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Modern.
In Jungian analysis, the belly of the whale can be seen as a symbolic death and rebirth, which is also an important stage in comparative mythologist Joseph Campbell's "hero's journey".
NCSY Director of Education David Bashevkin sees Jonah as a thoughtful prophet who comes to religion out of a search for theological truth and is constantly disappointed by those who come to religion to provide mere comfort in the face of adversity inherent to the human condition. "If religion is only a blanket to provide warmth from the cold, harsh realities of life," Bashevkin imagines Jonah asking, "did concerns of theological truth and creed even matter?" The lesson taught by the episode of the tree at the end of the book is that comfort is a deep human need that religion provides, but that this need not obscure the role of God.
Jonah and the "big fish".
The Hebrew text of Jonah reads (, ), literally meaning "great fish". The Septuagint translated this into Greek as (), "huge whale/sea monster"; and in Greek mythology the term was closely associated with sea monsters. Saint Jerome later translated the Greek phrase as in his Latin Vulgate, and as in Matthew. At some point, became synonymous with whale (cf. cetyl alcohol, which is alcohol derived from whales). In his 1534 translation, William Tyndale translated the phrase in Jonah 2:1 as "greate fyshe", and he translated the word (Greek) or (Latin) in Matthew as "whale". Tyndale's translation was later followed by the translators of the King James Version of 1611 and has enjoyed general acceptance in English translations.
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In the book of Jonah chapter 1 verse 17, the Hebrew bible refers to the fish as , "great fish", in the masculine. However, in chapter 2 verse 1, the word which refers to fish is written as , meaning female fish. The verses therefore read: "And the lord provided a great fish (, , masculine) for Jonah, and it swallowed him, and Jonah sat in the belly of the fish (still male) for three days and nights; then, from the belly of the (, , female) fish, Jonah began to pray."
Jonah and the gourd vine.
The Book of Jonah closes abruptly, with an epistolary warning based on the emblematic trope of a fast-growing vine present in Persian narratives, and popularized in fables such as "The Gourd and the Palm-tree" during the Renaissance, for example by Andrea Alciato.
St. Jerome differed from St. Augustine in his Latin translation of the plant known in Hebrew as (), using (from the Greek, meaning "ivy") over the more common Latin , "gourd," from which the English word "gourd" (Old French , ) is derived. The Renaissance humanist artist Albrecht Dürer memorialized Jerome's decision to use an analogical type of Christ's "I am the Vine, you are the branches" in his woodcut "Saint Jerome in His Study".
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Surviving ancient manuscripts.
Some early manuscripts containing the text of this book in Hebrew are of the Masoretic Text tradition, which includes the Codex Cairensis (895), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), and Codex Leningradensis (1008).
Fragments of this book in Hebrew were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls (cumulatively covering the whole book), including 4Q82 (4QXIIg; 25 BCE) with extant verses 1:1‑9, 2:3‑11, 3:1, 3:3, and 4:5‑11; and Wadi Murabba'at Minor Prophets (Mur88; MurXIIProph; 75–100 CE) with extant verses 1:14‑16, 2:1‑7; 3:2‑5, 3:7‑10; 4:1‑2, and 4:5.
The oldest known complete version of the book is the Crosby-Schøyen Codex, part of the Bodmer Papyri, which dates to the 3rd century, and is written in Coptic.
There is also a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, made in the last few centuries BC. Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include Codex Vaticanus (B; formula_1B; 4th century), Codex Sinaiticus (S; BHK: formula_1S; 4th century), Codex Alexandrinus (A; formula_1A; 5th century) and Codex Marchalianus (Q; formula_1Q; 6th century).
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Fragments containing parts of this book in Greek were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including 4Q76 (4QXIIa; 150–125 BCE) with extant verses 1:1–5, 1:7–10, 1:15–17 (1:17 = 2:1 in Hebrew Bible), 2:6 (verses 2:1,7 in Masoretic Text), and 3:2; 4Q81 (4QXIIf; 175–50 BCE) with extant verses 1:6–8, 1:10–16; 4Q82 (4QXIIg; 25 BCE) with extant verses 1:1–9, 2:2–10 (verses 2:3–11 in Masoretic Text), 3:1–3, and 4:5–11; and Wadi Murabba'at Minor Prophets (Mur88; MurXIIProph; 75–100 CE) with extant verses 1:1–17 (1:1–16, 2:1 in Hebrew Bible), 2:1–10 (verses 2:1–11 in Masoretic Text), 3:1–10, and 4:1–11., and Naḥal Ḥever (8ḤevXIIgr; 1st century CE) with extant verses 2:1–6 (verses 2:1–7 in Masoretic Text), 3:2–5, 3:7–10, 4:1–2, and 4:5. |
Book of Micah
The Book of Micah is the sixth of the twelve minor prophets in the Hebrew Bible. The book has seven chapters. Ostensibly, it records the sayings of Micah, whose name is "Mikayahu" (), meaning "Who is like Yahweh?", an 8th-century BCE prophet from the village of Moresheth in Judah (Hebrew name from the opening verse: מיכה המרשתי).
The book has three major divisions, chapters 1–2, 3–5 and 6–7, each introduced by the word "Hear", with a pattern of alternating announcements of doom and expressions of hope within each division. Micah reproaches unjust leaders, defends the rights of the poor against the rich and powerful; while looking forward to a world at peace centered on Zion under the leadership of a new Davidic monarch.
While the book is relatively short, it includes lament (1:8–16; 7:8–10), theophany (1.3–4), a hymnic prayer of petition and confidence (7:14–20), and the "covenant lawsuit" (6:1–8), a distinct genre in which Yahweh (God) sues Israel for breach of contract of the Mosaic covenant.
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The formation of the Book of Micah is debated, with a consensus that its final stage occurred during the Persian period or Hellenistic period, but uncertainty remains about whether it was formed at the time or merely finalized.
Setting.
The opening verse identifies the prophet as "Micah of Moresheth" (a town in southern Judah), and states that he lived during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, roughly 750–700 BCE.
This corresponds to the period when, after a long period of peace, Israel, Judah, and the other nations of the region came under increasing pressure from the aggressive and rapidly expanding Neo-Assyrian empire. Between 734 and 727 Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria conducted almost annual campaigns in the Levant, reducing the Kingdom of Israel, the Kingdom of Judah and the Philistine cities to vassalage, receiving tribute from Ammon, Moab and Edom, and absorbing Damascus (the Kingdom of Aram) into the Empire. On Tiglath-Pileser's death Israel rebelled, resulting in an Assyrian counter-attack and the destruction of the capital, Samaria, in 721 after a three-year siege. Micah 1:2–7 draws on this event: Samaria, says the prophet, has been destroyed by God because of its crimes of idolatry, oppression of the poor, and misuse of power. The Assyrian attacks on Israel (the northern kingdom) led to an influx of refugees into Judah, which would have increased social stresses, while at the same time the authorities in Jerusalem had to invest huge amounts in tribute and defense.
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When the Assyrians attacked Judah in 701 they did so via the Philistine coast and the Shephelah, the border region which included Micah's village of Moresheth, as well as Lachish, Judah's second largest city. This in turn forms the background to verses 1:8–16, in which Micah warns the towns of the coming disaster (Lachish is singled out for special mention, accused of the corrupt practices of both Samaria and Jerusalem). In verses 2:1–5 he denounces the appropriation of land and houses, which might simply be the greed of the wealthy and powerful, or possibly the result of the militarizing of the area in preparation for the Assyrian attack.
Composition.
The formation of the Book of Micah is a topic of scholarly debate. The 2021 Oxford Handbook of the Minor Prophets summarizes:
“There is a consensus that the book has a long history of formation with the Persian (or even Hellenistic) period as its last stage. However, it is contested whether it was formed in these days or only finalized after a longer history of tradition.”
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Some, but not all, scholars accept that only chapters 1–3 contain material from the late 8th-century BCE prophet Micah. According to scholars, the latest material comes from the post-Exilic period after the Temple was rebuilt in 515 BCE, so that the early 5th century BCE seems to be the period when the book was completed. The first stage was the collection and arrangement of some spoken sayings of the historical Micah (the material in chapters 1–3), in which the prophet attacks those who build estates through oppression and depicts the Assyrian invasion of Judah as Yahweh's punishment on the kingdom's corrupt rulers, including a prophecy that the Temple will be destroyed.
The prophecy was not fulfilled in Micah's time, but a hundred years later when Judah was facing a similar crisis with the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Micah's prophecies were reworked and expanded to reflect the new situation. Still later, after Jerusalem fell to the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the book was revised and expanded further to reflect the circumstances of the late exilic and post-exilic community.
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Surviving early manuscripts.
The oldest surviving manuscripts were made hundreds of years after the period or periods of authorship. The earliest surviving Masoretic Text versions include the Codex Cairensis (895), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), and Codex Leningradensis (1008). Since 1947, the current text of the Aleppo Codex is missing Micah 1:1 to 5:1.
Fragments containing parts of this book in the original Biblical Hebrew were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including 4Q82 (25 BCE); and Wadi Murabba'at Minor Prophets (75–100 CE).
There is also a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, made in the last few centuries BCE. Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include Codex Vaticanus (4th century), Codex Alexandrinus (5th century) and Codex Marchalianus (6th century). The Book of Micah is missing in the extant Codex Sinaiticus. Some fragments containing parts of this book in Greek were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, that is, Naḥal Ḥever 8Ḥev1 (late 1st century BCE).
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Content.
Structure.
At the broadest level, Micah can be divided into three roughly equal parts:
James Limburg sees the word "Hear" in Micah 1:2, 3:1 and 6:1 as the marker for three separate sections, noting that Amos 3:1, 4:1, 5:1 and 8:4 mark similar divisions within the Book of Amos, another of the minor prophets.
Within this broad three-part structure are a series of alternating oracles of judgment and promises of restoration:
Verse numbering.
There is a difference in verse numbering between English Bibles and Hebrew texts, with Micah 4:14 in Hebrew texts being Micah 5:1 in English Bibles, and the Hebrew 5:1 etc. being numbered 5:2 etc. in English Bibles. This article generally follows the common numbering in Christian English Bible versions.
Themes.
Micah addresses the future of Judah/Israel after the Babylonian exile. Like Isaiah, the book has a vision of the punishment of Israel and creation of a "remnant", followed by world peace centered on Zion under the leadership of a new Davidic monarch; the people should do justice, turn to Yahweh, and await the end of their punishment. However, whereas Isaiah sees Jacob/Israel joining "the nations" under Yahweh's rule, Micah looks forward to Israel ruling over the nations. Insofar as Micah appears to draw on and rework parts of Isaiah, it seems designed at least partly to provide a counterpoint to that book.
Allusions in the New Testament.
There are several allusions to the Book of Micah in the New Testament: |
Book of Nahum
The Book of Nahum is the seventh book of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew Bible. The book has three chapters. It is attributed to the prophet Nahum. The most general historical setting of Nahum as a prophet was 663 BC to 612 BC, while the historical setting that produced the book of Nahum is debated, with proposed timeframes ranging from shortly after the fall of Thebes in 663 BC to the Maccabean period around 175-165 BC. Another view, held by the ancient historian Josephus, proposes that the book of Nahum was from the reign of Jotham. This identification is supported by both the Greek Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate, both of which refer to Thebes in the present tense rather than the past tense. Its principal theme is the destruction of the Assyrian city of Nineveh.
Background.
Scholars with a preference for Hebrew manuscripts place the writing of the book after the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal's Sack of Thebes in 663 B.C. This view is the current majority opinion because the city of Thebes is referred to in the past tense in the Masoretic Text of Nahum 3:8-10. However, both the Septuagint and Vulgate refer to the city in the present tense, and the former opinion held by scholars was that Nahum lived about a century earlier, before both the captivity of the ten lost tribes and the Sack of Thebes.
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The first-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus places Nahum's life during the reign of Jotham. This view was also held by the Catholic scholar Thomas Worthington in his notes for the original Douay-Rheims Bible, writing: "Nahum prophesied about 50 years after Jonah ... 135 before the destruction of Niniveh." In this view, rather than Ashurbanipal, Nahum's prophecy would have been directed at Tiglath-Pileser III, who revitalized the Neo-Assyrian Empire into a world power again and conquered most of the Levant, defeating and subjugating previously influential kingdoms, including Aram-Damascus. Tiglath-Pileser was contemporary with the reign of Jotham.
Some scholars hold that "the book of the vision" was written at the time of the fall of Nineveh, at the hands of the Medes and Babylonians in 612 BC. possibly around 615 BC, before the downfall of Assyria. The oracles must be dated after the Assyrian destruction of Thebes, Egypt in 663 BC, as this event is mentioned in Nahum 3:8.
Author.
Little is known about Nahum's personal history. His name means "comfort", and he came from the town of "Elkosh" or "Alqosh" (Nahum 1:1), which scholars have attempted to identify with several cities, including the modern `Alqush of Assyria and Capernaum of northern Galilee. He was a very nationalistic Hebrew, and lived among the Elkoshites in peace.
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Historical context.
The subject of Nahum's prophecy is the approaching complete and final destruction of Nineveh, which was the capital of the great and flourishing Assyrian empire at that time. Ashurbanipal was at the height of his glory. Nineveh was a city of vast extent, and was then the center of the civilization and commerce of the world, according to Nahum a "bloody city all full of lies and robbery", a reference to the Neo-Assyrian Empire's military campaigns and demand of tribute and plunder from conquered cities.
Jonah had already uttered his message of warning, and Nahum was followed by Zephaniah, who also predicted the destruction of the city.
Nineveh was destroyed apparently by fire around 625 BC, and the Assyrian empire came to an end, an event which changed the face of Asia. Archaeological digs have uncovered the splendor of Nineveh in its zenith under Sennacherib (705–681 BC), Esarhaddon (681–669 BC), and Ashurbanipal (669–633 BC). Massive walls were eight miles in circumference. It had a water aqueduct, palaces and a library with 20,000 clay tablets, including accounts of a creation in Enuma Elish and a flood in the Epic of Gilgamesh.
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The Babylonian chronicle of the fall of Nineveh tells the story of the end of Nineveh. Nabopolassar of Babylon joined forces with Cyaxares, king of the Medes, and laid siege for three months.
Assyria lasted a few more years after the loss of its fortress, but attempts by Egyptian Pharaoh Necho II to rally the Assyrians failed due to opposition from king Josiah of Judah, and it seemed to be all over by 609 BC.
Overview.
Beyond its superscription, Nahum 1:1, the Book of Nahum consists of two parts: a prelude in chapter one, followed by chapters two and three, which describe the fall of Nineveh, which later took place in 612 BC. Davidson notes that there are two parts to the superscription:
Nineveh is compared to Thebes, the Egyptian city that Assyria itself had destroyed in 663 BC. Nahum describes the siege and frenzied activity of Nineveh's troops as they try in vain to halt the invaders. Poetically, he becomes a participant in the battle, and with subtle irony, barks battle commands to the defenders. Nahum uses numerous similes and metaphor that Nineveh will become weak "like the lion hiding in its den". It concludes with a taunt song and funeral dirge of the impending destruction of Nineveh and the "sleep" or death of the Assyrian people and demise of the once great Assyrian conqueror-rulers.
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Surviving early manuscripts.
The original text was written in Biblical Hebrew.
Some early manuscripts containing the text of this chapter in Hebrew are the Masoretic Text, which includes the Codex Cairensis (895), Aleppo Codex (10th century), and Codex Leningradensis (1008).
Fragments of this book were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls including 4QpNah, known as the "Nahum Commentary" (1st century BC); 4Q82 (4QXIIg; 1st century BC). and Wadi Murabba'at MurXII (1st century AD).
There is also a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, made in the last few centuries BC, with extant manuscripts including Codex Vaticanus (B; formula_1B; 4th century), Codex Sinaiticus (S; BHK: formula_1S; 4th century), Codex Alexandrinus (A; formula_1A; 5th century) and Codex Marchalianus (Q; formula_1Q; 6th century). Some fragments containing parts of this chapter (a revision of the Septuagint) were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, i.e., Naḥal Ḥever (8ḤevXIIgr; 1st century AD).
Themes.
The fall of Nineveh.
Nahum's prophecy carries a particular warning to the Ninevites of coming events, although he is partly in favor of the destruction. One might even say that the book of Nahum is "a celebration of the fall of Assyria". And this is not just a warning or speaking positively of the destruction of Nineveh, it is also a positive encouragement and "message of comfort for Israel, Judah, and others who had experienced the "endless cruelty" of the Assyrians."
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The prophet Jonah shows us where God shows concern for the people of Nineveh, while Nahum's writing testifies to his belief in the righteousness/justice of God and how God dealt with those Assyrians in punishment according to "their cruelty". The Assyrians had been used as God's "rod of […] anger, and the staff in their hand [as] indignation."
The nature of God.
From its opening, Nahum affirms God to be slow to anger, but that God will by no means ignore the guilty; God will bring his vengeance and wrath to pass. God is presented as a God who will punish evil, but will protect those who trust in Him. The opening passage states: "God is jealous, and the L revengeth; the L revengeth, and is furious; the L will take vengeance on his adversaries, and he reserveth wrath for his enemies. The L is slow to anger, and great in power, and will not at all acquit the wicked".
"The L is slow to anger and Quick to love; the L will not leave the guilty unpunished."
"The L is good, a refuge in times of trouble. He cares for those who trust in him."
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Importance.
God's judgement on Nineveh is "all because of the wanton lust of a harlot, alluring, the mistress of sorceries, who enslaved nations by her prostitution and peoples by her witchcraft." Infidelity, according to the prophets, related to spiritual unfaithfulness. For example: "the land is guilty of the vilest adultery in departing from the L." John of Patmos used a similar analogy in Revelation chapter 17.
The prophecy of Nahum was referenced in the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit. In Tobit 14:4 (NRSV) a dying Tobit says to his son Tobias and Tobias' sons:
[My son] hurry off to Media, for I believe the word of God that Nahum spoke about Nineveh, that all these things will take place and overtake Assyria and Nineveh. Indeed, everything that was spoken by the prophets of Israel, whom God sent, will occur.
However, some versions, such as the King James Version, refer to the prophet Jonah instead.
External links.
Commentary |
Book of Haggai
The Book of Haggai (; ) is a book of the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh, and is the third-to-last of the Twelve Minor Prophets. It is a short book, consisting of only two chapters. The historical setting dates around 520 BC, before the Temple had been rebuilt. The original text was written in Biblical Hebrew.
Authorship.
The Book of Haggai is named after the prophet Haggai whose prophecies are recorded in the book. The authorship of the book is uncertain. Some presume that Haggai wrote the book himself but he is repeatedly referred to in the third person which makes it unlikely that he wrote the text: it is more probable that the book was written by a disciple of Haggai who sought to preserve the content of Haggai's spoken prophecies.
There is no biographical information given about the prophet in the Book of Haggai. Haggai's name is derived from the Hebrew verbal root "hgg", which means "to make a pilgrimage". W. Sibley Towner suggests that Haggai's name might come "from his single-minded effort to bring about the reconstruction of that destination of ancient Judean pilgrims, the Temple in Jerusalem".
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Date.
The "Book of Haggai" records events in 520 BC, some 18 years after Cyrus had conquered Babylon and issued a decree in 538 BC, allowing the captive Judahites to return to Judea. Cyrus saw the restoration of the temple as necessary for the restoration of religious practices and a sense of peoplehood, after the long exile. The precise date of the written text is uncertain but most likely dates to within a generation of Haggai himself. A traditional consensus dates the completion of the text to c. 515 BC. Other scholars consider the book to be completed around 417 BC, arguing that it did not refer to Darius the Great (Darius I), but to Darius II (424-405 BC).
Early surviving manuscripts.
Some early manuscripts containing the text of this book in Biblical Hebrew are of the Masoretic Text, which includes the Codex Cairensis (895), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), and Codex Leningradensis (1008). Fragments of the Hebrew text of this book were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including 4Q77 (4QXIIb; 150–125 BCE) 4Q80 (4QXIIe; 75–50 BCE); and Wadi Murabba'at Minor Prophets (Mur88; MurXIIProph; 75-100 CE).
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There is also a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, made in the last few centuries BCE. Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include Codex Vaticanus (B; formula_1B; 4th century), Codex Sinaiticus (S; BHK: formula_1S; 4th century), Codex Alexandrinus (A; formula_1A; 5th century) and Codex Marchalianus (Q; formula_1Q; 6th century).
Synopsis.
Haggai's message is filled with an urgency for the people to proceed with the rebuilding of the second Jerusalem temple. Haggai attributes a recent drought to the people's refusal to rebuild the temple, which he sees as key to Jerusalem’s glory. The book ends with the prediction of the downfall of kingdoms, with one Zerubbabel, governor of Judah, as the Lord's chosen leader. The language here is not as finely wrought as in some other books of the minor prophets, yet the intent seems straightforward.
The first chapter contains the first address (2–11) and its effects (12–15).
The second chapter contains:
These discourses are referred to in Ezra 5:1 and 6:14. (Compare Haggai 2:7, 8 and 22)
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Haggai reports that three weeks after his first prophecy the rebuilding of the Temple began on September 7 521 BC. "They came and began to work on the house of the LORD Almighty, their God, on the twenty-fourth day of the sixth month in the second year of Darius the King." (Haggai 1:14–15) and the Book of Ezra indicates that it was finished on February 25 516 BC "The Temple was completed on the third day of the month Adar, in the sixth year of the reign of King Darius." (Ezra 6:15)
Musical usage.
The King James Version of Haggai 2:6–7 is used in the libretto of the English-language oratorio "Messiah" by George Frideric Handel (HWV 56). |
Book of Malachi
The Book of Malachi (Hebrew: , "") is the last book of the Nevi'im contained in the Tanakh, and canonically the last of the Twelve Minor Prophets. In most Christian orderings, the grouping of the prophetic books is the last section of the Old Testament, making Malachi the last book before the New Testament. The book has four chapters.
The author may or may not have been identified by the title Malachi. Its title has frequently been understood as a proper name, although its Hebrew meaning is simply "My Messenger" (the Septuagint reads "his messenger") and would not have been a proper name at the time of its writing. Jewish tradition states that the book was written by Ezra the scribe.
Most scholars regard the book as the result of multiple stages of redaction; most of its text originated in the Persian period, with the oldest stratum from around 500 BCE and redactions into the Hellenistic period.
Oldest surviving manuscripts.
The original manuscript of this book is lost, as are many centuries worth of copies. The oldest surviving manuscripts, containing some or all of this book in Hebrew, are in the Masoretic Text tradition which includes the Codex Cairensis (895), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), Aleppo Codex (10th century), and Codex Leningradensis (1008). Fragments containing parts of this book were also found among Dead Sea Scrolls 4Q76 (150–125 BCE) and 4Q78 (75–50 BCE).
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There is also a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, made in the last few centuries BCE. Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include Codex Vaticanus (4th century), Codex Sinaiticus (4th century), Codex Alexandrinus (5th century) and Codex Marchalianus (6th century).
Authorship.
Little is known of the biography of the author of the Book of Malachi, although it has been suggested that he may have been Levitical. Due to the similarities between Malachi and Ezra's emphasis on forbidding marriage to foreign pagan women, the Talmud and certain Targums, such as Targum Jonathan, identify Ezra as the author of Malachi. This is the traditional view held by most Jews and some Christians. The Catholic priest and historian Jerome suggests that this may be because Ezra is seen as an intermediary between the prophets and the "great synagogue." According to Josephus, Ezra died and was buried "in a magnificent manner in Jerusalem". If the tradition that Ezra wrote under the name "Malachi" is correct, then he was probably buried in the Tomb of the Prophets, the traditional resting place of Malachi, Haggai, and Zechariah.
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The name "Malachi" occurs in the superscription at 1:1 and 3:1, although most consider it unlikely that the word refers to the same character in both references. According to the editors of the 1897 Easton's Bible Dictionary, some scholars believe the name "Malachi" is not a proper noun but rather an abbreviation of "messenger of Yah". This reading could be based on Malachi 3:1, "Behold, I will send "my messenger"...", if "my messenger" is taken literally as the name "Malachi". Thus, there is substantial debate regarding the identity of the book's author, and many assume that "Malachi" is an anonymous pen-name. Other scholars, including the editors of the "Catholic Encyclopedia", argue that the grammatical evidence leads us to conclude that Malachi is, in fact, a name, asserting: "We are no doubt in presence of an abbreviation of the name "Mál'akhîyah", that is Messenger of Elohim."
Some scholars consider the authorship of Zechariah 9–14 and Malachi to be anonymous, which explains their placement at the end of the Twelve Minor Prophets. Julius Wellhausen, Abraham Kuenen, and Wilhelm Gustav Hermann Nowack argue that is a late addition, pointing to and as evidence. Another interpretation of the authorship comes from the Septuagint superscription , which can be read as either "by the hand of his messenger" or as "by the hand of his angel". The "angel" reading found an echo among the ancient Church Fathers and ecclesiastical writers. It even gave rise to the "strangest fancies," especially among the disciples of Origen.
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Period.
There are very few historical details in the Book of Malachi. The greatest clue as to its dating may lie in the fact that the Persian-era term for governor () is used in 1:8. This points to a post-exilic (that is, after 538 BCE) date of composition both because of the use of the Persian period term and because Judah had a king before the exile. Since, in the same verse, the temple has been rebuilt, the book must also be later than 515 BCE. Malachi was apparently known to the author of the Book of Sirach early in the second century BCE. Because of the development of themes in the book of Malachi, most scholars assign it to a position after the Book of Haggai and the Book of Zechariah, close to the time when Ezra and Nehemiah came to Jerusalem in 445 BCE.
Aim.
The Book of Malachi was written to correct what the author saw as the lax religious and social behavior of the Israelites—particularly the priests—in post-exilic Jerusalem. Although the prophets urged the people of Judah and Israel to see their exile as punishment for failing to uphold their covenant with God, it was not long after they had been returned to the land, the Second Temple built, and proper worship restored that the people's commitment to their God began, once again, to wane. It was in this context that the prophet, commonly referred to as Malachi, delivered his prophecy.
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In 1:2, Malachi has the people of Israel question God's love for them. This introduction to the book illustrates the severity of the situation which Malachi addresses. The graveness of the situation is also indicated by the dialectical style with which Malachi confronts his audience. Malachi accuses his audience of failing to respect God as God deserves. One way this disrespect is manifested is through the substandard sacrifices that Malachi claims are offered by priests. While God demands animals that are "without blemish" (Leviticus 1:3, NRSV), the priests, who were "to determine whether the animal was acceptable" (Mason 143), were offering blind, lame, and sick animals for sacrifice because they thought nobody would notice.
In 2:1, Malachi states that "Yahweh Sabaoth" is sending a curse on the priests who have not honored him with appropriate animal sacrifices: "Now, watch how I am going to paralyze your arm and throw dung in your face—the dung from your very solemnities—and sweep you away with it. Then you shall learn that it is I who have given you this warning of my intention to abolish my covenant with Levi, says "Yahweh Sabaoth"."
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In 2:10–11, Malachi addresses the issue of divorce. On this topic, Malachi deals with divorce both as a social problem ("Why then are we faithless to one another ... ?") and as a religious problem ("Judah ... has married the daughter of a foreign god"). In contrast to the Book of Ezra, Malachi urges each to remain steadfast to the wife of his youth.
Malachi also criticizes his audience for questioning God's justice. He reminds them that God is just and exhorts them to be faithful as they await that justice. Malachi quickly points out that the people have not been faithful. In fact, the people are not giving God all that God deserves. Just as the priests have been offering unacceptable sacrifices, so the people have been neglecting to offer their full tithe to God.
Interpretations.
The Book of Malachi is divided into three chapters in the Hebrew Bible and Septuagint and four chapters in the Latin Vulgate. The fourth chapter in the Vulgate consists of the remainder of the third chapter, starting at verse 3:19.
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Christianity.
The New Revised Standard Version of the Bible supplies headings for the book as follows:
The majority of scholars consider the book to be made up of six distinct oracles. According to this scheme, the Book of Malachi consists of a series of disputes between Yahweh and the various groups within the Israelite community. In the book's three or four chapters, Yahweh is vindicated, while those who do not adhere to the Mosaic Law are condemned. Some scholars have suggested that the book, as a whole, is structured along the lines of a judicial trial, a suzerain treaty, or a covenant—one of the major themes throughout the Hebrew Bible. Implicit in the prophet's condemnation of Israel's religious practices is a call to keep Yahweh's statutes.
The Book of Malachi draws upon various themes found in other books of the Hebrew Bible. Malachi appeals to the rivalry between Jacob and Esau and Yahweh's preference for Jacob contained in the Book of Genesis 25–28. Malachi reminds his audience that, as descendants of Jacob (Israel), they have been and continue to be favoured by God as God's chosen people. In the second dispute, Malachi draws upon the Levitical Code (e.g., Leviticus 1:3) in condemning the priest for offering unacceptable sacrifices.
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In the third dispute (concerning divorce), the author of the Book of Malachi likely intends his argument to be understood on two levels. Malachi appears to be attacking either the practice of divorcing Jewish wives in favour of foreign ones (a practice which Ezra vehemently condemns) or, alternatively, Malachi could be condemning the practice of divorcing foreign wives in favour of Jewish wives (a practice which Ezra promoted). Malachi appears adamant that nationality is not a valid reason to terminate a marriage, "For I hate divorce, says the Lord . . ." (2:16).
In many places throughout the Hebrew Bible—particularly the Book of Hosea—Israel is figured as Yahweh's wife or bride. Malachi's discussion of divorce may also be understood to conform to this metaphor. Malachi could be urging his audience not to break faith in Yahweh (the God of Israel) by adopting new gods or idols. It is quite likely that since the people of Judah were questioning Yahweh's love and justice (1:2, 2:17), they might have been tempted to adopt foreign gods. William Sanford LaSor, an American Christian pastor, suggests that because the restoration to the land of Judah had not resulted in anything like the prophesied splendor of the Messianic Age which had been foretold, the people were becoming quite disillusioned with their religion.
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Indeed, the fourth dispute asserts that judgment is coming in the form of a messenger who "is like refiner's fire and like fullers' soap . . ." (3:2).
Following this, the prophet provides another example of wrongdoing in the fifth dispute: failing to offer full tithes. In this discussion, Malachi has Yahweh request that the people "Bring the full tithe . . . [and] see if I will not open the windows of heaven for you and pour down on you an overflowing blessing" (3:10). This request offers the opportunity for the people to amend their ways. It also stresses that keeping the Lord's statutes will allow the people to avoid God's wrath and lead to God's blessing. It is this portion of Malachi that supports the view that tithing remains one of the Hebrew Biblical commandments Christians must observe.
In the sixth dispute, the people of Israel illustrate the extent of their disillusionment. Malachi has them say, "'It is vain to serve God . . . Now we count the arrogant happy; evildoers not only prosper, but when they put God to the test they escape'" (3:14–15). Once again, Malachi has Yahweh assure the people that the wicked will be punished and the faithful will be rewarded.
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In the light of what Malachi understands to be an imminent judgment, he exhorts his audience to "Remember the teaching of my servant Moses, that statutes and ordinances that I commanded him at Horeb for all Israel" (4:4; 3:22, MT). Before the Day of the Lord, Malachi declares that Elijah (who "ascended in a whirlwind into heaven . . . [,]" 2 Kings 2:11) will return to earth in order that people might follow in God's ways.
The Book of Malachi is frequently referred to in the Christian New Testament primarily because of its messianic promise. What follows is a brief comparison between the Book of Malachi and the New Testament texts that refer to it (as suggested in Hill 84–88).
Although many Christians believe that the messianic prophecies of the Book of Malachi have been fulfilled in Jesus's life, religious Jews, who do not share that belief with Christians, continue to await the coming of the prophet Elijah, who will prepare the way for the Messiah. |
Book of Zechariah
The Book of Zechariah is a Jewish text attributed to Zechariah, a Hebrew prophet of the late 6th century BC. In the Hebrew Bible, the text is included as part of the Twelve Minor Prophets, itself a part of the second division of that work. In the Christian Old Testament, the Book of Zechariah is considered to be a separate book and consists of fourteen chapters.
Historical context.
One of the three prophets from the post-exilic period, Zechariah's prophecies took place during the reign of Darius the Great. Chapters 1–8 of the book are contemporary with the prophecies of Haggai, while chapters 9–14 (often termed Second Zechariah) are thought to have been written much later—in the 5th century, during the late Persian or early Ptolemaic period. Scholars believe that Ezekiel, with his blending of ceremony and vision, heavily influenced the visionary works of Zechariah 1–8.
During the exile, a significant portion of the population of the Kingdom of Judah was taken to Babylon, where the prophets told them to make their homes, suggesting they would spend a long time there. Cyrus the Great conquered the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC. The following year, he released the Edict of Cyrus, which marked the beginning of the first return to Judah under Sheshbazzar.
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Darius acceded to the throne in 522 BC. He divided the many regions of the empire into provinces, each of which was overseen by a governor. Zerubbabel was appointed by Darius as governor over Judah (now redesignated the province of Yehud Medinata of the Persian Empire). Under the reign of Darius, Zechariah also emerged, focusing his prophecies on the rebuilding of the Temple. Unlike the Babylonians, the Persian Empire went to great lengths to keep cordial relations between vassal and lord. The rebuilding of the Temple was encouraged by the Persian monarchs in hopes that it would stabilize the local population. This policy was good politics on the part of the Persians, and the Jews viewed it as a blessing from God.
Prophet.
The name "Zechariah" means "God remembered." Not much is known about Zechariah's life other than what may be inferred from the book. It has been speculated that his grandfather Iddo was the head of a priestly family who returned with Zerubbabel and that Zechariah may have been a priest as well as a prophet. This is supported by Zechariah's interest in the Temple and the priesthood, and from Iddo's preaching in the Books of Chronicles.
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Authorship.
Most modern scholars believe the Book of Zechariah was written by at least two different people. Zechariah 1–8, sometimes referred to as First Zechariah, was written in the 6th century BC and contains oracles from the historical prophet Zechariah, who lived in the Achaemenid Empire during the kingdom of Darius the Great. Zechariah 9–14, often called Second Zechariah, contains within the text no datable references to specific events or individuals, but most scholars give the text a date in the 5th century BC. Second Zechariah, in the opinion of some scholars, appears to make use of the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, the Deuteronomistic history, and the themes from First Zechariah. This has led some to believe that the writer(s) or editor(s) of Second Zechariah may have been a disciple of the prophet Zechariah. There are some scholars who go even further and divide Second Zechariah into Second Zechariah (9–11) and Third Zechariah (12–14) since each begins with a heading oracle.
Composition.
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The return from exile is the theological premise of the prophet's visions in chapters 1–6. Chapters 7–8 address the quality of life God wants his renewed people to enjoy, containing many encouraging promises to them. Chapters 9–14 comprise two "oracles" of the future.
Chapters 1 to 6.
The book begins with a in verses 1:1-6, which recalls the role of the "former prophets" in calling Israel in times past to repentance. Then follows a series of eight visions succeeding one another in one night, which may be regarded as a symbolical history of Israel, intended to furnish consolation to the returned exiles and to stir up hope in their minds. These visions include seeing four horses, four horns and four craftsmen, a man with a measuring line, Joshua the High Priest, a gold lampstand and two olive trees, a flying scroll and a woman in a basket, and four chariots. The symbolic action, the crowning of Joshua, describes how the kingdoms of the world become the kingdom of God's Messiah.
The German commentators Carl Friedrich Keil and Franz Delitzsch enumerate seven visions, arguing that the visions conventionally numbered as the sixth and the seventh are better treated as a single vision.
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Chapters 7 and 8.
Two years after the initial visions, chapters 7 and 8 are delivered. They are an answer to the question whether the days of mourning for the destruction of the city should be kept any longer. The answer is addressed to the entire people, assuring them of God's presence and blessing.
Chapters 9 to 14.
This section consists of two "oracles" or "burdens": the opening words of both chapter 9 and chapter 12 (and also the first chapter of Malachi) announce "The burden of the word of the Lord".
Katrina Larkin argues that there is a unity across these six chapters established by a series of short "linking passages" at 9:9-10, 10:1-2, 11:1-3, 11:17 and 13:7-9". She refers to these passages as compact and metrical, addressed directly to their audience, which contain material linking with both the previous and the subsequent text.
Themes.
The purpose of this book is not strictly historical but theological and pastoral. The main emphasis is that God is at work, and all his good deeds, including the construction of the Second Temple, are accomplished "not by might nor by power, but by [his] Spirit". Ultimately, YHWH plans to live again with his people in Jerusalem. He will save them from their enemies and cleanse them from sin. However, God requires repentance, a turning away from sin towards faith in him.
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Zechariah's concern for purity is apparent in the temple, priesthood, and all areas of life as the prophecy gradually eliminates the governor's influence in favour of the high priest, and the sanctuary becomes ever more clearly the centre of messianic fulfillment. The prominence of prophecy is quite apparent in Zechariah, but it is also true that Zechariah (along with Haggai) allows prophecy to yield to the priesthood; this is particularly apparent in comparing Zechariah to Third Isaiah (chapters 55–66 of the Book of Isaiah), whose author was active sometime after the first return from exile.
Most Christian commentators read the series of predictions in chapters 7 to 14 as Messianic prophecies, either directly or indirectly. These chapters helped the writers of the Gospels understand Jesus's suffering, death, and resurrection, which they quoted as they wrote of Jesus's final days. Much of the Book of Revelation, which narrates the denouement of history, is also colored by images in Zechariah.
Apocalyptic literature.
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Chapters 9–14 of the Book of Zechariah are an early example of apocalyptic literature. Although not as fully developed as the apocalyptic visions described in the Book of Daniel, the "oracles", as they are titled in these chapters, contain apocalyptic elements. One theme these oracles contain is descriptions of the Day of the Lord, when "the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations as when he fights on a day of battle". These chapters also contain "pessimism about the present, but optimism for the future based on the expectation of an ultimate divine victory and the subsequent transformation of the cosmos".
The final portion in Zechariah states that on the Day of the Lord, "there shall be no more the Canaanite in the house of the ", proclaiming the need for purity in the Temple, which would come when God judged at the end of time. The Hebrew word , often translated as "Canaanite", is alternatively translated as "trader" or "trafficker", as in other translations. |
Book of Zephaniah
The Book of Zephaniah (, "Ṣəfanyā"; sometimes Latinized as "Sophonias") is the ninth of the Twelve Minor Prophets of the Old Testament and Tanakh, preceded in all traditions by the Book of Habakkuk and followed by the Book of Haggai. The book has three chapters. Zephaniah is a male given name which is usually interpreted to mean "Yahweh has hidden/protected", or "Yahweh hides". The church father Jerome of Stridon interpreted Zephaniah's name to mean "the watchman of the Lord". The original text of the prophecy was written in Biblical Hebrew.
Scholars propose various dates of composition; some scholars argue that the book was probably composed during the reign of Josiah (late-seventh century BCE), while others hold that an original core of oracles was expanded and edited in exilic or later times.
Authorship and date.
The book's superscription attributes its authorship to "Zephaniah son of Cushi son of Gedaliah son of Amariah son of Hezekiah, in the days of King Josiah son of Amon of Judah". All that is known of Zephaniah comes from within the text.
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The name "Cushi," Zephaniah's father, means "Cushite" or "Ethiopian", and the text of Zephaniah mentions the sin and restoration of "Cushim". While some have concluded from this that Zephaniah was dark-skinned or African, Ehud Ben Zvi maintains that, based on the context, "Cushi" must be understood as a personal name rather than an indicator of nationality. Abraham ibn Ezra interpreted the name Hezekiah in the superscription as King Hezekiah of Judah, though that is not a claim advanced in the text of Zephaniah.
As with many of the other prophets, there is no external evidence to directly associate composition of the book with a prophet by the name of Zephaniah. Some scholars, such as Kent Harold Richards and Jason DeRouchie, consider the words in Zephaniah to reflect a time early in the reign of King Josiah (640–609 BC) before his reforms of 622 BC took full effect, in which case the prophet may have been born during the reign of Manasseh (698/687–642 BC). Others argue that some portion of the book is postmonarchic, that is, dating to later than 586 BC when the Kingdom of Judah fell in the Siege of Jerusalem. Some who consider the book to have largely been written by a historical Zephaniah have suggested that he may have been a disciple of the prophet Isaiah, because of the two books' similar focus on rampant corruption and injustice in Judah. The Jerusalem Bible links Zephaniah 2:11 and 3:9-10 with the Book of Consolation (Isaiah 40-55).
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Purpose.
If Zephaniah was largely composed during the monarchic period, then its composition was occasioned by Judah's refusal to obey its covenant obligations toward Yahweh despite having seen northern Israel's exile a generation or two previously, an exile which the Judahite literary tradition attributed to Yahweh's anger aroused by Israel's disobedience to the covenant. In this historical context, Zephaniah urges Judah to obedience to Yahweh, saying that "perhaps" he will forgive them if they do.
Themes.
"The HarperCollins Study Bible" supplies headings for sections within the book as follows:
More consistently than any other prophetic book, Zephaniah focuses on "the day of the Lord", developing this tradition from its first appearance in Amos. The day of the Lord tradition also appears in Isaiah, Ezekiel, Obadiah, Joel, and Malachi.
The book begins by describing Yahweh's judgement. With a triple repetition of "I will sweep away" in Zephaniah 1:2–3, Zephaniah emphasizes the totality of the destruction, as the number three often signifies perfection in the Bible. The order of creatures in Zephaniah 1:2 ("humans and animals ... the birds ... the fish") is the opposite of the creation order in Genesis 1:1–28, signifying an undoing of creation. This is also signified by the way that "from the face of the earth" forms an "inclusio" around Zephaniah 1:2-3, hearkening back to how the phrase is used in the Genesis flood narrative in Genesis 6:7, Genesis 7:4, and Genesis 8:8, where it also connotes an undoing of creation.
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As is common in prophetic literature in the Bible, a "remnant" survives Yahweh's judgement, by humbly seeking refuge in Yahweh. The book concludes with an announcement of hope and joy, as Yahweh "bursts forth in joyful divine celebration" over his people.
Later influence.
Because of its hopeful tone of the gathering and restoration of exiles, has been included in Jewish liturgy.
Zephaniah served as a major inspiration for the medieval Catholic hymn "Dies Irae," whose title and opening words are from the Vulgate translation of .
Surviving early manuscripts.
The original manuscript of this book has been lost. Some early manuscripts containing the text of this book in Hebrew are of the Masoretic Text tradition, which includes the Codex Cairensis (895), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), Aleppo Codex (10th century), Codex Leningradensis (1008). Fragments containing parts of this book in Hebrew were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including 4Q77 (4QXIIb; 150–125 BCE), 4Q78 (4QXIIc; 75–50 BCE), and Wadi Murabba'at Minor Prophets (Mur88; MurXIIProph; 75-100 CE).
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There is also a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, made in the last few centuries BC. Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include Codex Vaticanus (4th century), Codex Sinaiticus (4th century), Codex Alexandrinus (5th century) and Codex Marchalianus (6th century). Some fragments containing parts of the Septuagint version of this book were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, i.e., Naḥal Ḥever (1st century CE).
External links.
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Book of Habakkuk
The Book of Habakkuk is the eighth book of the 12 minor prophets of the Bible. The book has three chapters. It is attributed to the prophet Habakkuk. Most scholars agree that the book was probably composed in the period during Jehoiakim's reign (609–597 BC). It is an important text in Judaism, and passages from the book are quoted by authors of the New Testament, and its message has inspired modern Christian hymn writers.
Of the three chapters in the book, the first two are a dialogue between Yahweh and the prophet. A verse in chapter 2 stating that "the just shall live by his faith" plays an important role in Christian thought. It is used in the Epistle to the Romans, Epistle to the Galatians, and the Epistle to the Hebrews as the starting point of the concept of faith. A copy of these two chapters is included in the Habakkuk Commentary, found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. Chapter 3 is now recognized as a liturgical piece. It is debated whether chapter 3 and the first two chapters were written by the same author.
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Background.
The prophet Habakkuk is generally believed to have written his book in the mid-to-late 7th century BC. It is likely that it was written shortly after the Fall of Nineveh (in 612 BC) and before the Babylonian capture of Jerusalem (in 586 BC).
Author.
Habakkuk identifies himself as a prophet in the opening verse. Due to the liturgical nature of the book of Habakkuk, there have been some scholars who think that the author may have been a temple prophet. Temple prophets are described in 1 Chronicles 25:1 as using lyres, harps and cymbals. Some feel that this is echoed in Habakkuk 3:19b, and that Habakkuk may have been a Levite and singer in the Temple.
There is no biographical information on the prophet Habakkuk. The only canonical information that exists comes from the book that is named for him. His name comes either from the Hebrew word חבק ("ḥavaq") meaning "embrace" or else from an Akkadian word "hambakuku" for a kind of plant.
Although his name does not appear in any other part of the Jewish Bible, Rabbinic tradition holds Habakkuk to be the Shunammite woman's son, who was restored to life by Elisha in 2 Kings 4:16. The prophet Habakkuk is also mentioned in the narrative of Bel and the Dragon, part of the deuterocanonical additions to Daniel in a late section of that book. In the superscription of the Old Greek version, Habakkuk is called the son of Joshua of the tribe of Levi. In this book Habakkuk is lifted by an angel to Babylon to provide Daniel with some food while he is in the lion's den.
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Historical context.
It is unknown when Habakkuk lived and preached, but the reference to the rise and advance of the Chaldeans in 1:6–11 places him in the middle to last quarter of the 7th century BC. One possible period might be during the reign of Jehoiakim, from 609 to 598 BC. The reasoning for this date is that it is during his reign that the Neo-Babylonian Empire of the Chaldeans was growing in power. The Babylonians marched against Jerusalem in 598 BC. Jehoiakim died while the Babylonians were marching towards Jerusalem and Jehoiakim's eighteen-year-old son Jehoiachin assumed the throne. Upon the Babylonians' arrival, Jehoiachin and his advisors surrendered Jerusalem after a short time. With the transition of rulers and the young age and inexperience of Jehoiachin, they were not able to stand against Chaldean forces. There is a sense of an intimate knowledge of the Babylonian brutality in 1:12–17.
Overview.
The book of Habakkuk is a book of the Tanakh (the Old Testament) and stands eighth in a section known as the 12 Minor Prophets in the Masoretic and Greek texts. In the Masoretic listing, it follows Nahum and precedes Zephaniah, who are considered to be his contemporaries.
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The book consists of three chapters and the book is neatly divided into three different genres:
Themes.
The major theme of Habakkuk is trying to grow from a faith of perplexity and doubt to the height of absolute trust in God. Habakkuk addresses his concerns over the fact that God will use the Babylonian empire to execute judgment on Judah for their sins.
Habakkuk openly questions the wisdom of God. In the first part of the first chapter, the Prophet sees the injustice among his people and asks why God does not take action. "Yahweh, how long will I cry, and you will not hear? I cry out to you “Violence!” and will you not save?" – (Habakkuk 1:2)
In the middle part of Chapter 1, God explains that he will send the Chaldeans (also known as the Babylonians) to punish his people. In 1:5: "Look among the nations, watch, and wonder marvelously; for I am working a work in your days, which you will not believe though it is told you." In 1:6: "For, behold, I raise up the Chaldeans, that bitter and hasty nation, that march through the breadth of the earth, to possess dwelling places that are not theirs."
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One of the "Eighteen Emendations to the Hebrew Scriptures" appears at 1:12. According to the professional Jewish scribes, the Sopherim, the text of 1:12 was changed from "You [God] do not die" to "We shall not die". The Sopherim considered it disrespectful to say to God, ""You" do not die."
In the final part of the first chapter, the prophet expresses shock at God's choice of instrument for judgment, in 1:13: "You who have purer eyes than to see evil, and who cannot look on perversity, why do you tolerate those who deal treacherously, and keep silent when the wicked swallows up the man who is more righteous than he[...]?"
In Chapter 2, he awaits God's response to his challenge. God explains that He will also judge the Chaldeans, and much more harshly. "Because you have plundered many nations, all the remnant of the peoples will plunder you, because of men’s blood, and for the violence done to the land, to the city and to all who dwell in it. Woe to him who gets an evil gain for his house." (Habakkuk 2:8-9)
Finally, in Chapter 3, Habakkuk expresses his ultimate faith in God, even if he does not fully understand: "For though the fig tree doesn’t flourish, nor fruit be in the vines; the labor of the olive fails, the fields yield no food; the flocks are cut off from the fold, and there is no herd in the stalls: 3:18 yet I will rejoice in Yahweh. I will be joyful in the God of my salvation!" Some scholars suggest that the final chapter may be a later independent addition to the book, in part because it is not included among the Dead Sea Scrolls.
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Surviving early manuscripts.
Some early manuscripts containing the text of this book in Hebrew language are found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, i.e., 1QpHab, known as the "Habakkuk Commentary" (later half of the 1st century BC), and of the Masoretic Text tradition, which includes Codex Cairensis (895 CE), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), Aleppo Codex (10th century), Codex Leningradensis (1008). Fragments containing parts of this book in Hebrew were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including 4Q82 (4QXIIg; 25 BCE) with extant verses 4?; and Wadi Murabba'at Minor Prophets (Mur88; MurXIIProph; 75-100 CE) with extant verses 1:3–13, 1:15, 2:2–3, 2:5–11, 2:18–20, and 3:1–19.
There is also a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, made in the last few centuries BC. Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include Codex Vaticanus (B; formula_1B; 4th century), Codex Sinaiticus (S; BHK: formula_1S; 4th century), Codex Alexandrinus (A; formula_1A; 5th century) and Codex Marchalianus (Q; formula_1Q; 6th century). Fragments containing parts of this book in Greek were also found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, that is, Naḥal Ḥever 8Ḥev1 (8ḤevXIIgr); (late 1st century BCE) with extant verses 1:5–11, 1:14–17, 2:1–8, 2:13–20, and 3:8–15.
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Importance.
The Book of Habakkuk is accepted as canonical by adherents of the Jewish and Christian faiths.
Judaism.
The Book of Habakkuk is the eighth book of the Twelve Prophets of the Hebrew Bible, and this collection appears in all copies of texts of the Septuagint, the Ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible completed by 132 BC. Likewise, the book of Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus), also written in the 2nd century BC, mentions "The Twelve Prophets".
A partial copy of Habakkuk itself is included in the Habakkuk Commentary, a "pesher" found among the original seven Dead Sea Scrolls discovered in 1947. The Commentary contains a copy of the first two chapters of Habakkuk, but not of the third chapter. The writer of the "pesher" draws a comparison between the Babylonian invasion of the original text and the Roman threat of the writer's own period. What is even more significant than the commentary in the "pesher" is the quoted text of Habakkuk itself. The divergences between the Hebrew text of the scroll and the standard Masoretic Text are startlingly minimal. The biggest differences are word order, small grammatical variations, addition or omission of conjunctions, and spelling variations, but these are small enough not to damage the meaning of the text.
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Some scholars suggest that Chapter 3 may be a later independent addition to the book, in part because it is not included among the Dead Sea Scrolls. However, this chapter does appear in all copies of the Septuagint, as well as in texts from as early as the 3rd century BC. This final chapter is a poetic praise of God, and has some similarities with Exodus 19, and with texts found in the Book of Daniel. However, the fact that the third chapter is written in a different style, as a liturgical piece, does not necessarily mean that Habakkuk was not also its author.
Qumran community.
A commentary on the first two chapters of the book was found among the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran. The omission of chapter 3 from the version within the Dead Sea Scrolls has been attributed to incompatibilities with the theology of the Qumran sect.
Habakkuk 2:4.
The Talmud (Makkot 24a) mentions that various Biblical figures grouped the 613 commandments into categories that encapsulated all of the 613. At the end of this discussion, the Talmud concludes, "Habakkuk came and established [the 613 mitzvoth] upon one, as it is stated: 'But the righteous person shall live by his faith' (Habakkuk 2:4)".
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Habakkuk 2:4 is well known in Christianity. In the New International Version of the bible it reads:
Although the second half of this passage is only three words in the original Hebrew, it is quoted three times in the New Testament. Paul the Apostle quotes it once in his Epistle to the Romans, and again in his Epistle to the Galatians; its third use is in the Epistle to the Hebrews. It became one of the most important of the verses that were used as foundations of the doctrines of the Protestant reformation.
There is controversy about the translation of the verse: the word "emunah" is most often translated as "faithfulness", though the word in this verse has been traditionally translated as "faith".
The word "emunah" is not translated as "belief" other than in Habakkuk 2:4, Clendenen, E. Ray defended the translation of the word as "faith" on the basis of the context of the verse, arguing that it refers to "Genesis 15:6", which used the word "he’ĕmin" 'believed' of which "’ĕmȗnāh" is derived from, he also argued that the Essenes in the Qumran community likely understood the verse as referring to faith in the Teacher of Righteousness instead of faithfulness.
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Martin Luther believed that Habakkuk 2:4 taught the doctrine of faith alone, commenting on the verse "For this is a general saying applicable to all of God's words. These must be believed, whether spoken at the beginning, middle, or end of the world".
Rashi interpreted the verse to be about Jeconiah.
The Targum interpreted the verse as "The wicked think that all these things are not so, but the righteous live by the truth of them".
Pseudo-Ignatius understood the verse to be about faith.
Habakkuk 2:6-20: the taunting riddle.
The melitzah ḥidah, or the taunting riddle, is the oracle revealed to Habakkuk the prophet. It is a mashal, which is a proverb and a parable. It is also known as a witty satire, a mocking and an enigma. The riddle is 15 verses long, from verse 6 to verse 20, and is divided into five woes which consist of three verses each.
Hebrew Text.
The following table shows the Hebrew text of Habakkuk 2:6-20 with vowels alongside an English translation based upon the JPS 1917 translation (now in the public domain).
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Habakkuk 3:1.
This verse is a heading for the final chapter. The exact meaning of "Shigionoth" is not known. The New Living Translation treats the word as an addition in the Hebrew text which "probably" indicates the prayer's musical setting, and the Jerusalem Bible suggests that the prayer adopts "the tone as for dirges".
Musical uses.
Modern Christian hymns have been inspired by the words of the prophet Habakkuk:
Irish composer Charles Villiers Stanford set slightly revised portions of text from the first and second chapters of Habakkuk in his choral composition for choir, soprano and tenor soloist and organ, "For Lo, I Raise Up".
External links.
Historic manuscripts
Jewish translations
Christian translations
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Backward compatibility
In telecommunications and computing, backward compatibility (or backwards compatibility) is a property of an operating system, software, real-world product, or technology that allows for interoperability with an older legacy system, or with input designed for such a system.
Modifying a system in a way that does not allow backward compatibility is sometimes called "breaking" backward compatibility. Such breaking usually incurs various types of costs, such as switching cost.
A complementary concept is "forward compatibility"; a design that is forward-compatible usually has a roadmap for compatibility with future standards and products.
Usage.
In hardware.
A simple example of both backward and forward compatibility is the introduction of FM radio in stereo. FM radio was initially mono, with only one audio channel represented by one signal. With the introduction of two-channel stereo FM radio, many listeners had only mono FM receivers. Forward compatibility for mono receivers with stereo signals was achieved by sending the sum of both left and right audio channels in one signal and the difference in another signal. That allows mono FM receivers to receive and decode the sum signal while ignoring the difference signal, which is necessary only for separating the audio channels. Stereo FM receivers can receive a mono signal and decode it without the need for a second signal, and they can separate a sum signal to left and right channels if both sum and difference signals are received. Without the requirement for backward compatibility, a simpler method could have been chosen.
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Full backward compatibility is particularly important in computer instruction set architectures, two of the most successful being the IBM 360/370/390/Zseries families of mainframes, and the Intel x86 family of microprocessors.
IBM announced the first 360 models in 1964 and has continued to update the series ever since, with migration over the decades from 32-bit register/24-bit addresses to 64-bit registers and addresses.
Intel announced the first Intel 8086/8088 processors in 1978, again with migrations over the decades from 16-bit to 64-bit. (The 8086/8088, in turn, were designed with easy machine-translatability of programs written for its predecessor in mind, although they were not instruction-set compatible with the 8-bit Intel 8080 processor of 1974. The Zilog Z80, however, was fully backward compatible with the Intel 8080.)
Fully backward compatible processors can process the same binary executable software instructions as their predecessors, allowing the use of a newer processor without having to acquire new applications or operating systems. Similarly, the success of the Wi-Fi digital communication standard is attributed to its broad forward and backward compatibility; it became more popular than other standards that were not backward compatible.
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In software.
In software development, backward compatibility is a general notion of interoperation between software pieces that will not produce any errors when its functionality is invoked via API. The software is considered stable when its API that is used to invoke functions is stable across different versions.
In operating systems, upgrades to newer versions are said to be backward compatible if executables and other files from the previous versions will work as usual.
In compilers, backward compatibility may refer to the ability of a compiler for a newer version of the language to accept source code of programs or data that worked under the previous version.
A data format is said to be backward compatible when a newer version of the program can open it without errors just like its predecessor.
Tradeoffs.
Benefits.
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Despite not being included at launch, Microsoft slowly incorporated backward compatibility for select titles on the Xbox One several years into its product life cycle. Players have racked up over a billion hours with backward-compatible games on Xbox. A large part of the success and implementation of this feature is that the hardware within newer generation consoles is both powerful and similar enough to legacy systems that older titles can be broken down and re-configured to run on the Xbox One. This program has proven incredibly popular with Xbox players and goes against the recent trend of studio-made remasters of classic titles, creating what some believe to be an important shift in console makers' strategies. The current generation of consoles such as the PlayStation 5 (PS5) and Xbox Series X/S also support this feature as well.
Costs.
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Despite this, it is still possible to bypass some of these hardware costs. For instance, earlier PS2 systems had the core of the original PlayStation (PS1) CPU integrated into the I/O processor for dual-purpose use; it could act as either the main CPU in PS1 mode or it can up-clock itself to offload I/O in PS2 mode. The original I/O core was replaced with a PowerPC-based core in later systems to serve the same functions, emulating the same functions as the PS1 CPU core. Such an approach can backfire, however, as was the case of the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (Super NES). It opted for the more peculiar 65C816 CPU over the more popular 16-bit microprocessors on the basis that it would allow for easier backwards compatibility with the original Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) due to the 65C816's software compatibility with the 6502 CPU in emulation mode, but ultimately did not proved to be workable once the rest of the Super NES's architecture was designed. |
Bacterial conjugation
Bacterial conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells by direct cell-to-cell contact or by a bridge-like connection between two cells. This takes place through a pilus. It is a parasexual mode of reproduction in bacteria.
It is a mechanism of horizontal gene transfer as are transformation and transduction although these two other mechanisms do not involve cell-to-cell contact.
Classical "E. coli" bacterial conjugation is often regarded as the bacterial equivalent of sexual reproduction or mating, since it involves the exchange of genetic material. However, it is not sexual reproduction, since no exchange of gamete occurs, and indeed no generation of a new organism: instead, an existing organism is transformed. During classical "E. coli" conjugation, the "donor" cell provides a conjugative or mobilizable genetic element that is most often a plasmid or transposon. Most conjugative plasmids have systems ensuring that the "recipient" cell does not already contain a similar element.
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The genetic information transferred is often beneficial to the recipient. Benefits may include antibiotic resistance, xenobiotic tolerance or the ability to use new metabolites. Other elements can be detrimental, and may be viewed as bacterial parasites.
Conjugation in "Escherichia coli" by spontaneous zygogenesis and in "Mycobacterium smegmatis" by distributive conjugal transfer differ from the better studied classical "E. coli" conjugation in that these cases involve substantial blending of the parental genomes.
History.
The process was discovered by Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum in 1946.
Mechanism.
Conjugation diagram
The F-factor is an episome (a plasmid that can integrate itself into the bacterial chromosome by homologous recombination) with a length of about 100 kb. It carries its own origin of replication, the "oriV", and an origin of transfer, or "oriT". There can only be one copy of the F-plasmid in a given bacterium, either free or integrated, and bacteria that possess a copy are called "F-positive" or "F-plus" (denoted F+). Cells that lack F plasmids are called "F-negative" or "F-minus" (F−) and as such can function as recipient cells.
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Among other genetic information, the F-plasmid carries a "tra" and "trb" locus, which together are about 33 kb long and consist of about 40 genes. The "tra" locus includes the "pilin" gene and regulatory genes, which together form pili on the cell surface. The locus also includes the genes for the proteins that attach themselves to the surface of F− bacteria and initiate conjugation. Though there is some debate on the exact mechanism of conjugation it seems that the pili are the structures through which DNA exchange occurs. The F-pili are extremely resistant to mechanical and thermochemical stress, which guarantees successful conjugation in a variety of environments. Several proteins coded for in the "tra" or "trb" locus seem to open a channel between the bacteria and it is thought that the traD enzyme, located at the base of the pilus, initiates membrane fusion.
When conjugation is initiated by a signal, the relaxase enzyme creates a nick in one of the strands of the conjugative plasmid at the "oriT". Relaxase may work alone, or in a complex of over a dozen proteins known collectively as a relaxosome. In the F-plasmid system, the relaxase enzyme is called TraI and the relaxosome consists of TraI, TraY, TraM and the integrated host factor IHF. The nicked strand, or "T-strand", is then unwound from the unbroken strand and transferred to the recipient cell in a 5'-terminus to 3'-terminus direction. The remaining strand is replicated either independent of conjugative action (vegetative replication beginning at the "oriV") or in concert with conjugation (conjugative replication similar to the rolling circle replication of lambda phage). Conjugative replication may require a second nick before successful transfer can occur. A recent report claims to have inhibited conjugation with chemicals that mimic an intermediate step of this second nicking event.
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If the F-plasmid that is transferred has previously been integrated into the donor's genome (producing an Hfr strain ["High Frequency of Recombination"]) some of the donor's chromosomal DNA may also be transferred with the plasmid DNA. The amount of chromosomal DNA that is transferred depends on how long the two conjugating bacteria remain in contact. In common laboratory strains of "E. coli" the transfer of the entire bacterial chromosome takes about 100 minutes. The transferred DNA can then be integrated into the recipient genome via homologous recombination.
A cell culture that contains in its population cells with non-integrated F-plasmids usually also contains a few cells that have accidentally integrated their plasmids. It is these cells that are responsible for the low-frequency chromosomal gene transfers that occur in such cultures. Some strains of bacteria with an integrated F-plasmid can be isolated and grown in pure culture. Because such strains transfer chromosomal genes very efficiently they are called Hfr (high frequency of recombination). The "E. coli" genome was originally mapped by interrupted mating experiments in which various Hfr cells in the process of conjugation were sheared from recipients after less than 100 minutes (initially using a Waring blender). The genes that were transferred were then investigated.
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Since integration of the F-plasmid into the "E. coli" chromosome is a rare spontaneous occurrence, and since the numerous genes promoting DNA transfer are in the plasmid genome rather than in the bacterial genome, it has been argued that conjugative bacterial gene transfer, as it occurs in the "E. coli" Hfr system, is not an evolutionary adaptation of the bacterial host, nor is it likely ancestral to eukaryotic sex.
Spontaneous zygogenesis in "E. coli"
In addition to classical bacterial conjugation described above for "E. coli", a form of conjugation referred to as spontaneous zygogenesis (Z-mating for short) is observed in certain strains of "E. coli". In Z-mating there is complete genetic mixing, and unstable diploids are formed that throw off phenotypically haploid cells, of which some show a parental phenotype and some are true recombinants.
Conjugal transfer in mycobacteria.
Conjugation in "Mycobacteria smegmatis", like conjugation in "E. coli", requires stable and extended contact between a donor and a recipient strain, is DNase resistant, and the transferred DNA is incorporated into the recipient chromosome by homologous recombination. However, unlike "E. coli" Hfr conjugation, mycobacterial conjugation is chromosome rather than plasmid based. Furthermore, in contrast to "E. coli" Hfr conjugation, in "M. smegmatis" all regions of the chromosome are transferred with comparable efficiencies. The lengths of the donor segments vary widely, but have an average length of 44.2kb. Since a mean of 13 tracts are transferred, the average total of transferred DNA per genome is 575kb. This process is referred to as "Distributive conjugal transfer." Gray et al. found substantial blending of the parental genomes as a result of conjugation and regarded this blending as reminiscent of that seen in the meiotic products of sexual reproduction.
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Conjugation-like DNA transfer in hyperthermophilic archaea.
Hyperthermophilic archaea encode pili structurally similar to the bacterial conjugative pili. However, unlike in bacteria, where conjugation apparatus typically mediates the transfer of mobile genetic elements, such as plasmids or transposons, the conjugative machinery of hyperthermophilic archaea, called Ced (Crenarchaeal system for exchange of DNA) and Ted (Thermoproteales system for exchange of DNA), appears to be responsible for the transfer of cellular DNA between members of the same species. It has been suggested that in these archaea the conjugation machinery has been fully domesticated for promoting DNA repair through homologous recombination rather than spread of mobile genetic elements. In addition to the VirB2-like conjugative pilus, the Ced and Ted systems include components for the VirB6-like transmembrane mating pore and the VirB4-like ATPase.
Inter-kingdom transfer.
Bacteria related to the nitrogen fixing "Rhizobia" are an interesting case of inter-kingdom conjugation. For example, the tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid of "Agrobacterium" and the root-tumor inducing (Ri) plasmid of "A. rhizogenes" contain genes that are capable of transferring to plant cells. The expression of these genes effectively transforms the plant cells into opine-producing factories. Opines are used by the bacteria as sources of nitrogen and energy. Infected cells form crown gall or root tumors. The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.
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The Ti and Ri plasmids can also be transferred between bacteria using a system (the "tra", or transfer, operon) that is different and independent of the system used for inter-kingdom transfer (the "vir", or virulence, operon). Such transfers create virulent strains from previously avirulent strains.
Genetic engineering applications.
Conjugation is a convenient means for transferring genetic material to a variety of targets. In laboratories, successful transfers have been reported from bacteria to yeast, plants, mammalian cells, diatoms and isolated mammalian mitochondria. Conjugation has advantages over other forms of genetic transfer including minimal disruption of the target's cellular envelope and the ability to transfer relatively large amounts of genetic material (see the above discussion of "E. coli" chromosome transfer). In plant engineering, "Agrobacterium"-like conjugation complements other standard vehicles such as tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). While TMV is capable of infecting many plant families these are primarily herbaceous dicots. "Agrobacterium"-like conjugation is also primarily used for dicots, but monocot recipients are not uncommon. |
Galjoen
The galjoen, black bream, or blackfish (Dichistius capensis) is a species of marine fish found only along the coast of South Africa, Namibia and Angola. Galjoen is the national fish of South Africa.
Distribution and habitat.
The galjoen is indigenous to the coasts of southern Africa from Angola to South Africa, and is generally found around reefs at shallow depths around , often near the shore.
Description.
This species can reach in total length and a weight of . The body is compressed, and the fins are well developed, with prominent spines, 10 of them, with between 18 and 23 rays. The anal fin has three spines, and usually 13 or 14 rays, the pelvic fins have 1 spine and 5 rays, and the pectoral fins are typically shorter than the head. The body, fins, and head, with the except of the front of the snout, are covered in scales. The lips are thick, with strong curved incisors at the front of the mouth, with smaller teeth behind the front incisors.
Ecology.
Diet.
The species usually feeds on red and coraline seaweed and red bait, small mussels and barnacles found off rocky shores, and appear in particular to be a partial to the white mussels residing in the sandy beaches and inlets of the rocky outcrops along the southern coast.
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Home area.
In 2005, the movements of the species were extensively studied. Some 25,000 galjoen were tagged at four sites in reserves in South Africa and their overall movement was found to remain localised, with some 95% of fish studied seeming to frequent a particular area.
Conservation status.
According to the South African Association for Marine Biological Research, the population of the galoen is depleted at less than 20% of its optimal size; the existing stock is maintained due to natural refuges and no-take MPAs.
In the 2018 National Biodiversity Assessment by SANBI, it is listed as Near Threatened. It is listed on the South African Sustainable Seafood Initiative List as a red-listed fish that cannot be sold nor bought; only recreational anglers with a permit may catch a minimum size of 35 cm with a limit of 2 a day.
Importance to humans.
Fishing.
It is important to local commercial fisheries and is also popular as a game fish.
As food.
Due to their abundance in the shores off South Africa, galjoen is common in South African cuisine. A notable dish is the fish sprinkled with pepper and lemon — or alternatively with lemon, mayonnaise, and melted garlic butter — and served with fresh bread and apricot jam.
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As the national fish of South Africa.
Galjoen is the national fish of South Africa. The suggestion to make it the national fish came from Margaret Smith, the wife of ichthyologist J. L. B. Smith, to find a marine equivalent to the springbok.
Etymology.
The scientific name of "Coracinus capensis" is a reference to its black colour when found in rocky areas, "Coracinus" meaning "raven" or "black coloured"; in sandy areas it gives off a silver-bronze colour. |
Blue crane
The blue crane (Grus paradisea), also known as the Stanley crane and the paradise crane, is the national bird of South Africa. The species is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN.
Description.
The blue crane is a tall, ground-dwelling bird, but is fairly small by the standards of the crane family. It is tall, with a wingspan of and weighs . Among standard measurements, the wing chord measures , the exposed culmen measures and the tarsus measures . This crane is pale blue-gray in color becoming darker on the upper head, neck and nape. From the crown to the lores, the plumage is distinctly lighter, sometimes whitish. The bill is ochre to greyish, with a pink tinge. The long wingtip feathers which trail to the ground. The primaries are black to slate grey, with dark coverts and blackish on the secondaries. Unlike most cranes, it has a relatively large head and a proportionately thin neck. Juveniles are similar but slightly lighter, with tawny coloration on the head, and no long wing plumes.
Habitat.
Blue cranes are birds of the dry grassy uplands, usually the pastured grasses of hills, valleys, and plains with a few scattered trees. They prefer areas in the nesting season that have access to both upland and wetland areas, though they feed almost entirely in dry areas. They are altitudinal migrants, generally nesting in the lower grasslands of an elevation of around 1,300 to 2,000 m and moving down to lower altitudes for winter.
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Movements and behaviour.
Of the 15 species of crane, the blue crane has the most restricted distribution of all. Even species with lower population numbers now (such as Siberian or whooping cranes) are found over a considerable range in their migratory movements. The blue crane is migratory, primarily altitudinal, but details are little known.
The blue crane is partially social, less so during the breeding season. There is a strict hierarchy in groups, with the larger adult males being dominant. They overlap in range with three other crane species but interactions with these species and other "large wader" type birds are not known. They are aggressively protective of their nesting sites during the nesting season, even attacking innocent, non-predatory animals such as antelope, cattle, tortoises, plovers and the smallest of birds, such as sparrows. Humans are also attacked if they approach a nest too closely, with the aggressive male having torn clothes and drawn blood in such cases. Threats to their eggs and chicks include large savannah and white-throated monitor lizards, egg-eating snakes, foxes, jackals, birds-of-prey, meerkats, and mongoose.
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Feeding.
Blue cranes feed from the ground and appear to rarely feed near wetland areas. Most of their diet is comprised by grasses and sedges, with many types fed on based on their proximity to the nests. They are also regularly insectivorous, feeding on numerous, sizeable insects such as grasshoppers. Small animals such as crabs, snails, frogs, small lizards and snakes may supplement the diet, with such protein-rich food often being broken down and fed to the young.
Breeding.
The breeding period is highly seasonal, with eggs being recorded between October and March. Pair-formation amongst groups often starts in October, beginning with both potential parents running in circles with each other. The male then engages in a "dance" flings various objects in the air and then jumps. Eventually, a female from the group and the male appear to "select" each other and both engage in the dance of throwing objects and jumping. After the dance, mating commences in around two weeks.
In a great majority of known nests, two eggs are laid (rarely one or three). Both males and females will incubate, with the male often incubating at night and, during the day, defending the nest territory while the female incubates. The incubation stage lasts around 30 days. The young are able to walk after two days and can swim well shortly thereafter. They are fed primarily by their mothers, who regurgitates food into the mouths. The chicks fledge in the age of 3–5 months. The young continue to be tended to until the next breeding season, at which time they are chased off by their parents.
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Decline.
While it remains common in parts of its historic range, and approx. 26 000 individuals remain, it began a sudden population decline from around 1980 and is now classified as vulnerable.
In the last two decades, the blue crane has largely disappeared from the Eastern Cape, Lesotho, and Eswatini. The population in the northern Free State, Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga and North West Province has declined by up to 90%. The majority of the remaining population is in eastern and southern South Africa, with a small and separate population in the Etosha Pan of northern Namibia. Occasionally, isolated breeding pairs are found in five neighbouring countries.
The primary causes of the sudden decline of the blue crane are human population growth, the conversion of grasslands into commercial tree plantations, and poisoning: deliberate (to protect crops) or accidental (baits intended for other species, and as a side-effect of crop dusting).
The South African government has stepped up legal protection for the blue crane. Other conservation measures are focusing on research, habitat management, education, and recruiting the help of private landowners.
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The blue crane is one of the species to which the "Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds" (AEWA) applies.
Since October 2021, the Blue Crane has been classified as Moderately Depleted by the IUCN.
Cultural references.
The blue crane is culturally significant to the Xhosa people, who call it "indwe" (flag). Traditionally, when a man distinguished himself in battle or otherwise, he was often decorated by a chief with blue crane feathers in a ceremony called "ukundzabela". Men so honoured, who would wear the feathers sticking out of their hair, were known as men of (trouble)—the implication being that if trouble arose, they would reinstate peace and order.
It is also of significance to the Zulu people, whose kings and warriors wore a single or many feathers as a headdress.
Because of the association with warriors and heroism, the Isitwalandwe Medal was created to honour those who had "made an outstanding contribution and sacrifice to the liberation struggle", that is, those who resisted the apartheid regime in South Africa (1949–1991) in various ways. Isitwalandwe means "the one who wears the plumes of the rare bird", or blue crane.
The blue crane is also the national bird of South Africa.
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Babrak Karmal
Babrak Karmal (Persian/Pashto: ; born Sultan Hussein; 6 January 1929 – 1 or 3 December 1996) was an Afghan communist revolutionary and politician who was the leader of Afghanistan, serving in the post of general secretary of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan from 1979 to 1986.
Karmal attended Kabul University and developed openly leftist views there, having been introduced to Marxism by Mir Akbar Khyber during his imprisonment for activities deemed too radical by the government. He became a founding member of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) and eventually became the leader of the Parcham faction when the PDPA split in 1967, with their ideological nemesis being the Khalq faction. Karmal was elected to the Lower House after the 1965 parliamentary election, serving in parliament until losing his seat in the 1969 parliamentary election.
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Karmal was promoted to Chairman of the Revolutionary Council and Chairman of the Council of Ministers in December 1979. He remained in the latter office until 1981, when he was succeeded by Sultan Ali Keshtmand. Throughout his term, Karmal worked to establish a support base for the PDPA by introducing several reforms. Among these were the "Fundamental Principles of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan", introducing a general amnesty for those people imprisoned during Nur Mohammad Taraki's and Amin's rule. He also replaced the red Khalqist flag with a more traditional one. These policies failed to increase the PDPA's legitimacy in the eyes of the Afghan people and the Afghan mujahidin rebels, and he was widely seen as a Soviet puppet amongst the populace. These policy failures, and the stalemate that ensued after the Soviet intervention, led the Soviet leadership to become highly critical of Karmal's leadership. Under Mikhail Gorbachev, the Soviet Union deposed Karmal in 1986 and replaced him with Mohammad Najibullah. After losing power, he was exiled to Moscow. It was Anahita Ratebzad who persuaded Najibullah to allow Babrak Karmal to return to Afghanistan in 1991, where Karmal became an associate of Abdul Rashid Dostum and possibly helped remove the Najibullah government from power in 1992. He eventually left Afghanistan again for Moscow. In 1996, Karmal died from liver cancer.
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Early life and career.
Karmal was born Sultan Hussein on 6 January 1929 in Kamari, a village in Kabul. He was the son of Muhammad Hussein, a "dagar jenral" (lieutenant general, three-star rank) in the Afghan Army and former governor of the province of Paktia and Herat provinces, and was the first of six siblings. His family was one of the wealthier families in Kabul. His ethnic background was publicly disputed, with some sources claiming he was Pashtun and that he was Tajik. Throughout his tenure in the Afghan Parliament, Karmal strategically sowed confusion by alternately identifying himself as Pashtun and Tajik, demonstrating a deliberate avoidance of strict ethnic categorization. Karmal's ethnicity was a subject of persistent dispute, with conflicting claims made by Pashtun sympathizers and affiliates asserting that he belonged to the "Mullahkhel" Kakar or Khilji tribe of Khost and Paktia as a Pashtun, while Tajik sympathizers and affiliates insisted that he was a Tajik. Although Karmal was only Pashtun Mullahkhel by maternal lineage which itself was Persianised, it is important to note that during and after the Cold War, many English language sources tended to categorize him as a Tajik, often with the intention of discrediting him and providing a rationale for the Russians' decision to oust him from power for not being Pashtun.
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He attended Nejat High School, a German-speaking school, and graduated from it in 1948, and applied to enter the Faculty of Law and Political Science of Kabul University. Karmal's application was initially denied admission to Kabul University because of his student political activist and his openly leftist views. He was always a charismatic speaker and became involved in the student union and the Wikh-i-Zalmayan (Awakened Youth Movement), a progressive and leftist organization. He studied at the College of Law and Political Science at Kabul University from 1951 to 1953. In 1953 Karmal was arrested because of his student union activities, but was released three years later in 1956 in an amnesty by Muhammad Daoud Khan. Shortly after, in 1957, Karmal found work as an English and German translator, before quitting and leaving for military training. Karmal graduated from the College of Law and Political Science in 1960, and in 1961, he found work as an employee in the Compilation and Translation Department of the Ministry of Education. From 1961 to 1963 he worked in the Ministry of Planning. When his mother died, Karmal left with his maternal aunt to live somewhere else. His father disowned him because of his leftist views. Karmal was involved in much debauchery, which was controversial in the mostly conservative Afghan society.
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Communist politics.
Imprisoned from 1953 to 1956, Karmal befriended fellow inmate Mir Akbar Khyber, who introduced Karmal to Marxism. Karmal changed his name from Sultan Hussein to Babrak Karmal, which means "Comrade of the Workers'" in Pashto, to disassociate himself from his bourgeois background. When he was released from prison, he continued his activities in the student union, and began to promote Marxism. Karmal spent the rest of the 1950s and the early 1960s becoming involved with Marxist organizations, of which there were at least four in Afghanistan at the time; two of the four were established by Karmal. When the 1964 Afghan Provisional Constitution, which legalised the establishment of new political entities, was introduced several prominent Marxists agreed to establish a communist political party. The People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA, the Communist Party) was established in January 1965 in Nur Muhammad Taraki's home. Factionalism within the PDPA quickly became a problem; the party split into the Khalq led by Taraki alongside Hafizullah Amin, and the Parcham led by Karmal.
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During the 1965 parliamentary election Karmal was one of four PDPA members elected to the lower house of parliament; the three others were Anahita Ratebzad (whom he would later have an affair with according to Vasili Mitrokhin), Nur Ahmed Nur and Fezanul Haq Fezan. No Khalqists were elected; however, Amin was 50 votes short of being elected. The Parchamite victory may be explained by the simple fact that Karmal could contribute financially to the PDPA electoral campaign. Karmal became a leading figure within the student movement in the 1960s, electing Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal as Prime Minister after a student demonstration (called for by Karmal) concluded with three deaths under the former leadership. In 1966 inside parliament, Karmal was physically assaulted by an Islamist MP, Mohammad Nabi Mohammadi.
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The Daoud era.
Mohammed Daoud Khan, in collaboration with the Parchamite PDPA and radical military officers, overthrew the monarchy and instituted the Republic of Afghanistan in 1973. After Daoud's seizure of power, an American embassy cable stated that the new government had established a Soviet-style Central Committee, in which Karmal and Mir Akbar Khyber were given leading positions. Most ministries were given to Parchamites; Hassan Sharq became Deputy Prime Minister, Major Faiz Mohammad became Minister of Internal Affairs and Niamatullah Pazhwak became Minister of Education. The Parchamites took control over the ministries of finance, agriculture, communications and border affairs. The new government quickly suppressed the opposition, and secured their power base. At first, the National Front government between Daoud and the Parchamites seemed to work. By 1975, Daoud had strengthened his position by enhancing the executive, legislative and judicial powers of the Presidency. To the dismay of the Parchamites, all parties other than the National Revolutionary Party (NRP, established by Daoud) were made illegal.
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Shortly after the ban on opposition to the NRP, Daoud began a massive purge of Parchamites in government. Mohammad lost his position as interior minister, Abdul Qadir was demoted, and Karmal was put under government surveillance. To mitigate Daoud's suddenly anti-communist directives, the Soviet Union reestablished the PDPA; Taraki was elected its General Secretary and Karmal, Second Secretary. While the Saur Revolution (literally the April Revolution) was planned for August, the assassination of Khyber led to a chain of events which ended with the communists seizing power. Karmal, when taking power in 1979, accused Amin of ordering the assassination of Khyber.
Taraki–Amin rule.
Taraki was appointed Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council and Chairman of the Council of Ministers, retaining his post as PDPA general secretary. Taraki initially formed a government which consisted of both Khalqists and Parchamites; Karmal became Deputy Chairman of the Revolutionary Council, while Amin became Minister of Foreign Affairs and Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers.Mohammad Aslam Watanjar became Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers. The two Parchamites Abdul Qadir and Mohammad Rafi, became Minister of Defence and Minister of Public Works, respectively. The appointment of Amin, Karmal and Watanjar led to splits within the Council of Ministers: the Khalqists answered to Amin; Karmal led the civilian Parchamites; and the military officers (who were Parchamites) were answerable to Watanjar (a Khalqist). The first conflict arose when the Khalqists wanted to give PDPA Central Committee membership to military officers who had participated in the Saur Revolution; Karmal opposed such a move but was overruled. A PDPA Politburo meeting voted in favour of giving Central Committee membership to the officers.
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On 27 June, three months after the Saur Revolution, Amin outmaneuvered the Parchamites at a Central Committee meeting, giving the Khalqists exclusive right over formulating and deciding policy. A purge against the Parchamites was initiated by Amin and supported by Taraki on 1 July 1979. Karmal, fearing for his safety, went into hiding in one of his Soviet friends' homes. Karmal tried to contact Alexander Puzanov, the Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan, to talk about the situation. Puzanov refused, and revealed Karmal's location to Amin. The Soviets probably saved Karmal's life by sending him to the Socialist Republic of Czechoslovakia. In exile, Karmal established a network with the remaining Parchamites in government. A coup to overthrow Amin was planned for 4 September 1979. Its leading members in Afghanistan were Qadir and the Army Chief of Staff General Shahpur Ahmedzai. The coup was planned for the Festival of Eid, in anticipation of relaxed military vigilance. The conspiracy failed when the Afghan ambassador to India told the Afghan leadership about the plan. Another purge was initiated, and Parchamite ambassadors were recalled. Few returned to Afghanistan; Karmal and Mohammad Najibullah stayed in their respective countries. The Soviets decided that Amin should be removed to make way for a Karmal-Taraki coalition government. However Amin managed to order the arrest and later the murder of Taraki.
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Amin was informed of the Soviet decision to intervene in Afghanistan and was initially supportive, but was assassinated. Under the command of the Soviets, Karmal ascended to power. On 27 December 1979, Karmal's pre-recorded speech to the Afghan people was broadcast via Radio Kabul from Tashkent in the Uzbek SSR (the radio wavelength was changed to that of Kabul), saying: "Today the torture machine of Amin has been smashed, his accomplices – the primitive executioners, usurpers and murderers of tens of thousand of our fellow countrymen – fathers, mothers, sisters, brothers, sons and daughters, children and old people ..." Karmal was not in Kabul when the speech was broadcast; he was in Bagram, protected by the KGB.
That evening Yuri Andropov, the KGB Chairman, congratulated Karmal on his rise to the Chairmanship of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council, some time before Karmal received an official appointment. Karmal returned to Kabul on 28 December. He travelled alongside a Soviet military column. For the next few days Karmal lived in a villa on the outskirts of Kabul under the protection of the KGB. On 1 January 1980 Leonid Brezhnev, the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and Alexei Kosygin, the Soviet Chairman of the Council of Ministers, congratulated Karmal on his "election" as leader.
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Leadership.
Domestic policies.
Karmal's ascension was quickly troubled as he was effectively installed by the invading Soviet Union, delegitimizing him. Unrest in the country quickly escalated, and in Kabul two major uprisings, on 3 Hoot (22 February) and the months long students' protests were early signs of trouble. Karmal would also arrest Major Saddiq Alamyar in 1980, the commander of the 444th Commando Battalion, who committed the Kerala massacre while Afghanistan was still under the leadership of the Khalq. Other perpetrators were also arrested, such as other commandos and soldiers in the 11th Division of the Afghan Army. Alamyar remained in jail for a decade, even after Karmal was removed from his post as president.
The "Fundamental Principles" and amnesty.
When he came to power, Karmal promised an end to executions, the establishment of democratic institutions and free elections, the creation of a constitution, and legalization of alternative political parties. Prisoners incarcerated under the two previous governments would be freed in a general amnesty (which occurred on 6 January). He promised the creation of a coalition government which would not espouse socialism. At the same time, he told the Afghan people that he had negotiated with the Soviet Union to give economic, military and political assistance. The mistrust most Afghans felt towards the government was a problem for Karmal. Many still remembered he had said he would protect private capital in 1978—a promise later proven to be a lie.
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Karmal's three most important promises were the general amnesty of prisoners, the promulgation of the Fundamental Principles of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan and the adoption of a new flag containing the traditional black, red and green (the flag of Taraki and Amin was red). His government granted concessions to religious leaders and the restoration of confiscated property. Some property, which was confiscated during earlier land reforms, was also partially restored. All these measures, with the exception of the general amnesty of prisoners, were introduced gradually. Of 2,700 prisoners, 2,600 were released from prison; 600 of these were Parchamites. The general amnesty was greatly publicized by the government. While the event was hailed with enthusiasm by some, many others greeted the event with disdain, since their loved ones or associates had died during earlier purges. Amin had planned to introduce a general amnesty on 1 January 1980, to coincide with the PDPA's sixteenth anniversary.
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The Fundamental Principles led to the establishment of two important state organs: the Special Revolutionary Court, a specialized court for crimes against national security and territorial integrity, and the Institute for Legal and Scientific Research and Legislative Affairs, the supreme legislative organ of state, This body could amend and draft laws, and introduce regulations and decrees on behalf of the government. The introduction of more Soviet-style institutions led the Afghan people to distrust the communist government even more.
The Fundamental Principles constitution came into power on 22 April 1980.
Dividing power: Khalq–Parcham.
With Karmal's ascension to power, Parchamites began to "settle old scores". Revolutionary Troikas were created to arrest, sentence and execute people. Amin's guard were the first victims of the terror which ensued. Those commanders who had stayed loyal to Amin were arrested, filling the prisons. The Soviets protested, and Karmal replied, "As long as you keep my hands bound and do not let me deal with the Khalq faction there will be no unity in the PDPA and the government cannot become strong ... They tortured and killed us. |
The Soviets protested, and Karmal replied, "As long as you keep my hands bound and do not let me deal with the Khalq faction there will be no unity in the PDPA and the government cannot become strong ... They tortured and killed us. They still hate us! They are the enemies of the party ..." Amin's daughter, along with her baby, was imprisoned for twelve years, until Mohammad Najibullah, then leader of the PDPA, released her. When Karmal took power, leading posts in the Party and Government bureaucracy were taken over by Parchamites. The Khalq faction was removed from power, and only technocrats, opportunists and individuals which the Soviets trusted would be appointed to the higher echelons of government. Khalqists remained in control of the Ministry of Interior, but Parchamites were given control over KHAD and the secret police. The Parchamites and the Khalqists controlled an equal share of the military. Two out of Karmal's three Council of Ministers deputy chairmen were Khalqists. Khalqists controlled the Ministry of Communications and the interior ministry. |
Two out of Karmal's three Council of Ministers deputy chairmen were Khalqists. Khalqists controlled the Ministry of Communications and the interior ministry. Parchamites, on the other hand, controlled the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Defence. In addition to the changes in government, the Parchamites held clear majority in the PDPA Central Committee. Only one Khalqi, Saleh Mohammad Zeary, was a member of the PDPA Secretariat during Karmal's rule.
Over 14 and 15 March 1982 the PDPA held a party "conference" at the Kabul Polytechnic Institute instead of a party "congress", since a party congress would have given the Khalq faction a majority and could have led to a Khalqist takeover of the PDPA. The rules of holding a party conference were different, and the Parchamites had a three-fifths majority. This infuriated several Khalqists; the threat of expulsion did not lessen their anger. The conference was not successful, but it was portrayed as such by the official media. The conference broke up after one and a half days of a 3-day long program, because of the inter-party struggle for power between the Khalqists and the Parchamites. A "program of action" was introduced, and party rules were given minor changes. As an explanation of the low party membership, the official media also made it seem hard to become a member of the party.
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PDPA base.
When Karmal took power, he began expanding the support base of the PDPA. Karmal tried to persuade certain groups, which had been referred to class enemies of the revolution during Taraki and Amin's rule, to support the PDPA. Karmal appointed several non-communists to top positions. Between March and May 1980, 78 out of the 191 people appointed to government posts were not members of the PDPA. Karmal reintroduced the old Afghan custom of having an Islamic invocation every time the government issued a proclamation. In his first live speech to the Afghan people, Karmal called for the establishment of the National Fatherland Front (NFF); the NFF's founding congress was held in June 1981. Unfortunately for Karmal, his policies did not lead to a notable increase in support for his regime, and it did not help Karmal that most Afghans saw the Soviet intervention as an invasion.
By 1981, the government gave up on political solutions to the conflict. At the fifth PDPA Central Committee plenum in June, Karmal resigned from his Council of Ministers chairmanship and was replaced by Sultan Ali Keshtmand, while Nur Ahmad Nur was given a bigger role in the Revolutionary Council. This was seen as "base broadening". The previous weight given to non-PDPA members in top positions ceased to be an important matter in the media by June 1981. This was significant, considering that up to five members of the Revolutionary Council were non-PDPA members. By the end of 1981, the previous contenders, who had been heavily presented in the media, were all gone; two were given ambassadorships, two ceased to be active in politics, and one continued as an advisor to the government. The other three changed sides, and began to work for the opposition.
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The national policy of reconciliation continued: in January 1984 the land reform introduced by Taraki and Amin was drastically modified, the limits of landholdings were increased to win the support of middle class peasants, the literacy programme was continued, and concessions to women were made. In 1985 the Loya Jirga was reconvened. The 1985 Loya Jirga was followed by a tribal jirga in September. In 1986 Abdul Rahim Hatef, a non-PDPA member, was elected to the NFF chairmanship. During the 1985–86 elections it was said that 60 percent of the elected officials were non-PDPA members. By the end of Karmal's rule, several non-PDPA members had high-level government positions.
Civil war and military.
In March 1979, the military budget was 6.4 million US$, which was 8.3 percent of the government budget, but only 2.2 of gross national product. After the Soviet intervention, the defence budget increased to 208 million US$ in 1980, and 325 million US$ by 1981. In 1982 it was reported that the government spent around 22 percent of total expenditure.
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When the political solution failed (see "PDPA base" section), the Afghan government and the Soviet military decided to solve the conflict militarily. The change from a political to a military solution did not come suddenly. It began in January 1981, as Karmal doubled wages for military personnel, issued several promotions, and decorated one general and thirteen colonels. The draft age was lowered, the obligatory length of arms duty was extended and the age for reservists was increased to thirty-five years of age. In June 1981, Assadullah Sarwari lost his seat in the PDPA Politburo, replaced by Mohammad Aslam Watanjar, a former tank commander and Minister of Communications, Major General Mohammad Rafi was made Minister of Defence and Mohammad Najibullah appointed KHAD Chairman.
These measures were introduced due to the collapse of the army during the Soviet intervention. Before the intervention the army could field 100,000 troops, after the intervention only 25,000. Desertions were pandemic, and the recruitment campaigns for young people often drove them to the opposition. To better organize the military, seven military zones were established, each with its own Defence Council. The Defence Councils were established at the national, provincial and district level to empower the local PDPA. It is estimated that the Afghan government spent as much as 40 percent of government revenue on defense.
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Karmal refused to recognize the rebels as genuine, saying in an interview:
Economy.
During the civil war and the ensuing Soviet–Afghan War, most of the country's infrastructure was destroyed. Normal patterns of economic activity were disrupted. The Gross national product (GNP) fell substantially during Karmal's rule because of the conflict; trade and transport was disrupted with loss of labor and capital. In 1981 the Afghan GDP stood at 154.3 billion Afghan afghanis, a drop from 159.7 billion in 1978. GNP per capita decreased from 7,370 in 1978 to 6,852 in 1981. The dominant form of economic activity was in the agricultural sector. Agriculture accounted for 63 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in 1981; 56 percent of the labor force was working in agriculture in 1982. Industry accounted for 21 percent of GDP in 1982, and employed 10 percent of the labor force. All industrial enterprises were government-owned. The service sector, the smallest of the three, accounted for 10 percent of GDP in 1981, and employed an estimated one-third of the labour force. The balance of payments, which had grown in the pre-communist administration of Muhammad Daoud Khan, decreased, turning negative by 1982 at 70.3 million $US. The only economic activity which grew substantially during Karmal's rule was export and import.
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Foreign policy.
Karmal observed in early 1983 that without Soviet intervention, "It is unknown what the destiny of the Afghan Revolution would be ... We are realists and we clearly realize that in store for us yet lie trials and deprivations, losses and difficulties." Two weeks before this statement Sultan Ali Keshtmand, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, lamented the fact that half the schools and three-quarters of communications had been destroyed since 1979. The Soviet Union rejected several Western-made peace plans, such as the Carrington Plan, since they did not take into consideration the PDPA government. Most Western peace plans had been made in collaboration with the Afghan opposition forces. At the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) Leonid Brezhnev, the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, stated;
The stance of the Pakistani government was clear, demanding complete Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan and the establishment of a non-PDPA government. Karmal, summarizing his discussions with Iran and Pakistan, said "Iran and Pakistan have so far not opted for concrete and constructive positions." During Karmal's rule Afghan–Pakistani relations remained hostile; the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan was the catalyst for the hostile relationship. The increasing numbers of Afghan refugees in Pakistan challenged the PDPA's legitimacy to rule.
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The Soviet Union threatened in 1985 that it would support the Baloch separatist movement in Pakistan if the Pakistani government continued to aid the Afghan mujahideen. Karmal, problematically for the Soviets, did not want a Soviet withdrawal, and he hampered attempts to improve relations with Pakistan since the Pakistani government had refused to recognise the PDPA government.
Public image.
Because Karmal was put into power without a formal ceremony as in Afghan tradition, he was seen as an illegitimate leader in many eyes of his people. A poor performance in foreign interviews also did not help his public image where he was noted to speak like an "exhibitionist" rather than a statesman. Karmal was widely viewed as a puppet leader of the Soviet Union by Afghans and the Western press.
Despite his position, Karmal was apparently not permitted to make key decisions as he was following advice from Soviet advisers. The Soviet control of the Afghan state was apparently so much that Karmal himself admitted to a friend of his unfree life, telling him: “The Soviet comrades love me boundlessly, and for the sake of my personal safety, they don’t obey even my own orders.”
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Fall from power and succession.
Mikhail Gorbachev, then General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, said, "The main reason that there has been no national consolidation so far is that Comrade Karmal is hoping to continue sitting in Kabul with our help." Karmal's position became less secure when the Soviet leadership began blaming him for the failures in Afghanistan. Gorbachev, worried over the situation, told the Soviet Politburo "If we don't change approaches [to evacuate Afghanistan], we will be fighting there for another 20 or 30 years." It is not clear when the Soviet leadership began to campaign for Karmal's dismissal, but Andrei Gromyko discussed the possibility of Karmal's resignation with Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, the Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1982. While it was Gorbachev who would dismiss Karmal, there may have been a consensus within the Soviet leadership in 1983 that Karmal should resign. Gorbachev's own plan was to replace Karmal with Mohammad Najibullah, who had joined the PDPA at its creation. Najibullah was thought highly of by Yuri Andropov, Boris Ponomarev and Dmitriy Ustinov, and negotiations for his succession may have started in 1983. Najibullah was not the Soviet leadership's only choice for Karmal's succession; a GRU report noted that the majority of the PDPA leadership would support Assadullah Sarwari's ascension to leadership. According to the GRU, Sarwari was a better candidate as he could balance between the Pashtuns, Tajiks and Uzbeks; Najibullah was a Pashtun nationalist. Another viable candidate was Abdul Qadir, who had been a participant in the Saur Revolution.
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Najibullah was appointed to the PDPA Secretariat in November 1985. During Karmal's March 1986 visit to the Soviet Union, the Soviets tried to persuade Karmal that he was too ill to govern, and that he should resign. This backfired, as a Soviet doctor attending to Karmal told him he was in good health. Karmal asked to return home to Kabul, and said that he understood and would listen to the Soviet recommendations. Before leaving, Karmal promised he would step down as PDPA General Secretary. The Soviets did not trust him and sent Vladimir Kryuchkov, the head of intelligence (FCD) in the KGB, into Afghanistan. At a meeting in Kabul, Karmal confessed his undying love for the Soviet Union, comparing his ardor to his Muslim faith. Kryuchkov, concluding that he could not persuade Karmal to resign, left the meeting. After Kryuchkov left the room, the Afghan defence minister and the state security minister visited Karmal's office, telling him that he had to resign from one of his posts. Understanding that his Soviet support had been eliminated, Karmal resigned from the office of the General Secretary at the 18th PDPA Central Committee plenum. He was succeeded in his post by Najibullah.
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Karmal still had support within the party, and used his base to curb Najibullah's powers. He began spreading rumors that he would be reappointed General Secretary. Najibullah's power base was in the KHAD, the Afghan equivalent to the KGB, and not the party. Considering the fact that the Soviet Union had supported Karmal for over six years, the Soviet leadership wanted to ease him out of power gradually. Yuli Vorontsov, the Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan, told Najibullah to begin undermining Karmal's power slowly. Najibullah complained to the Soviet leadership that Karmal used most of his spare time looking for errors and "speaking against the National Reconciliation programme". At a meeting of the Soviet Politburo on 13 November 1986 it was decided that Najibullah should remove Karmal; this motion was supported by Gromyko, Vorontsov, Eduard Shevardnadze, Anatoly Dobrynin and Viktor Chebrikov. A PDPA meeting in November relieved Karmal of his Revolutionary Council chairmanship, and exiled him to Moscow where he was given a state-owned apartment and a dacha. Karmal was succeeded as Revolutionary Council chairman by Haji Mohammad Tsamkani, who was not a member of the PDPA.
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Later life and death.
Many years after the end of his leadership, he denounced the Saur Revolution of 1978 in which he took part, taking aim at the Khalq governments of Taraki and Amin. He told a Soviet reporter:
It was the greatest crime against the people of Afghanistan. Parcham's leaders were against armed actions because the country was not ready for a revolution... I knew that people would not support us if we decided to keep power without such support.
Karmal was invited back to Kabul by Najibullah, and "for equally obscure reasons Karmal accepted", returning on 20 June 1991 (this could have been on the recommendation of Anahita Ratebzad who was very close to Karmal and also respected by Najibullah). If Najibullah's plan was to strengthen his position within the Watan Party (the renamed PDPA) by appeasing the pro-Karmal Parchamites, he failed – Karmal's apartment became a center for opposition to Najibullah's government. When Najibullah was toppled in 1992, Karmal became the most powerful politician in Kabul through leadership of the Parcham. However, his negotiations with the rebels collapsed quickly, and on 16 April 1992 the rebels, led by Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, took Kabul. After the fall of Najibullah's government, Karmal was based in Hairatan. There, it is alleged, Karmal used most of his time either trying to establish a new party, or advising people to join the secular National Islamic Movement ("Junbish-i-Milli"). Abdul Rashid Dostum, the leader of Junbish-i-Milli, was a supporter of Karmal during his rule. It is unknown how much control Karmal had over Dostum, but there is little evidence that Karmal was in any commanding position. Karmal's influence over Dostum appeared indirect – some of his former associates supported Dostum. Those who spoke with Karmal during this period noted his lack of interest in politics. In June 1992 it was reported that he had died in a plane crash along with Dostum, although these reports later proved to be false.
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In early December 1996, Karmal died in Moscow's Central Clinical Hospital from liver cancer. The date of his death was reported by some sources as 1 December and by others as 3 December. The Taliban summed up his rule as follows:
[he] committed all kinds of crimes during his illegitimate rule ... God inflicted on him various kinds of hardship and pain. Eventually he died of cancer in a hospital belonging to his paymasters, the Russians. |
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