, working hypotheses are generally organized using sub-hypotheses, which specify in more detail the kinds of data or evidence needed to support the hypothesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155779",
"title": "Suggestibility",
"section": "Section::::Hypnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Existing research into the phenomena of hypnosis is extensive and randomised controlled trials predominantly support the efficacy and legitimacy of hypnotherapy, but without a clearly defined concept of the entity or aspect being studied, the level an individual is objectively \"suggestible\" cannot be measured empirically. It makes exact therapeutic outcomes impossible to forecast.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26833",
"title": "Scientific method",
"section": "Section::::Models of scientific inquiry.:Hypothetico-deductive model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "The hypothetico-deductive model or method is a proposed description of scientific method. Here, predictions from the hypothesis are central: if you assume the hypothesis to be true, what consequences follow?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "677721",
"title": "Hypothecation",
"section": "Section::::In the financial industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "The most common form of hypothecation is a repo transaction: the creditor gives a loan to the debtor and receives in return the possession (not the ownership) of a financial asset until the maturity of the loan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
w9xmf
|
Is there a material so dense that smells can't get through?
|
[
{
"answer": "That's not a hard requirement. Depending on the size of the molecule just a thin sheet of plastic wrap could stop smells. The steel of a gas bottle certainly stops the diffusion of gas.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not really answering any of your questions, but acetylene isn't poisonous at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The process by which a molecule such as those that cause odor can make it's way through another material is called diffusion. The rate at which diffusion occurs is dependent on concentration gradient and a value called the diffusion coefficient. The diffusion coefficient can be affected by a TON of different factors and so is (as far as I know) always determined experimentally rather than by calculation. What you are asking, essentially, is: can there be a diffusion coefficient of zero? In other words no mater how steep the concentration gradient or how much time passes no amount of molecules will pass through the material in question.\n\nThis seems like a tall order to demonstrate and it is. Experimentally demonstrating a diffusion coefficient of exactly 0 is impossible since it would require an experiment that lasts for an infinite amount of time. However, I can tell you that the diffusion of organic molecules (such as those that odors are usually composed of) is nearly impossible through materials with metallic, ionic, and covalent network bonding types. So, while the diffusion coefficient cannot be proved to be 0, it is definitely close enough to 0 that your nose wouldn't be able to detect it on the other side. \n\nTL;DR Yes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35205408",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of ceramic objects",
"section": "Section::::Preventive care of ceramics.:Storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Some storing materials can be harmful to ceramic objects. Wool felt attracts and harbors insects including moths and silverfish which can be potentially very harmful to other collection material types. Polyurethane foam deteriorates over time which leaves a by-product that are sticky and acidic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18995926",
"title": "Lifting gas",
"section": "Section::::High-altitude ballooning.:Solids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "In 2012, discovery of aerographite was announced, breaking the record for the least dense material at only 0.2 mg/cm (0.2 kg/m). These solids do not float in air because the hollow spaces in them become filled with air. No lighter-than-air matrix or shell containing a hard vacuum has ever been constructed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1542741",
"title": "Bulk material handling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Major characteristics of bulk materials, so far as their handling is concerned, are: lump size, bulk weight (density), moisture content, flowability (particle mobility), angle of repose, abrasiveness and corrosivity, among others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32130816",
"title": "Hybrid material",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.:Hybrid materials in nature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Many natural materials consist of inorganic and organic building blocks distributed on the nanoscale. In most cases the inorganic part provides mechanical strength and an overall structure to the natural objects while the organic part delivers bonding between the inorganic building blocks and/or the soft tissue. Typical examples of such materials are bone, or nacre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "696449",
"title": "Granular material",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "In some sense, granular materials do not constitute a single phase of matter but have characteristics reminiscent of solids, liquids, or gases depending on the average energy per grain. However, in each of these states granular materials also exhibit properties which are unique.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56106",
"title": "Wildfire",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "Particulate matter (PM) is a type of air pollution made up of particles of dust and liquid droplets. They are characterized into three categories based on the diameter of the particle: coarse PM, fine PM, and ultrafine PM. Coarse particles are between 2.5 micrometers and 10 micrometers, fine particles measure 0.1 to 2.5 micrometers, and ultrafine particle are less than 0.1 micrometer. Each size can enter the body through inhalation, but the PM impact on the body varies by size. Coarse particles are filtered by the upper airways and these particles can accumulate and cause pulmonary inflammation. This can result in eye and sinus irritation as well as sore throat and coughing. Coarse PM is often composed of materials that are heavier and more toxic that lead to short-term effects with stronger impact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1680877",
"title": "Air filter",
"section": "Section::::Bulk solids handling filters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 904,
"text": "Bulk solids handling involves the transport of solids (mechanical transport, pneumatic transport) which may be in a powder form. Many industries are handling bulk solids (mining industries, chemical industries, food industries) which requires the treatment of air streams escaping the process so that fine particles are not emitted, for regulatory reasons or economical reasons (loss of materials). As a consequence, air filters are positioned at many places in the process, especially at the reception of pneumatic conveying lines where the quantity of air is important and the load in fine particle quite important. Filters can also be placed at any point of air exchange in the process to avoid that pollutants enter the process, which is particularly true in pharmaceuticals and food industries. The physical phenomena involved in catching particles with a filter are mainly inertial and diffusional\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fjjk1l
|
Did the confederacy during the civil war ever make any music? Like a confederate "Hail to the chief"?
|
[
{
"answer": "[This older answer of mine](_URL_0_) focuses on one of the most popular songs of the Confederacy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1328293",
"title": "Kathleen Mavourneen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1109,
"text": "The song plays a prominent role in Michael Shaara's American Civil War historical novel \"The Killer Angels\" and its film adaptation \"Gettysburg\". Confederate Brigadier General Lewis A. Armistead recalls a dinner at the marital home of his best friend—the now-Union Major General Winfield Scott Hancock—at the U.S. Army garrison in Los Angeles, California in 1861, (at which time Armistead was a major and Hancock a captain) and that the song was sung there that night. This was the night before Armistead and several other Southern officers were to depart for the Confederacy, having resigned their US Army commissions. Armistead and Confederate Brigadier General Richard B. Garnett—who was also present at the dinner—go on to be killed and Hancock to be severely wounded as Armistead's and Garnett's brigades assault the position defended by Hancock's II Corps on Cemetery Ridge in Gettysburg during Pickett's Charge. During \"Gettysburg\", \"Kathleen Mavourneen\" is sung once by an Irish tenor at the Confederate camp and thereafter is used frequently as a theme in Randy Edelman's musical score for the film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "362534",
"title": "Bonnie Dundee",
"section": "Section::::American Civil War.:Riding a Raid (Traditional).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "During the American Civil War traditional English, Irish, and Scottish songs were often sung or modified. The Confederates did this very often. The song \"Riding a Raid\" takes place during the 1862 Antietam Campaign. J.E.B. Stuart's Confederate cavalry set off on a screening movement on the flank of Robert E. Lee's army in order to give Lee time to prepare his army to meet the Union Army after Northern general George B. McClellan had gained information on Lee's location and plans. The Campaign would culminate in the battle of Antietam, or Sharpsburg as the Confederates called it. This would be the bloodiest day in American history and while the battle was indecisive, Lee was forced to abandon any hope of continuing the campaign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19771489",
"title": "Music of the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::On the battlefield.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "Whole songs were sometimes played during battles. The survivors of the disastrous Pickett's Charge returned under the tune \"Nearer My God to Thee\". At the Battle of Five Forks, Union musicians under orders from Sheridan played Stephen Foster's minstrel song \"Nelly Bly\" while being shot at on the front lines. Samuel P. Heintzelman, the commander of the III Corps, saw many of his musicians standing at the back lines at the Battle of Williamsburg, and ordered them to play anything. Their music rallied the Union forces, forcing the Confederate to withdraw. It was said that music was the equivalent of \"a thousand men\" on one's side. Robert E. Lee himself said, \"I don't think we could have an army without music.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2660635",
"title": "Dixie (song)",
"section": "Section::::Lyrics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Both Union and Confederate composers produced war versions of the song during the American Civil War. These variants standardized the spelling and made the song more militant, replacing the slave scenario with specific references to the conflict or to Northern or Southern pride. This Confederate verse by Albert Pike is representative:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2287313",
"title": "The Yellow Rose of Texas (song)",
"section": "Section::::Other versions.:Civil War song.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "This song became popular among Confederate soldiers in the Texas Brigade during the American Civil War; upon taking command of the Army of Tennessee in July 1864, General John Bell Hood introduced it as a marching song. The final verse and chorus were slightly altered by the remains of Hood's force after their crushing defeat at the Battle of Nashville that December:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56840834",
"title": "I'm a Good Ol' Rebel",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "After the Confederacy's loss to the U.S. in the American Civil War, \"I'm a Good Ol' Rebel\" was created as a poem by former Confederate major James Innes Randolph in the 1860s. Its music was based upon the Minstrel song \"Joe Bowers\". It is not known who initially created the music, with a claim in 1864 attributing it to \"J.R.T.\" and an 1866 sheet music copy ironically dedicating it to Thad Stevens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55409696",
"title": "Repasz Band",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "In April 1865 in the waning days of the Civil War with the news of a possible Confederacy surrender, the Repasz Band was invited to play at the event. On April 9, 1865 the band played at General Robert E. Lee’s surrender at Appomattox Courthouse. The band also played at the dedication of President Ulysses S. Grant’s Tomb in 1897 along with multiple presidential inauguration parades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1oyz1z
|
Why do people use "old timey voice" when mimicking historical people from the past 150 years?
|
[
{
"answer": "Public speakers, leaders, and entertainers in the 19th century were almost always trained in elocution. It was an important part of education - search for elocution in this 1857 [McGuffey's Reader](_URL_0_) for an example, and in passing to marvel at what was expected of 19th century schoolchildren.\n\nSpeakers were expected to understand their voice and to speak in a clear, well-modulated voice with varying pitch and cadence. Not everyone got a good education in those days, but anyone who held elected office or made their living as an entertainer in those days had to be an accomplished speaker, physically and mentally capable of talking at length and being heard.\n\nFor many Americans, however, their greatest exposure to public speaking came at sporting events, where announcers shouted through megaphones to be heard over the crowd. The excitement and physical tension in their voices translated to a higher pitch, megaphones reproduce higher voices more easily, and higher voices could be heard more easily over the crowd. \n\nIn the late 19th century, the gramophone was introduced. Like the megaphone, it had a hard time reproducing bass sounds, so any sounds from the gramophone came out high and tinny. Early radios also had a problem reproducing bass. Early talkie film technology raised the voice an octave, rendering a generation of silent film stars instantly ridiculous. \n\nSo there are a number of factors. Artifacts from the era of early recording technologies don't faithfully record the human voice. As time went on, a number of Americans adopted the tinny quality of recorded voices. For millions of people, listening to records and sports announcers were their elocution lessons. A high, nasal voice became a signifier in its own right, a humorous acknowledgement that the speaker was playing to a crowd. It was cutting-edge stuff in the age of ragtime, snappy and a little dangerous, but it was winking parody by the time of Bugs Bunny's introduction a decade or two later. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46663",
"title": "Bookends (album)",
"section": "Section::::Composition.:Music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "\"Voices of Old People\" is a sound collage, and was recorded on tape by Garfunkel at the United Home for Aged Hebrews and the California Home for the Aged at Reseda. The collection of audio recordings of the elderly find them musing on treasured photographs, illness and living conditions. In \"Old Friends\", the title generally conveys the introduction or ending of sections through repetition, and the song builds upon a \"rather loose formal structure\" that at first includes an acoustic guitar and soft mood. An additional element is introduced midway through the track: an orchestral arrangement conducted by Jimmie Haskell, dominated by strings and xylophone notes. Horns and other instruments are added when the duo cease singing, creating a turbulence that builds to a single high, sustained note on the strings. The song then segues into the final song of side one, the reprise of the \"Bookends Theme\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "883786",
"title": "The Dark Is Rising Sequence",
"section": "Section::::Miscellaneous.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Old Speech: This is the spoken form of the ancient language of the Old Ones. When an Old One comes to power, this language is used instinctively by the Old One when speaking to members of the Light or the Dark. Will Stanton begins to do this without even realizing it. When an Old One speaks the Old Speech in front of a normal human, it will sound like gibberish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16328675",
"title": "Fading Voices",
"section": "Section::::Themes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "\"Fading Voices\" thus combines two of Prus' interests during this period: the common people, and the legacy of the Romantic past—the past out of which Prus had himself grown, as a teenaged participant in the 1863–65 Uprising.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36375205",
"title": "Voice of Ages",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Voice of Ages is a 2012 album by The Chieftains. It is a collaboration between the Irish band and many top musicians. On \"Voice of Ages\", The Chieftains team up with a number of musical stars from the worlds of indie-rock (Bon Iver, The Decemberists, The Low Anthem), country and Americana (The Civil Wars, Pistol Annies, Carolina Chocolate Drops, Punch Brothers), Irish folk (Imelda May, Lisa Hannigan) and Scottish folk (Paolo Nutini).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "248602",
"title": "Voice acting in Japan",
"section": "Section::::Actors and seiyū.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "It was only after the voice acting booms, however, that the word became widespread. Elderly voice actors resent being called \"seiyū\" because during their time, the term had a different (and minimizing) connotation. Chikao Ohtsuka, who dubbed Charles Bronson, was quoted in a special issue of \"Animage\" as saying, \"We are actors. Even if a performance only requires the use of our voice, we still remain actors, and it is therefore incorrect to refer to us as just voice actors, isn't and voice actors, even in the face of emerging voice actors like Genzō Wakayama, who learned how to act using their voice and never set foot in a theater.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1067396",
"title": "Hearing Voices Movement",
"section": "Section::::Alternative to medical model of disability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "In \"Voices of Reason, Voices of Insanity\", Leudar and Thomas review nearly 3,000 years of voice-hearing history. They argue that the Western World has moved the experience of hearing voices from a socially valued context to a pathologised and denigrated one. Foucault has argued that this process can generally arise when a minority perspective is at odds with dominant social norms and beliefs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10565343",
"title": "Old Folks Concerts",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "The Old Folks Concerts were an exercise in nostalgia. In addition to singing the old tunes, nostalgia was enhanced by the appearance of the singers in period costumes and advertisements written in the style of early American typography]. In addition to professional troupes, Old Folks Concerts were often arranged by amateur groups for fund-raising. For example, in 1872, the Diocese of Missouri's annual convention notes that \"by the generous efforts of some warm hearted friends [such as] those antiquated ladies, who, in spite of the infirmities of age, came forth and at our request to assist us with an Old Folks' Concert, we have been enabled recently to reduce the accumulated debt under which [the diocesean-supported St. Luke's] Hospital has been struggling.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2f7xvy
|
stud finders / stud sensors
|
[
{
"answer": "They are mini metal detectors. They don't have a long range and are usually fairly accurate unless the stud is buried deep or there's some other piece of metal that distracts it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are two types, one senses metal, the other senses density. _URL_0_\n\nNether one works well on lath and plaster, but both can work well with drywall. In many cases it helps to try and find both sides of a stud, and to check above or below if you have trouble getting a reading where you are.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5303072",
"title": "Stud finder",
"section": "Section::::Electronic stud finders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Electronic stud finders rely on sensors that detect changes in the dielectric constant of the wall. The dielectric constant changes when the sensor is over a stud. The lower reading indicates the presence of a stud in the wall. Internal capacitor stud finders can also come with other features that locate metal and live AC voltage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5303072",
"title": "Stud finder",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Stud finders have been in use since the early 20th century, and the first ones were all magnetic, relying on internal magnets to detect the walling fasteners or nails presumably attached to studs. In 1977, Robert Franklin designed an electronic stud finder that relied on an internal capacitor to measure changes in density behind the walling. His patent was put into production by the Zircon Corporation, which became the sole producer of electronic stud finders until the patent expired in 1998. While novel, these electronic stud finders did not always prove effective in locating studs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5303072",
"title": "Stud finder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "A stud finder (also stud detector or stud sensor) is a handheld device used with wood buildings to locate framing studs located behind the final walling surface, usually drywall. While there are many different stud finders available, most fall into two main categories: magnetic stud detectors and electric stud finders. There are also some devices employing radar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50018370",
"title": "Cross-device tracking",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "More specifically, cross-device tracking is a technique in which technology companies and advertisers deploy trackers, often in the form of unique identifiers, cookies, or even ultrasonic signals, to generate a profile of users across multiple devices, not simply one. For example, one such form of this tracking uses audio beacons, or inaudible sounds, emitted by one device and recognized through the microphone of the other device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5303072",
"title": "Stud finder",
"section": "Section::::Electronic stud finders.:Edge finders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "Edge finders are the most basic internal capacitor detectors. Edge finders detect the edges of the stud or other material behind the walling. This finder must first be calibrated over an empty section of the wall, and then it can be moved along the wall until it senses a change in density - such as the edge of a stud. Edge finders should be moved from both directions to find both edges of the stud. The single sensor in edge finders can be prone to error, sometimes indicating a spot an inch or more from the stud’s edge. Once both edges have been marked, the user must determine the location of the stud’s center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5303072",
"title": "Stud finder",
"section": "Section::::Electronic stud finders.:Instant stud finders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Instant stud finders are a more recent development. Instant stud finders have multiple sensor plates, and do not need to be moved across the wall to detect a stud, overcoming the effects of bumpy wall texture. They use an algorithm to analyze the readings from the multiple sensor plates for a quicker, more accurate indication. Instant stud finders sense multiple regions of a wall simultaneously including the center of a stud, edges of the stud, and regions without studs. Instant stud finders will indicate varied widths of studs and the location of multiple studs at the same time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37553163",
"title": "Leddar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "LEDDAR (Light-Emitting Diode Detection And Ranging) is a proprietary technology owned by LeddarTech. It uses the time of flight of light signals and signal processing algorithms to detect, locate, and measure objects in its field of view. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4fmsf6
|
How do they polarize glass?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are many different ways, one is simply placing a PVA (poly vinyl acetate) foil on the glass. This material approximately has the consistency and thickness of plastic wrap. The manufacturing process begins by heating and stretching PVA to five times its natural length, making it even thinner. This lengthens PVA's long chain molecules, causing them to align. The stretched PVA is then dipped in iodine solution. The iodine is absorbed into the molecular chains forming long grids of parallel, darkened lines that are not visible to the human eye. The film is then dyed to the color of the desired finished film. The darker the film, the more polarization it provides. In the last step, the film will be applied on the glass.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2722105",
"title": "Polarizer",
"section": "Section::::Circular polarizers.:Absorbing and passing circularly polarized light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Circular polarizers can also be used to selectively absorb or pass right-handed or left-handed circularly polarized light. It is this feature which is utilized by the 3D glasses in stereoscopic cinemas such as RealD Cinema. A given polarizer which creates one of the two polarizations of light will pass that same polarization of light when that light is sent through it in the other direction. In contrast it will block light of the opposite polarization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159069",
"title": "Polaroid (polarizer)",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Polarizing sheets are used in liquid-crystal displays, optical microscopes and sunglasses. Since Polaroid sheet is dichroic, it will absorb impinging light of one plane of polarization, so sunglasses will reduce the partially polarized light reflected from level surfaces such as windows and sheets of water, for example. They are also used to examine for chain orientation in transparent plastic products made from polystyrene or polycarbonate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3248054",
"title": "Polarizing filter (photography)",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Polarizing filters can be rotated to maximise or minimise admission of polarised light. They are mounted in a rotating collar for this purpose; one need not screw or unscrew the filter to adjust the effect. Rotating the polarizing filter will make rainbows, reflections, and other polarized light stand out or nearly disappear depending on how much of the light is polarized and the angle of polarization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "741823",
"title": "Optical filter",
"section": "Section::::Polarizer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 868,
"text": "Another kind of optical filter is a polarizer or polarization filter, which blocks or transmits light according to its polarization. They are often made of materials such as Polaroid and are used for sunglasses and photography. Reflections, especially from water and wet road surfaces, are partially polarized, and polarized sunglasses will block some of this reflected light, allowing an angler to better view below the surface of the water and better vision for a driver. Light from a clear blue sky is also polarized, and adjustable filters are used in colour photography to darken the appearance of the sky without introducing colours to other objects, and in both colour and black-and-white photography to control specular reflections from objects and water. Much older than g.m.r.f (just above) these first (and some still) use fine mesh integrated in the lens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2722105",
"title": "Polarizer",
"section": "Section::::Linear polarizers.:Beam-splitting polarizers.:Polarization by Fresnel reflection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "A simple linear polarizer can be made by tilting a stack of glass plates at Brewster's angle to the beam. Some of the \"s\"-polarized light is reflected from each surface of each plate. For a stack of plates, each reflection depletes the incident beam of \"s\"-polarized light, leaving a greater fraction of \"p\"-polarized light in the transmitted beam at each stage. For visible light in air and typical glass, Brewster's angle is about 57°, and about 16% of the \"s\"-polarized light present in the beam is reflected for each air-to-glass or glass-to-air transition. It takes many plates to achieve even mediocre polarization of the transmitted beam with this approach. For a stack of 10 plates (20 reflections), about 3% (= (1-0.16)) of the \"s\"-polarized light is transmitted. The reflected beam, while fully polarized, is spread out and may not be very useful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "75109",
"title": "Jean-Baptiste Biot",
"section": "Section::::Work.:Polarized light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Biot's work on the polarization of light has led to many breakthroughs in the field of optics. Liquid crystal displays (LCDs), such as television and computer screens, use light that is polarized by a filter as it enters the liquid crystal, to allow the liquid crystal to modulate the intensity of the transmitted light. This happens as the liquid crystal's polarisation varies in response to an electric control signal applied across it. Polarizing filters are used extensively in photography to cut out unwanted reflections or to enhance reflection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3248054",
"title": "Polarizing filter (photography)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1004,
"text": "A polarizing filter or polarising filter (see spelling differences) is often placed in front of the camera lens in photography in order to darken skies, manage reflections, or suppress glare from the surface of lakes or the sea. Since reflections (and sky-light) tend to be at least partially linearly-polarized, a linear polarizer can be used to change the balance of the light in the photograph. The rotational orientation of the filter is adjusted for the preferred artistic effect. For modern cameras, a circular polarizer (product labeling abbreviation: CPL) is typically used; this comprises firstly a linear polarizer which performs the artistic function just described, followed by a quarter-wave plate which further transforms the now-linearly polarized light into circularly-polarised light before entering the camera. This additional step avoids problems with auto-focus and light-metering sensors within some cameras, which otherwise may not function reliably with a simple linear polariser.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
11qpz3
|
Are taste buds (human and animal) programmed from birth to 'like' or 'dislike' certain flavours?
|
[
{
"answer": "Can't answer your question entirely, but the sense of smell comes from chemical receptors, which are genetically programmed. However, it's a receptor, and it doesn't indicate that you like or hate something, necessarily. For instance, Durian fruit: Most people who've grown up without tasting it find it to be one of the most foul tastes and smells around... while people who grow up with it tend to be more receptive to it.\n\nWhat you're seeing is the Nature vs. Nurture conflict: we're born with certain traits, but how we use those traits to interact with our environment isn't fixed from birth.\n\nFor the record, the type and number of receptors for taste/smell that we have is refined by the environment that our ancestors came from: Cats are VERY sensitive to nitrates and other meaty smells, for instance. Whales and other marine mammals still have the \"air based\" receptors that their more cow-like ancestors had - but most of them have been deactivated. Not surprisingly, you wouldn't use a whale to sniff out drugs, the same way you might with a dog - for many reasons, including the uselessness of the air-based smell receptors in a generally watery environment. \n\nCheers!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8582684",
"title": "Reward system",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.:Animals vs. humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1644,
"text": "Kent Berridge, a researcher in affective neuroscience, found that sweet (\"liked\" ) and bitter (\"disliked\" ) tastes produced distinct orofacial expressions, and these expressions were similarly displayed by human newborns, orangutans, and rats. This was evidence that pleasure (specifically, \"liking\") has objective features and was essentially the same across various animal species. Most neuroscience studies have shown that the more dopamine released by the reward, the more effective the reward is. This is called the hedonic impact, which can be changed by the effort for the reward and the reward itself. Berridge discovered that blocking dopamine systems did not seem to change the positive reaction to something sweet (as measured by facial expression). In other words, the hedonic impact did not change based on the amount of sugar. This discounted the conventional assumption that dopamine mediates pleasure. Even with more-intense dopamine alterations, the data seemed to remain constant. However, a clinical study from January 2019 that assessed the effect of a dopamine precursor (levodopa), antagonist (risperidone), and a placebo on reward responses to music – including the degree of pleasure experienced during musical chills, as measured by changes in electrodermal activity as well as subjective ratings – found that the manipulation of dopamine neurotransmission bidirectionally regulates pleasure cognition (specifically, the hedonic impact of music) in human subjects. This research suggests that increased dopamine neurotransmission acts as a \"sine qua non\" condition for pleasurable hedonic reactions to music in humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12465661",
"title": "Acquired taste",
"section": "Section::::Acquiring the taste.:General acquisition of tastes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "The process of acquiring a taste can involve developmental maturation, genetics (of both taste sensitivity and personality), family example, and biochemical reward properties of foods. Infants are born preferring sweet foods and rejecting sour and bitter tastes, and they develop a preference for salt at approximately 4 months. Neophobia (fear of novelty) tends to vary with age in predictable, but not linear, ways. Babies just beginning to eat solid foods generally accept a wide variety of foods, toddlers and young children are relatively neophobic towards food, and older children, adults, and the elderly are often adventurous eaters with wide-ranging tastes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54000061",
"title": "Neurogastronomy",
"section": "Section::::Learned flavor preferences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Learned taste preferences develop as early as in utero, where the fetus is exposed to flavors through amniotic fluid. Early, innate, preferences exhibit tendencies towards calorie and protein dense foods. As children grow older, more factors such as peers, repeated exposures, environments and food availability will modulate taste preferences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2284563",
"title": "Conditioned taste aversion",
"section": "Section::::Notes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Also, taste aversion generally only requires one trial. The experiments of Ivan Pavlov required several pairings of the neutral stimulus (e.g., a ringing bell) with the unconditioned stimulus (i.e., meat powder) before the neutral stimulus elicited a response. With taste aversion, after one association between sickness and a certain food, the food may thereafter elicit the response. In addition, lab experiments generally require very brief (less than a second) intervals between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. With taste aversion, however, the hotdog a person eats at lunch may be associated with the vomiting that person has in the evening.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34731827",
"title": "Episodic-like memory",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Another criticism is that it is possible that in many cases animals are simply exhibiting Garcia-type learning which involves conditioned taste aversion. This type of behavioural response occurs when a subject associates the taste of a food with negative symptoms caused by that food so that they will avoid consuming a possibly toxic substance in the future. This being said, if a scrub jay chooses one food over another preferred food that will eventually spoil this may not be planning for the future, but taste aversion to avoid getting sick from the spoiled food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "618991",
"title": "Phenylthiocarbamide",
"section": "Section::::Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Chimpanzees and orangutans also vary in their ability to taste PTC, with the proportions of tasters and non-tasters similar to that in humans. The ability to taste PTC is an ancestral trait of hominids that has been independently lost in humans and chimpanzees, through distinct mutations at TAS2R38.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31058472",
"title": "Adaptive memory",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary adaptations of memory in non-human species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "Adaptive memory behaviours have been observed in animal species, as well as humans. Dr. John Garcia discovered that taste aversion conditioning in rats results in a lasting association between sickness and an ingested substance, and that aversion can be established after only one trial. This rapid learning led others to the idea that rats have biological dispositions for learning to associate sickness with a taste memory as a result of its evolutionary history. The results of a study that compared rats and quail in the acquisition of taste aversion suggested that rats rely on their memory of taste to avoid nausea while quail relied on their visual memory. Since the rat is a nocturnal feeder and has poor vision, it was suggested that they rely on taste cues to learn to avoid toxic substances, leading to a highly developed chemical sense system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
nwaog
|
wittgenstein
|
[
{
"answer": "I agree with the above post - you'd have to narrow down what you want to know about Wittgenstein. However, you're in luck! As there exists a comic book which explains various bits of Wittgenstein in a very simplified manner which I've copied below. Hooray!\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIt's mainly about Russell, but there's loads of stuff on Wittgenstein, I remember a very interesting section on his picture theory. I think it's mainly earlier Tractatus stuff when he arrived at Cambridge, rather than anything on the later Wittgenstein. Hope that helps.\nEDIT: typo",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I agree with the above post - you'd have to narrow down what you want to know about Wittgenstein. However, you're in luck! As there exists a comic book which explains various bits of Wittgenstein in a very simplified manner which I've copied below. Hooray!\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIt's mainly about Russell, but there's loads of stuff on Wittgenstein, I remember a very interesting section on his picture theory. I think it's mainly earlier Tractatus stuff when he arrived at Cambridge, rather than anything on the later Wittgenstein. Hope that helps.\nEDIT: typo",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53733089",
"title": "The New Wittgenstein",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "The New Wittgenstein (2000) is a book containing a family of interpretations of the work of philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. In particular, those associated with this interpretation, such as Cora Diamond, Alice Crary, and James F. Conant, understand Wittgenstein to have avoided putting forth a \"positive\" metaphysical program, and understand him to be advocating philosophy as a form of \"therapy.\" Under this interpretation, Wittgenstein's program is dominated by the idea that philosophical problems are symptoms of illusions or \"bewitchments by language,\" and that attempts at a \"narrow\" solution to philosophical problems, that do not take into account larger questions of how the questioner conducts his life, interacts with other people, and uses language generally, are doomed to failure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53733089",
"title": "The New Wittgenstein",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1094,
"text": "Wittgenstein's primary aim in philosophy is – to use a word he himself employs in characterizing his later philosophical procedures – a \"therapeutic\" one. These papers have in common an understanding of Wittgenstein as aspiring, not to advance metaphysical theories, but rather to help us work ourselves out of confusions we become entangled in when philosophizing. — Alice Crary, \"Introduction\", \"The New Wittgenstein\", Routledge, 2000, p. 1While many philosophers have suggested variants of such ideas in readings of the work of late Wittgenstein, namely the author of \"Philosophical Investigations\", a notable aspect of the New Wittgenstein interpretation is a view that the work of early Wittgenstein, exemplified by the \"Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus\", and the \"Investigations\", are actually more deeply connected, and in less opposition, to each other than usually understood. This view is in direct conflict with the long-standing, if somewhat old-fashioned, interpretation of the \"Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus\" advocated by the logical positivists associated with the Vienna Circle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11296130",
"title": "Wittgenstein (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Wittgenstein is a 1993 film by the English director Derek Jarman. It is loosely based on the life story as well as the philosophical thinking of the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. The adult Wittgenstein is played by Karl Johnson.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17741",
"title": "Ludwig Wittgenstein",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Interpreters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 158,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 158,
"end_character": 988,
"text": "One significant debate in Wittgenstein scholarship concerns the work of interpreters who are referred to under the banner of The New Wittgenstein school such as Cora Diamond, Alice Crary, and James F. Conant. While the \"Tractatus\", particularly in its conclusion, seems paradoxical and self-undermining, New Wittgenstein scholars advance a \"therapeutic\" understanding of Wittgenstein's work—\"an understanding of Wittgenstein as aspiring, not to advance metaphysical theories, but rather to help us work ourselves out of confusions we become entangled in when philosophizing.\" To support this goal, the New Wittgenstein scholars propose a reading of the \"Tractatus\" as \"plain nonsense\"—arguing it does not attempt to convey a substantive philosophical project but instead simply tries to push the reader to abandon philosophical speculation. The therapeutic approach traces its roots to the philosophical work of John Wisdom and the review of \"The Blue Book\" written by Oets Kolk Bouwsma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55318965",
"title": "Philosophical essays on Freud",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1460,
"text": "The selection from Wittgenstein is reprinted from \"Wittgenstein: Lectures and Conversations\" (1966), edited by Cyril Barrett. It reports on conversations between Wittgenstein and the philosopher Rush Rhees, in which Wittgenstein discussed Freud's theory of dreams, and also includes an excerpt from Wittgenstein's lectures. Glymour's essay, \"Freud, Kepler, and the clinical evidence\", discusses issues involved in testing psychoanalytic theory. He writes that psychoanalysts have opposed evaluating psychoanalysis solely on the basis of statistical hypothesis testing on grounds such as that that the hypotheses tested by experimental psychologists are \"often no more than surrogates for the genuine article, and inferences from the falsity of such ersatz hypotheses to the falsity of psychoanalysis are not legitimate.\" Morton's essay, \"Freudian commonsense\", addresses Freud's influence on popular thinking about the mind and human motivation. Hampshire's essay, \"Disposition and memory\", is a revised version of a paper first published in \"The International Journal of Psychoanalysis\" in 1962. It provides an account of mental dispositions and character traits, in which Hampshire attempts to explain their development, as well as how impulses come to be inhibited. Hampshire describes the essay as having Freud's theory of repression as its starting point, noting that the theory seems to suggest different views of repression and its relation to anxiety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2028431",
"title": "W. W. Bartley III",
"section": "Section::::Author and editor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1086,
"text": "Bartley published a biography of the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, titled simply \"Wittgenstein\", in 1973. The book contained a relatively brief, 4–5 page treatment of Wittgenstein's homosexuality, relying mainly on reportage from the philosopher's friends and acquaintances. This matter caused enormous controversy in intellectual and philosophical circles; many perceived it as a posthumous \"attack\" on Wittgenstein. Some foreign translations of the book, such as the first edition of the Spanish translation, omitted the \"offending\" material. In the second edition of the biography (La Salle, Illinois: Open Court, 1985, pp. 159–97), Bartley answered the objections of critics, pointing out that Wittgenstein's periods of active homosexuality are verified by the philosopher's own private writings, including his coded diaries, and that extensive confirmation was also available from people who knew Wittgenstein in Vienna between the two World Wars, including ex-lovers. Bartley also considered, and rejected, the idea of a connection between the private life and the philosophy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60061794",
"title": "Wittgenstein: Meaning and Judgement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Wittgenstein: Meaning and Judgement a book by British philosopher Michael Luntley, published in 2003 by Blackwell. The book provides a reading of Ludwig Wittgenstein's interpretation of the philosophical concepts of meaning and intentionality. The book received reviews from journals including \"Mind\" and \"Philosophical Investigations\", along with being widely cited in its field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
23rz6r
|
how is it possible that our brain is able to calculate trajectory (e.g. throwing an object at something) so easily (especially if i'm so bad at math)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Thank your binocular vision, try to make the same shot with on eye closed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "what you are doing is what most physicists do when looking into new equations or formulas - \"first approximation\"\n\nyou aren't predicting the trajectory with a high degree of accuracy so the actual path it takes is always \"close enough\" for you to think you are getting it right\n\nbeing good at maths is more about getting it exact, and when not exact, knowing the amount of error, exactly\n\nand your brain has seen solid spherical objects interacting with gravity and air all it's life, the model is fairly simple and uniform - try watching footballs roll around the ground and see how good your guess is to its path :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The ELI5 answer is experience. You've been doing similar things all of your life, gravity hasn't changed and wind/air density doesn't really change that much (and if it does it's difficult to calculate trajectory as easily as you say).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Practice. If I spent as much time on calculus as I did shooting freethrows I might have a job right now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9087",
"title": "Dynamical system",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "For simple dynamical systems, knowing the trajectory is often sufficient, but most dynamical systems are too complicated to be understood in terms of individual trajectories. The difficulties arise because:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7310685",
"title": "Six Thinking Hats",
"section": "Section::::Underlying principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "The premise of the method is that the human brain thinks in a number of distinct ways which can be deliberately challenged, and hence planned for use in a structured way allowing one to develop tactics for thinking about particular issues. De Bono identifies six distinct directions in which the brain can be challenged. In each of these directions the brain will identify and bring into conscious thought certain aspects of issues being considered (e.g. gut instinct, pessimistic judgement, neutral facts). None of these directions is a completely natural way of thinking, but rather how some of us already represent the results of our thinking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6258906",
"title": "Numerical cognition",
"section": "Section::::Relations between number and other cognitive processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1363,
"text": "There is evidence that numerical cognition is intimately related to other aspects of thought – particularly spatial cognition. One line of evidence comes from studies performed on number-form synaesthetes. Such individuals report that numbers are mentally represented with a particular spatial layout; others experience numbers as perceivable objects that can be visually manipulated to facilitate calculation. Behavioral studies further reinforce the connection between numerical and spatial cognition. For instance, participants respond quicker to larger numbers if they are responding on the right side of space, and quicker to smaller numbers when on the left—the so-called \"Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes\" or SNARC effect. This effect varies across culture and context, however, and some research has even begun to question whether the SNARC reflects an inherent number-space association, instead invoking strategic problem solving or a more general cognitive mechanism like conceptual metaphor. Moreover, neuroimaging studies reveal that the association between number and space also shows up in brain activity. Regions of the parietal cortex, for instance, show shared activation for both spatial and numerical processing. These various lines of research suggest a strong, but flexible, connection between numerical and spatial cognition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65913",
"title": "Equations of motion",
"section": "Section::::Dynamic equations of motion.:Newtonian mechanics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "It may be simple to write down the equations of motion in vector form using Newton's laws of motion, but the components may vary in complicated ways with spatial coordinates and time, and solving them is not easy. Often there is an excess of variables to solve for the problem completely, so Newton's laws are not always the most efficient way to determine the motion of a system. In simple cases of rectangular geometry, Newton's laws work fine in Cartesian coordinates, but in other coordinate systems can become dramatically complex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "200115",
"title": "Trajectory",
"section": "Section::::Physics of trajectories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "A familiar example of a trajectory is the path of a projectile, such as a thrown ball or rock. In a significantly simplified model, the object moves only under the influence of a uniform gravitational force field. This can be a good approximation for a rock that is thrown for short distances, for example at the surface of the moon. In this simple approximation, the trajectory takes the shape of a parabola. Generally when determining trajectories, it may be necessary to account for nonuniform gravitational forces and air resistance (drag and aerodynamics). This is the focus of the discipline of ballistics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6060077",
"title": "Flash lag illusion",
"section": "Section::::Motion integration and postdiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1295,
"text": "A recent study tries to reconcile these different approaches by approaching perception as an inference mechanism aiming at describing what is happening at the present time. In particular, it could extend the motion extrapolation hypothesis by weighting this prediction by the precision of the current information. Thus, the corrected position of the moving target is calculated by combining the sensory flux with the internal representation of the trajectory, both of which exist in the form of probability distributions. To manipulate the trajectory is to change the precision and therefore the relative weight of these two information when they are optimally combined in order to know where an object is at the present time. For an object that moves predictably, the neural network can infer its most probable position taking into account this processing time. For the flash, however, this prediction can not be established because its appearance is unpredictable. Thus, while the two targets are aligned on the retina at the time of the flash, the position of the moving object is anticipated by the brain to compensate for the processing time: it is this differentiated treatment that causes the flash-lag effect. Moreover, this could also explain related phenomena such as motion reversal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26117503",
"title": "Permanent brain",
"section": "Section::::Use with chess programs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "Pondering is less effective than normal thinking. For example, if the program guesses 25% of the opponent's moves correctly, the use of pondering is on average equivalent to increasing the normal calculating time by a factor of 1.25.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
he6a7
|
What is required for a car to hydroplane?
|
[
{
"answer": "You can hydroplane on very little water, all you need is enough to coat the surface of the road. \n\nWhat keeps you from hydroplaning is the tread on your tire. At speed the treads act like a high speed pump, channeling water into the tread pattern where it is expelled by the spinning of the tire. As the contact pattern compresses against the water, the water migrates to the channels allowing the contact pattern of the tread to come into contact with the ground. Tires that have no tread such as racing slicks can start hydroplaning as soon as the ground gets wet. This is because as the contact patch compresses against the water, the water has no place to go and consequently the tread loses contact with the ground which is in essence floating on the water.\n\nNow the larger and deeper the puddle, the volume of water overwhelms the tread pattern and water begins to come between the contact patch and the ground. Although the tread pattern is channeling water away, there is too much water and the tire begins to float. \n\nHowever, the exact point at which this happens is a factor of many different things so your best bet is to avoid large puddles, replace worn tires and if you do start hydroplaning do not hit the brakes. At low speeds you may not notice any loss in contact with the ground since you're going slow enough that the car tires \"sink\" through the water bringing the tire into contact with the ground. At higher speeds you require more friction between the tire and the ground to maintain control of the car and even a small loss in friction can send you out of control. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17959049",
"title": "H1 Unlimited",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "A hydroplane (or \"hydro\", or \"thunderboat\") is a very specific type of motorboat used exclusively for racing. One of the unique characteristics about hydroplanes is that they only use the water they're on for propulsion and steering (not for flotation) - when going at full speed they are primarily held aloft by a principle of fluid dynamics known as \"planing\", with only a tiny fraction of their hull actually touching the water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "520490",
"title": "Hydroplane (boat)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "A key aspect of hydroplanes is that they use the water they are on for lift rather than buoyancy, as well as for propulsion and steering: when travelling at high speed water is forced downwards by the bottom of the boat's hull. The water therefore exerts an equal and opposite force upwards, lifting the vast majority of the hull out of the water. This process, happening at the surface of the water, is known as ‘planing’.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9848870",
"title": "Energy efficiency in transport",
"section": "Section::::Water transport means.:Ships.:Sailboats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "A sailboat, much like a solar car, can locomote without consuming any fuel. A sail boat such as a Dinghy using just wind power requires no input energy in terms of fuel. However some manual energy is required by the crew to steer the boat and adjust the sails using lines. In addition energy will be needed for demands other than propulsion, such as cooking, heating or lighting. The fuel efficiency of a single-occupancy boat is highly dependent on the size of its engine, the speed at which it travels, and its displacement. Due to the high viscosity of water, with a single passenger, the equivalent energy efficiency will be lower than in a car, train, or plane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1092360",
"title": "Hydrocopter",
"section": "Section::::Design and manufacturing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Hydrocopters are generally smaller vehicles less than 20 ft long and weigh less than 2000 kg. Hydrocopters are powered by a fixed bladed aircraft propeller, the same as an airboat. Although they have the same propulsion as airboats, they are typically much slower. They typically travel under 12 knots whereas airboats are typically traveling over 40 knots. Hydrocopters use either skis or wheels on their pontoons to be able to travel on ice, snow or land in addition to traveling on water. This allows them to travel over terrain similar to a hovercraft. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "561219",
"title": "Hydroplane racing",
"section": "Section::::Racing circuits.:Unlimited hydroplane racing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1266,
"text": "Although bit of a misnomer as the boats aren't without limits, unlimited hydroplanes have much fewer restrictions than with limited hydroplane racing. These 30 foot, 6,800 lbs boats most often powered by a Lycoming T55-L7 turbine engine (used from the Vietnam era to the present day in the CH-47 Chinook military helicopter), which is capable of up to 3000 horsepower with current restrictions. The T55-L7 powerplant creates high speed rotational energy, which is transferred through a gearbox at around 50% gear reduction to reduce propeller RPM. Unlimited hydroplanes are capable of speeds of 200+ mph on the straightaways and qualifying average lap speeds range from 130–165 mph. Modern hulls are constructed of composite materials such as honeycomb aluminum, fiberglass, laminated resin and carbon fiber. Many of the restored, fully operable unlimited hydroplanes at the Hydroplane & Raceboat Museum in Kent, Washington (such as the Miss Wahoo and Miss Thriftway vintage restorations) still use piston-powered inline aircraft engines. The primary racing circuit for unlimited racing is the H1 Unlimited, whose season runs from mid-February through September, consisting of eight races. H1 Unlimited races occur throughout the United States, and the Middle East.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8588160",
"title": "Lake Cochichewick",
"section": "Section::::Public access restrictions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "Certain watercraft are allowed and must be designed to be manually propelled, by oars or paddles. Rowing shells, johnboats, dinghies, rowboats, canoes and kayaks are acceptable as long as the occupants are isolated from contact with the lake. Boats must not have any thru-holes (e.g. self-bailers) that would allow contact between the occupants and the lake water. Electric motors are acceptable as an alternate form of propulsion. The maximum length of a motorized craft is 15 feet. Inflatable boats, windsurfers and seaplanes are not allowed. No domestic animals are allowed to be in boats, on the ice, or in the water at any time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1092360",
"title": "Hydrocopter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "A hydrocopter is an amphibious propeller-driven catamaran with a boat-like hull, small wheels and pontoon skis (as in a seaplane). An aircraft engine with a propeller and air rudder powers the vehicle over water, ice, snow and land.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
362ylz
|
Silk Road Reading
|
[
{
"answer": "*Travels of Marco Polo,* and for the highly entertaining historical fictional twist, *The Journeyer* by Gary Jennings",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also, *Foreign Devils on the Silk Road* is a really fascinating and engaging look at history of excavation of the Silk Road.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49076100",
"title": "Valerie Hansen",
"section": "Section::::Career and books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 906,
"text": "In 2012, Hansen wrote the book, \"The Silk Road: A New History\", which weighs archeologically excavated documents and artifacts to argue that the Silk Road trade was small-scale and usually involved local goods. The book received positive reviews from critics with Library Journal writing that it is “an impressively well-researched book exploring the documentation of many different cultures and people along the many routes known as the Silk Road.” The New York Journal of Books wrote that “the Silk Road is part geographical mystery tour, village economic base reconstruction, invention and innovation history...” and Publishers Weekly wrote that the book “presents an erudite, scholarly look at artifacts as diverse as Buddhist sutras, ancient bills of sale, and even petrified dumplings, placing each in its proper context and building a detailed historical record drawing heavily on primary sources”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2855711",
"title": "Red Pine (author)",
"section": "Section::::Writings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "\"The Silk Road: Taking the bus to Pakistan\" details the author's overland journey with his friend Finn Wilcox from Xi'an to Islamabad by bus, train, and plane. It's a first-person account of scenery, artifacts, and people along the northern route of the Silk Road.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23741065",
"title": "Afshin Molavi",
"section": "Section::::Life and career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "He has described \"The New Silk Road\" at a conference at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars on China and the Persian Gulf region, at a World Bank Seminar entitled the East-East Corridor, in an article in the \"Washington Post\" entitled \"The New Silk Road\", and in the pages of \"The National\", where he wrote about \"the meeting of West Asia and East Asia.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186508",
"title": "Chang'an",
"section": "Section::::Further reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 295,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 295,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "BULLET::::- Thilo, Thomas (2016), \"Chang'an - China's Gateway to the Silk Road\", in: Lieu, Samuel N.C., & Mikkelsen, Gunner B., \"Between Rome and China: History, Religions and Material Culture of the Silk Road\" (Silk Road Studies, XVIII), Turnhout, 2016, p. 91-112\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15597110",
"title": "Europeans in Medieval China",
"section": "Section::::References.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "BULLET::::- An, Jiayao. (2002), \"When Glass Was Treasured in China,\" in Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), \"Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road\", 79–94, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1879507",
"title": "Timeline of international trade",
"section": "Section::::Chronology of events.:Ancient.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Silk Road is established after the diplomatic travels of the Han Dynasty Chinese envoy Zhang Ian to Central Asia, with Chinese goods making their way to India, Persia, and the Roman Empire, and vice versa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1618577",
"title": "Sino-Roman relations",
"section": "Section::::References.:Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "BULLET::::- An, Jiayao. (2002). \"When Glass Was Treasured in China\", in Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), \"Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road\", 79–94. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers. .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5lrp0l
|
why do we get that strange feeling in our head when something sharp and long is pointing right between our eyes?
|
[
{
"answer": "Doesn't work for me. Maybe it's because I don't use my left eye? Maybe it's related to the Ajna chakra point (third eye) and I mediate almost daily? Can you explain the sensation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38650559",
"title": "Mariko Aoki phenomenon",
"section": "Section::::Pathological condition and observations.:Posture and gaze related hypotheses.:Gazing-intensive search work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "When following the letters on the spine of a book with our eyes, our gaze moves in a vertical direction. One famous interpretative model holds that this movement stimulates the defecation urge.[ウェブページ：“本屋で便意を催す理由”][ウェブページ：“本屋に行くとお腹が痛くなる理由”] According to those who have experienced the phenomenon, it is to do with the importance of the \"angle of one's gaze when looking for something.\"[ウェブページ：“今夜も生でさだまさし”] There is also the view that walking around a bookstore looking at printed text causes dizziness, which brings about a change in physical condition.[ウェブページ：“本屋に行くとお腹が痛くなる理由”]\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2046509",
"title": "Bell's phenomenon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Bell's phenomenon (also known as the palpebral oculogyric reflex) is a medical sign that allows observers to notice an upward and outward movement of the eye, when an attempt is made to close the eyes. The upward movement of the eye is present in the majority of the population, and is a defensive mechanism. The phenomenon is named after the Scottish anatomist, surgeon, and physiologist Charles Bell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1959551",
"title": "Occipital neuralgia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "Occipital neuralgia is characterized by severe pain that begins in the upper neck and back of the head. This pain is typically one-sided, although it can be on both sides if both occipital nerves have been affected. Additionally, the pain may radiate forward toward the eye as it follows the path of the occipital nerve(s). Individuals may notice blurred vision as the pain radiates near or behind the eye. The pain is commonly described as sharp, shooting, zapping, an electric shock, or stabbing. The bouts of pain are rarely consistent, but can occur frequently depending on the damage to the nerves. The amount of time the pain lasts typically varies each time the symptom appears; it may last a few seconds or be almost continuous. Occipital neuralgia can last for hours or for several days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3531602",
"title": "Aichmophobia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Not to be confused with similar condition (Avoidance behavior) the Visual looming syndrome, where the patient does not fear sharp items, but feels pain or discomfort at gazing upon sharp objects nearby.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3223840",
"title": "Oculesics",
"section": "Section::::Nonverbal Communication.:Communicating Emotions.:Lists of Emotions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "BULLET::::- Eyes up - Different people look up for different reasons. Some look up when they are thinking. Others perform that action in an effort to recall something from their memory. It may also be a way for people to subconsciously display boredom. The head position can also come into play, however, as an upwards look with a lowered head can be a coy, suggestive action.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42904501",
"title": "Instrument myopia",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "According to Wesner and Miller (1986), instrument myopia is promoted when the viewing is with one eye, when the field of view is small, and when the luminance is low, concluding that these are consistent with accommodation's going towards a person's dark focus, which is about one meter from the eyes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1841851",
"title": "Stereopsis",
"section": "Section::::Geometrical basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "When a person stares at an object, the two eyes converge so that the object appears at the center of the retina in both eyes. Other objects around the main object appear shifted in relation to the main object. In the following example, whereas the main object (dolphin) remains in the center of the two images in the two eyes, the cube is shifted to the right in the left eye's image and is shifted to the left when in the right eye's image.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
27wwt6
|
In protracted conflicts and wars, especially where soldiers were conscripted, does the 'quality' of soldier decrease as the war goes on?
|
[
{
"answer": "It would rather depend on the nature of the state and its army at the time.\n\nIn Britain, there is no indication of a deterioration in the quality of the army as the Napoleonic wars went on, and I have read at least one suggestion that the turnover in officers was beneficial to the purchase system (The Reason Why by C. Woodham Smith) and also that at Waterloo, after a break of several years, there was dearth of experienced, battle-hardended redcoats.\n\nThe Luftwaffe in WWII is a good example of a force that is initially superior but steadily deteriorates with mounting pressure over several years. On the other hand, RAF bomber command steadily increases in efficacy with better equipment and better training as the war progresses.\n\nThe British army in WWI is a mix of both. It starts off being the best army in the world size for size (arguably), then deteriorates rapidly in 1915 as the old regulars and territorials are killed off. It reaches its nadir in 1916 with large drafts of gallant but semi-trained recruits and then slowly builds up to being the supreme fighting power by summer of 1918. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We can look at WWII as an example of the opposite happening for the Allied powers, especially with naval aviators in the Pacific.\n\nAt the onset, the US had few carriers, and few pilots with any real experience. The Imperial Japanese Navy had a number of carriers and rather experienced pilots as of Pearl Harbor. However, this changed dramatically over the course of the war.\n\nThe key difference is that the US rotated experienced pilots back to training positions routinely, which kept new pilots up to speed with new tactics and techniques developed in combat, and it ensured that actual combat veterans were teaching combat lessons to the next set of recruits. The Japanese had no such system, and their experienced corps of pilots dwindled, and was in tatters after the attrition of the Solomon Isles campaign. As a result, their pilots became less and less experienced, and more prone to errors that the increasingly experienced American pilots would exploit. \n\nSimilarly, the state of readiness of the US military was well behind par for the other powers at the time. Again, as the war progressed, new tactics and training methods were developed and brought to bear. For example, after the Sicily campaign, a substantial number of paratroopers from the 82nd Airborne were transferred to the then-in-training 101st Airborne to provide combat experience to the incoming soldiers. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm going to cross-reference another recent post and suggest that conscription in and of itself was probably not a factor in declining quality.\n\nWhat /u/ThinMountainAir suggests in [this post about the necessity for reform in the U.S. Army](_URL_0_) is that there were a large number of fairly unique societal factors in the United States at the time that collectively contributed to a marked decline in the quality of soldier serving in Vietnam.\n\nThe only cases that come to mind where quality declines directly as a result of conscription are those of doomed nations that expand the scope and relax the standards of conscription out of desperation, having already spent their way through their population of able-bodied men.\n\nNice to see a fellow Reacher Creature though. Love those books.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42563745",
"title": "War in Donbass",
"section": "Section::::Combatants.:Counter-insurgency forces.:Armed Forces of Ukraine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 191,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 191,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "In 2016 the Army was struggling to recruit conscript servicemen, due to significant evasion of conscription, to replace demobilising soldiers including volunteers. This followed negative publicity about nutrition and equipment deficiencies in the conflict zone. By mid-April 2016, 127,363 soldiers and volunteers had received veteran status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4514365",
"title": "Federal Army",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "Specific numbers aside, the rapid expansion of the army had led to a deterioration in the quality of the average recruit, or more accurately, conscript. Huerta made an attempt to increase the size of the army by ordering a mass levy, or forced conscription from the streets by his press-gangs, who would fall upon men as they left church or pull them from cinemas. Very few of the men under his command were volunteers and many deserted the army. Huerta tried improving morale by increasing pay in May 1913 by 50%. At the same time 382 military cadets were given commissions and attempts were made to increase the number in training.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33988117",
"title": "70th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "As World War II progressed, German manpower available for military service declined and this was exacerbated by the severe losses suffered in Normandy, Tunisia and Stalingrad, for example. Groups of men, previously declared unfit for active service, were drafted or recalled into service. These included those with stomach complaints and it was decided that these men would be concentrated into one formation to facilitate the provision of special foods and to isolate infectious or unpleasant conditions (hence the unofficial description of \"White Bread\" or Magen (Stomach) Division).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5129610",
"title": "United States home front during World War II",
"section": "Section::::Civilian support for war effort.:Draft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 852,
"text": "The nation went from a surplus manpower pool with high unemployment and relief in 1940 to a severe manpower shortage by 1943. Industry realized that the Army urgently desired production of essential war materials and foodstuffs more than soldiers. (Large numbers of soldiers were not used until the invasion of Europe in summer 1944.) In 1940–43 the Army often transferred soldiers to civilian status in the Enlisted Reserve Corps in order to increase production. Those transferred would return to work in essential industry, although they could be recalled to active duty if the Army needed them. Others were discharged if their civilian work was deemed essential. There were instances of mass releases of men to increase production in various industries. Working men who had been classified 4F or otherwise ineligible for the draft took second jobs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168210",
"title": "Continental Army",
"section": "Section::::Operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Throughout its existence, the Army was troubled by poor logistics, inadequate training, short-term enlistments, interstate rivalries, and Congress's inability to compel the states to provide food, money or supplies. In the beginning, soldiers enlisted for a year, largely motivated by patriotism; but as the war dragged on, bounties and other incentives became more commonplace. Two major mutinies late in the war drastically diminished the reliability of two of the main units, and there were constant discipline problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "753281",
"title": "Roman army",
"section": "Section::::Roman army of the mid-Republic (c. 300 – 107 BC).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 1106,
"text": "During the latter phase, with lengthy wars of conquest followed by permanent military occupation of overseas provinces, the character of the army necessarily changed from a temporary force based entirely on short-term conscription to a standing army in which the conscripts, whose service was in this period limited by law to 6 consecutive years, were complemented by large numbers of volunteers who were willing to serve for much longer periods. Many of the volunteers were drawn from the poorest social class, which until the 2nd Punic War had been excluded from service in the legions by the minimum property requirement: during that war, extreme manpower needs had forced the army to ignore the requirement, and this practice continued thereafter. Maniples were gradually phased out as the main tactical unit, and replaced by the larger cohorts used in the allied \"alae\", a process probably complete by the time the general Marius assumed command in 107 BC. (The \"Marian reforms\" of the army hypothesised by some scholars are today seen by other scholars as having evolved earlier and more gradually.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "350611",
"title": "Cambodian Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Widening war (1970–1971).:Opposing sides.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "The common soldiers fought bravely at first, but they were saddled with low pay (with which they had to purchase their own food and medical care), ammunition shortages, and mixed equipment. Due to the pay system, there were no allotments for their families, who were, therefore, forced to follow their husbands/sons into the battle zones. These problems (exacerbated by continuously declining morale) only increased over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2rlmei
|
color wheel versus visible light spectrum
|
[
{
"answer": "With visible light, red doesn't come after/before violet and violet doesn't come after/before red. On the color wheel it does because it makes finding relationships between colors easier than a straight line. Green being the opposite of red has everything to do with color theory in art and nothing to do with the wavelength of light. In chemistry or astronomy, any science that relies on visible light, you wouldn't note that something is a complementary color. Just like in art you don't really care that a color has a wavelength of 400nm and a certain frequency. And the violet in the visual spectrum is really more of a deep blue than what we typically think of as violet or purple. But the contrast with the cyan band makes it appear more purple. Really it's red and blue at opposite ends. \n\nRed and green are subjectively complementary. Just like blue and orange or purple and yellow. The color wheel is a circle, so there are no ends. Everything blends together. You can pretty much do what you want in terms of matching colors on a wheel. Traditionally it's a line from one side to the other to get complementary colors. A triangle for tertiary colors. A square for tetradic colors. You can keep going with a pentagon, hexagon, etc. It has nothing really to do with the physical nature of light. It's just about making color schemes that look good together. \n\nRGB light mixed makes white. RGB paint makes black. But you can make a color wheel that includes shades (darks) or tints (lights). So it doesn't really prevent you from including white just because it's a subtractive color model. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32857729",
"title": "Color wheel (optics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "A color wheel or other switch for changing a projected hue (e.g., for an optical display) is a device that uses different optics filters within a light beam. Common usage includes continuously-rotating wheels for seasonal home displays (e.g., at Christmas) and controllable color wheels for a particular instrument (e.g., SeaChanger Color Engine for stage lighting), while non-wheel devices include scrollers and semaphore types with lever arms (e.g., on the 1897-1917 Grand Army Plaza fountain). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32975434",
"title": "Shades of violet",
"section": "Section::::Variations of the color violet.:Variations of spectral violet.:Color wheel violet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "The tertiary color on the HSV color wheel (also known as the ) precisely halfway between blue and magenta is called color wheel violet. This tone of violet—an approximation of the color violet at about 417 nanometers as plotted on the CIE chromaticity diagram—is shown at right. This tone of violet is actually somewhat toward indigo assuming indigo is accepted as a separate spectrum color, usually quoted as having a range of from about 420 to 450 nanometers. Another name for this color is near violet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "915627",
"title": "Color wheel",
"section": "Section::::Colors of the color wheel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "A color wheel based on RGB (red, green, blue) or RGV (red, green, violet) additive primaries has cyan, magenta, and yellow secondaries (cyan was previously known as cyan blue). Alternatively, the same arrangement of colors around a circle can be described as based on cyan, magenta, and yellow subtractive primaries, with red, green, and blue (or violet) being secondaries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33337534",
"title": "Comparison of color models in computer graphics",
"section": "Section::::Basics of color.:Color wheel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "A color wheel is a tool that provides a visual representation of the relationships between all possible hues. The primary colors are arranged around a circle at equal (120 degree) intervals. (Warning: Color wheels frequently depict \"Painter's Colors\" primary colors, which leads to a different set of hues than additive colors.) The illustration shows a simple color wheel based on the additive colors. Note that the position (top, right) of the starting color, typically red, is arbitrary, as is the order of green and blue (clockwise, counter-clockwise). The illustration also shows the secondary colors, yellow, cyan, and magenta, located halfway between (60 degrees) the primary colors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3179882",
"title": "Tertiary color",
"section": "Section::::Comparison of RGB and RYB color wheels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Unlike the RGB (CMY) color wheel, the RYB color wheel has no scientific basis. The RYB color wheel was invented centuries before the 1890s, when it was found by experiment that magenta, yellow, and cyan are the primary colors of pigment, not red, yellow, and blue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "455672",
"title": "Color theory",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "Subsequently, German and English scientists established in the late 19th century that color perception is best described in terms of a different set of primary colors—red, green and blue violet (RGB)—modeled through the additive mixture of three monochromatic lights. Subsequent research anchored these primary colors in the differing responses to light by three types of color receptors or \"cones\" in the retina (trichromacy). On this basis the quantitative description of color mixture or colorimetry developed in the early 20th century, along with a series of increasingly sophisticated models of color space and color perception, such as the opponent process theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144056",
"title": "Fluorescent lamp",
"section": "Section::::Phosphors and the spectrum of emitted light.:Color rendering index.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "Color rendering index (CRI) is a measure of how well colors can be perceived using light from a source, relative to light from a reference source such as daylight or a blackbody of the same color temperature. By definition, an incandescent lamp has a CRI of 100. Real-life fluorescent tubes achieve CRIs of anywhere from 50 to 98. Fluorescent lamps with low CRI have phosphors that emit too little red light. Skin appears less pink, and hence \"unhealthy\" compared with incandescent lighting. Colored objects appear muted. For example, a low CRI 6800 K halophosphate tube (an extreme example) will make reds appear dull red or even brown. Since the eye is relatively less efficient at detecting red light, an improvement in color rendering index, with increased energy in the red part of the spectrum, may reduce the overall luminous efficacy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1b3kgo
|
How fast are the particles in the LHC moving relative to each other?
|
[
{
"answer": "The last c in your equation should also be squared and then you get \n\n2vc/(1-v^2 )=0.99999999999999999999999999999988*c\n\nAnyhoo, From the view of the LHC the relative velocity of the particles is just 2*v*c The velocity addition comes into play when assessing the velocities from the refernce system of the particles themselves.\n\nSo the particle \"sees\" the other particle approaching at 0.99999999999999999999999999999988*c whereas the experimenter sees a head on collision with a relative velocity of almost 2c",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11439",
"title": "Faster-than-light",
"section": "Section::::Superluminal travel of non-information.:Closing speeds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Imagine two fast-moving particles approaching each other from opposite sides of a particle accelerator of the collider type. The closing speed would be the rate at which the distance between the two particles is decreasing. From the point of view of an observer standing at rest relative to the accelerator, this rate will be slightly less than twice the speed of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28758",
"title": "Spacetime",
"section": "Section::::Introduction to curved spacetime.:Sources of spacetime curvature.:Energy-momentum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 309,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 309,
"end_character": 1049,
"text": "central particle is zero. Assume so that velocities are simply additive. Fig. 5‑7b shows exactly the same setup, but in the frame of the upper stream. The test particle has a velocity of +\"v\", and the bottom stream has a velocity of +2\"v\". Since the physical situation has not changed, only the frame in which things are observed, the test particle should not be attracted towards either stream. But it is not at all clear that the forces exerted on the test particle are equal. (1) Since the bottom stream is moving faster than the top, each particle in the bottom stream has a larger mass energy than a particle in the top. (2) Because of Lorentz contraction, there are more particles per unit length in the bottom stream than in the top stream. (3) Another contribution to the active gravitational mass of the bottom stream comes from an additional pressure term which, at this point, we do not have sufficient background to discuss. All of these effects together would seemingly demand that the test particle be drawn towards the bottom stream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "171879",
"title": "Brachistochrone curve",
"section": "Section::::Newton's solution.:The Brachistochrone problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "At L the particle continues along a path LM, parallel to the original EF, to some arbitrary point M. As it has the same speed at L as at E, the time to traverse LM is the same as it would have been along the original curve EF. At M it returns to the original path at point f. By the same reasoning, the reduction in time, T, to reach f from M rather than from F is\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30105232",
"title": "Spray characteristics",
"section": "Section::::Spray Drop Size.:Drop size measurement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "Phase Doppler, a flux-based method, measures particle size and velocity simultaneously. This method, also known as PDPA, is unique because the drop size and velocity information is in the phase angle between the detector signals and the signal frequency shift. Because this method is not sensitive to intensity, it is used in more dense sprays. The range of drop sizes is 1 to 8000 µm. At the heart of the method are crossed laser beams that create interference patterns (regular spaced pattern of light and dark lines) and illuminate drops as they pass through the small measurement zone. A series of three off axis detectors collects the optical signal that is used to determine the phase angle and frequency shift caused by the drops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28113360",
"title": "Classical central-force problem",
"section": "Section::::Specific solutions.:Newton's theorem of revolving orbits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "Assume that a particle is moving under an arbitrary central force \"F\"(\"r\"), and let its radius \"r\" and azimuthal angle φ be denoted as \"r\"(\"t\") and φ(\"t\") as a function of time \"t\". Now consider a second particle with the same mass \"m\" that shares the same radial motion \"r\"(\"t\"), but one whose angular speed is \"k\" times faster than that of the first particle. In other words, the azimuthal angles of the two particles are related by the equation φ(\"t\") = \"k\" φ(\"t\"). Newton showed that the force acting on the second particle equals the force \"F\"(\"r\") acting on the first particle, plus an inverse-cube central force\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18162840",
"title": "CLAS detector",
"section": "Section::::Detector Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Outside the magnetic field, a layer of timing detectors measure the time of passage of the particles at a distance of about four meters from the target. Dividing the path length of a particle track by the time of travel gives the speed. Knowing the momentum and speed of a particle leads to its identification via its mass. The CLAS detector also contains additional detectors in the forward direction (Cherenkov counters and Electromagnetic Calorimeters) whose purpose is to distinguish electrons from other types of particles such as pions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "766619",
"title": "Cyclonic separation",
"section": "Section::::Cyclone theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "To simplify this, we can assume the particle under consideration has reached \"terminal velocity\", i.e., that its acceleration formula_14 is zero. This occurs when the radial velocity has caused enough drag force to counter the centrifugal and buoyancy forces. This simplification changes our equation to:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
237a2a
|
class warfare
|
[
{
"answer": "Class warfare is the idea that one class of people, usually the rich or well-to-do, either take action to prevent the poor from \"rising above their station\", or support policies which help suppress the poor, or are otherwise implicitly assisting in the suppression of those of a lower class, or are least complicit in it. \n\nThe converse, of course, would be action by the poor against the rich (vandalism, threats, property destruction, etc.) Very few people would, I think, claim to be \"for\" class warfare; but plenty of people deny it exists.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "More or less when less affluent people point out that the extremely wealthy enjoy significantly more influence on legislation and thus tax and legal benefits that others don't it's \"class warfare\". \n\nBasically categorizing the rather obvious truth that inheriting wealth is not proof of one's effort or intelligence as \"class warfare\" serves to derail the argument. It's the recourse for those that have no other answer because they really think that being born on third base is the same as hitting a triple. They simply don't understand that they have a head start and hold a better hand. \n\nConversely, those that would demand that if Person A enjoys lifestyle of quality X so should they is just as foolish. Ultimately (to me) it comes down to the question of is there a level playing field. It's not class warfare to suggest that everyone should get a SHOT, not that they merit a guaranteed win. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29174",
"title": "Social class",
"section": "Section::::Class conflict.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Class conflict, frequently referred to as \"class warfare\" or \"class struggle\", is the tension or antagonism which exists in society due to competing socioeconomic interests and desires between people of different classes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42437083",
"title": "Class conflict",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "The forms of class conflict include direct violence, such as wars for resources and cheap labor and assassinatons; indirect violence, such as deaths from poverty and starvation, illness and unsafe working conditions. Economic coercion, such as the threat of unemployment or the withdrawal of investment capital; or ideologically, by way of political literature. Additionally, political forms of class warfare are: legal and illegal lobbying, and bribery of legislators. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42437083",
"title": "Class conflict",
"section": "Section::::Capitalist societies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1120,
"text": "The typical example of class conflict described is class conflict within capitalism. This class conflict is seen to occur primarily between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, and takes the form of conflict over hours of work, value of wages, division of profits, cost of consumer goods, the culture at work, control over parliament or bureaucracy, and economic inequality. The particular implementation of government programs which may seem purely humanitarian, such as disaster relief, can actually be a form of class conflict. In the USA class conflict is often noted in labor/management disputes. As far back as 1933 representative Edward Hamilton of ALPA, the Airline Pilot's Association, used the term \"class warfare\" to describe airline management's opposition at the National Labor Board hearings in October of that year. Apart from these day-to-day forms of class conflict, during periods of crisis or revolution class conflict takes on a violent nature and involves repression, assault, restriction of civil liberties, and murderous violence such as assassinations or death squads. (Zinn, \"People's History\")\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44280038",
"title": "Class Wargames",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Class Wargames is a situationist ludic-science group based in London. Founded by Richard Barbrook and Fabian Tompsett in 2007, the group has since reproduced Guy Debord's \"Le Jeu de la Guerre\" and proceeded to tour Europe, Asia and South America. In contrast to the electronic version of Debord's game, created by the Radical Software Group, Class Wargames is based on a real rather than digital version of the Game of War and allows for convivial interaction through which anyone can become a situationist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "198621",
"title": "Class War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Class War is an anarchist group and newspaper established by Ian Bone and others in 1983 in the United Kingdom. A reforged incarnation of Class War was briefly registered as a political party for the purposes of fighting the 2015 general election.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "227585",
"title": "No War but the Class War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "No War But The Class War (NWBTCW) is a motto expressing opposition to capitalism used by anarchist and communist groups. It is also the name for a number of anti-authoritarian, anti-capitalist groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44500703",
"title": "Knightly Piety",
"section": "Section::::Military class.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "The military class is a feudal society loose hierarchy, which evolved from a kingship to better serve the realm by formal religious, Catholic guidance or military tribunal. Examples include the Kshatriya or Martial castes in ancient and modern India, the Khalsa class of Sikhism in the Punjab, the samurai class in feudal Japan, the Timawa and Maharlika classes in pre-colonial Philippines and noble knights in feudal Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3x1u5d
|
what is self-healing plastic and how does it work?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not an expert but I believe that self-healing plastic is a typical long-chain polymer material that contains pockets of liquid plastic. When the material is broken, these pockets of liquid plastic get broken open and the liquid fills the gap created. The liquid then solidifies to heal the plastic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "308682",
"title": "Living polymerization",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Self-healing materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Self-healing materials are materials in which repair, or “heal”, themselves upon damage from an external force through the use of living polymers. For example, if a crack forms in the material, it proceeds to repair the crack and restore itself to its original, undamaged form. It achieves this by incorporating monomer-containing beads into a material made of a living polymer (with a terminally active chain). This has been achieved recently using a polyurethane derivative, with beads of monomer embedded in the material that become opened upon cracking of the material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5824713",
"title": "Self-healing material",
"section": "Section::::Self-healing polymers and elastomers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "In the last century, polymers became a base material in everyday life for products like plastics, rubbers, films, fibres or paints. This huge demand has forced to extend their reliability and maximum lifetime, and a new design class of polymeric materials that are able to restore their functionality after damage or fatigue was envisaged. These polymer materials can be divided into two different groups based on the approach to the self-healing mechanism: intrinsic or extrinsic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5824713",
"title": "Self-healing material",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 994,
"text": "Self-healing materials are artificial or synthetically-created substances which have the built-in ability to automatically repair damage to themselves without any external diagnosis of the problem or human intervention. Generally, materials will degrade over time due to fatigue, environmental conditions, or damage incurred during operation. Cracks and other types of damage on a microscopic level have been shown to change thermal, electrical, and acoustical properties of materials, and the propagation of cracks can lead to eventual failure of the material. In general, cracks are hard to detect at an early stage, and manual intervention is required for periodic inspections and repairs. In contrast, self-healing materials counter degradation through the initiation of a repair mechanism which responds to the micro-damage. Some self-healing materials are classed as smart structures, and can adapt to various environmental conditions according to their sensing and actuation properties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22037708",
"title": "Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Blister packs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "As the first step of recycling, separation of Al and Polymers using the hydrometallurgical method which uses hydrochloric acid (HCl) can be incorporated. Then PVC can be recycled by using mechanical or chemical methods. The most recent trend is to use biodegradable, eco-friendly “bio plastics” which are also called as biopolymers such as derivatives of starch, cellulose, protein, chitin and xylan for pharmaceutical packaging, to reduce the hostile effects to the environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41443677",
"title": "Poly(ethylene adipate)",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Mending capabilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Self-healing polymers is an effective method of healing microcracks caused by an accumulation of stress. Diels-Alder (DA) bonds can be incorporated into a polymer allowing microcracks to occur preferentially along these weaker bonds. Furyl-telechelic poly(ethylene adipate) (PEAF) and tris-maleimide (M) can be combined through a DA reaction in order to bring about self-healing capabilities in PEAF. PEAFM was found to have some healing capabilities after 5 days at 60 °C, although significant evidence of the original cut appeared and the original mechanical properties were not fully restored.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5824713",
"title": "Self-healing material",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Although the most common types of self-healing materials are polymers or elastomers, self-healing covers all classes of materials, including metals, ceramics, and cementitious materials. Healing mechanisms vary from an instrinsic repair of the material to the addition of a repair agent contained in a microscopic vessel. For a material to be strictly defined as autonomously self-healing, it is necessary that the healing process occurs without human intervention. Self-healing polymers may, however, activate in response to an external stimulus (light, temperature change, etc.) to initiate the healing process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40440355",
"title": "Jeffrey S. Moore",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Working with colleagues such as Nancy Sottos and Scott R. White, he has developed self-healing polymeric materials. Moore has shown that microencapsulated healing agents can polymerize to heal areas of damage such as cracks smaller than a human hair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4p0pi2
|
Religious relic?
|
[
{
"answer": "I agree with Bodrk43: it looks like a benchmark or surveyor's mark of some sort. If it's a US Geological Survey benchmark, then destroying it is a crime. If it was set by some other agency or a private party, I don't know what the law says but I would be hesitant about destroying it. \n\nI'm a member of the Geocaching hobby, and some of us also engage in the even geekier sub-hobby of searching for old benchmarks like this. If you could post the GPS coordinates or even the approximate location of this marker, I could look it up on some government databases and other listings of benchmarks to see if there's a record that would tell us what exactly it is.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "226651",
"title": "Relic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "In religion, a relic usually consists of the physical remains of a saint or the personal effects of the saint or venerated person preserved for purposes of veneration as a tangible memorial. Relics are an important aspect of some forms of Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Shamanism, and many other religions. \"Relic\" derives from the Latin \"reliquiae\", meaning \"remains\", and a form of the Latin verb \"relinquere\", to \"leave behind, or abandon\". A reliquary is a shrine that houses one or more religious relics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1307221",
"title": "Reliquary",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "A reliquary (also referred to as a \"shrine\" or by the French term \"châsse\") is a container for relics. These may be the purported or actual physical remains of saints, such as bones, pieces of clothing, or some object associated with saints or other religious figures. The authenticity of any given relic is often a matter of debate; for that reason, some churches require documentation of the relic's provenance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1307221",
"title": "Reliquary",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Relics have long been important to Buddhists, Christians, Hindus and many other religions. In these cultures, reliquaries are often presented in shrines, churches, or temples to which the faithful make pilgrimages in order to gain blessings. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3287389",
"title": "Joe Nickell",
"section": "Section::::Books.:Miracles and religious artifacts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "\"Relics of the Christ\" (British edition, \"The Jesus Relics: From the Holy Grail to the Turin Shroud\"), written in 2007, focuses on the Christian tradition of relics. Speaking with D.J. Grothe on the Point of Inquiry podcast, Nickell proposed that veneration of relics has become a new idolatry; that is, worship of an actual deity within the relics in form of an entity that moves its eyes, weeps, bleeds, and even walks. He explained that although no icon in history has ever been proven authentic, he approaches each case with a suspension of disbelief: \"I'm interested in the evidence because I want us to know what the truth is ... I urge skeptics ... not to be as closed-minded as the other side is ridiculously open-minded.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "607345",
"title": "Crown of thorns",
"section": "Section::::As a relic.:France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1049,
"text": "The relic that the Church received is a twisted circlet of rushes of \"Juncus balticus\", a plant native to maritime areas of northern Britain, the Baltic and Scandinavia; the thorns preserved in various other reliquaries are of \"Ziziphus spina-christi\", a plant native to Africa, Southern and Western Asia, and had allegedly been removed from the crown and kept in separate reliquaries since soon after they arrived in France. New reliquaries were provided for the relic, one commissioned by Napoleon, another, in jewelled rock crystal and more suitably Gothic, was made to the designs of Eugene Viollet-le-Duc. In 2001, when the surviving treasures from the Sainte-Chapelle were exhibited at the Louvre, the chaplet was solemnly presented every Friday at Notre-Dame. Pope John Paul II translated it personally to the Sainte-Chapelle during World Youth Day. The relic can be seen only on the first Friday of every month, when it is brought out for a special veneration mass, as well as each Friday during Lent. See also Feast of the Crown of Thorns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2606994",
"title": "Istifanos Monastery",
"section": "Section::::Notable possessions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "Another prized relict is an icon of the Christ child sitting on his mother's knees, known as \"The One Who Listens\", which the monks believe is miraculous. Created in the 15th century, the icon was cleaned and repaired by a British charity, The Ethiopian Heritage Fund in 2010, and subsequently was housed in a special museum as the monastery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36985912",
"title": "Church of St Candida and Holy Cross",
"section": "Section::::St Wite's shrine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1527,
"text": "The church's shrine contains the relics of its patron saint, St Wite (St Candida is the Latin translation). It is one of only two shrines with relics in an English parish church and the only shrine and relics in the country to survive the Reformation besides Edward the Confessor's in Westminster Abbey and St Eanswythe in Folkestone. The shrine is a plain 13th century limestone altar tomb approximately tall. It comprises a rectangular coffin with a Purbeck Marble lid supported by a base that features three oval openings. Pilgrims believed the relics to have healing powers and these openings enabled them to place personal belongings or diseased body parts into the shrine in hope of a cure. The reason for its survival during the 16th century Reformation when shrines, relics and associated paraphernalia were systematically destroyed is unclear. It is possible, however, its purpose was concealed and its plain design caused to be mistaken for an unremarkable tomb of no significance. However, the concealment was so successful that the identity of the saint was lost. Local tradition suggests that she was an Anglo-Saxon holy woman or hermit who was slain by marauding Vikings. Another theory identifies her as Gwen Teirbron (also known as St Blanche, St Wite or St Candida), a 6th-century Breton holy woman. In 1900 the tomb was opened and was found to hold a lead casket containing the bones of a small woman. On the casket was the Latin inscription \"HIC-REQESCT-RELIQE-SCE-WITE\" (\"Here lie the remains of St Wite\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
51jnjz
|
Have there been female rulers with harems?
|
[
{
"answer": "Follow up question: the Ottoman and various chinese dynasties had harems where concubines competed for political influence, and occasionally one concubine rose to the top of the entire governemnt, fir example Wu Zetian. What happened to the institution of the harem during the these periods? Were all the other concubines exiled/executed or just the ones who posed a threat to the supreme concubine?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can I ask another follow-up?\n\nI know that there was a female pharaoh, Hatshepsut, who ruled. While she had a husband (Thutmose II), many pharaohs had \"secondary wives.\" Is there any evidence she had secondary husbands? Is there evidence of secondary husband behaviours among other women who took power in context with secondary wives?\n\n*thank you historians*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1991315",
"title": "Harem",
"section": "Section::::In Islamic cultures.:Safavid Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1297,
"text": "The administration of the royal harem constituted an independent branch of the court, staffed mainly by eunuchs. These were initially black eunuchs, but white eunuchs from Georgia also began to be employed from the time of Abbas I. The mothers of rival princes together with eunuchs engaged in palace intrigues in an attempt to place their candidate on the throne. From the middle of the sixteenth century, rivalries between Georgian and Circassian women in the royal harem gave rise to dynastic struggles of an ethnic nature previously unknown at the court. When Shah Abbas II died in 1666, palace eunuchs engineered the succession of Suleiman I and effectively seized control of the state. Suleiman set up a privy council, which included the most important eunuchs, in the harem, thereby depriving traditional state institutions of their functions. The eunuchs' influence over military and civil affairs was checked only by their internal rivalries and the religious movement led by Muhammad Baqir Majlisi. The royal harem reached such proportions under Sultan Husayn (1668–1726) that it consumed a large part of state revenues. After the fall of the Safavid dynasty, which occurred soon afterwards, eunuchs were never again able to achieve significant political influence as a class in Persia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51511",
"title": "Prince",
"section": "Section::::Prince of the blood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "However, in cultures which allow the ruler to have several wives (e.g., four in Islam) or official concubines (e.g., Imperial China, Ottoman Empire, Thailand, KwaZulu-Natal) these women, sometimes collectively referred to as a harem, there are often specific rules determining their relative hierarchy and a variety of titles, which may distinguish between those whose offspring can be in line for the succession or not, or specifically who is mother to the heir to the throne.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1991315",
"title": "Harem",
"section": "Section::::In Islamic cultures.:Mughal Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "The king's wives, concubines, dancing girls and slaves were not the only women of the Mughal harem. Many others, including the king's mother lived in the harem. Aunts, grandmothers, sisters, daughters and other female relatives of the king all lived in the harem. Male children also lived in the harem until they grew up. Within the precincts of the harem were markets, bazaars, laundries, kitchens, playgrounds, schools and baths. The harem had a hierarchy, its chief authorities being the wives and female relatives of the emperor and below them were the concubines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1991315",
"title": "Harem",
"section": "Section::::Pre-Islamic origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "The idea of the harem or seclusion of women did not originate with Muhammad or Islam. The practice of secluding women was common to many Ancient Near East communities, especially where polygamy was permitted. In pre-Islamic Assyria, Persia, and Egypt, most royal courts had a harem, where the ruler’s wives and concubines lived with female attendants, and eunuchs. \"Encyclopædia Iranica\" uses the term \"harem\" to describe the practices of the ancient Near East.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44732127",
"title": "Mughal Harem",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1151,
"text": "It came to mean the sphere of women in what was usually a polygynous household and their segregated quarters which were forbidden to men. Harems were composed of wives, female relatives, concubines, and male infants. The women were governed through strict rules of Purdah, and they could not move out of the harem as they liked, but many women travelled for affairs of pilgrimage to local shrines, hunting and sightseeing with the Emperor. They always moved out in beautifully decorated palanquins or on the back of the elephants. Inside the Harem they led a luxurious and a comfortable life. The Harem had gardens, fountains and water channels attached to it. There were various departments within the Mughal Harem that fulfilled the basic needs of its inmates, The food was provided from the Royal Kitchen known as \"Maktabh\" and the \"Akbar Khanah\" provided drinking water and wine. The \"Ritab Khanah\" was in charge of supplying bread and the \"Maywa Khanah\" provided fruits to the household. Things of personal use of the women such as Beautiful dresses, jewellery, fancy articles and other household items were provided by the Imperial \"Karkhanah\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52169455",
"title": "Assyrian sculpture",
"section": "Section::::Palace reliefs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Women are relatively rarely shown, and then usually as prisoners or refugees; an exception is a \"picnic\" scene showing Ashurbanipal with his queen. The many beardless royal attendants can probably be assumed to be eunuchs, who ran much of the administration of the empire, unless they also have the shaved heads and very tall hats of priests. Kings are often accompanied by several courtiers, the closest to the king probably often being the appointed heir, who was not necessarily the oldest son.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5295016",
"title": "Ottoman Imperial Harem",
"section": "Section::::The Harem as a social and political institution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "The imperial harem also served as a parallel institution to the sultan's household of male servants. The women were provided with an education roughly on par with that provided to male pages, and at the end of their respective educations they would be married off to one another, as the latter graduated from the palace to occupy administrative posts in the empire's provinces. Consequently, only a small fraction of the women in the harem actually engaged in sexual relations with the sultan, as most were destined to marry members of the Ottoman political elite, or else to continue service to the Valide Sultan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2l2on1
|
what really happens when people die of "old age" or "natural causes" ?
|
[
{
"answer": "what happens is the family and doctors agree it is not worth determining what the actual cause of death was.\n\nactual cause is often heart failure, but frankly could be almost anything that isn't blatantly obvious from an external inspection.\n\nedit: stroke is another common cause. may actually be even more common that heart attack for \"old age\" deaths, as it can hit suddenly with less obvious symptoms.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Death as a result of internal malfunction (like a heart attack, end-stage cancer, infection) which is not in anyway influenced by external factors/forces (like an accident, suicide, homicide etc.).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No one dies from old age or natural causes, it's always some failing body part or disease",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many times it's a result of the arteries breaking down and leading to initially slow internal bleeding that progressively gets worse. It's a slow and often painless death and usually happens during sleep since the person will often feel fatigued (due to oxygen deprivation and hypoperfusion) and just drift off to sleep.\n\nHonestly, this is how I hope I go. Just get tired, say \"Ima take a nap now\" and just drift away. Very peaceful",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of people in this thread are putting the blame on telomeres.\n\nTelomeres are thought to have some affect on aging, but they are not the main cause of old-age/natural cause death. It's not like your last telomere is used up and your cells are all like \"that's it!\" Read [here](_URL_0_) for some more info on how telomeres are shortened and whether they cause aging.\n\n\"Old age\" and \"natural causes\" is another way of doctor and family saying \"we expected the death and it was not caused by something acute/unexpected\" (read /u/mlp-r34-clopper's comment)\n\nIt is still usually caused by some co-morbidity of being old such as congestive heart failure, stroke, heart attack, other vascular/atherosclerotic/issues of blood supply (ischemic issues), or cardiac arrest brought on by any number of unseen things, including but not limited to the preceding list. The fact of the matter is, something in the body is failing for any number of reasons.\n\nI actually read somewhere recently that \"old age\" and \"natural causes\" will no longer be accepted as a cause of death on death certificates, as it says nothing about the pathology of the patient's death. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In most cases the thing that actually kills a person is simply lack of oxygen to the brain. This can happen through various ways, but in 21st century America, it is most often the result of heart disease, cancer, or stroke. With heart disease, the person will typically suffer a heart attack, in which blood supply to the heart muscle itself is cut off, causing the heart muscle to die and no longer be able to pump blood. With cancer, what happens is that a primary tumor metastasizes (meaning it gets into the bloodstream and colonizes new tumors all throughout the body). The metastatic tumors essentially starve other bodily organs of oxygen and nutrients, which leads to multiple organ failure and an inability to supply the brain with blood and nutrients. In a stroke, a blood vessel in the brain pops, and hence can no longer supply the brain with blood.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We actually get to see this very often in the cadaver lab at my uni. Most of the subjects who donate their bodies are elderly and almost all of them have died of heart failure or strokes. The other day while viewing the brain we actually found the stroke that killed a subject.\n\nIn my mind natural causes or old age is used to describe any cause of death that couldn't really be fought or predicted. If someone is younger, or the person developed a disease that was fought, or maybe from a dangerous surgery, the cause of death would hold more of an impact and is usually listed. It depends on the family as well, sometimes instead of listing that their loved one died of heart failure, they find it easier and more dignified to list natural causes. Also, like mlp said, there's no real point in discovering the cause of death if it was quiet, peaceful and bound to happen soon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No idea, my grandpa woke up one morning at 90 something years of age, had his tea and frosted flakes like he had done for the past 40 years. ate it, threw up and was keeled over dead within an hour. no autopsy, no doctor to check him out. it was just listed as a natural cause and the funeral was 2 days later, weird stuff.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of the major causes of death in 'old age' would be Aspiration Pneumonia (from the elderly/hospice patients) lying for long periods leading to very rapid deterioration because they have don't have the immune response they would have before. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There’s a mental component that was very important in my father’s case when he passed away 3 years ago at the age of 86. He had fallen and was taken to the hospital where he was treated for some cuts and bruises; x-ray showed no broken bones. They also did a CAT scan of his brain which revealed that he had had a “silent stroke”. When we talked to the neurologist about this he assured my father that everything was OK in his ability to think and move. But it really bothered Dad because he had seen the results of major stroke in others in the skilled nursing facility and he did not want to be disabled mentally or physically. He wanted to be in control of the end of his life. He decided to stop taking his meds, he refused physical therapy and was combative towards some of the staff. I would get into shouting matches with him about this behavior until finally one of the nurses pulled me aside and said “it’s his choice to do this, you must let him go”. So I did, and over the next week we had some good conversations before he became unresponsive and slipped away. \nThe cause of death was listed as “failure to thrive”.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am surprised this hasn't been referenced. The bodies cells are re-generated by stem cells. Stem cells are essentially like candles and eventually burnout and are no longer able to regenerate cells. a A few \"supercentenarians\" have donated their bodies to science and died in remarkably good health. They just stopped living. No heart disease, no cancer, diabetes, Alzheimer's, etc. and what doctors found was invaluable. One Scandinavian perfectly healthy woman who expired with no illness in her body of any kind, upon investigation only had two functioning stem cells left in her body (you are born with 20,000!) In other words, stem cells, the cells that regenerate other cells had exhausted their capacity to function and simply burnt out -- burned down to the wick, so to speak.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For anyone looking for an answer more on the cellular level, most cells will contain DNA which are organised as chromosomes, and at the end of each chromosome are telomeres. Telomeres are junk sequences that aren't useful code. Ever time a cell divides, a bit of the telomeres are lost due to the way DNA replication works (telomerase in this case). As it is continually lost, it eventually reaches useful sections of DNA which causes problems.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am developing an analysis engine for Reddit that I intend to turn into a bot. Here are some past Reddit discussions that it believes are related to this topic:\n\n* [ELI5 If our body is constantly producing new cells to replace old ones, why do we age?](_URL_1_)\n* [What exactly is dying of old age?](_URL_2_)\n* [On/Off switch for Aging Cells Discovered](_URL_4_)\n* [ELI5: Why do different species have different life spans? For example we live to a maximum length of years, yet a giant tortoise can live to like 170 years old? What determines this?](_URL_3_)\n* [Scientists discover an telomerase on/off switch for aging cells](_URL_0_)\n\nI hope this is useful, please let me know what you think.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So if dying of old age comes from mostly your heart failing etc. Would it be possible to significantly extend human life if there was a way to 3d print you new organs from scratch? Sort of like you can keep a car running forever by replacing parts it needs..",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cellular boredom. If people just used the Cellular Regeneration and Entertainment Chamber, they'd be fine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In California, old age or natural causes is not an accepted cause for the death certificate, which leads to doctors getting creative with death causes to get the certificate to pass through public health. Public health proofreads and approves all causes of death in the state. \nI can't speak for other states or countries. \n\nSource: I work in the funeral industry. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Old age\" is not considered medically to be a cause of death. The \"natural causes\" that they are talking about are defined by the CDC to be (numbers are deaths per year in the US):\nHeart disease: 596,577\nCancer: 576,691\nChronic lower respiratory diseases: 142,943\nStroke (cerebrovascular diseases): 128,932\nAlzheimer's disease: 84,974\nDiabetes: 73,831\nInfluenza and Pneumonia: 53,826\nNephritis, nephrotic syndrome, and nephrosis: 45,591\nHope this helped!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't want to die bro. \n\nLife is awesome and not being alive would be total shit. \n\nAll of my neurons and neural synapses that contain everything that I am will rot into compost. \n\nThat is about the shittiest thing that I can imagine. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine a dam built of hundreds of thousands of bricks. When it was new, everything worked well together, and if any brick failed, the point of failure could be isolated, patched up, and put back together, and the dam could continue to work just fine.\n\nNow imagine a hundred years later, every single part of the dam has undergone some form of wear and tear. Bricks are popping out a lot more all over the place, other spots are just leaking slowly, other spots are structurally weak and going to turn into a problem any time now. You can keep plugging holes as long as you want, except each time you do you put stress on the surrounding regions too and might cause things to become even worse elsewhere.\n\nOld age and dying of natural causes is exactly like that: too many things are fragile, decayed, going wrong or about to go wrong, and the surrounding structure is too fragile to support efforts to continually plug the leaks. Eventually something or another gives, and instead of figuring out exactly what broke to send the whole thing crashing down, the family and the doctors just shrug and say \"meh\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just heart failure. Organs fail after cells divide too much. Telomeres could keep us young forever, but the ends of them shrink after time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This may get buried but it's actually my field of expertise!\nWhen someone dies there are only two reasons: Natural or Unnatural. \n\n\nUnnatural refers to any sort of trauma to the body, be it physical (i.e. hit by a car, electrical shock, mauled by a bear) or chemically (i.e. drug overdose, poisoning, suffocation).\n\nNatural refers to anything that may happen to you as the result of natural disease processes. This can stem from a birth defect that kills quickly like ancephaly (born without a brain), or something like a clotting disorder that eventually causes a stroke or heart attack. As the body ages, its ability to fight infections decreases and you see a lot of pneumonia-related deaths or sepsis (infections that overwhelm the body and crash your blood pressure). The heart is essentially a big, dumb muscle. Notice how grandma can't pick things up like she used to? That's because her muscles have atrophied. Now picture her heart that's been beating 24/7 for the last 80-something years and you'll be able to picture how weak it has become and just can't pump like it used to. This causes a whole cascade of problems and \"backs up\" the plumbing of the body.\n\nEvery jurisdiction has different criteria for determining just what is considered \"natural\". But for all intents and purposes, natural just means there wasn't a nefarious root cause.\n\nSource: Death Investigator for a Medical Examiner/Coroner's office.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No one in the US has died of old age since 1957.\n\nBecause that is the year that option was removed from death certificates - now an approximate mechanism must be identified (heart or respiratory failure, etc.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No one has died of natural causes since the 1930's. True story.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Im 27, I saw my grandparents today. My grandpa is so old and frail with dementia. I feel bad for him and my poor grandmother who cares for him everyday. They are so sweet. I love them.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Technically, all death is caused by brain death. In the case of old age, or natural causes, an organ fails in such a way that the brain is no longer able to function, whether due to lack of oxygen (lungs, heart) lack of energy (digestive, heart), or some other bodily toxicity (renal).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What happens is the cells just deteriorate. This is in fact because of a defense mechanism which keeps us all from getting rampant cancer. This is because we have a built in kill switch on our cells.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They 'forget' how to eat and drink and basically starve and dehydrate to death. \nOr, they might get lucky and get an infection and family (or they, them self) decide not to treat it and the infection takes them sooner. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not sure, but I have watched many family members wilt away and die of old age and terminal illness. I hope that by the time I get to the point of terminal, there is a Kevorkian Law that will allow me to be put respectfully to sleep. When animals are terminal it is called humane to put them to sleep so they will not suffer. Why can't humans have the same option?\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Old age\" and \"natural causes\" are just old sayings that got stuck onto people's tongues. In modern medicine this is an euphemism for A Combination Of Chronic Illnesses That Cannot Be Cured, Only Supported To Minimize Suffering. a person's body usually degrades to this point if a person have not had a massive heart attack, a number of strokes, diabetes or Parkinson's(4 main killers). Usually then a person dies from pneumonia due to severely weaken immune system, thats what hospice and morphine 24/7 for",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That term hasn't been used clinically in over 50 years.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, when my grandma was dying, I think we were just waiting for her heart to stop. Thankfully, hospice helped us through the process. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is an interesting one, as it is kind of impossible to die of old age. There will always be something that kills you. What dying of old age, or natural causes, usually means is that the person had reached a point where they were so weak, and their body had degenerated so much, that something like a simple cold (that they would barely have noticed as a healthy adult) could kill them. A cold, for example, has no obvious symptoms like a stroke or a heart attack would, so it would appear like they just passed away in their sleep. To explain this, it is easier to say they died of old age, giving the slightly deceptive illusion that they had hit their 'natural' expiration date.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As another person as said its the \"easy way out\"\n\nMy great grand mother died suddenly at the age of 101. Her cause of death? Natural causes...why? Well...does it really matter what part of her failed to cause her to die at 101? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am a bit wary of the term \"old age\" or \"natural causes.\" Most of my grandparents died in their 80s or 90s, generally from dehydration and eventual organ failure, many times in a coma. My grandfather decided to starve himself and stopped eating and drinking, and basically did himself in... after several days in a hospital. It was horrific to watch them slowly waste away like that.\n\nAccording to the [Journal of Patient Safety](_URL_0_), roughly 440,000 Americans die each year in US hospitals due to \"medical errors.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For one of my grandparents I was told it was heart failure. She picked up a spoon to eat her lunch and she just stopped. It wasn't dramatic, just looked like she had passed out as she slumped in her chair. We were told her heart just stopped beating and she wouldn't have felt a thing. We all say she died of old age.",
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"answer": "This is a great example of reddit gone wrong. What is stated here is grossly oversimplified and frankly untrue.\nNatural causes almost always means pulmonary edema. The failure of virtually any vital organ system will lead to pulmonary edema, or fluid backing up into the tiny air sacks or alveoli in the lungs.\nThink of it this way, if the kidneys fail, the system overloads with fluid and the patient dies of respiratory arrest. If the heart becomes sufficiently damaged that it cannot pump blood effectively, the excess fluid again will back up into the lungs, causing respiratory arrest. Liver failure, derangement of fluid/electrolyte balance and overwhelming infection and/or inflammation can all similarly result in death by...Plumonary edema leading to respiratory arrest.\nWhile I'm at it, in America even with our shitty healthcare, most people still have decent enough insurance to get their diabetes sort of under control, get on a blood pressure drug or two and maybe a statin or a \"blood thinner\" if warranted. So those big dramatic fall to the floor dead kind of strokes aren't really all that common anymore. And when they do happen, people are far more educated and are thus able to get their loved ones emergency care faster. In the best of situations, this may buy them a dose of TPA that will bust the infarct causing clot and they could potentially walk out of the hospital a few days later not much worse for wear. If you are very unlucky, the TPA could cause bits of the clot to break off from the one lodged in your brain and end up in your lungs, causing you to hack up frothy, pink sputum. Fluid backs up, pulmonary edema sets it, respiratory arrest will probably follow because this just isn't your day.\nOn to the last point, fwiw. It's not that the cause of death isn't worth determining, it's that they already know it's respiratory arrest secondary to pulmonary edema. Otherwise, they are still going to want to cut you open and see what happened, you know, for science. \nI only took the time to type this because of that post in r/showerthoughts that said 99% of quality posts are never made because people kind of lose their steam and think \"eh, fuckit.\" Tonight I decided not to be that person. \nSource- Iama RN\nEdit*a sentence",
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"answer": "I just finished my biology courses and from what I was taught was that dying of old age meant that your cells could no longer replicate and make up for the number of dying cells in your body. Your cells are constantly dying and being replaced by new cells that use your DNA to replicate. Each DNA strand can only replicate a finite number of times before the telomere's reach a point that the DNA can't be unzipped and tied of to another strand to make DNA. Your mitochondria also plays a part in cell reproduction. Once the \"power house\" as it is referred to loses that energy you see those signs of aging like wrinkles or sagging skin on old people who've never really had weight issues. \n\nTL;DR: you are born with a predetermined expiration date based on your genetic makeup. Blame your parents. ",
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"answer": "The body is a complex system where thousands of things need to go right for you to keep on living. Sometimes when you die it's very obvious which particular thing failed so that thing is attibuted as the cause of death (e.g. terrible accident, heart attack, liver failure, etc.). \n\nWhen you're very old, what happens is that all your systems decline and multiple things fail at roughly the same time. So many things failed that it's a little silly to attribute death to only one thing. So it's sometimes euphemistically described as old age or natural causes.",
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"answer": "The body is a complicated thing, over time the bodies ability to repair itself diminishes. \n\n Every accident, break, illness or injury leaves its mark on a persons body over a lifetime. \n\n As the bodies ability to repair itself gets worse the weak points from earlier injury(smoking say) are more likely to not recover as well. \n\n So you continue on as joints fail or are worn, ligaments become loose and skin becomes thin and takes a long time to heal. \n\n At the same time your muscles and senses start to become weaker. \n \nThings dont taste as good and your circulation starts to become weaker with the rest of your organs. \n \n Your brain doesnt work as well as it should as the digestive system \ndoesnt provide enough energy to the organs to process the nutrients your body needs to work efficiently. \n\n Your blood and lymphatic system start accumulating poisons as they dont get processed out quickly enough. \n\n Then something that your body could handle in the past happens, your body attempts to repair it but like a game of tetris the parts all pile up to end your fight to live.",
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"answer": "nurse here. Hospice has a diagnosis called \"failure to thrive.\" Basically it means there is a gradual decline that continues so far that people die: your muscles are weaker when you're older, you sleep more, you move less. You lose your appetite. That becomes extreme: even with people spoon feeding food into your mouth, you might not swallow and aspirate. People start sleeping more than the cat. You kind of give up the will to live, or you don't even have the energy to do the things you need to do to live. Pressure sores develop, the muscles that help you swallow weaken, you become dehydrated and your immune system weakens. A natural cause could be a virus or bacteria. An elderly person gets a cold, but their immune system is weak and pneumonia develops and family/that person decides to not treat the infection with antibiotics. Little things that would just give a healthy person a day of malaise causes this person to pass away, and the quality of life is so low that treatment is not sought. Hope that helps!",
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"answer": "At an advanced old age many factors come into play, it's a dice-roll that decides which old age-related disease finishes you off (or combination of old age diseases - you could for instance get a tooth infection that turns into pneumonia) ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Natural causes is a really broad term than can mean any disease or condition that occurs naturally and wasn't caused by another person. \n\nAs far as the elderly go respiratory failure secondary to a respiratory infection or they just lose the drive to eat and drink and stop swallowing is often a cause of death. One of those two plays a role in most deaths that don't involve an MI or stroke, things like cancer and Alzheimer's. Sometimes the person just gets so old they quit breathing or eating with no other cause. ",
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{
"answer": "If you want to get to the genetic aspect keep reading:\n\nThere are things called telomeres, which are essentially sequences at the ends of chromosomes that protect the chromosomes from damage and from connecting with each other. Every time chromosomes replicate, these telomeres of shortens a little. This can cause bad dna to replicate, which can cause numerous diseases, most specifically cancer. Numerous studies have linked many \"old age\" diseases such as cancer, heart disease, and organ failure to shortened telomere lengths. Studies have provided evidence that environmental factors such as smoking, lack of exercise, and stress can lead to shortened telomeres but the exact mechanism for how these factors shorten them is currently unknown. Telomeres are being touted as the \"key to aging\" because they are a huge factor of determining when we die. Also, a not-so-natural possibility is that sometimes foul play is the cause of death but people may not care as much about investigating since the person is of old age.\n\nSource: I'm a genetics nerd and have done research about this. If interested in learning more, read [this](_URL_0_).\n\ntl:dr The ends of our genes expire and then so do we. Or people may not care to determine cause of death is person is around the typical age of death.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Our cells are constantly cloning themselves allowing for growth or repair however with each replication the telomeres which are the ends of the chromosomes (DNA) wear away. Usually when we are older this lack of telomere triggers some mutation to form in cells when they mutate increasing chances of diseases mentioned above such as cancer etc I hope this helps.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Speaking as someone over 70: Have you ever driven a really old car? One day the radiator hose splits because the rubber is worn out, the next day you have two blow-outs in the same afternoon, then the muffler fails and you have smoke billowing out the back, and finally a piston rod snaps and destroys the engine completely? Dying of \"old age\" is kind of like that. Various organs simply reach the end of their functioning span. They decay until they fail. Things break down and wear out. And all these physical \"parts failures\" pile up to the point that you can't keep up with them any longer.\n\nYou can die of a heart attack or a stroke, or something similarly dramatic (or at least definitive), but you can also just die in your sleep because your body says \"That's it, I'm used up, I quit.\" It's cumulative. If your body could regenerate key tissue and organs, there would be no reason your body couldn't last a few more centuries at least -- but then you would have to deal with a brain that wears out, too.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "As you age, your body slowly degrades over time, this happens in just about every living complex organism (lobsters are a notable exception). When one or more vital systems deteriorate too much, the organism dies of \"natural causes\" The processes is called senescence.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35925226",
"title": "Manner of death",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "A death by natural causes results from an illness or an internal malfunction of the body not directly caused by external forces. For example, a person dying from complications from influenza (an infection), a heart attack (an internal body malfunction), or sudden heart failure would most likely be listed as having died from natural causes. \"Death by natural causes\" is sometimes used as a euphemism for \"dying of old age\", which is considered problematic as a cause of death (as opposed to a specific age-related disease); there are also many non-age-related causes of \"natural\" death, for legal manner-of-death purposes. (See )\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "29192344",
"title": "Tragedy (event)",
"section": "Section::::Factors that make death a tragedy.:Prematurity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "A death may be viewed as a tragedy when it is premature in nature. An old person dying of old age is an expectation, but the death of a child or of a young, healthy adult that is not expected by others can be viewed as tragic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "791114",
"title": "Cause of death",
"section": "Section::::Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Health departments discourage listing old age as the cause of death because doing so does not benefit public health or medical research. Old age is not a scientifically recognized cause of death; there is always a more direct cause, although it may be unknown in certain cases and could be one of a number of aging-associated diseases. As an indirect or non-determinative factor, biological aging is the biggest contributor to deaths worldwide. It is estimated that of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—die of age-related causes. In industrialized nations the proportion is much higher, reaching 90%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "16413778",
"title": "Ageing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "In humans, ageing represents the accumulation of changes in a human being over time, encompassing physical, psychological, and social changes. Reaction time, for example, may slow with age, while knowledge of world events and wisdom may expand. Ageing is among the greatest known risk factors for most human diseases: of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds die from age-related causes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "20325140",
"title": "Preventable causes of death",
"section": "Section::::Worldwide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "It is estimated that of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—die of age-related causes. In industrialized nations the proportion is much higher, reaching 90 percent. Thus, albeit indirectly, biological aging (senescence) is by far the leading cause of death. Whether senescence as a biological process itself can be slowed down, halted, or even reversed is a subject of current scientific speculation and research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229060",
"title": "Old age",
"section": "Section::::Psychosocial aspects.:Theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "One of the theories is the disengagement theory proposed in 1961. This theory proposes that in old age a mutual disengagement between people and their society occurs in anticipation of death. By becoming disengaged from work and family responsibilities, according to this concept, people are enabled to enjoy their old age without stress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146539",
"title": "Senescence",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary theories of aging.:Mutation accumulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Peter Medawar formalised this observation in his mutation accumulation theory of aging. \"The force of natural selection weakens with increasing age—even in a theoretically immortal population, provided only that it is exposed to real hazards of mortality. If a genetic disaster... happens late enough in individual life, its consequences may be completely unimportant\". The 'real hazards of mortality' such as predation, disease, and accidents, are known 'extrinsic mortality', and mean that even a population with negligible senescence will have fewer individuals alive in older age groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
cj1ugu
|
Western texts talk at length about Eastern goods received from the Silk Road such as spices and silk. What Western goods went east through the Silk Road of Antiquity that were in high demand for Eastern traders?
|
[
{
"answer": "Perhaps [this answer](_URL_0_) by u/Mighty_Dighty22 to a similar question can shed some light while we wait for other answers.",
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"answer": "With respect to the Roman period, we have a few clues. *The History of the Later Han Dynasty* *(Hou Hanshu*), compiled in the fifth century, contains a brief passage on trade goods from Da Qin (The Roman Empire):\n\n\"This country produces plenty of gold, silver, and precious jewels, luminous jade, bright moon pearls, fighting cocks, rhinoceroses, coral, yellow amber, opaque glass, whitish chalcedony, red cinnabar, green gemstones, drawn gold-threaded and multi-coloured embroideries, woven gold-threaded net, delicate polychrome silks painted with gold, and asbestos cloth.\" (12)\n\nAn excellent commentary on this list can by accessed by clicking on the [notes linked to this text](_URL_0_). \n\nMost of the products listed by the Hou Hanshu were (unsurprisingly) produced in the Roman east, and traded primarily by the merchants of Alexandria and Antioch. Some of them, like the rhinoceros horn and amber mentioned in the list, were not products of the Empire itself, but were handled by Roman merchants. Others were Roman products: that asbestos, for example, probably came from the mountains of Cyprus. \n\nAnother passage in the *Hou Hanshu* remarks:\n\n\"In the reign of Emperor Huan, king An-tun of Da Qin (Rome) sent an embassy....this offered ivory, rhinoceros horn, and tortoise shell....but their tribute contained no jewels\" (88)\n\nThis was not a real embassy - as far as we know, in fact, the Romans never sent a formal delegation to China. It was almost certainly a party of Roman merchants operating between Alexandria and India, who had either been shipwrecked on, or attempted to trade along, the southern Chinese coast. The ivory and tortoise shell they brought were probably from India, though the rhinoceros horn may have been imported from sub-Saharan Africa via Alexandria. \n\nIn general, however, the Chinese do not seem to have been especially interested in most Roman products; Pliny the Elder remarks in his (admittedly very ill-informed) description of \"the Seres\" (Chinese), \"they shun all intercourse with the rest of mankind, and await the approach of those who wish to traffic with them\" (6.20).",
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"answer": "According to [Dmitry Voyakin](_URL_7_), goods that are known to have traveled East along the Silk Roads include \"frankincense and myrrh, jasmine and amber, cardamom and nutmeg, ginseng and bile of a python, carpets and fabrics, dyes and minerals, diamonds, jade, amber, corals, ivory... gold and silver bullions, fur and coins, bows, arrows, swords and spears\" as well as animals and more abstract elements of culture such as fashion.\n\nChinese pottery was among the Eastern goods that traveled West along the Silk Roads. It may be of interest that some of that pottery may have been produced in the East using a material imported from the West. There is not currently a scholarly consensus around this possible Western export, cobalt blue pigment from Persia. This cobalt would have been used in pottery centres like [Jingdezhen](https://_URL_5_) in Jiangxi province, which produced iconic blue-and-white pottery during the Ming dynasty (CE 1368-1644).\n\nSupport for the idea that the distinctive blue under-glaze was painted using imported Persian cobalt comes from studies which examine the manganese content in blue-and-white Ming artifacts. Chinese cobalt is [normally thought](_URL_4_) to have high amounts of manganese, whereas cobalt ores found in Persia typically don't have manganese. Based on several different studies, [some scholars](_URL_0_) divided the artifacts into two distinct groups. Samples from before CE 1425 have cobalt with very low manganese levels (and high iron), [suggesting](_URL_4_) the pigment was imported from abroad; samples after CE 1425 have cobalt with significant quantities of manganese (and low iron), meaning their pigment was probably sourced from within China.\n\nThose who are skeptical of significant amounts of blue pigment being imported to China from the West generally don't dispute the findings pointing to low manganese levels in the cobalt of some blue-and-white Ming ware. The point of dissension is the conclusion that these samples of cobalt cannot have come from inside China. One author, [Adam T. Kessler,](_URL_1_) supports this view, in part, by suggesting that primary sources from the late Ming dynasty reveal that some cobalt historically mined in China may chemically resemble what is thought to be 'imported' cobalt. Kessler refers to an English translation of the [*Tiangong Kaiwu*](_URL_3_) (originally written in CE 1637 by Song Yingxing), which mentions pigment being sourced from a city in Jiangxi named for its arsenic-richness, as one example of historical evidence contradicting the dominant modern understanding of which materials could have been used in production of wares.\n\nWhile it is difficult to say with absolute certainty that before CE 1425, blue-and-white porcelain produced in Ming dynasty China owed its iconic blue under-glaze to cobalt that traveled along Silk Roads from Persia, it is widely believed to be the likely case. In addition to trade signifying exchange, it may have meant collaboration in this instance.\n\n\\*\\*^(Sources)\\*\\*^(:)\n\n^(Dillon, Michael. \"Transport and Marketing in the Development of the Jingdezhen Porcelain Industry during the Ming and Qing Dynasties.\") *^(Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient)* ^(35, no. 3 (1992: 278-90.)) ^(JSTOR,) [^(_URL_5_)](https://_URL_5_)\n\n^(Du, Feng & Su BaoRu. Science in China Series E-Technol. Sci. (2008 51: 249.)) [^(_URL_4_)](_URL_4_)\n\n^(Juan, Wu, Pau L. Leung, and Li Jiazhi. \"A Study of the Composition of Chinese Blue and White Porcelain.\") *^(Studies in Conservation)* ^(52, no. 3 (2007: 188-98.)) [^(_URL_2_)](_URL_2_)\n\n^(Kessler, Adam T. \"Song Blue and White Porcelain on the Silk Road\" (2012)) [*^(Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology)*](_URL_6_) ^(BRILL: Leiden, Boston. P. 511.)\n\n^(\"The Exploitation of the Works of Nature (Tiangong Kaiwu),\" ^(World Digital Library)) [^(_URL_3_)](_URL_3_)\n\n^(Voyakin, Dmitry, \"The Great Silk Roads.\" UNESCO.) [^(_URL_7_)](_URL_7_)\n\n*^(Edit: formatting struggles.)*",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54100722",
"title": "Caftan (Metropolitan Museum of Art)",
"section": "Section::::Context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "The Silk Road was the great overland trade route of the Ancient World, carrying goods including silks from China to the Mediterranean. By the 6th century C.E., tensions between Byzantium and the Sasanian Empire disrupted trade along the traditional route. Central Asian merchants developed a new route to Byzantium, going north from the Caspian Sea and crossing the Caucasus Mountains via steep passes (most prominently in the North Caucasus, the Darial Gorge). The first caravan carrying Chinese silks traveled via this North Caucasus route in 568. The Caucasus silk routes remained in use through the Middle Ages, losing their importance only in the 14th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "726880",
"title": "Pax Mongolica",
"section": "Section::::Trade network.:World trade system: the Silk Road.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 828,
"text": "On the Silk Road caravans with Chinese silk; pepper, ginger, cinnamon, and nutmeg came to the West from the Spice Islands via the transcontinental trade routes. Eastern diets were introduced to Europeans as well. Indian muslins, cottons, pearls, and precious stones were sold in Europe, as well as weapons, carpets, and leather goods from Iran. Gunpowder was also introduced to Europe from China. In the opposite direction, Europeans sent silver, fine cloth, horses, linen, and other goods to the near and far East. Increasing trade and commerce meant that the respective nations and societies increased their exposure to new goods and markets, thus increasing the GDP of each nation or society that was involved in the trade system. Μany of the cities participating in the 13th century world trade system grew rapidly in size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10783723",
"title": "History of silk",
"section": "Section::::Chinese silk and its commerce.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1337,
"text": "In the late Middle Ages, transcontinental trade over the land routes of the Silk Road declined as sea trade increased. The Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of the civilizations of China, India, Ancient Egypt, Persia, Arabia, and Ancient Rome. Though silk was certainly the major trade item from China, many other goods were traded, and various technologies, religions and philosophies, as well as the bubonic plague (the \"Black Death\"), also traveled along the Silk Routes. Some of the other goods traded included luxuries such as silk, satin, hemp and other fine fabrics, musk, other perfumes, spices, medicines, jewels, glassware, and even rhubarb, as well as slaves. China traded silk, teas, and porcelain; while India traded spices, ivory, textiles, precious stones, and pepper; and the Roman Empire exported gold, silver, fine glassware, wine, carpets, and jewels. Although the term \"the Silk Road\" implies a continuous journey, very few who traveled the route traversed it from end to end; for the most part, goods were transported by a series of agents on varying routes and were traded in the bustling markets of the oasis towns. The main traders during Antiquity were the Indian and Bactrian traders, then from the 5th to the 8th century AD the Sogdian traders, then afterward the Arab and Persian traders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54253",
"title": "Silk Road",
"section": "Section::::Routes.:Northern route.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "A route for caravans, the northern Silk Road brought to China many goods such as \"dates, saffron powder and pistachio nuts from Persia; frankincense, aloes and myrrh from Somalia; sandalwood from India; glass bottles from Egypt, and other expensive and desirable goods from other parts of the world.\" In exchange, the caravans sent back bolts of silk brocade, lacquer-ware, and porcelain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54645339",
"title": "Investment in Azerbaijan",
"section": "Section::::Current Investments.:Great Silk Road.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "The Great Silk Road (term for the first time was used in 1877 by German geographical scholar Ferdinand von Richthofen) is the caravan route of the ancient times and Middle Ages from China to the countries of Central and Minor Asia. The Great Silk Road was named after the main trade item-silk, which until the 6th century of our era was manufactured only in China.The Great Silk Road brings together two different worlds – the East and the West. Ancient trade routes have passed from China, Japan, India, Mongolia, Iran, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan and other countries.Nakhchivan and mainly, Azerbaijan played a significant role in the whole route for centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10783723",
"title": "History of silk",
"section": "Section::::Chinese silk and its commerce.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 650,
"text": "The silk road toward the west was opened by the Chinese in the 2nd century AD. The main road left from Xi'an, going either to the north or south of the Taklamakan desert, one of the most arid in the world, before crossing the Pamir Mountains. The caravans that employed this method to exchange silk with other merchants were generally quite large, including from 100 to 500 people as well as camels and yaks carrying around 140 kg (300 lb) of merchandise. They linked to Antioch and the coasts of the Mediterranean, about one year's travel from Xi'an. In the south, a second route went by Yemen, Burma, and India before rejoining the northern route.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "51510",
"title": "Silk",
"section": "Section::::History.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "Silk is described in a chapter of the \"Fan Shengzhi shu\" from the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD). There is a surviving calendar for silk production in an Eastern Han (25–220 AD) document. The two other known works on silk from the Han period are lost. The first evidence of the long distance silk trade is the finding of silk in the hair of an Egyptian mummy of the 21st dynasty, c.1070 BC. The silk trade reached as far as the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, Europe, and North Africa. This trade was so extensive that the major set of trade routes between Europe and Asia came to be known as the Silk Road.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
plg3r
|
how things such as albums and photos are leaked onto the internet.
|
[
{
"answer": "It's a good real world example of how a secret is something you tell NOONE. Once you tell anyone, it has a very good chance of not being a secret for long.\n\nAn imaginary scenario would be something like the chapter of a book sent to a lot of people during the process of publishing. If one of those just tells 2 close personal friends one of whom happens to tell their family who has a teenager that has a boyfriend that brags on a private forum read by 50 teenagers, one of which uploads it to 4chan.... and suddenly it's there for the whole world to see.\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "460736",
"title": "Protection of Children Act 1978",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:The \"making\" offence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "\"A person who either downloads images on to disc or who prints them off is making them. The Act is not only concerned with the original creation of images, but also their proliferation. Photographs or pseudo-photographs found on the Internet may have originated from outside the United Kingdom; to download or print within the jurisdiction is to create new material which hitherto may not have existed therein.\" (\"\"R v Bowden\")\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "461056",
"title": "R v Bowden",
"section": "Section::::Judgment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Therefore, downloading an indecent photograph from the Internet was \"making a copy of an indecent photograph\" since a copy of that photograph had been caused to exist on the computer to which it had been downloaded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2750352",
"title": "Internet leak",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "An Internet leak occurs when a party's confidential information is released to the public on the Internet. Various types of information and data can be, and have been, \"leaked\" to the Internet, the most common being personal information, computer software and source code, and artistic works such as books or albums. For example, a musical album is leaked if it has been made available to the public on the Internet before its official release date.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1478728",
"title": "Image sharing",
"section": "Section::::Technologies.:Web photo album generators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Software can be found on the Internet to generate digital photo albums, usually to share photos on the web, using a home web server. In general, this is for advanced users that want to have better control over the appearance of their web albums and the actual servers they are going to run on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41897927",
"title": "The Intercept",
"section": "Section::::Criticism and controversy.:Exposure and arrest of a confidential source.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Verifying the legitimacy of leaked documents is common journalism practice, as is protecting third parties who may be harmed incidentally by the leak being published. However, professional media outlets who receive documents or recordings from confidential sources do not, as a practice, share the unfiltered primary evidence with a federal agency for review or verification, as it is known that metadata and unique identifiers may be revealed that were not obvious to the journalist, and the source exposed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29987485",
"title": "List of material published by WikiLeaks",
"section": "Section::::Complete list.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "This article only covers a small subset of the leaked documents—those that have attracted significant attention in the mainstream press. Wikileaks has the complete list, organised by country or by year through 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52548243",
"title": "Fake news websites in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Obscurity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Since the authors of these websites are not actual reporters, many fake news sites either pretend to have the identity of a reporter or simply do not include an 'About Us' page. These websites almost never have any other publications that reference them or information about themselves on tertiary sources like Wikipedia. When these sites get publicized by actual organizations, it gives them a bit of legitimacy, which helps them get viewers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1zzjro
|
pluto's orbit
|
[
{
"answer": "Pluto isn't actually an oddball. Most dwarf planets have highly eliptical, angled orbits. [see this side-view image of the solar system with several dwarf planets and kuiper belt objects highlighted](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3048284",
"title": "Moons of Pluto",
"section": "Section::::Small moons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Pluto's four small moons orbit Pluto at two to four times the distance of Charon, ranging from Styx at 42,700 kilometres to Hydra at 64,800 kilometres from the barycenter of the system. They have nearly circular prograde orbits in the same orbital plane as Charon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32475056",
"title": "Kerberos (moon)",
"section": "Section::::Origin.:Orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Observations indicate a circular, equatorial orbit around the Pluto-Charon barycenter at a distance of . All of Pluto's moons including Kerberos have very circular orbits with very low orbital inclinations to Pluto's equator. Kerberos orbits between Nix and Hydra and makes a complete orbit around Pluto roughly every 32.167 days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44469",
"title": "Pluto",
"section": "Section::::Orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Pluto's orbital period is currently about 248 years. Its orbital characteristics are substantially different from those of the planets, which follow nearly circular orbits around the Sun close to a flat reference plane called the ecliptic. In contrast, Pluto's orbit is moderately inclined relative to the ecliptic (over 17°) and moderately eccentric (elliptical). This eccentricity means a small region of Pluto's orbit lies closer to the Sun than Neptune's. The Pluto–Charon barycenter came to perihelion on September 5, 1989, and was last closer to the Sun than Neptune between February 7, 1979, and February 11, 1999.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "212598",
"title": "Minor-planet moon",
"section": "Section::::Populations and classes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "BULLET::::- Pluto has five known moons. Its largest moon Charon is more than half the size of Pluto itself, and large enough to orbit a point outside Pluto's surface. In fact, each orbits the common barycenter between them, with Pluto's orbit entirely enclosed by Charon's; thus they form a binary system informally referred to as a double dwarf planet. Pluto's four other moons, Nix, Hydra, Kerberos, and Styx, are far smaller and orbit the Pluto–Charon system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "839504",
"title": "List of natural satellites",
"section": "Section::::Moons by primary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Pluto, a dwarf planet, has five moons. Its largest moon Charon, named after the ferryman who took souls across the River Styx, is more than half as large as Pluto itself, and large enough to orbit a point outside Pluto's surface. In effect, each orbits the other, forming a binary system informally referred to as a double-dwarf-planet. Pluto's four other moons, Nix, Hydra, Kerberos and Styx are far smaller and orbit the Pluto–Charon system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44469",
"title": "Pluto",
"section": "Section::::Orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "In the long term, Pluto's orbit is chaotic. Computer simulations can be used to predict its position for several million years (both forward and backward in time), but after intervals longer than the Lyapunov time of 10–20 million years, calculations become speculative: Pluto is sensitive to immeasurably small details of the Solar System, hard-to-predict factors that will gradually change Pluto's position in its orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52838",
"title": "Charon (moon)",
"section": "Section::::Orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "Charon and Pluto orbit each other every 6.387 days. The two objects are gravitationally locked to one another, so each keeps the same face towards the other. This is a case of mutual tidal locking, as compared to that of the Earth and the Moon, where the Moon always shows the same face to Earth, but not vice versa. The average distance between Charon and Pluto is . The discovery of Charon allowed astronomers to calculate accurately the mass of the Plutonian system, and mutual occultations revealed their sizes. However, neither indicated the two bodies' individual masses, which could only be estimated, until the discovery of Pluto's outer moons in late 2005. Details in the orbits of the outer moons revealed that Charon has approximately 12% of the mass of Pluto.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
l9u7s
|
why such widespread poverty still exists in the 21st century.
|
[
{
"answer": "It has become institutionally acceptable for American Corporations to lay off literally millions of people and then ship those jobs overseas while paying maybe $3 a day.\n\nThe reason other countries accept these jobs goes back to the complicatd post ww2 cold war era of **de**colonization and subsequent **neo**colonization of these lands. This is the reason why Africa, one of the most naturally rich lands on the planet, faces famine and war; not by their own means, but by the corrupting influence of both the corporate west and communist east.\n\nyou should check out[This interview](_URL_1_) or [this one](_URL_0_) to gain a further understanding of modern empire and how that equates to our current paradigms of **dual economies**; the dichotomy of abject poverty and decadent opulence coexisting, side-by-side, in the same country. \n\nEdit: added John Perkins Interviews",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It has become institutionally acceptable for American Corporations to lay off literally millions of people and then ship those jobs overseas while paying maybe $3 a day.\n\nThe reason other countries accept these jobs goes back to the complicatd post ww2 cold war era of **de**colonization and subsequent **neo**colonization of these lands. This is the reason why Africa, one of the most naturally rich lands on the planet, faces famine and war; not by their own means, but by the corrupting influence of both the corporate west and communist east.\n\nyou should check out[This interview](_URL_1_) or [this one](_URL_0_) to gain a further understanding of modern empire and how that equates to our current paradigms of **dual economies**; the dichotomy of abject poverty and decadent opulence coexisting, side-by-side, in the same country. \n\nEdit: added John Perkins Interviews",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2301052",
"title": "Poverty reduction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 748,
"text": "Poverty has been historically accepted in some parts of the world as inevitable as non-industrialized economies produced very little, while populations grew almost as fast, making wealth scarce. Geoffrey Parker wrote that Poverty reduction occurs largely as a result of overall economic growth. Food shortages were common before modern agricultural technology and in places that lack them today, such as nitrogen fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation methods. The dawn of industrial revolution led to high economic growth, eliminating mass poverty in what is now considered the developed world. World GDP per person quintupled during the 20th century. In 1820, 75% of humanity lived on less than a dollar a day, while in 2001, only about 20% did.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1103799",
"title": "Distribution of wealth",
"section": "Section::::Redistribution of wealth and public policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "On the other hand, the combination of labor movements, technology, and social liberalism has diminished extreme poverty in the developed world today, though extremes of wealth and poverty continue in the Third World.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18938115",
"title": "21st century",
"section": "Section::::Issues and concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 461,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 461,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "BULLET::::- Poverty. Poverty remains the root cause of many of the world's other ills, including famine, disease, and insufficient education. Poverty contains many self-reinforcing elements (for instance, poverty can make education an unaffordable luxury, which tends to result in continuing poverty) that various aid groups hope to rectify in this century. Immense progress has been made in reducing poverty, especially in China and India but increasingly in Africa as well. Microcredit lending has also started to gain a profile as a useful anti-poverty tool.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44318698",
"title": "The Blu Ribbon Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Causes of Poverty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "The origins of poverty have been classified as historical, environmental, social, cultural and political each with its own impact. Colonialism, slavery, war, and conquest have led to long term impacts globally but most of all in African and Asian nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33241998",
"title": "Concentrated poverty",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "There have long been areas of concentrated poverty, and the distinct social problems of concentrated poverty, which exacerbate individual impoverishment have been the grounds of reform movements and studies since the mid-19th Century. However, the measure of concentrated poverty and the coalescence around an analytical conception of concentrated poverty occurred only in the 1970s. This more recent focus on concentrated poverty grew largely out of concern about the nation’s inner cities in the wake of ongoing deindustrialization, civil unrest in the late 1960s, and the rapid suburbanization and out-migration that followed. In most cases, these poor inner city locations were populated predominantly by minorities, and many featured large public housing developments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38690652",
"title": "Poverty in Poland",
"section": "Section::::History and trends.:Communist era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Concurrently, the state tended to neglect the problem: a 1983 work claims that social assistance fulfilled 14% of poor people's needs. Institutions were not proactively interested in bettering people's lives, while the poor had little awareness of their rights. Official ideology saw poverty as a marginal phenomenon caused by unusual life events and pathology, rather than being a usual part of life. In the 1980s, as economic depression and the shortage economy took hold, poverty changed from afflicting the marginalized and the maladapted, to include those willing and able to work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11544421",
"title": "Poverty in Malaysia",
"section": "Section::::Industrialisation and urbanisation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "As the country modernised, new forms of poverty appeared; one such problem was that of urban poverty. Economic development has been named as the cause of poverty amongst \"single female headed households, the rural elderly, unskilled workers and migrant workers\" by a local economist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
gd95d
|
When two photons interfere, what happens to their energy?
|
[
{
"answer": "Every destructive minimum has a corresponding constructive maximum.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interference is a wavelike phenomenon, so you can't think of it in terms of what happens to discrete photons. Destructively interfering light doesn't hit your retina because the destructive interference means there's no light on your retina; the fact that light is also quantized in little packets isn't relevant, and there's no way to understand the phenomenon in terms of it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Questions about energy conservation of wave interference should in principle be answerable without QM(making references to QM completely superfluous and potentially confusing), or about mentioning photons or anything. It is just a property of waves, many things have such properties approximately, for instance water waves or signals in electronics can interfere just as well as, and even many experiments with light have typically so many photons, that you don't need to mention them, just the electrodynamics.\n\nFor something specific and tangible, water waves seem like a good tangible thing. However, after wasting a bunch of time and i still don't have a very good explanation.\n\nLets have T-shaped box with thin channels filled with frictionless water.\n\nLets consider [standing waves](_URL_1_). If the number of nodes is even, the center is always at 'zero' (no-wave water height) so there is destructive interference in the center, then no waves enter the middle. If you make the number of nodes odd, the center gets constructive interference. But we haven't said anything of the amplitude, so we could put any damn energy in there..\n\nI guess i could try use an interesting property of the 1D [wave equation](_URL_0_); you can make solutions involving shapes moving left/right.\n\nIf you start off with two opposite shapes on opposite ends(fully antisymmetric), then they're cancelling each other when they pass the 't-section', and just perpetually bounce across the top of the 'T'\n\nIf you start on just one side, then the wave splits into two, but the energy will also be split. Then the wave will eventually bounce on the bottom of the 'T', and make a big mess because it would arive (unless the length of the 'T' is well-matched). Similar will happen if you symmetrically start two shapes on the ends of the 'T' (But it would stay symmetric, however.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26469085",
"title": "Random laser",
"section": "Section::::Anderson localization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Photons traveling in this loop will also interfere with each other. The well defined cavity length (1–10 μm) will ensure that the interference is constructive and will allow certain modes to oscillate. The competition for gain permits one mode to oscillate once the lasing threshold has been reached.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1231776",
"title": "Photoionization",
"section": "Section::::Multi-photon ionization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Several photons of energy below the ionization threshold may actually combine their energies to ionize an atom. This probability decreases rapidly with the number of photons required, but the development of very intense, pulsed lasers still makes it possible. In the perturbative regime (below about 10 W/cm at optical frequencies), the probability of absorbing \"N\" photons depends on the laser-light intensity \"I\" as \"I\". For higher intensities, this dependence becomes invalid due to the then occurring AC Stark effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23579",
"title": "Photoelectric effect",
"section": "Section::::Emission mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 994,
"text": "The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy which is proportional to the frequency of the light. In the photoemission process, if an electron within some material absorbs the energy of one photon and acquires more energy than the work function (the electron binding energy) of the material, it is ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the electron is unable to escape the material. Since an increase in the intensity of low-frequency light will only increase the number of low-energy photons sent over a given interval of time, this change in intensity will not create any single photon with enough energy to dislodge an electron. Thus, the energy of the emitted electrons does not depend on the intensity of the incoming light, but only on the energy (equivalent frequency) of the individual photons. It is an interaction between the incident photon and the innermost electrons. The movement of an outer electron to occupy the vacancy then result in the emission of a photon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9476",
"title": "Electron",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Interaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Photons mediate electromagnetic interactions between particles in quantum electrodynamics. An isolated electron at a constant velocity cannot emit or absorb a real photon; doing so would violate conservation of energy and momentum. Instead, virtual photons can transfer momentum between two charged particles. This exchange of virtual photons, for example, generates the Coulomb force. Energy emission can occur when a moving electron is deflected by a charged particle, such as a proton. The acceleration of the electron results in the emission of Bremsstrahlung radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218628",
"title": "Chemical potential",
"section": "Section::::Systems of particles.:Sub-nuclear particles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "In the case of photons, photons are bosons and can very easily and rapidly appear or disappear. Therefore, the chemical potential of photons is always and everywhere zero. The reason is, if the chemical potential somewhere was higher than zero, photons would spontaneously disappear from that area until the chemical potential went back to zero; likewise if the chemical potential somewhere was less than zero, photons would spontaneously appear until the chemical potential went back to zero. Since this process occurs extremely rapidly (at least, it occurs rapidly in the presence of dense charged matter), it is safe to assume that the photon chemical potential is never different from zero.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3339367",
"title": "Elitzur–Vaidman bomb tester",
"section": "Section::::How it works.:Part 3: The second half-silvered mirror.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "When two waves collide, the process by which they affect each other is called interference. They can either strengthen each other by \"constructive interference\", or weaken each other by \"destructive interference\". This is true whether the wave is in water, or a single photon in a superposition. So even though there is only one photon in the experiment, because of its encounter with the half-silvered mirror, it acts like two. When \"it\" or \"they\" are reflected off the ordinary mirrors, it will interfere with itself as if it were two different photons. \"But that's only true if the bomb is a dud.\" A live bomb will absorb the photon when it explodes and there will be no opportunity for the photon to interfere with itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25017774",
"title": "Photoelectrochemical process",
"section": "Section::::Photoionization.:Multi-photon ionization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Several photons of energy below the ionization threshold may actually combine their energies to ionize an atom. This probability decreases rapidly with the number of photons required, but the development of very intense, pulsed lasers still makes it possible. In the perturbative regime (below about 10 W/cm at optical frequencies), the probability of absorbing \"N\" photons depends on the laser-light intensity \"I\" as \"I\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1bwi5d
|
what philosophical assumptions does science make? what are the 'beliefs' inherent in scientific inquiry?
|
[
{
"answer": "That induction works, which is a perfectly fine assumption to make. Generally we assume that our senses aren't lying and what happens today and yesterday and tomorrow will probably keep happening in the same way given the same inputs forever.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of the bigger things is that we can never be sure of our observations 100%. If I flip a coin 4 times and it lands on heads all of those times, I would be wrong to say that it's always going to land on heads. I may have just been very lucky! If you think about this, there's no reason this doesn't apply to 10 consecutive heads, 100 consecutive heads, or 1,000,000,000 consecutive heads.\n\nThis applies to everything. Maybe the sun isn't going to come up tomorrow even though we the sun has come up every single day for the past 7,000 years of recorded history(?). We could have just been very, very, very lucky. \n\nWe usually assume that observation \"A\" is true if we can calculate that the statistical probability \"A\" being due to luck or chance is less than 5%. That is true for the biological sciences .. for physics it's more like 0.0000000034% or something.\n\nAnyway, yeah. Some food for thought.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of the main assumption is that when you got out to prove something, you're trying to prove everything else wrong, not proving yourself right. As part of this, in your own experiments need to be designed to do the same. A famous is example is if you set out to prove all swans are white, you could find a 100 white swans and not be proved right, but if you find one black swan, then you've been proved wrong.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everyone keeps pointing out that induction does not prove anything. Which is absolutely true, but also a basic principle of science. You do not set out to prove a hypothesis, merely to support it with further evidence. \n\nYou can disprove things, but that is using deduction rather than induction. All swans are white, this is a swan so if my theory is right it should be white. This swan is black, so my theory is false. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Feynman pretty much nailed the long and short of it:\n\n > It doesn't matter how beautiful your theory is, it doesn't matter how smart you are. If it doesn't agree with experiment, it's wrong.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Science is based on [methodological naturalism](_URL_0_), which broadly is the assumption that natural phenomena have natural causes. In other words, any proposed non-natural (or supernatural) causes are out of the scope of science. This usually means that if the cause is not observable (or able to be studied) it is rejected as a scientific explanation. \n\nThis is not strictly a *philosophical* assumption because generally scientists don't claim that it is true. It's simply a useful assumption to make when trying to determine how the universe would work *if it were true*. Many scientists hold beliefs that are of a supernatural nature. For these people, a naturalistic approach is adopted purely for the purposes of doing science, whilst outside of their work they hold supernatural beliefs. This often leads to compartmentalisation or a god-of-the-gaps mindset.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "364299",
"title": "Experimental psychology",
"section": "Section::::Methodology.:Some underlying assumptions of psychological science.:Empiricism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "Perhaps the most basic assumption of science is that factual statements about the world must ultimately be based on observations of the world. This notion of empiricism requires that hypotheses and theories be tested against observations of the natural world rather than on a priori reasoning, intuition, or revelation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26700",
"title": "Science",
"section": "Section::::Scientific research.:Philosophy of science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify the scientific method: (1) that there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers; (2) that this objective reality is governed by natural laws; (3) that these laws can be discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation. Philosophy of science seeks a deep understanding of what these underlying assumptions mean and whether they are valid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4410781",
"title": "Objectivity (science)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Objectivity in science is an attempt to uncover truths about the natural world by eliminating personal biases, emotions, and false beliefs. It is often linked to observation as part of the scientific method. It is thus intimately related to the aim of testability and reproducibility. To be considered objective, the results of measurement must be communicated from person to person, and then for third parties, as an advance in a collective understanding of the world. Such demonstrable knowledge has ordinarily conferred demonstrable powers of prediction or technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "474202",
"title": "Carlo Rovelli",
"section": "Section::::Main contributions.:History and philosophy of science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "For Rovelli, science is a continuous process of exploring novel possible views of the world; this happens via a \"learned rebellion,\" which always builds and relies on previous knowledge but at the same time continuously questions aspects of this received knowledge. The foundation of science, therefore, is not certainty but the very opposite, a radical uncertainty about our own knowledge, or equivalently, an acute awareness of the extent of our ignorance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26700",
"title": "Science",
"section": "Section::::Scientific research.:Philosophy of science.:Certainty and science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "Philosopher Barry Stroud adds that, although the best definition for \"knowledge\" is contested, being skeptical and entertaining the \"possibility\" that one is incorrect is compatible with being correct. Therefore, scientists adhering to proper scientific approaches will doubt themselves even once they possess the truth. The fallibilist C. S. Peirce argued that inquiry is the struggle to resolve actual doubt and that merely quarrelsome, verbal, or hyperbolic doubt is fruitless – but also that the inquirer should try to attain genuine doubt rather than resting uncritically on common sense. He held that the successful sciences trust not to any single chain of inference (no stronger than its weakest link) but to the cable of multiple and various arguments intimately connected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20683472",
"title": "Betrayers of the Truth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Our conclusion, in brief, is that science bears little resemblance to its conventional portrait. We believe that the logical structure discernible in scientific knowledge says nothing about the process by which the structure was built or the mentality of the builders. In the acquisition of knowledge, scientists are not guided by logic and objectivity alone, but also by such nonrational factors as rhetoric, propaganda, and personal prejudice. Scientists do not depend solely on rational thought, and have no monopoly on it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26833",
"title": "Scientific method",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy and sociology of science.:Analytical philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 163,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 163,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "Philosophy of science looks at the underpinning logic of the scientific method, at what separates science from non-science, and the ethic that is implicit in science. There are basic assumptions, derived from philosophy by at least one prominent scientist, that form the base of the scientific method – namely, that reality is objective and consistent, that humans have the capacity to perceive reality accurately, and that rational explanations exist for elements of the real world. These assumptions from methodological naturalism form a basis on which science may be grounded. Logical Positivist, empiricist, falsificationist, and other theories have criticized these assumptions and given alternative accounts of the logic of science, but each has also itself been criticized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zumia
|
Would the Third Reich have supported the creation of Israel?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think this is a fair question to ask, given that much of the groundwork of the Jewish state was well in motion by the time of Nazi Germany (Third Reich is a propaganda term they themselves coined).\n\nYour recollection is correct. From the beginning of the mass murder of Jewish people in what became the Holocaust, it was readily apparent that simply shooting every Jew in Nazi-occupied Europe was not a feasible plan. So by the end of 1941, tentative schemes were in motion that would become official policy as of the Wannsee Conference in 1942 (which explicitly outlined the Final Solution - viz. expelling Jews to Eastern European labour and death camps).\n\nPrior to that conference, however, a variety of methods for removing Jews from Europe were explored, including potentially sending them to Madagascar. However, keep in mind this would not have been simply a Jewish state - the SS intended to monitor and control the island, making it more a \"super-ghetto\" than an autonomous Jewish state proper. Their plan was contingent on victory over Britain, which of course did not happen, and when British forces seized Madagascar from Vichy control, that ended that scheme.\n\nIt would be incredibly unlikely that the Nazis would move the Jews to Palestine, given their struggle for North Africa, and thus their attempts to befriend Arab leaders, including Hitler pledging support for Grand Mufti Amn al-Husseini's plan of an Arab state in Palestine. They would in effect be alienating people they regarded as necessary allies, to placate a group they literally saw as on the level of rats.\n\nBut if the Nazis for some reason did see it worthwhile to move the Jews to Israel, I suspect the SS would run the province like a super-ghetto, much in the way they envisioned potentially turning Madagascar.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > The streets were full of people shouting: ’Juden raus! Auf nach Palästina!’ ” (\"Jews out, out to Palestine!\")\n\nDuring Kristallnacht in 1938 Germany.\n\nYes, they definitely wanted Jews out in any way possible, including establishing a Zionist state in Palestine. There is a fair amount of evidence of Nazi Germany working with Zionists to send German Jews there.\n\nI seem to remember a deal they made that they made in which Jews who emigrated to Palestine wouldn't lose as much property as if they had emigrated elsewhere. I could be wrong on this though. If I remember correctly I got this from ~~*Rise of the Third Reich*~~ ~~*The Third Reich in Power* by Richard Evans.~~ Someone please correct me if I'm wrong here. \n\nEdit: The more I think about it, the less I'm confident in the source. I've read too many books on WWII, they sort of blend together after a while.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I remember hearing a radio interview years ago... unfortunately I can't remember who the subject was or even what program it was on - but the topic was the cascading nature of evil. The guy was using Nazis as his example, to show that by initially acting on the (relatively) small evil of racism, the Nazis started a ball rolling that boxed them into progressively more evil decisions.\n\nThe logic of it went something like this:\n\n1. Jews are bad.\n2. Let's deny Jews the ability to work or do business, then we'll deport all of them.\n3. All these unemployed Jews are causing problems. Let's round them up and contain them in ghettoes until we can deport them.\n4. We can't deport them, and these ghettoes are causing problems. Let's move them to labor camps.\n5. We don't have the resources for these labor camps to do anything productive, we can't deport these people and we can't let them go. Let's kill all of them.\n\nThe point being that once they institutionalized racism, the Nazis set themselves on a path that led directly to the greatest evil in history. Each step on the path pretty much mandated the next step, incremental steps, each one more evil, but each one dictated by the logic of the situation they'd put themselves in. By starting down that path, the Nazis ended up in a place few of them had intended at the beginning.\n\nIt's a concept that really stuck with me, simply because the question is so common - \"How did a modern, well-educated, reasonable society commit such a monstrous atrocity?\" and I think it provides the best answer. \"A little bit at a time.\"\n\nSome might see that as a rationalization or even a justification. I think it's a powerful cautionary tale.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33610767",
"title": "Land of Israel",
"section": "Section::::History.:British Mandate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 1125,
"text": "The Biblical concept of Eretz Israel, and its re-establishment as a state in the modern era, was a basic tenet of the original Zionist program. This program however, saw little success until the British commitment to \"the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people\" in the Balfour Declaration of 1917. Chaim Weizmann, as leader of the Zionist delegation, at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference presented a Zionist Statement on 3 February. Among other things, he presented a plan for development together with a map of the proposed homeland. The statement noted the Jewish historical connection with \"Palestine\". It also declared the Zionists' proposed borders and resources \"essential for the necessary economic foundation of the country\" including \"the control of its rivers and their headwaters\". These borders included present day Israel and the occupied territories, western Jordan, southwestern Syria and southern Lebanon \"in the vicinity south of Sidon\". The subsequent British occupation and British acceptance of the July 1922 League of Nations Mandate for Palestine, advanced the Zionist cause.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24004485",
"title": "Political views of Albert Einstein",
"section": "Section::::Zionism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1712,
"text": "Einstein publicly stated reservations about the proposal to partition the British mandate of Palestine into independent Arab and Jewish countries. In a 1938 speech, \"Our Debt to Zionism\", he said: \"I should much rather see reasonable agreement with the Arabs on the basis of living together in peace than the creation of a Jewish state. My awareness of the essential nature of Judaism resists the idea of a Jewish state with borders, an army, and a measure of temporal power, no matter how modest. I am afraid of the inner damage Judaism will sustain—especially from the development of a narrow nationalism within our own ranks, against which we have already had to fight strongly, even without a Jewish state. ... If external necessity should after all compel us to assume this burden, let us bear it with tact and patience.\" His attitudes were nuanced: In his testimony before the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry in January 1946 he stated that he was not in favour of the creation of a Jewish state, while in a 1947 letter to Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru intended to persuade India to support Zionist aims of establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine, Einstein stated that the Balfour Declaration's proposal to establish a national home for Jews in Palestine \"redresses the balance\" of justice and history, claiming that \"at the end of the first world war, the Allies gave the Arabs 99% of the vast, underpopulated territories liberated from the Turks to satisfy their national aspirations and five independent Arab states were established. One per cent was reserved for the Jews in the land of their origin\". Einstein remained strongly supportive of unlimited Jewish immigration to Palestine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7181305",
"title": "Victor Cazalet",
"section": "Section::::Political career.:Advocating a Jewish homeland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "In Cazalet's opinion, it was in the best interest of the British Empire to establish a Jewish state in Palestine. However, despite the fact that the Jews were also victims of Nazi aggression, they were still not recognized as allies of Great Britain. \"England,\" he said, \"may have made many mistakes, but today she represents something above and beyond material possessions.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8872083",
"title": "Stalin and antisemitism",
"section": "Section::::After World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "From late 1944, Joseph Stalin adopted a pro-Zionist foreign policy, apparently believing that the new country would be socialist and would speed the decline of British influence in the Middle East. Accordingly, in November 1947, the Soviet Union, together with the other Soviet bloc countries voted in favor of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, which paved the way for the creation of the State of Israel. On May 17, 1948, three days after Israel declared its independence, the Soviet Union officially granted de jure recognition of Israel, becoming only the second country to recognise the Jewish state (preceded only by the United States' \"de facto\" recognition) and the first country to grant Israel \"de jure\" recognition. Also in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War supported Israel with weaponry supplied via Czechoslovakia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "537061",
"title": "Anti-Zionist Committee of the Soviet Public",
"section": "Section::::Background and history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "From late 1944, Joseph Stalin adopted a pro-Zionist foreign policy, apparently believing that the new country would be socialist and would speed the decline of British influence in the Middle East. Accordingly, in November 1947, the Soviet Union, together with the other Soviet bloc countries voted in favor of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, which paved the way for the creation of the State of Israel. On May 17, 1948, three days after Israel declared its independence, the Soviet Union officially granted de jure recognition of Israel, becoming only the second country to recognise the Jewish state (preceded only by the United States' \"de facto\" recognition) and the first country to grant Israel \"de jure\" recognition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "544912",
"title": "Soviet anti-Zionism",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "From late 1944, Joseph Stalin adopted a pro-Zionist foreign policy, apparently believing that the new country would be socialist and would speed the decline of British influence in the Middle East. Accordingly, in November 1947, the Soviet Union, together with the other Soviet bloc countries voted in favour of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, which paved the way for the creation of the State of Israel. On 17 May 1948, three days after Israel declared its independence, the Soviet Union officially granted de jure recognition of Israel, becoming only the second country to recognise the Jewish state (preceded only by the United States' \"de facto\" recognition) and the first country to grant Israel \"de jure\" recognition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43441419",
"title": "Aki Orr",
"section": "Section::::Political career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Matzpen criticized the Zionist project in Israel as a colonizing project, although they were careful to distinguish it from the European colonialism of the 19th and 20th century, arguing that the Zionists had come to Palestine to expropriate the indigenous population rather than to exploit them economically. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vz4ip
|
warts.
|
[
{
"answer": "You can have the virus (HPV) on your body without necessarily having any visible effects of the virus. Not only that, but there are many different types of HPV that only affect certain parts of the body, so it's possible that your finger wart may have come from a different surface of your skin, where it was relatively harmless. Either that or you made contact with someone else who had the virus on the skin surface. The virus needs to penetrate the skin through a cut in the skin, and you may have unkowingly had a very tiny cut on your finger. Viruses are much smaller than a single cell, so they don't need a large opening. [Here](_URL_0_) is a link to the Wikipedia article. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I had one on my elbow for more than 5 years, tried to use freeze and acid to get rid of it but it keeps coming back, recently I took a nail clipper and cut the top off, than freeze the exposed roots....hopefully it will finally go away, it's still in the process of healing so only time will tell. I am amazed how fast it grows back, usually after acid treatment the skin around would be damaged but the wart area grows new skin right away like nothing happened. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Mr. Derpleton has a pretty cool answer to this.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I had a huge one (like one inch in diameter) on my heel. When I went to the doctor, she said that it's just a small virus that gets in through the tiny cuts in the skin. I do remember that it first appeared shortly after we had a bare-foot BBQ party at a friend's place (he's got magnificent grass in the back garden, it was like walking on clouds or something). \n\nThe doctor said that an easy and painless way to get rid of them is to cover them with a bit of duct tape. It prevents the wart from getting any air, so it then gets softer and dies. There are various creams which work in a similar way, they cover the wart with a thin layer which doesn't let the air pass through. The downside is that they sometimes take months to work.\n\nMy wart was quite painful and it was getting difficult to walk, so I said \"Fuck it, let's nuke the bitch!\" and the doc got rid of it with liquid nitrogen, -196 °C (−321 °F). The wart got all black and fell off after a couple days. Nitrogen felt like liquid fire.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Serious question . Can you get HPV by getting a bj from someone already infected ? . same for HIV ?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When we were kids my dad used to buy our warts off us. He'd give us 50p and the wart would disappear. It could have been a placebo effect but there's also the possibility that he is a wizard.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've had two on my hands, one disappeared after treatment, the other I just pulled out, hurt like hell for weeks, never came back though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "wow.. I had a planter wart a few years back.. It hurt so bad... I looked up homeopathic remedies. This is what I found, and it works.\n\n\n**older penny, made of copper**\n\n\n**a roll of duct tape**\n\n\n\nTape the penny to your wart. make sure it is air tight and doesn’t loosen. Gradually the tape will come off. When it does, change the penny and tape. \n\nThe copper from the penny actually causes an allergic reaction with your skin after a prolonged exposure. The reaction causes your body to actively attack the infected area, including the virus.\n\nAfter about 3 weeks, your wart should be almost gone.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53157189",
"title": "WarFriends",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "WarFriends is a 2017 third-person shooter video game developed by About Fun. It is played by third-person perspective with elements of real-time strategy. It was originally released on 7 October 2016 as early access. The full version was released on 17 January 2017.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37068",
"title": "The War Game",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "\"The War Game\" depicts the prelude to, and the immediate weeks of the aftermath of, a Soviet nuclear attack against Britain. The narrator says that Britain's current nuclear deterrent policy threatens a would-be aggressor with devastation from Vulcan and Victor nuclear bombers of the British V bomber force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3042418",
"title": "War Game (novel)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "War Game is a children's novel about World War I written and illustrated by Michael Foreman and published by Pavilion in 1993. It features four young English soldiers and includes football with German soldiers during the Christmas truce, \"temporary relief from the brutal and seemingly endless struggle in the trenches\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37139065",
"title": "Wära",
"section": "Section::::Concept and function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The word \"Wära\", invented by Timm and Rödiger, comes from the words \"Währung\" (currency) and \"währen\" (\"to last\"), in the sense of \"lasting\", \"stable\". One Wära corresponded to one Reichsmark. Wära banknotes were available in denominations of 1/2, 1, 2, 5, and 10 Wära.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "669358",
"title": "The War Games",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "The War Games is the seventh and final serial of the sixth season of the British science fiction television series \"Doctor Who\", which originally aired in ten weekly parts from 19 April to 21 June 1969.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21209735",
"title": "World of Eberron",
"section": "Section::::Creatures.:Warforged.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "The warforged are a race of living, sentient constructs, superficially similar to golems. Warforged are composed of a blend of materials: predominantly stone, wood, and some type of metal. In Eberron, they were created by House Cannith in magical 'creation forges' to fight in the Last War, based on technology recovered from Xen'drik. When the Last War ended, they were given their freedom at the Treaty of Thronehold. Though they have free will, whether they have a soul is not known with certainty; they can be resurrected by spells designed to restore human souls to life, but, unlike humans, never remember anything of their experience in the afterlife after such an event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "949843",
"title": "Man O' War (game)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Man O' War (sometimes also written as “Manowar”) is a now out-of-print table top war game by Games Workshop. The game was set in the same realm of Warhammer Fantasy as used for the Warhammer Fantasy Battle and included most of the factions from that setting. Other races of the Warhammer world were not included, either because they were lacking seafaring abilities (Wood Elves), missing from the main factions at that time (Ogres, Lizardmen), or both.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4h1a4f
|
how can a single strand dna hold almost a zettabyte of digital storage?
|
[
{
"answer": "i hate to sound flippant but the answer is that our current technology has storage density limitations that prevent us from doing the same thing our DNA does. Data does not inherently take *any* space really. at least, not any more space than the synapses firing creating the idea. \n\nChemical storage is something we're still learning to understand but our technology tree has been rooted in magnetic storage for a long time so getting to refined chemical storage like what our DNA uses will take some time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Each base can store two bits of information, since it can have one of four different states - it can be A, C, T or G. A single bit on a hard drive is ~200-250 nm wide and ~25-30 nm long. In comparison, a DNA nucleotide is about 1 nm wide and 0.34 nm long, so it takes up a lot less space for twice the amount of data stored.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38324409",
"title": "DNA digital data storage",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "As an alternative to the storage in direct DNA sequence, the data can also be stored in DNA nanostructures. On December 26, 2018, researchers from Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge published a paper in Nano Letters (https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b04715) to show the possibility of encoding digital data into DNA nanostructures along double-stranded DNA and reading with solid-state nanopores. This provides an easy writing option with only hundreds of units to form a library of up to 5 × 10^33 (2^112) different molecules to store a large amount of data, which can be easily retrieved using nanopores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34278",
"title": "Yottabyte",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "With recently demonstrated technology using DNA computing for storage, one yottabyte of capacity would require a volume between 0.003 and 1 cubic metre, depending on number of redundant backup copies desired and the storage density: \"Our genetic code packs billions of gigabytes into a single gram\". DNA is much more advanced technology than microSDXC cards (for this application) and accompanied by uncertain costs, but this suggests potential information density.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1130688",
"title": "Areal density (computer storage)",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "In 2012, DNA was successfully used as an experimental data storage medium, but required a DNA synthesizer and DNA microchips for the transcoding. , DNA holds the record for highest-density storage medium. In March 2017, scientists at Columbia University and the New York Genome Center published a method known as DNA Fountain which allows perfect retrieval of information from a density of 215 petabytes per gram of DNA, 85% of the theoretical limit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "544641",
"title": "CDNA library",
"section": "Section::::Cloning of cDNA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "cDNA molecules can be cloned by using restriction site linkers. Linkers are short, double stranded pieces of DNA (oligodeoxyribonucleotide) about 8 to 12 nucleotide pairs long that include a restriction endonuclease cleavage site e.g. BamHI. Both the cDNA and the linker have blunt ends which can be ligated together using a high concentration of T4 DNA ligase. Then sticky ends are produced in the cDNA molecule by cleaving the cDNA ends (which now have linkers with an incorporated site) with the appropriate endonuclease. A cloning vector (plasmid) is then also cleaved with the appropriate endonuclease. Following \"sticky end\" ligation of the insert into the vector the resulting recombinant DNA molecule is transferred into \"E. coli\" host cell for cloning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31001114",
"title": "DNA nanoball sequencing",
"section": "Section::::Procedure.:Rolling circle replication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "Once a single-stranded circular DNA template is created, containing sample DNA that is ligated to two unique adapter sequences has been generated, the full sequence is amplified into a long string of DNA. This is accomplished by rolling circle replication with the Phi 29 DNA polymerase which binds and replicates the DNA template. The newly synthesized strand is released from the circular template, resulting in a long single-stranded DNA comprising several head-to-tail copies of the circular template. The resulting nanoparticle self-assembles into a tight ball of DNA approximately 300 nanometers (nm) across. Nanoballs remain separated from each other because they are negatively charged naturally repel each other, reducing any tangling between different single stranded DNA lengths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "449077",
"title": "Run-length limited",
"section": "Section::::Densities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "Suppose a magnetic tape can contain up to 3,200 flux reversals per inch. A Modified Frequency Modulation or (1,3) RLL encoding stores each data bit as two bits on tape, but since there is guaranteed to be one 0 (non flux reversal) bit between any 1 (flux reversal) bits then it is possible to store 6,400 encoded bits per inch on the tape, or 3,200 data bits per inch. A (1,7) RLL encoding can also store 6,400 encoded bits per inch on the tape, but since it only takes 3 encoded bits to store 2 data bits this is 4,267 data bits per inch. A (2,7) RLL encoding takes 2 encoded bits to store each data bit, but since there is guaranteed to be two 0 bits between any 1 bits then it is possible to store 9,600 encoded bits per inch on the tape, or 4,800 data bits per inch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505525",
"title": "DNase footprinting assay",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "For example, the DNA fragment of interest may be PCR amplified using a P 5' labeled primer, with the result being many DNA molecules with a radioactive label on one end of one strand of each double stranded molecule. Cleavage by DNase will produce fragments. The fragments which are smaller with respect to the P-labelled end will appear further on the gel than the longer fragments. The gel is then used to expose a special photographic film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1rili0
|
why do we still have single cell/simple organisms?
|
[
{
"answer": "Bacteria is the most successful thing on this planet with about 5*10^30 individuals. Some scientists estimate the total weight of bacteria exceeds that of both plants and animals. So a better question to ask would be why we are even here?\n\nYou have to keep in mind that evolution is not a straight line. It is a branching series of organisms that try something and either fail or succeed. Those that succeed make more organisms that repeat the process. So far, that incredibly branching process has formed a vast number of organisms alive today, each one of which has found a way to survive and reproduce in its own unique way. Simply because one animal has found another way to be successful doesn't mean that every organism adopts that same method in the same way that you don't munch on maggots just because other people have found it to be an effective source of energy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18393",
"title": "Life",
"section": "Section::::Cells.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "Multicellular organisms may have first evolved through the formation of colonies of identical cells. These cells can form group organisms through cell adhesion. The individual members of a colony are capable of surviving on their own, whereas the members of a true multi-cellular organism have developed specializations, making them dependent on the remainder of the organism for survival. Such organisms are formed clonally or from a single germ cell that is capable of forming the various specialized cells that form the adult organism. This specialization allows multicellular organisms to exploit resources more efficiently than single cells. In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule, called GK-PID, may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "285948",
"title": "Unicellular organism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Although some prokaryotes live in colonies, they are not specialised into cells with differing functions. These organisms live together, and each cell must carry out all life processes to survive. In contrast, even the simplest multicellular organisms have cells that depend on each other to survive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4230",
"title": "Cell (biology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell; including bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12305127",
"title": "Evolutionary history of life",
"section": "Section::::Sexual reproduction and multicellular organisms.:Multicellularity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "The simplest definitions of \"multicellular,\" for example \"having multiple cells,\" could include colonial cyanobacteria like \"Nostoc\". Even a technical definition such as \"having the same genome but different types of cell\" would still include some genera of the green algae Volvox, which have cells that specialize in reproduction. Multicellularity evolved independently in organisms as diverse as sponges and other animals, fungi, plants, brown algae, cyanobacteria, slime molds and myxobacteria. For the sake of brevity, this article focuses on the organisms that show the greatest specialization of cells and variety of cell types, although this approach to the evolution of biological complexity could be regarded as \"rather anthropocentric.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19653842",
"title": "Organism",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 822,
"text": "All organisms consist of structural units called cells; some contain a single cell (unicellular) and others contain many units (multicellular). Multicellular organisms are able to specialize cells to perform specific functions. A group of such cells is a tissue, and in animals these occur as four basic types, namely epithelium, nervous tissue, muscle tissue, and connective tissue. Several types of tissue work together in the form of an organ to produce a particular function (such as the pumping of the blood by the heart, or as a barrier to the environment as the skin). This pattern continues to a higher level with several organs functioning as an organ system such as the reproductive system, and digestive system. Many multicellular organisms consist of several organ systems, which coordinate to allow for life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167660",
"title": "Cell type",
"section": "Section::::Multicellular organisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 896,
"text": "All higher multicellular organisms contain cells specialised for different functions. Most distinct cell types arise from a single totipotent cell that differentiates into hundreds of different cell types during the course of development. Differentiation of cells is driven by different environmental cues (such as cell–cell interaction) and intrinsic differences (such as those caused by the uneven distribution of molecules during division). Multicellular organisms are composed of cells that fall into two fundamental types: germ cells and somatic cells. During development, somatic cells will become more specialized and form the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. After formation of the three germ layers, cells will continue to specialize until they reach a terminally differentiated state that is much more resistant to changes in cell type than its progenitors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3588722",
"title": "Cellular component",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Cellular components are the complex biomolecules and structures of which cells, and thus living organisms, are composed. Cells are the structural and functional units of life. The smallest organisms are single cells, while the largest organisms are assemblages of trillions of cells. DNA is found in nearly all living cells; each cell carries chromosome(s) having a distinctive DNA sequence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
akia5i
|
Why are most psychedelic plants native to Latin American countries?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are many psychedelic plants native to temperate and even artic countries. I think the reason so many come from the tropics (where most Latin American countries lie) is because the tropics have the highest level of biodiversity of any ecosystem. Probably as a result of moderate year round temperatures and maximum solar radiation. So lots of opportunities for a lot of different species of psychoactive plants to evolve.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are many if not more psychoactive substances in other subtropical areas. Latin Americas ones have just good PR and they have been popularised thanks to hippie movement as well as massive drug producers in Venezuela, Colombia, Peru etc...\n\nIn central and north Africa f.e. There is at least 5 different plant that I know of, that produce natural DMT compound. They just never been popularised though as much as peyotle or the peruvian torch (mescaline cactaii) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5178689",
"title": "Ipomoea violacea",
"section": "Section::::LSA presence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "The Native Americans of Mexico are known to have long used the seeds of species of \"Ipomoea\" for preparing psychedelic infusions; several scientific studies indicate they contain several ergoline alkaloids with effects somewhat similar to, but weaker than, those of LSD It is possible that some of these studies may have mistaken \"Ipomoea violacea\" for \"Ipomoea tricolor\", e.g., works published in the scientific journal \"Phytochemistry\" and quoted by the \"Sociedade Brasileira de Farmacognosia\", which purportedly showed the presence of Ergine, also known as d-lysergic acid amide (LSA) in \"Ipomoea violacea\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5607325",
"title": "Indole alkaloid",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1071,
"text": "Since ancient times, plants containing indole alkaloids have been used as psychedelic drugs. The Aztecs used and the Mazatec people continue to use psilocybin mushrooms and the psychoactive seeds of morning glory species like \"Ipomoea tricolor\". Amazonian tribes use the psychedelic infusion, ayahuasca, made from \"Psychotria viridis\" and \"Banisteriopsis caapi\". \"Psychotria viridis\" contains the psychedelic drug DMT, while \"Banisteriopsis caapi\" contains harmala alkaloids, which act as monoamine oxidase inhibitors. It is believed that the main function of the harmala alkaloids in ayahuasca is to prevent the metabolization of DMT in the digestive tract and liver, so it can cross the blood–brain barrier, whereas the direct effect of harmala alkaloids on the central nervous system is minimal. The venom of the Colorado River toad, \"Bufo alvarius\", may have used as a psychedelic drug, its active constituents being 5-MeO-DMT and bufotenin. One of the most common recreational psychedelic drugs, LSD, is a semi-synthetic ergoline (which contains the indole moiety).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53309",
"title": "Psychedelic drug",
"section": "Section::::Traditional use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "Psychedelics have a long history of traditional use in medicine and religion, for their perceived ability to promote physical and mental healing. In this context, they are often known as entheogens. Native American practitioners using mescaline-containing cacti (most notably peyote, San Pedro, and Peruvian torch) have reported success against alcoholism, and Mazatec practitioners routinely use psilocybin mushrooms for divination and healing. Ayahuasca, which contains the potent psychedelic DMT, is used in Peru and other parts of South America for spiritual and physical healing as well as in religious festivals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57810227",
"title": "Peyote Way Church of God, Inc. v. Thornburgh",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "The psychedelic drug peyote has been traditionally used by Native Americans. There have been various peyote-based belief systems, but one prominent one is that of the Native American Church, founded in 1918.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18955875",
"title": "Tree",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Bark.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "At least 120 drugs come from plant sources, many of them from the bark of trees. Quinine originates from the cinchona tree (\"Cinchona\") and was for a long time the remedy of choice for the treatment of malaria. Aspirin was synthesised to replace the sodium salicylate derived from the bark of willow trees (\"Salix\") which had unpleasant side effects. The anti-cancer drug Paclitaxel is derived from taxol, a substance found in the bark of the Pacific yew (\"Taxus brevifolia\"). Other tree based drugs come from the paw-paw (\"Carica papaya\"), the cassia (\"Cassia spp.\"), the cocoa tree (\"Theobroma cacao\"), the tree of life (\"Camptotheca acuminata\") and the downy birch (\"Betula pubescens\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "560165",
"title": "Psilocybe cyanescens",
"section": "Section::::Indole content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "North American specimens of \"P. cyanescens\" are among the most potent of psychedelic mushrooms. Its potency means that it is widely sought after by users of recreational drugs in those areas where it grows naturally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13363037",
"title": "Epipactis helleborine",
"section": "Section::::Distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "In North America, it is an introduced species and widely naturalized mostly in the Northeastern United States, eastern Canada and the Great Lakes Region, but also in scattered locations in other parts of the continent. In the US it is sometimes referred to as the \"weed orchid\" or \"weedy orchid\" and continues to spread throughout the country to new areas including Michigan, Wisconsin, and the San Francisco Bay Area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
hd3o5
|
Does one have greater sense if the sensory organ (nose, mouth, eyes) in particular is larger than normal?
|
[
{
"answer": "No. Perception is based on the amount of receptors. While you could potentially link the size of the sensory organ to the number of receptors, I haven't seen that it makes a difference. \n\nExample: A dog nose is thousands of times more powerful than a humans, yet not much larger. This is because they have far more receptors that are also far more specialized. \n\nOther examples include eagles eyesight, wildlife's hearing (deer).\n\nThere are other factors such as the structure of the sensory organ, but larger doesn't mean better.",
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},
{
"answer": "I'm not an expert.\n\nI highly doubt the increase in sensory experience from a slightly larger sensory organ would provide anyone with an increased ability to reproduce. We would have to artificially select for those traits for quite a long time to get the kind of results I think you're looking for. And greatest capacity of experience doesn't equate to being more intelligent, better looking, those sorts of things. It's like saying it would be amazing to memorize everything you see and be able to instantly recall it, what an advantage right? Then you talk to people who have that ability and it can be a near disability. They recall everything, they can't hear words without bringing up all sorts of memories and thoughts which can be quite distracting. Or the geniuses that can hear a song on the piano and immediately play it. This does not mean they are creative writers, which is one of the reasons that our species most recognized or 'best' musicians are not full of people like that. \n\nIt's really very hard to predict how certain increases or decreases in ability will affect the individual, and of course it depends on their interests and thoughts.\n\nYou do bring up an interesting point in terms of selective breeding. On paper, we as a species, could benefit from isolating outstanding genetic strains (primarily on health i assume, intelligence can be more tricky) and breed them to produce a more fit portion of the population, which could later be the basis for our progeny. From a business perspective, why wouldn't you? Then you realize you sound like a Nazi when you imagine the social consequences of creating the Morlocks and Eloi. I assume whenever our species makes its first colonization attempt that the crew and future inhabitants will be selected partially on a genetic basis to hopefully eliminate genetic disease and improve other factors. Now maintaining that would require pretty drastic social consequences as well such as sterilizing people born with deformities or societal banishment. It's hard to picture a good way to do this without being incredibly callous. Plus the effects of future genetic consequences would be unknown, and possibly negative.\n\nI rambled, sorry. My guess as to the title question would be that it wouldn't be that noticeable of a difference, as anything approaching a large enough size would not mesh well with the rest of the body or cause other problems. Again, I don't know enough about what kind of increase in retinal area is necessary to produce a pronounced effect.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9703",
"title": "Evolutionary psychology",
"section": "Section::::Main areas of research.:Survival and individual level psychological adaptations.:Sensation and perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 1806,
"text": "Scientists who study perception and sensation have long understood the human senses as adaptations to their surrounding worlds. Depth perception consists of processing over half a dozen visual cues, each of which is based on a regularity of the physical world. Vision evolved to respond to the narrow range of electromagnetic energy that is plentiful and that does not pass through objects. Sound waves go around corners and interact with obstacles, creating a complex pattern that includes useful information about the sources of and distances to objects. Larger animals naturally make lower-pitched sounds as a consequence of their size. The range over which an animal hears, on the other hand, is determined by adaptation. Homing pigeons, for example, can hear very low-pitched sound (infrasound) that carries great distances, even though most smaller animals detect higher-pitched sounds. Taste and smell respond to chemicals in the environment that are thought to have been significant for fitness in the environment of evolutionary adaptedness. For example, salt and sugar were apparently both valuable to the human or pre-human inhabitants of the environment of evolutionary adaptedness, so present day humans have an intrinsic hunger for salty and sweet tastes. The sense of touch is actually many senses, including pressure, heat, cold, tickle, and pain. Pain, while unpleasant, is adaptive. An important adaptation for senses is range shifting, by which the organism becomes temporarily more or less sensitive to sensation. For example, one's eyes automatically adjust to dim or bright ambient light. Sensory abilities of different organisms often coevolve, as is the case with the hearing of echolocating bats and that of the moths that have evolved to respond to the sounds that the bats make.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25140",
"title": "Perception",
"section": "Section::::Theories.:Evolutionary psychology (EP) and perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 1249,
"text": "Scientists who study perception and sensation have long understood the human senses as adaptations. Depth perception consists of processing over half a dozen visual cues, each of which is based on a regularity of the physical world. Vision evolved to respond to the narrow range of electromagnetic energy that is plentiful and that does not pass through objects. Sound waves provide useful information about the sources of and distances to objects, with larger animals making and hearing lower-frequency sounds and smaller animals making and hearing higher-frequency sounds. Taste and smell respond to chemicals in the environment that were significant for fitness in the environment of evolutionary adaptedness. The sense of touch is actually many senses, including pressure, heat, cold, tickle, and pain. Pain, while unpleasant, is adaptive. An important adaptation for senses is range shifting, by which the organism becomes temporarily more or less sensitive to sensation. For example, one's eyes automatically adjust to dim or bright ambient light. Sensory abilities of different organisms often coevolve, as is the case with the hearing of echolocating bats and that of the moths that have evolved to respond to the sounds that the bats make.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43177",
"title": "Gnathostomulid",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "They have no body cavity, and no circulatory or respiratory system. The nervous system is simple, and restricted to the outer layers of the body wall. The only sense organs are modified cilia, which are especially common in the head region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22635285",
"title": "Five wits",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Modern thinking is that there are more than five (outward) senses, and the idea that there are five (corresponding to the gross anatomical features — eyes, ears, nose, skin, and mouth — of many higher animals) does not stand up to scientific scrutiny. (For more on this, see Definition of sense.) But the idea of five senses/wits from Aristotelian, medieval, and 16th century thought still lingers so strongly in modern thinking that a sense beyond the natural ones is still called a \"sixth sense\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1259296",
"title": "Head-mounted display",
"section": "Section::::Performance parameters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "BULLET::::- Binocular overlap – measures the area that is common to both eyes. Binocular overlap is the basis for the sense of depth and stereo, allowing humans to sense which objects are near and which objects are far. Humans have a binocular overlap of about 100° (50° to the left of the nose and 50° to the right). The larger the binocular overlap offered by an HMD, the greater the sense of stereo. Overlap is sometimes specified in degrees (e.g., 74°) or as a percentage indicating how much of the visual field of each eye is common to the other eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "321956",
"title": "List of common misconceptions",
"section": "Section::::Science and technology.:Human body and health.:Senses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 176,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 176,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "BULLET::::- Humans have more than the commonly cited five senses. The number of senses in various categorizations ranges from five to more than 20. In addition to sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing, which were the senses identified by Aristotle, humans can sense balance and acceleration (equilibrioception), pain (nociception), body and limb position (proprioception or kinesthetic sense), and relative temperature (thermoception). Other senses sometimes identified are the sense of time, echolocation, itching, pressure, hunger, thirst, fullness of the stomach, need to urinate, need to defecate, and blood carbon dioxide (CO) levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35970915",
"title": "Colavita visual dominance effect",
"section": "Section::::Visual dominance in other aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 951,
"text": "Research has shown that vision is the most dominant sense out of the five senses that human beings possess. Vision can dominate over audition in localization judgement, over touch for shape judgement, and over proprioception when trying to determine the position of one's limb in space. Individuals’ perception of auditory stimuli is often influenced by visual stimuli. Visual dominance has been demonstrated in a multisensory illusion called the McGurk effect, where a visual stimulus paired with an incongruent auditory stimulus leads to the misperception of auditory information, resulting in individuals hearing a sound different from the real auditory input. According to Posner and colleagues individuals’ visual system lacks the capacity to properly alert them of possible threats. Therefore, it is possible that visual dominance results from the attention system's attempt to compensate for the visual system's improper alerting capabilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2zvivg
|
How do black holes combine?
|
[
{
"answer": "Scientists have never observed black holes merging, but it is possible. Almost every galaxy contains a black hole at it's center, so scientists have said it is most likely to happen when two galaxies collide and their supermassive black holes at the center collide. \n\nA black hole forms when a large star, one much larger than our sun (20x the mass), dies. Throughout a star's life there is a constant battle between the force of gravity which is forcing the pressure inwards and nuclear fusion in the core which forces the pressure outwards. (Nuclear fusion is the process by which stars burn light elements into heavier elements to generate energy, e.g. hydrogen to helium). However, once a star's fuel supply runs out, usually at the iron stage, the core starts to collapse in on itself as nuclear fusion slows down and gravity takes over. The outer parts of the star are violently cast in a supernova, while the core collapses under its own weight. The core collapses at a point with virtually zero volume and it is said to have infinite density, a singularity. When this happens, it would require a velocity greater than the speed of light to escape the object's gravity. \n\nBasically, when two black holes collide...you get a larger black hole. Honestly, scientists do not know much about this because it has never been observed. If they come together relatively slowly, then they merge together and create a big black hole which has a mass equal to the sum of the two masses unless it releases energy. Sometimes black holes can be spinning so rapidly that what can happen is that they are both spinning and they can bang together and one can be bounced out into space, like spinning tops. It really depends on what is actually happening. Again, this has never been observed so we do not know for sure.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "A black hole is a high consentration of energy so that it bends space-time in such a way that nothing can escape - not even light. This energy can be manipulated, i.e. you can find black holes orbiting each other as illustrated by SXS (Simulating eXtreme Spacetimes) [here](_URL_0_). They orbit a point of common gravitation and combine in the same way a star could \"fall\" into a black hole.\n\nBlack holes can combine, in the same way that a star may \"fall\" into one. It's important to note that a black hole doesn't \"eat\" the other one, the energy within both combines.\n\nEdit: /u/lastingrain probably explained it better.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34022823",
"title": "Binary black hole",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "A binary black hole (BBH) is a system consisting of two black holes in close orbit around each other. Like black holes themselves, binary black holes are often divided into stellar binary black holes, formed either as remnants of high-mass binary star systems or by dynamic processes and mutual capture, and binary supermassive black holes believed to be a result of galactic mergers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188229",
"title": "NGC 6240",
"section": "Section::::Double nuclei.:X-Ray Observations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Presumably, these are the black holes that were originally at the centers of the two merging galaxies. Over the course of millions of years, the two black holes are expected to come closer together and form a binary supermassive black hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8111079",
"title": "Gravitational wave",
"section": "Section::::Gravitational wave astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "A supermassive black hole, created from the merger of the black holes at the center of two merging galaxies detected by the Hubble Space Telescope, is theorized to have been ejected from the merger center by gravitational waves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "510340",
"title": "Stellar black hole",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "A stellar black hole (or stellar-mass black hole) is a black hole formed by the gravitational collapse of a star. They have masses ranging from about 5 to several tens of solar masses. The process is observed as a hypernova explosion or as a gamma ray burst. These black holes are also referred to as collapsars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "171915",
"title": "Lee Smolin",
"section": "Section::::Theories and work.:Cosmological natural selection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Black holes have a role in natural selection. In fecund theory a collapsing black hole causes the emergence of a new universe on the \"other side\", whose fundamental constant parameters (masses of elementary particles, Planck constant, elementary charge, and so forth) may differ slightly from those of the universe where the black hole collapsed. Each universe thus gives rise to as many new universes as it has black holes. The theory contains the evolutionary ideas of \"reproduction\" and \"mutation\" of universes, and so is formally analogous to models of population biology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650",
"title": "Black hole",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle. After a black hole has formed, it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings. By absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes, supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses () may form. There is general consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of most galaxies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26422187",
"title": "Pulsar timing array",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Some supermassive black holes binaries may form a stable binary and only merge after many times the current age of the universe. This is called the “final parsec problem,” it is unclear how supermassive black holes approach each other at this distance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3irkqy
|
How were battles fought during the Flowery Wars involving the Aztecs, in terms of tactics, weaponry, etc.?
|
[
{
"answer": "According to Ross Hassig, flower wars were pretty much the same as other conflicts. The exception being is that armies would not make use of projectiles. Part of this reason is that projectiles can easily kill a person, but projectiles are also impersonal in that you cannot easily make claim to a captive. Instead they made more use of shock weapons (Hassig 1988:128-132). \n\nShock weapons included thrusting spears ( *tepoztopilli*), swords (*macuahuitl*), and clubs. The spears were about 1.87m long and could be used to thrust as well as slash and could parry at a distance. The spearhead was a triangular, ovoid, or diamond shaped head with stone blades embedded in the edge forming a nearly continuous cutting edge. \n\nThe sword came in two varieties, one-handed or two-handed. They were usually made of oak and were about 7.6cm to 10.2 cm wide and over a meter long. The sword had two grooves carved on either edge that allowed for stone blades to be placed sometimes being glued in. The macauhuitl can be used for a downward slash as well as a backhand cut. Parrying was probably done with the flat of the blade to avoid damage to the stone blades. \n\nThere were several types of clubs that were used by the Aztec. There were simple wooden clubs, clubs with stone blades (*huitzauhqui*), clubs with a spherical ball at the end (*cuauhololli*), and clubs with protruding knobs of wood much like a morning star (*macuahuitzoctli*) (Hassig 1988:81-85).\n\nAs for general tactics, fighters were grouped into combat units and were rigidly led into or out of conflicts. During battle they would form a solid front against the enemy, but only deep enough into order to maintain that front rather than having large blocks of fighters. This focused the battle into a face to face fight. When the opposing sides met, battle units would skirmish with one another on an individual combat basis while trying to maintain a cohesive front. If a unit's front broke, a rout was likely. The Aztecs tended to either surround their enemies from all sides or attack from the flank while engaged in a frontal assault (Hassig 1988:100-101).\n\nHassig, Ross\n\n1988 Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control. University of Oklahoma Press",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "234655",
"title": "Flower war",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1070,
"text": "There appear to be a variety of reasons that the Aztecs engaged in flower wars. Historians have thought that flower wars were fought for purposes including combat training and capturing humans for religious sacrifice. Historians note evidence of the sacrifice motive: one of Cortez's captains, Andres de Tapia, once asked Moctezuma II why the stronger Aztec Empire had not yet conquered the nearby state of Tlaxcala outright. The emperor responded by saying that although they could have if they had wanted to, the Aztecs had not done so because war with Tlaxcala was a convenient way of gathering sacrifices and training their own soldiers. However, scholars such as Frederic Hicks question that the main purpose of the flower war was to gain sacrifices. Tlaxcalan historian Munoz Camargo noted that the Aztecs would often besiege Tlaxcalan towns and cut off trade, which was uncharacteristic of a typical flower war. For this reason, proponents of Hicks' idea believe that the Aztecs did want to conquer the Tlaxcalans, but that they simply could not for some reason.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234655",
"title": "Flower war",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "However, some scholars have suggested that the flower war served purposes beyond gaining sacrifices and combat training. For example, Hassig states that for the Aztecs, \"flower wars were an efficient means of continuing a conflict that was too costly to conclude immediately.\" As such, a purpose of these wars was to occupy and wear down the enemy's fighting force. By requiring an equal number of soldiers on each side, the Aztecs made the battle seem balanced at first; however, the side with fewer overall troops suffered more because the losses comprised a greater percentage of their total forces. Through this, the Aztecs used the flower wars to weaken their opponents. Furthermore, since fewer soldiers took part in flower war as compared to a traditional war, the practice of flower war allowed the Aztecs to hold a potential threat at bay while focusing the bulk of their forces elsewhere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234655",
"title": "Flower war",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "A flower war or flowery war (, ) was a ritual war fought intermittently between the Aztec Triple Alliance and its enemies from the \"mid-1450s to the arrival of the Spaniards in 1519.\" Enemies included the city-states of Tlaxcala, Huejotzingo, and Cholula in the Tlaxcala-Pueblan Valley in central Mexico. In these wars, participants would fight according to a set of conventions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234655",
"title": "Flower war",
"section": "Section::::Practice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "Flower wars involved fewer soldiers than typical Aztec wars did. A larger proportion of the soldiers would be drawn from nobility than during a typical war. These characteristics allowed the Aztecs to engage in flower wars during any time of the year. In contrast, the Aztecs could fight larger wars of conquest only from late autumn to early spring, because Aztec citizens were needed for farming purposes during the rest of the year. Additionally, flower wars differed from typical wars in that there were equal numbers of soldiers on each side of the battle; this was also related to the Aztecs wanting to show off their military prowess.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3303790",
"title": "Military history of Mexico",
"section": "Section::::Pre-colonial era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "Prior to Spanish colonization, in the 15th century, several wars ensued between the Aztecs and several other native tribes. Alliances between the Aztec state and Texcoco had become central to these pre colonial wars. Several of these conflicts were evolved to an organized warfare, known as the Flower wars. In the Flower wars the primary objective was to injure or capture the enemy, rather than killing as in Western warfare. Prisoners-of-war were ritually sacrificed to Aztec gods. Cannibalism was also a center feature to this type of warfare. Historical accounts such as that of Juan Bautista de Pomar state that small pieces of meat were offered as gifts to important people in exchange for presents and slaves, but it was rarely eaten, since they considered it had no value; instead it was replaced by turkey, or just thrown away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5376312",
"title": "Human sacrifice in Aztec culture",
"section": "Section::::Holistic assessment.:Flower Wars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "This type of warfare differed from regular political warfare, as the Flower war was also used for combat training and as first exposure to war for new military members. In addition, regular warfare included the use of long range weapons such as atlatl darts, stones, and sling shots to damage the enemy from afar. During Flower wars, warriors were expected to fight up close and exhibit their combat abilities while aiming to injure the enemy, rather than kill them. The main objective of Aztec Flower warfare was to capture victims alive for use later in ritual execution, and offerings to the gods. When death occurred from battling in a Flower War, it was considered much more noble than dying in a regular military battle. Additionally, death in the Flower Wars contained religious importance as those who died were thought to live in heaven with the war god, Huitzilopochtli.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2948082",
"title": "Mexican Army",
"section": "Section::::History.:Antecedents.:Pre-Columbian era: native warriors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "The Aztec established the Flower Wars as a form of worship; these, unlike the wars of conquest, were aimed at obtaining prisoners for sacrifice to the sun. Combat orders were given by kings (or Lords) using drums or blowing into a sea snail shell that gave off a sound like a horn. Giving out signals using coats of arms was very common. For combat outside of cities, they would organize several groups, only one of which would be involved in action, while the others remained on the alert. When attacking enemy cities, they usually divided their forces into three equal-sized wings, which simultaneously assaulted different parts of the defences – this enabled the leaders to determine which division of warriors had distinguished themselves the most in combat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
30xarj
|
why netflix's "recently added" column has all the newest releases, while it's "new releases" contains mostly movies that have been on netflix for months-years.
|
[
{
"answer": "It's based off of your recommended shows/movies so if you have a specific taste, the newest movie in that category might be a year old.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10964573",
"title": "Vudu",
"section": "Section::::Movie format.:Movie selection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 887,
"text": "As of June 2019, Vudu's selection contains over 24,000 titles in their catalog and over 8,000 television shows, making them one of the largest streaming providers of its kind. Titles range from major motion pictures, independent films, documentaries, children's programming, anime, musicals, recorded musical performances, cartoons, and television series. Vudu has established content licensing contracts with all major movie studios as well as over 50 smaller and independent studios. In late 2016, Vudu rolled out a Free With Ads category of several titles for users of the service. Title selection changes month by month with films licensed from majors such as Sony Pictures, Lionsgate, Paramount Pictures, Metro Goldwyn Mayer, and Warner Bros., along with titles from independents such as Filmrise/Screen Media, RJL Entertainment, Cinedigm, Kino Lorber, Magnolia Pictures, and more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32244128",
"title": "List of awards and nominations received by Alfred Hitchcock",
"section": "Section::::Awards and nominations.:American Film Institute.:AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "To update for the new generation of films released from 1996 to 2006, an updated version of the list billed as an AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies was released in June 2007. (AFI will conduct different versions of this poll every ten years.) While Steven Spielberg has the most films of any director on the list at five films, Stanley Kubrick, Billy Wilder and Hitchcock tie for 2nd place with four of their films making the list.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12693292",
"title": "The New Release",
"section": "Section::::Promotions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "The New Release periodically created promotions to entice current consumers and attract new ones. The New Release held a “Movie Lover’s Survey,” where they gave away free movies to the first 500 respondents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50276542",
"title": "Criticism of Netflix",
"section": "Section::::Throttling of DVDs by mail.:Releasing this week.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "The Netflix website at one time featured a list of titles, \"Releasing This Week\" (RTW), that enabled customers to easily view new DVDs the company planned for rental release each week. On December 21, 2007, the company removed the link to the page without notice and replaced it with a slider system showing only four previously released movies at a time. The new page, called \"Popular New Releases\", does not list newly released DVDs for rental. The listing of new releases is still active, although there is no menu option that links to the page.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28323073",
"title": "BFI 75 Most Wanted",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Since 2012, the BFI has revealed that a number of the films on the list have been found. As of 2017, 18 of the 75 films have been found in their complete form; two others exist in shortened, retitled versions that were re-edited for the United States market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21983079",
"title": "FilmAffinity",
"section": "Section::::International expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "In 2016 the site launched adapted versions for the US, Mexico, Argentina and Chile, offering specific information about release dates for movies, local critics, box office and cinemas. A UK version was later added.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25190899",
"title": "Movies Anywhere",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Movies Anywhere was first launched on February 10, 2014 as Disney Movies Anywhere (DMA), with content from Disney, Marvel, Pixar, and \"Star Wars\"-branded films on iOS with iTunes Store integration; the service has since been extended to other platforms and storefronts, including Amazon Video, FandangoNOW, Google Play Movies & TV, Microsoft Movies & TV, and Vudu, along with subscribers of the Xfinity cable service. On October 12, 2017, DMA was relaunched as Movies Anywhere, with other studios joining Disney in offering their film titles through the platform.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1dmbtn
|
Why is beer foam white, and not the same colour as the beer?
|
[
{
"answer": "the light is scattered through the thin film of the bubbles, causing it to look like a homogeneous white.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not all beer has white foam. Porters and stouts have dark foam. Also the foam is called head.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As you may know, all surfaces reflect at least some of the light that falls on them but for some particular angles of incident light, the reflection is almost total.\n\nThis brings us to the situation at hand: the spheres of liquid formed by bubbles are receiving light from many different angles due to their curvature and so at any point in the trajectory there is a fraction of light hitting a surface at the sweet spot where it is totally reflected back to you. The light that passes through only moves through very small films of liquid (since the bubbles are hollow) unlike light through the glass which has to traverse the bulk of beer and has colors subtracted from it through a much longer effective distance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pour a dark, rich, chocolate stout one time and the head will be a dark brown. Not as dark as the beer but it definitely won't be white.\n\nEDIT: Why would anyone downvote this? Do you want proof? _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another question is why does Guinness have a white head when most stouts have a tan colored head?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The [Lovibond scale](_URL_0_) is a measurement of beer/ wort color. The color of the beer and beer's head is largely due to the malt type, i.e. a Black Barley or Chocolate Malt is a larger degree on the Lovibond scale while a Pils or Wheat will be a lower degree on the Lovibond scale. The beer's head will not be the same color as the beer because it's foam, but it is probably similar. \n\nMost likely, your beer's head appears white because you are drinking a lower Lovibond degree beer. [Check out this for more info](_URL_1_) and if you want to get into brewing check out /r/homebrewing. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not all beer \"foam\" is white. Tan, chocolate, cream heads exist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Darker stouts can have a chocolatey foam",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3129812",
"title": "Beer style",
"section": "Section::::Elements of beer style.:Appearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Many beers are transparent, but some beers, such as hefeweizen, may be cloudy due to the presence of yeast making them translucent. A third variety is the opaque or near-opaque colour that exists with stouts, porters, schwarzbiers (black beer) and other deeply coloured styles. Thickness and retention of the head and the lace it can leave on the glass, are also factors in a beer's appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173158",
"title": "Wheat beer",
"section": "Section::::Varieties.:Witbier.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Witbier, white beer, bière blanche, or simply witte is a barley/wheat, top-fermented beer brewed mainly in Belgium and the Netherlands. It gets its name due to suspended yeast and wheat proteins which cause the beer to look hazy, or white, when cold. It is a descendant from those medieval beers which were flavored and preserved with a blend of spices and other plants such as coriander, orange, and bitter orange referred to as \"gruit\" instead of using hops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1797851",
"title": "Beer head",
"section": "Section::::Chemical composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Beer foam consists of polypeptides of five different classifications, divided by their relative hydrophobicity. As the hydrophobicity of the polypeptide groups increases, so does the stability of the foam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8711695",
"title": "Pure Blonde",
"section": "Section::::Pure Blonde White Lager (Wheat beer).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "In November 2010, Carlton & United Beverages launched Pure Blonde White Lager, which claims to be the first Australian lower-carbohydrate wheat beer. The brewer recommends garnishing the beer with a thin slice of orange.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8711695",
"title": "Pure Blonde",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Pure Blonde is a low carb beer produced in Australia. There are currently three styles of Pure Blonde; Pure Blonde Premium Lager, Pure Blonde Naked Lager (Midstrength) and Pure Blonde White Lager (full strength wheat beer).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6647231",
"title": "Sorghum bicolor",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "In several countries in Africa, including Zimbabwe, Burundi, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, and Nigeria, sorghum of both the red and white varieties is used to make traditional opaque beer. Red sorghum imparts a pinkish-brown colour to the beer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "787674",
"title": "Schwarzbier",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 283,
"text": ", or black beer, is a dark lager that originated in Germany. They tend to have an opaque, black colour with hints of chocolate or coffee flavours, and are generally around 5% ABV. They are similar to stout in that they are made from roasted malt, which gives them their dark colour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
959c4r
|
with the epa allowing asbestos again, what exactly is it, what are those commercials saying, should i be scared, and if so what can i do to prevent harm?
|
[
{
"answer": "Asbestos is so dangerous because when it breaks, even just a little, it has a tendency to produce long, thin fibers of asbestos. These are *supremely* dangerous in how they can rack up lung damage with repeated exposure. Asbestos that easily produces fibers is called friable.\n\nBefore we took asbestos seriously, people didn't really realize this, so a lot of asbestos was in a friable form (and still is). Friable or not, asbestos is really only dangerous if it's being disturbed - it can't hurt you just sitting there, but moving it around, shaking it, rubbing against it - all these things can release the dangerous fibers.\n\nI have not heard about the EPA allowing asbestos again, but I would imagine there has been more efforts to ensure the use of non-friable or otherwise safer asbestos, as well as a greater emphasis on asbestos safety protocols. \n\nYou definitely shouldn't be scared. If you are in an area that has asbestos, you'll know it, because you will have been trained to know about asbestos. They generally don't just stick asbestos in places where untrained folks will easily have access to it. To reduce harm, avoid sneaking into off-limits areas, shaking/scratching/banging on every pipe you can find, then breathing in the resulting dust",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Although this doesn't get to your question - the EPA isn't allowing asbestos again.\n\nIn 2016 Congress passed a revised version of the Toxic Substances Control Act which requires the EPA to periodically review certain substances to see if they should be banned or if existing restrictions on their use should be lessened.\n\nThe current news concerns the fact that in June asbestos was listed as one of 10 such chemicals that are undergoing review. As part of that review, the EPA is soliciting \"public comment\" on whether asbestos should be totally banned or granted a \"Significant New Use\" designation - in line with the review required by the 2016 amendment to the Toxic Substances Act.\n\nThis is not a \"rolling back\" of restrictions on asbestos. Even if it is granted Significant New Use designation - and its very unlikely that will happen - that still requires a company to jump through an extraordinary amount of regulatory hurdles before being able to sell asbestos. And even then, companies would be required to go back through the approval process again for each different asbestos containing product they wish to sell.\n\nAs to the public comment - what they are stating is that for the purposes of the public comment, they are not concerned with the long term environmental effects of asbestos and so you should not submit a comment on that issue. Rather, they are focusing on the health effects that asbestos has to those directly exposed to it, ie, those involved in asbestos manufacturing, installation, and removal, as well as those that might be acutely exposed, such as the occupants of an asbestos containing house that collapses in a fire.\n\nAnd again, the EPA is not doing this for fun or even because they want to. They are required under the 2016 revision of the Toxic Substances Control Act to perform this exact review. That revision was passed by Congress and signed by President Obama.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also, \n\nThe different types of asbestos stay suspended in the air for different lengths of time. One of them is basically forever, because it's so small.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53031520",
"title": "Health impact of asbestos",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms of asbestos regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Asbestos regulation critics include the asbestos industry and JunkScience.com owner Steven Milloy. Critics argue that the outright banning of dangerous products by government regulation is inferior to keeping the products while innovating ways to prevent the lethal effects. They argue that the product benefits are too important to ignore; instead of banning the products, ways should be found to eliminate risks to those who work with the products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1298976",
"title": "Asbestos and the law",
"section": "Section::::Regulation.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has no general ban on the use of asbestos. However, asbestos was one of the first hazardous air pollutants regulated under Section 112 of the Clean Air Act of 1970, and many applications have been forbidden by the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA). The United States has extensive laws regulating the use of asbestos at the federal, state, and local level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1301686",
"title": "Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976",
"section": "Section::::Regulation of existing chemicals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "In 1989, the EPA issued a final rule under section 6 to ban the manufacturing, importing, and processing of nearly all asbestos-containing products in the USA. However, it had only limited success in using the authority granted under TSCA section 6 to control chemicals tested and deemed dangerous to public health. The EPA's failure to adequately regulate these chemicals caused strong debates over the legal burden the EPA bears in banning chemicals. The EPA has been successful in restricting five chemicals using section 6 authority (PCBs, chlorofluorocarbons, dioxin, asbestos, and hexavalent chromium) in its 38-year history, with the ban on asbestos being overturned in 1991.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1298976",
"title": "Asbestos and the law",
"section": "Section::::Litigation.:United States.:Criminal prosecutions.:Unsafe Abatement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 156,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 156,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "Asbestos abatement (removal of asbestos) has become a thriving industry in the United States. Strict removal and disposal laws have been enacted to protect the public from airborne asbestos. The Clean Air Act requires that asbestos be wetted during removal and strictly contained, and that workers wear safety gear and masks. The federal government has prosecuted dozens of violations of the act and violations of Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) related to the operations. Often these involve contractors who hire undocumented workers without proper training or protection to illegally remove asbestos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52157367",
"title": "Asbestos and the law (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Abatement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "Asbestos abatement (removal of asbestos) has become a thriving industry in the United States. Strict removal and disposal laws have been enacted to protect the public from airborne asbestos. The Clean Air Act requires that asbestos be wetted during removal and strictly contained, and that workers wear safety gear and masks. The federal government has prosecuted dozens of violations of the act and violations of Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) related to the operations. Often these involve contractors who hire undocumented workers without proper training or protection to illegally remove asbestos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21492663",
"title": "Asbestos",
"section": "Section::::History.:Discovery of toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The United States government and asbestos industry have been criticized for not acting quickly enough to inform the public of dangers, and to reduce public exposure. In the late 1970s, court documents proved that asbestos industry officials knew of asbestos dangers since the 1930s and had concealed them from the public.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "596203",
"title": "Claire's",
"section": "Section::::Asbestos recalls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "On March 5, 2019, Claire's stated that the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) stated that some products sold by the company may have been contaminated with asbestos. Claire's stated that the FDA had \"mis-characterized fibers in the products as asbestos, in direct contradiction to established EPA and USP criterion for classifying asbestos fibers\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
425p5u
|
In Ontario, Canada. Why are there two towns/cities named "London" and "Paris"? Did the names have any influence from the much larger, famous European counterparts?
|
[
{
"answer": "I have a great book called [\"Ontario Place Names\" by David E. Scott](_URL_0_). He has tracked the history and meaning of the name for pretty much every hamlet/village/town/city in Ontario. Some are quite brief and he cannot determine the meaning of the name, but he usually goes into more detail for the larger towns and cities and those with a more detailed history. Gingerbreadman42 is right about the names, but I can give a bit more detail from the book.\n\nFor London, he says that Col. John Graves Simcoe (who later became the governor of Upper Canada) chose London to be the capital of Upper Canada in 1793, and named it after London England. However, his choice for capital city was overruled by governor-in-chief Lord Dorchester, and York (Toronto) became capital. \n\nParis was named by William Holmes, the first settler, who built a mill to grind gypsum, otherwise known as plaster of Paris. Gypsum was (is?) used as a fertilizer and got the plaster of Paris name because its usefulness as a fertilizer was first discovered near Paris, France.\n\nAnd those are just the two biggest places in Ontario named after foreign capitals. Washington, Dublin, Brussels, Copenhagen, Moscow, Warsaw, Athens, Manilla, Delhi, and Cairo are all places in Ontario. And so are Zurich, Adelaide, Ceylon, and Gibralter. \n\nAnd based on my casual reading of this book, I figure that a solid quarter to a third of all place names in Ontario are named after either a place in Great Britain & Ireland, or a 18th or 19th century English, Scottish, Welsh, or Irish person. Think York (formerly Toronto but also York Region, North York, East York, etc.), Stratford, Southampton, Malton, Manchester, Lansdowne, Kilbride, Embro, Dorchester, Cumberland, and Chatham, to name a few.\n\nOh, and Punkeydoodle's Corners. Punkeydoodle's Corners is also the name of a hamlet in Ontario. It's near Stratford and Tavistock. There's not much there. Apparently they have to replace the sign often because it get stolen all the time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40353",
"title": "London, Ontario",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Like another ten cities in the world, this London was named after the British capital of London by John Graves Simcoe, who also named the local river the Thames, in 1793. That was understandable since John Graves Simcoe and many of the original settlers were from Britain. Simcoe had intended London to be the capital of Upper Canada. Guy Carleton (Governor Dorchester) rejected that plan after the War of 1812, but accepted Simcoe's second choice, the present site of Toronto, to become the capital city of what would become the Province of Ontario, at Confederation, on 1 July 1867.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40353",
"title": "London, Ontario",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "London and the Thames were named in 1793 by John Graves Simcoe, who proposed the site for the capital city of Upper Canada. The first European settlement was between 1801 and 1804 by Peter Hagerman. The village was founded in 1826 and incorporated in 1855. Since then, London has grown to be the largest southwestern Ontario municipality and Canada's 11th largest metropolitan area, having annexed many of the smaller communities that surrounded it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4785776",
"title": "Name of Toronto",
"section": "Section::::Nicknames.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "A more disparaging nickname used by the early residents was Little York, referring to its establishment as a collection of twelve log homes at the mouth of the Don River surrounded by wilderness, and used in comparison to New York City in the United States and York in England. This changed as new settlements and roads were established, extending from the newly established capital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2555166",
"title": "Dutch Americans",
"section": "Section::::Dutch language and Dutch names in North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "New York City for example has many originally Dutch street and place names which range from Coney Island and Brooklyn to Wall Street and Broadway. And up the river in New York State Piermont, Orangeburg, Blauvelt and Haverstraw, just to name a few places. In the Hudson Valley region there are many places and waterways whose names incorporate the word \"-kill\", Dutch for \"stream\" or \"riverbed\", including the Catskill Mountains, Peekskill, and the Kill van Kull.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5343002",
"title": "Wehrum, Pennsylvania",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "In what was perhaps a playful reference to New York City, several of the small town's street names were evocative of lower Manhattan. (e,g, \"Broadway\" and \"The Bowery\") In addition to the town site, the company purchased a large amount of coal land from the Blacklick Land and Improvement Company. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2474796",
"title": "History of Toronto",
"section": "Section::::Early Toronto.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The town was incorporated on March 6, 1834, reverting to the name of \"Toronto\" to distinguish it from New York City, as well as about a dozen other localities named 'York' in the province (including York County in which Toronto was situated), and to disassociate itself from the negative connotation of \"dirty Little York\", a common nickname for the town by its residents. William Lyon Mackenzie was its first mayor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20774057",
"title": "History of cities in Canada",
"section": "Section::::Early urbanization – 14,000 BCE – 1850 CE.:Settlements, Villages, and Towns, 1541-1850.:The towns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Eastern cities such as St. John's (1497), Quebec City (1608), Montreal (1642), Halifax (1749), Saint John (1604), and Sherbrooke (1793) were founded in these years. More to the west, Toronto was established in 1793 as York. Of these cities, Montreal would become the most prominent city in Canada up to the 20th century. Toronto grew at a quick pace, gaining its status as a city and present name in 1834.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3unt5v
|
Can zygotes fully develop to term in vitro/without a mother?
|
[
{
"answer": "Impossible at this time.\n\nTypically right now IVF embryo transfers occur at about day 5 or 6 after conception when the embryo is about 60-100 cells in the blastocyst form.\n\nOn their own they start dying more rapidly if left to grow after that. Ultimately for them to survive with current technology, they need a uterus.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "95250",
"title": "Development of the human body",
"section": "Section::::Before birth.:Fertilization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1286,
"text": "The zygote contains a full complement of genetic material, with all the biological characteristics of a single and unrepeatable human being, and develops into the embryo. Briefly, embryonic development have four stages: the morula stage, the blastula stage, the gastrula stage, and the neurula stage. Prior to implantation, the embryo remains in a protein shell, the zona pellucida, and undergoes a series of cell divisions, called mitosis. A week after fertilization the embryo still has not grown in size, but hatches from the zona pellucida and adheres to the lining of the mother's uterus. This induces a decidual reaction, wherein the uterine cells proliferate and surround the embryo thus causing it to become embedded within the uterine tissue. The embryo, meanwhile, proliferates and develops both into embryonic and extra-embryonic tissue, the latter forming the fetal membranes and the placenta. In humans, the embryo is referred to as a fetus in the later stages of prenatal development. The transition from embryo to fetus is arbitrarily defined as occurring 8 weeks after fertilization. In comparison to the embryo, the fetus has more recognizable external features and a set of progressively developing internal organs. A nearly identical process occurs in other species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13974",
"title": "Hymenoptera",
"section": "Section::::Reproduction.:Thelytoky.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "Some hymenopterans take advantage of parthenogenesis, the creation of embryos without fertilization. Thelytoky is a particular form of parthenogenesis in which female embryos are created (without fertilisation). The form of thelytoky in hymenopterans is a kind of automixis in which two haploid products (proto-eggs) from the same meiosis fuse to form a diploid zygote. This process tends to maintain heterozygosity in the passage of the genome from mother to daughter. It is found in several ant species including the desert ant \"Cataglyphis cursor\", the clonal raider ant \"Cerapachys biroi\", the predaceous ant \"Platythyrea punctata\", and the electric ant (little fire ant) \"Wasmannia auropunctata\". It also occurs in the Cape honey bee \"Apis mellifera capensis\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46828",
"title": "Fertilisation",
"section": "Section::::Fertilisation in animals.:Mammals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "This process ultimately leads to the formation of a diploid cell called a zygote. The zygote divides to form a blastocyst and, upon entering the uterus, implants in the endometrium, beginning pregnancy. Embryonic implantation not in the uterine wall results in an ectopic pregnancy that can kill the mother.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1065882",
"title": "Germ layer",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Fertilization leads to the formation of a zygote. During the next stage, cleavage, mitotic cell divisions transform the zygote into a hollow ball of cells, a blastula. This early embryonic form undergoes gastrulation, forming a gastrula with either two or three layers (the germ layers). In all vertebrates, these progenitor cells differentiate into all adult tissues and organs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9798607",
"title": "Sporogenesis",
"section": "Section::::Formation of dormant spores.:Zygospore, oospore and auxospore formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "In oomycetes, the zygote forms through the fertilization of an egg cell with a sperm nucleus and enters a resting stage as a diploid, thick-walled oospore. The germinating oospore undergoes mitosis and gives rise to diploid hyphae which reproduce asexually via mitotic zoospores as long as conditions are favorable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12223150",
"title": "Fusion mechanism",
"section": "Section::::Mammalian Cell Fusion Mechanisms.:Programming Fusion-Competent Status.:Haploid Cells.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "Zygote formation is a crucial step in sexual reproduction that is reliant on the fusion of sperm and egg cells. Consequently, these cells must be primed to gain fusion-competence. Phosphatidylserine is a phospholipid that usually resides on the inner layer of the cell membrane. After sperm cells are primed, phosphatidylserine can be found on the outer leaflet of the membrane. It is thought that this helps stabilize the membrane at the head of the sperm, and that it may play a role in allowing the sperm to enter the zona pellucida which covers egg cells. This unusual location of phosphatidylserine is an example of membrane restructuring during priming for cell fusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9276466",
"title": "Parthenogenesis",
"section": "Section::::Types and mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Parthenogenesis can occur without meiosis through mitotic oogenesis. This is called \"apomictic parthenogenesis\". Mature egg cells are produced by mitotic divisions, and these cells directly develop into embryos. In flowering plants, cells of the gametophyte can undergo this process. The offspring produced by apomictic parthenogenesis are \"full clones\" of their mother. Examples include aphids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3olwx0
|
when driving does a change in air pressure determine how much fuel you use (mpg) etc..
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes...but not very much. Also, fuel gauges aren't all that accurate.\n\nProbably the most noticeable effect on MPG, for the same trip at the same speed, is wind. Headwind or crosswind will decrease it, tailwind will increase it. Many other things affect MPG: Cargo/passenger in your car (more weight). Air pressure in the tires. Outside temperature. Air conditioner on/off.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14510397",
"title": "Trionic T5.5",
"section": "Section::::Fuel.:Fuel injection.:Calculating of injection time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "To decide how much fuel needs to be injected into each intake runner the ECU calculates the air mass that had been drawn into the cylinder. The calculation makes use of the cylinder volume (the B204 engine has a displacement of 0.5 litres per cylinder). That cylinder volume holds equal amount of air which has a density and thus a certain mass. The air density is calculated using the absolute pressure and temperature in the intake manifold. The air mass for combustion has now been calculated and that value is divided by 14.7 (stoichiometric relation for gasoline mass to air mass) to determine the required fuel mass for each combustion to inject. Since the flow capacity of the injector and the density of the fuel (pre programmed values) are known, the ECU can calculate the duration of the injection. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2432911",
"title": "Mass flow sensor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "The air mass information is necessary for the engine control unit (ECU) to balance and deliver the correct fuel mass to the engine. Air changes its density with temperature and pressure. In automotive applications, air density varies with the ambient temperature, altitude and the use of forced induction, which means that mass flow sensors are more appropriate than volumetric flow sensors for determining the quantity of intake air in each cylinder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32587664",
"title": "Bendix-Stromberg pressure carburetor",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "At the same time, air entering the carburetor compresses the air in the impact tubes, generating a positive pressure in chamber B that is proportional to the density and speed of the air entering the engine. The difference in pressure between chamber A and chamber B creates the \"air metering force\" which opens the servo valve allowing the fuel into the fuel regulator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1145731",
"title": "Packard V-1650 Merlin",
"section": "Section::::Design and development.:Measurement of boost pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "The British measured boost pressure as lbf/in² (psi). The normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7 psi, so a reading of +6 means that the air/fuel mix is being compressed by a supercharger blower to 20.7 psi before entering the engine; +25 means that the air/fuel mix is now being compressed to 39.7 psi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32587664",
"title": "Bendix-Stromberg pressure carburetor",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The fuel mixture is automatically altitude-controlled by the automatic mixture control. It operates by bleeding higher pressure air from chamber B into chamber A as it flows through a tapered needle valve. The needle valve is controlled by an aneroid bellows that senses barometric pressure, causing a leaning of the mixture as altitude increases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "645083",
"title": "Formula One car",
"section": "Section::::Engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "In 2012, the engines consumed around 450 l (15.9 ft) of air per second (at the 2012 rev limit of 18,000 rpm); race fuel consumption rate was normally around 75 l/100 km travelled (3.1 US mpg, 3.8 imp mpg, 1.3 km/l).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21146024",
"title": "Components of jet engines",
"section": "Section::::Major components.:Fuel system.:Fuel control unit (FCU).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "At initial acceleration, more fuel is required and the unit is adapted to allow more fuel to flow by opening other ports at a particular throttle position. Changes in pressure of outside air i.e. altitude, speed of aircraft etc. are sensed by an air capsule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
j3szh
|
what does it mean when someone "itemizes" their taxes? also is this somehow related to deductions. actually, eli5 deductions as well.
|
[
{
"answer": "When figuring out your taxes, there are certain things that the government has decided you don't have to pay taxes (or can pay less taxes) on. Because you're deducting them from the amount you have to pay, they're called deductions. They are for things like raising children or business expenses if you're self-employed - Generally, things that the government has decided will benefit the nation in the long run (well-raised kids, successful businesses).\n\nWhen you pay your taxes, you can choose to take a \"standard deduction\" which is a predefined amount set by the government. Doing this is basically saying \"Yeah, I have some deductions to take off, but either I don't feel like listing them all or even if I did it's not going to be more than the Standard.\"\n\nOr you can choose to *itemize* your deductions. This means listing every item/purchase/travel expense/whatever that you can possibly write off of your taxes. People do this if it means they'll save more money than if they just took a standard deduction, but it's generally a big hassle. Also, if you get audited by the IRS (I.e., they think you lied about your taxes), you need to have receipts for everything you listed available to prove you actually spent the money the way you said you did.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "299624",
"title": "Standard deduction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "Under United States tax law, the standard deduction is a dollar amount that non-itemizers may subtract from their income before income tax (but not other kinds of tax, such as payroll tax) is applied. Taxpayers may choose either itemized deductions or the standard deduction, but usually choose whichever results in the lesser amount of tax payable. The standard deduction is available to US citizens and aliens who are resident for tax purposes and who are individuals, married persons, and heads of household. The standard deduction is based on filing status and typically increases each year. It is not available to nonresident aliens residing in the United States (with few exceptions, for example, students from India on F1 visa status can use the standard deduction). Additional amounts are available for persons who are blind and/or are at least 65 years of age. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "299563",
"title": "Itemized deduction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Under United States tax law, itemized deductions are eligible expenses that individual taxpayers can claim on federal income tax returns and which decrease their taxable income, and is claimable in place of a standard deduction, if available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "768124",
"title": "Tax bracket",
"section": "Section::::Tax brackets in the United States.:Internal Revenue Code terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Itemized Deductions are other specific deductions such as; mortgage interest on a home, state income taxes or sales taxes, local property taxes, charitable contributions, state income tax withheld, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30297",
"title": "Tax",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Property.:Expatriation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "An expatriation tax is a tax on individuals who renounce their citizenship or residence. The tax is often imposed based on a deemed disposition of all the individual's property. One example is the United States under the \"American Jobs Creation Act\", where any individual who has a net worth of $2 million or an average income-tax liability of $127,000 who renounces his or her citizenship and leaves the country is automatically assumed to have done so for tax avoidance reasons and is subject to a higher tax rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "299563",
"title": "Itemized deduction",
"section": "Section::::Miscellaneous itemized deductions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "It is important to distinguish miscellaneous itemized deductions from other \"normal\" itemized deductions. The reason for this is because miscellaneous itemized deductions are subject to a 2% floor, a.k.a. the \"2% Haircut.\" A taxpayer can only deduct the amount of miscellaneous itemized deductions that exceed 2% of their adjusted gross income. For example, if a taxpayer has adjusted gross income of $50,000 with $4,000 in miscellaneous itemized deductions, the taxpayer can only deduct $3,000, since the first $1,000 is below the 2% floor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14582803",
"title": "Two-Percent Haircut",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "\"IRC § 67(a)\" states that a taxpayer can deduct \"miscellaneous itemized deductions\" only to the extent that the aggregate of such deductions exceed two percent of the taxpayer's adjusted gross income.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "299485",
"title": "Tax deduction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Tax deduction is a reduction of income that is able to be taxed and is commonly a result of expenses, particularly those incurred to produce additional income. Tax deductions are a form of tax incentives, along with exemptions and credits. The difference between deductions, exemptions and credits is that deductions and exemptions both reduce taxable income, while credits reduce tax.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6zvkpl
|
Were there any Confederate generals who were anti-slavery? On the other side of that coin were there any Union generals who were pro-slavery?
|
[
{
"answer": "I do not believe there were any Confederate Generals who were anti-slavery. In 1861 it was actually quite dangerous for any American citizen to express anti-slavery views while in the South. You will see quotes from men such as Lee which indicate slavery is an evil but Lee is also recorded as voicing the predominant opinion that it was an evil which God inflicts on black people and God will decide to end in his own time.\n\nThe Union side was much more complex of a story. The Democratic Party and the large number of voting public had a long history of agreeing with Southern slave owners. Most enlisted for the Union. Not to end slavery. But very many of those voted Republican in the 1864 election which was clearly anti-slavery.\n\nRoughly two hundred thousand Southerners joined the Union army. Mostly coming from the border states but coming from all of them except SC. as a sweeping statement, they were more motivated in loyalty to their country than to slavery and their state. Many northerners joined the war, many were force conscripted and they joined with no interest to fight and die with the goal of ending slavery. \n\nThere were Republicans and Abolitionists who were the first to join the Union army with the singular goal of ending slavery. The Commander in chief, Lincoln, navigated the slow and steady path of enlisting border states and Union men into the cause. It took time and a lot of blood before the objective of the war changed. The Emancipation proclamation changed it from the preservation of the union to the extinction of slavery and thus permanently end the agitation. Public opinion of Northerns changed greatly with time to the point they ended up arming black men and paying them equally in the army. So, not only did a lot of men vary but they varied in time as well.\n\nI will call out the top Union General of them all as pro-slavery. General McClellan. But I won't critique him. I will let Frederick Douglas do that.\n\nFrederick Douglas wrote \"McClellan, in command of the army, had been trying, apparently, to put down the rebellion without hurting the rebels, certainly without hurting slavery, and the government had seemed to cooperate with him in both respects. \"\n\n\"I, however, faithfully believed, and loudly proclaimed my belief, that the rebellion would be suppressed, the Union preserved, the slaves emancipated and that the colored soldiers would in the end have justice done them. This confidence was immeasurably strengthened when I saw Gen. George B. McClellan relieved from the command of the army of the Potomac and Gen. U. S. Grant\"\n\n\"With this condition of national affairs came the summer of 1864, and with it the revived Democratic party with the story in its mouth that the war was a failure, and with it Gen. George B. McClellan, the greatest failure of the war, as its candidate for the presidency. It is needless to say that the success of such a party, on such a platform, with such a candidate, at such a time, would have been a fatal calamity. All that had been done toward suppressing the rebellion and abolishing slavery would have proved of no avail, and the final settlement between the two sections of the Republic touching slavery and the right of secession would have been left to tear and rend the country again at no distant future.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "293722",
"title": "Confederate States Army",
"section": "Section::::African Americans and the Confederate Army.:Using slaves as soldiers.:Opposition from Confederates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Prominent Confederates such as R. M. T. Hunter and Georgian Democrat Howell Cobb opposed arming slaves, saying that it was \"suicidal\" and would run contrary to the Confederacy's ideology. Opposing such a move, Cobb stated that African Americans were untrustworthy and innately lacked the qualities to make good soldiers, and that using them would cause many Confederates to quit the army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48854605",
"title": "For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Confederate motivations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "In the book, McPherson contrasts the views of the Confederates regarding slavery to that of the colonial-era American revolutionaries of the late 18th century. He stated that while the American colonists of the 1770s saw an incongruity with slave ownership and proclaiming to be fighting for liberty, the Confederates did not, as the Confederacy's overriding ideology of white supremacy negated any contradiction between the two:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22918728",
"title": "Albert Taylor Bledsoe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Albert Taylor Bledsoe (November 9, 1809 – December 8, 1877) was an American Episcopal priest, attorney, professor of mathematics, and officer in the Confederate army and was best known as a staunch defender of slavery and, after the South lost the American Civil War, an architect of the Lost Cause. He was the author of \"Liberty and Slavery\" (1856), \"the most extensive philosophical treatment of slavery ever produced by a Southern academic\", which defended slavery laws as ensuring proper societal order.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48854605",
"title": "For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Confederate motivations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "McPherson states that the Confederates did not discuss the issue of slavery as often as Union soldiers did, because most Confederate soldiers readily accepted as an obvious fact that they were fighting to perpetuate slavery, and thus did not feel a need to debate over it:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1892047",
"title": "Silent Sam",
"section": "Section::::Toppling, 2018.:Reactions.:Supporters of the toppling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 1128,
"text": "BULLET::::- In an op-ed in the \"New York Times\", scholars of slavery Ethan J. Kytle and Blain Roberts, authors of \"Denmark Vesey's Garden. Slavery and Memory in the Cradle of the Confederacy\" (2018), professors of history at California State University, Fresno, with Ph.D.s in history from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill: \"We once believed that Confederate statues should be left up but also placed in historical context... Over time, however, we lost our enthusiasm for this approach... The white supremacist intent of these monuments, in other words, is not a relic of the past... The prominence of the memorials shows how white Southerners etched racism into the earth with impunity.\" Their recommendation: leaving the \"empty pedestal — shorn all original images and inscriptions — eliminates the offending tribute while still preserving a record of what these communities did and where they did it... The most effective way to commemorate the rise and fall of white supremacist monument-building is to preserve unoccupied pedestals as the ruins that they are — broken tributes to a morally bankrupt cause.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293722",
"title": "Confederate States Army",
"section": "Section::::Morale and motivations.:Slavery and white supremacism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "McPherson states that Confederate soldiers did not discuss the issue of slavery as often as United States soldiers did, because most Confederate soldiers readily accepted as an obvious fact that they were fighting to perpetuate slavery and thus did not feel the need to debate over it:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293722",
"title": "Confederate States Army",
"section": "Section::::African Americans and the Confederate Army.:Using slaves as soldiers.:Opposition from Confederates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 138,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 138,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The overwhelming support most Confederates had for maintaining black slavery was the primary cause of their strong opposition to using African Americans as armed soldiers. Maintaining the institution of slavery was the primary goal of the Confederacy's existence, and thus, using their slaves as soldiers was incongruous with that goal. According to historian Paul D. Escott:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ft9gco
|
AITA for asking some maroon friends to help me steal from the Spanish only to accidentally spark a four-year-long scorched earth campaign against my allies?
|
[
{
"answer": "NTA. Now, I normally don't support things like stealing and interfering in other people's affairs, but it sounds like good came out of it (the Maroons freeing slaves). Yes, there might have been a lot of deaths, but sounds like the end result was good and that's what's important. Sorry about your burned body, btw.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ESH. Well, everyone but the slaves. The Spanish sound just *terrible*, you're in this for your own selfish reasons, and you caused a *scorched earth war*? What the hell!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23749461",
"title": "Robert Venables",
"section": "Section::::The Protectorate and the West Indies expedition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "The Spanish freed their slaves, who became Jamaican Maroons in the mountainous interior, and they fought on the side of the Spanish against the English invaders. There were two separate bands of Maroons, led by Juan de Bolas and Juan de Serras respectively, and they effectively repelled any attempts by the English to subdue them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39645520",
"title": "Afro-Curaçaoan",
"section": "Section::::History.:Curaçao's slaves in Coro.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "The Spanish of Coro organized the called \"cacería\" (hunt) for to pursue to the Maroons and for that purpose made use of the cooperation they received from the Caquetio Amerndians, with whom they maintained close partnership from the very beginning of the Spanish colonial invasion process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38598976",
"title": "Slavery in Haiti",
"section": "Section::::History.:Spanish Hispaniola (1492–1625).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "In response to the brutality, the natives fought back. Some Taino escaped into remote parts of the island's mountains and formed communities in hiding as \"maroons\", who organized attacks against Spaniards' settlements. The Spanish responded to the native resistance with severe reprisals, for example destroying crops to starve the natives. The Spaniards brought to the island dogs trained to kill the natives and unleashed them upon those who rebelled against enslavement. In 1495 Columbus sent 500 captured natives back to Spain as slaves, but 200 did not survive the voyage, and the others died shortly afterwards. In the late 1490s he planned to send 4000 slaves back to Spain each year, but this expectation failed to take into account the rapid decline the native population would soon suffer and was never achieved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6981342",
"title": "History of Curaçao",
"section": "Section::::European colonization.:Dutch consolidation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "The Spaniards schemed to recapture Curaçao from the Dutch. Information about troops, fortifications, outposts, food supplies and ammunition was collected in three ways. Indians who lived in Curaçao were kidnapped and interrogated. WIC personnel who came to fetch salt on the coast of Venezuela were captured and interrogated. Finally, Spaniards sent spies to Curaçao. The Spaniards attempted an invasion in 1637 with a number of ships and enough troops to overcome the WIC garrison. A storm forced them to turn away and they never reached Curaçao.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4316047",
"title": "Gaspar Yanga",
"section": "Section::::Spanish 1609 attack.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "The Spaniards refused the terms and went into battle, resulting in heavy losses for both sides. The Spaniards advanced into the maroon settlement and burned it. But, the maroons fled into the surrounding terrain, which they knew well, and the Spaniards could not achieve a conclusive victory. The resulting stalemate lasted years; finally, the Spanish agreed to parley. Yanga's terms were agreed to, with the additional provisos that only Franciscan priests would tend to the people, and that Yanga's family would be granted the right of rule. In 1618 the treaty was signed. By 1630 the town of San Lorenzo de los Negros de Cerralvo was established. Located in today's Veracruz province, the town in the 21st century is known as Yanga.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8063",
"title": "History of the Dominican Republic",
"section": "Section::::Spanish colony: 1492–1795.:Sixteenth century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1280,
"text": "By the mid-sixteenth century, there were an estimated seven thousand maroons (runaway slaves) beyond Spanish control on Hispaniola. The Bahoruco Mountains were their main area of concentration, although Africans had escaped to other areas of the island as well. From their refuges, they descended to attack the Spanish. In 1546 the slave Diego de Guzman led an insurrection that swept through the San Juan de la Maguana area, after which he escaped to the Bahoruco Mountains. After his capture, de Guzman was savagely killed and some of his fellow rebels were burned alive, others burned with branding irons, others hung, and others had their feet cut off. The most extended insurrection was led by Sebastián Lemba. For fifteen years Lemba attacked Spanish towns, plantations, and farms with an army of four hundred Africans. Lemba was eventually caught and was executed in 1548. His head was mounted on the door that connected the Fort of San Gil (today Fort Ozama) to Fort Conde, and for centuries it was called “the Lemba door.” Insurrections continued to burden the colony's tranquility and economy. From 1548 to the end of the sixteenth century, maroons attacked farms, plantations, and villages. By 1560 the colony was unable to recruit and pay troops to pursue the rebels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58022359",
"title": "Davy the Maroon",
"section": "Section::::Hunting runaway slaves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "The treaties of 1739 and 1740 required the Maroons to hunt runaway slaves, for which they received rewards from the colonial authorities. After making his name killing Tacky, Davy found that many planters were willing to pay him to hunt down their runaway slaves. Davy then made a considerable living leading teams of Maroons in hunting runaways. In 1774, while he was leading a group of Maroons hunting runaways near Hellshire Beach, one of his young followers, Samuel Grant, accidentally killed a white sea captain named Thompson. Later English writers claimed that Grant was the son of Davy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
45ycr8
|
Why are there so many things named "Columbia" in the United States. Does it have any relation to Columbia the country?
|
[
{
"answer": "Only insofar as they have the same source: the name of Christopher Columbus.\n\n\"America\" is kind of an odd name, taken from cartographer Amerigo Vespucci. But it caught on, the way things that are kind of counterintuitive will sometimes.\n\nThis left a kind of unsatisfied urge to name it for Columbus, it seems. In 1776, a certain country was very nearly the United States of Columbia, did put their capitol in a District of Columbia, and it remained a tradition to poetically personify the country in the female figure of Columbia (songs like \"Columbia the Gem of the Ocean\" are about the USA).\n\nOn the other hand, there's a lot of use of Columbia (meaning the Americas) in Canada, starting with British Columbia.\n\nColombia (notice spelling), as Gran Colombia, and very different borders, seceded from the Spanish Empire in 1819, but split up by 1830 into New Granada, Ecuador & Venezuela. It was 1863 before New Grenada became the United States of Colombia.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19792942",
"title": "Americans",
"section": "Section::::National personification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Columbia is a poetic name for the Americas and the feminine personification of the United States of America, made famous by African-American poet Phillis Wheatley during the American Revolutionary War in 1776. It has inspired the names of many persons, places, objects, institutions, and companies in the Western Hemisphere and beyond, including the District of Columbia, the seat of government of the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2165190",
"title": "Columbia (name)",
"section": "Section::::History.:After Independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "No serious consideration was given to using the name Columbia as an official name for the independent United States, but with independence the name became popular and was given to many counties, townships, and towns as well as other institutions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2165190",
"title": "Columbia (name)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "Columbia (; ) is the personification of the United States. It was also a historical name used to describe the Americas and the New World. It has given rise to the names of many persons, places, objects, institutions and companies; for example: Columbia University, the District of Columbia (the national capital of the United States), and the ship \"Columbia Rediviva\", which would give its name to the Columbia River. Images of the Statue of Liberty largely displaced personified Columbia as the female symbol of the United States by around 1920, although Lady Liberty was seen as an aspect of Columbia. The District of Columbia is named after the personification, as is the traditional patriotic hymn \"Hail Columbia\", which is the official vice presidential anthem of the United States Vice President.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37682696",
"title": "Spacecraft naming",
"section": "Section::::Space Shuttle orbiters.:\"Columbia\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "\"Columbia\" was named for the historical poetic name for the United States of America, like the explorer ship of Captain Robert Gray and the Command Module of Apollo 11, the first manned landing on another celestial body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2165190",
"title": "Columbia (name)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Columbia is a New Latin toponym in use since the 1730s for the Thirteen Colonies. It originated from the name of Italian explorer Christopher Columbus and from the ending \"-ia\", common in Latin names of countries (paralleling Britannia, Gallia, and others).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3392",
"title": "British Columbia",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Ultimately, the \"Columbia\" in the name \"British Columbia\" is derived from the name of the \"Columbia Rediviva\", an American ship which lent its name to the Columbia River and later the wider region; the \"Columbia\" in the name \"Columbia Rediviva\" came from the name \"Columbia\" for the New World or parts thereof, a reference to Christopher Columbus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "788678",
"title": "Columbia (supercontinent)",
"section": "Section::::Size and location.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Columbia is estimated to have been approximately from North to South at its broadest part. The eastern coast of India was attached to western North America, with southern Australia against western Canada. In this era most of South America was rotated such that the western edge of modern-day Brazil lined up with eastern North America, forming a continental margin that extended into the southern edge of Scandinavia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1104uo
|
helpful maps
|
[
{
"answer": "Could always try /r/mapporn there is loads of useful images there.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_ is my goto map website.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19877",
"title": "Map",
"section": "Section::::Map types.:General-purpose maps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "General-purpose maps provide many types of information on one map. Most atlas maps, wall maps, and road maps fall into this category. The following are some features that might be shown on general-purpose maps: bodies of water, roads, railway lines, parks, elevations, towns and cities, political boundaries, latitude and longitude, national and provincial parks. These maps give a broad understanding of location and features of an area. The reader may gain an understanding of the type of landscape, the location of urban places, and the location of major transportation routes all at once.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "320025",
"title": "Automatic label placement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "The typical features depicted on a geographic map are line features (e.g. roads), area features (countries, parcels, forests, lakes, etc.), and point features (villages, cities, etc.). In addition to depicting the map's features in a geographically accurate manner, it is of critical importance to place the names that identify these features, in a way that the reader knows instantly which name describes which feature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2955846",
"title": "The Atlas of the Land",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "A Notes section categorizes maps by location/topic, and an Index of Place Names is also included. The Selected References section details Donaldson's novels, personal interviews, and several non-fiction books (and the University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh Department of Geography's cartographic equipment) used to create the tonal line drawn maps (Black, Gray, White, and Rust).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33832837",
"title": "IGN FI",
"section": "Section::::Sectors of application.:Cartography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Valuable tools for understanding territories, the concept of the map has greatly diversified taking the form of vector or raster geographic databases. The map’s utility to the general public has also exploded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26695259",
"title": "Commission on Maps and the Internet",
"section": "Section::::Research Questions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "BULLET::::- Develop a database of web maps with specific themes or authors, areas (coordinates), resolution, dates, etc. A large number of maps reside on the web but it is difficult to find them, and particularly to find anything out about them. Maps on the web should be accompanied by a metafile with a description of the contents (e.g. map, soils, Netherlands, 1987, in a standardized format like MARC 2). The metafiles would be aggregated into a database that would point to map files available on the web without having to go to each home page.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10034803",
"title": "Land use capability map",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Land use capability maps are maps created to represent the potential uses of a \"unit\" of land. They are measured using various indicators, although the most common are five physical factors (rock type, , slope, erosion degree and type, and vegetation). In more scientific terms, these can be classed as lithology, edaphology, topography, gradient, and biotic features.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33876183",
"title": "LRE Map",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "The large amount of information contained in the Map can be analyzed in many different ways. A few, general analyses are available on the Resource Map website at http://www.resourcebook.eu (click on the “Show (Hide) Quick Pies” link). For instance, the LRE Map can provide information about the most frequent type of resource, the most represented language, the applications for which resources are used or are being developed, the proportion of new resources vs. already existing ones, or the way in which resources are distributed to the community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16dmcl
|
Does chemotherapy affect the health of a male's future offspring, conceived years after treatment?
|
[
{
"answer": "Be careful answering this post, as it borders on asking for medical advice. Linking to relevant papers is probably okay, but telling OP whether or not he should have kids wouldn't be... Obviously it's up to the mods to define the line of what's acceptable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "OBVIOUSLY: talk to a doctor before trying to get pregnant.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThis is where it states you should wait a period of 200 days before trying. Feel good about it though...The body is incredibly good at recovering.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most of the research I've seen concerns females. For males, the general rule is to [wait two years and then stop worrying](_URL_1_).\n\nBut you were asking if there could be longer term concerns. There are some studies that suggest that men exposed to pesticides can pass on genetic or epigentic changes to their children, and it's possible that chemotherapy drugs could cause similar problems. See [here](_URL_2_) or [here](_URL_0_) for studies looking at pesticides. This topic is still being hotly debated, so at this stage the only thing that's clear is that the effect isn't strong enough to show clear evidence with the studies done so far.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3174918",
"title": "Female infertility",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Acquired.:Chemotherapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Female infertility by chemotherapy appears to be secondary to premature ovarian failure by loss of primordial follicles. This loss is not necessarily a direct effect of the chemotherapeutic agents, but could be due to an increased rate of growth initiation to replace damaged developing follicles. Antral follicle count decreases after three series of chemotherapy, whereas follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) reaches menopausal levels after four series. Other hormonal changes in chemotherapy include decrease in inhibin B and anti-Müllerian hormone levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7172",
"title": "Chemotherapy",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Infertility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Female infertility by chemotherapy appears to be secondary to premature ovarian failure by loss of primordial follicles. This loss is not necessarily a direct effect of the chemotherapeutic agents, but could be due to an increased rate of growth initiation to replace damaged developing follicles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1169292",
"title": "Sex cord–gonadal stromal tumour",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "A retrospective study of 83 women with sex cord–stromal tumours (73 with granulosa cell tumour and 10 with Sertoli-Leydig cell tumour), all diagnosed between 1975 and 2003, reported that survival was higher with age under 50, smaller tumour size, and absence of residual disease. The study found no effect of chemotherapy. A retrospective study of 67 children and adolescents reported some benefit of cisplatin-based chemotherapy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12977707",
"title": "Fertility preservation",
"section": "Section::::Indications.:Cancer treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "For many cancer patients, the decrease or loss of reproductive function is temporary; many men and women, however, do not regain fertility after cancer treatment. Patients undergoing serious radiation, chemotherapy, or surgery sometimes experience symptoms resembling menopause (in women) or andropause (in men), which indicate reproductive damage. In women, decreased estrogen levels as a result of ovarian deficiency lead to weakened bone, changes in temperature control, altered mood, and decreased sexual desire. Men with testicular insufficiency also experience similar symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7172",
"title": "Chemotherapy",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Teratogenicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "In males previously having undergone chemotherapy or radiotherapy, there appears to be no increase in genetic defects or congenital malformations in their children conceived after therapy. The use of assisted reproductive technologies and micromanipulation techniques might increase this risk. In females previously having undergone chemotherapy, miscarriage and congenital malformations are not increased in subsequent conceptions. However, when in vitro fertilization and embryo cryopreservation is practised between or shortly after treatment, possible genetic risks to the growing oocytes exist, and hence it has been recommended that the babies be screened.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7172",
"title": "Chemotherapy",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Teratogenicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Chemotherapy is teratogenic during pregnancy, especially during the first trimester, to the extent that abortion usually is recommended if pregnancy in this period is found during chemotherapy. Second- and third-trimester exposure does not usually increase the teratogenic risk and adverse effects on cognitive development, but it may increase the risk of various complications of pregnancy and fetal myelosuppression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7172",
"title": "Chemotherapy",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Infertility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "In chemotherapy as a conditioning regimen in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, a study of people conditioned with cyclophosphamide alone for severe aplastic anemia came to the result that ovarian recovery occurred in all women younger than 26 years at time of transplantation, but only in five of 16 women older than 26 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
icz6s
|
If there really was another planet orbiting the sun opposite the earth as some people claim, how would we know?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, it would affect the orbits of other planets. Also, other planets would affect its orbit, so it would be hard put to stay exactly on the opposite side.\n\nThere is an [equilibrium point, L3](_URL_0_) on the opposite side, but it's not stable. Instead of being like a valley, it's like the top of a hill. So if something is at the L3 point, the slightest disturbance will move it away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Would it affect other orbits? Yes. Pluto was discovered in part because of unexplained orbital perturbations of Neptune.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another approach: We'd have seen it by now with these: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm pretty sure we would see it by its gravitational effects on other objects. If an asteroid passed by it, it would deflect off and we'd notice. As I understand it, we've calculated all the masses of all the large objects in the solar system, and can predict with great accuracy exactly where any planet or moon is, along with a huge number of asteroids.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Perhaps more interesting is that there could be an [extra star](_URL_0_) in our solar system.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > The Sun–Earth L3 point was a popular place to put a \"Counter-Earth\" in pulp science fiction and comic books. Once space-based observation became possible via satellites and probes, it was shown to hold no such object. The Sun–Earth L3 is unstable and could not contain an object, large or small, for very long. This is because the gravitational forces of the other planets are stronger than that of the Earth (Venus, for example, comes within 0.3 AU of this L3 every 20 months). In addition, because Earth's orbit is elliptical and because the barycenter of the Sun-Jupiter system is unbalanced relative to Earth, such a Counter-Earth would frequently be visible from Earth.\n\nFrom [Wikipedia - Lagrangian point](_URL_0_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As some people claim? Who?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52459",
"title": "Counter-Earth",
"section": "Section::::Modern era.:Scientific analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "A planet orbiting the Sun so that it was always on the other side of the Sun from Earth could (in theory) have such an orbit because it was the same distance from the Sun and had the same mass as Earth. Thus, what would make it undetectable to astronomers (or any other human beings) on Earth would also make it habitable to beings at least similar to humans. With the same size and distance from the Sun as Earth, it could have the same (or very similar) surface environment—gravity, atmospheric pressure, and surface temperature range. At the same time such a planet could have the same orbiting velocity and path as Earth, so that if it was positioned 180 degrees from Earth, it would remain behind the Sun being blocked from view from Earth indefinitely. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2333491",
"title": "Nibiru cataclysm",
"section": "Section::::Scientific rejection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "In a 2009 interview with the Discovery Channel, Mike Brown noted that, while it is not impossible that the Sun has a distant planetary companion, such an object would have to be lying very far from the observed regions of the Solar System to have no detectable gravitational effect on the other planets. A Mars-sized object could lie undetected at 300 AU (10 times the distance of Neptune); a Jupiter-sized object at 30,000 AU. To travel 1000 AU in two years, an object would need to be moving at 2400 km/s – faster than the galactic escape velocity. At that speed, any object would be shot out of the Solar System, and then out of the Milky Way galaxy into intergalactic space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "899973",
"title": "Definition of planet",
"section": "Section::::History.:Minor planets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Then in 1802, Heinrich Olbers discovered Pallas, a second \"planet\" at roughly the same distance from the Sun as Ceres. That two planets could occupy the same orbit was an affront to centuries of thinking; even Shakespeare had ridiculed the idea (\"Two stars keep not their motion in one sphere\"). Even so, in 1804, another world, Juno, was discovered in a similar orbit. In 1807, Olbers discovered a fourth object, Vesta, at a similar orbital distance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1072033",
"title": "Doppelgänger (1969 film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "In 2069, the European Space Exploration Council's (EUROSEC) unmanned spacecraft \"Sun Probe\" discovers a planet in the same orbit as Earth on the other side of the Sun. Dr. Kurt Hassler, based at the EUROSEC Space Centre in Portugal, is a double agent who has been leaking the probe's findings to a rival power in the East. Security Chief Mark Neuman traces the transmissions to Hassler's laboratory and shoots the scientist dead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "200716",
"title": "Barycenter",
"section": "Section::::Two-body problem.:Inside or outside the Sun?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "If Jupiter had Mercury's orbit (), the Sun–Jupiter barycenter would be approximately 55,000 km from the center of the Sun (). But even if the Earth had Eris' orbit (), the Sun–Earth barycenter would still be within the Sun (just over 30,000 km from the center).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2991789",
"title": "The Stranger (1973 film)",
"section": "Section::::Behind the scenes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "The idea of an astronaut landing on a twin planet orbiting the Sun exactly opposite Earth was used in the film \"Doppelgänger\" (also known as \"Journey to the Far Side of the Sun\"), produced four years earlier, in 1969.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27399250",
"title": "Twin Earths",
"section": "Section::::Characters and story.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "The story told of another Earth (called \"Terra\"), in the same orbit as our planet but on the opposite side of the sun, whose scientifically advanced civilization visits us in flying saucers. Comics historian Stephen Donnelly noted:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ujf7c
|
[Meta] New r/askhistorians official policies.
|
[
{
"answer": "Excellent changes. Have you thought about adding more mods to help you enforce them? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is my favorite subreddit and if stiff moderation is needed to remain that way, I approve. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sounds great, looks like you've put thought into this and done it right.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If I could suggest one addition: downvotes are for bad responces, not for responces you disagree with/that challenge your view of things but are otherwise excellent. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hey, not a historian and not really a contributor in this subreddit (just enjoy reading) and I just wanted to say these policies sound great. It's this type of strict moderation that make AskScience such a fantastic place to visit and I look forward to AskHistorians being similar in the future.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I haven't really seen too much of these problems as of late, but all of these rules look reasonable. Good job, mods.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Could we allow AMAs for people who have experience in a particularly interesting line of history? Particularly something you might otherwise assume no one knows much about (thinking along the lines of someone who's tried to decipher Linear A or B, or someone who does a lot of experimental history, anything interesting like that).\n\nAlso, can we allow posts that are requests for comments? I recently made a wax tablet and wanted to get some feedback (if I hadn't already posted about it, I wouldn't bother, but a couple of people were interested). It could also be useful for people who want critiques of something like a paper from others familiar with the subject matter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Now could we also ask that non-flaired users wait until a flaired user has responded or, at the very least, not answer with conjecture? It's really annoying to see so many responses starting with \"well, I'm not sure\" or \"I'm not an historian, but\". It also makes it hard for the flaired users to be given precedence because they often take a little while to respond.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Two things:\n\nPlease, even in non-top-tiered comments, prohibit memes, image-macros, pun-threads, circlejerks, etc. This could escalate quickly otherwise.\n\nAlso, include how to up-/downvote in the rules.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As this comment is simply a compliment, I hope it won't get deleted. But these rules have been sorely needed and signify what I think will be a defining moment for /r/askhistorians. \n\nDare I say, an *historical* moment? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not a panelist, but please learn the difference between i.e. and e.g. when trying to look like an authority on an academic subject.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I do appreciate the first rule you mentioned in this post. When people ask about something that is highly detailed is something I like answering but when some asked if Nixon was good or bad and was entirely subjective and opinionated, I really find a waste of time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > You can also be banned for being a spambot, or consistently reposting to downvote-brigade type subreddits, including but not limited to SRS.\n\n\nThis worries me a little. Was this rule designed to specifically counter SRS or was that just the primary focus and you have several more subreddits in mind? Are you including /r/subredditdrama? What about bestof or worstof?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > 2A. Top-Tiered\nTop-tiered comments should only be answers to the question at hand. Memes, jokes, insults, or other unhelpful words are not permitted (exceptions may be made for jokes if they are only part of an otherwise informative comment). Sources are HIGHLY, HIGHLY recommended, but not absolutely required (other restrictions apply for flaired users—see below).\n\nSo what is the Moderation Teams response going to be to comments that don't meet these standards?\n\nThese new rules are great. I'm glad you are implementing them. It seems like you have not spelled out what exactly your response will be to people that violate these guidelines though. This needs to be done so there is a clear and obvious expectation of what will happen if you do not meet these standards. If you fail to put this to paper it's going to be back to moderators just making arbitrary bans whenever they feel like it. This has caused issues in the past.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think these things are for the best and will benefit the subreddit. Thanks for making them and listening to all of us!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "These rules are thoughtful, and I support the decision.\n\nR/askhistorians is one of my favorite subreddits. I learn things here almost every day. \n\nIt's frustrating to come into a comment section, curious, and find the place overrun by jokey bullshit. Then the jokes get upvoted. \n\nLegitimate information can't compete in such an arena, and noise overcomes signal. I'm a big fan of heavy moderation. There are plenty of subreddits that allow jokey BS (99.9% of Reddit); there have to be a few places where this is not allowed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I just want to say that, while I seldom comment here (as I don't feel I have the intellectual authority), this is one of the most informative, challenging, and civil subreddits I've come across.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "These seem like good changes for the health of the community!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "85069",
"title": "Acceptable use policy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "An acceptable use policy (AUP), acceptable usage policy or fair use policy, is a set of rules applied by the owner, creator or administrator of a network, website, or service, that restrict the ways in which the network, website or system may be used and sets guidelines as to how it should be used. AUP documents are written for corporations, businesses, universities, schools, internet service providers (ISPs), and website owners, often to reduce the potential for legal action that may be taken by a user, and often with little prospect of enforcement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27391373",
"title": "PolicyPitch",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "The website was redesigned in early 2010, where the focus on transparency in local and state government played a larger role. PolicyPitch allows people to propose new public policy ideas and track local legislation at the state level. Currently, users can track legislation in Arizona, California, and Kentucky for free. Blog posts report that the site will eventually contain legislative tracking for all 50 states, and eventually municipal ordinances as well. In addition to the legislative tracking, users can also pitch their own ideas for change to their community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7603996",
"title": "Demos (U.S. think tank)",
"section": "Section::::Programs.:PolicyShop Blog.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "PolicyShop is the official Demos blog, which \"strives to offer timely commentary and analysis on a range of national and state policy issues.\" Frequent topics of commentary include jobs, middle class economic security, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, Voter ID laws, campaign finance reform, and energy and sustainability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57962212",
"title": "R/AskHistorians",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "r/AskHistorians is a subreddit on Reddit where users may ask questions or start discussions about history, and is \"one of the largest history forums on the internet\". It was founded in 2011 and has remained highly active ever since, having over 700,000 subscribers. Unlike other Reddit communities, it aims to \"provide serious, academic-level answers to questions about history\" and is strictly moderated. The community has a strict moderation policy towards Holocaust deniers, in comparison with the more lax policies of Facebook.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27391373",
"title": "PolicyPitch",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "PolicyPitch is an American non-partisan organization hosting a crowd-powered platform that gives ordinary American citizens the power to influence policy and change in their community. The site focuses on increasing transparency in government and providing tools for citizens to connect with their elected officials and include policy at the local and state level. PolicyPitch is part of the Open Government movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16437984",
"title": "Center for Governmental Studies",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1094,
"text": "CGS maintains PolicyArchive as a free public resource. It is a searchable digital archive of global, non-partisan public policy research. Its stated goal, \"Ultimately, PolicyArchive will indefinitely preserve the life of public policy research, substantially increase its impact, and provide society at large with long-term access to the benefits of that important research.\" In 2008, CGS collected and bundled \"Presidential Advisory '08\", public policy recommendations from more than 20 think tanks, which it delivered to the new president-elect and also made them publicly available and searchable online. \"The new policy collection emphasizes policy issues that currently dominate the national dialogue, including the economy, education, energy, foreign policy, healthcare, media, and national security. Think tanks from across the political spectrum have contributed their proposals to this collection, including Better World Campaign, Brookings, Common Cause, Center for American Progress, Center for the Study of the Presidency, National Center for Policy Analysis, and Urban Institute.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1461279",
"title": "Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs",
"section": "Section::::Tasks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "OIRA reviews draft rules that it receives from federal agencies under the three laws noted in the preamble to this article, and develops and oversees the implementation of government-wide policies in the areas of information technology, information policy, privacy, and statistical policy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3sf652
|
why do next gen video games all require downloading new content immediately after purchase? why can't they sell complete games out of the box anymore?
|
[
{
"answer": "Printing discs, boxing and shipping take a while to do, and because games have to be shipped to retails days before the release in order to ensure that they have them available for purchase that day, this packaging process has to start early.\n\nYet the development of a game doesn't stop the moment they start packaging. Usually, developers work very hard closer to release getting any bugs fixed, or omitted features put into a patch. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43434614",
"title": "EA Access",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Users who pre-order upcoming games through Access are able download special limited versions of the games, released five days prior to the retail launch. EA described these early-release versions as not being more traditional demos, but instead full-featured but time-limited versions, with the exact extent of content varying from game to game. Any progress earned within these limited versions will carry over to the full retail version.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20066607",
"title": "Elemental: War of Magic",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "When games come out, that's the end of development, but we don't consider our game done - it won't be done for years, because there's so much stuff we can do. So after release we have tons of new quests we want to come out with, we're going to be adding new factions to the game to help liven things up further, we have a ton of new map styles we want to put in - all kinds of crazy new stuff we can put in here.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47146057",
"title": "We Happy Few",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Announcement and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "In January 2018, the studio announced that while the game was now \"content complete\", they needed to polish the game further, and pushed back the game's release towards mid-2018. This move was also aimed to avoiding having to provide regular updates to early access purchasers, allowing them to finish the game without external pressure from fans. Alongside this, in response to complaints regarding the price change, disabled the ability to pre-order the game and offered full refunds to anyone that had bought the title earlier regardless of playtime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5363",
"title": "Video game",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Downloadable content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "A phenomenon of additional game content at a later date, often for additional funds, began with digital video game distribution known as downloadable content (DLC). Developers can use digital distribution to issue new storylines after the main game is released, such as Rockstar Games with \"Grand Theft Auto IV\" (\"\" and \"\"), or Bethesda with \"Fallout 3\" and its expansions. New gameplay modes can also become available, for instance, \"Call of Duty\" and its zombie modes, a multiplayer mode for \"Mushroom Wars\" or a higher difficulty level for \"\". Smaller packages of DLC are also common, ranging from better in-game weapons (\"Dead Space\", \"Just Cause 2\"), character outfits (\"LittleBigPlanet\", \"Minecraft\"), or new songs to perform (\"SingStar\", \"Rock Band\", \"Guitar Hero\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18933176",
"title": "Abandonware",
"section": "Section::::Response to abandonware.:Re-releases by digital distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "With the new possibility of digital distribution arising in mid-2000, the commercial distribution for many old titles became feasible again as deployment and storage costs dropped significantly. A digital distributor specialized in bringing old games out of abandonware is \"GOG.com\" (formerly called \"Good Old Games\") who started in 2008 to search for copyright holders of classic games to release them legally and DRM-free again. For instance, on December 9, 2013 the real-time strategy video game \"\" was, after ten years of non-availability, re-released by gog.com, also including the source code.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6980625",
"title": "IPod game",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "It is also notable that after a download had been made for a game, it couldn't have been downloaded again unless a separate purchase was made for the same item. This is different behavior than applications downloaded on the App Store, which can be downloaded multiple times. This issue was later fixed, making it possible to install any single game on any number of iPods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36531769",
"title": "Hotline Miami",
"section": "Section::::Sequel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "In an interview with Jonatan Söderström and Dennis Wedin at \"Eurogamer\", the creators shed some light on possible new future game content. When prompted with the question of upcoming downloadable content, the creators revealed, \"I think we're going to do quite a big project. It will probably be about as long as the full game, so probably we'll charge something for it. It will be like a sequel kind of, but building on the story. We don't want to reveal too much, but it will probably have more playable characters than the first game did. And a couple of different stories and angles. A lot of people have been asking about a map editor to build their own stages, so we're looking at if it's possible to do that. I think it would be really cool to let people do their own stages.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mksz5
|
why small businesses are considered "good"
|
[
{
"answer": "Keeping money flowing is what creates a good economy and the most direct way of doing that is by making sure the money you are giving out doesn't get stockpiled in some giant vault or sent out the country.\n\nIf you spend $100 at a local butcher that money is probably going to get spent elsewhere in the area. Your butcher will go buy bread from the baker, who'll go buy milk from the farmer who pays his employees who buy meat at the butcher and so on. The money doesn't leave and the constant exchange is what keeps everything ticking. \n\nIf you are that baker or butcher you are more likely to spend that $100 if you feel that the economy is flowing freely enough for someone else to come in and hand over their $100 to you. \n\nLike the current economic downturn. It's not really because suddenly a bunch of money has vanished. It's just that people and business' aren't sure if the money they pay out is going to get replaced any time soon, so there is a tendency to hold on to it. Which makes the problem worse. Which is why in times like this the Government steps in and injects a massive amount of money into the system to try and get it moving again, in the hopes that once it's all flowing freely we can take that money back without harming the system too much.\n\n(The flaw is we expect that flow of money to get faster and faster every year, but that is unsustainable. Eventually we reach a point where we think we are *too* free with our money and we slow down but we do it quicker than the system can react, it gets shocked and it crashes. The .com bubble was like that. Slowly over time more and more money was being pumped in. It got easier and easier to get investors and eventually business started relying on this easy money and were completely unprepared when that cash dried up.)\n\nIf however you spend that $100 at Wal-Mart it goes into the till and gets siphoned off to their big single bank account somewhere else. They pay their employees who are local obviously, but they likely put a lot of that money back into Wal-Mart. \n\nAnother problem is Wal-Mart are far more capable and far more likely of out-sourcing to other countries. Not just hoarding money inside the same country but shipping it out and greasing the gears of some other economy, from which it might never come back. \n\nAs Deadcellplus mentioned though the downside is cost. Wal-Mart can buy a million times the amount of mince your local butcher can at once and that means they get it cheaper per pound and they pass that saving on to you.\n\n----- \n\n'Course it's all a bit of a phenomena because we don't have any real sense of control over it at a local level. You might be hyper-local in your spending but if your butcher takes your money and pays his VISA bill with it instead of using it locally.. all your hard work is pretty much done for. It can only really be measured at scale and it's not universal, Even in depressed economies you get pockets of 'boom', little bits that somehow thrive in the conditions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another issue that wasn't mentioned is competition. If there is one giant store in town, it doesn't have to try very hard to get all the business. If there are 10 or 20 smalls stores instead, each one has to do its best to get business -- lowering prices, getting nicer and better merchandise, etc.\n\nAlso, it distributes the wealth more evenly and keeps the money in the community. A middle class person can own a store if stores are small. Only a rich corporation can own a store if stores are huge. And if you just have Walmart a lot of the money from profit is going out of town.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a number of reasons why people feel this is the case. Three come to mind, I'm sure other people have more. One of them is that small business tend to spend more of their total revenue paying employee salaries. I found some data from the [U.S. Census Bureau](http://www._URL_0_/econ/smallbus.html), and made a pretty graph. (note! Scales adjusted to highlight differences.) [% of revenue spend on payroll vs company size](_URL_1_)\n\nAlso, job *growth* tends to be a bit faster in small companies. [Article describing employment rates by company size](_URL_3_)\n\nAnother reason is the \"too big to fail\" argument. If a large company with 10s of thousands of employees goes out of business, those people loose their jobs. On top of that, the whole supply chain supporting that company might go down too. If an automaker goes under, everyone who makes the components (car radios, locks, windshields, tires, etc) takes a dive too.\n\n**note:** To give the big guys a break, large companies tend to pay each employee more, even if they employ fewer people per dollar of income. (Same _URL_0_ source)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a block with 10 lemonade stands, they all do pretty good business. One day, Big Ass Mega Lemonade opens. The original 10 go out of business and the former owners get jobs working for BAML. \n\nThose 10 owners make a lot less money - and the owner of BAML, who happens to live far away, takes all that money and invests it in a massive boat. \n\nSmaller businesses distribute wealth more equally, and keep the wealth in the community.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the phrase tested well in Frank Luntz' focus groups.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Small businesses are job creators. They employ most people in employment and they create jobs by growing, whereas large businesses are generally stagnant or cutting jobs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Keeping money flowing is what creates a good economy and the most direct way of doing that is by making sure the money you are giving out doesn't get stockpiled in some giant vault or sent out the country.\n\nIf you spend $100 at a local butcher that money is probably going to get spent elsewhere in the area. Your butcher will go buy bread from the baker, who'll go buy milk from the farmer who pays his employees who buy meat at the butcher and so on. The money doesn't leave and the constant exchange is what keeps everything ticking. \n\nIf you are that baker or butcher you are more likely to spend that $100 if you feel that the economy is flowing freely enough for someone else to come in and hand over their $100 to you. \n\nLike the current economic downturn. It's not really because suddenly a bunch of money has vanished. It's just that people and business' aren't sure if the money they pay out is going to get replaced any time soon, so there is a tendency to hold on to it. Which makes the problem worse. Which is why in times like this the Government steps in and injects a massive amount of money into the system to try and get it moving again, in the hopes that once it's all flowing freely we can take that money back without harming the system too much.\n\n(The flaw is we expect that flow of money to get faster and faster every year, but that is unsustainable. Eventually we reach a point where we think we are *too* free with our money and we slow down but we do it quicker than the system can react, it gets shocked and it crashes. The .com bubble was like that. Slowly over time more and more money was being pumped in. It got easier and easier to get investors and eventually business started relying on this easy money and were completely unprepared when that cash dried up.)\n\nIf however you spend that $100 at Wal-Mart it goes into the till and gets siphoned off to their big single bank account somewhere else. They pay their employees who are local obviously, but they likely put a lot of that money back into Wal-Mart. \n\nAnother problem is Wal-Mart are far more capable and far more likely of out-sourcing to other countries. Not just hoarding money inside the same country but shipping it out and greasing the gears of some other economy, from which it might never come back. \n\nAs Deadcellplus mentioned though the downside is cost. Wal-Mart can buy a million times the amount of mince your local butcher can at once and that means they get it cheaper per pound and they pass that saving on to you.\n\n----- \n\n'Course it's all a bit of a phenomena because we don't have any real sense of control over it at a local level. You might be hyper-local in your spending but if your butcher takes your money and pays his VISA bill with it instead of using it locally.. all your hard work is pretty much done for. It can only really be measured at scale and it's not universal, Even in depressed economies you get pockets of 'boom', little bits that somehow thrive in the conditions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another issue that wasn't mentioned is competition. If there is one giant store in town, it doesn't have to try very hard to get all the business. If there are 10 or 20 smalls stores instead, each one has to do its best to get business -- lowering prices, getting nicer and better merchandise, etc.\n\nAlso, it distributes the wealth more evenly and keeps the money in the community. A middle class person can own a store if stores are small. Only a rich corporation can own a store if stores are huge. And if you just have Walmart a lot of the money from profit is going out of town.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a number of reasons why people feel this is the case. Three come to mind, I'm sure other people have more. One of them is that small business tend to spend more of their total revenue paying employee salaries. I found some data from the [U.S. Census Bureau](http://www._URL_0_/econ/smallbus.html), and made a pretty graph. (note! Scales adjusted to highlight differences.) [% of revenue spend on payroll vs company size](_URL_1_)\n\nAlso, job *growth* tends to be a bit faster in small companies. [Article describing employment rates by company size](_URL_3_)\n\nAnother reason is the \"too big to fail\" argument. If a large company with 10s of thousands of employees goes out of business, those people loose their jobs. On top of that, the whole supply chain supporting that company might go down too. If an automaker goes under, everyone who makes the components (car radios, locks, windshields, tires, etc) takes a dive too.\n\n**note:** To give the big guys a break, large companies tend to pay each employee more, even if they employ fewer people per dollar of income. (Same _URL_0_ source)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a block with 10 lemonade stands, they all do pretty good business. One day, Big Ass Mega Lemonade opens. The original 10 go out of business and the former owners get jobs working for BAML. \n\nThose 10 owners make a lot less money - and the owner of BAML, who happens to live far away, takes all that money and invests it in a massive boat. \n\nSmaller businesses distribute wealth more equally, and keep the wealth in the community.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the phrase tested well in Frank Luntz' focus groups.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Small businesses are job creators. They employ most people in employment and they create jobs by growing, whereas large businesses are generally stagnant or cutting jobs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33559006",
"title": "TASC, Inc.",
"section": "Section::::Acquisitions and contracts.:National Defense Authorization Act.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "“Small businesses tend to have just one or two key products that they sell to government as their discriminator. And a lot of initial profits go into keeping talent at the company, rather than investing in the next big development. For all of industry, this requirement will force some business decisions to be made. But for these smaller companies, there’s a lot more to consider.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "382592",
"title": "Inter-American Development Bank",
"section": "Section::::Priority areas.:Poverty reduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "Small business entities are largely responsible for improving lives, as they play an inherent role in raising the socio-economic status of families, making it possible to combat poverty in the long range, as employed heads of household are in better positions to finance the education of children for a better future. Hence, empowering institutions, such as, The World Bank, IFC, the IADB, and others can exercise their due diligence to fit those promising entities in their projects with eased regulatory restraints, as certain regulations that work in developed nations are obstacles to progress in developing nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36309655",
"title": "Inclusive business model",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "\"Inclusive business models build bridges between business and the poor for mutual benefit. The benefits for business go beyond immediate profits and higher incomes. For business they include driving innovations, building markets and strengthening supply chains. And for the poor they include access to essential goods and services, higher productivity, sustainable earnings and greater empowerment.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "859910",
"title": "Institutional economics",
"section": "Section::::John Kenneth Galbraith.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "In an age of big business, it is unrealistic to think only of markets of the classical kind. Big businesses set their own terms in the marketplace, and use their combined resources for advertising programmes to support demand for their own products. As a result, individual preferences actually reflect the preferences of entrenched corporations, a \"dependence effect\", and the economy as a whole is geared to irrational goals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2287649",
"title": "Brent Hoberman",
"section": "Section::::Inspiration and motivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Hoberman has stated that he believes what makes a business successful is passion; in an interview with BBC 'The Bottom Line', he states his belief that the most successful small businesses are those where the founders remain passionate about their business, and are themselves part of their target market. He believes that by building a business to offer a solution to a problem you have yourself – as he did with lastminute.com and mydeco.com – founders stand a greater chance of remaining passionate and being successful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "276495",
"title": "Small business",
"section": "Section::::Challenges.:Social responsibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 1067,
"text": "Small businesses can encounter several problems related to engaging in corporate social responsibility, due to characteristics inherent in their size. Owners of small businesses often participate heavily in the day-to-day operations of their companies. This results in a lack of time for the owner to coordinate socially responsible efforts, such as supporting local charities or not-for-profit activities. Additionally, a small business owner's expertise often falls outside the realm of socially responsible practices, which contributing to a lack of participation. Small businesses also face a form of peer pressure from larger forces in their respective industries, making it difficult to oppose and work against industry expectations. Furthermore, small businesses undergo stress from shareholder expectations. Because small businesses have more personal relationships with their patrons and local shareholders, they must also be prepared to withstand closer scrutiny if they want to share in the benefits of committing to socially responsible practices or not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "276495",
"title": "Small business",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Independence is another advantage of owning a small business. A small business owner does not have to report to a supervisor or manager. In addition, many people desire to make their own decisions, take their own risks, and reap the rewards of their efforts. Small business owners possess the flexibility and freedom to making their own decisions within the constraints imposed by economic and other environmental factors. However, entrepreneurs have to work for very long hours and understand that ultimately their customers are their bosses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
kefjc
|
Couple questions about planetary orbit.
|
[
{
"answer": "Tidal Locking.\n_URL_0_\n\nThe moon is tidally locked with the Earth, it is slowly getting farther and farther away and is in fact slowing down our days. It does spin on its own axis once per month. But since it revolves around us at the same rate, we are only seeing one side.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tidal Locking.\n_URL_0_\n\nThe moon is tidally locked with the Earth, it is slowly getting farther and farther away and is in fact slowing down our days. It does spin on its own axis once per month. But since it revolves around us at the same rate, we are only seeing one side.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33965039",
"title": "Kepler-22b",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "The only parameters of the planet's orbit that are currently available are its orbital period, which is about , and its inclination, which is approximately 90°. From Earth, the planet appears to make a transit across the disk of its host star. It has an eccentricity of 0, meaning its orbit is circular.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18352021",
"title": "Kepler orbit",
"section": "Section::::Development of the laws.:Simplified two body problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 957,
"text": "Under these assumptions the differential equation for the two body case can be completely solved mathematically and the resulting orbit which follows Kepler's laws of planetary motion is called a \"Kepler orbit\". The orbits of all planets are to high accuracy Kepler orbits around the Sun. The small deviations are due to the much weaker gravitational attractions between the planets, and in the case of Mercury, due to general relativity. The orbits of the artificial satellites around the Earth are, with a fair approximation, Kepler orbits with small perturbations due to the gravitational attraction of the Sun, the Moon and the oblateness of the Earth. In high accuracy applications for which the equation of motion must be integrated numerically with all gravitational and non-gravitational forces (such as solar radiation pressure and atmospheric drag) being taken into account, the Kepler orbit concepts are of paramount importance and heavily used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53863",
"title": "Visual binary",
"section": "Section::::Kepler's laws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "This means that the orbit is an ellipse with the centre of mass at one of the two foci (Kepler's 1st law) and the orbital motion satisfies the fact that a line joining the star to the centre of mass sweeps out equal areas over equal time intervals (Kepler's 2nd law). The orbital motion must also satisfy Kepler's 3rd law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30745",
"title": "Titius–Bode law",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical explanations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Orbital resonance from major orbiting bodies creates regions around the Sun that are free of long-term stable orbits. Results from simulations of planetary formation support the idea that a randomly chosen stable planetary system will likely satisfy a Titius–Bode law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22498",
"title": "Orbit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "In physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved trajectory of an object, such as the trajectory of a planet around a star or a natural satellite around a planet. Normally, orbit refers to a regularly repeating trajectory, although it may also refer to a non-repeating trajectory. To a close approximation, planets and satellites follow elliptic orbits, with the central mass being orbited at a focal point of the ellipse, as described by Kepler's laws of planetary motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40805717",
"title": "Nice 2 model",
"section": "Section::::Initial conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1261,
"text": "The initial orbits of the giant planets in the Nice 2 model correspond to a predicted orbital structure of the outer Solar System at the end of the gas disk phase. Models of giant planets orbiting in a gas disk predict that they would migrate toward the central star at a rate dependent on the mass of the planet and characteristics of the disk. In a system with multiple planets this migration can result in the convergence of the planet's orbits and their capture into mean-motion resonances. Investigations focusing on Jupiter and Saturn demonstrated that they can be captured in a 3:2 or 2:1 resonance depending on the characteristics of the protoplanetary disk. After capture into resonance, the gaps that Jupiter and Saturn formed in the disk's density distribution may overlap and their inward migration may be halted or reversed. When Uranus and Neptune are added in turn to the model they are captured into further resonances with the capture of the outer ice giant resulting in the inner ice giant having a higher eccentricity than the other planets. The end result is a system in a quadruple resonance. A number of stable configurations have been identified with the particular final configuration depending on the starting locations of the planets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18352021",
"title": "Kepler orbit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "In celestial mechanics, a Kepler orbit (or Keplerian orbit) is the motion of one body relative to another, as an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola, which forms a two-dimensional orbital plane in three-dimensional space. A Kepler orbit can also form a straight line. It considers only the point-like gravitational attraction of two bodies, neglecting perturbations due to gravitational interactions with other objects, atmospheric drag, solar radiation pressure, a non-spherical central body, and so on. It is thus said to be a solution of a special case of the two-body problem, known as the Kepler problem. As a theory in classical mechanics, it also does not take into account the effects of general relativity. Keplerian orbits can be parametrized into six orbital elements in various ways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5xawd4
|
how do they declare certain aquatic organisms as extinct, when we haven't explored a huge majority of the oceans?
|
[
{
"answer": "The same way we do on land, really. It is basically the reasoning of 'if we haven't seen any trace of species X in a good number of years, most likely they are extinct.' Sometimes those assumptions are correct. sometimes they are very false. (Like with coelacanths) \n\nThough note that unexplored parts of the ocean don't necessarily have to mean you can't know if an animal species is extinct. Many species have very specific habitats they don't deviate from. If you have a species that can only exist in shallow water or tide-pools, for example, then the fact that the deep sea has not yet been explored is not really an issue. That is not where those animals could live in the first place. Additionally, you don't always need to have explored a region. A lot of this is based on traces of their survivals, but that doesn't necessarily mean seeing the fish in the flesh. Finding remnants of them in the stomachs of other fish, finding them in fishing nets, finding them washed up on beaches. all of that can count towards being able to tell a species exists still or not. And if there is a huge change in that (for example, we used to find X species frequently in the stomach of dolphins, but they haven't been spotted there in 30 years) that can be a good indicator said species is gone.\n\nAgain, not ever 100% and some species have clung onto life in places unknown to us at first, but still a reasonable guess. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1193070",
"title": "List of recently extinct mammals",
"section": "Section::::Extinct species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "A species is declared extinct after exhaustive surveys of all potential habitats eliminate all reasonable doubt that the last individual of a species, whether in the wild or in captivity, has died. Recently extinct species are defined by the IUCN as going extinct after 1500 C. E.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "420513",
"title": "Lists of extinct species",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "This page features lists of extinct species, organisms that have become extinct, either in the wild or completely disappeared from Earth. In practice, a species not definitely located in the wild in the last 50 years is called extinct.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12617844",
"title": "Catarina pupfish",
"section": "Section::::Extinction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Mexico's 2010 official list of species at risk (NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010) indicates that \"Megupsilon aporus\" is category \"E\" defined as \"Probably extinct in the wild\". Species that are considered extinct by experts are given that designation. However, if a species was rediscovered alive it would be given legal protection status immediately.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1193070",
"title": "List of recently extinct mammals",
"section": "Section::::Extinct in the wild.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "A species that is extinct in the wild is one which has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as only known by living members kept in captivity or as a naturalized population outside its historic range due to massive habitat loss. A species is declared extinct in the wild after thorough surveys have inspected its historic range and failed to find evidence of a surviving individual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11554654",
"title": "Extinct in the wild",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Not all species that are extinct in the wild are rare. For example, \"Ameca splendens\", though extinct in the wild, was a popular fish among aquarists for some time, but hobbyist stocks have declined quite a lot more recently, placing its survival in jeopardy. However, the ultimate purpose of preserving biodiversity is to maintain ecological function. When a species exists only in captivity, it is ecologically extinct.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44503418",
"title": "Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event",
"section": "Section::::Extinction patterns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1346,
"text": "In stream communities, few animal groups became extinct, because such communities rely less directly on food from living plants, and more on detritus washed in from the land, protecting them from extinction. Similar, but more complex patterns have been found in the oceans. Extinction was more severe among animals living in the water column than among animals living on or in the sea floor. Animals in the water column are almost entirely dependent on primary production from living phytoplankton, while animals on the ocean floor always or sometimes feed on detritus. Coccolithophorids and mollusks (including ammonites, rudists, freshwater snails, and mussels), and those organisms whose food chain included these shell builders, became extinct or suffered heavy losses. For example, it is thought that ammonites were the principal food of mosasaurs, a group of giant marine reptiles that became extinct at the boundary. The largest air-breathing survivors of the event, crocodyliforms and champsosaurs, were semi-aquatic and had access to detritus. Modern crocodilians can live as scavengers and survive for months without food, and their young are small, grow slowly, and feed largely on invertebrates and dead organisms for their first few years. These characteristics have been linked to crocodilian survival at the end of the Cretaceous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12664226",
"title": "Marstonia castor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "The US Fish and Wildlife Service declared this species extinct in December 2017 on the basis that it had not been seen since 2000. It was likely wiped out by groundwater withdrawal, pollution, and urbanization. However, the IUCN Red List still lists it as Critically Endangered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2jmyvw
|
How does it happen that an entire volume of data can become corrupt when the writing of only a small portion of it is interrupted?
|
[
{
"answer": "In your case it seems was damaged the File Allocation Table (FAT). This file system can be read and written by a wide range of devices, but it is very fragile because of how data is arranged logically. In most cases you can fix the problem with a specialized application, like chkdsk under Windows.\n\nIf you are using it only on computers, you can format it with NTFS file system. This file system is more robust.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1040512",
"title": "Data corruption",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "In general, when data corruption occurs a file containing that data will produce unexpected results when accessed by the system or the related application. Results could range from a minor loss of data to a system crash. For example, if a document file is corrupted, when a person tries to open that file with a document editor they may get an error message, thus the file might not be opened or might open with some of the data corrupted (or in some cases, completely corrupted, leaving the document unintelligible). The adjacent image is a corrupted image file in which most of the information has been lost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7077",
"title": "Computer file",
"section": "Section::::File corruption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "There are many ways by which a file can become corrupted. Most commonly, the issue happens in the process of writing the file to a disk. For example, if an image-editing program unexpectedly crashes while saving an image, that file may be corrupted because the program couldn't save its entirety. The program itself might warn the user that there was an error, allowing for another attempt at saving the file. Some other examples of reasons for which files become corrupted include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208356",
"title": "Text file",
"section": "Section::::Data storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Because of their simplicity, text files are commonly used for storage of information. They avoid some of the problems encountered with other file formats, such as endianness, padding bytes, or differences in the number of bytes in a machine word. Further, when data corruption occurs in a text file, it is often easier to recover and continue processing the remaining contents. A disadvantage of text files is that they usually have a low entropy, meaning that the information occupies more storage than is strictly necessary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7077",
"title": "Computer file",
"section": "Section::::File corruption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "When a file is said to be corrupted, it is because its contents have been saved to the computer in such a way that they can't be properly read, either by a human or by software. Depending on the extension of the damage, the original file can sometimes be recovered, or at least partially understood. A file may be created corrupt, or it may be corrupted at a later point through overwriting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157028",
"title": "Wolfgang Iser",
"section": "Section::::Hermeneutics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Thus, the structure of a text brings about expectations, which are interrupted by surprising unfulfillment, producing gaps, which require filling by the reader to create a coherent flow of the text. These gaps then, in turn, cause the reader to reread prior events in the text in light of those gap fillings. However, these gaps cannot be filled arbitrarily, but through interpretive limits given in the text by an author. Iser finds this experience to be the breakdown of the subject-object division, in that “text and reader no longer confront each other as object and subject, but instead the ‘division’ takes place within the reader himself.” In the act of reading, a text becomes a living subject within the reader.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31487607",
"title": "Tombstone (data store)",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Because of the delayed removal, the deleted information will appear as empty, after the content of some columns of a number of records has been deleted. After a compaction, the unused columns will be removed from these records.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44783487",
"title": "Data lineage",
"section": "Section::::Rationale.:Challenges in big data debugging.:Unstructured data.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Unstructured data usually refers to information that doesn't reside in a traditional row-column database. Unstructured data files often include text and multimedia content. Examples include e-mail messages, word processing documents, videos, photos, audio files, presentations, webpages and many other kinds of business documents. Note that while these sorts of files may have an internal structure, they are still considered \"unstructured\" because the data they contain doesn't fit neatly in a database.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
28uils
|
how would half the gravity on earth, and in another scenario double the gravity on earth affect us in everyday life? also, could we survive without any gravity at all?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not exactly an expert, but I'm an undergraduate Physics major:\n\nAssuming that Earth has ALWAYS had the gravitational attraction of Mars or Jupiter, it would affect us very little. Our bodies would have evolved along with all other life on Earth to match whatever the gravitation of Earth is. However, if Earth's gravitation were to suddenly \"change\" to that of Mars or Jupiter, things get a bit more complicated. \n\nLet's talk about the \"general physics\" of it first. Most people on Earth have a general concept of physics that applies to everyday life. We know things like how high we can jump, how close we can get to another car before we start braking, etc. As soon as you change the Earth's gravitation, those basic previous expectations about how things move in our everyday lives has to be thrown out the window. As a result, depending on how extreme the change is, there would be a lot of crashes, a lot of bumps, and a lot of bruises as we adjusted to the new \"rules.\"\n \nPhysiologically, there would be serious consequences to an extreme change in gravity. We run into this problem a lot with astronauts returning from long stays in zero gravity. Our bodies simply aren't built to be under gravitation that is not Earth's. People returning from space experience a lengthening of the spine, weakening of joints, and a huge loss in calcium. Basically, when placed in a zero-g environment, our body will try to adapt accordingly. If we don't use our bones and are floating around, our bodies will basically begin to get rid our bones. Now for us to be on the surface of Earth at all, there has to be at least a little gravity so we don't float away. Therefore, if gravity on Earth was reduced but not eliminated, people would get taller and we would have less calcium. Now the opposite would happen if gravitational attraction increased. People would be shorter, breathing would be harder, we would rely on our skeletons more so we would require more calcium, etc. Long term, humanity would adjust, but short term, there would be a lot of problems for a lot of people, especially the weak and elderly. \n\nNow I'm not sure exactly what would happen on the astronomical scale, but there would be even more serious consequences which would effect our daily lives. Gravitational attraction is a force between two objects. On the very basic level, gravitation depends on the masses of the two objects involved. (Mass is basically just a measure of how much stuff there is) More mass between the two = more gravity. Less mass between the two = less gravity. The situations that you have described deal with a change in mass of the Earth. If the Earth were suddenly half of it's mass, the Moon would begin to orbit further away, that is, as long as it wasn't \"slingshotted\" away (more likely). Also, we would begin to orbit the Sun further away, as long as we weren't \"slingshot\" out of the solar system (also more likely). Living further away from the Sun would cause widespread panic as our light from the Sun would diminish quite a bit. Plants and animals would die, famines if everyone wasn't frozen already, etc. etc. you get the picture. REALLY BAD STUFF. If the Earth doubled it's mass, the Earth and the moon would also most likely be \"slingshotted\" out of the solar system. But, if we managed to stay in orbit, our proximity to the sun would most likely burn most life on Earth. \n\n**TL;DR**: \nOverall - Our basic concepts about how things move in everyday life would change...Lots of crashes, bumps and bruises.\n\n1. No Gravity - We would all float away from the surface of the Earth.\n2. Half Gravity - We would all get taller, breathe easier, and have weaker skeletons because we wouldn't need them as much. The Earth would likely be \"slingshotted\" out of the solar system, or we would all freeze to death.\n3. Double Gravity - We would all get shorter, breathe harder, and have stronger skeletons. The Earth would likely be \"slingshotted\" out of the solar system, or we would all burn alive.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30485345",
"title": "2011 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:April.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "BULLET::::- Some microbes can survive gravity more than 400,000 times that felt on Earth, a new study says. By contrast, most humans can tolerate three to five times Earth's surface gravity before losing consciousness. (\"National Geographic\")\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1744360",
"title": "Colonization of Mars",
"section": "Section::::Conditions for human habitation.:Effects on human health.:Physical effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "The difference in gravity would negatively affect human health by weakening bones and muscles. There is also risk of osteoporosis and cardiovascular problems. Current rotations on the International Space Station put astronauts in zero gravity for six months, a comparable length of time to a one-way trip to Mars. This gives researchers the ability to better understand the physical state that astronauts going to Mars would arrive in. Once on Mars, surface gravity is only 38% of that on Earth. Upon return to Earth, recovery from bone loss and atrophy is a long process and the effects of microgravity may never fully reverse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1860054",
"title": "Colonization of the outer Solar System",
"section": "Section::::Difficulties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "BULLET::::- Effects of low gravity on the human body: All moons of the gas giants and all outer dwarf planets have a very low gravity, the highest being Io's gravity (0.183 g) which is less than 1/5 of the Earth's gravity. Since every space agency preferred to circulate in Low Earth orbit for more than 40 years rather than sending people to the Earth's Moon for several months to test the effects of such low gravitational accelerations on the human body we can only speculate that the low gravity environments might have very similar effects to long-term exposure in weightlessness. Such effects can be avoided by rotating spacecraft creating artificial gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1137568",
"title": "Artificial gravity",
"section": "Section::::Centripetal.:Manned spaceflight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "It is not yet known whether exposure to high gravity for short periods of time is as beneficial to health as continuous exposure to normal gravity. It is also not known how effective low levels of gravity would be at countering the adverse effects on health of weightlessness. Artificial gravity at 0.1\"g\" and a rotating spacecraft period of 30 s would require a radius of only . Likewise, at a radius of 10 m, a period of just over 6 s would be required to produce standard gravity (at the hips; gravity would be 11% higher at the feet), while 4.5 s would produce 2\"g\". If brief exposure to high gravity can negate the harmful effects of weightlessness, then a small centrifuge could be used as an exercise area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3528649",
"title": "Colonization of Venus",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "At present it has not been established whether the gravity of Mars, 0.38 times that of the Earth, would be sufficient to avoid bone decalcification and loss of muscle tone experienced by astronauts living in a micro-g environment. In contrast, Venus is close in size and mass to the Earth, resulting in a similar surface gravity (0.904 \"g\") that would likely be sufficient to prevent the health problems associated with weightlessness. Most other space exploration and colonization plans face concerns about the damaging effect of long-term exposure to fractional \"g\" or zero gravity on the human musculoskeletal system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50506253",
"title": "Locomotion in space",
"section": "Section::::Challenges of locomotion in reduced gravity.:Effects on the human body.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "There are many detrimental effects of extended exposure to reduced gravity that are similar to aging and disease. Some long-duration effects of reduced gravity can be simulated on Earth using bed rest. These effects are discussed below in general but more detailed information can be found on the page \"Effect of spaceflight on the human body.\" The various effects include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1137568",
"title": "Artificial gravity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "However, there are no current practical outer space applications of artificial gravity for humans due to concerns about the size and cost of a spacecraft necessary to produce a useful centripetal force comparable to the gravitational field strength on Earth (g).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1w12rs
|
Why is there virtually no outside sources for the Kingdom of Israel during the time of David & Solomon?
|
[
{
"answer": "Part of the answer is that most people stopped being interested in the area. The Egyptians gave up campaigns in the Levant around 1175 until Shoshenq around the early 900s (who is mentioned in 1 Kings 14 although some dispute this), and New Kingdom pharaohs didn't name their adversaries (certainly Shoshenq didn't). The Assyrians never ventured that far either until 853 so are unlikely to make mention before that time, and they like the Egyptians very rarely named those they encountered (no Assyrian source names anyone in Philistia, Transjordan, Israel (north or south) or Phoenicia between 1200-1050).\n\nOf the remaining sources of perhaps lesser powers, most of them are concerned with their own local affairs - the neo-Hittite kingdoms make no mention of Canaan or Phoenicia. No Aramean inscriptions exist from before the 9th century save Tell Dan and Melqart, and no administrative texts either. Phoenician texts tend to mention only their own kings, and they tend to start only around 1000 BC.\n\nThere are a couple of possible mentions of David, Tell Dan (841), Mesha (840), and Kitchen makes a case for the possibility that Shoshenq mentions \"Dwt\" at Karnak which he suggests might be David, but even if it is, it's still only in the 900s.\n\nWhy nothing is found is Israel should be paralleled to \"what have we found in Israel regardless?\" and the answer is \"not very much\". Jerusalem has been heavily rebuilt and destroyed numerous times over the centuries and only a tiny part *can* be excavated, and even those areas are fraught with disputes (cf the Temple Mount). Samaria has produced no official inscriptions and that is from a much later period. The parts of texts we have found have been serendipitous in that they were smashed and used in building rubble.\n\nWe can also ask \"what is found elsewhere in the Levant?\". Aram-Damascus existed for 200 years but left nothing behind. Damascus has revealed no Iron age inscriptions (and I think parallels Jerusalem in that respect). Moab has only left 1 stele (Mesha's) and one other fragment. 3 small pieces exist from the kings of Ammon, none commemorating the Edomite kings. So nobody else has left very much behind.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3185267",
"title": "The Bible Unearthed",
"section": "Section::::Content.:David and Solomon or the Omrides?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1137,
"text": "Although the Book of Samuel and initial parts of the Books of Kings, portray Saul, David and Solomon ruling in succession over a powerful and cosmopolitan united kingdom of Israel and Judah, Finkelstein and Silberman regard modern archaeological evidence as showing that this may not be true. Archaeology instead shows that in the time of Solomon, the northern kingdom of Israel was quite small, too poor to be able to pay for a vast army, and with too little bureaucracy to be able to administer a kingdom, certainly not an empire; it only emerged later, around the beginning of the 9th century BCE, in the time of Omri. There is little to suggest that Jerusalem, called by the Bible David's capital, was \"more than a typical hill country village\" during the time of David and of Solomon, and Judah remained little more than a sparsely populated rural region until the 8th century BCE. Although the Tel Dan Stele seems to confirm that a \"House of David\" existed, and \"clearly validates the biblical description of a figure named David becoming the founder of the dynasty of Judahite kings in Jerusalem\", it says nothing else about him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28329",
"title": "Solomon",
"section": "Section::::Jewish scriptures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "King Solomon is one of the central biblical figures in Jewish heritage that have lasting religious, national and political aspects. As the builder of the First Temple in Jerusalem and last ruler of the united Kingdom of Israel before its division into the northern Kingdom of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah, Solomon is associated with the peak \"golden age\" of the independent Kingdom of Israel as well as a source of judicial and religious wisdom. According to Jewish tradition, King Solomon wrote three books of the Bible:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "470212",
"title": "Arameans",
"section": "Section::::History.:Bronze Age collapse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "Later Biblical sources tell us that Saul, David and Solomon (late 11th to 10th centuries) fought against the small Aramean kingdoms ranged across the northern frontier of Israel: Aram-Sôvah in the Beqaa, Aram-Bêt-Rehob (Rehov) and Aram-Ma'akah around Mount Hermon, Geshur in the Hauran, and Aram-Damascus. An Aramean king's account dating at least two centuries later, the Tel Dan Stele, was discovered in northern Israel, and is famous for being perhaps the earliest non-Israelite extra-biblical historical reference to the Israelite royal dynasty, the House of David. In the early 11th century BC, much of Israel came under Aramean rule for eight years according to the Biblical Book of Judges, until Othniel defeated the forces led by Chushan-Rishathaim, the King of Aram-Naharaim.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25098711",
"title": "Ir David Foundation",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "While the archaeological sites are clearly from at least the Second Temple Period, there is no clear evidence of the presence of King David or Solomon at the site. However, much of the narrative in Samuel and Kings I is consistent with the archaeologic discoveries, including the water shaft through which David's troops are described scaling when they entered the city and captured it from the Jebusites. Both names appear in the Book of Jeremiah (38:1). The two men were ministers in the court of King Zedekiah, the last king to rule in Jerusalem before the destruction of the First Temple.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13808",
"title": "History of Israel",
"section": "Section::::Bronze and Iron Ages.:Israel and Judah (Iron Age II).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "The Hebrew Bible describes constant warfare between the Israelites and the Philistines whose capital was Gaza. The Phillistines were Greek refugee-settlers who inhabited the southern Levantine coast. The Bible states that King David founded a dynasty of kings and that his son Solomon built a temple. Both David and Solomon are widely referenced in Jewish, Christian and Islamic texts. Standard Biblical chronology suggests that around 930 BCE, following the death of Solomon, the kingdom split into a southern Kingdom of Judah and a northern Kingdom of Israel. The Bible's Books of Kings state that soon after the split Pharoh \"Shishaq\" invaded the country plundering Jerusalem. An inscription over a gate at Karnak in Egypt recounts such an invasion by Pharoh Sheshonq I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9840",
"title": "Elijah",
"section": "Section::::Biblical accounts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1132,
"text": "According to the Bible, by the 9th century BC, the Kingdom of Israel, once united under Solomon, was divided into the northern Kingdom of Israel and southern Kingdom of Judah, which retained the historical capital of Jerusalem along with its Temple. However, scholars today are divided as to whether the united Kingdom under Solomon ever existed. Omri, King of Israel, continued policies dating from the reign of Jeroboam, contrary to religious law, that were intended to reorient religious focus away from Jerusalem: encouraging the building of local temple altars for sacrifices, appointing priests from outside the family of the Levites, and allowing or encouraging temples dedicated to Baal, an important deity in ancient Canaanite religion. Omri achieved domestic security with a marriage alliance between his son Ahab and princess Jezebel, a priestess of Baal and the daughter of the king of Sidon in Phoenicia. These solutions brought security and economic prosperity to Israel for a time, but did not bring peace with the Israelite prophets, who were interested in a strict deuteronomic interpretation of the religious law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28329",
"title": "Solomon",
"section": "Section::::Historicity.:Arguments against biblical description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 1390,
"text": "According to Finkelstein and Silberman, authors of \"The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts\", at the time of the kingdoms of David and Solomon, Jerusalem was populated by only a few hundred residents or less, which is insufficient for an empire stretching from the Euphrates to Eilath. According to \"The Bible Unearthed\", archaeological evidence suggests that the kingdom of Israel at the time of Solomon was little more than a small city state, and so it is implausible that Solomon received tribute as large as 666 talents of gold per year. Although both Finkelstein and Silberman accept that David and Solomon were real inhabitants of Judah about the 10th century BCE, they claim that the earliest independent reference to the Kingdom of Israel is about 890 BCE, and for Judah about 750 BCE. They suggest that because of religious prejudice, the authors of the Bible suppressed the achievements of the Omrides (whom the Hebrew Bible describes as being polytheist), and instead pushed them back to a supposed golden age of Judaism and monotheists, and devotees of Yahweh. Some Biblical minimalists like Thomas L. Thompson go further, arguing that Jerusalem became a city and capable of being a state capital only in the mid-7th century. Likewise, Finkelstein and others consider the claimed size of Solomon's temple implausible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4kn48c
|
if networks cancel a show mid-season and have filmed the rest of the season, why aren't the rest of the episodes released online?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well sometimes they are, so there is no rule/law against it.\n\nHowever the show makers often do not have the license / copyright to their own shows. So it´s not up to them to release the episodes however they want.\n\nThe network on the other hand who does have the rights, doesn´t really have an interest in releasing the episodes for free. They might have other plans for monetizing them or they just don´t want to release them at all for many reasons (out of spite, to not support a competitor, etc.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If a show is cancelled mid-season, it's because few people watched it. And if that's the case, there's really no financial incentive for the network to spend money hosting it when so few people want to see it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A strong reason is because of residual royalties. \n\nSay you film a show, and pay the actors/actresses and the directors, and the band that did the theme song, etc... You're not usually done paying. Usually, at least some, if not all of those people will continue to get a little tiny amount of money, every time one of those shows airs/is streamed/is bought on DVD/etc. The amounts are tiny individually, but they add up to huge amounts. Lots of actors/actresses can retire after a single popular show, and just live off of those royalties for the rest of their lives.\n\nSo your show is busted, and didn't get enough money to continue being a show... Why would you continue shelling out more money to make the show ready to air (there is a lot that happens after filming), AND to pay all of those royalties?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This actually happened to an old NBC show I liked called The Black Donellys. It got pulled midway through season 1 and the rest were only available on _URL_0_. At least until they got released on DVD.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Isnt this what lowkey happened to Avatar: the Legend of Korra on Nick? It wasn't a very successful show among the kids who usually watch Nick but had a huuuge following among the 18-25 demographic who watched Avatar: the Last Airbender as kids/teens, and they mostly watched online anyways, so they moved the show over to an online only format for the last season. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sometimes they do, I saw all of Kitchen Confidential on Hulu a few years after it was pulled early on its first season. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A situation like this really ticked me off a few years ago. They aired the entire season of Defying Gravity... except the last episode. It made no sense to me, they showed a rerun of some old show instead of just showing the last episode of the season. \n\nBut the last episode aired in Canada, so I was able to download a capture that aired there. \n\nThat never made sense to me. I can almost understand replacing a show on air if it's not doing good, but the last episode of the season? I mean... come on!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are some practical reasons in addition to what others have said.\n\nAlthough the episodes may have been filmed, they have yet to go through post-production--music, effects, editing, sound editing, reshoots, etc. all still need to be done. If they released them, you would be seeing an incomplete project and often do not want to do that. They may be released later as a DVD extra or surface later in pirate circles, but are not released online often to the pure lack of quality to the episode. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is no benefit to the network, simple as that really. If it don't make 'em money they won't do it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wouldn't some of the reason be that the company that pulls the unviewed programs use them as a loss on their bottom line within a tax structure? Would the cans be worth more as a loss than if they were viewed, sold, etc?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because generally when the first episode of a show airs the following episodes are still being worked on. If the show is canceled mid season, the budget is gone and production will immediately halt. They aren't going to just release half finished episodes. Post production accounts for the vast majority of time it takes for a tv show to be made: just because it was filmed doesn't mean its anywhere near completed.\n\nAnd the network still owns the footage, so even if some editors and producers wanted to try and finish the season with what they have, legally they cannot.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm sure the answer is money.\n\nI would like a clear separation of production and publishing companies again. Let them bid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they need to sell ad time and if the show is bombing, the advertisers are not going to want to pay for ad time. And without ad time, they make no money and go out of business.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > If Networks cancel a show mid-season and have filmed the rest of the season\n\nBecause they almost never have shot the rest of the season (assuming OP is limiting this to the *broadcast* networks).\n\nThere's usually only a 2-4 episodes at most \"in the can\" ready to finish out post-production (editing, scoring, special effects). In some cases, while the season was intended to go 20-24 episodes the network only approved half that contingent on the ratings. In most of these cases of a show being cancelled, the networks usually go ahead and air the remaining episodes because they don't have something ready to replace it. Yet, sometimes they hold the episodes because they can try for better ratings and then \"burn off\" the episodes later. Some shows are moved to \"sister networks\" and aired there along with the rest of the show in a odd time slot (like late at night). \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The legend of Korra got the Internet treatment. I think I read that the Internet ratings were higher anyway because the show was watched mostly by older generations",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The first show I saw that done with was _Daybreak_ (2006) with Taye Diggs. ABC cancelled it after just 3 or 4 episodes, but it was a great show. They quickly pledged to try showing it online as they were just getting into that. Sure enough, they made good and finished out the 13-episode run online, thus giving reasonable closure (but also raising new questions) to that memorable show. Thank you, ABC!\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's actually rare for a show to be outright cancelled and completely removed from the schedule before all remaining episodes have aired. It would have to either be a serious ratings bomb or air something so offensive that they have to pull it entirely.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Any form of distribution triggers a lot payments- easiest way to think of them are completion payments. Residuals are also in there. \nStudios make back the majority of their costs by the licensing deal for broadcast. \nThus they'd be losing more money to just distro it online. \nIt's the same reason you don't see failed Pilots distroed online. \nSource: I work in tv production. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "not sure if this has been addressed but most *premiere* episodes that start off from the beginning of the new fall season usually get a six, ten, or 13 Episode order. They may elect, like already mentioned, to *burn off* the episodes at some point on a Friday or Saturday night. If they got a 13-episode order and get cancelled, odds are they will burn off whatever has finished filming, finalize post-production on any full episodes left, and burn them. Most of the time if six episodes are ordered and maybe one or two air and it gets cancelled, they don't bother wasting TV time to air them unless they decide to throw them on TV in the summer. Ten episode orders that get cancelled usually by six or seven get burned off this way.\n\nNBC has in the past where a series got a 10 or 13 episode order either burned the series off on Saturday nights or just uploaded them to _URL_0_ like they did *The Cape*.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Besides post production costs, there may be royalties to pay out if they release those episodes. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That's exactly what they did with the TV show Selfie:\n_URL_0_\n\nThe second half of the season was thrown up on Hulu after gettign cancelled on ABC.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On the other side of the coin you get a show that films the rest of its episodes after it's been cancelled...\n\nPETER SAGAL: You tell this story - you talk about how you did this show called \"Lyon's Den.\"\n\nROB LOWE: Yes.\n\nSAGAL: It was supposed to be your big follow-up to \"West Wing,\" I think.\n\nLOWE: Yes.\n\nSAGAL: And you play this lawyer in this law firm, and the show didn't go well for a variety of reasons. And they canceled it, but they allowed you guys to finish shooting the season so they could sell it on DVD, right?\n\nLOWE: Yeah, this is - so the show is canceled. It's not on the air. It's over.\n\nSAGAL: Right.\n\nLOWE: But they say to me, you're still going to make 13 more episodes but nobody's ever going to see them. Maybe we'll release them on DVD in, like, Bratislava.\n\nSAGAL: Right.\n\nLOWE: So with that as the backdrop, the writers and I decide, you know what? To hell with it. We're going to burn the bridges. We're going for it. And so we decided to write my character as a sociopathic maniac who was revealed to be a mass murderer.\n\nAnd Kyle Chandler, right before \"Friday Night Lights\" is the mentor in the office who is always my rival. He comes in one night while I'm eating in the executive dining room and confronts me on evidence that I might be a mass murderer. I walk up, stab him to death with my steak knife, sit back down, eat my steak, wipe my mouth, go to the balcony and throw myself off. That's the end of the series.\n\nSAGAL: You know, even though I had read that story in your book, a tear came to my eye when I read it. That's so moving.\n\nLOWE: And this is how little the studio and the network cared about the show. When we told them we were going to write that, they were like that sounds great.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not worth the effort. The show is being canceled mid-season because nobody is watching it. If they release the rest they then have to pay the actors royalties on episodes that nobody is going to watch of a canceled show. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've gotta say, from reading all these comments it must suck to be a hardcore TV fan. Good shows get taken off the air because they're too niche, and shows with lowest common denominator mass appeal are the only ones that usually survive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just because the show is completely shot, does not mean it's finished. There are still costs associated with Editing, Onlining, Coloring, Sound, VFX, ADR, Mixing, etc... So, it's not like the show is just hanging around and \"finished.\" If the show flopped hard enough to cancel it, why spend more money on it?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Still waiting on those extra episodes of The Cape to come out?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That's not generally how it works. Sometimes it does, but more usually the following happens:\n\nNetwork likes the pilot and orders say... six episodes. Those six get made. They don't do well in the ratings. The show gets 'cancelled' however all episodes that were made have been aired.\n\nIt's not very often that a network has 12 episodes of something that haven't aired yet and then they cancel a show. They would usually let that play out without telling anyone the show is cancelled since they already 'bought' those shows, or paid for the production. They're not going to promote that show any longer and they may move it to the crappiest timeslot they have and not really tell anyone, but it's something that fills time and sells some ads. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I still want to see the rest of Megan wants a millionaire but that one creep had to go and kill someone or some shit and the network never aired the rest of the episodes... ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47286700",
"title": "8 Minutes",
"section": "Section::::Cancellation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Eight episodes of the program were ordered, however only five have been broadcast in America. In May 2015, A&E announced it was removing the program from its schedule following controversy surrounding the series, and the network isn't planning to air the remaining three episodes, effectively cancelling the series.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32308628",
"title": "Best Friends Forever (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Development and production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "On April 27, 2012, it was announced that NBC has pulled the series off their schedule \"indefinitely\", leaving two of the six filmed episodes left unaired. Parham stated a desire to post the remaining episodes online. However, on May 1, 2012 NBC announced that they would air the remaining episodes on Friday June 1, 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30873088",
"title": "List of television series canceled after one episode",
"section": "Section::::Placed on hiatus after one episode.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "The following series are sometimes included on lists of shows canceled after one episode, but strictly speaking do not belong there. The following series were placed on hiatus after a single episode aired, but were later brought back by the originating networks, and aired their remaining episodes on the originating networks some months later (usually during a non-ratings period).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2167633",
"title": "Last Man Standing (Australian TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Broadcast history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Given that a full 22 episodes had been filmed before the series began airing, the Seven Network aired consistent repeats to allow the show to find an audience. Ratings didn't climb, however, and in early September, the network announced the show's cancellation. The series finale aired on 25 October. This episode ended in a cliffhanger, which - due to the show's cancellation - will remain unresolved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46879014",
"title": "I Can Do That (American TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "After the renewal, the show has so far not had a second season, and did not return for the summer 2016 or 2017 seasons. NBC has removed it from the list of the current shows, indicating that it may have been ultimately cancelled after a single season.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27283867",
"title": "Law & Order: LA",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "The show received a full-season pickup on October 18, 2010. On January 18, 2011, however, NBC announced that it was putting the series on hold indefinitely. According to a representative of the show, the scheduling change was not caused entirely by the mid-season cast shake-up. The network later announced a return date for the series, April 11, 2011; and the final episode scheduled for July 11, 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5015435",
"title": "Lost (season 3)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "In response to fan complaints about scheduling in the previous seasons, ABC decided to air the episodes without reruns, albeit in two separate blocks. In the United States, the first block consisted of six episodes aired on Wednesdays at 9:00 pm and after a twelve-week break, the season continued with the remaining 16 episodes at 10:00 pm. In addition, three clip-shows recapped previous events on the show. \"Lost: A Tale of Survival\" aired a week before the season premiere, \"Lost Survivor Guide\" aired before the seventh episode and \"Lost: The Answers\" aired before the season finale. Buena Vista Home Entertainment released the season under the title \"Lost: The Complete Third Season – The Unexplored Experience\" on December 11, 2007 in Region 1 on DVD and Blu-ray Disc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
awmwkv
|
Was homosexuality seen as normal in the middle east prior to 1885?
|
[
{
"answer": "...kind of.\n\nNot \"homosexuality\" as we think of it today, though. That is to say, an outright sexual relationship between two adult men would not have been regarded as acceptable behavior. However, under certain limited circumstances same-gender love and (depending on whom one asked) even same-gender sexual relations could be viewed as normal. Here I'm going to limit my discussion to male \"homosexuality\" in the Ottoman Empire prior to the nineteenth century.\n\n & nbsp;\n\n*Terminology and Law*\n\n\"Homosexuality\" as a category of sexual orientation was not a concept that existed in the Muslim world prior to its importation from the West. Sexually, a man was defined primarily by the acts he performed rather than the gender of the person with whom he performed those acts. Specifically, one adopted either an active or a passive role in sexual intercourse. Men were expected to actively penetrate; women were expected to passively be penetrated, and this basic dichotomy extended to the terminology used to describe male-male intercourse. One wasn't a \"homosexual\" engaging in a relationship with another \"homosexual.\" Rather, one either took on the active role, thus becoming a *lūṭī* (sodomizer) or took on the passive role, becoming a *mukhannath* (Turkish: *muhannes*, catamite). There was no single term to refer to someone who took on both active and passive roles, although in Islamic Law the term *lūṭī* was sometimes used to refer to any man who engaged in anal intercourse. This emphasis on the act as such rather than an abstract \"homosexuality\" meant that non-anal intercourse between men was not condemned to the same degree. That's not to say that the Islamic jurists were fine with men kissing, caressing, or engaging in intercrural intercourse with one another, but these acts did not make one a *lūṭī* and therefore constituted only minor sins (*ṣaghā'ir*). Likewise, there was no legal distinction between engaging in anal sex with a man and engaging in anal sex with a woman. It was the act that mattered.\n\nThe act of anal sex, however, was universally condemned by Islamic jurists. As we will see, some groups have at some times tolerated anal sex between males under particular circumstances, but the Islamic jurists who determined what was and was not lawful were unanimous in condemning it. They nevertheless differed somewhat in how serious of a sin they considered it to be. Of the four main legal schools of Sunni Islam, three regarded anal sex as falling into the category of *zinā*, or illicit sexual intercourse. Punishment differed based on marital status: a married man would be liable for the death penalty by stoning, while an unmarried man would be punished with a hundred lashes. It is worth mentioning in this context that these strict punishments, called *ḥadd* (\"limit\") punishments, required either voluntary confession or the testimony of four reliable witnesses who actually saw the act being committed, while the judge was expected to make every possible excuse for the sake of the defendant, in accordance with the saying of the Prophet Muhammad: \"Ward off *ḥadd* punishments as much as you can.\" We have no statistics, of course, but it seems as though *ḥadd* punishments occurred only infrequently because of the difficulty of actually convicting someone, and the jurists regarded this rarity of conviction as a good thing.\n\nThe fourth legal school of Sunni Islam, the Hanafi school, was the official school supported by the Ottoman Empire, and was predominant in modern-day Turkey, the Balkans, and Syria. This was the only school that did not regard anal sex as an act of *zinā*, simply because *zinā* was technically defined as the unlawful insertion of a penis into a vagina. Therefore, Hanafi jurists regarded anal sex as less of a sin than the other law schools. It could not be punished by the death penalty except potentially in the case of repeat offenders; its actual punishment was up to the discretion of the judge, but it could not be any greater than 39 lashes, one less than the lowest of all the *ḥadd* punishments. Most often punishment entailed some combination of lashes and a monetary fine. On the other hand, since it didn't entail a *ḥadd* punishment, conviction was also easier, requiring only two witnesses rather than four.\n\n & nbsp;\n\n*Sex, Love, and Beauty*\n\nOne of the most striking cultural differences one finds prior to the nineteenth century has to do with the conceptual separation of romantic love and sex, and particularly how this related to the love of boys. Adolescent boys, particularly those who lacked beards (a quintessential element of manhood), were regarded as not yet belonging to the same socio-cultural category as men. Boys were widely regarded as aesthetically beautiful in a sexually neutral sense. One could look upon and appreciate a boy's handsome features without that necessarily implying sexual attraction. One finds this attitude expressed in the works of Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d. 1111), one of history's most influential Islamic theologians:\n\n(Quoted in Khaled El-Rouayheb, *Before Homosexuality in the Arab-Islamic World, 1500-1800* (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2005), p. 54)\n\n > Do not think that the love of beautiful forms is only conceivable with an eye toward satisfying carnal desire, for satisfying carnal desire is a distinct pleasure that *may* be associated with the love of beautiful forms, but the perception of beauty in itself is also pleasurable and so may be loved for its own sake. How can this be denied, when greenery and flowing water are loved, not with an eye toward drinking the water or eating the greenery or to obtain anything else besides the looking itself?\n\nCommon opinion held that observing the beauty of boys was neither sinful nor deviant. Likewise, there was nothing inherently sinful or deviant about forming close relationships with them, or ultimately with falling in love with them. The two males in such a relationship would take on the roles of lover and beloved, corresponding to the older, active, pursuing man and younger, passive, pursued boy - the latter in a sense being conceptually feminized by this relationship. The chaste love of boys for their beauty was not condemned by any aside from the most puritanical of Islamic jurists, and even then not because it was objectionable in and of itself, but because of its potential to inspire unchaste feelings. Indeed, one's ability to properly recognize and praise beauty was part of what made one a cultivated and civilized person; this attitude is what led to the creation of an enormous body of \"homosexual\" love-poetry in Arabic, Persian, and Turkish. Yet most of the authors of these poems would not have viewed themselves as homosexuals even had the concept existed - many of them would have looked upon the idea of actual sex with boys as abhorrent. There was no contradiction between being married and sexually active with a woman while also appreciating the beauty of boys.\n\nOf course, this sharp distinction between romantic love and sexual desire did not hold for everyone. Those jurists who held that it was sinful to gaze upon boys did so because they recognized that the line was so frequently crossed. Because romantic love in this context was widely regarded as normal, so too was a certain degree of physical affection. But there was a line somewhere, in which love and affection ceased to be chaste and started to be sinful. Naturally, there existed a range of opinions on this issue. Kissing appears to have been fairly common, but we do not know to what degree various forms of sexual activity were or were not tolerated and by whom. A fair bet seems to be that sexual activity was more tolerated among groups who derived their religious authority from places other than scholarly Sunni Islam, such as certain Sufi organizations, whose members were endlessly lampooned by their religious opponents for being *lūṭī*s. Indeed, for some Sufis, gazing at beauty was considered one way of increasing one's closeness to God (insofar as all beauty was a reflection of the beauty of the divine), thus giving religious sanction to pederastic relationships.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15471",
"title": "LGBT in Islam",
"section": "Section::::History of homosexuality in Islamic societies.:Modern era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 1247,
"text": "The attitudes toward homosexuality in the Ottoman empire underwent a dramatic change during the 19th century. Before that time, Ottoman societal norms accepted homoerotic relations as normal, despite condemnation of homosexuality by religious scholars. The Ottoman Sultanic law (\"qanun\") tended to equalize the treatment of hetero- and homosexuals. Dream interpretation literature accepted homosexuality as natural, and \"karagoz\", the principal character of popular puppet theater, engaged in both active and passive gay sex. However, in the 19th century, Ottoman society started to be influenced by European ideas about sexuality as well as the criticism leveled at the Ottoman society by European authors for its sexual and gender norms, including homosexuality. This criticism associated the weakness of the Ottoman state and corruption of the Ottoman government with Ottoman sexual corruption. By the 1850s, these ideas were prompting embarrassment and self-censorship among the Ottoman public regarding traditional attitudes toward sex in general and homosexuality in particular. Dream interpretation literature declined, the puppet theater was purged of its coarser elements, and homoeroticism began to be regarded as abnormal and shameful.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "5665889",
"title": "LGBT rights in Syria",
"section": "Section::::LGBT history in Syria.:History of LGBT in the Middle East.:1700s and 1800s- Colonialism and Western Ideologies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "The view of homosexuality of the Middle Easterners have been disruptively changed with the influences of western colonizers. British and France introduced laws of punishments on homosexual practices around 1855, and today many countries that criminalized homosexual acts were former colonies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "43146275",
"title": "LGBT in the Middle East",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "In the 19th and early 20th century, homosexual activity was relatively common in the Middle East, owing in part to widespread sex segregation, which made heterosexual encounters outside marriage more difficult. Georg Klauda writes that \"Countless writers and artists such as André Gide, Oscar Wilde, Edward M. Forster, and Jean Genet made pilgrimages in the 19th and 20th centuries from homophobic Europe to Algeria, Morocco, Egypt, and various other Arab countries, where homosexual sex was not only met without any discrimination or subcultural ghettoization whatsoever, but rather, additionally as a result of rigid segregation of the sexes, seemed to be available on every corner.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15471",
"title": "LGBT in Islam",
"section": "Section::::History of homosexuality in Islamic societies.:Modern era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "In the 19th and early 20th century, homosexual sexual contact was viewed as relatively commonplace in the Middle East, owing in part to widespread sex segregation, which made heterosexual encounters outside marriage more difficult. According to Georg Klauda, \"Countless writers and artists such as André Gide, Oscar Wilde, Edward M. Forster, and Jean Genet made pilgrimages in the 19th and 20th centuries from homophobic Europe to Algeria, Morocco, Egypt, and various other Arab countries, where homosexual sex was not only met without any discrimination or subcultural ghettoization whatsoever, but rather, additionally as a result of rigid segregation of the sexes, seemed to be available on every corner.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15179951",
"title": "Human sexuality",
"section": "Section::::Psychological aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 1040,
"text": "Before the High Middle Ages, homosexual acts appear to have been ignored or tolerated by the Christian church. During the 12th century, hostility toward homosexuality began to spread throughout religious and secular institutions. By the end of the 19th century, it was viewed as a pathology. Havelock Ellis and Sigmund Freud adopted more accepting stances; Ellis said homosexuality was inborn and therefore not immoral, not a disease, and that many homosexuals made significant contributions to society. Freud wrote that all human beings as capable of becoming either heterosexual or homosexual; neither orientation was assumed to be innate. According to Freud, a person's orientation depended on the resolution of the Oedipus complex. He said male homosexuality resulted when a young boy had an authoritarian, rejecting mother and turned to his father for love and affection, and later to men in general. He said female homosexuality developed when a girl loved her mother and identified with her father, and became fixated at that stage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "15471",
"title": "LGBT in Islam",
"section": "Section::::History of homosexuality in Islamic societies.:Pre-modern era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 1071,
"text": "\"Homosexuality was a key symbolic issue throughout the Middle Ages in [Islamic] Iberia. As was customary everywhere until the nineteenth century, homosexuality was not viewed as a congenital disposition or 'identity'; the focus was on nonprocreative sexual practices, of which sodomy was the most controversial.\" For example, in \"al-Andalus homosexual pleasures were much indulged by the intellectual and political elite. Evidence includes the behavior of rulers . . . who kept male harems.\" Although early islamic writings such as the Quran expressed a mildly negative attitude towards homosexuality, laypersons usually apprehended the idea with indifference, if not admiration. Few literary works displayed hostility towards non-heterosexuality, apart from partisan statements and debates about types of love (which also occurred in heterosexual contexts). Khaled el-Rouayheb (2014) maintain that \"much if not most of the extant love poetry of the period [16th to 18th century] is pederastic in tone, portraying an adult male poet's passionate love for a teenage boy\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "7029634",
"title": "LGBT rights in Argentina",
"section": "Section::::History.:Independence and early 20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "During the nineteenth century, writings on homosexuality treated it as a medical pathology, an accusation to be levied against political opponents or something brought into the nation by foreigners. The only public image of homosexuality was urban prostitution and public locations used for cruising. In 1914, a homosexual-themed play named \"Los Invertidos\" was forced to shut down, although medical journals were permitted to discuss homosexuality.\n",
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] | null |
2v03mz
|
why was synth used so much in 80s music?
|
[
{
"answer": "Simply put, because it was new, it became popular very fast, and people liked it.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Synthesizers became popular very quickly due to their marketed ability to 'create the sounds of any instrument imaginable'. Up to a certain extent this is true. A synthesizer is one big piece of math hooked up to the most accessible musical interface at the time: a keyboard.\n\nA synth is programmable by tweaking faders, knobs, etc in order to modulate/create sounds as you please. You can mimmick a lot of instruments using synths, plus you can create sounds that are otherwise hardly accessible.\n\nIn the 80s, synths gained massive popularity because of some clever innovations in the interface. The synth controls were simplified and easy to understand for any music enthousiast. Companies marketed their synths big time, and included digitally stored presets so the synths came with a bunch of (now very well known) sounds out of the box. You could also save your own sounds to the internal memory so you wouldn't have to write down all the settings.\n\nMIDI helped as well. Most synths came with a MIDI port, enabling the users to hook the synth up to their other equipment. \n\nAll this made synths very capable of doing a lot of different tasks in an easy way. But more importantly: Synths were cheap and easy compared to buying and maintaining/storing a bunch of 'real' instruments. And for example playing a guitar and a trumpet both takes a lot of practise each time to learn these different instruments; where a synth just has the keyboard.\n\nAdd to that the very popular synth sounds of the 80s, which turned out to be the sound of a decennium. Lots of reasons for musicians to hop on the synth-wagon, up to this day.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "And you hear it far more than today because they were developed further",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Technology and affordability. \n\nSynthesizers used to be (and the best still are, arguably) analog. Meaning, it houses modules that use control-voltages and triggers to *physically manipulate* electricity to make sounds. These were your Minimoogs, your Arp Odysseys, etc. They were used a lot in Prog Rock in the 1970s - however, they were all handmade and very expensive. Only wealthy studios and bands could afford them. \n\nThe advent of digital synthesizers (ROMplers, FM Synthesis, etc) pushed the sound of the 1980s. Instead of using analog components, they used mass-produced, affordable microprocessors to *somewhat simulate* what was going on inside their analog forefathers. Suddenly - bands could afford what was seen as a *luxury* device - the most popular of which was the Yamaha DX7.\n\nThe advent of the standardized MIDI (musical instrument, digital interface) protocol in 1983 also really helped - it meant that different brands of synthesizers could communicate with each other and sync up! Yay! \n\nAnd here's why many albums of the 1980s sounded similar: \n\nHere is an analog [Prophet 5](_URL_0_). MSRP: $4,495 in 1978, which is about $16,500 in today's dollars. \n\nHere is digital [Yamaha DX7](_URL_1_). $2,000 in 1983 or about $4,500 in today's dollars.\n\nSee the big price difference?\n\nNotice something else? The Prophet 5 has individual knobs to control every single aspect of the sound, hands on, *as your playing it*. \n\nThe DX7 uses buttons and 1 slider to control the sound (the other slider is volume).\n\nThis means that the DX7 cannot easily be manipulated *as you play* because it requires an incredible amount of menu diving. \n\nMost musicians of the 1980s weren't familiar with menu diving, (computers weren't exactly household) so they relegated to the DX7's *presets*. That is, they all used the same bank of like.. 20 sounds!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16727290",
"title": "Electronics in rock music",
"section": "Section::::History.:1980s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 928,
"text": "The definition of MIDI and the development of digital audio made the creation of purely electronic sounds much easier. This led to the growth of synthpop, by which, particularly through their adoption by the New Romantic movement, synthesizers came to dominate the pop and rock music of the early 80s. The early sound of synthpop was \"eerie, sterile, and vaguely menacing\", but more commercially orientated bands like Duran Duran adopted dance beats to produce a catchier and warmer sound. They were soon followed into the charts by a large number of bands who used synthesizers to create three-minute pop singles. These included New Romantics who adopted an elaborate visual style that combined elements of glam rock, science fiction and romanticism such as Spandau Ballet, A Flock of Seagulls, Culture Club, ABC, Soft Cell, Talk Talk, B-Movie and the Eurythmics, sometimes using synthesizers to replace all other instruments,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "6974",
"title": "Computer music",
"section": "Section::::Advances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "Advances in computing power and software for manipulation of digital media have dramatically affected the way computer music is generated and performed. Current-generation micro-computers are powerful enough to perform very sophisticated audio synthesis using a wide variety of algorithms and approaches. Computer music systems and approaches are now ubiquitous, and so firmly embedded in the process of creating music that we hardly give them a second thought: computer-based synthesizers, digital mixers, and effects units have become so commonplace that use of digital rather than analog technology to create and record music is the norm, rather than the exception.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "126860",
"title": "Synth-pop",
"section": "Section::::History.:Precursors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "Electronic musical synthesizers that could be used practically in a recording studio became available in the mid-1960s, around the same time as rock music began to emerge as a distinct musical genre. The Mellotron, an electro-mechanical, polyphonic sample-playback keyboard was overtaken by the Moog synthesizer, created by Robert Moog in 1964, which produced completely electronically generated sounds. The portable Minimoog, which allowed much easier use, particularly in live performance was widely adopted by progressive rock musicians such as Richard Wright of Pink Floyd and Rick Wakeman of Yes. Instrumental prog rock was particularly significant in continental Europe, allowing bands like Kraftwerk, Tangerine Dream, Can and Faust to circumvent the language barrier. Their synthesizer-heavy \"Kraut rock\", along with the work of Brian Eno (for a time the keyboard player with Roxy Music), would be a major influence on subsequent synth rock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "126860",
"title": "Synth-pop",
"section": "Section::::History.:Commercial success (1981–85).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "The emergence of synth-pop has been described as \"perhaps the single most significant event in melodic music since Mersey-beat\". By the 1980s synthesizers had become much cheaper and easier to use. After the definition of MIDI in 1982 and the development of digital audio, the creation of purely electronic sounds and their manipulation became much simpler. Synthesizers came to dominate the pop music of the early 1980s, particularly through their adoption by bands of the New Romantic movement.\n",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "55319",
"title": "Ambient music",
"section": "Section::::History.:1980s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "The continued development of the synthesizer, namely the FM synthesizer, was instrumental in the maturing of ambient music throughout the 1980s. With the commercial release of synthesizers such as the Yamaha DX7 and the Korg M1 in the mid 1980s, the possibilities to create a sonic landscape increased through the use of sampling. Many of these FM synthesizers included capabilities of MIDI clock synching and external hardware compatibility, allowing the music to be much more textured than before. By the late 1980s there was a steep increase in the incorporation of the computer in the writing and recording process of records. The sixteen-bit Macintosh platform with built-in sound, and comparable IBM models would find themselves in studios and homes of musicians and record makers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "275671",
"title": "List of electronic music genres",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1149,
"text": "In its early development, electronic music was associated almost exclusively with Western art music, but from the late 1960s, the availability of affordable music technology—particularly of synthesizers—meant that music produced using electronic means became increasingly common in the popular domain of rock and pop music, resulting in major electronically based subgenres. After the definition of MIDI in 1982 and the development of digital audio, the creation of purely electronic sounds and their manipulation became much simpler. As a result, synthesizers came to dominate the pop music of the early 1980s. In the late 1980s, electronic dance music (EDM) records made using only electronic instruments became increasingly popular, resulting in a proliferation of electronic genres, subgenres, and scenes. In the new millennium, as computer technology became even more accessible and music software advanced, interacting with music production technology made it possible to create music that has some similarities and some differences to traditional musical performance practices, leading to further developments and rapidly evolving subgenres.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "126860",
"title": "Synth-pop",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 895,
"text": "Electronic musical synthesizers that could be used practically in a recording studio became available in the mid-1960s, while the mid-1970s saw the rise of electronic art musicians. After the breakthrough of Gary Numan in the UK Singles Chart in 1979, large numbers of artists began to enjoy success with a synthesizer-based sound in the early 1980s. In Japan, Yellow Magic Orchestra introduced the TR-808 rhythm machine to popular music, and the band would be a major influence on early British synth-pop acts. The development of inexpensive polyphonic synthesizers, the definition of MIDI and the use of dance beats, led to a more commercial and accessible sound for synth-pop. This, its adoption by the style-conscious acts from the New Romantic movement, together with the rise of MTV, led to success for large numbers of British synth-pop acts in the US during the Second British Invasion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
g5la9
|
How do colony species like ants and bees evolve to their present states?
|
[
{
"answer": "The queen mates with drones from many different colonies. If you just consider that, genetically speaking, the colony is the organism, not the individual bee, there's no reason for there to be less diversity.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "This is no small question. This is THE question as regards ant colonies. Until only a few years ago the predominant theory claimed that a quirk of the chromosome structure led to increased \"inclusive fitness\". The quirk, [haplodiploidy](_URL_5_). \n\nIn haplodiploidy a fertilized egg goes female and unfertilized eggs go male. Many of the ants, bees and wasps (and some others) that are haplodiploid also exhibit \"eusociality\". Eusociality being the most extreme case of individual cooperation in which many individuals forgo reproduction and expend their energy increasing the offspring of other individuals. \n\nThe haplodiploidy theory claimed higher levels of \"inclusive fitness\". Inclusive fitness is when your genetic fitness is shared with others. For example, a sibling has half your DNA. It makes sense under natural selection that you should gain some small reproductive success by helping a sibling or close relative succeed in reproduction. This is not a controversial theory, it is the basis of [\"kin selection\"](_URL_4_). Haplodiploidy was thought to give siblings higher levels of relatedness and haplodiploid sisters were thought to share 3/4 of their genes with each other, and this, by the theory, increased their \"interest\" in helping their siblings and parents reproduce. \n\nIn the most recent survey of relevant species, E.O. Wilson, a main proponent of the haplodiploidy theory and the world's pre-eminent ant scholar, found that there was no longer enough data to suggest haplodiploidy as the root cause of eusocialty. (Can't find the exact quotes...roughly 2006). Too many non-eusocial haplodiploid species found and even more difficult to explain, the existence of eusociality in regular old diploid insects - namely termites (also some aphids and thrips). \n\nThat said we fall back to the few options that were already waiting in the wings. Here is a brief discussion from the book on ants \"The Ants\" by E.O Wilson and Bert Holldobler, 1990. From google books subheading [\"Beginnings of social Behavior\"](_URL_1_). \n\nI am a inclined to lean with the mechanism he refers to as \"manipulation\". I liked the idea even before the collapse of the haplodiploid theory. Ants are easily \"programmed\". There are really hundreds maybe thousands of examples of ants getting manipulated, re-programmed, by other organisms. To name a few, there is a worm that \"hacks\" ants, at least one fungus that does, many insects that fake ants out into feeding them and then of course the most dramatic examples are cross-species and cross colony \"slave making\". \n\nThe slave making, also called \"Dulosis\", is so common that there exists many examples of species that have split into two nearly identical species except that the one species habitually parasitizes the other by co-opting its workers as \"slaves\". Further there is the extreme case of dulosis in which rather small and feeble ants literally ride on the backs of the much larger individuals of the \"host\" colony, and control their every move. In this extreme case the parasite ant colony controls the host colony completely and denies the host any reproductive success. These tiny ants make zombies of another entire colony completely through manipulation of the host colony's chemical communication. \n\nTo read more on the various forms of ant parasitization see \"The Ants\" subheading [\"Symbioses among ant species\"](_URL_0_) (There exist so many interactions among ant species that you can read them all as a spectrum of \"symbioses\" from co-operation and tolerance to competition, war, and parasitization.) \n\nFurther you could read about [the origins of monogyny and polygyny](_URL_2_)(These are the two major types of queens in ant colonies...) \n\nAlso the Australian species [Nothomyrmecia macrops](_URL_3_) This \"primitive\" ant's reproduction and behavior is thought to be indicative of an earlier stage in the history of the ants.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I'm not an expert on insects but the evolutionary link from bacteria to multicellular organisms is thought to be due to quorum sensing. Quorum sensing is a chemical signaling behavior which allows bacteria to work together towards a greater task. Bee and ants also use a form of chemical signaling as their form of \"communication\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41123642",
"title": "Recurrent evolution",
"section": "Section::::Examples of phenotypic recurrent evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "In eusocial insects, new colonies are usually formed by a solitary queen; however this is not always the case. Dependent colony formation, when new colonies are formed by more than one individual, has evolved recurrently multiple times in ants, bees, and wasps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "44132607",
"title": "Parachartergus fraternus",
"section": "Section::::Colony cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1213,
"text": "Usually new colonies are formed by older individuals who swarm and create a new nest. The young \"P. fraternus\" queens stay behind to keep the older nest alive. The colony cycle begins with a pre-emergence period, which occurs before the emergence of the first offspring. Pre-emergence colonies have mostly older individuals. After this, the post-emergence period occurs which is the whole duration of the colony cycle following the appearance of offspring wasps. Next, is the pre-matrifilial phase. This is the first part of the post-emergence period and occurs when subordinate foundresses are still present in nests, interacting with worker wasps. Following this period is the matrifilial phase, which comes after the disappearance of all subordinates. Colonies now consist of only the queen and her workers. Lastly, there is a reproductive phase, where reproductive offspring (gynes and males) are born. Gynes start emerging from nests around early February; thus any female collected from colonies up to the end of January of each season will most likely be a worker. The colony cycle is usually annual, with foundress females beginning new nests in the spring after having overwintered for about 4.5 months.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47906850",
"title": "Trigona corvina",
"section": "Section::::Colony cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "A new colony is started when a virgin queen from one colony mates with a male of a neighboring colony. They will then create a new colony close to the nest of the virgin queen. New nests are created by the new queens but workers from the old nest must shuttle materials back and forth until the nest is complete. Additionally,many workers from the old nest must join the new queen in colonizing her nest until new generations of workers are born. Nests can exist for over 20 years, showing the extreme longevity of colonies. In a nest found in Panama, it was discovered that 91% of the bees in the nest were workers, 8% were males and 1% were virgin queens. Since nests are built around exposed branches, \"T. corvina\" nests are often damaged or knocked down in the absence of natural causes, indicating attack by large animals. Unfortunately for the bees, this results in colony loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43953271",
"title": "Polistes biglumis",
"section": "Section::::Colony cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "The colony cycle is characterized by a pre-emergence period that lasts from foundation by the single gyne of the colony to the emergence of the first new worker, and a post-emergence period, from the emergence of the new worker to the end of the cycle (as an annual species, this marks the end of the colony). At the end of a season, the future queen females of the colony will overwinter in order to reproduce in the spring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45391921",
"title": "Bombus terricola",
"section": "Section::::Colony cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "In \"B. terricola,\" there are three phases of colony development. The first phase, known as colony initiation, begins when a solitary queen starts to produce her first workers by laying diploid eggs. This leads to further eusociality within the colony and the queen's continued efforts to produce more worker bees. The emergence of workers is essential for colony growth.The onset of the second phase, known as the switch point, is when the queen stops laying diploid eggs and starts making haploid eggs to produce male bees. During the third phase, the workers exhibit overt aggression towards each other and towards the queen. The beginning of the third phase is known as the competition point. Reciprocal oophagy also occurs during this third stage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47938562",
"title": "Melipona quadrifasciata",
"section": "Section::::Colony cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "New colonies are established in a slow process, when the number of worker bees exceed 500 or 600 individuals in the parent colony. Then, a number of worker bees starts to build a new nest in a tree cavity found to be well suited for this purpose, and store honey and pollen in there. When the new nest is ready, a \"princess bee\" (mated gyne) join the workers, and if accepted it starts laying eggs and becomes the new queen. As in other Melipona bees, after a while the abdomen of the new queen expands to 3 or more times the initial size (a phenom called Physogastrism) and it becomes incapable of flying, never leaving the nest again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4876985",
"title": "Harpegnathos saltator",
"section": "Section::::Habits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "Unlike other ants, they are seen singly or in small groups and their colonies consist of very small numbers of individuals. They are also unusual amongst ants in that the queen-worker difference is very limited and some workers can mate and lay fertilized eggs just like the queen. These workers are termed gamergates. New colonies are founded independently by single queens, and on aging they are replaced by several gamergates. The gamergates copulate with males from their own colonies and, being inbred, are related to the original founding queen. Colonies are very small, and they never undergo fission to form new colonies. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
28f1i8
|
why is the us police force becoming more militarized and more powerful? or is this a misconception?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm a cop. Its hard to argue that police isn't becoming more miltarized but I think its vastly over rated. Two agencies in my county have a bearcat (like a tank with no big gun) but it it rarely used and all the agencies borrow it when needed. Aside from a taser, I have received no new weapons since I started 15 years ago. \n\nEdit: Some good comments, I'll just edit this post instead of responding to each one.\n\nI don't have access to anymore equipment than I did 15 years ago. Well I suppose we have .40 caliber pistols now instead of 9mm but besides that and the taser, everything else is the same. \n\nGenerally the bearcat is used for barricaded and armed subjects. I work in the SF bay area of California which is extremely liberal and has very tight gun control. I pulled an AK-47 and an illegally modified shotgun off a suspect two weeks ago. Criminals are now heavily armed and the police need to be able to match them in firepower. The bearcat would have been eventually been used if that suspect had barricaded himself in a house. We can use it to provide our SWAT teams with mobile cover to either take the house or launch non-lethal ordinance at the house (gas, stun grenades, etc).\n\nI have read about SWAT teams being used unnecessarily. My contention is that sometimes the news outlets don't have all the facts. Don't forget that a **judge** must authorize no knock warrants. However, there are probably a good number of search warrants being served by SWAT teams than is truly necessary. I just don't have enough facts to talk about specific cases. I will note that any search or arrest warrant involving the sale or manufacture of illegal narcotics is pretty much an automatic SWAT call out. Major dealers and producers can make $25,000 a week and they usually have guns.\n\nSWAT teams and the rise of police firearms training is to counter the evolution of the way the criminal element does business. 40 years ago, officers didn't have shotguns or vests because they weren't really necessary. Today, pulling a handgun off a felon is not rare. Being attacked is not rare. Like I said earlier, I pulled an AK-47 off a suspect recently. A shotgun and pistol cannot counter an AK-47. If I have to respond to an active shooter situation, I want the weapon that can deliver the most rounds, with the most accuracy, with the least reload time and that is my M-4. I have an M-4 in my patrol car. I actually remove it for calls maybe once a year. I have never had to fire it outside of the training range. But if that active shooter crisis happens at your children's high school, you'll be glad that I'm trained and armed to deal with the threat. They waited for the SWAT team at Columbine. That shit can never happen again.\n\nEdit2: I'll also just note that I have been a soldier and a cop my entire adult life except for 4 years of college and a few years tooling around the white collar corporate ladder. I have never been issued a fully automatic M16 or M4 at any point.\n\nEdit 3: Some people have argued that we don't need patrol rifles (M4). As I've said earlier, I pull it out maybe once a year. I have pointed it at one person in 15 years and have never pulled the trigger outside of the range. If it is taken away from me it will have pretty much zero effect on my day to day activity. However, if someone starts shooting at the high school I will not be going in. I'll secure the perimeter and wait for people who have the proper weapons and training to arrive. This can take anywhere from 45 minutes to 3 hours.\n\nEdit4: I'm going to bed. Thanks for the great discussion everyone. A few last thoughts. There is only three things I really need to do my job: my gun, my vest, and my radio. If you take away the rest you just reduce my options and flexibility. Sure some cops think they're navy seals when they go through rifle training but the rest of us know that the weapons we carry are a responsibility to protect and serve and not a booster for our egos. I don't think its a good reason to hamstring all of us.\n\nI'll say in closing that we're human just like you. Most of us are married (some formerly) with kids. If crime ended tomorrow and we got paychecks for helping old ladies cross the street then we would be happy. \n\nGot up to pee. Holy shit GOLD!!! Thanks!!!!!",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Well back when [this happened](_URL_0_) a lot of police forces started forcing the carrying of assault weapons for regular beat cops. The police were wholly unprepared for this tragedy.\n\nThen, after 9/11, [this started](_URL_1_ Homeland Security Program (SHSP).\n\nAnd recently you're seeing all of this surplus military equipment being sold to police departments. But I don't see the cops rolling around in tanks, so you tell me.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Read 'Rise of the Warrior Cop' by Radley Balko.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Generally they aren't. Police forces have been matching the uniform and weapons of the military since early 1900's. Think back to prohibition when they were rolling around with Tommy guns. Officers now are just using more effective and modern gear. Patrol rifles are generally more useful than the shotguns of old, yes they're black and the military uses similar ones but officers do not walk around carrying them while on routine patrol. As for the MRAPs and stuff, they're just vehicles. They are not armed, they are simply for protection from small arms fire. SWAT teams have increased because there are dangerous situations out there. And departments have realized that it is better to train a small squad of exceptional officers with more advanced gear than it is to send in standard equipped officers. Militarization is just a buzzword and it's what is popular to say right now for people who don't like or understand law enforcement.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "If anything, we can look at it as a further funneling of wealth to 'authority'. Starts with expensive wars against imaginary enemies. Trickles down to the police we pay to then raid our homes military style over some marijuana.\n\nBecause it is not being used just yet against a people who would not have it, does not mean it won't be. There are plenty of power hungry officers out there that would happily get in one of those and exert their 'authority' on a people.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Using the [military](_URL_5_) for riot control is a [fairly old](_URL_0_) concept. Having a police force for riot control is a fairly recent thing, at the earliest being seen in 1925 in [Shanghai](_URL_4_) before arriving in the US in the 60s and 70s as SWAT. If you read any of those articles it becomes apparent that force is needed for crowd control when you're trying to suppress a full blown riot. That's not to say these organizations should be free of criticism, because that is what's keeping them in check. Because of anti-violence campaigns since the 70s we now have [much lower](_URL_3_) [death counts](_URL_1_) than [historical conflicts](_URL_2_) often ended with.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "[This Vice video explains how some agencies aquire and use thier military style equipment.](_URL_0_) Also explains how some people use thier willingness to show up in force as a prank.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "People don't know what a tank is. An MRAP is not a tank.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "There is an overwhelming amount of military grade vehicles and weaponry from the wars in the middle east that were over produced. These goods are being purchased by our police forces much cheaper than normal because manufacturer's need to cover their loses. It also gives smaller police forces to acquire machinery like a MRAP where normally it would not be possible. Do they NEED it? Probably not.",
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"answer": "The vast majority of comments in this thread should give you a rather broad hint about why the US police force is becoming more militarized and powerful, and *most likely* ( :( ), why not a goddamned thing will happen to stop it.\n\nThose in power always want more power.\n\nGuess who controls the purse strings... *that's right kids*, it's those in power.\n\nIt's kinda' like defining rape in the military. If you're able to define it away... *it never happened*.\n\n... and according to the vast majority of the comments in this thread, it's just a misconception...\n\nIt never happened.\n\n:(",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Because we have been at war for 13 years. When you have long wars you have lots of veterans. Police departments love hiring veterans. Every police force in the nation gives them preference in the hiring process. They don't simply forget their military experience when they become cops, they apply it to their job here. The weapons, tactics, etc. are symptoms of the problem, not the cause.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "It is most certainly not a misconception. Entire books are being written about this.\n\nPolice departments all over the country are being outfitted and trained with military gear and tactics. SWAT teams, which were originally for exceptional circumstances are being used pretty much routinely now in some places...and we're talking about a bunch of guys in intimidating black tactical gear, armed with automatic weapons, who are being used to bust down doors for the most penny-ante of suspected crimes: barbershop back-room poker games, suspected pot smokers, anything.\n\nHowever, although these units are getting military gear and receive a superficial amount of military-like training, the rigid command structure and chain of accountability of the military are largely absent. Indeed, it's almost a cliche that cops are never held responsible for ANY actions they take. \n\nHere are a couple of recent articles on the subject:\n\n_URL_0_\n_URL_1_\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "**American citizens, by and large, still have better guns than the police.**",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Clearly you have no idea what was happening in the 1960s and 1970s? Police were far more violent. I cannot believe that not a single person in this thread has even touched on that.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Some of this is the fallout of the infamous North Hollywood shootout: _URL_0_. Basically, cops got in a shootout with well-armed and armored criminals and it went to shit. That lead to police departments across America dramatically upgrading their armaments. This makes some sense given that the criminally insane can buy an assault rifle.\n\nAmerican police departments also have a lot of seized money to throw around. Basically, if cops suspect your big pile of cash was ill-gotten they can seize it and the onus is on you to prove it was earned legitimately. Such monies, along with the proceeds of convicted criminals’ property being sold at auction, is retained by local police departments. The police departments blow a lot of this money on toys like riot gear and armored troop transports because they can.\n\nAnd there’s good old corruption involved. The companies that make this stuff make campaign contributions and in exchange elected officials rain “homeland security” funding on police departments that gets spent on a lot of absurd shit they’ll never need. New York city is notorious for this; some police precincts literally have storage containers parked on the street to store all this stuff they don’t use, right next to multiple specialized vehicles they never use.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I don't think it's misconception. I remember when the SWAT cops started wearing ski masks and wondered WTF?\n\nNow I served as a university police officer for a year, that was backed up against a bad area of town. Our job was to protect the students, and prevent general lawlessness on campus and all that came with that. We interacted with adults, students, parents, pimps, drunkenness, thefts, drug use and occasional real bad man on campus, etc.\n\nWe were denied billy clubs due to 'aggressive nature' of their appearance and/or use, slap jacks were prohibited, and the aluminum flashlight became in vogue. Rule of law, voice command presence, prideful follow up to required duty is what ruled the day. For anyone who wears a badge, expect on any day someone to try shoot you but it wasn't armament that saved you then, or now. I turned down a position on the cities metro force because I felt the mode of cops changing to be extremely badge heavy, and quite frankly, pushy as hell. There are cops, and regular people too, who can't wait to get up the next day and push around, or bust their heads. Again, I saw this way too much in how the police were evolving, and this has expanded over the years, right up instream with all the military equivalent armament and clothing.\n\nNow, I was ahead of my time in weapons and carried a 9mm, or 45 ACP semi auto, but other than my physical size, the more industrial mace that was eventually watered down, that was it (had military training as well, by the way, so the command voice thing was well engrained).\n\nI personally cringe when I see any police in anything other than standard blues, or if county, browns, and I don't want any involvement with the police due to the reasons I have expressed above. \n\nI guess clearing a warehouse with an AR seems better, but I had to clear darkened buildings without them on several occasions when escapes from the local nut house got out and fled. One such individual with a large knife was taken down by officers without firing a shot by distraction and wrestling him down, whereas, today he would have been shot to pieces. I took down weak knife threats, swinging chain holders, club carrying people with mace, judo, fists, etc. No one wants to be a hero, but you just shouldn't snuff people out without due cause, which I feel there isn't much due cause needed today. For the old, lame, crazy, mad, just back off and wait them out and don't get bent out of shape because they didn't immediately bend to your presence.\n\nI, personally, don't put any faith in there being many honest, no self serving police officers, having on one occasion nearly been shot for having a metallic object in my hand while standing on a sidewalk looking at used cars, and two officers come up, for lack of a better word, to roust me. As I identified my the object in my hand, I explained it was just a marketing device, and wondered why they could not recognize a red Coke can, which is recognized in every corner of the entire Earth.\n\nIf most police were honest to tell, they would tell you, avoid contact with the police in every way you can. \n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "There's a few major factors. For one thing, a huge amount of our population is armed, especially people that believe that the cops might arrest them. Such as people in drug trafficking or any kind of contraband industry that gets automatic huge sentences. Then there's also the large percentage of our population that want them. So a lot of the time, police officers arrest someone and find a weapon. Or they get into a scuffle of some kind and out comes a pistol. The police, in response, are arming themselves heavier and using better protection against guns. It's like the scene at the end of the Batman Begins, where Commissioner Gordon explains escalation. Police have guns, so people that fear them get guns in response. Enough incidents happen and the police arm themselves better. The people that were afraid are now more afraid and arm themselves even better etc. etc.\n\nAnother major factor is the military sector in the United States. Producing weapons of any kind is one of the country's largest industries, it may be the largest after farming. I haven't fact checked that one. Every year, the Pentagon buys billions in new equipment from the weapon industry and re-arms the military, keeping them the best armed they can be. However, re-arming means that there are tons of extra military grade equipment laying around. Some of it ends up overseas, being sold for profit to allied or friendly nations at a discount. Enough of those weapons have ended up in hostile forces, or decades later the country you sold to is now our enemy. Iraq is a good example, the Republican Guard was armed with United States military weapons which is a primary reason they were so dangerous. This has happened enough that there has been a ton of bad publicity from American weapons ending up in the hands of our current enemies. So they have, in response, been selling or giving them to police and law enforcement organizations at deep discounts. It plays well because of how much Americans love guns and is a pipeline for getting rid of all these extra weapons. Do local police departments need assault rifles, full body armor, re-commissioned tanks, or any of the other stuff they have? Not really, but the guys in the uniforms seem to love it for many reasons. \n\nAn underplayed but relevant factor is that police officers are feeling increasingly like soldiers or are in fact former soldiers. A local police officer in a quiet town is going to have a very different response than someone that comes back from a foreign war where they've been in mortal danger for months on end. If you have a good military record you're at the top of any list to get a job working as security or for the police and other law enforcement. The ATF is famous for this, they handle so many potentially violent and dangerous situations that they are stocked with ex-soldiers and people trained to deal with those situations. Sensible reasoning, why wouldn't you want somebody to keep the peace that can actually take down people? Well, in recent years it has been going the other way. Lots of officers, especially those that participate in raids, let their paranoia or adrenaline get the better of them and they end up shooting first because they are scared. Not scared in a monster under the bed way, more of a flight or fight response way. They've seen how bombs could be around every corner, how every cute kid could be holding a grenade or a gun behind their back, dogs trained to attack instead of being cuddly fur balls. Then it has a cascading effect, bad situations happen and innocent people get killed or firefights get out of hand from police abuse. So they arm themselves better, get more training in combat instead of peace keeping, and the problem is getting worse. Also it really doesn't help that officers that do this kind of stuff are rarely punished. Officers stick together because they have to, but they end up protecting violent, deadly people who need to be in jail or re-assigned. I want to be clear, this is a small minority. Most police officers couldn't be less interested in becoming domestic soldiers that walk around heavily armed. But there are some that are, and they are perpetuating a cycle of violence with the criminals they should be trying to stop.\n\nThe final, and most troubling point is that it has nothing to do with the police at all. At high levels of government, lawmakers have to appeal to their voters. A lot of voters in this country are in favor of mass weapons in some odd suicide pact with the \"bad people\". You know, the \"if they have a gun I want one too!\" argument. When re-election comes around, politicians need money and votes. The defense industry is happy to oblige so the government officials section off large parts of police budgets for military grade weapons which plays well with their voter base. It's not hard, politicians have for years been overspending on the military and defense budgets because it's an easy way to get money for their re-elections from the defense industry and pick up points by saying \"Look, I voted for your defense and making the police better equipped against the bad people\". You just have to look at our nuclear arsenal, we have had enough nuclear missiles in the past to reduce every inch of land on the planet to radioactive dust several times over. That's not for practicality, it's a show of force for voters. The militarization of local police forces has been for a while now a much easier and safer way of accomplishing the same goals. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This isn't ELI6 Jeez",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's all of that sweet sweet homeland security money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm late to this party. dgaf. Because the government wants to disarm the public and promote tyranny. The government should fear the people. Not the other way around.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well the LAPD are getting cams to wear, personally I like that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As far as I know it's largely that they get a lot of leftover military surplus gear... not really a conspiracy or anything, it just sort of happens. \n\nOf course, there is the viewpoint that the police exist to protect the rich from the poor. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would think that the simple answer would be that drug cartels are arming themselves more and more.\n\nCops have had the average US citizen outgunned and out-trained (more important than most people think) for a while now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Very disappointed in the answers to this so far. I know it's ELI5 but the answers are treating you like an idiot. \"Bad guys have big guns so we need big guns too!\"\n\nOP, if you really want to know read \"Rise of the Warrior Cop: The Militarization of America's Police Forces.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nPart of Reagan's war on ~~poor bla..~~ drugs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If history is any guide, the militarization of the domestic law enforcement is a response to the government having concerns for insurrection and revolt. Every nation I could find had a surge in arming their police forces prior to confiscation. After confiscation... things don't go very well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a difference between how patrol and SWAT operators are trained. sWAT operator's training is more \"militarized\" because we deal with situations which are beyond the scope of what patrol can handle, whether it may be a hostage situation, barricaded gunman or a high risk warrant. We have more tools and training to get the job done more efficiently and safer than regular patrol. \nIn my experience, due to their budgets, most departments patrolman are criminally undertrained. In my department, if you are a patrolman, you are lucky to go for a training class a couple of times a year, if that. However, being on SWAT, I train every month, sometimes multiple times a month.\n\nAnyways, becoming militarized isn't all bad. Yes, we look scary because we have armored vehicle and big guns,but we also become far more disciplined and aware than regular patrol. \n\n til;dr...SWAT teams are militarized out of necessity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In a sense, high level criminals are also becoming more militarized. I'm not a fan of US police, but to makes sense that they much match the firepower of their adversary. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My perspective as a \"citizen\" - just watch the TV show cops from the 80's and compare to a current edition- you can see in everything from a cops demeanor, dress, equipment, vernacular and even haircut is much more militarized. While anecdotal at best, it is a startling when you actually see it. \n\nCauses: \nwar on drugs - military terminology and an US v Them mentality. \n\nProliferation of SWAT to even small town police forces- this brings military tactics, hardware and training. Once this is in place, excuses are found to use it.\n\nCourt rulings creating many exceptions to citizen rights that police can exploit. From stop resisting, to a furtive move, to I am searching you for officer safety, or a drug dog that responds to a handler creating probable cause. \n\nVery similar to military- there is a police industrial complex- people get rich and therefore have a built in desire to promote a militarized police.\n\nLax enforcement of police ethics, many documented cases of police abuse , many jurisdictions police feel they are above the law( they probably believe they are protecting us from the \"scumbags\" but this is a very slippery slope) \n\nThat being said, I have only had fairly reasonable interactions with police, but i am an upper middle class middle aged white man - and realize this is not the case for many. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Of all my interactions with cops most have been very negative, some pretty bizarre and a few terrorizing for the public. With one good one. I am not a big lawbreaker and have no felonies and have never been arrested. But I still have observed corruption, abuse, harassment and intimidation towards myself and the public on the part of the police. I do not think that all cops are bad. I just think that if you are a good cop then you probably wont get promoted in a culture like that. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because illuminati. thats why.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27225020",
"title": "Police brutality in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "The war model of policing has been offered as a reason for why police brutality occurs. Through this model, police brutality is more likely to occur because police see crime as a war and have people who are their enemies. Police who have been exposed to war have more than a 50% higher rate of excessive force complaints than non-veterans according to internal Boston PD documents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55307761",
"title": "Betrayal trauma",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Institutional betrayal.:Law enforcement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "Literature indicates that the U.S. police force has a demonstrably long history of using coercive force. However, recent deaths suspected to be the result of police officers using excessive force (e.g., shooting of Stephon Clark, shooting of Philando Castile) have shone light upon the issue of police brutality as a form of institutional betrayal. Research has identified that cultural minorities tend to experience police brutality more frequently than their European American counterparts due to stereotypes associating criminal activity with race/ethnicity, particularly in urban areas where crime rates are high and the presence of cultural minorities is more prevalent. Additionally, recent studies have identified mentally ill individuals as being at a higher risk for experiencing police brutality, especially with regard to suicide by cop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23627",
"title": "Police",
"section": "Section::::Conduct, accountability and public confidence.:Use of force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 154,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 154,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Police forces also find themselves under criticism for their use of force, particularly deadly force. Specifically, tension increases when a police officer of one ethnic group harms or kills a suspect of another one. In the United States, such events occasionally spark protests and accusations of racism against police and allegations that police departments practice racial profiling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44800561",
"title": "Militarization of police",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "Concerns about the militarization of police have been raised by both ends of the political spectrum in the United States, with both the right-of-center/libertarian Cato Institute and the American Civil Liberties Union voicing criticisms of the practice. The Fraternal Order of Police has spoken out in favor of equipping law enforcement officers with military equipment, on the grounds that it increases the officers' safety and enables them to protect members of the public and other first responders (e.g., firefighters and emergency medical services personnel). However, a 2017 study showed that police forces which received military equipment were more likely to have violent encounters with the public, regardless of local crime rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44800561",
"title": "Militarization of police",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Concerns and responses.:Civil liberties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 1050,
"text": "The accelerating militarization of regular law enforcement during the War on Drugs and post-September 11 War on Terror, however, prompted some commentators to express alarm at the blurring of the distinction between civil and military functions, and the potential to erode constraints on governmental power in times of perceived crisis. A 2010 paper published in the journal \"Armed Forces & Society\" examined \"role convergence, that is, evidence that significant segments of police operations in the United States have taken on military characteristics; and evidence indicating that many U.S. military initiatives have taken on policing characteristics.\" It concluded that \"for individual citizens and for society as a whole, at least one aspect of role convergence—the militarization of the police—is potentially troublesome. If this convergence results in the police adopting not only military-type tactics and procedures but also military attitudes and orientations, the convergence may seriously threaten traditional civil rights and liberties.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44800561",
"title": "Militarization of police",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Concerns and responses.:Community policing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "In a 2013 piece in the newsletter of the DOJ's Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS), COPS Senior Policy Analyst Karl Bickel warned that police militarization could seriously impair community-oriented policing. Bickel wrote that accelerating militarization was likely to alienate police relationship with the community, and pointed to a variety of factors that contribute to militarization, including the growth of SWAT; the increase prevalence of dark-colored military-style battle dress uniforms for patrol officers (which research suggests has a psychological effect of increasing aggression in the wearer), and \"warrior-like\" stress training in policing training, which fosters an \"us versus them\" approach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166029",
"title": "Police brutality",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Effects of Police brutality in America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 291,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 291,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Society would like to believe that police officers and protectors are not biased towards the victims of police brutality, we hope that everything law enforcement does is to better protect us. As history repeats and more and more Black Americans lose their lives, this gives reason to believe that different geographic locations carry different political and social views, therefore police officers are biased towards those they decide to abuse, instead of allowing the justice system to properly serve justice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
627tzs
|
why does the us model of the samsung galaxy s8 have a different processor than the global model?
|
[
{
"answer": "Qualcomm owns many many patents in the US basically forcing any company to use Qualcomm's modem to connect to wireless signals. Companies are free to use any SoC (System on a Chip) they want, the Galaxy S6 used the global SoC version but used a Qualcomm modem. The big issue is Qualcomm prices things in such a way that the 'deal' a company gets from using Qualcomm's modem and SoC makes it economically stupid to use your own SoC and Qualcomm's modem.\n\nEdit* Qualcomm is not competition friendly. There is a big reason why r/fuckqualcomm is a thing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38151849",
"title": "Samsung Galaxy S4",
"section": "Section::::Specifications.:Hardware.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1219,
"text": "Galaxy S4 models use one of two processors, depending on the region and network compatibility. The S4 version for North America, most of Europe, parts of Asia, and other countries contains Qualcomm's Snapdragon 600 system-on-chip, containing a quad-core 1.9 GHz Krait 300 CPU and an Adreno 320 GPU. The chip also contains a modem which supports LTE. Other models include Samsung's Exynos 5 Octa system-on-chip with a heterogeneous CPU. The octa-core CPU comprises a 1.6 GHz quad-core Cortex-A15 cluster and a 1.2 GHz quad-core Cortex-A7 cluster. The chip can dynamically switch between the two clusters of cores based on CPU usage; the chip switches to the A15 cores when more processing power is needed, and stays on the A7 cores to conserve energy on lighter loads. Only one of the clusters is used at any particular moment, and software sees the processor as a single quad-core CPU. The SoC also contains an IT tri-core PowerVR SGX 544 graphics processing unit (GPU). Regional models of the S4 vary in support for LTE; for Exynos 5-based models, while the E300K/L/S versions support LTE, with the Cortex-A15 also clocked at 1.6 GHz. the GT-I9500 model does not. The S4 GT-I9505 includes a multiband LTE transceiver.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34067570",
"title": "Samsung Galaxy W",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "The main differences between \"Galaxy W\" and other variants are its single-core CPU (1.4 GHz manufactured by Qualcomm), higher screen pixel density compared to \"Galaxy S II\" and \"Galaxy R\", and a slightly different physical design.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28625065",
"title": "Samsung Galaxy Tab 7.0",
"section": "Section::::Successor models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 828,
"text": "The second and current true successor tablets in the series are the Galaxy Tab 3 7.0 and 10.1 as well as the new variant under the Galaxy Tab line and second 8-inch tablet made by Samsung which was the Samsung Galaxy Tab 3 8.0 which are again aimed at budget markets. The front-facing cameras have been upgraded back to 1.3 MP quality, the chip set for the three tablets are now manufactured by different chipmakers namely Marvell for the 7.0, Samsung for the 8.0, and Intel for the 10.1, and is significantly thinner thanks to the new unified Samsung Design. In addition, the tablets now support some of the features once reserved for the S and Note series such as the Smart Stay, S-Voice, and exclusively on the 8.0 is the Multi-Window . The 10.1\" version retails for $399, the 8.0\" version at $299 and the 7.0\" version $199.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "238601",
"title": "Quiet PC",
"section": "Section::::Individual components in a quiet PC.:CPU.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "Most modern mainstream and value CPUs are made with a lower TDP to reduce heat, noise, and power consumption. Intel's dual-core Celeron, Pentium, and i3 CPUs generally have a TDP of 35–54 W, while the i5 and i7 are generally 64–84 W (newer versions, such as Haswell) or 95W (older versions, such as Sandy Bridge). Older CPUs such as the Core 2 Duo typically had a TDP of 65 W, while the Core 2 Quad CPUs were mostly 65–95 W. AMD's Athlon II x2 CPUs were 65 W, while the Athlon x4 was 95 W. The AMD Phenom ranged from 80 W in the x2 variant to 95 and 125 W in the quad-core variants. The AMD Bulldozer CPUs range from 95–125 W. The APUs range from 65 W for the lower-end dual-core variants, such as the A4, to 100 W in the higher-end quad-core variants, such as the A8. Some processors come in special low power versions. For example, Intel's lower TDP CPUs end in T (35 W) or S (65 W).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47498291",
"title": "Samsung Galaxy A8 (2015)",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "The Galaxy A8 is thinner than earlier models from the A-series lineup, measuring in thickness. Other specifications include a 5.7 inch 1080p display, touch based fingerprint sensor,a 16 MP back and a 5MP front camera, an Octa core Exynos 5430 chipset or exynos 5433 chipset or a Snapdragon 615 Chipset, 2GB of RAM and a 3050 mAh battery. It comes shipped with Android 5.1.1 Lollipop. The Japan KDDI variant includes Oneseg & full Seg TV features while the Korean SK Telecom Variant has a T-DMB feature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25403235",
"title": "Sony Vaio Z series",
"section": "Section::::VPC-Z Update (2010).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1424,
"text": "The Z series was updated in light of the new Core i5/i7 CPUs from Intel. The new range offers an i5 or i7 (although it is not clear if memory is dual port or triple port for the i7; it seems likely to be dual port, since varying the memory portness in the motherboard by CPU is a big change and because the memory choices remain 2/4/8, rather than changing to 3/6/12), a keyboard backlight, revised chassis and a Blu-ray writer. The first SSD models (VPC-Z1xxx) all use non-standard form-factor drives (due to lack of internal space) sourced from Samsung specifically for the Vaio; they cannot be replaced with standard third party 1.8 or 2.5 inch drives. The SSDs in the refreshed models (VPC-Z12xx, VPC-Z13xx & VPC-Z14xx) can be replaced with 1.8\" drives from Intel or Crucial, provided the Vaio is a dual RAID model and not a Quad-RAID model. The caveat is that the outer casing of the Intel or Crucial SSD must be stripped off of the SSDs in order for the SSDs to fit in the Z. At least VPCZ-13 dual-RAID models, custom-ordered in Japan were shipped with a pair of reduced size Toshiba SSD's, with a proprietary connector. The second, third and fourth refresh models still use proprietary Samsung drives on the Quad-RAID models. In order to replace the SSD drives in a first generation (VPC-Z11xxx) model, or any generation Quad-RAID model, the cable for the SSDs will need to be replaced with Sony part # A-1781-464-A.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55862423",
"title": "Samsung Galaxy S9",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "The Galaxy S9 and S9+ have nearly identical features to the S8 batch, with the same display size and aspect ratio, just like their predecessor. One highly regarded change to distinguish between the models is the location of the fingerprint sensor. While the S8's is found beside the camera, the S9's is directly underneath it. Most notably, however, the S9 line is equipped with several camera improvements over the S8.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9z5yc7
|
how exactly does the us "cut someone off from the dollar market" with sanctions?
|
[
{
"answer": "The US tells banks that they cannot do business with \"someone\" if they want to do business with US regulated banks or the electronic funds transfer network. This doesn't exactly prevent them from spending dollars, but they have to do it with bundles of currency. As many a drug cartel discovered, Dollars are not compact or light at scale. To work at scale you really need your money to be numbers in a bank computer, and the US can cut off access to that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54687883",
"title": "Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "The Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act, \"CAATSA\" (, ), is a United States federal law that imposed sanctions on Iran, North Korea, and Russia. The bill was passed on July 27, 2017, 98–2 in the Senate, after having passed the House 419–3. On August 2, 2017, President Donald Trump signed it into law while stating that he believed the legislation was \"seriously flawed\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "64704",
"title": "Economy of Iran",
"section": "Section::::International trade.:International sanctions.:Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 153,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 153,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "According to NIAC, sanctions cost the United States over $175 billion in lost trade and 279,000 lost job opportunities. Between 2010 and 2012, sanctions cost the E.U. states more than twice as much as the United States in terms of lost trade revenue. Germany was hit the hardest, losing between $23.1 and $73.0 billion between 2010–2012, with Italy and France following at $13.6-$42.8 billion and $10.9-$34.2 billion respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27634390",
"title": "United States v. Banki",
"section": "Section::::Sanctions history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "The United States enforces sanctions against several countries worldwide. These sanctions are instituted by the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) under the Department of Treasury of the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44821968",
"title": "Mahmoud Reza Banki",
"section": "Section::::United States v. Banki case.:Case background.:Sanctions history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "The United States enforces sanctions against several countries worldwide. These sanctions are instituted by the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) under the Department of Treasury of the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43449324",
"title": "International sanctions during the Ukrainian crisis",
"section": "Section::::Other sanctions on Russia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "In August 2017, United States Congress passed the \"Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act\" that imposed new sanctions on Russia for interference in the 2016 elections and its involvement in Ukraine and Syria. The Act prevents the easing, suspending or ending of sanctions by the President without the approval of the United States Congress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13446672",
"title": "Stuart A. Levey",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "According to \"The New York Times\", the failure of the United States to carry out sanctions against many Iranian companies and individuals is cited by European diplomats as an example of America failing to do what it has promised. Valerie Lincy of Iran Watch has said, \"The United States now lags many other countries in enforcing sanctions that the United Nations has already voted.\" The \"Tehran Times\" wrote that the U.S. Treasury has increased pressure on foreign banks not to deal with sanctions against Iran, including performing \"U-turn transactions,\" which allow U.S. banks to process payments involving Iran that begin and end with a non-Iranian foreign bank.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46537907",
"title": "Weaponization of finance",
"section": "Section::::Economic sanctions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1431,
"text": "Economic Sanctions are the practice of withholding an economic advantage from another country for political purposes. Economic Sanctions primarily come in two forms, Trade and Financial. Trade sanctions can take the form of reducing or refusing exports to a country or refusing imports from the country. Financial Sanctions address monetary issues as opposed to trade. This can include blocking of government assets abroad as well as limiting access to financial markets. These approaches are often used in conjunction in order to increase the effectiveness of the Sanctions. The influence of a sanction is heavily dependent on the economic power of the country or countries imposing the sanction, this also leads to groups of nations such as the United Nations being capable of imposing more effective sanctions due to their combined influence on the world economy. They frequently act as a form of external pressure on a country, primarily being used in an attempt to coerce a country into either abandoning a controversial policy or to adopt one that is seen as beneficial to the country imposing the sanction. However much of the time the imposing of a sanction can unintentionally work against a positive outcome, weakening the economy of all countries involved through reduced trade and causing a reduction in the welfare of the involved populations, while also causing increasingly strained relations between the countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7vxpf1
|
animals with rabies live normally but infected people die in a week?
|
[
{
"answer": "Animals die from rabies too.\n\nPeople will show symptoms of rabies after being bitten anywhere from weeks to months. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Animals with rabies typically *don't* live normally. It is generally a disease with rapid deterioration and usually fatal. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Rabies can kill a person in a week, but [1-3 months is more common](_URL_0_)\n\nIf you get bitten by a rabid dog, it sometimes gets in the blood, but it usually travels slowly inside the nerves toward the brain. A bite on the foot takes longer to reach the brain than a bite on the hand, or face.\n\nInfected animals don't live normally, they become something rather similar to zombies from fiction. [Somewhat disturbing video of a rabid raccoon](_URL_1_). Some mammals appear to be more or less immune- opossums very rarely get rabies in the wild, although it is possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "With diseases, it's not evolutionarily advantageous to kill your host. If you do, then you kill yourself, too, since you were living off the host. So a disease that kills the host will generally die out before spreading very far. More successful diseases spread quickly and take awhile to kill, or don't kill at all. That way, they can survive for a long time. So with something like rabies, which is in effect 100% fatal (only a handful of cases have not been fatal in humans), it wouldn't be very successful. It would kill all of its hosts and therefore die too. But what you have with rabies is that there is another animal species that is the true host of it. The animal carries the rabies around, infecting others, while not dying itself. So the animal hosts have evolved over time as rabies has evolved, so both live. Humans haven't evolved with rabies affecting us since we're not the main hosts, and therefore it's much more deadly in humans.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54329819",
"title": "Cat bite",
"section": "Section::::Infections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "BULLET::::- Rabies, a fatal neurologic disease in animals and people, is caused by a virus. Animals and people are most commonly infected through bites from rabid animals. Infected cats may have a variety of signs, but most often have sudden behavioral changes and progressive paralysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19707361",
"title": "Rabies in animals",
"section": "Section::::Mammals.:Cats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "Rabies is rare in cats. In the United States between 200-300 cases are reported annually. Cats that have not been vaccinated and are allowed access to the outdoors have the most risk for contracting rabies as they may come in contact with rabid animals. The virus is often passed on during fights between cats or other animals and is transmitted by bites, saliva or through mucous membranes and fresh wounds. The virus can incubate from one day up to over a year before any symptoms begin to show. Symptoms have a rapid onset and can include unusual aggression, restlessness, lethargy, anorexia, weakness, disorientation, paralysis and seizures. Vaccination of felines (including boosters) by a veterinarian is recommended to prevent rabies infection in outdoor cats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6090525",
"title": "Neglected tropical diseases",
"section": "Section::::List of diseases.:Rabies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "There are two forms of rabies: furious and paralytic. There are 60,000 deaths from rabies annually. It is mostly found in Asia and Africa. There is a higher prevalence in rural areas and it disproportionately affects children. Rabies is usually fatal after symptoms develop. It is caused by a lyssavirus transmitted through wounds or bites from infected animals. The first symptoms are fever and pain near the infection site which occur after a one to three month incubation period. Furious (more common type) rabies causes hyperactivity, hydrophobia, aerophobia, and death by cardio-respiratory arrest occurs within days. Paralytic rabies causes a slow progression from paralysis to coma to death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3304092",
"title": "Dog bite",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Rabies results in the death of approximately 55,000 people a year, with most of the causes due to dog bites. \"Capnocytophaga canimorsus\", MRSA, tetanus, and \"Pasteurella\" can be transmitted from a dog to someone bitten by the dog. \"Bergeyella zoohelcum\" is an emerging infection transmitted through dog bites. Infection with \"B. zoohelcum\" from dog bites can lead to bacteremia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19707361",
"title": "Rabies in animals",
"section": "Section::::Mammals.:Monkeys.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Monkeys, like humans, can get rabies, however they do not tend to be a common source of rabies. Monkeys with rabies tend to die more quickly than humans. In one study, 9 of 10 monkeys developed severe symptoms or died within 20 days of infection. Rabies is often a concern for individuals travelling to developing countries as monkeys are the most common source of rabies after dogs in these places.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16946852",
"title": "Rabies",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "The period between infection and the first symptoms (incubation period) is typically 1–3 months in humans. Incubation periods as short as four days and longer than six years have been documented, depending on the location and severity of the contaminated wound and the amount of virus introduced. Initial signs and symptoms of rabies are often nonspecific such as fever and headache. As rabies progresses and causes inflammation of the brain and/or meninges, signs and symptoms can include slight or partial paralysis, anxiety, insomnia, confusion, agitation, abnormal behavior, paranoia, terror, and hallucinations, progressing to delirium, and coma. The person may also have hydrophobia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55096367",
"title": "Rabies in Tanzania",
"section": "Section::::Context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Rabies is a fatal, preventable zoonosis that infects the central nervous system of mammals, caused by the lyssavirus. It is endemic in low income countries, causing an estimated 55,000 human deaths each year with over 98% of these deaths following bites from rabid dogs. It is a dangerous disease, if it is not effectively controlled. Many of the developing world arguing that the efforts for control is hampered by lack of awareness of its true impact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
72a12w
|
Romance of the Three Kingdoms is one of the most famous works to come out of China, however it is not historically accurate. What is a historical description of Cao Cao, Liu Bei, et al.?
|
[
{
"answer": "Add on-- which (if any) of the central generals that are not real. I.e. Did Lu Bu exist? Guan Yu? Zhang Fei? Sima Yi?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "157837",
"title": "Romance of the Three Kingdoms",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "\"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" is acclaimed as one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature; it has a total of 800,000 words and nearly a thousand dramatic characters (mostly historical) in 120 chapters. The novel is among the most beloved works of literature in East Asia, and its literary influence in the region has been compared to that of the works of Shakespeare on English literature. It is arguably the most widely read historical novel in late imperial and modern China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "573712",
"title": "Bridge of Birds",
"section": "Section::::Influences.:Classic Chinese novels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "\"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" was written by Luo Guanzhong, and \"The Water Margin\" is credited to Shi Nai'an. These two novels are also part of the collection of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese culture. Although these two novels are the least like \"Bridge of Birds\", there are still some similarities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33231218",
"title": "List of media adaptations of Romance of the Three Kingdoms",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "The following is a list of media adaptations of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. The story has been adapted in numerous forms, including films, television series, manga and video games.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157837",
"title": "Romance of the Three Kingdoms",
"section": "Section::::Historical accuracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 933,
"text": "Some 50 or 60 Yuan and early Ming plays about the Three Kingdoms are known to have existed, and their material is almost entirely fictional, based on thin threads of actual history. The novel is thus a return to greater emphasis on history, compared to these dramas. The novel also shifted towards better acknowledgement of southern China's historical importance, while still portraying some prejudice against the south. The Qing dynasty historian Zhang Xuecheng famously wrote that the novel was \"seven-parts fact and three-parts fiction.\" The fictional parts are culled from different sources, including unofficial histories, folk stories, the \"Sanguozhi Pinghua\", and also the author's own imagination. Nonetheless, the description of the social conditions and the logic that the characters use is accurate to the Three Kingdoms period, creating \"believable\" situations and characters, even if they are not historically accurate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14431455",
"title": "List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1254,
"text": "The following is a chronologically arranged list of fictitious stories in \"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" (\"Sanguo Yanyi\"), one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. Although the novel is a romanticised retelling of the history of the late Eastern Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period, due to its widespread popularity, many people falsely believe it to be a real account of the events that happened during that era. The primary historical sources for the Three Kingdoms period is Chen Shou's \"Records of the Three Kingdoms\" (\"Sanguozhi\"), which includes Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms by Pei Songzhi from other historical texts such as Yu Huan's \"Weilüe\" and the \"Jiang Biao Zhuan\" (江表傳). Other sources covering the history of that period include Fan Ye's \"Book of the Later Han\" (\"Houhanshu\") and Fang Xuanling's \"Book of Jin\" (\"Jin Shu\"). Since \"Sanguo Yanyi\" is a historical novel, many stories in it are either fictitious or based on folk tales and historical incidents that happened in other periods of Chinese history. What follows is an incomplete list of the better known fictitious stories in the novel, each with accompanying text that explains the differences between the story and historical accounts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "259901",
"title": "Liu Bei",
"section": "Section::::In \"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "\"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" is a 14th-century historical novel which romanticises the historical figures and events before and during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Written by Luo Guanzhong more than 1,000 years after the Three Kingdoms period, the novel incorporates many popular folklore and opera scripts into the character of Liu Bei, portraying him as a compassionate and righteous leader, endowed with charismatic potency (called \"de\" 德 in Chinese) who builds his state on the basis of Confucian values. This is in line with the historical background of the times during which the novel was written. Furthermore, the novel emphasises that Liu Bei was related, however distantly, to the imperial family of the Han dynasty, thus favouring another argument for the legitimacy of Liu Bei's reign. In the novel, he wields a pair of double edged swords called \"shuang gu jian\" (雙股劍).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33284",
"title": "Wuxia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Earlier precedents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 968,
"text": "The genre of the martial or military romance also developed during the Tang dynasty. In the Ming dynasty, Luo Guanzhong and Shi Nai'an wrote \"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" and \"Water Margin\" respectively, which are among the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. The former is a romanticised historical retelling of the events in the late Eastern Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period, while the latter criticises the deplorable socio-economic status of the late Northern Song dynasty. \"Water Margin\" is often seen as the first full-length wuxia novel: the portrayal of the 108 heroes, and their code of honour and willingness to become outlaws rather than serve a corrupt government, played an influential role in the development of jianghu culture in later centuries. \"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" is also seen as a possible early antecedent and contains classic close-combat descriptions that were later borrowed by wuxia writers in their works\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4zod1t
|
how does the acid in lead acid batteries not consume the lead?
|
[
{
"answer": "It does- in fact, that's how it works. It turns it into lead sulfate, and when all the lead has been so turned, the battery is dead. Charging a battery gradually turns the lead sulfate and water back into lead oxide and sulfuric acid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It does! The lead in a charged battery gets dissolved by the acid as the battery discharges. The dissolved lead takes the form of Lead Sulphate. Then, the battery can be charged up, and this reaction undissolves the lead sulphate turning it back into lead metal and acid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41382162",
"title": "Battery regenerator",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "Conventional lead–acid batteries consist of a number of plates of lead and lead dioxide suspended in a cell filled with weak sulfuric acid. Lead oxide reacts with the sulfur and oxygen in the acid to give up an electron, leaving the plate positively charged and producing lead sulfate. Lead reacts with the acid by taking in two electrons, leaving it negative while also producing lead sulfate. The two chemical processes continue as long as an external circuit is available to allow the electrons to flow back into the positive plates, but reaches equilibrium quickly when the battery is disconnected from the circuit. Each complete reaction produces about 2.11V. A typical 12V battery consists of six individual \"cells\" wired together in a single box, producing 12.66V when fully charged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201495",
"title": "Lead–acid battery",
"section": "Section::::Sulfation and desulfation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "Lead–acid batteries lose the ability to accept a charge when discharged for too long due to \"sulfation\", the crystallization of lead sulfate. They generate electricity through a double sulfate chemical reaction. Lead and lead dioxide, the active materials on the battery's plates, react with sulfuric acid in the electrolyte to form lead sulfate. The lead sulfate first forms in a finely divided, amorphous state, and easily reverts to lead, lead dioxide and sulfuric acid when the battery recharges. As batteries cycle through numerous discharges and charges, some lead sulfate is not recombined into electrolyte and slowly converts to a stable crystalline form that no longer dissolves on recharging. Thus, not all the lead is returned to the battery plates, and the amount of usable active material necessary for electricity generation declines over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9601",
"title": "Electrochemistry",
"section": "Section::::Battery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 789,
"text": "The lead–acid battery was the first practical secondary (rechargeable) battery that could have its capacity replenished from an external source. The electrochemical reaction that produced current was (to a useful degree) reversible, allowing electrical energy and chemical energy to be interchanged as needed. Common lead acid batteries contain a mixture of sulfuric acid and water, as well as lead plates. The most common mixture used today is 30% acid. One problem however is if left uncharged acid will crystallize within the lead plates of the battery rendering it useless. These batteries last an average of 3 years with daily use however it is not unheard of for a lead acid battery to still be functional after 7–10 years. Lead-acid cells continue to be widely used in automobiles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201495",
"title": "Lead–acid battery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "The electrical energy produced by a discharging lead–acid battery can be attributed to the energy released when the strong chemical bonds of water (HO) molecules are formed from H ions of the acid and O ions of PbO. Conversely, during charging the battery acts as a water-splitting device, and in the charged state the chemical energy of the battery is stored in the potential difference between the pure lead at the negative side and the PbO2 on the positive side, plus the Sulphuric Acid in aqueous condition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53475230",
"title": "Home energy storage",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.:Environmental impact of batteries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Lead-acid batteries are relatively easier to recycle and, due to the high resale value of the lead, 99% of those sold in the US get recycled. They have much shorter useful lives than a lithium-ion battery of a similar capacity, due to having a lower charge cycle, narrowing the environmental-impact gap. In addition, lead is a toxic heavy metal and the sulphuric acid in the electrolyte has a high environmental impact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2375025",
"title": "Lead dioxide",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The most important use of lead dioxide is as the cathode of lead acid batteries. Its utility arises from the anomalous metallic conductivity of PbO. The lead acid battery stores and releases energy by shifting the equilibrium (a comproportionation) between metallic lead, lead dioxide, and lead(II) salts in sulfuric acid. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17632964",
"title": "UltraBattery",
"section": "Section::::Materials Used.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Lead Sulfate is a white crystal or powder. Normal lead acid battery operation sees small lead sulfate crystals growing on the negative electrode during discharging and dissolving back into the electrolyte during charging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1k8600
|
Do historians in the US/Europe study the south american independence wars and consequences?
|
[
{
"answer": "Of course it is! One of the most known scholars of this period in Europe is Professor John Lynch, who is Emeritus Professor of Latin American History at the University of London. He's written several great books on the topic, amongst them the best biography of José de San Martín available in English (in my opinion, that is). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Speaking as an American historian, yes, they do study it, but Latin American history is a reasonably small sub-discipline in the US (at least compared to US and European history). It could be that there are not many specialists in late colonial early national South America who are redditors. The other issue is that Latin American history is not covered extensively in US primary and secondary school curriculum meaning few people have enough exposure to even ask a question. \n\nIf you want to know some good scholars of that era I would suggest Lyman Johnson, Peter Blanchard, and George Reid Andrews. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7554792",
"title": "American studies in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::American Studies societies and centres in the UK.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Based in the American Studies Department at the University of Sussex, the Cunliffe Centre offers a concentration of scholars of the history of the South unparalleled anywhere outside the United States. The principal purpose of the Cunliffe Centre is to build upon this strength by enhancing research networks between scholars in the United Kingdom, Europe and the United States, and to provide channels for the transfer of knowledge in the field to the broader public.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26769",
"title": "South America",
"section": "Section::::History.:Wars and conflicts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "South American history in early 19th century was built almost exclusively on wars. Despite the Spanish American wars of independence and the Brazilian War of Independence, the new nations quickly began to suffer with internal conflicts and wars among themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3172581",
"title": "Herbert Eugene Bolton",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1031,
"text": "Herbert Eugene Bolton (July 20, 1870 – January 30, 1953) was an American historian who pioneered the study of the Spanish-American borderlands and was a prominent authority on Spanish American history. He originated what became known as the \"Bolton Theory\" of the history of the Americas which holds that it is impossible to study the history of the United States in isolation from the histories of other American nations, and wrote or co-authored 94 works. A student of Frederick Jackson Turner, Bolton disagreed with his mentor's Frontier theory and argued that the history of the Americas is best understood by taking a holistic view and trying to understand the ways in which the different colonial and precolonial contexts have interacted to produce the modern United States. The height of his career was spent at the University of California, Berkeley where he served as chair of the history department for 22 years and is widely credited with making the renowned Bancroft Library the preeminent research center it is today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51940655",
"title": "Historiography of Colonial Spanish America",
"section": "Section::::Early historiography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1127,
"text": "The United States victory in the Mexican–American War (1846–48), when it gained significant territory in western North America, incorporated territory previously held by Spain and then independent Mexico and in the United States the history of these now-called Spanish borderlands became a subject for historians. In the United States, Hubert Howe Bancroft was a leader in the development of the history of Spanish American history and the borderlands. His multivolume histories of various regions of northern Spanish America were foundational works in the field, although sometimes dismissed by later historians, \"at their peril.\" He accumulated a vast research library, which he donated to University of California, Berkeley. The Bancroft Library was a key component to the emergence of the Berkeley campus as a center for the study Latin American history. A major practitioner of the field was Berkeley professor Herbert E. Bolton, who became director of the Bancroft Library. As President of the American Historical Association laid out his vision of an integrated history of the Americas in \"The Epic of Greater America\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11255898",
"title": "William Wheelwright",
"section": "Section::::External links.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"South America: A Popular Illustrated History of the Struggle for Independence by the Andean Republics and Cuba\" by Hezekiah Butterworth, published 1898, 266 pages. Chapter 15 William Wheelwright and the Industrial Heroes, page 154.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45576159",
"title": "The Spanish Frontier in North America",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "Weber followed the school of thought initiated by historian Herbert Eugene Bolton, that American history should not be centered solely around the expansion of the original thirteen colonies. Weber's book would reveal the Spanish roots and influence in North America, although he limited the definition of North America to areas north of Mexico. In a departure from Bolton's model, Weber also examined the lives of the Indians and \"mestizos\"in the region and their impact on the frontier. Their legacy was extended to modern times, as Weber shows how the Chicano movement of the mid-twentieth century adopted some older legends.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23539786",
"title": "Military history of South America",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "The military history of South America can be divided into two major periods - pre- and post-Columbian - divided by the entrance of European forces to the region. The sudden introduction of steel, gunpowder weapons and horses into the Americas would revolutionize warfare. Within the post-Columbian period, the events of the early 19th century, when almost all of South America was marked by wars of independence, also forms a natural historical juncture. Throughout its history, South America has had distinct military features: it has been geographically separated from many major military powers by large oceans; its unique terrain has imposed major logistical challenges, and privileged naval lines of communications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6aoqql
|
how come people say "drinking the kool-aid"when referring to cults?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's a reference to a famous cult that committed mass suicide by drinking poisoned Kool-Aid. (IDK if this is known outside of the US but \"Kool-Aid\" is a sugary drink that kids like.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the late 70s a cult committed mass suicide when about 1000 people intentionally drank poisoned koolaid (actually it was flavoraid but sometimes being the most popular brand of something works against you in marketing when people only know one brand of something and call everything that) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Jonestown Mass \"Suicide\" where over 900 members of the Peoples Temple (a cult) drank cyanide laced kool-aid. I take the term to represent how people involved in cults are willing to do anything and believe everything the leaders tell them.\n\nJim Jones told the members to drink to kool-aid and nearly 1000 people drank the kool-aid.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No one has said this yet, but specifically (and most horrifically), someone captured audio of the mass suicide in question, and a mother can be heard telling her wailing child to \"drink the kool-aid\".\n\nI think that's where the literal term came from, not just the fact that they all drank poisoned Kool-aid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'd wanna add that in all the info I've read on jonestown, many of the individuals who \"drank the koolaid\" were actually forced to drink via syringe as there were armed guards preventing most of the members from escaping, this or children were forced to drink first and their parents would follow due to the overwhelming despair of the situation. So it was more so a mass murder.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you feel like wanting to go through a wave of emotions from sad to anger to depressed, go find the audio that was recorded and hear the main dude tell all the parents to feed the children first... If I could bring back one person to let them rot in an old school dungeon, it'd be that fucker.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A large cult group poisoned themselves by drinking look aid a while back. The phrase 'already drank the kool aid' means the subject is invested/believe in an idea or ideology and can't/won't back out. Kinda like someone who already drank the poison. Usually this phrase conotates insanity... obviously.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22587954",
"title": "Koolaids: The Art of War",
"section": "Section::::Title.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
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"end_paragraph_id": 86,
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"text": "This phrase, \"drinking the Kool-Aid\" has a particular significance, meaning to accept an argument or philosophy completely or blindly. The term originated from the Jonestown Massacre, in which 913 People's Temple cultists committed mass suicide by drinking potassium cyanide laced Flavor Aid, a product similar to Kool-Aid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "22123875",
"title": "Drinking the Kool-Aid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "\"Drinking the Kool-Aid\" is an expression used to refer to a person who believes in a possibly doomed or dangerous idea because of perceived potential high rewards. The phrase often carries a negative connotation. It can also be used ironically or humorously to refer to accepting an idea or changing a preference due to popularity, peer pressure, or persuasion. In recent years it has evolved further to mean extreme dedication to a cause or purpose, so extreme that one would \"Drink the Kool-Aid\" and die for the cause.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "19185907",
"title": "Kool-Aid",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1524,
"text": "\"Drinking the Kool-Aid\" is a phrase that became known because of the 1978 Jonestown Massacre. It suggests that one has mindlessly adopted the dogma of a group or leader without fully understanding the ramifications or implications. At Jonestown, Jim Jones' followers followed him to the end: after visiting Congressman Leo Ryan was shot at the airstrip, all the Peoples Temple members drank from a metal vat containing a mixture of \"Kool Aid\", cyanide, and prescription drugs Valium, Phenergan, and chloral hydrate. Present-day descriptions of the event often refer to the beverage not as Kool-Aid but as Flavor Aid, a less-expensive product from Jel Sert reportedly found at the site. Kraft Foods, the maker of Kool-Aid, has stated the same. Implied by this accounting of events is that the reference to the Kool-Aid brand owes exclusively to its being better-known among Americans. Others are less categorical. Both brands are known to have been among the commune's supplies: Film footage shot inside the compound prior to the events of November shows Jones opening a large chest in which boxes of both Flavor Aid and Kool-Aid are visible. Criminal investigators testifying at the Jonestown inquest spoke of finding packets of \"cool aid\" (\"sic\"), and eyewitnesses to the incident are also recorded as speaking of \"cool aid\" or \"Cool Aid.\" However, it is unclear whether they intended to refer to the actual Kool-Aid–brand drink or were using the name in a generic sense that might refer to any powdered flavored beverage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "987712",
"title": "Adi Da",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:\"Crazy Wisdom\" (1973–84).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Adi Da initiated a period of teachings and activities that came to be known as the \"Garbage and the Goddess\". He directed his followers in \"sexual theater\", a form of psychodrama that often involved public and group sex, the making of pornographic movies, and other intensified sexual practices. Drug and alcohol use were often encouraged, and earlier proscriptions against meat and \"junk food\" were no longer adhered to.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20037261",
"title": "Brainwashing: The Science of Thought Control",
"section": "Section::::Contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 841,
"text": "According to Taylor, cults emphasize positive aspects of the group over negative aspects of outsiders, endlessly repeat simple ideas in \"highly reductive, definitive - sounding phrases\", and refer to \"abstract and ambiguous\" ideas associated with \"huge emotional baggage\". Taylor writes that brainwashing involves a more intense version of the way the brain traditionally learns. In the final portion of the book, Part III: \"Freedom and Control\", Taylor describes an individual's susceptibility to brainwashing and lays out an acronym \"FACET\", a tool to combat influence and a totalist mindset. FACET stands for Freedom, Agency, Complexity, Ends-not-means, and Thinking. The FACET model is based on Lifton's eight criteria for thought reform, and Taylor emphasizes education and freedom of thought as a way to negate some of these criteria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5515963",
"title": "Kulto",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "The cultists rebel when they realize that Brother Jonas will not drink the EOD along with them. His \"gullible and dumb\" remarks in the tape further enrages them. He suddenly runs off, using his sprinting experience from years of evading the clutches of man-raping Arabs in Saudi Arabia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33719816",
"title": "The Kingdom of the Cults",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Martin defines \"a cult\" as \"a group of people gathered about a specific person—or person's misinterpretation of the Bible\", while admitting that in spite of \"distorting Scripture\" such groups' teachings may contain \"considerable truths\" which have Biblical support but have become de-emphasized by mainstream Christianity, such as divine healing and prophecy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10joow
|
To what extent is the body able to heal deep lacerations and non-lethal bullet wounds?
|
[
{
"answer": "If the damage is too severe, then fibrosis is the mechanism of repair. And example is a muscle tear, usually called a strain. This is where muscle cells are torn apart, or there may be damage from a cut. In this case the body has to fill in the open space of missing tissue with scar tissue, this is called fibrosis. After it has been repaired, another healing mechanism called remodeling begins and this is what makes the scar tissue more pliable and functional. \n\nThe more scar tissue required to repair the damage the less functionality is regained. The scar tissue causes a reduction in strength and elasticity. \n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "231479",
"title": "Brachial plexus",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Injury.:Penetrating wounds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Most penetration wounds require immediate treatment and are not as easy to repair. For example, a deep knife wound to the brachial plexus could damage and/or sever the nerve. According to where the cut was made, it could inhibit action potentials needed to innervate that nerve's specific muscle or muscles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "18427821",
"title": "Facial trauma",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1067,
"text": "A dressing can be placed over wounds to keep them clean and to facilitate healing, and antibiotics may be used in cases where infection is likely. People with contaminated wounds who have not been immunized against tetanus within five years may be given a tetanus vaccination. Lacerations may require stitches to stop bleeding and facilitate wound healing with as little scarring as possible. Although it is not common for bleeding from the maxillofacial region to be profuse enough to be life-threatening, it is still necessary to control such bleeding. Severe bleeding occurs as the result of facial trauma in 1–11% of patients, and the origin of this bleeding can be difficult to locate. Nasal packing can be used to control nose bleeds and hematomas that may form on the septum between the nostrils. Such hematomas need to be drained. Mild nasal fractures need nothing more than ice and pain killers, while breaks with severe deformities or associated lacerations may need further treatment, such as moving the bones back into alignment and antibiotic treatment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "38767094",
"title": "2014 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:November.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 448,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 448,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "BULLET::::- Basic wound healing has been advanced with a synthetic platelet that accumulates at sites of injury, clots and stops bleeding three times faster. The synthetic platelets have realistic size, disc-shape, flexibility, and the same surface proteins as real platelets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3120850",
"title": "Chronic wound",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Growth factors and proteolytic enzymes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Though all wounds require a certain level of elastase and proteases for proper healing, too high a concentration is damaging. Leukocytes in the wound area release elastase, which increases inflammation, destroys tissue, proteoglycans, and collagen, and damages growth factors, fibronectin, and factors that inhibit proteases. The activity of elastase is increased by human serum albumin, which is the most abundant protein found in chronic wounds. However, chronic wounds with inadequate albumin are especially unlikely to heal, so regulating the wound's levels of that protein may in the future prove helpful in healing chronic wounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
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"wikipedia_id": "18002168",
"title": "Abdominal trauma",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 1187,
"text": "Initial treatment involves stabilizing the patient enough to ensure adequate airway, breathing, and circulation, and identifying other injuries. Surgery may be needed to repair injured organs. Surgical exploration is necessary for people with penetrating injuries and signs of peritonitis or shock. Laparotomy is often performed in blunt abdominal trauma, and is urgently required if an abdominal injury causes a large, potentially deadly bleed. The main goal is to stop any sources of bleeding before moving onto any definitive find and repair any injuries that are found. Due to the time sensitive nature, this procedure also emphasizes expedience in terms of gaining access and controlling the bleeding, thus favoring a long midline incession. Intra-abdominal injuries are also frequently successfully treated nonoperatively as there is little benefit shown if there is no known active bleeding or potential for infection. The use of CT scanning allows care providers to use less surgery because they can identify injuries that can be managed conservatively and rule out other injuries that would need surgery. Depending on the injuries, a patient may or may not need intensive care.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "514458",
"title": "Wound healing",
"section": "Section::::Research and development.:Scarless wound healing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 1159,
"text": "Since the 1960s, comprehension of the basic biologic processes involved in wound repair and tissue regeneration have expanded due to advances in cellular and molecular biology. Currently, the principal goals in wound management are to achieve rapid wound closure with a functional tissue that has minimal aesthetic scarring. However, the ultimate goal of wound healing biology is to induce a more perfect reconstruction of the wound area. Scarless wound healing only occurs in mammalian foetal tissues and complete regeneration is limited to lower vertebrates, such as salamanders, and invertebrates. In adult humans, injured tissue are repaired by collagen deposition, collagen remodelling and eventual scar formation, where fetal wound healing is believed to be more of a regenerative process with minimal or no scar formation. Therefore, foetal wound healing can be used to provide an accessible mammalian model of an optimal healing response in adult human tissues. Clues as to how this might be achieved come from studies of wound healing in embryos, where repair is fast and efficient and results in essentially perfect regeneration of any lost tissue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "12745791",
"title": "Becaplermin",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Analysis of healing human wounds showed that PDGF-BB induces fibroblast proliferation and differentiation and was found to increase healing in patients with decreased healing capacity, such as people living with diabetes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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svjid
|
atlas shrugged
|
[
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"answer": "Rand is generally disliked by Redditors but Atlas Shrugged is a great book and I would wager that at least 80% of those who bash the book and it's author have not read it.\n\nBefore I launch into something here, have you read it and are looking for some clarification? Are you considering reading it? Please ask a more detailed question.",
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"answer": "Reply stolen from Hapax_Legoman in [this post](_URL_0_).\n\nThe basic plot of the book is actually in the title. Atlas (yeah, like the book full of maps) is a figure from Greek mythology. He's what's called a Titan, a race of very old, very powerful god-like figures. They gave birth to another generation of god-figures called the Olympians. The Olympians fought a war against the Titans, and won. Atlas, for his part in the war, was sentenced to stand at the edge of the world and hold the sky on his shoulders. That was his punishment for being on the losing side.\n\nExcept in art, over the past few thousand years, Atlas has often been depicted as holding the Earth on his shoulders. This isn't really what the original myths said, but it's become so widely recognized that it's how Atlas is generally thought of today.\n\nWell, the title of the book is \"Atlas Shrugged.\" Which, if you imagine a god holding the world on his shoulders, should be a pretty evocative image.\n\nAs far as the details go, the book is set in a world that's running down. Industries are being nationalized, people are apathetic and unambitious. But a couple people aren't happy about that. There's Dagny Taggart, who runs a railroad, and Hank Reardon, who runs a steel foundry. They both feel really strongly that people should work hard and do important things. Dagny wants to expand her railroad to move freight around the country, and Hank has just invented a new metal alloy that's going to make really good rails for trains to run on. But each of them encounters resistance along the way from people who resent their ambition and their drive, and they have a hard time of it.\n\nEventually, prominent industrialists and business leaders start to disappear. Like literally disappear: it's like they've been kidnapped or something. Their companies are gutted, their business commitments abandoned … it reaches the point of being a real national crisis. Imagine if the heads of companies like Wal Mart and UPS and Home Depot and a bunch more just shut down their companies all on the same day, and left millions of people out of work. It'd be a catastrophe a lot like the one depicted in the book.\n\nDagny and Hank end up stumbling across an abandon invention. I forget the details, but it's something really important, like a perpetual-motion machine or something. Just left laying in the corner of some abandoned factory. They start to wonder what the hell's been going on, and whether this has anything to do with the disappearing business and industry leaders. So they go on a hunt. This part of the book is basically a mystery story, as Dagny and Hank try to track down the person who invented the perpetual-motion machine, and see if they can get to the bottom of the disappearances.\n\nDagny follows the trail of clues, but ends up crashing her small plane in a valley way up high in the mountains. There, to her surprise, she finds all the \"kidnapped\" business leaders, and more. Scientists, artists, engineers, all kinds of brilliant, ambitious people. They've all created this new town there, organized by a guy named John Galt. Galt explains to Dagny that he got fed up with the way the world is going, so he decided to try to do something about it. He went, quietly, to all these smart people and persuaded them to quit. Just quit. Just walk out on their jobs, their companies, their families, everything, and come start this new town with him.\n\nSee, Galt figured that most of the good things that go in the world are the result of the hard work of a pretty small number of people. It's what they sometimes call the \"80/20 rule.\" Eighty percent of the work gets done by twenty percent of the people, that kind of thing. Well, Galt didn't think that was a very good idea, so he decided to change it. His plan was to get all of those \"twenty percent\" people to join him in withdrawing from society. Once all those people quit, the world would just grind to a halt, because everybody who was making important things happen would've stopped. After everything collapsed, Galt and his friends would come out and start building from scratch, with the intention of creating a more just world where everybody contributes and nobody slacks off.\n\nSo that's what he did. He convinced all these smart people to \"go on strike.\" Only it gets ugly. The government, panicked at the economic disaster, starts trying to nationalize industries. They seize companies, force inventors to give over their ideas, basically try all these completely wrongheaded ideas, never understanding the real cause of the problem. Eventually they track Galt down and arrest him. They torture him to try to get him to call off the strike, but he doesn't give in, until his friends manage to rescue him and take him back to the valley.\n\nAnd then everything just goes downhill. The big turning point in the book is the moment, right at the end of the story, where the electricity supply finally quits, because there was nobody to keep the generators running. And all at once, the lights of New York City go out.\n\nSometime later, having weathered the collapse in their valley, Galt and his friends decide it's time to go back out into the world and start rebuilding.\n\nPeople love to complain about the book and make fun of it for political reasons. I always wonder whether the people who do have ever actually read it. Cause while it's got flaws, overall it's a really cool story.",
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"answer": "[Here is a great rundown](_URL_0_) by Hapax Legoman.\n\nLegoman stopped posting months ago because well, his posts never really agreed with [the reddit hivemind](_URL_1_).\n\nIf you want to learn about finance, or just a number of topics in general, I would suggest reading through his comment history.",
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"answer": "The book had so much potential to be great! But the way the books characterizes its villains is terrible. Rand had a skill for writing, and some of her descriptions of the settings are vivid and wonderful. The concept of the novel is intriguing! But the villains were so wooden. \n\nThe good guys are fleshed out and nicely portrayed. But Rand did nothing to hide her ax to grind with her villains. They were against her philosophy, so she portrays them as illogical in stupid ways, and she constantly reminds us that the people under the competing ideology were “dead-eyed,” like they were zombies or something. She makes her socialist opponents into the kind of offensive caricatures that would make WW2 propagandists proud. \n\nWhat could have been a brilliant argument for her philosophy turned into a pathetic crucifixion of straw men.\n\nI don’t know where I am politically anymore. The socialists have as much work to do persuading me as the capitalists do. But I can’t stand a poorly plotted story.",
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"answer": "Other people have gotten into the political aspects of the book, but nobody's touched on the literary part. As far as books go, Atlas Shrugged is not great. It's excessively long and repetitive. Ayn Rand spends hundreds of pages hammering home the same ideas, over and over and over. At the end she even has a character give a 75 page speech summarizing her beliefs. There's a reason most writers don't have 75 fucking pages of uninterrupted monologue. It bores the reader to tears.\n\nAlso, her \"characters\" aren't real people so much as sock puppets with which she demonstrates how right she is about everything. Different characters would talk in the book, but everybody spoke with Rand's voice.\n\nTo be honest, it's a rather difficult book to read. It's long, boring, and tiresome for reasons other people have already mentioned. Ayn Rand does show occasional flashes of brilliance through clever wordplay, but as a whole her writing is not very good. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The original title was \"The Strike\" \n\nThe book is an answer to this question: What would happen if the people who do the most important work in the world went on strike both because their work was not appreciated... and politicians were punishing them for being successful?",
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"answer": "Atlas Shrugged is a book about a woman named Dagny Taggart. Dagny works at a very successful railroad, and wants to work hard and make money. Her brother Jim owns the company doesn't think that he should have to work hard in order to make money. Since his railroad company is the best already, it shouldn't have to do anything to stay the best.\n\nDagny wants to make new rails for her railroad with a special kind of metal. A man named Hank Rearden makes the metal, and Dagny wants to buy it. Jim's friends who make the steel that they use for the railroad don't want Dagny to use Hank's metal, so they try to make it against the law.\n\nDagny decides to buy the metal from Hank and makes the railroad anyway. Everyone (except Dagny and Hank) expect that the rails made with the special metal will be unsafe. They build the railroad though, and it works! Hank and Dagny build a special railroad line to their friend Ellis, who owns an oil refinery. \n\nDuring this time, Dagny and Hank find out that lots of smart people who like to work hard and make money have been disappearing. More of Jim's friends who make oil don't like that Ellis is so successful, so they get their friends in the Government to make it harder for Ellis to make money. Ellis is upset, and he disappears just like all the other smart people Dagny noticed.\n\nDagny and Hank start looking for all the missing business people. They can't find them. In the mean time, the Government is trying to make laws that will keep people from deciding to stop making money, and stop paying taxes.\n\nDagny searches and searches, and eventually she crashed a plane into a secret Valley. She meets a man in the Valley called John Galt. John organized what he calls a \"Strike\". A strike is when workers get together and decide not to work because they feel they're being treated unfairly.\n\nJohn went out and talked to all the smart, productive people he could find, and tried to convince them to \"go on strike\", or to stop working at their jobs and leave with him. He did this because he felt that they were being treated unfairly. They were being forced to do things they shouldn't have to do by the government. He asked them all to come live with him in a secret town where they could work and make money, and not be forced to do anything they didn't want to.\n\nJohn gets kidnapped by the Government because they want him to tell everyone to come back and work. John refuses. His friends come and rescue him. Hank, Dagny and John all go back to the secret town and live there for a long time. Eventually they decide to come back out of the town and help other people.\n\n*This isn't a perfect synopsis by any means, and ScrewedThePooch's synopsis is much more detailed, but I figured I'd give it as much of a LI5 shot as I could. My version here skips over significant, important parts of the book.*\n\n*The book characterizes people who are productive, and characters who live off the productive. Atlas Shrugged is primarily about the individuals right to themselves, their labor, and their agency. Villains in the book are characterized as people who deny those things. I enjoyed it. I think it's worthwhile reading, but you should take what Rand writes with a grain of salt.*\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "339",
"title": "Ayn Rand",
"section": "Section::::Life.:\"Atlas Shrugged\" and Objectivism.\n",
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"text": "\"Atlas Shrugged\", published in 1957, was considered Rand's \"magnum opus\". Rand described the theme of the novel as \"the role of the mind in man's existence—and, as a corollary, the demonstration of a new moral philosophy: the morality of rational self-interest\". It advocates the core tenets of Rand's philosophy of Objectivism and expresses her concept of human achievement. The plot involves a dystopian United States in which the most creative industrialists, scientists, and artists respond to a welfare state government by going on strike and retreating to a mountainous hideaway where they build an independent free economy. The novel's hero and leader of the strike, John Galt, describes the strike as \"stopping the motor of the world\" by withdrawing the minds of the individuals most contributing to the nation's wealth and achievement. With this fictional strike, Rand intended to illustrate that without the efforts of the rational and productive, the economy would collapse and society would fall apart. The novel includes elements of mystery, romance, and science fiction, and it contains an extended exposition of Objectivism in the form of a lengthy monologue delivered by Galt.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "18951386",
"title": "Atlas Shrugged",
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"text": "Atlas Shrugged is a 1957 novel by Ayn Rand. Rand's fourth and final novel, it was also her longest, and the one she considered to be her \"magnum opus\" in the realm of fiction writing. \"Atlas Shrugged\" includes elements of science fiction, mystery, and romance, and it contains Rand's most extensive statement of Objectivism in any of her works of fiction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "34657171",
"title": "Atlas Shrugged: Part II",
"section": "",
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"text": "Atlas Shrugged: Part II (or Atlas Shrugged II: The Strike) is a film based on the novel \"Atlas Shrugged\" by Ayn Rand. It is the second installment in the \"Atlas Shrugged\" film series and the first sequel to the 2011 film \"\", continuing the story where its predecessor left off.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "18951386",
"title": "Atlas Shrugged",
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"text": "The theme of \"Atlas Shrugged\", as Rand described it, is \"the role of man's mind in existence\". The book explores a number of philosophical themes from which Rand would subsequently develop Objectivism. In doing so, it expresses the advocacy of reason, individualism, and capitalism, and depicts what Rand saw to be the failures of governmental coercion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "18951386",
"title": "Atlas Shrugged",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.:Setting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
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"text": "\"Atlas Shrugged\" is set in a dystopian United States at an unspecified time, in which the country has a \"National Legislature\" instead of Congress and a \"Head of State\" instead of a President. The government has increasingly extended its control over businesses with increasingly stringent regulations. The United States also appears to be approaching an economic collapse, with widespread shortages, constant business failures, and severely decreased productivity. Writer Edward Younkins said, \"The story may be simultaneously described as anachronistic and timeless. The pattern of industrial organization appears to be that of the late 1800s—the mood seems to be close to that of the depression-era 1930s. Both the social customs and the level of technology remind one of the 1950s\". Many early 20th-century technologies are available, and the steel and railroad industries are especially significant; jet planes are described as a relatively new technology, and television is significantly less influential than radio. Clearly the Cold War is not going on any more, though there is no reference to how it ended and who emerged as the victor; there is in fact no reference of any kind to the Soviet Union or Russia, nor to World War II. Other countries are mentioned in passing. Most countries of the world are implied to be organized along vaguely Marxist lines, with references to \"People's States\" in Europe, South America and India, which are economically supported and sustained by the United States. There is a reference to a People's State of Germany, which implies that Germany had been united and possibly that the Communist East Germany swallowed the Western one, and a reference to the People's State of Britain offering its Crown Jewels for sale which might imply that the British Monarchy had been abolished. Characters also refer to nationalization of businesses in these \"People's States\" - for example, the proclamation of Chile as a People's State is accompanied by the nationalization of the D'Anconia copper mines. On the other hand, the United States itself does not call itself \"A People's State\" and remains at least verbally committed to free enterprise - though making life increasingly difficult for entrepreneurs. The visiting British Socialist who makes a brief appearance in the book calls the United States \"\"The only country on Earth backward enough to permit private ownership of railroads\"\". All along the book there is the ongoing distinction between the \"true\" entrepreneurs, who seek to make profits purely by their own innovative efforts, and the false ones who benefit from government patronage and are counted among the \"looters\" - for example, the difference between Hank Rearden and his rival steel producer Orren Boyle. The economy of the book's present is contrasted with the capitalism of 19th century America, recalled as a lost Golden Age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2327058",
"title": "Randian hero",
"section": "Section::::Specific instances.:Dagny Taggart.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
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"text": "The protagonist of \"Atlas Shrugged\" is Dagny Taggart, described by Rand as \"the feminine Roark\". \"Atlas Shrugged\" introduces several Randian heroes, both in the backstory and in the primary narrative. In the story, they personify the intellect—their withdrawal from the world under the leadership of John Galt parallels the world's gradual collapse.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "38405560",
"title": "Atlas Shrugged Part III: Who Is John Galt?",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Atlas Shrugged Part III: Who Is John Galt? is a 2014 American science fiction drama film based on Ayn Rand's novel \"Atlas Shrugged\". It is the third installment in the \"Atlas Shrugged\" film series and the sequel to the 2012 film \"\", continuing the story where its predecessor left off. The release, originally set for July 4, 2014, occurred on September 12, 2014. The film used a completely different cast and crew than the second film, which itself used a completely different cast than the first film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1kni2u
|
If I was standing on Phobos or Deimos, could I throw a ball fast enough to make it goes into orbit around the moon itself?
|
[
{
"answer": "Phobos and Deimos have escape velocities of about 40 km/h and 20 km/h, respectively. The speed required for a circular orbit at surface level is (escape velocity)/sqrt(2), so 28 km/h and 14 km/h. That's well below the typical speed of a pitched baseball.\n\nHowever, both Phobos and Deimos are so small and so close to Mars that tidal effects would tend to make any such orbit unstable. For both bodies, but especially for Phobos, the [Hill sphere](_URL_0_) isn't much bigger than the moon itself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40152665",
"title": "Taistelupetankki",
"section": "Section::::Course of the game.:The throw.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "The player picks his/her ball up from the ground from between his/her feet and throws it where he/she stands. Contrary to normal pétanque, it is allowed to jump during the throw, provided that the player lands on the same spot where he/she started from. The ball must travel in the air at least 10 cm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14028255",
"title": "Pirates vs. Ninjas Dodgeball",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "The ball can be thrown in several ways. Throwing the ball while running causes the ball to move in the direction faced. Throwing the ball while standing still allows a 360 degree aim, with better tracking. Throwing the ball while jumping increases the force at which the ball hits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3443850",
"title": "Uckers",
"section": "Section::::Advanced rules.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "In some rulesets, throwing a double on the dice allows the player to move a blob backwards, and if he reaches the square immediately before the bottom of the chute by this method, he can then enter the chute with these pieces instead of having to travel around the board.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13061016",
"title": "Glossary of rugby union terms",
"section": "Section::::K.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 154,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 154,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "If the ball does not travel 10 metres, goes straight into touch, or goes over the dead ball line at the end of the pitch, the opposing team may accept the kick, have the ball kicked off again, or have a \"scrum\" at the centre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "528121",
"title": "Lunar Lander (video game genre)",
"section": "Section::::Text games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1003,
"text": "All three text-based games require the player to control a rocket attempting to land on the Moon by entering instructions to the rocket in a turn-based system in response to the textual summary of its current position and velocity relative to the ground. In the original \"Lunar\", players controlled only the amount of vertical thrust to apply, based on their current vertical velocity and remaining fuel, with each round representing one second of travel time. \"Rocket\" added a simple text-based graphical display of the distance from the ground in each round, while \"LEM\" added horizontal velocity and the ability to apply thrust at an angle. In 1970 and 1971, DEC employee and editor of the newsletter David H. Ahl converted two early mainframe games, \"Lunar\" and \"Hamurabi\", from the FOCAL language to BASIC, partially as a demonstration of the language on the DEC PDP-8 minicomputer. Their popularity led him to start printing BASIC games in the DEC newsletter, both his own and reader submissions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25597478",
"title": "Escape from Scorpion Island (series 4)",
"section": "Section::::List of challenges.:Day 4 (Episodes 7 and 8).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "BULLET::::- Danger Dunk - In the first round, one player must transport ten dice across the base of Skeleton Falls in under ten minutes using a net, while their opponent on a seat four metres high throws balls into another net on their back. If a ball lands in that net, they get a ten-second time penalty. Once the round is over the player swap roles. The player that does this faster wins. In the second round, one player from each team is hanging from a swing holding a large basket, while two other players have to throw balls into the basket. Every time a new batch of balls come from the waterfall, the players on the swings are raised higher. The team that gets the most balls into the basket wins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45406903",
"title": "TagPro",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Elements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Mars ball: The Mars ball is a large ball that is not controlled by a user, but can be moved by in-game physics (bombs, switches, etc.) and by players pushing it. If a team manages to push the Mars Ball to the other team's flag, the team is awarded three points.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
m7ex6
|
why is it cold during summer further up north if over there the sunlight lasts longer?
|
[
{
"answer": "The reason it's cold in the north, even in summer, is about the angle that the sunlight hits the earth. Far north the sun is in the sky for a long time but it never gets very *high* in the sky. In the far north the sun barely gets up over the horizon for much of the day. The sunlight is shining on the earth there sideways instead of straight down, so it's the same amount of energy spread out very thinly over a large area, and it doesn't heat that part of the world up very much.\n\n\n ___\n ` < ----- Rays here are spread over a wide area\n \\\n Earth | < ----- Rays here are striking head-on (Sun is over here)\n /\n ___-\n\nEdit: Also physical distance to the sun doesn't make any real difference. The sun is so immensely far away that even moving closer to it by the diameter of the earth would have basically no effect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The reason it's cold in the north, even in summer, is about the angle that the sunlight hits the earth. Far north the sun is in the sky for a long time but it never gets very *high* in the sky. In the far north the sun barely gets up over the horizon for much of the day. The sunlight is shining on the earth there sideways instead of straight down, so it's the same amount of energy spread out very thinly over a large area, and it doesn't heat that part of the world up very much.\n\n\n ___\n ` < ----- Rays here are spread over a wide area\n \\\n Earth | < ----- Rays here are striking head-on (Sun is over here)\n /\n ___-\n\nEdit: Also physical distance to the sun doesn't make any real difference. The sun is so immensely far away that even moving closer to it by the diameter of the earth would have basically no effect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14534679",
"title": "Climate of the Arctic",
"section": "Section::::Solar radiation.:Autumn.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "In September and October the days get rapidly shorter, and in northern areas the sun disappears from the sky entirely. As the amount of solar radiation available to the surface rapidly decreases, the temperatures follow suit. The sea ice begins to refreeze, and eventually gets a fresh snow cover, causing it to reflect even more of the dwindling amount of sunlight reaching it. Likewise, in the beginning of September both the northern and southern land areas receive their winter snow cover, which combined with the reduced solar radiation at the surface, ensures an end to the warm days those areas may experience in summer. By November, winter is in full swing in most of the Arctic, and the small amount of solar radiation still reaching the region does not play a significant role in its climate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28088398",
"title": "Thermal lag",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "The slow night-time cooling of a home after its external brick wall has been heated by the sun is one example of thermal lag. Thermal lag is the reason the high temperatures in summer continue to increase after the summer solstice (in this case, it is termed seasonal lag), and it is the reason a day's high temperature peaks in the afternoon instead of when the Sun is at its peak (12 noon).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "272065",
"title": "Al-Kindi",
"section": "Section::::Accomplishments.:Meteorology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "When the sun is in its northern declination northerly places will heat up and it will be cold towards the south. Then the northern air will expand in a southerly direction because of the heat due to the contraction of the southern air. Therefore most of the summer winds are merits and most of the winter winds are not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10304194",
"title": "Daytime",
"section": "Section::::Daytime variations with latitude and seasons.:Around the poles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1041,
"text": "At and near the poles, the Sun never rises very high above the horizon, even in summer, which is one of reasons why these regions of the world are consistently cold in all seasons (others include the effect of albedo, the relative increased reflection of solar radiation of snow and ice). Even at the summer solstice, when the Sun reaches its highest point above the horizon at noon, it is still only 23.5° above the horizon at the poles. Additionally, as one approaches the poles the apparent path of the Sun through the sky each day diverges increasingly from the vertical. As summer approaches, the Sun rises and sets become more northerly in the north and more southerly in the south. At the poles, the path of the Sun is indeed a circle, which is roughly equidistant above the horizon for the entire duration of the daytime period on any given day. The circle gradually sinks below the horizon as winter approaches, and gradually rises above it as summer approaches. At the poles, apparent sunrise and sunset may last for several days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34061",
"title": "Winter",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "During winter in either hemisphere, the lower altitude of the Sun causes the sunlight to hit the Earth at an oblique angle. Thus a lower amount of solar radiation strikes the Earth per unit of surface area. Furthermore, the light must travel a longer distance through the atmosphere, allowing the atmosphere to dissipate more heat. Compared with these effects, the effect of the changes in the distance of the Earth from the Sun (due to the Earth's elliptical orbit) is negligible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20611127",
"title": "South Pole",
"section": "Section::::Climate and day and night.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1061,
"text": "During the southern winter (March–September), the South Pole receives no sunlight at all, and from May 11 to August 1, between extended periods of twilight, it is completely dark (apart from moonlight). In the summer (September–March), the sun is continuously above the horizon and appears to move in a counter-clockwise circle. However, it is always low in the sky, reaching a maximum of 23.5° in December. Much of the sunlight that does reach the surface is reflected by the white snow. This lack of warmth from the sun, combined with the high altitude (about ), means that the South Pole has one of the coldest climates on Earth (though it is not quite the coldest; that record goes to the region in the vicinity of the Vostok Station, also in Antarctica, which lies at a higher elevation). Temperatures at the South Pole are much lower than at the North Pole, primarily because the South Pole is located at altitude in the middle of a continental land mass, while the North Pole is at sea level in the middle of an ocean, which acts as a reservoir of heat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "156793",
"title": "Tourism in Sweden",
"section": "Section::::Swedish nature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Due to Sweden's northern location, the summer sun sets for only short periods of time (not at all north of the Arctic Circle). This phenomenon allows outdoor activities later in the evening than usual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9qt0p2
|
Why was the Black Sea historically a freshwater body?
|
[
{
"answer": "The base level and salinity history of the Paratethyan basins (i.e. the Dacian Basin, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, and Aral Sea) is complicated to say the least. One flaw in the logic regarding these basins is the assumption that they are completely endorheic, in reality they have a complicated history of both one and two way connections between each other and the global oceans. In a very general sense, they tend to have high stands during glacial periods, meaning that they tend to 1) have a positive hydrologic budget during these periods (more surface inflow than outflow/evaporation), 2) connect to each other during these periods and can exchange water/organisms, and 3) sometimes flow out into the lower global ocean. These complicated interactions coupled with occasionally unique hydrologic conditions lead to a variety of non-unique mechanisms for changes in salinity in the Black Sea (and other Paratethyan basins).\n\nIn detail, the fact that the Black Sea was fresh to brackish prior to the most recent influx of Mediterranean water is well documented beyond this recent shipwreck, [e.g. Yanchilina et al 2017](_URL_2_). While they do not directly address the question of why it was fresh to brackish prior to the marine transgression, the presence of 'Caspian affinity fauna', i.e. organisms that are associated with the Caspian sea, provides one clue, namely that at various points, the Caspian has had an extremely positive hydrologic budget and flooded into the Black Sea and provided both endemic organisms and fresh water. \n\nAnother important process that may contribute to freshwater conditions in the Black Sea can be observed in the modern. As described in [Ivanova et al, 2015 (see section 2)](_URL_1_) areas of the Black Sea have low salinity surface water (e.g. the Caucasian coast) where high precipitation rates and inflow from large catchments results in a locally positive water balance. At the scale of the whole Black Sea, this is outweighed by the inflow of saline water from the Med, but at times when they are disconnected, this would not be the case.\n\nAn additional example of mechanism of changes in salinity can be found in the slightly older geologic past. As it turns out, depending on the details of connection with the Mediterranean (i.e. exact depth of connection and hydrologic conditions in both water bodies, etc) as described by [van Baak et al, 2015](_URL_0_), inflow of Mediterranean waters around 5.8 million years ago actually led to a decrease in salinity because the Mediterannean was sufficiently stratified itself to prevent inflow of saline waters into the Black Sea. This coupled with a positive hydrologic budget at this time in the Black Sea led to a decrease in salinity within the Black Sea as a whole.\n\nAs for which (or any of these mechanisms) led to the particular fresh water period that provided the current anoxic bottom water in the Black Sea, I'm not sure, but the larger point is that the Black Sea and associated basins have an incredibly complex range of processes that have led to alternations between fresh and saline conditions throughout their existence.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25830621",
"title": "Ancient Black Sea shipwrecks",
"section": "Section::::Meromictic composition and preservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Originally a land-locked fresh water lake, the Black Sea was flooded with salt water from the Mediterranean Sea during the Holocene. The influx of salt water essentially smothered the fresh water below it because a lack of internal motion and mixing meant that no fresh oxygen reached the deep waters, creating a meromictic body of water. The anoxic environment, which is hostile to many biological organisms that destroy wood in the oxygenated waters, provides an excellent testing site for deep water archaeological survey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158701",
"title": "Robert Ballard",
"section": "Section::::Marine archaeology.:Black Sea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Originally a land-locked fresh water lake, the Black Sea was flooded with salt water from the Mediterranean Sea during the Holocene. The influx of salt water essentially smothered the fresh water below it because a lack of internal motion and mixing meant that no fresh oxygen reached the deep waters, creating a meromictic body of water. The anoxic environment, which is hostile to many biological organisms that destroy wood in the oxygenated waters, provides an excellent testing site for deep water archaeological survey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53489192",
"title": "Euxinia",
"section": "Section::::Modern euxinia.:The Black Sea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 1205,
"text": "The only connection between the open ocean and the Black Sea is the Bosphorus Strait, through which dense Mediterranean waters are imported. Subsequently, numerous rivers, such as the Danube, Don, Dnieper, and Dniester, drain fresh water into the Black Sea, which floats on top of the more dense Mediterranean water, causing a strong, stratified water column. This stratification is maintained by a strong pycnocline which restricts ventilation of deep waters and results in an intermediate layer called the chemocline, a sharp boundary separating oxic surface waters from anoxic bottom waters usually between 50m and 100m depth, with interannual variation attributed to large scale changes in temperature. Well-mixed, oxic conditions exist above the chemocline and sulfidic conditions are dominant below. Surface oxygen and deep water sulfide do not overlap via vertical mixing, but horizontal entrainment of oxygenated waters and vertical mixing of oxidized manganese into sulfidic waters may occur near the Bosphorus Strait inlet. Manganese and iron oxides likely oxidize hydrogen sulfide near the chemocline, resulting in the decrease in HS concentrations as one approaches the chemocline from below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3386",
"title": "Black Sea",
"section": "Section::::Hydrology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "The Black Sea is a marginal sea and is the world's largest body of water with a meromictic basin. The deep waters do not mix with the upper layers of water that receive oxygen from the atmosphere. As a result, over 90% of the deeper Black Sea volume is anoxic water. The Black Sea's circulation patterns are primarily controlled by basin topography and fluvial inputs, which result in a strongly stratified vertical structure. Because of the extreme stratification, it is classified as a salt wedge estuary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158701",
"title": "Robert Ballard",
"section": "Section::::Marine archaeology.:Black Sea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "According to a report in \"New Scientist\" magazine (May 4, 2002, p. 13), the researchers found an underwater delta south of the Bosporus. There was evidence for a strong flow of fresh water out of the Black Sea in the 8th millennium BC. Ballard's research has contributed to the debate over the Black Sea deluge theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46419314",
"title": "Novorossiya",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Vast regions to the North of the Black Sea were sparsely populated and were known as the Wild Fields (as translated from Polish or Ukrainian) Dykra (in Lithuanian) or \"Loca deserta\" (\"desolated places\") in Latin on medieval maps. There were, however, many settlements along the Dnieper River. The Wild Fields had covered roughly the southern territories of modern Ukraine; some say they extended into the modern Southern Russia (Rostov Oblast).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1187641",
"title": "Black Sea deluge hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Black Sea deluge hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1668,
"text": "In 1997, William Ryan, Walter Pitman and their colleagues first published the Black Sea deluge hypothesis. They proposed that a catastrophic inflow of Mediterranean seawater into the Black Sea freshwater lake occurred at 7,200 BP. Before that date, glacial meltwater had turned the Black and Caspian Seas into vast freshwater lakes draining into the Aegean Sea. As glaciers retreated, some of the rivers emptying into the Black Sea declined in volume and changed course to drain into the North Sea. The levels of the lakes dropped through evaporation, while changes in worldwide hydrology caused overall sea level to rise. The rising Mediterranean finally spilled over a rocky sill at the Bosporus. The event flooded of land and significantly expanded the Black Sea shoreline to the north and west. According to the researchers, \" of water poured through each day, two hundred times the flow of Niagara Falls. The Bosporus valley roared and surged at full spate for at least three hundred days. They argued that the catastrophic inflow of seawater resulted from an abrupt sea-level jump that accompanied the Laurentide Ice Sheet collapse and the ensuing breach of a bedrock barrier in the Bosporus strait. As proposed, the Early Holocene Black Sea flood scenario describes events that would have profoundly affected prehistoric settlement in eastern Europe and adjacent parts of Asia and possibly was the basis of oral history concerning \"Noah’s Flood\". Some archaeologists support this theory as an explanation for the lack of Neolithic period sites in northern Turkey. In 2003, Ryan and coauthors revised the dating of the Early Holocene \"Noah’s Flood\" to 8,400 BP.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
33up1f
|
Can smells evolve over time? For example, do we know that a pineapple or our body odor has always smelled the same way?
|
[
{
"answer": "Both your examples almost certainly have changed over time. Body odour for sure - different countries have different body odours due to diet and what comes out in sweat so that will definitely have changed as human diets changed. \nThe smell of pineapple is linked to the chemicals in it. As they've evolved and the chemicals or balance of chemicals has changed, the smell would also have changed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26326802",
"title": "Smound",
"section": "Section::::History of the concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "The idea that sounds and scents may be linked in the brain was suggested in 1862 by G. W. Septimus Piesse, who said, \"Scents, like sounds, appear to influence the olfactory nerve in certain definite degrees.\" Piesse also suggested that there may be an octave of odour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57960031",
"title": "George William Septimus Piesse",
"section": "Section::::\"The Art of Perfumery, and Method of Obtaining Odors from Plants\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "\"The Art of Perfumery\" is also notable in that, in an 1862 edition, Piesse introduced ideas relating to synesthesia and smound. He suggested that sounds and scents are linked in the brain: \"Scents, like sounds, appear to influence the olfactory nerve in certain definite degrees.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "248314",
"title": "Ebenaceae",
"section": "Section::::Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "The plants may have a strong scent. Some species have aromatic wood. They are important and conspicuous trees in many of their native ecosystems, such as lowland dry forests of the former Maui Nui in Hawaii, Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests, Kathiarbar-Gir dry deciduous forests, Louisiade Archipelago rain forests, Madagascar lowland forests, Narmada Valley dry deciduous forests, New Guinea mangroves, and South Western Ghats montane rain forests.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1380144",
"title": "Linalool",
"section": "Section::::Enantiomers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Each enantiomer evokes different neural responses in humans, so are classified as possessing distinct scents. (\"S\")-(+)-Linalool is perceived as sweet, floral, petitgrain-like (odor threshold 7.4 ppb) and the (\"R\")-form as more woody and lavender-like (odor threshold 0.8 ppb).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23524983",
"title": "Damassine",
"section": "Section::::Eau de vie.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "The aromas are very complex, composed of different kinds of ingredients. The scents of wild prune dominate, with herbal and almond touches. The latter can easily be explained by the fruit morphology (proportion of kernel and flesh). The herbal touches must come from the fact that it has to be gathered once falling onto the ground. The secondary scents and aromas are those of the other similar kernel fruits (cherries, Mirabelle), sweetness (honey, dried banana) and spices (coriander, cloves with a little touch of cinnamon).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24691113",
"title": "Erythranthe moschata",
"section": "Section::::Loss of scent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1459,
"text": "A variety of suggestions were put forward for a solution to the mystery, such as that the scent of the original cultivated form had been a rare recessive feature, which later disappeared as a result of uncontrolled pollination or the introduction of other genes from the wild population. Other explanations were given based on changes in climate, that humans had lost the ability to detect the smell, that the scent had been produced by a parasite, or that the loss of scent was a myth. W.B. Gourlay (1947) suggested that the phenomenon could be explained if the highly scented cultivated form had been reproduced vegetatively from a single aberrant plant, first raised in England from the original batch of seed, and later replaced by unscented plants grown from other sources of seed. David Douglas first described the species and in 1826 near Fort Vancouver collected seed from which the first examples in England were raised; it is notable that he made no reference to a strong musk scent in his field notes. Moreover, there are references as early as 1917 to plants in the wild having a wide range of characteristics between scentless and strongly scented, with the latter being \"very much the exception\". During the 1920s and 1930s, at the height of botanists' interest in the 'lost scent' phenomenon, there were several reports of strongly-scented \"moschatus\" specimens being discovered in the wild, such as in 1931 on Texada Island, British Columbia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24691113",
"title": "Erythranthe moschata",
"section": "Section::::Loss of scent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "\"Erythranthe moschata\" was widely grown and sold commercially in Victorian times for its fragrance, and is well known for the story that all cultivated and known wild specimens simultaneously lost their previous strong musk scent around the year 1913. Writing in 1934 in the journal \"Nature\", E. Hardy described a Lancashire nurseryman, Thomas Wilkinson, who in 1898 found that his plants developed a \"rank, leafy smell\"; five years later, after leaving the trade, he noticed that plants then on sale were scentless. While it was sometimes claimed that strongly scented plants could still be found in the wild, Arthur William Hill, in a 1930 article in The Gardeners' Chronicle, presented evidence from British Columbia claiming that wild populations had also lost their scent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1iestn
|
From the beginnings of the Republic until the fall of the Western Roman Empire, did Roman architecture change significantly and, if so, how?
|
[
{
"answer": "Roman architecture is a HUGE topic - they tended to borrow bits and pieces from here and there (Etruscan arches, Greek columns...), and adapted their architecture depending on where in the Empire it was.\n\nThere's actually a really good online course here: _URL_0_ which may be worth a look if you are very interested in Roman architecture, and it may help answer your question.\n\nI hope this doesn't break top tier reply rules!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Agree with below, but just as a brief blurb for more casual observers:\n\n1. Development and improvement of brick and mortar construction\n2. Significant Greek influence in public/monumental building after the conquest of the Hellenistic world. \n3. Conquest also led to expanded use of exotic marble and stone, from around the empire. As an aside, Italy's own major source of Carrarra marble was discovered in the late republic.\n\nRecent work on Late-Imperial architecture has shown that much of the literature in the area is methodologically flawed, and that features such as private bathhouses and alternate dining arrangements were less common/ typical than has been thought. Essentially, it is tough to find good info on the Late Empire.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57691",
"title": "Outline of ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::General history of ancient Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 241,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 241,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "BULLET::::- Western Roman Empire – In 285, Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) divided the Roman Empire's administration into western and eastern halves. In 293, Rome lost its capital status, and Milan became the capital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3328588",
"title": "Societal collapse",
"section": "Section::::Causes of collapse.:Foreign invasions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "The decline of the Roman Empire is one of the events traditionally marking the end of Classical Antiquity and the beginning of the European Middle Ages. Throughout the 5th century, the Empire's territories in western Europe and northwestern Africa, including Italy, fell to various invading or indigenous peoples in what is sometimes called the Barbarian invasions, although the eastern half still survived with borders essentially intact for another two centuries (until the Arab expansion). This view of the collapse of the Roman Empire is challenged, however, by modern historians who see Rome as merely transforming from the Western Empire into barbarian kingdoms as the Western Emperors delegated themselves out of existence, and the East transforming into the Byzantine Empire, which only fell in 1453 AD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21199904",
"title": "History of the East–West Schism",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Empires East and West.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "The Western Roman Empire soon ceased to exist. In the early fifth century, its whole territory was overrun by Germanic tribes, and the year 476 saw the end even of the pretence of a Western Roman Emperor, when Odoacer forced Romulus Augustus to abdicate. By the end of the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire had been overrun by the Germanic tribes, while the Eastern Roman Empire (known also as the Byzantine Empire) continued to thrive. Thus, the political unity of the Roman Empire was the first to fall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2090427",
"title": "Barbarian Invasion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "There are contradicting opinions whether the fall of the Western Roman Empire was a result or a cause of these onvasions, or both. The Eastern Roman Empire was less affected by invasions and survived until the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453. In the modern period, the Migration Period was increasingly described with a rather negative connotation, and seen more as contributing to the fall of the empire. In place of the fallen Western Rome, Barbarian kingdoms arose in the 5th and 6th centuries and decisively shaped the European Early Middle Ages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1123369",
"title": "Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Overview of events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1131,
"text": "The decline of the Roman Empire is one of the traditional markers of the end of Classical Antiquity and the beginning of the European Middle Ages. Throughout the 5th century, the Empire's territories in western Europe and northwestern Africa, including Italy, fell to various invading or indigenous peoples in what is sometimes called the Migration period. Although the eastern half still survived with borders essentially intact for several centuries (until the Muslim conquests), the Empire as a whole had initiated major cultural and political transformations since the Crisis of the Third Century, with the shift towards a more openly autocratic and ritualized form of government, the adoption of Christianity as the state religion, and a general rejection of the traditions and values of Classical Antiquity. While traditional historiography emphasized this break with Antiquity by using the term \"Byzantine Empire\" instead of Roman Empire, recent schools of history offer a more nuanced view, seeing mostly continuity rather than a sharp break. The Empire of Late Antiquity already looked very different from classical Rome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51320",
"title": "Ancient history",
"section": "Section::::History by region.:Europe.:Late Antiquity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 177,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 177,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "The Roman Empire underwent considerable social, cultural and organizational change starting with reign of Diocletian, who began the custom of splitting the Empire into Eastern and Western halves ruled by multiple emperors. Beginning with Constantine the Great the Empire was Christianized, and a new capital founded at Constantinople. Migrations of Germanic tribes disrupted Roman rule from the late 4th century onwards, culminating in the eventual collapse of the Empire in the West in 476, replaced by the so-called barbarian kingdoms. The resultant cultural fusion of Greco-Roman, Germanic and Christian traditions formed the cultural foundations of Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "923406",
"title": "Fall of the Western Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Historical approaches.:Timespan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1096,
"text": "The Fall of the Western Roman Empire was the process in which it failed to enforce its rule. The loss of centralized political control over the West, and the lessened power of the East, are universally agreed, but the theme of decline has been taken to cover a much wider time span than the hundred years from 376. For Cassius Dio, the accession of the emperor Commodus in 180 CE marked the descent \"from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron\", while Gibbon also began his narrative of decline from the reign of Commodus, after a number of introductory chapters. Arnold J. Toynbee and James Burke argue that the entire Imperial era was one of steady decay of institutions founded in republican times, while Theodor Mommsen excluded the imperial period from his Nobel Prize-winning \"History of Rome\" (1854–56). As one convenient marker for the end, 476 has been used since Gibbon, but other key dates for the fall of the Roman Empire in the West include the Crisis of the Third Century, the Crossing of the Rhine in 406 (or 405), the sack of Rome in 410, and the death of Julius Nepos in 480.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2vh4f4
|
would an oil heating system use more oil keeping a house a constant temperature all day or turning it off and bringing it back up to temperature?
|
[
{
"answer": "A lot depends on your home. The size, type of heating system, amount of insulation, how tight the house is all play a factor. With that being said, I can't ELI5 but I have a lot of experience in home building/home performance. It's what I do. I typically recommend setting your away at work tstat temp no more than 5 degrees lower than where you have it when you're home. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47862666",
"title": "Cooking oil",
"section": "Section::::Health and nutrition.:Storing and keeping oil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "In a cool, dry place, oils have greater stability, but may thicken, although they will soon return to liquid form if they are left at room temperature. To minimize the degrading effects of heat and light, oils should be removed from cold storage just long enough for use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31073892",
"title": "Bruzio",
"section": "Section::::Preservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Bruzio oil has to be preserved in dry and cool places, and has to be kept away from heat sources. Temperature has to be kept under control between 14° and 20° Celsius, to keep unaltered its qualities for 36 or more months. Low temperatures can cause the oil to freeze; if that happens, the case of Bruzio oil will have to be heated back to room temperature, so as for it to be consumable once again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17805223",
"title": "Concentrated solar power",
"section": "Section::::Solar thermal enhanced oil recovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Heat from the sun can be used to provide steam used to make heavy oil less viscous and easier to pump. Solar power tower and parabolic troughs can be used to provide the steam which is used directly so no generators are required and no electricity is produced. Solar thermal enhanced oil recovery can extend the life of oilfields with very thick oil which would not otherwise be economical to pump.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47862666",
"title": "Cooking oil",
"section": "Section::::Health and nutrition.:Cooking with oil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Heating oil changes its characteristics. Oils that are healthy at room temperature can become unhealthy when heated above certain temperatures, so when choosing a cooking oil, it is important to match the oil's \"heat tolerance\" with the temperature which will be used. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "392547",
"title": "Fuel oil",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "The chief drawback to residual fuel oil is its high initial viscosity, particularly in the case of No. 6 oil, which requires a correctly engineered system for storage, pumping, and burning. Though it is still usually lighter than water (with a specific gravity usually ranging from 0.95 to 1.03) it is much heavier and more viscous than No. 2 oil, kerosene, or gasoline. No. 6 oil must, in fact, be stored at around heated to before it can be easily pumped, and in cooler temperatures it can congeal into a tarry semisolid. The flash point of most blends of No. 6 oil is, incidentally, about . Attempting to pump high-viscosity oil at low temperatures was a frequent cause of damage to fuel lines, furnaces, and related equipment which were often designed for lighter fuels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11625477",
"title": "Oil heater",
"section": "Section::::Efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Although oil heaters are more expensive to run and provide far less spatial heating than gas heaters, they are still commonly used in bedrooms and other small-to-medium-sized enclosed areas. This is because gas heaters, especially when unflued, are not suitable for bedroom use - gas heaters cannot be used in confined spaces due to the reduced oxygen, and the emissions produced. This leaves electrically powered heaters, such as oil heaters and fan heaters, as the only alternative.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11625477",
"title": "Oil heater",
"section": "Section::::Safety and features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "The primary risk of oil heaters is that of fire and burns. In both regards they are generally more dangerous than hydronics and air conditioning, but less dangerous than electric fan heaters or bar radiators; this is due to the surface temperature of each type of heater.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2hi4hp
|
When did supermarkets first appear?
|
[
{
"answer": "Various elements of the modern supermarket arose in different places, mostly in the 1920s.\n\nThe first self-service grocery store is thought to have been a Memphis Piggly Wiggly opened in 1916. The concept was patented and franchised to other operators. Customers entered through a turnstile and made their way through the store to a checkout at the exit. \n\nDrive-in markets that patrons reached by auto began to be built in Southern California about 1923. These were akin to farmers markets (a strong regional tradition) in hosting a variety of independently owned stands, but sellers of packaged goods also set up shops. The low prices and convenience began to set the pattern of weekly shopping excursions by auto—to a single place.\n\nIn the 1920s, Ralphs began to build branch stores in new outlying areas of Los Angeles, and within a few years the branches were every bit the equal of the downtown store. At first, the new Ralphs were organized like other groceries or department stores, with goods called for and presented at departmental counters. But Ralphs displayed produce in ways that made customer inspection easy, and within a few years introduced self-service in other departments, assumed ownership of all the departments in the store, and eventually created a modern \"front end\" of multiple checkstands in one row, allowing one payment at one time for all of a customer's purchases.\n\nTwo Houston food markets, J. Weingarten and Henke & Pillot, began to evolve into similar prototypes about the same time, introducing large parking lots that the stores faced regardless of how that oriented the store's front in regard to traditional retail streets or streetcar lines. Both these markets and Ralphs began to think of their stores as freestanding objects in the landscape, rather than storefronts on an established shopping street.\n\nThese innovations spread rapidly in the early years of the Depression, with King Kullen's in the New York area focusing on major brands at rock-bottom prices, with large stores (some repurposed from industrial spaces) where products were displayed in stacks that, to customers of the time, seemed warehouse-like. Soon it was clear that this new way of food marketing was not a short-lived fad related to the Depression, and established chains like A & P or Safeway began to follow the new model. In 1937, Piggly Wiggly introduced a larger wheeled shopping basket in an Oklahoma City store, and that came to be the iconic representation for the supermarket concept.\n\nI've drawn extensively from Richard Longstreth's 1999 book *The Drive-In, the Supermarket, and the Transformation of Commercial Space in Los Angeles, 1914-1941.* ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10646",
"title": "Food",
"section": "Section::::Commercial trade.:Marketing and retailing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 163,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 163,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "In the 20th century, supermarkets were born. Supermarkets brought with them a self service approach to shopping using shopping carts, and were able to offer quality food at lower cost through economies of scale and reduced staffing costs. In the latter part of the 20th century, this has been further revolutionized by the development of vast warehouse-sized, out-of-town supermarkets, selling a wide range of food from around the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239196",
"title": "Grocery store",
"section": "Section::::Food marketing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "In the 20th century, supermarkets were born. Supermarkets brought with them a self service approach to shopping using shopping carts, and were able to offer quality food at lower cost through economies of scale and reduced staffing costs. In the latter part of the 20th century, this has been further revolutionized by the development of vast warehouse-sized, out-of-town supermarkets, selling a wide range of food from around the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "129372",
"title": "Norwood, Ohio",
"section": "Section::::History.:Decline of the railway.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Albers Supermarket, the first supermarket in Ohio and the first grocery store in the world to call itself a supermarket, was opened in 1933 by William H. Albers on Montgomery Road in Norwood at the site of today's Surrey Square shopping center. Mr. Albers, the former president of the Kroger Company, went on to revolutionize the grocery industry by embracing many innovations such as shopping carts, fluorescent lighting, and individual pricing on all items. The Albers chain was a phenomenal success and was later acquired by Colonial Stores in 1955. The Norwood location was destroyed by a spectacular fire in 1968 and never rebuilt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "508257",
"title": "Food distribution",
"section": "Section::::Food Distribution in the 20th and 21st centuries.:US Food Distribution from 1900 to 1960.:Supermarkets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "The third and final change to US food distribution in the first half of the 20th century involved the establishment of supermarkets. The Ford Motor Company performed the first experiment regarding the profitability of large-scale supermarkets after the end of World War I. Supermarkets officially began gaining prominence in the 1930s and steadily continued their growth into the post-WWII era.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11675243",
"title": "Retail design",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "The first retail chain store in the United States was opened in the early 20th century by Frank Winfield Woolworth, which quickly became a franchise across the US. Other chain stores began growing in places like the UK a decade or so later, with stores like Boots. After World War II, a new type of retail design building known as the shopping centre came into being. This type of building took two different paths in comparison between the US and Europe. Shopping centres began being built out of town within the United States to benefit the suburban family, while Europe began putting shopping centres in the middle of town. The first shopping centre in the Netherlands was built in the 1950s, as retail design ideas began spreading east.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "452848",
"title": "Hypermarket",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "In 1963, Carrefour opened the first hypermarket in St Genevieve-de-Bois, near Paris, France. By the end of the twentieth century, stores were using labels such as \"mega-stores\" and \"warehouse\" stores to reflect their growing size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51862",
"title": "Supermarket",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "They determined that the first true supermarket in the United States was opened by a former Kroger employee, Michael J. Cullen, on 4 August 1930, inside a former garage in Jamaica, Queens in New York City. The store, King Kullen, operated under the slogan \"Pile it high. Sell it low.\" At the time of Cullen's death in 1936, there were seventeen King Kullen stores in operation. Although Saunders had brought the world self-service, uniform stores, and nationwide marketing, Cullen built on this idea by adding separate food departments, selling large volumes of food at discount prices and adding a parking lot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1oct4r
|
Was there a strong national identity for Israel before it was formed in 1947?
|
[
{
"answer": "First of all Israel officially came into existence in 1948 when David Ben Gurion declared the birth of the country. \n\nNow to actually address your question. It is hard to get a perfect answer when it comes to this as the idea of an Israeli national identity is closely tied to the idea of a Jewish identity. The belief that Jews should have a Jewish country, not necessarily in Israel, is called Zionism which began to gain traction in the late 1800s. As Jews faced increasingly more difficulties as a result of their religion in Eastern Europe a call arose for the creation of an independent state for the Jewish people. Famous Zionists including Theodor Herzl, Ahad Haam, and A.D. Gordon began popularizing different branches of Zionism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, drumming up support among Jews across the world and about the same time the first groups of Jews came to Israel to settle.\n\nEarly Zionists most likely did not see themselves as Israelis simply because they weren't, they saw the creation of the State of Israel as a manifestation of a Jewish goal, even though they did not have the support of even close to the entirety of the Jewish community. Zionists thought of themselves simply as Jews. However certain Zionists, like Ahad Haam, believed that the idea of an Israeli national identity grew from a Jewish national identity. You actually ask two different questions in this post, 1. Was there a strong national identity for Israel before it was formed in 1948? Yes however that national identity was a Jewish national identity not an Israeli, it was the idea that Jews should have a country. 2. Was there an Israeli national identity before Israel was formed in 1948? No, prior to the creation of the state of Israel the Zionists saw themselves primarily as Jews not as Israelis. The whole concept of an Israeli national identity has grown out of the existence of the country over time.\n\nToday there exists a divide between Israelis and Jews in the rest of the world, however the original Zionists were much like American Jews today. They were natives of a country that was not Jewish, and their movement to Palestine changed that but they clung to the idea that no matter where they came from they were Jewish. The modern world is a very different place and if you have any more questions or want clarification on something more specific feel free to ask.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7696431",
"title": "History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "The Land of Israel, which is considered by Jews to be the Promised Land, was the place where Jewish identity was formed, although this identity was formed gradually reaching much of its current form in the Exilic and post-Exilic period. By the Hellenistic period (after 332 BCE) the Jews had become a self-consciously separate community based in Jerusalem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22523210",
"title": "Judaization of the Galilee",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Israel's independence meant that the priorities of the Zionist movement shifted from securing a safe territorial base for Jewish immigrants (many of whom were refugees of European persecution), to building viable Jewish communities of the newly created sovereign state and 'the ingathering and assimilation of exiles' (\"mizug galuyot\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15185268",
"title": "Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine",
"section": "Section::::Ideology: the right to the land.:Zionist positions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Israel's Declaration of Independence states \"In [1897] the First Zionist Congress convened and proclaimed the right of the Jewish people to national rebirth in its own country.\" and further on, \"we, [the signatories] by virtue of our natural and historic right and on the strength of the resolution of the United Nations General Assembly, hereby declare the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel.\" This illustrates Zionism's claim of a \"historic right\" as a \"people\" to the Land of Israel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14240977",
"title": "Jewish state",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Modern Israel came into existence on 14 May 1948 as the homeland for the Jewish people. It was also defined in its declaration of independence as a \"Jewish state,\" a term that appeared in the United Nations partition decision of 1947 as well. The related term \"Jewish and democratic state\" dates from 1992 legislation by the Israeli Knesset.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13927537",
"title": "Israeli Jews",
"section": "Section::::Legal and political status in Israel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 1073,
"text": "Israel was established as a homeland for the Jewish people and is often referred to as the Jewish state. Israel's Declaration of Independence specifically called for the establishment of a Jewish state with equality of social and political rights, irrespective of religion, race, or sex. The notion that Israel should be constituted in the name of and maintain a special relationship with a particular group of people, the Jewish people, has drawn much controversy vis-à-vis minority groups living in Israel—the large number of Muslim and Christian Palestinians residing in Israel. Nevertheless, through the years many Israeli Jewish nationalists have based the legitimacy of Israel being a Jewish state on the Balfour Declaration and ancient historical ties to the land, asserting that both play particular roles as evidence under international law, as well as a fear that a hostile Arab world might be disrespectful of a Jewish minority—alleging a variety of possible harms up to and including genocide—were Israel to become a post-national \"state for all its citizens\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15226",
"title": "Irredentism",
"section": "Section::::Ongoing irredentist claims in the world.:Israel and Palestine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 948,
"text": "The nation state of Israel was established in 1948. The United Nations General Assembly passed U.N. Resolution 181, otherwise known as the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, with 72% of the valid votes. Eventually, Israeli independence was achieved following the liquidation of the former British-administered Mandate of Palestine, the departure of the British and the \"Independence War\" between the Jews in ex-Mandatory Palestine and five Arab states' armies. The Jewish claim to Palestine as a Jewish homeland can be seen as an example of irredentist reclamation of what is considered lost Jewish land by Zionists. These claims are based on ancestral inhabitance (and in some periods sovereignty) in the land and the cultural/religious significance of it in the Hebrew Bible. The latter is particularly relevant to the Israeli claim to Jerusalem. Mandatory Palestine had sizable Jewish and Arab populations before the Second World War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57240523",
"title": "Israeli printmaking",
"section": "Section::::1950–1970: The print in the State of Israel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "The establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 does not constitute a significant historical point in the history of Israeli art, apart from several expressions of nationalism and the development of iconography around the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. However, the opening of Mandatory Palestine to Jewish immigration led to a large population that began to be educated according to the tradition of the young field of the Israeli print, led in these years by Jacob Steinhardt in the new Bezalel. Many of the youngsters who came to Eretz Israel after the Holocaust either under the auspices of Youth Aliyah, or with their families, such as Jacob Pins, Avraham Ofek, Avigdor Arikha, Yehuda Bacon, Moshe Hoffman, among others, became prominent Israeli artists in the 1950s and 1960s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
38wrqb
|
How does the human body remain stable as we walk?
|
[
{
"answer": "Walking is surprisingly an extremely complicated process when you look at all the system involved. Let me give you a brief walkthrough of the process.\n \nSo first you have your inputs: places where you body gets information before actually walking. The major ones are the vestibular and visual systems. The vestibular system in your inner ear sends information about your head's (and therefore partly your body's) velocity, acceleration, and position. Your visual system, as you can imagine, sends information about what is around you. Beyond that there are also propioceptive inputs from your body which both consciously and unconsciously tell you body where it is in space. \n\nYour cerebellum is the major coordinator of movements. It has feed forward and feed backward mechanisms of control. Before you start a movement, your cerebellum takes in a lot of input from your body and surroundings and predicts what a proper movement would be for the situation, even when it comes to just walking. \n\nIt then sends this information to your brain and spinal cord directly and indirectly. The brain tells the basal ganglia to start the initiation process for movement. The basal ganglia tell the brain it's ready. Now the brain does the most complex integration, where it mixes a shit ton of inputs such as all senses, emotion, goals, etc. \n\nOnly now do we get information sent to the muscles to start walking. This isn't the end of it however. Our cortex isn't properly equipped to handle all the tiny unforeseen issues like a slight deviation in your arm, or a bump on the ground, or some awkward foot placement. Now comes the feedback mechanism involving spinal reflexes, some brainstem tracts, and the cerebellum. The cerebellum will make corrections to movements as we are doing it. Our spinal reflexes are nerve tracts that go from muscle to the spine and then straight back to the muscle (they don't send information up to the brain necessarily). These really help in postural control. Finally, same goes for the various tracts that are also involved such as the rubrospinal (helps control upper limb flexors and neck), medial and lateral vestibulospinal (helps with neck posture), reticulospinal (aids in trunk posture, and tectospinal. The last 3 collectively help with control of extensor muscles. There are others of course, but these are the main ones.\n\nAs you can see, it is an extremely complicated thing to walk. That's why it takes babies so long to learn. But once you learn it, your brain stores the information sort of like a program. Then the brain just runs the program when you want to walk and the feedback mechanisms are still alert to make sure you don't mess up. Hopefully I gave you a greater appreciation of how our complicated our brain are and truly how fast they work.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "159670",
"title": "Adenosine monophosphate deaminase deficiency type 1",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "In case of leg muscles, where circulation is substantially dependent on their cyclical contraction when the body is upright, a small but useful degree of initial up-regulation of the citric acid cycle may be achieved just by standing still for a few minutes. It is most useful when a long period of rest, or sitting in a vehicle, must be followed by brisk walking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2315029",
"title": "Neural adaptation",
"section": "Section::::Rhythmic behaviors.:Long-term adaptations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Some rhythmic movements, such as respiratory movements, are essential for survival. Because these movements must be used over the course of the entire lifetime, it is important for them to function optimally. Neural adaptation has been observed in these movements in response to training or altered external conditions. Animals have been shown to have reduced breathing rates in response to better fitness levels. Since breathing rates were not conscious changes made by the animal, it is presumed that neural adaptations occur for the body to maintain a slower breathing rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6040372",
"title": "Physiology of dinosaurs",
"section": "Section::::Metabolism.:Posture and gait.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Carrier's constraint states that air-breathing vertebrates with two lungs that flex their bodies sideways during locomotion find it difficult to move and breathe at the same time. This severely limits stamina, and forces them to spend more time resting than moving.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32070582",
"title": "Aging movement control",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Normal aging movement control in humans is about the changes in the muscles, motor neurons, nerves, sensory functions, gait, fatigue, visual and manual responses, in men and women as they get older but who do not have neurological, muscular (atrophy, dystrophy...) or neuromuscular disorder. With aging, neuromuscular movements are impaired, though with training or practice, some aspects may be prevented.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24106558",
"title": "Endurance running hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Anatomical and physiological adaptations.:Skeletal evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "Limb length and mass: \"Homo\" has longer legs relative to body mass, which helps to decrease the energetic costs of running, as time in contact with the ground increases. There is also a decrease in mass of distal parts of limbs of humans, which is known to decrease metabolic costs in endurance running, but has little effect on walking. Additionally, the mass of the upper body limbs in \"Homo\" has decreased considerably, relative to total body mass, which is important to reduce the effort of stabilizing the arms in running.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89285",
"title": "Long-distance running",
"section": "Section::::Physiology of long-distance running.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 828,
"text": "One distinction between upright walking and running is energy consumption during locomotion. While walking, humans use about half the energy needed to run. Evolutionary biologists believe that the human ability to run over long distances has helped meat-eating humans to compete with other carnivores. Persistence hunting is a method in which hunters use a combination of running, walking, and tracking to pursue prey to the point of exhaustion. While humans can sweat to reduce body heat, their quadrupedal prey would need to slow from a gallop in order to pant. The persistence hunt is still practised by hunter-gatherers in the central Kalahari Desert in Southern Africa, and David Attenborough's documentary \"The Life of Mammals\" (program 10, \"Food For Thought\") showed a bushman hunting a kudu antelope until it collapsed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33998077",
"title": "Preferred walking speed",
"section": "Section::::Energetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Gross metabolic rate may also directly limit preferred walking speed. Aging is associated with reduced aerobic capacity (reduced VO max). Malatesta \"et al.\" (2004) suggests that walking speed in elderly individuals is limited by aerobic capacity; elderly individuals are unable to walk faster because they cannot sustain that level of activity. For example, 80-year-old individuals are walking at 60% of their VO2 max even when walking at speeds significantly slower than those observed in younger individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1397l2
|
i thought jordan had a constitutional monarchy, yet it appears that democratic movements have flaired up in the region. eli5
|
[
{
"answer": "Good question. If you don't receive an adequate answer here in ELI5, you might try /r/middleeastnews or even /r/islam",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Jordan does have a constitutional monarchy, and the king has been enacting democratic reforms in the past year or so.\n\nThe thing is that most constitutional monarchies are not actually democratic on paper. For instance, the queen of the UK nominally has the power to fire Parliament, veto laws, and a bunch of other antidemocratic things. But she never *uses* these powers, so nobody complains. In Jordan, the king does use the powers constitutionally granted to him, so even with the reforms some people find his existence problematic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Edit: I know this isn't a ELI5 but it isn't a ELI5 question :p If you want to talk more, reply and i'll be glad to respond :-)\n\nI am Jordanian and have been living here for 21 years. All the riots you are seeing now happening all across the kingdom is mainly because of the government's recent decision to lift the aid they provide for oil, diesel, gasoline...etc. This was done in order to help the country pay for its increasing debt, if this action was not taken, the value of the JD (Jordanian Dinar) will collapse and the whole country will be in shambles. \n\nAlso, these \"economic and political reforms\" that the king implemented are mostly just a way to shut the crowds up. If you get into the nitty gritty of it, nothing has changed. In fact, economically, things have gotten much worse. \n\nJust like at the beginning of the Arab Spring when there were protests asking for reforms and the overthrow of the monarchy, these protests were not started by the Muslim Brotherhood. They were started by regular low income folk (who make up about 70% of the population) who now can't find a way to bring food to the table. But today, the Muslim Brotherhood slowly started to seep into the protests and ask for the overthrow of the monarchy. I live fairly close to one of the \"hotspots\" for the protests in the capital and pass by there almost daily. When I went to see the protests today, there was a significant portion of the crowd that was from the Muslim Brotherhood and other tribal members that are well known to be against the monarchy. I can only imagine that number will increase. \n\nOverall however, there is a general disdain for the people who are calling for the overthrow and in my opinion, the monarchy will continue to exist. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17159820",
"title": "Parliament of Jordan",
"section": "Section::::Political history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "As a developing constitutional monarchy, Jordan has survived the trials and tribulations of Middle Eastern politics. The Jordanian public has experienced limited democracy since gaining independence in 1946 however the population has not suffered as others have under dictatorships imposed by some Arab regimes. The 1952 Constitution provided for citizens of Jordan to form and join political parties. Such rights were suspended in 1967 when a state of emergency was declared and martial law and suspension of Parliament, continuing until it was repealed in 1989.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7515964",
"title": "Jordan",
"section": "Section::::Politics and government.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Jordan is a unitary state under a constitutional monarchy. Jordan's constitution, adopted in 1952 and amended a number of times since, is the legal framework that governs the monarch, government, bicameral legislature and judiciary. The king retains wide executive and legislative powers from the government and parliament. The king exercises his powers through the government that he appoints for a four-year term, which is responsible before the parliament that is made up of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives. The judiciary is independent according to the constitution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13812",
"title": "History of Libya",
"section": "Section::::Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 987,
"text": "The enactment of the Libyan Constitution was significant in that it was the first piece of legislation to formally entrench the rights of Libyan citizens following the post-war creation of the Libyan nation state. Following on from the intense UN debates during which Idris had argued that the creation of a single Libyan state would be of benefit to the regions of Tripolitania, Fezzan, and Cyrenaica, the Libyan government was keen to formulate a constitution which contained many of the entrenched rights common to European and North American nation states. Though not creating a secular state – Article 5 proclaims Islam the religion of the State – the Libyan Constitution did formally set out rights such as equality before the law as well as equal civil and political rights, equal opportunities, and an equal responsibility for public duties and obligations, \"without distinction of religion, belief, race, language, wealth, kinship or political or social opinions\" (Article 11).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55882851",
"title": "Law of Jordan",
"section": "Section::::Modern era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "The first Constitution of Jordan was adopted in 1948. This started the process of creating a national legal system in the Post-Ottoman period. Both the 1948 and 1952 constitutions of Jordan affirm that Islam is the state religion. The first Jordanian Law of Family Rights was enacted in 1947; it was replaced by the Law of Family Rights 1951. In 1952 the Jordanian Law of Personal Status was enacted. The first modern Shari'a courts were established in Jordan in 1951. These courts are based on the Hanafi school, but Jordanian laws about women draw on Maliki law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17159820",
"title": "Parliament of Jordan",
"section": "Section::::Democratization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "It has been argued that the Jordanian Parliament is part of a democracy that has not been achieved by other states within the Middle East. However, in comparison to elected democracies as associated with ‘western’ nations, Jordan may not be considered to have occurred as the monarchy continues to dominate national politics, “…1989 elections brought unparalleled political liberalization and somewhat greater democratic input… although the political supremacy of the palace has been rendered less visible by the more active role of parliament, it is clear that a fundamental transfer of power into elected hands has not yet occurred.”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55882851",
"title": "Law of Jordan",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Jordanian law is influenced by Ottoman law. Until 1918, the Kingdom of Jordan was part of the Ottoman Empire and its legal system consisted of Shari'a courts whose decisions were based on the four schools of Islamic law (called \"madhhab\"). These four \"madhabib\" are: Hanafi Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali. There is no separation between religion and law in Jordan. While secular courts have been established under the Jordanian government in modern times, many areas of life still fall within the jurisdiction of religious shari'a courts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53238914",
"title": "Ma'an Movement in Jordan",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Political System and Democracy in Jordan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "The political system of Jordan is aparliamentary monarchy based on theconstitution of 1952. The head of state is the monarch, King Abdullah II, who has far-reaching powers. The Prime Minister and Council of Ministers are appointed by king. Furthermore, the king has the power to declare a state of emergency and retains the power to promulgate and ratify laws, direct the enactment of regulations, ratify treaties and agreements, declare war, conclude peace. The monarchy also has right to dissolve and reconvene the parliament.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
40mqdt
|
Will you help me identify a snake? Pictures in comments.
|
[
{
"answer": "It's neither a boa nor a viper based on the head shape (too narrow/not triangle-shaped). That leaves the elapids and colubrids. I can't do much research on my phone, but the Lyre Snake (Trimorphodon) looks like the one. I'm guessing it's about 40cm? Not quite an adult. They are venomous, but rear-fanged and thus unlikely to envenomate a person unless you put your fingers in their mouths.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It appears to be a colubrid of the genus Leptodeira. Probably L. septentrionalis or L. annulata. Both are opistoglyphous (rear fanged) but only mildly venomous, though extremely docile. Having handled them before, I'd say they're nothing to worry about.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6581940",
"title": "Plains garter snake",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "The Plains garter snake (\"Thamnophis radix\") is a species of garter snake native to most of the central United States as far north as Canada and as far south as Texas. It has a distinctive orange or yellow stripe from its head to tail, and the rest of its body is mainly a gray-green color. The snake is commonly found living near water sources such as streams and ponds, but can also be found in urban areas and vacant lots. Although the IUCN lists the species as \"Least Concern\", some states have given it their own special status. This species is mildly venomous, although the venom is not toxic to humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6451338",
"title": "Snake scale",
"section": "Section::::Nomenclature of scales.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "The various scales on a snake's head and body are indicated in the following paragraphs with annotated photographs of Buff-striped Keelback \"Amphiesma stolata\", a common grass-snake of South Asia and a member of Colubridae, the largest snake family.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3548525",
"title": "Indotyphlops braminus",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 699,
"text": " Adults measure long, uncommonly to , It is the smallest known snake species. The head and tail are superficially similar as the head and neck are indistinct. Unlike other snakes, the head scales resemble the body scales. The eyes are barely discernible as small dots under the head scales. The tip of the tail has a small, pointed spur. Along the body are fourteen rows of dorsal scales. Coloration ranges from charcoal gray, silver-gray, light yellow-beige, purplish, or infrequently albino, the ventral surface more pale. Coloration of the juvenile form is similar to that of the adult. Behavior ranges from lethargic to energetic, quickly seeking the cover of soil or leaf litter to avoid light\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39557959",
"title": "Obscure snakehead",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "The obscure snakehead, \"Parachanna obscura\", is a medium-sized carnivorous fish that has an elongated shape tapered on both ends and is covered in medium circular scales (cycloid). The head, resembling a snake, is long and depressed anteriorly and covered with cycloid scales slightly larger than those scales on the body. This species is found in central Africa along the western coastline from as far north as Senegal to as far south as Zaire and into central Africa into southwest Sudan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "897576",
"title": "Vipera berus",
"section": "Section::::Taxonomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "In Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the snake is known as \"hugorm\", \"hoggorm\" and \"huggorm\", roughly translated as 'striking snake'. In Finland, it is known as \"kyykäärme\" or simply \"kyy\", in Estonia it is known as \"rästik\", while in Lithuania it is known as \"angis\". In Poland the snake is called \"żmija zygzakowata,\" which translates as 'zigzag viper', due to the pattern on its back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13177954",
"title": "Glossy crayfish snake",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "It is a shiny, dark semiaquatic snake, usually measuring 14-24 inches (36–61 cm). Its color can be described as brown to olive-brown. A few dark stripes are present on the snake's back, but hardly noticeable. The bottom of the snake is a cream-yellowish color, with small patterns similar to half moons. It can be described as very stiff, which has earned it the nickname, \"the stiff snake\". This snake also has very rough scales, thought to aid in defence against its main food source, crayfish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30800453",
"title": "Thamnophis sirtalis semifasciatus",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Identification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "The Illinois Natural History Survey describes the Chicago garter snake as a medium-sized, up to 100 cm (39 in) in total length, including the tail), dark brown or black snake with a yellow or gray mid-back stripe, a yellow stripe on each side, and a gray-green belly with dark spots on the edges of most of the belly scales. The snake's head is usually without parietal light spots. Some specimens have red coloring between the side scales.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
355pik
|
why do i drive down the road and sometimes people flash their headlights once or twice before we pass?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are cops behind them, don't do anything stupid.\n\nOr you are already doing something wrong, like not having your lights on at night.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here in South Africa some people do it to warn people of Traffic Police, Roadblock or an Accident / obstruction ahead.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It could be you forgot to turn on your lights, it could be that there's a police car up ahead or just any general hazard you should be aware of. Sometimes they just flash them for no reason.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Either your driving like a loonatic or more likely its just a slight bump in the road. Dimmed headlight point down and if the car moves up slightly theyre pointing straight ahead, so it looks like they're flashing you but they're not :P",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its one of the following:\n\nRadar trap\n\nDanger like fog or animals ahead of you\n\nYou have no lights on and can barely be seen\n\nYOU GOT YOUR HIGHBEAM ON AND I CAN BARELY SEE SHIT !*§!§$*%!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8086974",
"title": "Etiquette in Australia and New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::Shared expectations.:Driving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "BULLET::::- A common experience while travelling on state highways is being 'flashed' by oncoming vehicles. This is when an oncoming vehicle flicks its high beam headlights quickly but noticeably (day or night), and serves to warn drivers they are approaching a hazard: a speed camera or Police vehicle/Radar/Random Breath Test (most commonly), or a motor vehicle accident, or animals/rocks on the road . Many drivers acknowledge this with a return wave or a brief reply 'flash' of their high beam headlights.. It is also done to alert the other driver if they have neglected to turn their own headlights on when necessary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1580910",
"title": "Truck driver",
"section": "Section::::Visual signaling.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 332,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 332,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Flashing headlights to the vehicle in front (intended for the other driver to see in their mirror) has two meanings. Long flashes are used to signal a truck driver that they are clear to return to the lane. A series of rapid flashes generally means \"You're doing something stupid and/or dangerous\" as in \"Do not move in front, trailer not clear!\" or \"I'm overtaking, move aside\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1580910",
"title": "Truck driver",
"section": "Section::::Visual signaling.:U.S..\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 327,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 327,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Continual flashing of headlights or high beams after emerging from around a corner beside a high wall or from any roadway out of sight to oncoming traffic will alert a truck driver in the oncoming lanes to an accident or other obstruction ahead and will warn him to reduce speed or to proceed with caution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "870957",
"title": "Single-track road",
"section": "Section::::User etiquette.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 979,
"text": "In Scotland, where most drivers are accustomed to single-track roads, it is customary for drivers to acknowledge each other with a wave, or flash of headlights at night. Generally in Scotland, if the passing place is to the right-hand side of a vehicle, the driver would never pull in to the passing place to let the other driver pass. Instead the driver would stop just short of the passing place on the road, to leave space for the oncoming vehicle to manoeuvre into the passing place which would be on their left. At night, if a driver were to see an oncoming vehicle in the distance and was reasonably close to a passing place, the driver would flash the headlights which would signal the other car to proceed forward while either the other vehicle reversed back to a passing place, or waited beside a passing place for the other car to arrive. In the United States, it is customary to move the right hand to the top of the steering wheel, palm down, and raise four fingers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23720911",
"title": "Headlight flashing",
"section": "Section::::Legality and meaning.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Though not all of its rules represent law, the Highway Code states \"Only flash your headlights to let other road users know that you are there. Do not flash your headlights in an attempt to intimidate other road users\". Drivers warning others about speed traps have been fined in the past for \"misuse of headlights\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24169585",
"title": "Benjamin Harjo Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "\"When you're traveling down the highway, you see an image whether it's dirt on the back of a truck or a splat on a windshield or two birds sitting by the side of the road picking at something. All those things have inspired me at some point in my creativity.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1580910",
"title": "Truck driver",
"section": "Section::::Visual signaling.:U.S..\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 326,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 326,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "One form of unspoken communication between drivers is to flash headlights on or off once or twice to indicate that a passing truck has cleared the passed vehicle and may safely change lanes in front of the signaling vehicle. The passing driver may then flash the trailer or marker lights to indicate thanks. This signal is also sometimes used by other motorists to signal truck drivers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
de9n3h
|
how does slag glass form?
|
[
{
"answer": "Slag is a byproduct of metal refining. It's essentially impurities in the metal that are removed and is often kinda glassy. Originally slag glass had slag mixed into the glass to give it the appearance. However, later multiple colors of molten glass were mixed together to get a similar effect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1579211",
"title": "Vycor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "glass is melted and formed by typical glassworking techniques into the desired shape. This is heat-treated, which causes the material to separate into two intermingled \"phases\" with distinct chemical compositions. One phase is rich in alkali and boric oxide and can be easily dissolved in acid. The other phase is mostly silica, which is insoluble. The glass object is then soaked in a hot acid solution, which leaches away the soluble glass phase, leaving an object which is mostly silica. At this stage, the glass is porous. Finally, the object is heated to more than 1200 °C, which consolidates the porous structure, making the object shrink slightly and become non-porous. The finished material is classified as a \"reconstructed glass\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "250438",
"title": "Slag",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Slag is the glass-like by-product left over after a desired metal has been separated (i.e., smelted) from its raw ore. Slag is usually a mixture of metal oxides and silicon dioxide. However, slags can contain metal sulfides and elemental metals. While slags are generally used to remove waste in metal smelting, they can also serve other purposes, such as assisting in the temperature control of the smelting, and minimizing any re-oxidation of the final liquid metal product before the molten metal is removed from the furnace and used to make solid metal. In some smelting processes, such as ilmenite smelting to produce titanium dioxide, the slag is the valuable product instead of the metal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4051830",
"title": "Sugar glass",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Sugar glass (also called candy glass, edible glass, and breakaway glass) is a brittle transparent form of sugar that looks like glass. It can be formed into a sheet that looks like flat glass or an object, such as a bottle or drinking glass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3618245",
"title": "Safety glass",
"section": "Section::::Laminated glass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Laminated glass is composed layers of glass and plastic held together by an interlayer. When laminated glass is broken, it is held in place by an interlayer, typically of polyvinyl butyral (PVB), between its two or more layers of glass, which crumble into small pieces. The interlayer keeps the layers of glass bonded even when broken, and its toughening prevents the glass from breaking up into large sharp pieces. This produces a characteristic \"spider web\" cracking pattern (radial and concentric cracks) when the impact is not enough to completely pierce the glass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "298223",
"title": "Glassblowing",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "As a novel glass forming technique created in the middle of the 1st century BC, glassblowing exploited a working property of glass that was previously unknown to glassworkers; inflation, which is the expansion of a molten blob of glass by introducing a small amount of air to it. That is based on the liquid structure of glass where the atoms are held together by strong chemical bonds in a disordered and random network, therefore molten glass is viscous enough to be blown and gradually hardens as it loses heat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1452308",
"title": "Borosilicate glass",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Borosilicate glass is created by combining and melting boric oxide, silica sand, soda ash, and alumina. Since borosilicate glass melts at a higher temperature than ordinary silicate glass, some new techniques were required for industrial production. The manufacturing process depends on the product geometry and can be differentiated between different methods like floating, tube drawing, or moulding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38782972",
"title": "Fritted glass",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Fritted glass is finely porous glass through which gas or liquid may pass. It is made by sintering together glass particles into a solid but porous body. This porous glass body can be called a frit. Applications in laboratory glassware include use in fritted glass filter items, scrubbers, or spargers. Other laboratory applications of fritted glass include packing in chromatography columns and resin beds for special chemical synthesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5nudv5
|
how do you build synthetic molecules?
|
[
{
"answer": "The best way I can explain it is to think of going on a road trip. To get from A to B, there are several routes you could take. You want to stop at a particular tourist attraction on the way, so that eliminates some of the possibilities. Another route is notorious for constant traffic jams, so that's out. Eventually, you come to one route that gets you where you want to go pretty efficiently, and that's the route you take.\n\nSynthetic chemistry, particularly synthetic organic chemistry (yes, that's a real thing) works the same way. You start with a pretty simple molecule, then perform reactions to add specific new parts to the molecule until you get the desired product. Like the road trip, there are usually many ways to accomplish the goal, although there's usually far more options for the chemist. In fact, there are so many different groups and different ways to add them that I doubt any one chemist knows them all; that's why sometimes, companies will bring in a guy from outside to see if they can work out a more efficient process.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically, there are known reactions for adding and breaking molecules at desirable points in a chain. Typically these are multi-step additions, and you don't get 100% of what you want. Your left hand and right hand look the same, but they are mirror images. The same thing happens in chemistry. Adding carbons or chains can result in mirror image molecules, but only one might be the desired product. There are co-products from side reactions, and a lot of characterization and purification to get what you want.\nThe how really depends on what you're trying to accomplish. But simple examples might be substituting a hydrogen with a gas like chlorine, sometimes all you need is light to start the reaction. Building something is not too difficult (but can be deadly), building and purifying the right thing can be a real challenge, often involving many reaction steps to get the right big thing. Often a big molecule B will be added to another molecule A, so that in the next step, molecule B acts as a bouncer blocking the door, so only a specific part of A can react with C. Then B gets knocked off. There is art in synthesis.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21488",
"title": "Nanotechnology",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental concepts.:Simple to complex: a molecular perspective.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Modern synthetic chemistry has reached the point where it is possible to prepare small molecules to almost any structure. These methods are used today to manufacture a wide variety of useful chemicals such as pharmaceuticals or commercial polymers. This ability raises the question of extending this kind of control to the next-larger level, seeking methods to assemble these single molecules into supramolecular assemblies consisting of many molecules arranged in a well defined manner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36680",
"title": "Combinatorial chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Small molecules.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1004,
"text": "small molecule drug candidates. In a typical synthesis, only a single target molecule is produced at the end of a synthetic scheme, with each step in a synthesis producing only a single product. In a combinatorial synthesis, when using only single starting material, it is possible to synthesize a large library of molecules using identical reaction conditions that can then be screened for their biological activity. This pool of products is then split into three equal portions containing each of the three products, and then each of the three individual pools is then reacted with another unit of reagent B, C, or D, producing 9 unique compounds from the previous 3. This process is then repeated until the desired number of building blocks is added, generating many compounds. When synthesizing a library of compounds by a multi-step synthesis, efficient reaction methods must be employed, and if traditional purification methods are used after each reaction step, yields and efficiency will suffer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22208",
"title": "Organic chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Organic synthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 914,
"text": "Synthetic organic chemistry is an applied science as it borders engineering, the \"design, analysis, and/or construction of works for practical purposes\". Organic synthesis of a novel compound is a problem solving task, where a synthesis is designed for a target molecule by selecting optimal reactions from optimal starting materials. Complex compounds can have tens of reaction steps that sequentially build the desired molecule. The synthesis proceeds by utilizing the reactivity of the functional groups in the molecule. For example, a carbonyl compound can be used as a nucleophile by converting it into an enolate, or as an electrophile; the combination of the two is called the aldol reaction. Designing practically useful syntheses always requires conducting the actual synthesis in the laboratory. The scientific practice of creating novel synthetic routes for complex molecules is called total synthesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11572876",
"title": "Kuwajima Taxol total synthesis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "This synthesis is truly synthetic without any help from small biomolecule precursors and also a linear synthesis with molecule ring construction in the order of A, B, C, D. At some point chirality is locked into the molecule via an asymmetric synthesis step which is unique compared to the other efforts. In common with the other efforts the tail addition is based on the Ojima lactam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "270081",
"title": "Synthetic fiber",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Synthetic fibers are made from synthesized polymers of small molecules. The compounds that are used to make these fibers come from raw materials such as petroleum based chemicals or petrochemicals. These materials are polymerized into a chemical that bond two adjacent carbon atoms. Differing chemical compounds are used to produce different types of synthetic fibers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4383471",
"title": "Nanofiber seeding",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "A new synthetic approach, called nanofiber seeding, was developed to control the bulk morphology of chemically synthesized electronic organic polymers. Bulk quantities of nanofibers of conducting polymers such as polyaniline, can be synthesized in one step without the need for conventional templates, surfactants, polymers, or organic solvents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3694845",
"title": "Fine chemical",
"section": "Section::::Research and development.:Objectives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "\"Process Research\" has to design new synthetic routes and sequences. Two approaches are feasible. For simple molecules, the “bottom-up” approach is the method of choice. The researcher converts a commercially available starting material and sequentially adds more reagents until the target molecule is synthesized. For more complex molecules, a “top-down” approach, also known as retro synthesis, or de-construction, is chosen. Key fragments of the target molecule are first identified, then synthesized individually, and finally combined to form the desired molecule through convergent synthesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2yfcjs
|
landfill. surely it's a really really bad idea to fill holes with a partly rotting, gassy, mix of crap? won't we run out of places to put it?
|
[
{
"answer": "The landfills here get filled over and then holes drilled in to the rubbish. Then they put pipes coming vertically out of the rubbish to vent the gas.\n\nSo I suppose in a few hundred years or less the rubbish disintegrates and the gas escapes. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Generally speaking no. Landfills are actually quite small even for large cities.\n\nI mean yes, eventually if we did nothing to recycle or reclaim things I guess we'll fill the planet with trash ... but at our current rates no.\n\nIn parts of the world (re: asia) where you see garbage line the streets it's more a question of a) people litter all the time and b) nobody picks it up ever.\n\nIn Western countries we greatly organize our garbage for pickup and then compact and store it. So we use less land area than them even if we actually throw out more mass per capita than other countries.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "According to a Penn and Teller Bullshit I watched a while back (so take these numbers with a grain of salt) A 10 mile square modern landfill could hold a century worth of America's garbage. It would be an awful place noone would want to live near but there is a lot of barren wasteland in the Desert that could be used.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, it's a reasonable way to dispose of solid waste. There is far more land than is needed to support solid waste disposal for hundreds of thousands of years.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10155109",
"title": "Daule, Esmeraldas",
"section": "Section::::Environmental issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "There are no established landfill facilities or recycling programs established, except for the use of glass bottles. Because of the lacking structured garbage system, garbage can be found anywhere and everywhere in the town. These areas include the beaches, the water, and the streets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211285",
"title": "Landfill",
"section": "Section::::Reclaiming materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Landfills can be regarded as a viable and abundant source of materials and energy. In the developing world, waste pickers often scavenge for still-usable materials. In a commercial context, landfill sites have also been discovered by companies, and many have begun harvesting materials and energy . Well known examples are gas recovery facilities. Other commercial facilities include waste incinerators which have built-in material recovery. This material recovery is possible through the use of filters (electro filter, active carbon and potassium filter, quench, HCl-washer, SO-washer, bottom ash-grating, etc.).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60939825",
"title": "Waste management in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Current management system.:Treatment.:Thermal technologies.:Incinerator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 187,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 187,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "The preference of incinerators over landfills might be advantageous in social and political terms. While the latter has an end-of-life (filling) and requires the jurisdictions to find new sites, the former, although sharing the characteristic of not being wanted by the nearby households, does not need to move over time and will mainly affect only a relatively small area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6366835",
"title": "Landfill mining",
"section": "Section::::Practical applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Landfill mining is also possible in countries where land is not available for new landfill sites. In this instance landfill space can be reclaimed by the extraction of biodegradable waste and other substances then refilled with wastes requiring disposal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47003191",
"title": "List of landfills in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "This is a list of landfills in the United States. A landfill is a site for the disposal of waste materials by burial and is the oldest form of waste treatment. Historically, landfills have been the most common method of organized waste disposal and remain so in many places around the world. Superfund sites are recognized by the government as being contaminated with hazardous substances as well as broadly defined \"pollutants or contaminants\" and in need of cleanup.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12307449",
"title": "Environment of Florida",
"section": "Section::::Waste Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "Increasing landfill space is also an issue. St. Lucie County is planning to experiment with burning trash through plasma arc gasification to generate energy and reduce landfill space. The experiment will be the largest of its kind in the world to date, and begin operation no later than 2009. If successful, experts estimate that the entire St. Lucie County landfill, estimated to contain 4.3 million tons of trash, will disappear within 18 years. Materials created in the energy production can also be used in road construction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "211285",
"title": "Landfill",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "In addition to waste reduction and recycling strategies, there are various alternatives to landfills, including waste-to-energy incineration, anaerobic digestion, composting, mechanical biological treatment, pyrolysis and plasma arc gasification. Depending on local economics and incentives, these can be made more financially attractive than landfills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
q0jlq
|
linear alegbra: what the difference between linear independence and linear dependence is.
|
[
{
"answer": "Let's say I give you a set of vectors. If any one of those vectors can be constructed as a combination of any of the others, then the set is said to be \"linearly dependent\". If the set isn't linearly dependent, we call it \"linearly independent\".\n\nOne way to check for linear independence is to write down a matrix where the columns are the vectors you've been given. If the determinant of that matrix is zero, then the vectors are dependent. If the determinant is not zero, then the vectors are independent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23624339",
"title": "Indexed family",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Index notation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Here (\"v\") denotes a family of vectors. The \"i\"-th vector \"v\" only makes sense with respect to this family, as sets are unordered and there is no \"i\"-th vector of a set. Furthermore, linear independence is only defined as the property of a collection; it therefore is important if those vectors are linearly independent as a set or as a family. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32370",
"title": "Vector space",
"section": "Section::::Basis and dimension.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "where the are scalars, called the coordinates (or the components) of the vector with respect to the basis , and elements of . Linear independence means that the coordinates are uniquely determined for any vector in the vector space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20765204",
"title": "Reciprocity (engineering)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Reciprocity in linear systems is the principle that a response Rab, measured at a location (and direction if applicable) a, when the system has an excitation signal applied at a location (and direction if applicable) b, is exactly equal to Rba which is the response at location b, when that same excitation is applied at a. This applies for all frequencies of the excitation signal. If Hab is the transfer function between a and b then Hab = Hba, if the system is linear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4542",
"title": "Bra–ket notation",
"section": "Section::::Linear operators.:Linear operators acting on kets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "A linear operator is a map that inputs a ket and outputs a ket. (In order to be called \"linear\", it is required to have certain properties.) In other words, if is a linear operator and is a ket, then is another ket.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1118789",
"title": "Linearization",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "In mathematics, linearization is finding the linear approximation to a function at a given point. The linear approximation of a function is the first order Taylor expansion around the point of interest. In the study of dynamical systems, linearization is a method for assessing the local stability of an equilibrium point of a system of nonlinear differential equations or discrete dynamical systems. This method is used in fields such as engineering, physics, economics, and ecology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113087",
"title": "System of linear equations",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "The equations of a linear system are independent if none of the equations can be derived algebraically from the others. When the equations are independent, each equation contains new information about the variables, and removing any of the equations increases the size of the solution set. For linear equations, logical independence is the same as linear independence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "405746",
"title": "Analog signal processing",
"section": "Section::::Systems.:Linear time-invariant (LTI).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1525,
"text": "Linearity means that if you have two inputs and two corresponding outputs, if you take a linear combination of those two inputs you will get a linear combination of the outputs. An example of a linear system is a first order low-pass or high-pass filter. Linear systems are made out of analog devices that demonstrate linear properties. These devices don't have to be entirely linear, but must have a region of operation that is linear. An operational amplifier is a non-linear device, but has a region of operation that is linear, so it can be modeled as linear within that region of operation. Time-invariance means it doesn't matter when you start a system, the same output will result. For example, if you have a system and put an input into it today, you would get the same output if you started the system tomorrow instead. There aren't any real systems that are LTI, but many systems can be modeled as LTI for simplicity in determining what their output will be. All systems have some dependence on things like temperature, signal level or other factors that cause them to be non-linear or non-time-invariant, but most are stable enough to model as LTI. Linearity and time-invariance are important because they are the only types of systems that can be easily solved using conventional analog signal processing methods. Once a system becomes non-linear or non-time-invariant, it becomes a non-linear differential equations problem, and there are very few of those that can actually be solved. (Haykin & Van Veen 2003)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2vu2ib
|
what is mega doing? why do i have to wait forever twice?
|
[
{
"answer": "A lot of complicated encryption.\n\nRemember Megaupload? It was a site for hosting files on for download, based in New Zealand, much like Mega, but it was quicker. Unfortunately for them, US law deemed it illegal because it had lots of copyright-infringing files on it, and had the New Zealand police go shut them down.\n\nThe founder, despite having legal action pending over Megaupload, went and made Mega, its followup website. In order to avoid the law being able to easily \"see\" what's on the site (I believe their official mission statement about it is to \"maintain user privacy\"), it's all encrypted.\n\nAll the encryption is what takes time when it's downloading. It's the tradeoff to having a website the police would find it *very* difficult to legally take down.\n\nIf you want an ELI5 of what encryption is, imagine your file is a finished jigsaw puzzle. Encryption is the act of jumbling up the puzzle and making sure only certain people have a copy of what it's supposed to look like when it's put back together. While it's stored on Mega's servers, it's only there in jumbled up form. The delay is from that jigsaw being put back together when you download it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37509755",
"title": "Mega (service)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Mega is known for its security feature where all files are end-to-end encrypted locally before they are uploaded. This prevents anyone (including employees of Mega Limited) from accessing the files without knowledge of the pass key used for encryption. The service was previously noted for a large 50 GB storage allocation for free accounts. Up to 8 TB is available for paid accounts. As of January 20, 2018, Mega claims to have 100 million registered users in more than 245 countries and territories, and more than 40 billion files have been uploaded to the service.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "878739",
"title": "Karnataka Quiz Association",
"section": "Section::::Mega-Whats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Mega-Whats is the National Open Quizzing Championship, begun in 2009. The contest is held simultaneously in several Indian cities on the second Sunday in December every year. Winners from these cities then meet each other for the Mega-Whats Face-off the following June during the KQA Anniversary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25378460",
"title": "Mega Man 10",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 898,
"text": "\"Mega Man 10\" takes place during the 21st century (\"20XX\") and continues the adventures of the android hero Mega Man. An illness known as \"Roboenza\" suddenly begins infecting robots all over the world, causing them to malfunction and hamper human life. Mega Man's sister Roll becomes one of the disease's victims. A month following the outbreak, many of the infected robots go berserk and attempt to take over the world. The villain Dr. Wily comes to Mega Man and Dr. Light, claiming that he was building a machine making medicine to cure the disease before one of the infected robots stole it. Mega Man decides to help retrieve the machine and soon runs into his brother Proto Man, who quickly joins him. Meanwhile, Mega Man's rival Bass sets out on his own to challenge these new robots. Mega Man halfway finishes his journey when Dr. Wily completes a prototype antidote, which is given to Roll.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11276461",
"title": "Montfort Inter College",
"section": "Section::::Micfest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "The purpose of organizing the two-day mega-festival is to develop communication skills, re-create an awareness of our rich traditions and cultivate cultural interests that affect emotions, work performance and relationships in one's day-to-day life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25378460",
"title": "Mega Man 10",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "\"Mega Man 10\" takes place in the 21st century, in which a disease begins infecting and disabling robots, hampering daily life for humans. The disease eventually causes many of the robots to malfunction and attempt to take over the world. The evil scientist Dr. Wily seeks help from the hero Mega Man. Wily states that a machine he devised, capable of finding a cure for the illness, is stolen by an infected robot. Mega Man decides to retrieve the machine; his brother and ally, Proto Man, decides to join him. \"Mega Man 10\" is a traditional 2D side-scrolling game with action and platforming elements. Taking control of either Mega Man or Proto Man, the player must clear a set of eight stages. Destroying each stage's \"Robot Master\" boss adds its special weapon to the player's arsenal. Downloadable content (original release) or Unlockable content (\"Legacy Collection 2\"), which includes extra stages and Bass as a third playable character, was made available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5551356",
"title": "Mitre 10",
"section": "Section::::Store types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "Mega is Mitre 10's \"destination hardware, or \"big-box\" chain designed as a one stop shop for big projects, to compete with Bunnings Warehouse. The main focus of the Mega is customer service, it markets itself as \"All the help you need\", stores have customer service attendants stationed in different departments of the store i.e., plumbing, trade building supplies (timber), paint, the majority of these have a trade qualification. Mitre 10 Australia opened its first Mega in June 2004 at Beenleigh, Queensland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31928805",
"title": "Mitre 10 (New Zealand)",
"section": "Section::::MEGA Stores.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "MEGA is Mitre 10's \"big-box\" chain, designed as a one-stop shop for major projects. It directly competes with such chains as Bunnings and The Warehouse. Mega stores offer customers a larger product range than standard Mitre 10 stores including larger garden centres and drive-through facilities, as well as extra services such as cafes and children's play areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3xevxt
|
why do the skeletons of people that died hundreds of years ago have perfect white teeth but mine will yellow within days without brushing?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because those skeletons aren't maintaining an active bacterial culture in their mouth. Your mouth is warm and moist and constantly intaking nutrients and those nutrients feed a munch of bacteria that also damage your teeth. Also those skeletons often died young in a world which didn't have the same quantity of calorie rich sweeteners that cause tooth decay.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You are alive. You are constantly exposing your teeth to food and other habits that can stain them, and you are providing a nice, warm, wet environment perfect for bacteria growth which can lead to plaque and cavities.\n\nSkeletons are, well, dead. They are not constantly eating. Their mouth is not a nice warm wet environment. Bacteria cannot really survive long in that environment. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They aren't, they just look like it in comparison to the rest of the bones, especially the skull because other bones are more porous than teeth and stain more easily.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This post reminded me of an article I read a bit ago. Some scientists believe it's due to diet; notably lack of large quantities of sugar. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your teeth are supposed to be [slightly yellow](_URL_0_). So the white of skeletons is bleaching of the bone and enamel, not a sign of healthier teeth. \n\nYour bones aren't white when they're still in you, either, they're yellowish and pinkish until a while after you're dead and the fat and blood residue degrades away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One word:\n\nJunk food.\n\nOur foods today are much more processed than even a century ago. Also, many people had bad teeth throughout history. That smiling skeleton only accounts for a very limited number of cases.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As palcatraz pointed out, you are alive and continually using your teeth. But teeth also appear whiter when they are dry. This helps to explain why those bone dry dead guys have some seriously nice smiles. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1099707",
"title": "Teeth blackening",
"section": "Section::::Elsewhere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "\"All are very careful of their teeth, which from a very early age they file and render even, with stones and iron. They dye them a black color, which is lasting, and which preserves their teeth until they are very old, although it is ugly to look at.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18617998",
"title": "Geisha",
"section": "Section::::Appearance.:Makeup.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Maiko who are in their last stage of training sometimes colour their teeth black for a brief period. This practice used to be common among married women in Japan and, earlier, at the imperial court, but survives only in some districts. It is done partly because uncoloured teeth seem very yellow in contrast to white face makeup; colouring the teeth black means that they seem to \"disappear\" in the darkness of the open mouth. This illusion is of course more pronounced at a distance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48315083",
"title": "Tooth discoloration",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Intrinsic discoloration.:Trauma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Teeth may turn grey following trauma-induced pulp necrosis (death of the pulp). This discoloration typically develops weeks or months after the injury and is caused by incorporation of pigments released during the breakdown of the pulpal tissue and blood into the dentin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42503000",
"title": "List of unidentified murder victims in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Arkansas.:Pulaski County Jane Doe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "The skeleton of a black woman between 18 and 40 years of age was discovered in Little Rock, Pulaski County, Arkansas on August 18, 2002. She had been shot in the head and was hidden underneath a pile of insulation. She wore several articles of clothing, some which were designed for men. Several pennies and a dollar bill were found in the pockets of her shirt and windbreaker pants. Her nose had been broken and her septum was reportedly slanted to the left side. Multiple ribs had previously healed from fractures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44675661",
"title": "List of unidentified decedents in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Illinois.:Will County Jane Doe (1981).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "The remains of a white woman were found on April 19, 1981 in New Lenox, Will County, Illinois, along interstate 80. The female was between twenty-three and thirty-five years old and was presumed to have died about a year before she was found. Because she was badly decomposed, it was not possible to estimate her eye or hair color, along with her weight. It was possible to determine her height, which was likely around . No clothing or other items were located at the scene. The woman had suffered a fracture to her nose at some point during life, as evidence of such an injury was found when examining the skull. Her DNA has since been processed and nearly 250 people have been excluded from the case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1446110",
"title": "442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)",
"section": "Section::::522nd Field Artillery Battalion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "No, my first encounter was these lumps in snow, and then I didn't know what they were, and so I went and investigated them and discovered that they were people, you know. Most of them were skeletons or people who had been beaten to death or just died of starvation or overworked or whatever. Most of them I think died from exposure because it was cold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4025147",
"title": "Castleknock Castle",
"section": "Section::::History.:Cromlech.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "The skeleton in this case was so old that the admission of air caused a portion of the bones to fall into dust; this accounts for the small heaps of whitish dust which were found with the larger bones.\"\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4g3xka
|
Penrose diagrams for evaporating black holes?
|
[
{
"answer": "In Penrose diagrams, the horizontal coordinate is normally **radial**, so it goes from zero to infinity. The vertical axis is time, and each point corresponds to a spatial two-sphere at that given radius and time. For a given time, the left-most boundary is r = 0, the center of the spacetime (which you'll notice does some funky stuff for your evaporating example, related to the fact that the black hole singularity is a space-like surface). In Minkowski diagrams one usually take the horizontal axis to be a spatial Cartesian coordinate so the origin is at the center, but since black holes have spherical symmetry this isn't as convenient.\n\nNote also that unlike Minkowski diagrams, spacetime infinities are represented by finite distances on Penrose diagrams (that is the mapping takes them to finite points on the diagram). [Here is the Penrose diagram for Minkowski space using a radial spatial coordinate (Fig. 1)](_URL_0_) if you'd like to compare the differences directly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "681666",
"title": "Penrose diagram",
"section": "Section::::Black holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Penrose diagrams are frequently used to illustrate the causal structure of spacetimes containing black holes. Singularities are denoted by a spacelike boundary, unlike the timelike boundary found on conventional space-time diagrams. This is due to the interchanging of timelike and spacelike coordinates within the horizon of a black hole (since space is uni-directional within the horizon, just as time is uni-directional outside the horizon).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46339424",
"title": "ASTM smoke pump",
"section": "Section::::Calibration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "The instrument provides the technician with a dark spot on a filter paper strip which is then compared with a standard darkness chart, commonly numbered 0 to 10, 0 being entirely white and 10 being entirely black. The darkness can be related to the likely concentration of dark smoke particles in the flue gas by an empirical non-linear formula based on the OECD Document 'Methods of Measuring Air Pollution' \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2975616",
"title": "Penrose process",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "The Penrose process (also called Penrose mechanism) is theorised by Roger Penrose as a means whereby energy can be extracted from a rotating black hole. That extraction can occur if the rotational energy of the black hole is located not inside the event horizon but outside in a region of the Kerr spacetime called the ergosphere in which any particle is necessarily propelled in locomotive concurrence with the rotating spacetime. All objects in the ergosphere become dragged by a rotating spacetime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "681666",
"title": "Penrose diagram",
"section": "Section::::Black holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "Penrose diagrams are often used to illustrate the hypothetical Einstein-Rosen bridge connecting two separate universes in the maximally extended Schwarzschild black hole solution. The precursors to the Penrose diagrams were Kruskal–Szekeres diagrams. (The Penrose diagram adds to Kruskal and Szekeres' diagram the conformal crunching of the regions of flat space-time far from the hole.) These introduced the method of aligning the event horizon into past and future horizons oriented at 45° angles (since one would need to travel faster than light to cross from the Schwarzschild radius back into flat spacetime); and splitting the singularity into past and future horizontally-oriented lines (since the singularity \"cuts off\" all paths into the future once one enters the hole).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "475212",
"title": "Yakov Zeldovich",
"section": "Section::::Academia and cosmology.:Black hole thermodynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Zeldovich played a key role in developing the theory of black hole evaporation due to Hawking radiation. During Stephen Hawking's visit to Moscow in 1973, Soviet scientists Zeldovich and Alexei Starobinsky showed Hawking that, according to the quantum mechanical uncertainty principle, rotating black holes should create and emit particles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173724",
"title": "Hawking radiation",
"section": "Section::::Black hole evaporation.:A crude analytic estimate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "BULLET::::- The simplest models of black hole evaporation lead to the black hole information paradox. The information content of a black hole appears to be lost when it dissipates, as under these models the Hawking radiation is random (it has no relation to the original information). A number of solutions to this problem have been proposed, including suggestions that Hawking radiation is perturbed to contain the missing information, that the Hawking evaporation leaves some form of remnant particle containing the missing information, and that information is allowed to be lost under these conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1797708",
"title": "Numerical relativity",
"section": "Section::::History.:Maturation of the field.:Excision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "While the implementation of excision has been very successful, the technique has two minor problems. The first is that one has to be careful about the coordinate conditions. While physical effects cannot propagate from inside to outside, coordinate effects could. For example, if the coordinate conditions were elliptical, coordinate changes inside could instantly propagate out through the horizon. This then means that one needs hyperbolic type coordinate conditions with characteristic velocities less than that of light for the propagation of coordinate effects (e.g., using harmonic coordinates coordinate conditions). The second problem is that as the black holes move, one must continually adjust the location of the excision region to move with the black hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3mgu1q
|
why doesn't america join russia fighting isis in syria on the ground?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's dirty fighting and I don't think any western country wants to get that deep just yet. It's very expensive, the largest cost being soldiers' lives.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* Russia is not fighting on the ground, they are providing arms and support and are starting to fly air sorties. \n\n* The US does not want to support the Assad regime, which is what Russian action is really all about, not fighting ISIS in particular. Western governments maintain that Assad must step down and refuse to work with him.\n\n* Russia is attempting to pose as a \"good partner\" in Syria and in the Iran deal to take the diplomatic/economic pressure off of them over Ukraine. Aiding Russia in supporting Assad and legitimizing their strategy should only come with real concessions from Russia on Ukraine, such as turning over control of the Ukrainian border back to the government in Kiev.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The events of the last 15-or-so years illustrate, fairly clearly, why the USA is reluctant to put \"boots on the ground\" in the Middle East. It was their intervention that (at least partly) caused the rise of ISIS in the first place.\n\nSo now the Russians have clearly taken a side, supporting the Assad regime (Shia) against the Saudi-backed ISIS (Sunni). That's right - it'd fundamentally a Islamic sectarian conflict, about which has the \"correct\" version of Islam. \n\nLet's imagine the USA did as you suggest, and the \"dream team\" took on ISIS. What would it take to \"defeat\" ISIS? We're no longer in 1812, back in the days when the armies lined up against each other on a field, and the winner of the battle also won the war. ISIS consists of people who think the ends justify the means, who have no qualms about hiding in people's homes, using them as \"human shields\". (They don't exactly obey the 3rd Amendment over there.) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35630457",
"title": "Russian involvement in the Syrian Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Reactions.:Foreign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "BULLET::::- The US-led coalition that is launching its own air strikes against ISIS demanded that Russia stop attacking targets other than ISIS. \"We call on the Russian Federation to immediately cease its attacks on the Syrian opposition and civilians and to focus its efforts on fighting ISIL,\" said the US-led coalition. it also objected to Assad's participation in the intelligence sharing. By the opposition other than ISIS it is meant the groups have received training and weapons from US and other Assad's enemies. \"We do not support the presence of Syrian government officials who are part of a regime that has brutalized its own citizens,\" said Col. Steven H. Warren, the spokesman for the US-led coalition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35630457",
"title": "Russian involvement in the Syrian Civil War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "In September 2015, the Federation Council, Russia's upper house of parliament authorised the Russian president to use armed forces in Syria. Russia acknowledged that Russian air and missile strikes targeted not only ISIL, but also rebel groups in the Army of Conquest coalition like al-Nusra Front, al-Qaeda's Syrian branch, and even FSA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48026864",
"title": "Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Reactions.:International.:Supranational.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "U.S.-led coalition – On 1 October 2015, participants in the United States-led anti-ISIL coalition called on Russia to curtail its air campaign in Syria, saying the airstrikes had hit Syrian opposition groups and civilians. Such strikes would \"only fuel more extremism\", the statement issued by the United States, UK, Turkey and other coalition members declared. \"We call on the Russian Federation to immediately cease its attacks on the Syrian opposition and civilians and to focus its efforts on fighting ISIL.\" United States President Barack Obama, at a news conference on 2 October, underscored the coalition statement by saying the Russian action was driving moderate opposition groups underground, and would result in \"only strengthening\" ISIL.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36761284",
"title": "Foreign involvement in the Syrian Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Support for the Syrian Ba'athist government.:Russia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "On 30 September 2015, with permission of the upper house of the Russian Parliament, Russia started a direct military intervention in Syria consisting of air strikes against ISIL, the Al-Nusra Front, and other perceived enemies of the Syrian government. The Russian Orthodox Church official spokesman called the intervention by Russia in Syria a \"holy fight\" (or holy struggle) against terrorism. Russia claimed the attacks were against the ISIL positions. However, according to reports, the Russian air strikes targeted positions held by the Army of Conquest coalition including the Saudi/Turkish-backed Al-Nusra Front and by Salafi-jihadi coalition known as Ahrar ash-Sham.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30741795",
"title": "Syrian Civil War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1438,
"text": "Iran, Russia, and Hezbollah support the Syrian Arab Republic and the Syrian Armed Forces militarily, with Russia conducting airstrikes and other military operations since September 2015. The U.S.-led international coalition, established in 2014 with the declared purpose of countering ISIL, has conducted airstrikes primarily against ISIL as well as some against government and pro-government targets. They have also deployed special forces and artillery units to engage ISIL on the ground. Since 2015, the U.S. has supported the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria and its armed wing, the SDF, materially, financially, and logistically. Turkey is directly involved in operations against the Syrian government since August 2016, not only participating in airstrikes against ISIL alongside the U.S.-led coalition, but also actively supporting the Syrian opposition and occupying large swaths of northwestern Syria while engaging in significant ground combat with ISIL, the SDF, and the Syrian government. Between 2011 and 2017, fighting from the Syrian Civil War spilled over into Lebanon as opponents and supporters of the Syrian government traveled to Lebanon to fight and attack each other on Lebanese soil, with ISIL and Al-Nusra also engaging the Lebanese Army. Furthermore, while officially neutral, Israel has conducted airstrikes against Hezbollah and Iranian forces, whose presence in southwestern Syria it views as a threat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48400465",
"title": "Vienna peace talks for Syria",
"section": "Section::::Munich: 'cessation of hostilities'.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Russian foreign minister Lavrov emphasized that everyone agreed on the need to destroy ISIL, that talking about ground troops invading Syria would only add fire to the conflict, and called the idea that things in Syria would improve if President Assad would abdicate an illusion. Germany’s foreign minister Steinmeier reportedly said that the US and Russia should coordinate their military actions more closely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48638932",
"title": "2015 Russian Sukhoi Su-24 shootdown",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Russia is one of several countries directly involved in the Syrian conflict. On 30 September 2015, Russia began its air campaign against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) and other anti-government forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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