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County government is overseen by five commissioners. Each county commissioner serves a five-year term. The county commissioners include Duane Sutton, Drew Dennert, Mike Wiese, Mike Gage, and Doug Fjeldheim. Aberdeen is home to Brown County offices including clerk-magistrate, county auditor, landfill office, register of deeds, county treasurer, coroner, emergency management, highway superintendent, public welfare, state's attorney, and a few others.
The state senators from Brown County include Brock Greenfield and Al Novstrup, and the state representatives included Lana Greefield, Kaleb Wies, Carl Perry and Drew Dennert. They are all in office until December 2020
In 2008, Governor Mike Rounds named Aberdeen as the South Dakota Community of the Year.
Education.
Public schools.
Aberdeen Public Schools are part of the Aberdeen School District. The school district has six elementary schools, two middle schools, and one high school.
The elementary schools are C.C. Lee Elementary School, Lincoln Elementary School, May Overby Elementary School, O.M. Tiffany Elementary School, Simmons Elementary School and Mike Miller Elementary School. The two middle schools are Holgate Middle School, which serves the north side of Aberdeen, and Simmons Middle School, which serves the south side of the city. Students in the district attend Central High School. The Hub Area Technical School is located in the district. Aberdeen also has an alternative middle and high school.
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The Aberdeen School District's enrollment for the year 2011–2012 was approximately 3,945 students, and the average class size was in the low to mid-twenties. Due to a projected increase in enrollment and the modernization of facilities, Simmons Middle School was completely remodeled with the demolition of the original 1929 building and the addition of a new classroom and cafeteria building which was completed in August 2008. The public school in Aberdeen is AA under the SDHSAA.
Parochial schools.
Aberdeen has several parochial schools, including the Catholic-affiliated Roncalli High School, the nondenominational Aberdeen Christian School, and Trinity Lutheran School of the WELS.
Special programs.
The South Dakota School for the Blind and Visually Impaired is a state special school under the direction of the South Dakota Board of Regents.
Higher education.
Northern State University.
Northern State University (NSU) is a public university that was founded in 1901 and today occupies a campus. 2,528 students, ranging from first-year to graduate students, attended NSU for the 2006–2007 school year. The student-to-teacher ratio is 19:1.
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NSU was originally called the Institute of South Dakota before changing its name to Northern Normal and Industrial School in 1901. It changed its name again in 1939 when it became the Northern State Teachers College, and again in 1964, becoming Northern State College before finalizing as Northern State University in 1989.
NSU offers thirty-eight majors and forty-two minors as well as other degrees, and also has nine graduate degree areas for students wishing to further their education after achieving their first degree.
The mascot of NSU is the wolf named Thunder.
Presentation College.
Presentation College was a Catholic college on a campus, and was founded in 1951. Enrollment in fall 2014 was reported to be 735. PC offers 26 programs between the main Aberdeen campus and the other campuses located throughout the state. Most of the degrees offered are in the health-care field. The student to teacher ratio is 12:1. Presentation's mascot is the Saint, giving it the nickname the Presentation College Saints. Presentation College announced that it would no longer take new enrollments, and closed the college at the end of the summer semester in 2023.
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Media.
"The American News" was founded as a weekly newspaper in 1885, by C.W. Starling and Paul Ware. It is now a daily newspaper.
Infrastructure.
Transportation.
Air.
The Aberdeen Regional Airport is currently served by Delta Connection. It offers flights to Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport using the Bombardier CRJ550 aircraft.
Roadways.
There are two major US highways that serve Aberdeen. One is US Highway 281, a north–south highway that runs continuously from the Canadian border to the Mexican border, the only three-digit U.S. highway to do so. This also makes it the longest three-digit U.S. highway. The second highway is US Highway 12 that runs east–west across northern South Dakota from the Minnesota border before curving northwest into the southwestern corner of North Dakota. The western terminus is in Aberdeen, Washington, and the eastern terminus is in downtown Detroit, Michigan. US Highway 12 is the major thoroughfare in Aberdeen, and is signed in the city of Aberdeen as 6th Avenue South. US Highway 281 was recently realigned onto a new bypass that was constructed around the western area of the city.
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Intercity Bus.
Jefferson Lines is a bus service from Aberdeen that connects to Sioux Falls, South Dakota, Fargo, North Dakota, and Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Public Transit.
Ride Line Transportation Services provides demand response service to the Aberdeen area. Aberdeen is the largest city in South Dakota without fixed-route service.
Railroads.
The BNSF Railway conveys freight and grain through Aberdeen. Until 1969 the Milwaukee Road ran trains between Aberdeen and Minneapolis. Earlier, until 1961, trains from Chicago to Seattle ran through the railroad's Aberdeen station. Burlington Northern purchased parts of the Milwaukee Road's "Pacific Extension" into Montana when the Milwaukee Road when bankrupt and ended service in 1977.
In addition, the Great Northern Railway was absorbed into the Burlington Northern in March 1970 with the merger of the Spokane, Portland, & Seattle Railway, the Chicago, Burlington, & Quincy Railroad, and the Northern Pacific Railway into one railroad company. The former Great Northern trackage was later purchased from Burlington Northern by Dakota, Missouri Valley & Western Railroad.
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The Minneapolis & St. Louis Railway had a lightly used branch line from Donde South Dakota through Aberdeen, South Dakota to Long Lake, South Dakota and this line became Chicago & Northwestern Railway property when the Minneapolis & St. Louis Railway merged with the Chicago & Northwestern Railway October 1960. Chicago & Northwestern already had a lightly used branch line from James Valley Junction, South Dakota to Oakes, North Dakota. All the lines saw little traffic and were eventually abandoned by the Chicago and Northwestern before its 1995 merger with the Union Pacific Railroad.
Taxi.
Aberdeen Taxi service provides general taxi service in Aberdeen. Aberdeen Shuttle provides shuttle service to and from the airport along with general taxi services.
Car rental.
There are five car rental services in Aberdeen: Hertz, Avis, Dollar-Thrifty, Toyota Rent-a-Car, and Nissan Rental Car. Hertz and Avis Car rental are located in the airport terminal. Dollar-Thrifty is located in Aberdeen Flying Service. Toyota Rent-a-Car and Nissan Rental Car are located at Harr Motors across from the airport.
Healthcare.
Aberdeen has two hospitals, Avera St. Luke's Hospital and Sanford Aberdeen Medical Center.
There are several nursing homes in the area, including Avera Mother Joseph Manor, Manor Care, Bethesda Home of Aberdeen, Aberdeen Health and Rehab, Angelhaus and Gellhaus Carehaus.
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Au
Au, AU, au or a.u. may refer to:
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Aberdeenshire/Aberdeenshire1911
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Aberdour
Aberdour (; Scots: , ) is a scenic and historic village on the south coast of Fife, Scotland. It is on the north shore of the Firth of Forth, looking south to the island of Inchcolm and its Abbey, and to Leith and Edinburgh beyond. According to the 2011 census, the village has a population of 1,633.
The village's winding High Street lies a little inland from the coast. Narrow lanes run off it, providing access to the more hidden parts of the village and the shoreline itself. The village nestles between the bigger coastal towns of Burntisland to the east and Dalgety Bay to the west.
The parish of Aberdour takes its name from this village, and had a population of 1,972 at the 2011 Census.
Etymology.
Aberdour means 'mouth of the Dour'. The first element is the Pictish word "aber" 'river mouth'. The name of the Dour Burn, which enters the River Forth at the village's harbour, is from Pictish "" 'water'. A cognate of this word is also seen in Dover and Andover. The Pictish word was subsequently changed to Gaelic "dobhar". Aberdour is recorded in 1179 as Abirdoure and in 1126 as "Abirdaur".
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History.
For much of its history Aberdour was two villages, Wester Aberdour and Easter Aberdour, on either side of the Dour Burn; however this distinction was blurred by the 19th century arrival of the railway.
The original church was dedicated to St Fillan in 1178 but only was given parish status in 1640 when the area was disjunctioned from the parish of Beath and Dalgety.
In the 18th century Aberdour's harbour was improved by the addition of a stone pier to help handle the coal traffic from nearby collieries. However, in the 1850s the traffic changed dramatically, and Aberdour Harbour became a popular destination for pleasure steamers from Leith. This in turn led to the building of a deeper water pier a little around the bay at Hawkcraig, and to the development of hotels and many of the other services still on view today in the village.
The railway came to Aberdour in 1890, with the building of the line east from the newly opened Forth Bridge. The station has won many "best kept station" awards.
Geography.
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The A921, the main road along the south coast of Fife, leads down the High Street of Wester Aberdour, before kinking sharply left to cross the railway line, then right again to progress through Easter Aberdour's Main Street.
Wester Aberdour has a narrow through road more closely hemmed in by shops and hotels. A number of vernacular buildings of the 17th-early 19th centuries add to the historic scene. Close to the railway bridge, three lanes continue eastwards, presumably once the route of the original High Street before the arrival of the railway. One now leads to Aberdour railway station, a beautifully kept and cared for example of a traditional station, in keeping with its role of transporting at least a quarter of the village's working population to their work each day.
A second lane leads alongside the railway line to Aberdour Castle, while a third leads to the restored Aberdour House. A little further west, a narrow road closely lined with high walls, Shore Road, leads down to the West Sands and the Harbour. For many this area is the highlight of any visit to Aberdour; parking at the foot of Shore Road is usually at a premium.
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Another road leads coastwards from Easter Aberdour. Hawkcraig Road leads past St Fillan's Church and through Silversand Park, home to Aberdour Shinty Club, en route to a parking area on Hawkcraig. The car park was the site of a whinstone quarry between 1910 and 1933, exploiting the dolerite sill which forms the bedrock geology. The area was then used as the council refuse tip before becoming a car park in the 1970s, part of the overgrown and rocky bluff separating Aberdour's two bays. From here is it a short walk to the Silver Sands, Aberdour's busiest and most popular beach.
On the west side of Hawkcraig Point there is a short concrete jetty that was used as part of the development of radio controlled torpedoes during World War I. The foundations of the Radio Hut can still be seen in the lea of the hill.
Landmarks.
Virtually between the two former settlements, though actually part of Easter Aberdour, lies Aberdour Castle. This started life as a modest hall house on a site overlooking the Dour Burn in the 13th century. The oldest part of the present semi-ruin constitutes one of the earliest surviving stone castles in mainland Scotland. Over the next four hundred years the Castle was successively developed according to contemporary architectural ideas. Notable are the parts, still largely roofed, built by the Earls of Morton, with refined Renaissance detail, in the second half of the 16th century.
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A fire in the late 17th century was followed by some repairs, but in 1725 the family purchased 17th-century Aberdour House, on the west side of the burn and in Wester Aberdour, and the medieval Castle was allowed to fall into relative decay. Aberdour Castle is now in the care of Historic Environment Scotland and open to the public (entrance charge). After a period of dereliction Aberdour House was developed for residential use in the early 1990s.
Neighbouring St Fillan's Church is one of the best-preserved medieval parish churches in Scotland, dating largely to the 12th century and originally under control of Inchcolm Abbey. A south arcade was added to the nave in the early 16th century (open in summer). It was controversially considered for closure by the Church of Scotland in 2022, but a campaign was mounted to keep it open.
The Aberdour obelisk was built by Lord Morton on his departure from the village to relocate to a large home in Edinburgh, it was built so he could see his former hometown from his new house when he looked through binoculars – it stands in a cowfield between the castle and the beach.
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Culture.
Aberdour hosts an annual festival, which runs from late July to early August and features musical events, shows, sporting events and children's events.
Aberdour was a 2005 finalist in the prestigious "Beautiful Scotland in Bloom" awards. It was nominated for "Best Coastal Resort" in Scotland along with St Andrews in Fife, North Berwick in East Lothian, and Rothesay in Argyll and Bute.
In 2014 Aberdour was voted Best Coastal Village in Fife and Best Small Coastal Village in Scotland. It also received a Gold Award in Beautiful Fife and Beautiful Scotland. In 2018 Aberdour was voted the second-best place to live in Scotland by The Sunday Times list of Best Places to Live
Aberdour is home to Fife's only senior shinty club. Aberdour Shinty Club field teams in both the men's and women's senior national leagues.
Aberdour is one of the few communities outside of Turkmenistan to celebrate Melon Day on the second Sunday of every August.
Aberdour's beaches.
Aberdour has two beaches – the Silver Sands, and the Black Sands.
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The Silver Sands are located on the East side of the village, and have previously held a "Blue flag" beach award, which denotes an exemplary standard of cleanliness, facilities, safety, environmental education and management. New facilities are currently under construction by Fife Council, which will much improve the beach throughout the year.
The Black Sands (also known as the West Beach), as the contrasting name would suggest, have a rockier and darker sand, and are also popular with visitors exploring the rock caves and unique sea life. During the summer months (April–September), dogs are banned from the Silver Sands but they are allowed all year round at the West Beach. The two beaches are linked by part of the Fife Coastal Path which also takes hikers past the harbour and the Hawkcraig – a popular rock climbing location.
Silver Sands is becoming more popular with open water swimmers, who swim daily in the sea, both as a leisure pursuit, and as training for open water competition. The bay provides safety from the currents, although only the adventurous swim round to the harbour.
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Several scenes of Richard Jobson's 2003 movie "16 Years of Alcohol" were filmed at the Black Sands in Aberdour.
Inchcolm.
The island of Inchcolm, or Island (Gaelic "innis") of Columba, a quarter of a mile from the shore, forms part of the parish of Aberdour. Its name implies associations dating back to the time of Columba and, although undocumented before the 12th century, it may have served the monks of the Columban family as an 'Iona of the east' from early times.
During the First and Second World Wars, Inchcolm was occupied by the army as part of the defences of the Firth of Forth. There are extensive remains of gun emplacements, barracks, etc. from these periods.
The island is notable for its wildlife, especially seabirds and seals. These draw many visitors in summer, along with the remains of the historic Abbey, and is a popular setting for weddings.
Notable residents.
Notable past and present residents of the town include:
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Aberfoyle, Stirling
Aberfoyle () is a village in the historic county and registration county of Perthshire and the council area of Stirling, Scotland. The settlement lies northwest of Glasgow.
The parish of Aberfoyle takes its name from this village, and had a population of 1,065 at the 2011 census.
Geography.
The town is situated on the River Forth at the foot of Craigmore ( high). Since 1885, when the Duke of Montrose constructed a road over the eastern shoulder of Craigmore to join the older road at the entrance of the Trossachs pass, Aberfoyle has become the alternative route to the Trossachs and Loch Katrine; this road, known as the Duke's Road or Duke's Pass, was opened to the public in 1931 when the Forestry Commission acquired the land.
Loch Ard, about west of Aberfoyle, lies above the sea. It is long (including the narrows at the east end) and broad. Towards the west end is Eilean Gorm ("the green isle"), and near the north-western shore are the falls of Ledard. The loch's northern shores are dominated by the mountain ridge of Beinn an Fhogharaidh (). northwest of Loch Ard is Loch Chon, at above the sea, long and about broad. It drains by the Avon Dhu to Loch Ard, which is drained in turn by the Forth.
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Toponym.
Aberfoyle supposedly originates from the Brittonic Celtic, "aber poll" or "aber phuill" (Scottish Gaelic, ), meaning (place at the) mouth of the Phuill Burn (the Pow Burn enters the River Forth at Aberfoyle). Historically, alternative spellings such as "Abirfull", "Aberfule", "Aberfoill" and "Aberfoil" have been recorded before the current spelling became accepted by the 20th century. The river-name is from either Gaelic "poll" or Brittonic "pol", both of which mean 'pool, sluggish water'.
Industry.
The slate quarries on Craigmore which operated from the 1820s to the 1950s are now defunct; at its peak this was a major industry. Other industries included an ironworks, established in the 1720s, as well as wool spinning and a lint mill.
From 1882 the village was served by Aberfoyle railway station, the terminus of the Strathendrick and Aberfoyle Railway which connected to Glasgow via Dumbarton or Kirkintilloch. The station closed to passenger traffic in 1951, and the remaining freight services ceased in 1959.
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The above industries have since died out, and Aberfoyle is supported mainly by the forestry, industry and tourism.
Tourism.
Visitors were first attracted to Aberfoyle and the surrounding area after the publication of "The Lady of the Lake" by Sir Walter Scott in 1810. The poem described the beauty of Loch Katrine. Aberfoyle describes itself as "The Gateway to the Trossachs", and is well situated for visitors to access attractions such as Loch Lomond and Inchmahome Priory at the Lake of Menteith. Aberfoyle Golf Club was built in 1860 and is located just south of town near the Rob Roy restaurant. Aberfoyle is also part of the Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park.
Aberfoyle is also home to the largest Go Ape adventure course in the UK, featuring the longest death slide, or 'zip-line', in the UK.
Historical figures.
Aberfoyle has connections to many historical figures such as Áedán mac Gabráin, Rob Roy and Mary, Queen of Scots. A "Life" of the Irish saint Berach of Cluain Chairpthe has the saint travel to Eperpuill (Aberfoyle) to seek Áedán mac Gabráin's adjudication in a land dispute. Robert Roy MacGregor was born at the head of nearby Loch Katrine, and his well-known cattle stealing exploits took him all around the area surrounding Aberfoyle. It is recorded, for example, that in 1691, the MacGregors raided every barn in the village of Kippen and stole all the villagers' livestock. There currently stands a tree in the village that MacGregor was reputed to have climbed and hid in to escape the clutches of the law. Also, Mary, Queen of Scots, visited nearby Inchmahome Priory often as a child, and during her short reign. She also used the priory during her short reign, particularly in 1547, where she felt safe from the English Army.
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However, the most local historical figure is the Reverend Robert Kirk, born in 1644. It was the Rev. Kirk who provided the first translation into Scottish Gaelic of the Metrical Psalms and then the whole Christian Bible, however, he is better remembered for the publication of his book "The Secret Commonwealth of Elves, Fauns, and Fairies" in 1691. Kirk had long been researching fairies, and the book collected several personal accounts and stories of folk who claimed to have encountered them.
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Abergavenny
Abergavenny (; , , archaically , ) is a market town and community in Monmouthshire, Wales. Abergavenny is promoted as a "Gateway to Wales"; it is approximately from the border with England and is located where the A40 trunk road and the recently upgraded A465 Heads of the Valleys road meet.
Originally the site of a Roman fort, Gobannium, it became a medieval walled town within the Welsh Marches. The town contains the remains of a medieval stone castle built soon after the Norman conquest of Wales.
Abergavenny is situated at the confluence of the River Usk and a tributary stream, the Gavenny. It is almost entirely surrounded by mountains and hills: the Blorenge (), the Sugar Loaf (), Skirrid Fawr (Great Skirrid), Ysgyryd Fach (Little Skirrid), Deri, Rholben and Mynydd Llanwenarth, known locally as "Llanwenarth Breast". Abergavenny provides access to the nearby Black Mountains and the wider Brecon Beacons National Park. The Cambrian Way, Beacons Way and Marches Way pass through Abergavenny whilst the Offa's Dyke Path passes through Pandy five miles to the north and the Usk Valley Walk passes through nearby Llanfoist.
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In the UK 2011 census, the six relevant wards (Lansdown, Grofield, Castle, Croesonen, Cantref and Priory) collectively listed Abergavenny's population as 12,515. The town hosted the 2016 National Eisteddfod of Wales.
Etymology.
The town derives its name from a Brythonic word "Gobannia" meaning "river of the blacksmiths", and relates to the town's pre-Roman importance in iron smelting. The name is related to the modern Welsh word "gof" (blacksmith), and so is also associated with the Welsh smith Gofannon from folklore. The river later became, in Welsh, "Gafenni", and the town's name became "Abergafenni", meaning "mouth of (Welsh: "Aber") the Gavenny ("Gafenni")". In Welsh, the shortened form "Y Fenni" may have come into use after about the 15th century, and is now used as the Welsh name. Abergavenny, the English spelling, is in general use.
Geography.
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In the UK 2011 census, the six relevant wards (Lansdown, Grofield, Castle, Croesonen, Cantref and Priory) collectively listed Abergavenny's population as 12,515.
History.
Roman period.
Gobannium was a Roman fort guarding the road along the valley of the River Usk, which linked the legionary fortress of Burrium (Usk) and later Isca Augusta or Isca Silurum (Caerleon) in the south with Y Gaer, Brecon and Mid Wales. It was also built to keep the peace among the local British Iron Age tribe, the Silures. Cadw considers that the fort was occupied from around CE50 to CE150. Remains of the walls of this fort were discovered west of the castle when excavating the foundations for a new post office and telephone exchange building in the late 1960s.
11th century.
Abergavenny grew as a town in early Norman times under the protection of the Baron Bergavenny (or Abergavenny). The first Baron was Hamelin de Balun, from Ballon, a small town with a castle in Maine-Anjou near Le Mans. Today it is in the Sarthe département of France. He founded the Benedictine priory, now the Priory Church of St Mary, in the late 11th century. The Priory belonged originally to the Benedictine foundation of St. Vincent Abbaye at Le Mans. It was subsequently endowed by William de Braose, with a tithe of the profits of the castle and town. The church contains some unique alabaster effigies, church monuments and unique medieval wood carving, such as the Tree of Jesse.
12th and 13th centuries.
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Owing to its geographical location, the town was frequently embroiled in the border warfare and power play of the 12th and 13th centuries in the Welsh Marches. In 1175, Abergavenny Castle was the site of a massacre of Seisyll ap Dyfnwal and his associates by William de Braose, 4th Lord of Bramber. Reference to a market at Abergavenny is found in a charter granted to the Prior by William de Braose.
15th to 17th centuries.
Owain Glyndŵr attacked Abergavenny in 1404. According to popular legend, his raiders gained access to the walled town with the aid of a local woman who sympathised with the rebellion, letting a small party in via the Market Street gate at midnight. They were able to open the gate and allow a much larger party who set fire to the town and plundered its churches and homes leaving Abergavenny Castle intact. Market Street has been referred to as "Traitors' Lane" thereafter. In 1404 Abergavenny was declared its own nation by Ieuan ab Owain Glyndŵr, illegitimate son of Owain Glyndŵr. The arrangement lasted approximately two weeks.
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At the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1541, the priory's endowment went towards the foundation of a free grammar school, King Henry VIII Grammar School, the site itself passing to the Gunter family. During the Civil War, prior to the siege of Raglan Castle in 1645, King Charles I visited Abergavenny and presided in person over the trial of Sir Trefor Williams, 1st Baronet of Llangibby, a Royalist who changed sides, and other Parliamentarians. In 1639, Abergavenny received a charter of incorporation under the title of bailiff and burgesses. A charter with extended privileges was drafted in 1657, but appears never to have been enrolled or to have come into effect. Owing to the refusal of the chief officers of the corporation to take the oath of allegiance to William III in 1688, the charter was annulled, and the town subsequently declined in prosperity. Chapter 28 of the 1535 Act of Henry VIII, which provided that Monmouth, as county town, should return one burgess to Parliament, further stated that other ancient Monmouthshire boroughs were to contribute towards the payment of the member. In consequence of this clause Abergavenny on various occasions shared in the election, the last instance being in 1685.
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The right to hold two weekly markets and three yearly fairs, beginning in the 13th century, was held ever since as confirmed in 1657. Abergavenny was celebrated for the production of Welsh flannel, and also for the manufacture, whilst the fashion prevailed, of goats' hair periwigs.
19th and 20th centuries.
Abergavenny railway station, situated southeast of the town centre, opened on 2 January 1854 as part of the Newport, Abergavenny and Hereford Railway. The London North Western Railway sponsored the construction of the railway linking Newport station to Hereford station. The line was taken over by the West Midland Railway in 1860 before becoming part of the Great Western Railway in 1863. A railway line also ran up the valley towards Brynmawr and to Merthyr Tydfil; this was closed during the Beeching cuts in the 1960s and the line to Clydach Gorge is now a cycle track and footpath. The Baker Street drill hall was completed in 1896. Adolf Hitler's deputy, Rudolf Hess, was kept under escort at Maindiff Court Hospital during the Second World War, after his flight to Britain. In 1964, the Royal Observer Corps opened a small monitoring bunker to be used in the event of a nuclear attack. It was closed in 1968 but reopened in 1973 due to the closure of a bunker near Brynmawr. It closed in 1991 on the stand down of the ROC. It remains mostly intact.
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Baron of Abergavenny.
The title of Baron Abergavenny was first held by the Beauchamp family. In the late 14th century the reversion of the feudal marcher barony (with the castle, town and surrounding lands appurtenant) was purchased from John Hastings, 3rd Earl of Pembroke, who had no heirs, by William Beauchamp, the second son of the Earl of Warwick; and he was elevated to the House of Lords as Baron Bergavenny. On his death, his wife Joan held the entire barony in survivorship for life until 1435, at which time it passed into the Nevill family; Joan's granddaughter Elizabeth, heir to the barony, married a Neville, Edward Nevill, 3rd Baron Bergavenny. From him it has descended continuously, the title being increased to an earldom in 1784; and in 1876 William Nevill 5th Earl, an indefatigable and powerful supporter of the Conservative Party, was created 1st Marquess of Abergavenny.
Coldbrook Park was a country house in an estate some southeast of the town. The house was originally built in the 14th century and belonged to the Herbert family for many generations until purchased by John Hanbury for his son, the diplomat Sir Charles Hanbury Williams. Sir Charles reconstructed the house in 1746 with the addition of a nine-bay two-storey Georgian façade with a Doric portico. It was subsequently passed down in the Hanbury Williams family until it was demolished in 1954.
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Events.
Held during the first week of August every year, the National Eisteddfod is a celebration of the culture and language in Wales. The festival travels from place to place, alternating between north and south Wales, attracting around 150,000 visitors and over 250 tradestands and stalls. In 2016 it was held in Abergavenny for the first time since 1913. The Chair and Crown for 2016 were presented to the festival's Executive Committee at a ceremony held in Monmouth on 14 June 2016.
The Abergavenny Food Festival is held in the second week of September each year. The Steam, Veteran and Vintage Rally takes place in May every year. The event expands year on year with the 2016 rally including a rock choir, shire horses, motorcycling stunts, vintage cars and steam engines. The Country and Western Music Festival is attended by enthusiasts of country music. It marked its third year in 2016 and was attended by acts including Ben Thompson, LA Country and many more. The event was last held in 2017. The Abergavenny Writing Festival began in April 2016 and is a celebration of writing and the written word. The Abergavenny Arts Festival, first held in 2018, celebrates arts in their broadest sense and showcases amateur and professional artists from the vibrant local arts scene together with some from further afield.
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Welsh language.
In recent decades, the number of Welsh speakers in the town has increased dramatically. The 2001 census recorded that 10% of the local population spoke the language, a five-fold increase over ten years from the figure of 2% recorded in 1991. The town has one of the two Welsh-medium primary schools in Monmouthshire, Ysgol Gymraeg y Fenni, which was founded in the early 1990s. It is also home to the Abergavenny Welsh society, Cymreigyddion y Fenni, and the local Abergavenny Eisteddfod.
Sport.
Abergavenny was the home of Abergavenny Thursdays F.C., formed in 1927 and merged with Govilon, the local village side in 2013. The new club, Abergavenny Town F.C., plays at the Pen-y-pound Stadium, maintained and run by Thursday’s football trust, as members of the Ardal South East league (tier 3) for the 2021–22 season. It is also the home of Abergavenny RFC, a rugby union club founded in 1875 that plays at Bailey Park, Abergavenny. In the 2018–19 season, they play in the Welsh Rugby Union Division Three East A league. Abergavenny Hockey Club, formed in 1897, currently play at the Abergavenny Leisure Centre on Old Hereford Road.
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Abergavenny Cricket Club play at Pen-y-Pound, Avenue Road and Glamorgan CCC also play some of their games here. Abergavenny Cricket Club was founded in 1834 and celebrated the 175th anniversary of its foundation in 2009. Abergavenny Tennis Club also play at Pen-y-Pound and plays in the South Wales Doubles League and Aegon Team Tennis. The club engages the services of a head tennis professional to run a coaching programme for the town and was crowned Tennis Wales' Club of the Year in 2010. Abergavenny hosted the British National Cycling Championships in 2007, 2009 and 2014, as part of the town's Festival of Cycling.
Cattle market.
A cattle market was held in Abergavenny from 1863 to December 2013. From 1825 to 1863 a sheep market was held at a site in Castle Street, to stop the sale of sheep on the streets of the town. When the market closed, the site was leased and operated by Abergavenny Market Auctioneers Ltd, who held regular livestock auctions on the site. Market days were held on Tuesdays for the auction sale of finished sheep, cull ewe/store and fodder (hay and straw), and on some Fridays for the auction sale of cattle. After Newport's cattle market closed in 2009 for redevelopment, Newport's sales were held at Abergavenny every Wednesday.
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In 2011 doubts about the future of Abergavenny Cattle Market were raised after Monmouthshire County Council granted planning permission for its demolition and replacement with a supermarket, car park, and library. In January 2012 the Welsh Government announced the repeal of the Abergavenny Improvement Acts of 1854 to 1871 which obliged the holding of a livestock market within the boundaries of Abergavenny town; that repeal being effective from 26 March 2012. The county council, which requested that the Abergavenny Improvement Acts be repealed, supported plans for a new cattle market to be established about from Abergavenny in countryside at Bryngwyn, some from Raglan. There was local opposition to this site. The new Monmouthshire Livestock Centre, a 27-acre site at Bryngwyn, opened in November 2013.
Culture.
Cultural history.
Abergavenny has hosted the National Eisteddfod of Wales in 1838, 1913 and most recently in 2016. In 2017 the town was named one of the best places to live in Wales. The town's local radio stations are currently Sunshine Radio 107.8 FM and NH Sound 1287 AM. Abergavenny is home to an award-winning brass band. Formed in Abergavenny prior to 1884, the band were joint National Welsh League Champions in 2006 and joint National Welsh League Champions in 2011. The band also operates a Junior Band training local young musicians.
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The Borough Theatre in Abergavenny town centre hosts live events covering drama, opera, ballet, music, children's events, dance, comedy, storytelling, tribute bands and talks. The Melville Centre is close to the town centre and includes the Melville Theatre, which hosts a range of live events. The town held its first Abergavenny Arts Festival in 2018 and also hosts the Abergavenny Food Festival in September each year.
In popular culture.
William Shakespeare's play "Henry VIII" features the character Lord Abergavenny. In 1968 "Abergavenny" was the title of a UK single by Marty Wilde. In 1969, it was also released in the US, under a Marty Wilde pseudonym "Shannon", where it was also a minor hit. In The Adventure of the Priory School Sherlock Holmes refers to a case he is working on in Abergavenny. Abergavenny is mentioned by Stan Shunpike, the conductor of the Knight Bus when the bus takes a detour there to drop off a passenger in J. K. Rowling's "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban". The TV series "Upstairs, Downstairs", features a character in the second season, Thomas Watkins, the devious Bellamy family chauffeur, who comes from Abergavenny. In the 1979 spinoff of "Upstairs, Downstairs" titled "Thomas & Sarah", Watkins and Sarah Moffat, another major character, marry and return briefly to Abergavenny. * Much of the 1996 film, "Intimate Relations" starring Julie Walters, Rupert Graves, Les Dennis and Amanda Holden, was filmed at many locations in and around Abergavenny.
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Transport.
Railway.
Abergavenny railway station lies on the Welsh Marches Line from Newport to Hereford. The weekday daytime service pattern typically sees one train per hour in each direction between Manchester Piccadilly and Cardiff Central, with most trains continuing beyond Cardiff to Swansea and west Wales. There is also a two-hourly service between Cardiff and the North Wales Coast Line to , via . These services are all operated by Transport for Wales.
Roads.
The town is located where the A40 trunk road and the A465 "Heads of the Valleys" road meet. The latter used to meet the A40 in the town centre but the A465 now runs to the east of the town centre.
Buses.
A network of services link the town with local villages. In addition, Stagecoach South Wales operate service 23 to Hereford and Newport approximately every two hours while Newport Bus operates service 83 to Monmouth.
Notable buildings.
Abergavenny Castle is located strategically just south of the town centre overlooking the River Usk. It was built in about 1067 by the Norman baron Hamelin de Ballon to guard against incursions by the Welsh from the hills to the north and west. All that remains is defensive ditches and the ruins of the stone keep, towers, and part of the curtain wall. It is a Grade I listed building.
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Various markets are held in the Market Hall, for example: Tuesdays, Fridays and Saturdays – retail market; Wednesdays – flea market; fourth Thursday of each month – farmers' market; third Sunday of each month – antique fair; second Saturday of each month – craft fair.
The Church in Wales church of the Holy Trinity is in the Diocese of Monmouth. Holy Trinity Church was consecrated by the Bishop of Llandaff on 6 November 1840. It was originally built as a chapel to serve the adjacent almshouses and the nearby school. It has been Grade II listed since January 1974.
Other listed buildings in the town include the parish Priory Church of St Mary, a medieval and Victorian building that was originally the church of the Benedictine priory founded in Abergavenny before 1100; the sixteenth century Tithe Barn near St Mary's; the Victorian Church of the Holy Trinity; the Grade II* listed St John's Masonic Lodge; Abergavenny Museum; the Public Library; the Town Hall; and the remains of Abergavenny town walls behind Neville Street.
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From 1851, the Monmouthshire lunatic asylum, later Pen-y-Fal Hospital, a psychiatric hospital, stood on the outskirts of Abergavenny. Between 1851 and 1950, over 3,000 patients died at the hospital. A memorial plaque for the deceased has now been placed at the site. After its closure in the 1990s, its buildings and grounds were redeveloped as housing. Some psychiatric services are now administered from Maindiff Court Hospital on the outskirts of the town, close to the foot of the Skirrid mountain.
Parks and gardens.
Abergavenny has three public urban parks which are listed on the Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in Wales: the grounds of Abergavenny Castle, Linda Vista Gardens and Bailey Park. A fourth registered garden, at The Hill to the north of the town, forms part of the grounds of a residential development.
Twinning.
Abergavenny is twinned with:
Military.
One of the eleven Victoria Cross medals won at Rorke's Drift was awarded to John Fielding from Abergavenny. He had enlisted under the false name of Williams. One was also awarded for the same action to Robert Jones, born at Clytha between Abergavenny and Raglan. Another Abergavenny-born soldier, Thomas Monaghan received his VC for defending his colonel during the Indian Rebellion. In 1908 following the formation of the Territorial Force the Abergavenny Cadet Corps was formed and affiliated with the 3rd Battalion, The Monmouthshire Regiment. In 1912 the regiment was affiliated with the new formed 1st Cadet Battalion, The Monmouthshire Regiment.
Notable people.
"See also "
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Abersychan
Abersychan is a town and community north of Pontypool in Torfaen, Wales, and lies within the boundaries of the historic county of Monmouthshire and the preserved county of Gwent.
Abersychan lies in the narrow northern section of the Afon Lwyd valley.
The town includes two schools; Abersychan Comprehensive School and Victoria Primary School; together with various shops and other amenities including Abersychan Rugby Club.
Abersychan was the birthplace of the politicians Roy Jenkins, Don Touhig and Paul Murphy (member of parliament for Torfaen); and of the rugby footballers Wilfred Hodder, Candy Evans and Bryn Meredith.
History.
Like many of the 17th century isolated agricultural hamlets in the forested South Wales Valleys, Abersychan became a thriving industrial centre in the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly for iron production.
After the discovery of iron stone locally, the principal ironworks were built by the British Iron Company in 1825, served mainly by the London and North Western Railway's Brynmawr and Blaenavon Railway. The ironwork's main office building and quadrangle were designed by architect Decimus Burton, best known for his design of London Zoo. The works passed to the New British Iron Company in 1843 and to the Ebbw Vale Company in 1852, before closing in 1889. On 6 February 1890, an underground explosion at Llanerch Colliery killed 176.
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The site of the former ironworks today is a core site of , and a total land area of , includes a number of listed buildings:
Various proposals have been made over the years to redevelop the site, currently under the ownership of HSBC, but none have so far passed the requirements of Torfaen county council.
Local government.
Abersychan constitutes a community and electoral ward of the county borough of Torfaen. The area was part of the ancient parish of Trevethin, in Monmouthshire. On 3 June 1864 Abersychan was constituted a local government district, governed by a local board. In 1894 Abersychan became an urban district and civil parish. The urban district was abolished in 1935, with most of its area passing to Pontypool urban district, and a small area going to Abercarn UD.
In 1974 the area became part of the borough of Torfaen, in the new local government county of Gwent. The community of Abersychan was formed in 1985, but no community council has yet been formed. Abersychan and Cwmavon is now a ward for the Pontypool Community Council. In 1996 Torfaen became a unitary authority.
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The Abersychan community includes Abersychan, Cwmavon, Garndiffaith, Pentwyn, Talywain, Varteg, and Victoria Village.
Local transport.
The nearest railway stations to Abersychan are Pontypool & New Inn (3 miles), Llanhilleth (3.5 miles) and Abergavenny (7 miles). Abersychan was served by the following (disused) stations:
Places nearby.
Pentwyn.
"Pentwyn", Torfaen is a small village located in the district of Abersychan. It contains a post office, several houses and a small play park. The village has a cricket team (Pontnewynydd CC) and is located right next to the old railway line. The cricket club celebrated its 100-year anniversary in 2006 with a successful tour to Cork, Ireland.
Victoria Village.
"Victoria Village" is a small hamlet located in the district of Abersychan. It comprises a small village school and a number of houses. A small group of houses on Incline Road mark the beginning of the village and the village boundary is near Cwmavon. Victoria Primary School is also in this area, housed in large grounds. Many homes are built around the school's boundaries.
Victoria Village primary school was opened in 1903 and closed by the council in 2018. The last head of the school was Miss Joy Dando.
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Abertillery
Abertillery (; ) is a town and community in Blaenau Gwent County Borough, Wales. It is located in the Ebbw Fach valley, and the historic county of Monmouthshire.
The surrounding landscape borders the Brecon Beacons National Park and the Blaenavon World heritage Site. Formerly a major coal mining centre the Abertillery area was transformed in the 1990s using EU and other funding to return to a greener environment.
Situated on the A467 the town is north of the M4 and south of the A465 "Heads of the Valleys" trunk road. It is about by road from Cardiff and from Bristol.
According to the 2011 Census, 4.8% of the ward's 4,416 (212 residents) resident-population can speak, read, and write Welsh. This is below the county's figure of 5.5% of 67,348 (3,705 residents) who can speak, read, and write Welsh.
Etymology.
The name of the community means "the mouth of the River Tyleri", which flows into the town. The name "" is probably derived from a personal name.
Town centre.
Abertillery's traditional-style town centre mainly developed in the late 19th century and as such has some interesting Victorian architecture. Spread over 4 main streets the town in its heyday had two department stores and a covered Victorian arcade linking two of the main shopping areas. These were all included in a Blaenau Gwent Borough Council remodelling and modernisation project using European Union funding in a £13 million programme spread over a 5-year period ending in 2015.
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The project included a new multi-storey car park, a revamp of public areas and the town's Metropole Theatre. This building provides production, exhibition, conference and meeting facilities as well as housing Abertillery museum. In March 2014 Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, officiated at the launch of Jubilee Square, a public facility in the town centre next to St Michael's Church.
Coal mining.
Major industry came to the area in 1843 when the locality's first deep coal mine was sunk at Tir Nicholas Farm, Cwmtillery. The town developed rapidly thereafter and played a major part in the South Wales coalfield. Its population rose steeply, being 10,846 in the 1891 census and 21,945 ten years later. The population peaked just short of 40,000 around the beginning of the 1930s. Eventually there were six deep coal mines, numerous small coal levels, a tin works, brick works, iron foundry and light engineering businesses in the area. Just one of the coal mines, Cwmtillery, produced over 32 million tons of coal in its lifetime and at its height employed 2760 men and boys.
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In 1960 an underground explosion at Six Bells Colliery resulted in the loss of life of 45 local miners. Fifty years later the archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams officiated at the launch of the "Guardian" mining memorial. This artistically acclaimed monument standing at 20m tall overlooks Parc Arael Griffin, the now reclaimed and landscaped former colliery site. The adjoining Ty Ebbw Fach visitor centre provides conference facilities, a restaurant and a "mining valley" experience room. Not long after the disaster the renowned artist L. S. Lowry visited the area and recorded the scene. The resultant landscape painting now hangs in National Museum Cardiff.
The coal mines remained the predominant economic emphasis until the general run down of the industry in the 1980s.
Abertillery Conurbation.
Away from the town centre, the often steep sided nature of the landscape, imposes its own demands on development. Whilst this sounds limiting it has helped provide the almost amphitheatre nature of Abertillery Park, often described as one of the most attractive rugby grounds in world rugby.
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The street plan and housing stock flow uninterrupted from Cwmtillery in the north to Six Bells in the south, forming the town that is Abertillery. Prior to 1974 local government was provided by Abertillery Urban District Council (AUDC). Its area included the small neighbouring villages of Aberbeeg, Llanhilleth and Brynithel. Historical data relating to Abertillery occasionally refers to this AUDC area meaning that it can be difficult to compare like with like. For example, the 2014 population for the wider conurbation area is around 20,000 rather than the 11,000 often quoted for Abertillery itself.
Whilst in the main the area has an older housing stock there are several developments of modern, often large homes, generally found on the outskirts of the town with views out over the surrounding area. These apart, terraced council tax band A and B properties predominate, meaning that average house prices are among the most affordable in the UK.
Local history.
Early history.
There are very few written historical records relating to the area before the town developed in the middle of the 19th century. Nevertheless, there are facts that you can use to outline important events.
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Before the coming of major industry, Abertillery was little more than an area of scattered farms in the ancient parish of Aberystruth. In 1779 the parish minister Edmund Jones described the area thus: "The valley of Tyleri ... is the most delightful. The trees ... especially the beech trees, abounding about rivers great and small, the hedges and lanes make these places exceeding pleasant and the passing by them delightful and affecting ... in these warm valleys, with the prospect of the grand high mountains about them would make very delightful habitations." In 1799 clergyman and historian Archdeacon William Coxe toured the area and in writing a diary of his travels described it as "... richly wooded, and highly cultivated...we looked down with delight upon numerous valleys ... with romantic scenery". The entire population of Aberystruth parish at the turn of the 19th century was just a little over 800. It is not known what the population of Abertillery was at the time but it was probably in the very low hundreds, all of whom would have spoken Welsh only.
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From the mid-nineteenth century.
Industrialisation.
The area's first deep coal mine was sunk in 1843.
Abertillery Institute.
The first reading rooms were set up in Abertillery in 1856. However, when Thomas Powell took over the Tillery Colliery in 1882 he made a commitment to establish educational facilities for his workers.
Local government.
Formed in 1877, Abertillery Urban District Council incorporated the adjoining smaller communities of Six Bells, Cwmtillery, Brynithel, Aberbeeg and Llanhilleth. The population of this conurbation climbed to almost 40,000 in 1931 making it the second largest town in Monmouthshire. The council was abolished in 1974 as part of major UK wide local government reorganisation.
Transport.
The reopening of Abertillery railway station has been identified as a future development of the Ebbw Valley Railway.
Education.
Abertillery Learning Community provides all-through education for the town and neighbouring areas. Until the 1970s the town had its own local authority-run Grammar school providing education up to the age of eighteen. Tertiary education is now provided by Coleg Gwent at Ebbw Vale – opened in 2013.
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Industry.
There are several small and medium-sized business parks in the area offering a range of business premises. In 2014 the largest employer was Tyleri Valley Foods, which closed in 2023. Many local people commute outside the area to work.
Sport, leisure and tourism.
Abertillery Town cricket club and Abertillery Blaenau Gwent RFC formed in the 1880s. Both have their playing headquarters at "the Park" one of the most picturesque sporting complexes in the UK.
The town supports two local Saturday football teams: Abertillery Bluebirds and Abertillery Excelsiors. There are numerous other sports activities running on an organized basis such as bowls, badminton, squash etc.
The surrounding landscape provides hill walking opportunities and walker led groups are thriving in the area. One example is Ebbw Fach Trekkers walking group.
The local museum has displays showing what life was like in the area in its heyday. It also has its own "valleys" Italian café complete with original furnishings.
The Metropole theatre holds musical and drama events – from Blues to amateur dramatics and dance.
The "Guardian" memorial is a destination for visitors to South Wales and amateur photographers. The visitor centre Tŷ Ebbw Fach stands nearby and provides cafe and visitor "mining valley" experience facilities.
Notable people.
Local people of note in the fields of civil engineering, sport, science, medicine, religion and art:
International relations.
Abertillery is twinned with Royat in France.
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Abeyance
Abeyance (from the Old French "" meaning "gaping") describes a state of temporary dormancy or suspension. In law, it can refer to a situation where the ownership of property, titles, or office is not currently vested in any specific person, but is awaiting the appearance or determination of the rightful owner. This typically applies to future estates that have not yet vested, and may never vest. For example, an estate is granted to A for life, with the remainder to the heir of B upon A's death. if B is still alive, the remainder is held in abeyance because B can have no legal heir until B's own death.
The term hold in abeyance is used in lawsuits and court cases when a case is temporarily put on hold.
English peerage law.
History.
The most common use of the term is in the case of English peerage dignities. Most such peerages pass to heirs-male, but the ancient baronies created by writ, as well as some very old earldoms, pass instead to heirs-general (by cognatic primogeniture). In this system, sons are preferred from eldest to youngest, the heirs of a son over the next son, and any son over daughters, but there is no preference among daughters: they or their heirs inherit equally.
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If the daughter is an only child or her sisters are deceased and have no living issue, she (or her heir) is vested with the title; otherwise, since a peerage cannot be shared nor divided, the dignity goes into abeyance between the sisters or their heirs, and is held by no one. If through lack of issue, marriage, or both, eventually only one person represents the claims of all the sisters, they can claim the dignity as a matter of right, and the abeyance is said to be terminated. On the other hand, the number of prospective heirs can grow quite large, since each share potentially can be divided between daughters, where the owner of a share dies without leaving a son.
A co-heir may petition the Crown for a termination of the abeyance. The Crown may choose to grant the petition, but if there is any doubt whatsoever as to the pedigree of the petitioner, the claim is normally referred to the Committee for Privileges. If the claim is unopposed, the committee will generally award the claim, unless there is evidence of collusion, the peerage has been in abeyance for more than a century, or the petitioner holds less than one-third of the claim.
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This doctrine is a 17th-century innovation, although it is now applied retrospectively for centuries. It cannot be applied perfectly; for example, the eighth Baron De La Warr had three surviving sons; the first died without children, the second left two daughters, and the third left a son. In modern law, the title would have fallen into abeyance between the two daughters of the second son, and nobody else would have been able to claim it even if the abeyance were settled; however, in 1597, the grandson of the third son (whose father had been re-created Baron De La Warr in 1570) claimed the title and its precedence.
In 1604, the Baron le Despencer case was the first peerage abeyance ever settled; the second was at the Restoration in 1660. Most subsequent abeyances (only a few dozen cases) were settled after a few years, in favour of the holder of the family properties; there were two periods in which long-abeyant peerages (in some cases peerages of doubtful reality) were brought back: between 1838 and 1841 and between 1909 and 1921. "The Complete Peerage" reports that only baronies have been called out of abeyance, although the Earldom of Cromartie was called out of a two-year abeyance in 1895.
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It is entirely possible for a peerage to remain in abeyance for centuries. For example, the Barony of Grey of Codnor was in abeyance for over 490 years between 1496 and 1989, and the Barony of Hastings was similarly in abeyance for over 299 years from 1542 to 1841. Some other baronies became abeyant in the 13th century, and the abeyance has yet to be terminated. The only modern examples of titles other than a barony that have yet gone into abeyance are the earldom of Arlington and the viscountcy of Thetford, which are united, and (as noted above) the earldom of Cromartie.
It is no longer straightforward to claim English peerages after long abeyances. In 1927, a parliamentary Select Committee on Peerages in Abeyance recommended that no claim should be considered where the abeyance has lasted more than 100 years, nor where the claimant lays claim to less than one third of the dignity. The Barony of Grey of Codnor was treated as an exception to this principle, as a claim to it had been submitted prior to these recommendations being made to the Sovereign.
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It is common, but incorrect, to speak of peerage dignities which are dormant (i.e. unclaimed) as being in abeyance.
Settling litigation.
Abeyance can be used in cases where parties are interested in temporarily settling litigation while still holding the right to seek relief later if necessary. This may be considered a desirable outcome in cases where the party to the lawsuit is an organization with a transient membership and political perspective. The use of abeyance in such instances can allow such an organization to 'settle' with the party without officially binding its actions in the future, should a new group of decision makers within the organization choose to pursue taking the dispute to court.
For example, abeyance was used as a settlement method in a Canadian lawsuit involving the University of Victoria Students' Society (UVSS), the British Columbia Civil Liberties Association, and a campus anti-abortion club to whom the UVSS denied funding. The parties agreed to settle the lawsuit by holding the case in abeyance in return for the UVSS temporarily giving resources back to the club. With this arrangement, the anti-abortion club held on to its right to immediately reopen the case again should the UVSS deny resources to the club in the future, and the UVSS was able to avoid an expensive legal battle it did not have the will to pursue at the time. Thus, the use of abeyance provided the security of a settlement for the anti-abortion campus club, while preserving the student society's voting membership's ability to take the matter back to court should they choose in the future to deny resources to the club.
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Other court cases may be held in abeyance when the issue may be resolved by another court or another event. This saves time and effort trying to resolve a dispute that may be made moot by the other events. During lawsuits related to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act after the Supreme Court of the United States granted certiorari in "King v. Burwell", attorneys in "Halbig v. Burwell" requested abeyance of that case as the matter would be resolved in "King" and it would be a waste of time and effort to try to resolve it in the "Halbig" case.
Scottish peerage law.
Titles in the Peerage of Scotland cannot go into abeyance, because in Scottish law the eldest sister is preferred over younger sisters; sisters are not considered equal co-heirs.
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Anders Celsius
Anders Celsius (; 27 November 170125 April 1744) was a Swedish astronomer, physicist and mathematician. He was professor of astronomy at Uppsala University from 1730 to 1744, but traveled from 1732 to 1735 visiting notable observatories in Germany, Italy and France. He founded the Uppsala Astronomical Observatory in 1741, and in 1742 proposed (an inverted form of) the Centigrade temperature scale which was later renamed Celsius in his honour.
Early life and education.
Anders Celsius was born in Uppsala, Sweden, on 27 November 1701. His family originated from Ovanåker in the province of Hälsingland. Their family estate was at "Doma", also known as "Höjen" or "Högen" (locally as "Högen 2"). The name "Celsius" is a latinization of the estate's name (Latin 'mound').
As the son of an astronomy professor, Nils Celsius, nephew of botanist Olof Celsius and the grandson of the mathematician Magnus Celsius and the astronomer Anders Spole, Celsius chose a career in science. He was a talented mathematician from an early age. Anders Celsius studied at Uppsala University, where his father was a teacher, and in 1730 he, too, became a professor of astronomy there. Noted Swedish dramatic poet and actor Johan Celsius was also his uncle.
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Career.
In 1730, Celsius published the ("New Method for Determining the Distance from the Earth to the Sun"). His research also involved the study of auroral phenomena, which he conducted with his assistant Olof Hiorter, and he was the first to suggest a connection between the aurora borealis and changes in the magnetic field of the Earth. He observed the variations of a compass needle and found that larger deflections correlated with stronger auroral activity. At Nuremberg in 1733, he published a collection of 316 observations of the aurora borealis made by himself and others over the period 1716–1732.
Celsius traveled frequently in the early 1730s, including to Germany, Italy and France, when he visited most of the major European observatories. In Paris he advocated the measurement of an arc of the meridian in Lapland. In 1736, he participated in the expedition organized for that purpose by the French Academy of Sciences, led by the French mathematician Pierre Louis Maupertuis (1698–1759) to measure a degree of latitude. The aim of the expedition was to measure the length of a degree along a meridian, close to the pole, and compare the result with a similar expedition to Peru, today in Ecuador, near the equator. The expeditions confirmed Isaac Newton's belief that the shape of the Earth is an ellipsoid flattened at the poles.
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In 1738, he published the ("Observations on Determining the Shape of the Earth"). Celsius's participation in the Lapland expedition won him much respect in Sweden with the government and his peers, and played a key role in generating interest from the Swedish authorities in donating the resources required to construct a new modern observatory in Uppsala. He was successful in the request, and Celsius founded the Uppsala Astronomical Observatory in 1741. The observatory was equipped with instruments purchased during his long voyage abroad, comprising the most modern instrumental technology of the period.
He made observations of eclipses and various astronomical objects and published catalogues of carefully determined magnitudes for some 300 stars using his own photometric system (mean error=0.4 mag). In 1742 he proposed the Celsius temperature scale in a paper to the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala, the oldest Swedish scientific society, founded in 1710. His thermometer was calibrated with a value of 0 for the boiling point of water and 100 for the freezing point. In 1745, a year after Celsius's death, the scale was reversed by Carl Linnaeus to facilitate more practical measurement.
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Celsius conducted many geographical measurements for the Swedish General map, and was one of earliest to note that much of Scandinavia is slowly rising above sea level, a continuous process which has been occurring since the melting of the ice from the latest ice age. However, he wrongly posed the notion that the water was evaporating.
In 1725 he became secretary of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala, and served at this post until his death from tuberculosis in 1744. He supported the formation of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in Stockholm in 1739 by Linnaeus and five others, and was elected a member at the first meeting of this academy. It was in fact Celsius who proposed the new academy's name.
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Adam Carolla
Adam Carolla (born May 27, 1964) is an American radio personality, comedian, actor and podcaster. He hosts "The Adam Carolla Show", a talk show distributed as a podcast which set the record as the "most downloaded podcast" as judged by "Guinness World Records" in 2011.
Carolla co-hosted the syndicated radio call-in program "Loveline" with Drew Pinsky from 1995 to 2005 as well as the show's television incarnation on MTV from 1996 to 2000. He was the co-host and co-creator of the television program "The Man Show" (1999–2004), and the co-creator and a regular performer on the television show "Crank Yankers" (2002–2007, 2019–present). He hosted "The Adam Carolla Project", a home improvement television program which aired on TLC in 2005 and "The Car Show" on Speed in 2011.
Carolla has also appeared on the network reality television programs "Dancing with the Stars" and "The Celebrity Apprentice". His book "In Fifty Years We'll All Be Chicks" debuted on "The New York Times" Best Seller list in 2010, and his second book, "Not Taco Bell Material", also reached "The New York Times" bestseller status.
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Carolla has made numerous guest appearances on political talk shows as a commentator. He hosted a weekly segment, "Rollin' with Carolla", on Bill O'Reilly's "The O'Reilly Factor".
Early life.
Adam Carolla was born on May 27, 1964, to Jim and Kris ("née" McCall) Carolla. Carolla has stated he was born in a doctor's office in the Westwood neighborhood in the city of Los Angeles, California, although some sources list his birthplace as Los Angeles County, or Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He grew up in the Los Angeles San Fernando Valley, and his parents separated when he was young. Carolla was not given a middle name by his parents; on his driver's license application he listed his middle name as "Lakers" as a joke. The application was processed without notice. His maternal step-grandfather was screenwriter László Görög.
Carolla was raised in the North Hollywood neighborhood of Los Angeles. He attended Colfax Elementary School, Walter Reed Junior High, and North Hollywood High School. Carolla did not receive his high school diploma until years later as it was held by the school until a library fine was paid. Carolla can be seen paying off the book and receiving his diploma in an episode of his 2005 television show, "The Adam Carolla Project".
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During his youth, Carolla played Pop Warner football for seven years; he later suggested that being involved in sports saved him from a chaotic home life. During his senior year at North Hollywood High School, Carolla distinguished himself in football. In December 1981, he was named to the First Team Offensive Line, Central Valley League, one of 8 leagues at the time in the LA City Section of the California Interscholastic Federation. In October 2020 he spoke of being recruited by "7 or 8" schools including UC-Davis, Cal Poly Pomona, and Cal Poly San Luis Obispo.
He began living on his own at the age of 18. He briefly attended Los Angeles Valley College, a community college, where he was placed on academic probation before dropping out to work in a series of jobs, including carpet cleaner, carpenter, boxing instructor, and traffic school instructor. Although broke, Carolla, his friends, and roommates owned a 1963 Cadillac limousine.
In the early 1990s, Carolla studied improvisational comedy with The Groundlings and was a member of the ACME Comedy Theatre troupe.
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Radio.
In 1994, Carolla volunteered his services as a boxing trainer to prepare Jimmy Kimmel for a bout being staged by KROQ-FM's morning radio program "Kevin and Bean". Kimmel was a regular on the show as "Jimmy the Sports Guy" and he was set to fight another KROQ personality in a boxing exhibition which was being billed as the "Bleeda in Reseda". Carolla parlayed this opportunity into a long-running friendship and business partnership with Kimmel as well as a recurring role on "Kevin and Bean" as cranky woodshop teacher, Mr. Birchum.
"Loveline".
In October 1995, after being signed to the William Morris Agency by Mark Itkin, Carolla was offered the job of co-hosting the evening radio call-in show "Loveline." His co-hosts were the physician Drew Pinsky ("Dr. Drew") and metal DJ Riki Rachtman. Carolla received the offer after Pinsky heard him on "Kevin and Bean" (Rachtman left the show the following year.) "Loveline" was broadcast on KROQ-FM in Los Angeles and was syndicated nationwide on the former Westwood One radio network.
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While the format of the program was primarily that of a call-in show wherein listeners would ask questions about sex and relationships, Carolla would often spend much of the show ranting about various topics from fart jokes to extended parodies of radio morning shows, including mocking the format's penchant for useless and repetitive weather and traffic reports. In contrast to the reserved, thoughtful Pinsky, Carolla served as the loud, funny side of the show. Carolla's character was described by one reviewer as "a toned-down version of Howard Stern minus the huge ego".
In a late-2003 "Loveline" episode, Carolla said that Hawaiians are "dumb", "in-bred", "retarded" people who are among the "dumbest people we have". The comments were met with anger in Hawaii and resulted in "Loveline"s cancellation on Hawaiian affiliate KPOI.
"The Adam Carolla Show".
In October 2005, Carolla was announced as the host of a new morning radio show on the Infinity Broadcasting network. His new show would replace the popular syndicated "Howard Stern Show" (which was moving to satellite radio) in twelve of the 27 markets in which Stern had been broadcast including Los Angeles, Las Vegas, San Francisco, San Diego, Phoenix, and Portland, Oregon. "The Adam Carolla Show" debuted in January 2006.
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In early 2008, actor Gerard Butler sat in and observed Adam Carolla on "The Adam Carolla Show" in order to prepare for his role in "The Ugly Truth" as a cynical and crass talk-radio host allegedly based on Carolla.
On February 18, 2009, "The Adam Carolla Show" was canceled as part of a format switch at KLSX to AMP FM, a new top 40 station. The final show was Friday, February 20, 2009.
Podcasts.
"The Adam Carolla Podcast".
Carolla started a daily podcast on February 23, 2009, at his personal website, which would evolve into the ACE Broadcasting Network. The first Adam Carolla podcast was downloaded more than 250,000 times in the initial 24 hours, and by the third podcast, it was the number one podcast on iTunes in both the U.S. and Canada. During the debut week, the Adam Carolla podcast recorded 1.6 million downloads. In the second week it recorded 2.4 million downloads. By the fourth episode of the second week, featuring former "Adam Carolla Show" sidekick Dave Dameshek, the show was downloaded more than 500,000 times. Adam stated that bandwidth cost more than $9,000 a month as of May 2009.
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At the end of 2009, "The Adam Carolla Podcast" was selected by iTunes for its end-of-the-year awards as the Best Audio Podcast of 2009.
On the April 4, 2010, episode of "The Adam Carolla Show", Carolla referred to Filipino boxer Manny Pacquiao as a "fucking idiot" and said of the Philippines: "They got this and sex tours, that's all they have over there. Get your shit together, Philippines." A spokesman for President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo called Carolla an "ignorant fool". Carolla subsequently apologized via Twitter.
On May 18, 2011, Carolla noted on "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" that "The Adam Carolla Show" had taken the Guinness World Record for the most downloaded podcast ever from previous holder Ricky Gervais by receiving 59,574,843 unique downloads from March 2009 to March 16, 2011.
In 2010, Carolla posed for the NOH8 Campaign. In August 2011, Carolla released a podcast where he mocked a petition to the producers of "Sesame Street" that demanded Bert and Ernie get married on air. He said on air that gay activists should "[j]ust get married, and please shut up" and that "Y.U.C.K." would be more memorable acronym than LGBT, and referring to transgender people he asked: "When did we start giving a shit about these people?" GLAAD characterized the previous remarks by Carolla as offensive, including an assertion that "all things being equal", heterosexual parents make better parents than homosexual parents. Carolla responded: "I'm sorry my comments were hurtful. I'm a comedian, not a politician."
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"Patent Troll" Lawsuit.
In 2013, Personal Audio filed a patent infringement lawsuit against Lotzi Digital, Inc., producers of "The Adam Carolla Show" and several other podcasts on the Carolla Digital Network, in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Texas. The suit alleged that owner Adam Carolla and his network of content infringed on Personal Audio's patent 8,112,504.
Using the crowdfunding site FundAnything.com, listeners contributed more than $475,000 (as of August 2014) to support Carolla throughout the legal proceedings.
Personal Audio dropped the lawsuit July 29, 2014, stating that the defendants were not "making significant money from infringing Personal Audio's patents". However, Carolla countersued, having already spent hundreds of thousands of dollars mounting a defense against claims he deemed unfounded. Among claims sought by the countersuit was a request that the initial patent be invalidated. On August 15, 2014, Carolla and Personal Audio filed a joint motion to dismiss after reaching a settlement, the details of which were not made public but included a six-week "quiet period" during which neither party could speak to the media. Both parties' claims were dropped without prejudice and, as such, could be refiled at a later date.
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Television.
1996 through 2004.
From 1996 to 2000, Carolla and Dr. Drew hosted "Loveline" on MTV, a television version of the radio show. Carolla began his first original television series with "The Man Show", along with partner and friend Jimmy Kimmel, on Comedy Central from 1999 to 2003. He left "The Man Show" at the same time as Kimmel. Carolla has continued his work with Kimmel as a writer and guest on "Jimmy Kimmel Live!". He also appeared on an episode of "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" around this time.
Carolla and partner Daniel Kellison are the heads of Jackhole Productions. The two created the television show "Crank Yankers" for Comedy Central, which revived the Mr. Birchum character. The show premiered in 2002 on Comedy Central and returned to MTV2 on February 9, 2007, running again until March 30, 2007. The show screened in Australia on SBS Television and The Comedy Channel between 2003 and 2008. The show was again revived in 2019, returning to Comedy Central.
Corolla also starred in the role of Spanky Ham for the Comedy Central adult animated series, Drawn Together.
2005 through 2008.
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From August 2005 to November 2005, Carolla hosted the talk show "Too Late with Adam Carolla" on Comedy Central.
Also in 2005, Carolla was featured in a home remodeling program called "The Adam Carolla Project" wherein he and a crew of old friends renovated his childhood home. The 13 episodes aired on the cable channel TLC (The Learning Channel) from October through December 2005. The house was then sold for 1.2 million dollars.
In 2006, Carolla appeared on the special summer series "Gameshow Marathon" as a celebrity panelist on the Match Game episode.
On the February 18, 2008, broadcast of his radio show, Carolla announced that he would be one of the contestants on the next season of "Dancing with the Stars". Later in the broadcast, it was revealed to Carolla that his partner would be Julianne Hough. He was voted off on the April 8, 2008, episode after his performance of the Paso Doble, after incorporating a demonstration of unicycle riding in his dance routine.
On June 16, 2008, Carolla was selected to host a pilot of an American version of the popular BBC show "Top Gear" for NBC. In December 2008, NBC decided not to pick up the show.
2009 to present.
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On February 21, 2009, a day after his Los Angeles-based morning radio show was canceled – as part of a format change at KLSX-FM – CBS ordered a comedy pilot, "Ace in the Hole", starring Carolla as a husband and father who works as a driving instructor. Carolla created and wrote the pilot with Kevin Hench ("Jimmy Kimmel Live!"). Carolla stated that Pamela Adlon was to play his wife and Windell Middlebrooks would play his best friend. During his March 30, 2009, podcast, Carolla briefly described the show as being ""All in the Family", essentially", with Carolla playing a similar role to that of Archie Bunker. On the July 23, 2009, episode of the "Adam Carolla Podcast", Carolla announced that CBS was not picking up the pilot for the 2009 season, "in any way, shape or form".
On October 22, 2009, it was reported in "Variety" that Carolla had struck a deal with NBC to produce a half-hour pilot for a sitcom. The report was later confirmed on January 4, 2010, and was the first comedy pilot ordered by NBC for the season. The untitled project, written by Carolla and Kevin Hench, was a single-camera sitcom that starred Carolla as a contractor and father who attempts to rebuild his life after his wife leaves him. Carolla was set to executive produce the NBC project along with frequent collaborators Kimmel and Hench, as well as his agent James "Babydoll" Dixon, Jon Pollack, Gail Berman, Daniel Kellison, and Lloyd Braun. Universal Media Studios, BermanBraun, and Carolla and Jimmy Kimmel's own Jackhole Industries.
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On the February 13, 2010, episode of Carolla's "CarCast" podcast, he revealed that The History Channel had picked up "Top Gear US", which NBC had decided against in 2008. On the March 26, 2010, episode of "CarCast", Carolla said that he would not be co-hosting "Top Gear US" because of scheduling conflicts with his NBC sitcom project. In June 2010, Carolla said that his NBC pilot had not been picked up and was now "dead".
Premiering on February 19, 2012, Carolla was also one of the contestants in the 12th season of NBC's "The Celebrity Apprentice". He was fired in Week 4, because host Donald Trump perceived that Carolla did not utilize teammate Mario Andretti's car background during a Buick presentation.
In 2022, Carolla competed in season eight of "The Masked Singer" as "Avocado". He was eliminated on "Comedy Roast Night" alongside Chris Jericho as "Bride".
"The Car Show".
Carolla's "The Car Show" debuted on Speed TV July 13, 2011. Appearing Wednesdays at 10 pm Eastern, it featured Carolla as the host, along with Dan Neil, John Salley, and Matt Farah. It had a format similar to "Top Gear", mixing car reviews, tests and humor. The show was initially met with positive reviews from car enthusiasts and comedy fans. Talk show host and comedian Jay Leno called "The Car Show", "a lot of fun".
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"The Car Show" was cancelled after one season, after undergoing format changes due to low ratings, as Carolla mentioned on his podcast on January 13, 2012.
"Catch a Contractor".
"Catch a Contractor" is a non-scripted, original series on Spike, hosted by Carolla along with "no-nonsense contractor" Skip Bedell and his wife, investigator Alison Bedell. Together they expose unethical contractors and seek retribution for wronged homeowners.
The show premiered on March 9, 2014, to 1.2 million viewers, the largest audience for a series debut on Spike since "Coal" in March 2011. The show was cancelled in 2015.
"Adam Carolla and Friends Build Stuff Live".
Premiering on Spike TV on March 14, 2017, "Adam Carolla and Friends Build Stuff Live" features Carolla building projects live and in studio with some of his Hollywood friends, and tackling viewers' home improvement projects via social media.
Voice acting.
Carolla has also done voice acting in animation, including Commander Nebula on the Disney animated series "Buzz Lightyear of Star Command", Death on "Family Guy" (replacing Norm Macdonald) and Spanky Ham on "Drawn Together". He was also the voice of the éclair police officer, Wynchell, in the Disney film "Wreck-It Ralph". In 2008 and 2009, he was the spokesperson for T.G.I. Friday's.
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Film.
In 2003, he appeared in "Windy City Heat" as himself. In 2006, Carolla finished work on "The Hammer", a semi-autobiographical independent film he co-wrote and co-produced, in which he stars opposite Heather Juergensen. The film is based loosely on his own life and is filmed at a gym he helped build with his co-star, Ozzie, played by Oswaldo Castillo, his friend in real life whom he met while building the gym when they both worked in construction. The film made its world premiere at the 2007 Tribeca Film Festival in New York City and shortly thereafter received a positive review in Variety. The film was released on March 21, 2008. The film is rated 80% on Rotten Tomatoes.
Carolla made a short appearance in Jeff Balis' "Still Waiting..." (a sequel to "Waiting...") playing a pick-up artist guru.
Carolla helped write an unproduced screenplay for a film entitled "Deaf Frat Guy: Showdown at Havasu".
He is the voice of Virgil in the independent short film "Save Virgil".
In July 2013, Carolla used crowdfunding for "Road Hard"; a film he directed and starred in, about the lives of aging road comics. Adam confirmed through a press conference that the film would co-star David Alan Grier, Illeana Douglas, Diane Farr, and Larry Miller. It had limited theatrical release in the United States. Several minutes of the credits are devoted to listing the names of those who helped crowdfund the film.
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Carolla also directed the documentary "" on the 35-year car racing career of Paul Newman. The documentary showcases Newman's racing life as both a prolific driver and owner.
In 2017, Carolla and Dennis Prager began filming "No Safe Spaces", a documentary about political correctness at universities. "No Safe Spaces" had a limited opening on October 25, 2019, and did well enough to open nationwide on December 6, 2019.
Books.
Carolla and Drew Pinsky co-wrote (with Marshall Fine) the self-help book "The Dr. Drew and Adam Book: A Survival Guide to Life and Love," published in 1998. The book is a compilation of some of the advice the pair compiled while producing Loveline.
In November 2010, Carolla's "In Fifty Years We'll All Be Chicks... And Other Complaints from an Angry Middle-Aged White Guy" was published by Crown Archetype and debuted at number eight on "The New York Times" Best Seller list for hardcover non-fiction on November 21, 2010. The book was compiled from rants Carolla had delivered on his radio show and podcast along with some new material and was dictated to and ghost-written by Mike Lynch.
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Carolla published a short, illustrated e-book entitled "Rich Man, Poor Man" in January 2012. The book details some similarities in the experiences of the very rich and the very poor which are not shared by the middle class. The book was illustrated by Michael Narren.
Carolla's book "Not Taco Bell Material" was published by Crown Archetype on June 12, 2012.
In "President Me: The America That's in My Head," Carolla presents the comedian's fantasy of the United States with him at the helm. When asked in separate interviews, both before and after the book's release, about whether the "if-I-were-king" critique of America was a serious piece, he said it's both: "Well, there's a lot of jokes in it, but you know, it's like... Well, if you have a fat friend you may make a lot of fat jokes about your fat friend, but he's still fat".
In "Daddy, Stop Talking!: And Other Things My Kids Want But Won't Be Getting," Carolla writes about modern parenting. Carolla describes what he believes adults must do if they don't want to have to support their kids forever. Carolla uses his own childhood as a cautionary tale, and decries helicopter parenting.
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Carolla's book, "I'm Your Emotional Support Animal: Navigating Our All Woke, No Joke Culture", was published by Post Hill Press on June 16, 2020.
Carolla's latest book, "Everything Reminds Me of Something", was published by Post Hill Press on July 19, 2022.
Views.
Religious.
Carolla's parents raised him in a light form of Buddhism, which he continued to practice for the sake of a girlfriend until age 21. He also discusses being familiar with Judaism, though he is not Jewish by biological descent, due to a close relationship with his grandmother's Hungarian Jewish second husband. Since beginning his media career, Carolla has consistently identified as an atheist.
Political.
Regarding his political views, Carolla has stated, "I guess I would be Republican, in the sense that I want a secure border, I'm not into the welfare state, I'm not into all those freebie lunch programs. It just kind of demeans people." He goes on to state, however, that he is also in favor of typically liberal causes such as the legalization of marijuana (he is a member of the advisory board of the Marijuana Policy Project) and support for some progressive causes such as "[being] against automatic weapons. I'm not an NRA guy by any stretch of the imagination. I'd like alternative energy to be explored and electric cars to be used, but I want them to be powered by nuclear power plants." Elsewhere, he has stated, "My feeling is this whole country is founded on the principle of 'If you are not hurting anyone, and you're not fucking with someone else's shit, and you are paying your taxes, you should be able to just do what you want to do.' It's the freedom and the independence." In an interview with "Reason TV", Carolla described his views as libertarian.
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Carolla expressed his support for Andrew Yang's 2020 presidential run.
Women and comedy.
In June 2012, Carolla gave a printed interview to the "New York Post", where among other things he stated that "chicks" are "always the least funny on the writing staff" and that "dudes are funnier than chicks". Carolla's comments were criticized as sexist. Carolla criticized coverage of his comments as over-simplistic and misleading.
Cancel culture.
Carolla said, "If you meet anyone over 45, they'll tell you they got paddled, they got swatted, the teacher would smack them with a ruler. ... Paddling a kid sounds pretty outrageous in 2020 and nobody would stand for it. ... But the people who engaged in it at the time when it was common practice or had a context, we don't need to build a time machine so we can cancel-culture them". In an interview with Tucker Carlson, Carolla said that cancel culture is "destroying free speech and killing comedy."
Personal life.
On September 28, 2002, Carolla married Lynette Paradise. The couple's twins Natalia and Santino "Sonny" Richard Carolla were born June 7, 2006. Carolla announced in May 2021 that he and Lynette were divorcing after 19 years. He currently lives in La Cañada Flintridge, California.
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Carolla was a part owner of Amalfi, an Italian restaurant in Los Angeles, saying, "I own about two percent of it, but I've never seen a penny."
Carolla won the 2013 Pro/Celebrity Race as a professional and the 2012 Pro/Celebrity Race at the Toyota Grand Prix of Long Beach as an amateur. The 2012 race was run on April 14, 2012, and was broadcast on Speed TV. Carolla has previously participated in the race in 2010 and 2003. He finished ninth among 19 racers (fifth among the ten celebrities) in 2010 despite being regarded as a pre-race favorite. He is also a serious automobile collector with over 20 cars. His collection includes several Lamborghinis from the 1960s and early 1970s, including two Miuras (of 764 examples ever produced), one of which he has loaned to the Petersen Automotive Museum in Los Angeles, two 400GT 2+2s (of 247 units produced) and a 1965 350GT (one of 135 built). At least one Ferrari, an Aston Martin, and several vintage race cars round out the collection.
Honors.
Carolla and Drew Pinsky received a Sexual Health in Entertainment (SHINE) Award from The Media Project in 2000 for "incorporating accurate and honest portrayals of sexuality" in the talk show category for "Loveline".
Asteroid (4535) Adamcarolla is named in his honor.
He was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for radio in 2025.
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Autocorrelation
Autocorrelation, sometimes known as serial correlation in the discrete time case, measures the correlation of a signal with a delayed copy of itself. Essentially, it quantifies the similarity between observations of a random variable at different points in time. The analysis of autocorrelation is a mathematical tool for identifying repeating patterns or hidden periodicities within a signal obscured by noise. Autocorrelation is widely used in signal processing, time domain and time series analysis to understand the behavior of data over time.
Different fields of study define autocorrelation differently, and not all of these definitions are equivalent. In some fields, the term is used interchangeably with autocovariance.
Various time series models incorporate autocorrelation, such as Unit root processes, trend-stationary processes, autoregressive processes, and moving average processes.
Autocorrelation of stochastic processes.
In statistics, the autocorrelation of a real or complex random process is the Pearson correlation between values of the process at different times, as a function of the two times or of the time lag. Let formula_1 be a random process, and formula_2 be any point in time (formula_2 may be an integer for a discrete-time process or a real number for a continuous-time process). Then formula_4 is the value (or realization) produced by a given run of the process at time formula_2. Suppose that the process has mean formula_6 and variance formula_7 at time formula_2, for each formula_2. Then the definition of the autocorrelation function between times formula_10 and formula_11 is
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where formula_12 is the expected value operator and the bar represents complex conjugation. Note that the expectation may not be well defined.
Subtracting the mean before multiplication yields the auto-covariance function between times formula_10 and formula_11:
Note that this expression is not well defined for all-time series or processes, because the mean may not exist, or the variance may be zero (for a constant process) or infinite (for processes with distribution lacking well-behaved moments, such as certain types of power law).
Definition for wide-sense stationary stochastic process.
If formula_1 is a wide-sense stationary process then the mean formula_16 and the variance formula_17 are time-independent, and further the autocovariance function depends only on the lag between formula_10 and formula_11: the autocovariance depends only on the time-distance between the pair of values but not on their position in time. This further implies that the autocovariance and autocorrelation can be expressed as a function of the time-lag, and that this would be an even function of the lag formula_20. This gives the more familiar forms for the autocorrelation function
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and the auto-covariance function:
In particular, note that
formula_21
Normalization.
It is common practice in some disciplines (e.g. statistics and time series analysis) to normalize the autocovariance function to get a time-dependent Pearson correlation coefficient. However, in other disciplines (e.g. engineering) the normalization is usually dropped and the terms "autocorrelation" and "autocovariance" are used interchangeably.
The definition of the autocorrelation coefficient of a stochastic process is
formula_22
If the function formula_23 is well defined, its value must lie in the range formula_24, with 1 indicating perfect correlation and −1 indicating perfect anti-correlation.
For a wide-sense stationary (WSS) process, the definition is
formula_25.
The normalization is important both because the interpretation of the autocorrelation as a correlation provides a scale-free measure of the strength of statistical dependence, and because the normalization has an effect on the statistical properties of the estimated autocorrelations.
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Properties.
Symmetry property.
The fact that the autocorrelation function formula_26 is an even function can be stated as
formula_27
respectively for a WSS process:
formula_28
Maximum at zero.
For a WSS process:
formula_29
Notice that formula_30 is always real.
Cauchy–Schwarz inequality.
The Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, inequality for stochastic processes:
formula_31
Autocorrelation of white noise.
The autocorrelation of a continuous-time white noise signal will have a strong peak (represented by a Dirac delta function) at formula_32 and will be exactly formula_33 for all other formula_34.
Wiener–Khinchin theorem.
The Wiener–Khinchin theorem relates the autocorrelation function formula_26 to the power spectral density formula_36 via the Fourier transform:
formula_37
formula_38
For real-valued functions, the symmetric autocorrelation function has a real symmetric transform, so the Wiener–Khinchin theorem can be re-expressed in terms of real cosines only:
formula_39
formula_40
Autocorrelation of random vectors.
The (potentially time-dependent) autocorrelation matrix (also called second moment) of a (potentially time-dependent) random vector formula_41 is an formula_42 matrix containing as elements the autocorrelations of all pairs of elements of the random vector formula_43. The autocorrelation matrix is used in various digital signal processing algorithms.
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For a random vector formula_41 containing random elements whose expected value and variance exist, the autocorrelation matrix is defined by
\triangleq\ \operatorname{E} \left[ \mathbf{X} \mathbf{X}^{\rm T} \right] </math>
where formula_45 denotes the transposed matrix of dimensions formula_42.
Written component-wise:
formula_47
If formula_48 is a complex random vector, the autocorrelation matrix is instead defined by
formula_49
Here formula_50 denotes Hermitian transpose.
For example, if formula_51 is a random vector, then formula_52 is a formula_53 matrix whose formula_54-th entry is formula_55.
Autocorrelation of deterministic signals.
In signal processing, the above definition is often used without the normalization, that is, without subtracting the mean and dividing by the variance. When the autocorrelation function is normalized by mean and variance, it is sometimes referred to as the autocorrelation coefficient or autocovariance function.
Autocorrelation of continuous-time signal.
Given a signal formula_60, the continuous autocorrelation formula_61 is most often defined as the continuous cross-correlation integral of formula_60 with itself, at lag formula_34.
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where formula_64 represents the complex conjugate of formula_60. Note that the parameter formula_2 in the integral is a dummy variable and is only necessary to calculate the integral. It has no specific meaning.
Autocorrelation of discrete-time signal.
The discrete autocorrelation formula_67 at lag formula_68 for a discrete-time signal formula_69 is
The above definitions work for signals that are square integrable, or square summable, that is, of finite energy. Signals that "last forever" are treated instead as random processes, in which case different definitions are needed, based on expected values. For wide-sense-stationary random processes, the autocorrelations are defined as
formula_70
For processes that are not stationary, these will also be functions of formula_2, or formula_72.
For processes that are also ergodic, the expectation can be replaced by the limit of a time average. The autocorrelation of an ergodic process is sometimes defined as or equated to
formula_73
These definitions have the advantage that they give sensible well-defined single-parameter results for periodic functions, even when those functions are not the output of stationary ergodic processes.
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Alternatively, signals that "last forever" can be treated by a short-time autocorrelation function analysis, using finite time integrals. (See short-time Fourier transform for a related process.)
Definition for periodic signals.
If formula_74 is a continuous periodic function of period formula_75, the integration from formula_76 to formula_77 is replaced by integration over any interval formula_78 of length formula_75:
formula_80
which is equivalent to
formula_81
Properties.
In the following, we will describe properties of one-dimensional autocorrelations only, since most properties are easily transferred from the one-dimensional case to the multi-dimensional cases. These properties hold for wide-sense stationary processes.
Multi-dimensional autocorrelation.
Multi-dimensional autocorrelation is defined similarly. For example, in three dimensions the autocorrelation of a square-summable discrete signal would be
formula_96
When mean values are subtracted from signals before computing an autocorrelation function, the resulting function is usually called an auto-covariance function.
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Efficient computation.
For data expressed as a discrete sequence, it is frequently necessary to compute the autocorrelation with high computational efficiency. A brute force method based on the signal processing definition formula_97 can be used when the signal size is small. For example, to calculate the autocorrelation of the real signal sequence formula_98 (i.e. formula_99, and formula_100 for all other values of ) by hand, we first recognize that the definition just given is the same as the "usual" multiplication, but with right shifts, where each vertical addition gives the autocorrelation for particular lag values:
formula_101
Thus the required autocorrelation sequence is formula_102, where formula_103 formula_104 and formula_105 the autocorrelation for other lag values being zero. In this calculation we do not perform the carry-over operation during addition as is usual in normal multiplication. Note that we can halve the number of operations required by exploiting the inherent symmetry of the autocorrelation. If the signal happens to be periodic, i.e. formula_106 then we get a circular autocorrelation (similar to circular convolution) where the left and right tails of the previous autocorrelation sequence will overlap and give formula_107 which has the same period as the signal sequence formula_108 The procedure can be regarded as an application of the convolution property of Z-transform of a discrete signal.
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While the brute force algorithm is order , several efficient algorithms exist which can compute the autocorrelation in order . For example, the Wiener–Khinchin theorem allows computing the autocorrelation from the raw data with two fast Fourier transforms (FFT):
formula_109
where IFFT denotes the inverse fast Fourier transform. The asterisk denotes complex conjugate.
Alternatively, a multiple correlation can be performed by using brute force calculation for low values, and then progressively binning the data with a logarithmic density to compute higher values, resulting in the same efficiency, but with lower memory requirements.
Estimation.
For a discrete process with known mean and variance for which we observe formula_72 observations formula_111, an estimate of the autocorrelation coefficient may be obtained as
formula_112
for any positive integer formula_113. When the true mean formula_16 and variance formula_17 are known, this estimate is unbiased. If the true mean and variance of the process are not known there are several possibilities:
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The advantage of estimates of the last type is that the set of estimated autocorrelations, as a function of formula_122, then form a function which is a valid autocorrelation in the sense that it is possible to define a theoretical process having exactly that autocorrelation. Other estimates can suffer from the problem that, if they are used to calculate the variance of a linear combination of the formula_123's, the variance calculated may turn out to be negative.
Regression analysis.
In regression analysis using time series data, autocorrelation in a variable of interest is typically modeled either with an autoregressive model (AR), a moving average model (MA), their combination as an autoregressive-moving-average model (ARMA), or an extension of the latter called an autoregressive integrated moving average model (ARIMA). With multiple interrelated data series, vector autoregression (VAR) or its extensions are used.
In ordinary least squares (OLS), the adequacy of a model specification can be checked in part by establishing whether there is autocorrelation of the regression residuals. Problematic autocorrelation of the errors, which themselves are unobserved, can generally be detected because it produces autocorrelation in the observable residuals. (Errors are also known as "error terms" in econometrics.) Autocorrelation of the errors violates the ordinary least squares assumption that the error terms are uncorrelated, meaning that the Gauss Markov theorem does not apply, and that OLS estimators are no longer the Best Linear Unbiased Estimators (BLUE). While it does not bias the OLS coefficient estimates, the standard errors tend to be underestimated (and the t-scores overestimated) when the autocorrelations of the errors at low lags are positive.
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The traditional test for the presence of first-order autocorrelation is the Durbin–Watson statistic or, if the explanatory variables include a lagged dependent variable, Durbin's h statistic. The Durbin-Watson can be linearly mapped however to the Pearson correlation between values and their lags. A more flexible test, covering autocorrelation of higher orders and applicable whether or not the regressors include lags of the dependent variable, is the Breusch–Godfrey test. This involves an auxiliary regression, wherein the residuals obtained from estimating the model of interest are regressed on (a) the original regressors and (b) "k" lags of the residuals, where 'k' is the order of the test. The simplest version of the test statistic from this auxiliary regression is "TR"2, where "T" is the sample size and "R"2 is the coefficient of determination. Under the null hypothesis of no autocorrelation, this statistic is asymptotically distributed as formula_124 with "k" degrees of freedom.
Responses to nonzero autocorrelation include generalized least squares and the Newey–West HAC estimator (Heteroskedasticity and Autocorrelation Consistent).
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In the estimation of a moving average model (MA), the autocorrelation function is used to determine the appropriate number of lagged error terms to be included. This is based on the fact that for an MA process of order "q", we have formula_125, for formula_126, and formula_127, for formula_128.
Applications.
Autocorrelation's ability to find repeating patterns in data yields many applications, including:
Serial dependence.
Serial dependence is closely linked to the notion of autocorrelation, but represents a distinct concept (see Correlation and dependence). In particular, it is possible to have serial dependence but no (linear) correlation. In some fields however, the two terms are used as synonyms.
A time series of a random variable has serial dependence if the value at some time formula_2 in the series is statistically dependent on the value at another time formula_130. A series is serially independent if there is no dependence between any pair.
If a time series formula_1 is stationary, then statistical dependence between the pair formula_132 would imply that there is statistical dependence between all pairs of values at the same lag formula_133.
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Atlas Autocode
Atlas Autocode (AA) is a programming language developed around 1963 at the University of Manchester. A variant of the language ALGOL, it was developed by Tony Brooker and Derrick Morris for the Atlas computer. The initial AA and AB compilers were written by Jeff Rohl and Tony Brooker using the Brooker-Morris Compiler-compiler, with a later hand-coded non-CC implementation (ABC) by Jeff Rohl.
The word "Autocode" was basically an early term for "programming language". Different autocodes could vary greatly.
Features.
AA was a block structured language that featured explicitly typed variables, subroutines, and functions. It omitted some ALGOL features such as "passing parameters by name", which in ALGOL 60 means passing the memory address of a short subroutine (a "thunk") to recalculate a parameter each time it is mentioned.
The AA compiler could generate range-checking for array accesses, and allowed an array to have dimensions that were determined at runtime, i.e., an array could be declared as codice_1, where codice_2 and codice_3 were calculated values.
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AA high-level routines could include machine code, either to make an inner loop more efficient or to effect some operation which otherwise cannot be done easily.
AA included a codice_4 data type to represent complex numbers, partly because of pressure from the electrical engineering department, as complex numbers are used to represent the behavior of alternating current. The imaginary unit square root of -1 was represented by codice_2, which was treated as a fixed complex constant = "i".
The codice_4 data type was dropped when Atlas Autocode later evolved into the language Edinburgh IMP. IMP was an extension of AA and was used to write the Edinburgh Multiple Access System (EMAS) operating system.
In addition to being notable as the progenitor of IMP and EMAS, AA is noted for having had many of the features of the original "Compiler Compiler". A variant of the AA compiler included run-time support for a top-down recursive descent parser. The style of parser used in the Compiler Compiler was in use continuously at Edinburgh from the 60's until almost the year 2000.
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Other Autocodes were developed for the Titan computer, a prototype Atlas 2 at Cambridge, and the Ferranti Mercury.
Syntax.
Atlas Autocode's syntax was largely similar to ALGOL, though it was influenced by the output device which the author had available, a Friden Flexowriter. Thus, it allowed symbols like codice_7 for codice_8 and the superscript codice_9 for "to the power of 2". The Flexowriter supported overstriking and thus, AA did also: up to three characters could be overstruck as a single symbol. For example, the character set had no codice_10 symbol, so exponentiation was an overstrike of codice_11 and codice_12. The aforementioned underlining of reserved words (keywords) could also be done using overstriking. The language is described in detail in the Atlas Autocode Reference Manual.
Other Flexowriter characters that were found a use in AA were: codice_13 in floating-point numbers, "e.g.", codice_14 for modern codice_15 ; codice_16 to mean "the second half of a 48-bit Atlas memory word"; codice_17 for the mathematical constant pi.
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When AA was ported to the English Electric KDF9 computer, the character set was changed to International Organization for Standardization (ISO). That compiler has been recovered from an old paper tape by the Edinburgh Computer History Project and is available online, as is a high-quality scan of the original Edinburgh version of the Atlas Autocode manual.
Keywords in AA were distinguishable from other text by being underlined, which was implemented via overstrike in the Flexowriter (compare to bold in ALGOL). There were also two stropping regimes. First, there was an "uppercasedelimiters" mode where all uppercase letters (outside strings) were treated as underlined lowercase. Second, in some versions (but not in the original Atlas version), it was possible to strop keywords by placing a "codice_18" sign in front of them, for example the keyword codice_19 could be typed as codice_20 or codice_21. This significantly reduced typing, due to only needing one character, rather than overstriking the whole keyword. As in ALGOL, there were no reserved words in the language as keywords were identified by underlining (or stropping), not by recognising reserved character sequences. In the statement codice_22, there is both a keyword codice_23 and a variable named codice_23.
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As in ALGOL, AA allowed spaces in variable names, such as codice_25. Spaces were not significant and were removed before parsing in a trivial pre-lexing stage called "line reconstruction". What the compiler would see in the above example would be "codice_26". Spaces were possible due partly to keywords being distinguished in other ways, and partly because the source was processed by scannerless parsing, without a separate lexing phase, which allowed the lexical syntax to be context-sensitive.
The syntax for expressions let the multiplication operator be omitted, e.g., codice_27 was treated as codice_28, and codice_29 was treated as codice_30 if codice_31 was not an array. In ambiguous uses, the longest possible name was taken (maximal munch), for example codice_32 was not treated as codice_33, whether or not codice_31 and codice_35 had been declared.
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Arthur J. Stone
Arthur J. Stone (1847–1938), a leading American silversmith, was born, trained and worked in Sheffield, England, and Edinburgh, Scotland, before travelling to the United States in 1884. He was one of the last silversmiths in America to train apprentices to carry out designs in hand-wrought silver. In 1901, Stone set up a workshop in Gardner, Massachusetts which operated under his name until its sale in 1937 to Henry Heywood. Heywood was a Gardner businessman, who renamed it The Stone Silver Shop, and later, Stone Associates. Heywood died in 1945. His sons Henry Jr. and Jerome ran Stone Associates until 1957.
One of the silversmiths in Arthur Stone's shop was George Porter Blanchard, father of silversmith Porter Blanchard.
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Au file format
The Au file format is a simple audio file format introduced by Sun Microsystems. The format was common on NeXT systems and on early Web pages. Originally it was headerless, being 8-bit μ-law-encoded data at an 8000 Hz sample rate. Hardware from other vendors often used sample rates as high as 8192 Hz, often integer multiples of video clock signal frequencies. Newer files have a header that consists of six unsigned 32-bit words, an optional information chunk which is always of non-zero size, and then the data (in big-endian format).
Although the format now supports many audio encoding formats, it remains associated with the μ-law logarithmic encoding. This encoding was native to the SPARCstation 1 hardware, where SunOS exposed the encoding to application programs through the /dev/audio device file interface. This encoding and interface became a de facto standard for Unix sound.
New format.
All fields are stored in big-endian format, including the sample data.
The type of encoding depends on the value of the "encoding" field (word 3 of the header). Formats 2 through 7 are uncompressed linear PCM, therefore technically lossless (although not necessarily free of quantization error, especially in 8-bit form). Formats 1 and 27 are μ-law and A-law, respectively, both companding logarithmic representations of PCM, and arguably lossy, as they pack what would otherwise be almost 16 bits of dynamic range into 8 bits of encoded data, even though this is achieved by an altered dynamic response and no data are discarded. Formats 23 through 26 are ADPCM, which is an early form of lossy compression, usually with four bits of encoded data per audio sample (for 4:1 efficiency with 16-bit input, or 2:1 with 8-bit; equivalent to, "e.g.," encoding CD quality MP3 at a 352 kbit rate using a low quality encoder). Several of the others (number 8 through 22) are DSP commands or data, designed to be processed by the NeXT Music Kit software.
Note: PCM formats are encoded as signed data, as opposed to unsigned.
The current format supports only a single audio data segment per file. The variable-length annotation field is currently ignored by most audio applications.
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Andalusia
Andalusia ( , ; , ) is the southernmost autonomous community in Peninsular Spain, located in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, in southwestern Europe. It is the most populous and the second-largest autonomous community in the country. It is officially recognized as a historical nationality and a national reality. The territory is divided into eight provinces: Almería, Cádiz, Córdoba, Granada, Huelva, Jaén, Málaga, and Seville. Its capital city is Seville, while the seat of its High Court of Justice is the city of Granada.
Andalusia is immediately south of the autonomous communities of Extremadura and Castilla-La Mancha; west of the autonomous community of Murcia and the Mediterranean Sea; east of Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean; and north of the Mediterranean Sea and the Strait of Gibraltar. Gibraltar shares a land border with the Andalusian portion of the province of Cádiz at the eastern end of the Strait of Gibraltar.
The main mountain ranges of Andalusia are the Sierra Morena and the Baetic System, consisting of the Subbaetic and Penibaetic Mountains, separated by the Intrabaetic Basin. In the north, the Sierra Morena separates Andalusia from the plains of Extremadura and Castile–La Mancha on Spain's Meseta Central. To the south, the geographic subregion of lies mostly within the Baetic System, while is in the Baetic Depression of the valley of the Guadalquivir.
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The name "Andalusia" is derived from the Arabic word (), which in turn may be derived from the Vandals, the Goths or pre-Roman Iberian tribes. The toponym is first attested by inscriptions on coins minted in 716 by the new Muslim government of Iberia. These coins, called "dinars", were inscribed in both Latin and Arabic. The region's history and culture have been influenced by the Tartessians, Iberians, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, Romans, Vandals, Visigoths, Byzantines, Berbers, Arabs, Jews, Romanis and Castilians. During the Islamic Golden Age, Córdoba surpassed Constantinople to be Europe's biggest city, and became the capital of Al-Andalus and a prominent center of education and learning in the world, producing numerous philosophers and scientists. The Crown of Castile conquered and settled the Guadalquivir Valley in the 13th century. The mountainous eastern part of the region (the Emirate of Granada) was subdued in the late 15th century. Atlantic-facing harbors prospered upon trade with the New World. Chronic inequalities in the social structure caused by uneven distribution of land property in large estates induced recurring episodes of upheaval and social unrest in the agrarian sector in the 19th and 20th centuries.
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Andalusia has historically been an agricultural region, compared to the rest of Spain and the rest of Europe. Still, the growth of the community in the sectors of industry and services was above average in Spain and higher than many communities in the Eurozone. The region has a rich culture and a strong identity. Many cultural phenomena that are seen internationally as distinctively Spanish are largely or entirely Andalusian in origin. These include flamenco and, to a lesser extent, bullfighting and Hispano-Moorish architectural styles, both of which are also prevalent in some other regions of Spain.
Andalusia's hinterland is the hottest area of Europe, with Córdoba and Seville averaging above in summer high temperatures. These high temperatures, typical of the Guadalquivir valley are usually reached between 16:00 (4 p.m.) and 21:00 (9 p.m.) (local time), tempered by sea and mountain breezes afterwards. However, during heat waves late evening temperatures can locally stay around until close to midnight, and daytime highs of over are common.
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Etymology.
Its present form is derived from the Arabic name for Muslim Iberia, "Al-Andalus". The etymology of the name "Al-Andalus" is disputed, and the extent of Iberian territory encompassed by the name has changed over the centuries. Traditionally it has been assumed to be derived from the name of the "Vandals". Since the 1980s, a number of proposals have challenged this contention. Halm, in 1989, derived the name from a Gothic term, "*",
and in 2002, Bossong suggested its derivation from a pre-Roman substrate.
The Spanish place name "Andalucía" (immediate source of the English "Andalusia") was introduced into the Spanish languages in the 13th century under the form "el Andalucía". The name was adopted to refer to those territories still under Moorish rule, and generally south of Castilla Nueva and Valencia, and corresponding with the former Roman province hitherto called Baetica in Latin sources. This was a Castilianization of "Al-Andalusiya", the adjectival form of the Arabic language "al-Andalus", the name given by the Arabs to all of the Iberian territories under Muslim rule from 711 to 1492. The etymology of "al-Andalus" is itself somewhat debated (see al-Andalus), but in fact it entered the Arabic language before this area came under Moorish rule.
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Like the Arabic term "al-Andalus", in historical contexts the Spanish term "Andalucía" or the English term "Andalusia" do not necessarily refer to the exact territory designated by these terms today. Initially, the term referred exclusively to territories under Muslim control. Later, it was applied to some of the last Iberian territories to be regained from the Muslims, though not always to exactly the same ones. In the "Estoria de España" (also known as the "Primera Crónica General") of Alfonso X of Castile, written in the second half of the 13th century, the term "Andalucía" is used with three different meanings:
From an administrative point of view, Granada remained separate for many years even after the completion of the "Reconquista" due, above all, to its emblematic character as the last territory regained, and as the seat of the important Real Chancillería de Granada, a court of last resort. Still, the reconquest and repopulation of Granada was accomplished largely by people from the three preexisting Christian kingdoms of Andalusia, and Granada came to be considered a fourth kingdom of Andalusia. The often-used expression "Four Kingdoms of Andalusia" dates back in Spanish at least to the mid-18th century.
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Symbols.
The Andalusian emblem shows the figure of Hercules and two lions between the two pillars of Hercules that tradition situates on either side of the Strait of Gibraltar. An inscription below, superimposed on an image of the flag of Andalusia reads "Andalucía por sí, para España y la Humanidad" ("Andalusia for herself, Spain and Humanity"). Over the two columns is a semicircular arch in the colours of the flag of Andalusia, with the Latin words "Dominator Hercules Fundator" (Lord Hercules is the Founder) superimposed.
The official flag of Andalusia consists of three equal horizontal stripes, coloured green, white, and green respectively; the Andalusian coat of arms is superimposed on the central stripe. Its design was overseen by Blas Infante and approved in the Assembly of Ronda (a 1918 gathering of Andalusian nationalists at Ronda). Blas Infante considered these to have been the colours most used in regional symbols throughout the region's history. According to him, the green came in particular from the standard of the Umayyad Caliphate and represented the call for a gathering of the populace. The white symbolised pardon in the Almohad dynasty, interpreted in European heraldry as parliament or peace. Other writers have justified the colours differently, with some Andalusian nationalists referring to them as the "Arbonaida", meaning white-and-green in Mozarabic, a Romance language that was spoken in the region in Muslim times. Nowadays, the Andalusian government states that the colours of the flag evoke the Andalusian landscape as well as values of purity and hope for the future.
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The anthem of Andalusia was composed by José del Castillo Díaz (director of the Municipal Band of Seville, commonly known as Maestro Castillo) with lyrics by Blas Infante. The music was inspired by "Santo Dios", a popular religious song sung at harvest time by peasants and day labourers in the provinces of Málaga, Seville, and Huelva. Blas Infante brought the song to Maestro Castillo's attention; Maestro Castillo adapted and harmonized the traditional melody. The lyrics appeal to the Andalusians to mobilise and demand "tierra y libertad" ("land and liberty") by way of agrarian reform and a statute of autonomy within Spain.
The Parliament of Andalusia voted unanimously in 1983 that the preamble to the Statute of Autonomy recognise Blas Infante as the Father of the Andalusian Nation ("Padre de la Patria Andaluza"), which was reaffirmed in the reformed Statute of Autonomy submitted to popular referendum 18 February 2007. The preamble of the present 2007 Statute of Autonomy says that Article 2 of the present Spanish Constitution of 1978 recognises Andalusia as a nationality. Later, in its articulation, it speaks of Andalusia as a "historic nationality" (Spanish: "nacionalidad histórica"). It also cites the 1919 Andalusianist Manifesto of Córdoba describing Andalusia as a "national reality" ("realidad nacional"), but does not endorse that formulation. Article 1 of the earlier 1981 Statute of Autonomy defined it simply as a "nationality" ("nacionalidad").
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