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During the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries mathematicians made significant progress. In the West Thomas Harriot (1560–1621) of England, Johann Faulhaber (1580–1635) of Germany, Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665) and fellow French mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) all played important roles.
Thomas Harriot seems to have been the first to derive and write formulas for sums of powers using symbolic notation, but even he calculated only up to the sum of the fourth powers. Johann Faulhaber gave formulas for sums of powers up to the 17th power in his 1631 "Academia Algebrae", far higher than anyone before him, but he did not give a general formula.
Blaise Pascal in 1654 proved "Pascal's identity" relating to the sums of the th powers of the first positive integers for .
The Swiss mathematician Jakob Bernoulli (1654–1705) was the first to realize the existence of a single sequence of constants which provide a uniform formula for all sums of powers.
The joy Bernoulli experienced when he hit upon the pattern needed to compute quickly and easily the coefficients of his formula for the sum of the th powers for any positive integer can be seen from his comment. He wrote:
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Bernoulli's result was published posthumously in "Ars Conjectandi" in 1713. Seki Takakazu independently discovered the Bernoulli numbers and his result was published a year earlier, also posthumously, in 1712. However, Seki did not present his method as a formula based on a sequence of constants.
Bernoulli's formula for sums of powers is the most useful and generalizable formulation to date. The coefficients in Bernoulli's formula are now called Bernoulli numbers, following a suggestion of Abraham de Moivre.
Bernoulli's formula is sometimes called Faulhaber's formula after Johann Faulhaber who found remarkable ways to calculate sum of powers but never stated Bernoulli's formula. According to Knuth a rigorous proof of Faulhaber's formula was first published by Carl Jacobi in 1834. Knuth's in-depth study of Faulhaber's formula concludes (the nonstandard notation on the LHS is explained further on):
In the above Knuth meant formula_10; instead using formula_11 the formula avoids subtraction:
Reconstruction of "Summae Potestatum".
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The Bernoulli numbers (n)/(n) were introduced by Jakob Bernoulli in the book "Ars Conjectandi" published posthumously in 1713 page 97. The main formula can be seen in the second half of the corresponding facsimile. The constant coefficients denoted , , and by Bernoulli are mapped to the notation which is now prevalent as , , , . The expression means – the small dots are used as grouping symbols. Using today's terminology these expressions are falling factorial powers . The factorial notation as a shortcut for was not introduced until 100 years later. The integral symbol on the left hand side goes back to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1675 who used it as a long letter for "summa" (sum). The letter on the left hand side is not an index of summation but gives the upper limit of the range of summation which is to be understood as . Putting things together, for positive , today a mathematician is likely to write Bernoulli's formula as:
This formula suggests setting when switching from the so-called 'archaic' enumeration which uses only the even indices 2, 4, 6... to the modern form (more on different conventions in the next paragraph). Most striking in this context is the fact that the falling factorial has for the value . Thus Bernoulli's formula can be written
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if , recapturing the value Bernoulli gave to the coefficient at that position.
The formula for formula_15 in the first half of the quotation by Bernoulli above contains an error at the last term; it should be formula_16 instead of formula_17.
Definitions.
Many characterizations of the Bernoulli numbers have been found in the last 300 years, and each could be used to introduce these numbers. Here only four of the most useful ones are mentioned:
For the proof of the equivalence of the four approaches.
Recursive definition.
The Bernoulli numbers obey the sum formulas
where formula_19 and denotes the Kronecker delta.
The first of these is sometimes written as the formula (for m > 1)
formula_20
where the power is expanded formally using the binomial theorem and formula_21 is replaced by formula_22.
Solving for formula_23 gives the recursive formulas
Explicit definition.
In 1893 Louis Saalschütz listed a total of 38 explicit formulas for the Bernoulli numbers, usually giving some reference in the older literature. One of them is (for formula_25):
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Generating function.
The exponential generating functions are
where the substitution is formula_28. The two generating functions only differ by "t".
If we let formula_29 and formula_30 then
Then formula_32 and for formula_33 the m term in the series for formula_34 is:
If
then we find that
showing that the values of formula_39 obey the recursive formula for the Bernoulli numbers formula_40.
The (ordinary) generating function
is an asymptotic series. It contains the trigamma function .
Integral Expression.
From the generating functions above, one can obtain the following integral formula for the even Bernoulli numbers:
Bernoulli numbers and the Riemann zeta function.
The Bernoulli numbers can be expressed in terms of the Riemann zeta function:
Here the argument of the zeta function is "0 "or negative. As formula_43 is zero for negative even integers (the trivial zeroes), if "n>1" is odd, formula_44 is zero.
By means of the zeta functional equation and the gamma reflection formula the following relation can be obtained:
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Now the argument of the zeta function is positive.
It then follows from () and Stirling's formula that
Efficient computation of Bernoulli numbers.
In some applications it is useful to be able to compute the Bernoulli numbers through modulo , where is a prime; for example to test whether Vandiver's conjecture holds for , or even just to determine whether is an irregular prime. It is not feasible to carry out such a computation using the above recursive formulae, since at least (a constant multiple of) arithmetic operations would be required. Fortunately, faster methods have been developed which require only operations (see big notation).
David Harvey describes an algorithm for computing Bernoulli numbers by computing modulo for many small primes , and then reconstructing via the Chinese remainder theorem. Harvey writes that the asymptotic time complexity of this algorithm is and claims that this implementation is significantly faster than implementations based on other methods. Using this implementation Harvey computed for . Harvey's implementation has been included in SageMath since version 3.1. Prior to that, Bernd Kellner computed to full precision for in December 2002 and Oleksandr Pavlyk for with Mathematica in April 2008.
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Applications of the Bernoulli numbers.
Asymptotic analysis.
Arguably the most important application of the Bernoulli numbers in mathematics is their use in the Euler–Maclaurin formula. Assuming that is a sufficiently often differentiable function the Euler–Maclaurin formula can be written as
This formulation assumes the convention . Using the convention the formula becomes
Here formula_49 (i.e. the zeroth-order derivative of formula_50 is just formula_50). Moreover, let formula_52 denote an antiderivative of formula_50. By the fundamental theorem of calculus,
Thus the last formula can be further simplified to the following succinct form of the Euler–Maclaurin formula
This form is for example the source for the important Euler–Maclaurin expansion of the zeta function
Here denotes the rising factorial power.
Bernoulli numbers are also frequently used in other kinds of asymptotic expansions. The following example is the classical Poincaré-type asymptotic expansion of the digamma function .
Sum of powers.
Bernoulli numbers feature prominently in the closed form expression of the sum of the th powers of the first positive integers. For define
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This expression can always be rewritten as a polynomial in of degree . The coefficients of these polynomials are related to the Bernoulli numbers by Bernoulli's formula:
where denotes the binomial coefficient.
For example, taking to be 1 gives the triangular numbers .
Taking to be 2 gives the square pyramidal numbers .
Some authors use the alternate convention for Bernoulli numbers and state Bernoulli's formula in this way:
Bernoulli's formula is sometimes called Faulhaber's formula after Johann Faulhaber who also found remarkable ways to calculate sums of powers.
Faulhaber's formula was generalized by V. Guo and J. Zeng to a -analog.
Taylor series.
The Bernoulli numbers appear in the Taylor series expansion of many trigonometric functions and hyperbolic functions.
formula_63
Laurent series.
The Bernoulli numbers appear in the following Laurent series:
Digamma function: formula_64
Use in topology.
The Kervaire–Milnor formula for the order of the cyclic group of diffeomorphism classes of exotic -spheres which bound parallelizable manifolds involves Bernoulli numbers. Let be the number of such exotic spheres for , then
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The Hirzebruch signature theorem for the genus of a smooth oriented closed manifold of dimension 4"n" also involves Bernoulli numbers.
Connections with combinatorial numbers.
The connection of the Bernoulli number to various kinds of combinatorial numbers is based on the classical theory of finite differences and on the combinatorial interpretation of the Bernoulli numbers as an instance of a fundamental combinatorial principle, the inclusion–exclusion principle.
Connection with Worpitzky numbers.
The definition to proceed with was developed by Julius Worpitzky in 1883. Besides elementary arithmetic only the factorial function and the power function is employed. The signless Worpitzky numbers are defined as
They can also be expressed through the Stirling numbers of the second kind
A Bernoulli number is then introduced as an inclusion–exclusion sum of Worpitzky numbers weighted by the harmonic sequence 1, , , ...
This representation has .
Consider the sequence , . From Worpitzky's numbers , applied to is identical to the Akiyama–Tanigawa transform applied to (see Connection with Stirling numbers of the first kind). This can be seen via the table:
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The first row represents .
Hence for the second fractional Euler numbers () / ():
A second formula representing the Bernoulli numbers by the Worpitzky numbers is for
The simplified second Worpitzky's representation of the second Bernoulli numbers is:
which links the second Bernoulli numbers to the second fractional Euler numbers. The beginning is:
The numerators of the first parentheses are (see Connection with Stirling numbers of the first kind).
Connection with Stirling numbers of the second kind.
If one defines the Bernoulli polynomials as:
where for are the Bernoulli numbers,
and is a Stirling number of the second kind.
One also has the following for Bernoulli polynomials,
The coefficient of in is .
Comparing the coefficient of in the two expressions of Bernoulli polynomials, one has:
(resulting in ) which is an explicit formula for Bernoulli numbers and can be used to prove Von-Staudt Clausen theorem.
Connection with Stirling numbers of the first kind.
The two main formulas relating the unsigned Stirling numbers of the first kind to the Bernoulli numbers (with ) are
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and the inversion of this sum (for , )
Here the number are the rational Akiyama–Tanigawa numbers, the first few of which are displayed in the following table.
The Akiyama–Tanigawa numbers satisfy a simple recurrence relation which can be exploited to iteratively compute the Bernoulli numbers. This leads to the algorithm shown in the section 'algorithmic description' above. See /.
An "autosequence" is a sequence which has its inverse binomial transform equal to the signed sequence. If the main diagonal is zeroes = , the autosequence is of the first kind. Example: , the Fibonacci numbers. If the main diagonal is the first upper diagonal multiplied by 2, it is of the second kind. Example: /, the second Bernoulli numbers (see ). The Akiyama–Tanigawa transform applied to = 1/ leads to ("n") / ("n" + 1). Hence:
See and . () / () are the second (fractional) Euler numbers and an autosequence of the second kind.
Also valuable for / (see Connection with Worpitzky numbers).
Connection with Pascal's triangle.
There are formulas connecting Pascal's triangle to Bernoulli numbers
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where formula_76 is the determinant of a n-by-n Hessenberg matrix part of Pascal's triangle whose elements are: formula_77
Example:
Connection with Eulerian numbers.
There are formulas connecting Eulerian numbers to Bernoulli numbers:
Both formulae are valid for if is set to . If is set to − they are valid only for and respectively.
A binary tree representation.
The Stirling polynomials are related to the Bernoulli numbers by . S. C. Woon described an algorithm to compute as a binary tree:
Woon's recursive algorithm (for ) starts by assigning to the root node . Given a node of the tree, the left child of the node is and the right child . A node is written as in the initial part of the tree represented above with ± denoting the sign of .
Given a node the factorial of is defined as
Restricted to the nodes of a fixed tree-level the sum of is , thus
For example:
Integral representation and continuation.
The integral
has as special values for .
For example, and . Here, is the Riemann zeta function, and is the imaginary unit. Leonhard Euler ("Opera Omnia", Ser. 1, Vol. 10, p. 351) considered these numbers and calculated
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Another similar integral representation is
The relation to the Euler numbers and.
The Euler numbers are a sequence of integers intimately connected with the Bernoulli numbers. Comparing the
asymptotic expansions of the Bernoulli and the Euler numbers shows that the Euler numbers are in magnitude approximately times larger than the Bernoulli numbers . In consequence:
This asymptotic equation reveals that lies in the common root of both the Bernoulli and the Euler numbers. In fact could be computed from these rational approximations.
Bernoulli numbers can be expressed through the Euler numbers and vice versa. Since, for odd , (with the exception ), it suffices to consider the case when is even.
These conversion formulas express a connection between the Bernoulli and the Euler numbers. But more important, there is a deep arithmetic root common to both kinds of numbers, which can be expressed through a more fundamental sequence of numbers, also closely tied to . These numbers are defined for as
The magic of these numbers lies in the fact that they turn out to be rational numbers. This was first proved by Leonhard Euler in a landmark paper "De summis serierum reciprocarum" (On the sums of series of reciprocals) and has fascinated mathematicians ever since. The first few of these numbers are
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These are the coefficients in the expansion of .
The Bernoulli numbers and Euler numbers can be understood as "special views" of these numbers, selected from the sequence and scaled for use in special applications.
The expression [ even] has the value 1 if is even and 0 otherwise (Iverson bracket).
These identities show that the quotient of Bernoulli and Euler numbers at the beginning of this section is just the special case of when is even. The are rational approximations to and two successive terms always enclose the true value of . Beginning with the sequence starts ( / ):
These rational numbers also appear in the last paragraph of Euler's paper cited above.
Consider the Akiyama–Tanigawa transform for the sequence () / ():
From the second, the numerators of the first column are the denominators of Euler's formula. The first column is − × .
An algorithmic view: the Seidel triangle.
The sequence "S""n" has another unexpected yet important property: The denominators of "S""n"+1 divide the factorial . In other words: the numbers , sometimes called Euler zigzag numbers, are integers.
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Their exponential generating function is the sum of the secant and tangent functions.
Thus the above representations of the Bernoulli and Euler numbers can be rewritten in terms of this sequence as
These identities make it easy to compute the Bernoulli and Euler numbers: the Euler numbers are given immediately by and the Bernoulli numbers are fractions obtained from by some easy shifting, avoiding rational arithmetic.
What remains is to find a convenient way to compute the numbers . However, already in 1877 Philipp Ludwig von Seidel published an ingenious algorithm, which makes it simple to calculate .
Seidel's algorithm is in fact much more general (see the exposition of Dominique Dumont ) and was rediscovered several times thereafter.
Similar to Seidel's approach D. E. Knuth and T. J. Buckholtz gave a recurrence equation for the numbers and recommended this method for computing and 'on electronic computers using only simple operations on integers'.
V. I. Arnold rediscovered Seidel's algorithm and later Millar, Sloane and Young popularized Seidel's algorithm under the name boustrophedon transform.
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Triangular form:
Only , with one 1, and , with two 1s, are in the OEIS.
Distribution with a supplementary 1 and one 0 in the following rows:
This is , a signed version of . The main andiagonal is . The main diagonal is . The central column is . Row sums: 1, 1, −2, −5, 16, 61... See . See the array beginning with 1, 1, 0, −2, 0, 16, 0 below.
The Akiyama–Tanigawa algorithm applied to () / () yields:
1. The first column is . Its binomial transform leads to:
The first row of this array is . The absolute values of the increasing antidiagonals are . The sum of the antidiagonals is
2. The second column is . Its binomial transform yields:
The first row of this array is . The absolute values of the second bisection are the double of the absolute values of the first bisection.
Consider the Akiyama-Tanigawa algorithm applied to () / ( () = abs( ()) + 1 = .
The first column whose the absolute values are could be the numerator of a trigonometric function.
is an autosequence of the first kind (the main diagonal is ). The corresponding array is:
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The first two upper diagonals are = × . The sum of the antidiagonals is = 2 × ("n" + 1).
− is an autosequence of the second kind, like for instance / . Hence the array:
The main diagonal, here , is the double of the first upper one, here . The sum of the antidiagonals is = 2 × (1). − = 2 × .
A combinatorial view: alternating permutations.
Around 1880, three years after the publication of Seidel's algorithm, Désiré André proved a now classic result of combinatorial analysis. Looking at the first terms of the Taylor expansion of the trigonometric functions
and André made a startling discovery.
The coefficients are the Euler numbers of odd and even index, respectively. In consequence the ordinary expansion of has as coefficients the rational numbers .
André then succeeded by means of a recurrence argument to show that the alternating permutations of odd size are enumerated by the Euler numbers of odd index (also called tangent numbers) and the alternating permutations of even size by the Euler numbers of even index (also called secant numbers).
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Related sequences.
The arithmetic mean of the first and the second Bernoulli numbers are the associate Bernoulli numbers:
, , , , , / . Via the second row of its inverse Akiyama–Tanigawa transform , they lead to Balmer series / .
The Akiyama–Tanigawa algorithm applied to () / () leads to the Bernoulli numbers / , / , or without , named intrinsic Bernoulli numbers .
Hence another link between the intrinsic Bernoulli numbers and the Balmer series via ().
() = 0, 2, 1, 6... is a permutation of the non-negative numbers.
The terms of the first row are f(n) = . 2, f(n) is an autosequence of the second kind. 3/2, f(n) leads by its inverse binomial transform to 3/2 −1/2 1/3 −1/4 1/5 ... = 1/2 + log 2.
Consider g(n) = 1/2 – 1 / (n+2) = 0, 1/6, 1/4, 3/10, 1/3. The Akiyama-Tanagiwa transforms gives:
0, g(n), is an autosequence of the second kind.
Euler () / () without the second term () are the fractional intrinsic Euler numbers The corresponding Akiyama transform is:
The first line is . preceded by a zero is an autosequence of the first kind. It is linked to the Oresme numbers. The numerators of the second line are preceded by 0. The difference table is:
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Arithmetical properties of the Bernoulli numbers.
The Bernoulli numbers can be expressed in terms of the Riemann zeta function as for integers provided for the expression is understood as the limiting value and the convention is used. This intimately relates them to the values of the zeta function at negative integers. As such, they could be expected to have and do have deep arithmetical properties. For example, the Agoh–Giuga conjecture postulates that is a prime number if and only if is congruent to −1 modulo . Divisibility properties of the Bernoulli numbers are related to the ideal class groups of cyclotomic fields by a theorem of Kummer and its strengthening in the Herbrand-Ribet theorem, and to class numbers of real quadratic fields by Ankeny–Artin–Chowla.
The Kummer theorems.
The Bernoulli numbers are related to Fermat's Last Theorem (FLT) by Kummer's theorem, which says:
Prime numbers with this property are called regular primes. Another classical result of Kummer are the following congruences.
A generalization of these congruences goes by the name of -adic continuity.
-adic continuity.
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If , and are positive integers such that and are not divisible by and , then
Since , this can also be written
where and , so that and are nonpositive and not congruent to 1 modulo . This tells us that the Riemann zeta function, with taken out of the Euler product formula, is continuous in the -adic numbers on odd negative integers congruent modulo to a particular , and so can be extended to a continuous function for all -adic integers formula_99 the -adic zeta function.
Ramanujan's congruences.
The following relations, due to Ramanujan, provide a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers that is more efficient than the one given by their original recursive definition:
Von Staudt–Clausen theorem.
The von Staudt–Clausen theorem was given by Karl Georg Christian von Staudt and Thomas Clausen independently in 1840. The theorem states that for every ,
is an integer. The sum extends over all primes for which divides .
A consequence of this is that the denominator of is given by the product of all primes for which divides . In particular, these denominators are square-free and divisible by 6.
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Why do the odd Bernoulli numbers vanish?
The sum
can be evaluated for negative values of the index . Doing so will show that it is an odd function for even values of , which implies that the sum has only terms of odd index. This and the formula for the Bernoulli sum imply that is 0 for even and ; and that the term for is cancelled by the subtraction. The von Staudt–Clausen theorem combined with Worpitzky's representation also gives a combinatorial answer to this question (valid for "n" > 1).
From the von Staudt–Clausen theorem it is known that for odd the number is an integer. This seems trivial if one knows beforehand that the integer in question is zero. However, by applying Worpitzky's representation one gets
denotes the rising factorial power in the notation of D. E. Knuth. The numbers occur frequently in the study of the zeta function and are significant because is a -integer for primes where does not divide . The are called "divided Bernoulli numbers".
Generalized Bernoulli numbers.
The generalized Bernoulli numbers are certain algebraic numbers, defined similarly to the Bernoulli numbers, that are related to special values of Dirichlet -functions in the same way that Bernoulli numbers are related to special values of the Riemann zeta function.
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Let be a Dirichlet character modulo . The generalized Bernoulli numbers attached to are defined by
Apart from the exceptional , we have, for any Dirichlet character , that if .
Generalizing the relation between Bernoulli numbers and values of the Riemann zeta function at non-positive integers, one has the for all integers :
where is the Dirichlet -function of .
Eisenstein–Kronecker number.
Eisenstein–Kronecker numbers are an analogue of the generalized Bernoulli numbers for imaginary quadratic fields. They are related to critical "L"-values of Hecke characters.
Appendix.
Assorted identities.
Choosing or results in the Bernoulli number identity in one or another convention.
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Bubble Bobble (video game)
is a 1986 platform game developed and published by Taito for arcades. It was distributed in the United States by Romstar, and in Europe by Electrocoin. Players control Bub and Bob, two dragons that set out to save their girlfriends from a world known as the Cave of Monsters. In each level, Bub and Bob must defeat each enemy present by trapping them in bubbles and popping, who turn into bonus items when they hit the ground. There are 100 levels total, each becoming progressively more difficult.
"Bubble Bobble" was designed by Fukio "MTJ" Mitsuji. When he joined Taito in 1986, he felt that Taito's game output was of mediocre quality. In response, he decided to make a game that was fun to play and could rejuvenate the company's presence in the industry. Mitsuji hoped his game would appeal to women, specifically couples that visited arcades. As such, he decided to make "Bubble Bobble" focus largely on its two player co-operative mode. He made bubbles the core mechanic as he thought they would be a fun element that girls would enjoy.
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"Bubble Bobble" became one of Taito's biggest arcade successes, and is credited with inspiring the creation of many similar screen-clear platform games that followed. It was acclaimed by critics for its character design, memorable soundtrack, gameplay, and multiplayer, and is often listed among the greatest games of all time. "Bubble Bobble" was followed by a long list of sequels and successors for multiple platforms; one of these, "Puzzle Bobble", has become successful in its own right and spawned its own line of sequels.
Plot.
Brothers Bub and Bob are two happy go lucky dragons [sic] living in a magical forest. "Baron Von Blubba" has kidnapped the brothers' girlfriends. Bub and Bob have to finish 100 levels in the Cave of Monsters in order to rescue them. At the end of the game after fighting Super Drunk on level 100 in cooperative mode, it is revealed that Bub, Bob, and their girlfriends are humans transformed by magic and that Bub and Bob's parents were kidnapped as well.
Gameplay.
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A player loses one life upon touching any free enemies or their projectiles (rocks, fireballs, lasers, bottles). Enemies turn "angry"—turning pink in color and moving faster—if they escape from a bubble after being left too long or the players spend a certain amount of time on the current level. They return to normal if either player loses a life. After a further time limit expires, an additional invincible enemy appears for each player, actively chasing them using only vertical and horizontal movements. These disappear once the level is cleared, or when a player loses a life. When there is only one enemy left, it immediately becomes angry and remains in this state until defeated.
In the 100th and final level, players face a boss. This is one of the first games to feature multiple endings. Completing Level 100 in single-player mode reveals a message stating that the game has not truly ended and a hint to the player: "Come here with your friend". If two players complete the game, they see a "happy end", in which the brothers are transformed to their human selves and reunited with their girlfriends. This ending also includes a code that, when deciphered, allows the game to be played in the faster and more difficult "super" mode. If this mode is completed with two players, a second "happy end" is displayed in which Super Drunk (the defeated boss) is revealed to be the brothers' parents under the control of some outside influence. The brothers return to normal and are reunited with their parents and girlfriends.
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Also, if the player(s) reach levels 20, 30, or 40 without losing a life, a doorway will appear in each of those levels, transporting the player to a secret room and displaying a coded message that, once decoded, gives the player a major hint / spoiler on how to beat the game.
Development and release.
"Bubble Bobble" was designed by Fukio Mitsuji, a Japanese game designer at Taito. A fan of arcade games by Namco, specifically "Xevious", Mitsuji felt that Taito's output by comparison were lackluster and of poor quality, hoping that he could help push the company to produce higher-quality arcade titles. His first game was the four-screen racer "Super Dead Heat" in 1985, followed by the shoot'em up "Halley's Comet" the same year. After work on these two games was completed, Mitsuji set out to make his next project a platform game, featuring cute characters and a more comical setting compared to his previous works.
Mitsuji wanted the game to be exhilarating and to appeal towards a female audience. Thinking about what kind of things women like to draw or sketch, Mitsuji created an extensive list of over 100 ideas, and after a process of elimination selected bubbles as the core game mechanic. He liked the idea of the screen being filled with bubbles, and thought that popping them all at once would provide a thrilling sensation to the player. His initial idea was to have the player control a robot with a spike on its head to pop bubbles—Mitsuji disliked it for not being "cool", instead preferring dinosaurs with ridges along their back. He liked to write down ideas on paper as soon as he thought of them, often flooding his office with stacks of paper filled with potential ideas for game mechanics.
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Mitsuji constantly tried to think of new ways to make the game better than it was before, saying to have lost sleep while trying to figure out how he could improve it. He often worked on holidays and late at night to come up with new ideas for the game and to perfect it. Several of the enemies were taken from "Chack'n Pop" (1984), an older Taito game that is often considered a precursor to "Bubble Bobble". Mitsuji intended the game to be played by couples, leading to the creation of the multiple endings, which differ based on player performance.
"Bubble Bobble" was first published in Japan on June 16, 1986, followed by a wide release in Japan in September and internationally in October of the same year. Alongside "Arkanoid", Taito licensed the game to Romstar for distribution in the United States, and to Electrocoin Automatics for Europe.
Ports.
"Bubble Bobble" was ported to many home video game consoles and computers, including the Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, MS-DOS, Apple II, Amiga, Famicom Disk System, Nintendo Entertainment System, MSX2, and Master System—the last of these has two hundred levels as opposed to the arcade version's 100 levels, and was released in Japan as "Final Bubble Bobble". A version for the X68000 was developed by Dempa and released in 1994, which includes a gamemode paying homage to Mitsuji's later arcade game "Syvalion", titled "Sybubblun". Conversions for the Game Boy and Game Boy Color were respectively released in 1991 and 1996, the GBC port being named "Classic Bubble Bobble". A version of "Bubble Bobble" was also produced for the unreleased Taito WOWOW console. In 1996, Taito announced that the source code for "Bubble Bobble" had been lost, leading to all subsequent home conversions to be reverse-engineered from an original arcade board.
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Reception.
In Japan, "Game Machine" listed "Bubble Bobble" on their November 1, 1986, issue as the second-most-successful table arcade cabinet of the month, after Taito's "Arkanoid". It went on to be the fifth-highest-grossing table arcade game of 1987 in Japan. In the United Kingdom, "Bubble Bobble" was the top-grossing arcade game for three months in 1987, from April to June. The home conversions were also successful in the United Kingdom, where the game appeared on the sales charts for several years. The ZX Spectrum budget re-release topped the UK charts in July 1991.
The arcade game received positive reviews from "Computer and Video Games" and "Crash". "Mean Machines" gave the Game Boy port of the game a score of 91%, noting that, while some changes had been made, the game played identical to the original arcade port and "provides much addiction and challenge". The four reviewers of "Electronic Gaming Monthly" stated that the Game Gear version is a faithful conversion of the original which works well in portable form. They particularly praised the simplicity of the gameplay concept and the graphics, and the two-player link option.
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"Bubble Bobble" has been listed by numerous publications among the greatest video games of all time. "Your Sinclair" magazine ranked the ZX Spectrum version at #58 in their "Top 100 Games of All Time" in 1993 based on reader vote. In 1996, GamesMaster rated the game 19th on its "Top 100 Games of All Time". "Yahoo!" ranked it at #71 in their "100 Greatest Computer Games Of All Time" in 2005 for its charming premise and cute character designs. "Stuff" magazine listed it as part of their "100 Greatest Games" in 2008, while "GamesTM" magazine listed it in their "Top 100 Games" in 2010. "Stuff.tv" ranked it at #47 in their "Top 100 Games" in 2009, saying "Today's kids might laugh, but this was gold in 1986". "GamesRadar+" ranked it at #95 in their "100 Best Games Of All Time" list in 2011, praising its multiplayer and secrets. "GamesRadar+" also labeled it the 24th greatest Nintendo Entertainment System game of all time in 2012 for its advancements over other games of its genre and its usage of multiple endings. IGN named it the 23rd best NES game. "Hardcore Gaming 101" listed it in their book "The 200 Best Video Games of All Time" in 2015. "Game Informer" placed it in their "Top 300 Games of All Time" in 2018 for its long-lasting appeal and multiplayer.
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Legacy.
Re-releases.
The game has had at least 30 official ports to a large array of computers and consoles throughout the decades.
A remastered version named "Bubble Bobble Old & New" was made for Game Boy Advance, which also included the original arcade version.
In October 2005, a version was released for the Xbox, PlayStation 2, and Microsoft Windows as part of the "Taito Legends" compilation.
In December 2007, the NES version of "Bubble Bobble" was released in North America on Nintendo's Virtual Console service for the Wii. The Famicom Disk System version of "Bubble Bobble" was also released for the Nintendo eShop on October 16, 2013, for the Nintendo 3DS and on January 29, 2014, for the Wii U.
The game was included in the NES Classic Edition in November 2016.
In July 2020, the MORIBIX Corporation released a mobile port, titled "Bubble Bobble Classic," on iOS and Android. |
Blackwood convention
In the partnership card game contract bridge, the Blackwood convention is a bidding convention developed by Easley Blackwood in 1933 and still widely used in the modern game. Its purpose is to enable the partnership to explore its possession of aces, kings and in some variants, the queen of trumps to judge whether a slam would be a feasible contract. The essence of the convention is the use of an artificial 4NT bid made under certain conditions to ask partner how many aces he has; responses by partner are made in step-wise fashion to indicate the number held.
Blackwood's original summary.
After developing the concept in 1933, Easley Blackwood submitted an article proposing his slam-seeking convention to "The Bridge World" magazine but it was rejected. Nevertheless, it gained awareness and use amongst players and was written about by several authors. In his own first publication on the convention in 1949, Easley Blackwood comments on the entries in books by others and noted that "...in every one of these books, they have it wrong!" He pointed out several misconceptions and concluded with a fifteen-point summary of the "complete and official" Blackwood Slam Convention. A synopsis of that summary follows:
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Variations based on 4NT as asking.
Several versions of Blackwood are available: Standard Blackwood, Roman Blackwood and Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKC or RKCB). All versions are initiated by a bid of four notrump (4NT), and the entire family of conventions may be called "Blackwood 4NT" in both versions, or "Key Card 4NT" in the key card variation.
There are other 4NT conventions, such as Culbertson 4-5 Notrump, Norman Four Notrump and San Francisco, but almost all bridge partnerships employ some member of the Blackwood family (which includes Byzantine Blackwood) as part of their slam-investigation methods.
If the partnership's preceding call is a natural bid in notrump, then 4NT is usually played as natural. Over an opposing pass it is simply a raise and a invitation to six notrump, a small slam. Over an intervening four of a suit by opponents it is usually played as a competitive raise, expecting to play four notrump. Those natural interpretations may hold in other auctions where the partnership has previously bid notrump naturally or shown a balanced hand conventionally. In some situations where 4NT is a quantitative invitation, especially where 4 is a jump, many partnerships use the Gerber convention instead of the Blackwood family: 4 asks for the number of aces or key cards.
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Where both sides are bidding, 4NT is often played as a conventional takeout asking partner to help choose one of two or three suits, similar to a lower-level takeout double or reply to such a double.
Standard Blackwood.
Where standard Blackwood 4NT is in force, a four notrump bid (4NT) asks partner to disclose the number of aces in his hand. With no aces or four, partner replies 5; with one, two, or three aces, 5, 5, or 5, respectively. The difference between no aces and four is clear to the Blackwood bidder (unless the partnership lacks all four) so one member of the partnership knows the combined number of aces. That is often sufficient to set the final contract. (A common agreement is that when spades is not the trump suit, 5 asks responder to bid 5NT. That is useful when the reply to 4NT bypasses the intended trump suit but also shows that slam is likely to be a poor contract because two aces are missing.)
The continuation bid of 5NT asks for the number of kings according to the same code of replies at the six-level: 6 shows no kings or four, etc. Asking for the number of kings confirms that the partnership holds all four aces, so partner may reply at the seven level with expectation of taking thirteen tricks.
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A void may be as good as an ace in some situations but it should not be counted as an ace. Some experts (Kantar for one) recommend the 5NT reply to 4NT – the cheapest with no standard assigned meaning – to show a void plus two aces and six of a suit to show a void in the bid suit plus one ace.
Roman Blackwood.
A variation of the standard Blackwood convention, known as "Roman Blackwood", was popularized by the Italian Blue Team in the 1960s. In Roman Blackwood, the responses are more ambiguous, but more space-conserving. The basic outline of responses is:
In practice, the ambiguity is unlikely to occur, as a strength difference between hands with 0 or 1 and 3 or 4 aces is big enough that it can be established in previous rounds of bidding. In other words, a partner who has previously shown, for example, 12-15 range of high points is unlikely to hold 3 aces for his bid, etc.
Even Roman Blackwood convention has several variations, revolving around 5 and 5 responses. In all variants, they denote 2 aces. One variation is that 5 shows extra values, while 5 does not. In other variations, responses 5 - 5NT denote specific combinations of aces (same color, same rank, or "mixed").
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If the querying partner ascertains that all aces are present, he can continue as follows:
Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKCB).
Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKCB) has largely replaced the standard version among tournament players. It developed from the "Roman Blackwood" variant (see above). According to RKCB there are five equivalent key cards rather than just the four aces: the trump king is counted as the fifth key card. The key card replies to 4NT are more compressed than standard ones and they also begin to locate the queen of trumps.
Although the replies to 4NT are more compressed, it is almost always possible to infer which number of keycards is correct: 0 or 3, 1 or 4, 2 or 5. Evidence for that inference includes the entire auction as well as the number of key cards that the 4NT bidder holds.
The 5 and 5 replies with 2 or 5 key cards also deny and show the trump queen, respectively. (Responder may also show the queen with extra length in trumps, typically indicating a 10-card fit, where the ace and king will probably draw all outstanding cards in the suit.)
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The 5 and 5 replies tell nothing about the queen or extra length, but the 4NT bidder may ask about that using the cheapest bid other than five of the trump suit. The code for replies to that "queen ask" vary; a common rule is that the cheapest bid in the trump suit denies the queen or extra length and any other call shows it. An option is for the positive calls to show a feature, such as a king in that suit, and 6 of the trump suit can show the queen of trumps with no outside kings.
Roman Key Card Blackwood is predicated on existence of a trump suit, which determines which of the four kings and queens responder should show as key cards. Trump agreement is not necessary, however. One common rule is that the last suit bid before 4NT bid is the key suit, lacking trump agreement.
Some partnerships use the club response to show 1 or 4 and the diamond response to show 3 or none, dubbed "1430" (coincidentally the score for making a vulnerable small slam in a major suit), with the original version being dubbed "3014" when distinction is necessary. In order to facilitate the Queen Ask, an experts' version has been developed, where "1430" is used by the strong hand and "3014" is used by the weak hand. There are specific rules which determine when the asker hand is the weak one and when it is the strong one.
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Key Card Blackwood (KCB).
A half-way house between standard Blackwood and RKCB is Keycard Blackwood. Again there are five key cards, including the trump king, but unlike RKCB, the queen of trumps is not considered.
5♣ – 0 or 4 key cards
5 – 1 or 5 key cards
5 – 2 key cards
5♠ – 3 key cards
This is advocated by Bernard Magee as being simpler for club players, as with RKCB players are sometimes unsure whether partner holds 0 or 3 key cards, or 1 or 4.
Variations not based on 4NT.
Kickback.
"Kickback" is the variant of RKCB devised by Jeff Rubens in accordance with the Useful Space Principle. The step responses are the same as in RKCB, but the ask is not necessarily 4NT. Instead it is the 4-level bid immediately above the agreed trump suit; i.e.:
Kickback has the advantage that it saves bidding space and, especially for minor-suit fits, provides safety at the 5-level if the required key cards are missing. Because the Kickback bid would otherwise be a control bid, 4NT is usually substituted as the control bid in that suit (e.g., 4NT is a control bid in hearts if the agreed trump suit is diamonds). The drawback is that in unpracticed partnerships there can be confusion as to whether a bid is Kickback, a control bid or preference for a different strain:
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East intended 4 as Kickback, but West thought it was secondary support for hearts, and decided to pass with minimum values. As result, a reasonable grand slam in diamonds was missed.
An established partnership might have agreed that as hearts were not supported after opener's rebid, 4 cannot possibly show support, and must be ace asking in diamonds.
Redwood.
"Redwood" is a variation of Kickback that is only used when a minor suit is trumps. A 4 level bid in the suit above the agreed trump suit is the ace / key card ask and the name comes from the fact that this bid will always be a red suit:
4– RKCB for clubs
4– RKCB for diamonds
Once key cards have been identified the next step bid (other than trumps) can be used to ask for Kings.
One advantage of this approach is that it avoids the potential for misunderstanding that can occur when using Minorwood but one disadvantage is that it uses up one more bid (than Minorwood) and might constrain the bidding later when asking for Kings or Queens.
Using "Redwood," the ace/key card ask of 4NT is still used when the trump suit is a major (hearts or spades).
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Minorwood.
"Minorwood" is a variation of Blackwood, in which the minor suit which the partners agree will be trumps is itself used as the ace/key card ask. The ask will be at the four level. Hence:
4– RKCB for clubs
4– RKCB for diamonds
One disadvantage to this convention is that either the partnership must agree to lose the natural 4 level bid in trumps or have clear agreement on which sequences are slam seeking and which are natural bids. The advantage of this approach is that it conserves bidding space. For example, the use of Redwood reduces the risk of a misunderstanding but uses up one more bid and might constrain the bidding later when asking for Kings or Queens.
Exclusion Blackwood.
Exclusion Blackwood or Voidwood. was devised by Bobby Goldman as an attempt to resolve the situation when the Blackwood-asker has a void. In that case, he is not interested in the partner's ace in the void suit, as he already has the first-round control; partner's ace would present a duplicated value in that case. Many players, even experts, refuse to play Exclusion Blackwood because of the potential disaster of forgetting the agreement.
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It is usually played as the Roman Key Card Blackwood, with only four key cards: the three Aces outside the void suit and the King of trumps. However, the asking bid is not 4NT, but the void suit — Voidwood is made by jumping on level 4 or 5 in the void suit after a fit has been found, for example:
Bids of 5, 5 and 5 present a Voidwood, denoting the void in the suit bid and asking for other key cards. The responses are, as in RKCB: |
Bill Bixby
Wilfred Bailey Everett Bixby III (January 22, 1934 – November 21, 1993) was an American actor and television director. His career spanned more than three decades, including appearances on stage, in films, and on television series. He is known for his roles in the CBS sitcom "My Favorite Martian" as Tim O'Hara, in the ABC sitcom "The Courtship of Eddie's Father" as Tom Corbett, in the NBC crime drama series "The Magician" as stage Illusionist Anthony Blake, in the ABC mini-series "Rich Man, Poor Man" as Willie Abbott, and the CBS science-fiction drama series "The Incredible Hulk" as Dr. David Bruce Banner.
Early life.
A fifth-generation Californian of English descent and an only child, Wilfred Bailey Everett Bixby III was born on January 22, 1934, in San Francisco, California. His father, Wilfred Bailey Everett Bixby II, was a store clerk. His mother, Jane (née McFarland) Bixby, was a senior manager at I. Magnin & Co. In 1942, when Bixby was eight years old, his father enlisted in the Navy during World War II and traveled to the South Pacific. While in the seventh grade, Bixby attended Grace Cathedral and sang in the church's choir. he shot the bishop using a slingshot during a service and was kicked out of the choir. In 1946, his mother encouraged him to take ballroom dance lessons and from there he started dancing all around the city. While dancing, he attended Lowell High School, where he perfected his oratory and dramatic skills as a member of the Lowell Forensic Society. Though he received average grades, he also competed in high-school speech tournaments regionally.
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After graduation from high school in 1952, he majored in drama at City College of San Francisco, against his parents' wishes.
During the Korean War, Bixby was drafted shortly after his 18th birthday. Rather than report to the United States Army, Bixby joined the United States Marine Corps Reserve. He served primarily in personnel management with Marine Attack Squadron 141 (VMA-141) at Naval Air Station Oakland, and attained the rank of private first class before his 1956 discharge.
Later, he attended the University of California, Berkeley, his parents' alma mater, and left just a few credits short of earning a degree. He explained that he had only been majoring in pre-law because it was what his parents expected of him, and he finally asked his parents to instead give him five years to find out if he could succeed as an actor. He then moved to Hollywood, California, where he had a string of odd jobs that included bellhop and lifeguard. He organized shows at a resort in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, and in 1959 was hired to work as a model and to do commercial work for General Motors and Chrysler.
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Career.
Beginning acting.
In 1961, Bixby was in the musical "The Boy Friend" at the Detroit Civic Theater, returning to Hollywood to make his television debut on an episode of "The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis". He became a highly regarded character actor and guest-starred in many television series, including "Ben Casey", "The Twilight Zone", "The Andy Griffith Show", "Dr. Kildare", "Straightaway", and "Hennesey". He joined the cast of "The Joey Bishop Show" in 1962, which he later described as his first big break." In 1963, he played a sailor with a Napoleon tattoo in the movie "Irma La Douce", a romantic comedy starring Jack Lemmon and Shirley MacLaine, directed by Billy Wilder based on the 1956 French musical. During the 1970s, he made guest appearances on television series such as "Ironside", "Insight", "Barbary Coast", "The Love Boat", "Medical Center", four episodes of "Love, American Style", "Fantasy Island", and two episodes each of "The Streets of San Francisco" and Rod Serling's "Night Gallery".
While working on other Danny Thomas productions, Bixby would watch rehearsals for "The Dick Van Dyke Show", which inspired him to want to be a director as well.
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"My Favorite Martian" and other early roles.
Bixby took the role of young reporter Tim O'Hara in the 1963 CBS sitcom "My Favorite Martian", in which he co-starred with Ray Walston. The series was hugely popular. By 1966, though, high production costs forced the series to come to an end after 107 episodes. After its cancellation, Bixby starred in four movies: "Ride Beyond Vengeance", "Doctor, You've Got to Be Kidding!", and two of Elvis Presley's movies, "Clambake" and "Speedway". He turned down the role as Marlo Thomas's boyfriend in the successful "That Girl", though he later guest-starred in the show, and starred in two failed pilots.
"The Courtship of Eddie's Father".
In 1969, Bixby starred in his second high-profile television role, as Tom Corbett in "The Courtship of Eddie's Father", a comedy drama on ABC. The series concerned a widowed father raising a young son, managing a major syndicated magazine, and at the same time trying to re-enter the dating scene. This series was in the vein of other 1960s and 1970s sitcoms that dealt with widowerhood, such as "The Andy Griffith Show" and "My Three Sons". Eddie was played by novice actor Brandon Cruz. Cruz and Bixby developed a close rapport that translated to an off-camera friendship, as well. According to Bixby, "The amazing thing is that when we're working in a scene together there's never a thought of conscious acting. Our natural affection for one another is what appeals to the audience." The core cast was rounded out by Academy Award-winning actress Miyoshi Umeki, who played the role of Tom's housekeeper, Mrs. Livingston, James Komack (one of the series' producers) as Norman Tinker, Tom's pseudo-hippie, quirky photographer, and actress Kristina Holland as Tom's secretary, Tina. One episode of the series co-starred Bixby's future wife, Brenda Benet, as one of Tom's girlfriends.
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Bixby was nominated for the Emmy Award for Lead Actor in a Comedy Series in 1971. The following year, he won the Parents Without Partners Exemplary Service Award for 1972.
Bixby made his directorial debut on the sitcom in 1970, directing eight episodes. ABC cancelled the sitcom in 1972 at the end of season three.
According to Bixby, his experiences on "The Courtship of Eddie's Father" helped make him ready for marriage and fatherhood.
After the show was cancelled, Bixby and Cruz remained in contact, with Cruz making a guest appearance on Bixby's later series "The Incredible Hulk". The death of Bixby's only child, in 1981, drew Bixby and Cruz closer still. The two remained in contact until Bixby's death in 1993. In 1995, Cruz named his own son Lincoln Bixby Cruz.
Brandon Cruz said of the show that developed a professional father-son relationship, compared to that of "The Andy Griffith Show", "We dealt with issues that were talked about, but were never brought up on television. Bill wasn't the first actor to portray a single widowed father, but he became one of the popular ones, because of his easy-going way of this crazy little kid." Prior to Bixby's promotion to director, Cruz said, "He was looking for the best dolly grip, along with the boom operator that if something was called specifically and failed, Bill could be easily angry." On the kind of relationship Bixby had wanted with his co-star, Cruz also said, "Bill would never speak down to me. Bill treated me as an equal. He made sure that we had a lot of time together, just so he could kinda crawl inside my head and see what actually made a kid tick." Upon the death of Bixby's real-life father in 1971, Cruz stated, "He had that type of mentality that the show must go on, thinking it was just a great TV show, after he broke down weeping."
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In a 2011 interview with Marilyn Beck and Stacy Jenel Smith about how Bill Bixby's fame was supposed to posthumously honor him for a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, Cruz said, "When I found out they were putting this out, I thought, 'It's about time.' Bill Bixby had an amazing body of work, not only "Courtship of Eddie's Father," but "My Favorite Martian," "The Magician," "The Incredible Hulk", and so many other things, as an actor, as a director — and he never got an Emmy. He's never been recognized posthumously by the Academy. And he doesn't have a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. That is criminal... There are people who have stars that, not to be blunt, but I wouldn't bother spitting on their stars. Bill's talent would take a couple of blocks of stars compared to them. It really demeans the whole thing that Bill is not included."
1973 to 1977.
In 1973, Bixby starred in "The Magician". The series was well liked, but lasted for only one season. An accomplished amateur magician himself, he hosted several TV specials in the mid-1970s which featured other amateur magicians, and was a respected member of the Hollywood magic community, belonging to The Magic Castle, an exclusive club for magicians. During the show's popular, although short-lived, production, Bixby invited a few old friends along to co-star such as Pamela Britton (in her final role), Kristina Holland, and Ralph O'Hara.
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Also in 1973, he starred in "Steambath", a play by author Bruce Jay Friedman, on PBS with Valerie Perrine and Jose Perez.
Bixby became a popular game-show panelist, appearing mostly on "Password" and "The Hollywood Squares". He was also a panelist on the 1974 revival of "Masquerade Party", which was hosted by Richard Dawson. He had also appeared with Dawson on "Cop-Out", an unsold 1972 pilot produced by Chuck Barris, and on the 1972 revival of "I've Got a Secret". In 1974–1975, he directed four episodes of the eighth season of "Mannix", guest-starring as Mannix's friend-turned-villain in one of the episodes.
In 1975, he co-starred with Tim Conway and Don Knotts in the Disney movie "The Apple Dumpling Gang", which was well received by the public.
Returning to television, Bixby worked with Susan Blakely on "Rich Man, Poor Man", a highly successful television miniseries in 1976. He played a daredevil stunt pilot in an episode of the short-lived 1976 CBS adventure series "Spencer's Pilots", starring Gene Evans. In 1977, he co-starred in the pilot for the television series "Fantasy Island"; starred in "No Way Out", the final episode of the NBC anthology series "Quinn Martin's Tales of the Unexpected" (known in the United Kingdom as "Twist in the Tale"); and appeared with Donna Mills, Richard Jaeckel, and William Shatner in the last episode, "The Scarlet Ribbon", of NBC's Western series "The Oregon Trail", starring Rod Taylor and Andrew Stevens. Bixby directed two episodes of "The Oregon Trail".
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In 1976, he was honored with two Emmy Award nominations, one for Outstanding Lead Actor for a Single Appearance in Drama or Comedy for "The Streets of San Francisco" and the other for Outstanding Single Performance by a Supporting Actor in Comedy or Drama Series for "Rich Man, Poor Man".
Bixby hosted "Once Upon a Classic" on PBS from 1976 to 1980.
"The Incredible Hulk".
Bixby starred in the role of Dr. David Bruce Banner in the pilot movie "The Incredible Hulk", based on the Stan Lee and Jack Kirby Marvel characters. Kenneth Johnson, the creator, director, and writer, said that Bixby was his only choice to play the part. When Bixby was offered the role, he declined it – until he read the script and discussed it with Johnson. The success of the pilot (coupled with some theatrical releases of the film in Europe) convinced CBS to turn it into a weekly series, which began airing in the spring of 1978. The pilot also starred Susan Sullivan as Dr. Elaina Marks, who tries to help the conflicted and widowed Dr. Banner overcome his "problem" and falls in love with him in the process. In a retrospective on "The Incredible Hulk", Glenn Greenberg declared Bixby's performance to be the series' "foremost" strength, elaborating that he "masterfully conveyed the profound loneliness and tragedy of Dr. Banner while also bringing to the role an abundance of warmth, intelligence, humor, nobility, likability, and above all else, humanity."
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During the series' run, Bixby invited two of his longtime friends, Ray Walston and Brandon Cruz, to guest-star with him in different episodes of the series. He also worked on the series with his friend, movie actress Mariette Hartley, who later starred with Bixby in his final series, "Goodnight, Beantown", in 1983. Hartley appears in the well-regarded double-length episode "Married", and subsequently won an Emmy Award for her guest appearance. Future star Loni Anderson also guest-starred with Bixby during the first season. Bixby directed one episode of the series, "Bring Me the Head of the Hulk", in 1980 (original airdate: January 9, 1981). He had been scheduled to direct three episodes, but because playing the lead role in the series took up so much of his time (since "The Incredible Hulk" involved much more location shooting than Bixby's previous shows), he was forced to cut it down to just the one.
The series was cancelled after the following season, but leftover episodes aired as late as the next June. Bixby later executive-produced and reprised the role in three television movies – "The Incredible Hulk Returns", "The Trial of the Incredible Hulk", and "The Death of the Incredible Hulk" – the last two of which he also directed, and the first of which he has been said to have unofficially co-directed. Bixby was proud of the series as one that parents and children could watch together, though he did not allow his own son to watch the show for fear that he would be frightened by the sight of his father transforming into a green monster.
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Later work.
Bixby was executive producer and co-star of the short-lived sitcom "Goodnight, Beantown" (1983–84). He also directed three episodes of the series. During the same time, Bixby directed several episodes of another short-lived television series, "Wizards and Warriors", which aired in 1983. From 1982 to 1984, he hosted a documentary series for Nickelodeon entitled "Against the Odds". The series, which was cancelled after only two seasons, consists of short biographies of famous people throughout history. From 1986 to 1987, he hosted the syndicated weekday anthology series "True Confessions". In 1987, he directed eight episodes of the satirical police sitcom "Sledge Hammer!", including the episode "Hammer Hits the Rock" in season two, where he made an uncredited appearance as Zeke.
Bixby hosted two specials regarding Elvis conspiracy theories and his alleged sightings: "The Elvis Files" (1991) and "The Elvis Conspiracy" (1992).
Bixby made his last acting appearance in 1992, guest-starring in the television movie "".
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He finished his career by directing 30 episodes (in seasons two and three) of the NBC sitcom "Blossom".
Personal life and death.
Bixby's first marriage was to actress Brenda Benet. They were married in 1971, and she gave birth to their son, Christopher, in September 1974. They divorced in 1980. A few months later, in March 1981, six-year-old Christopher died while on a skiing vacation at Mammoth Lakes with Benet. He went into cardiac arrest after doctors inserted a breathing tube when he suffered acute epiglottitis. Benet committed suicide the following year. The two deaths profoundly impacted Bixby; years later his home was still filled with pictures of Christopher, and he confessed to reporters that he would often speak to Christopher when he was alone.
Bixby met Laura Michaels, who had worked on the set of one of his "Hulk" movies, in 1989. They married a year later in Hawaii. In early 1991, he was diagnosed with prostate cancer and underwent treatment. Though Bixby felt he had recovered following the treatment, a year later the symptoms returned, and Michaels divorced him shortly after.
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In late 1992, friends introduced Bixby to the artist Judith Kliban, widow of the cartoonist B. Kliban. He married her in October 1993.
In early 1993, after rumors began circulating about his health, Bixby went public with his illness, making several appearances on shows such as "Entertainment Tonight", "Today", and "Good Morning America", among others. He also counselled other cancer patients.
On November 21, 1993, six days after his final assignment on "Blossom", Bixby died of complications from prostate cancer in Century City, Los Angeles, California. He was 59 years old. |
Boers
Boers ( ; ; ) are the descendants of the proto Afrikaans-speaking Free Burghers of the eastern Cape frontier in Southern Africa during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. From 1652 to 1795, the Dutch East India Company controlled the Dutch Cape Colony, which the United Kingdom incorporated into the British Empire in 1806. The name of the group is derived from Trekboer then later "boer", which means "farmer" in Dutch and Afrikaans.
In addition, the term also applied to those who left the Cape Colony during the 19th century to colonise the Orange Free State, and the Transvaal (together known as the Boer Republics), and to a lesser extent Natal. They emigrated from the Cape to live beyond the reach of the British colonial administration, with their reasons for doing so primarily being the new Anglophone common law system being introduced into the Cape and the British abolition of slavery in 1833.
The term "Afrikaners" or "Afrikaans people" is generally used in modern-day South Africa for the white Afrikaans-speaking population of South Africa (the largest group of White South Africans) encompassing the descendants of both the Boers, and the Cape Dutch who did not embark on the Great Trek.
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Origin.
European colonists.
The Dutch East India Company (; VOC) was formed in the Dutch Republic in 1602, and at this time the Dutch had entered the competition for the colonial and imperial trade of commerce in Southeast Asia. The end of the Thirty Years' War in 1648 saw European soldiers and refugees widely dispersed across Europe. Immigrants from Germany, Scandinavia, and Switzerland traveled to the Netherlands in the hope of finding employment with the VOC. During the same year, one of their ships was stranded in Table Bay near what would eventually become Cape Town, and the shipwrecked crew had to forage for themselves on shore for several months. They were so impressed with the natural resources of the country that on their return to the Dutch Republic, they represented to the VOC directors the advantages to be had for the Dutch Eastern trade from a properly provided and fortified station at the Cape. As a result, the VOC sent a Dutch expedition in 1652 led by Jan van Riebeek, who constructed a fort and laid out vegetable gardens at Table Bay and took control over Cape Town, which he governed for a decade.
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Free Burghers.
VOC favoured the idea of freemen at the Cape and many workers of VOC requested to be discharged in order to become free burghers (citizens). As a result, Jan van Riebeek approved the notion on favourable conditions and earmarked two areas near the Liesbeek River for farming purposes in 1657. The two areas which were allocated to the freemen, for agricultural purposes, were named Greenfield and Dutch Garden. These areas were separated by the Amstel River (Liesbeek River). Nine of the best applicants were selected to use the land for agricultural purposes. The freemen or free burghers as they were afterwards termed, thus became subjects of VOC and were no longer its servants.
In 1671, the Dutch first purchased land from the indigenous Khoikhoi beyond the limits of the fort built by Van Riebeek; this marked the development of the Colony proper. As the result of the investigations of a 1685 commissioner, the government worked to recruit a greater variety of immigrants to develop a stable community. They formed part of the class of , also known as ('free citizens'), former VOC employees who remained at the Cape after serving their contracts. A large number of became independent farmers and applied for grants of land, as well as loans of seed and tools, from VOC administration.
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Dutch free immigrants.
VOC authorities had been endeavouring to induce gardeners and small farmers to emigrate from Europe to South Africa, but with little success. They were only able to attract a few families through tales of wealth, but the Cape had little charm in comparison. In October 1670, however, the Chamber of Amsterdam announced that a few families were willing to leave for the Cape and Mauritius during the following December. Among the new names of burghers at this time are Jacob and Dirk van Niekerk, Johannes van As, Francois Villion, Jacob Brouwer, Jan van Eden, Hermanus Potgieter, Albertus Gildenhuis, and Jacobus van den Berg.
French Huguenots.
During 1688–1689, the colony was greatly strengthened by the arrival of nearly two hundred French Huguenots, who were political refugees from the religious wars in France following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. They joined colonies at Stellenbosch, Drakenstein, Franschhoek and Paarl. The influence of the Huguenots on the character of the colonists was marked, leading to the VOC directing in 1701 that only Dutch should be taught in schools. This resulted in the Huguenots assimilating by the middle of the 18th century, with a loss in the use and knowledge of French. The colony gradually spread eastwards, and in 1754 land as far as Algoa Bay was included in the colony.
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At this time the European colonists numbered eight to ten thousand. They possessed numerous slaves, grew wheat in sufficient quantity to make it a commodity crop for export, and were famed for the good quality of their wines. But their chief wealth was in cattle. They enjoyed considerable prosperity.
Through the latter half of the 17th and the whole of the 18th century, troubles arose between the colonists and the government as the VOC administration was despotic. Its policies were not directed at development of the colony, but to profit the VOC. The VOC closed the colony against free immigration, kept the whole of the trade in its own hands, combined the administrative, legislative and judicial powers in one body, prescribed to the farmers the nature of the crops they were to grow, demanded a large part of their produce as a kind of tax, and made other exactions.
Trekboers.
From time to time, indentured VOC servants were endowed with the right of "freeburghers" but the VOC retained the power to compel them to return into its service whenever they deemed it necessary. This right to force into servitude those who might incur the displeasure of the governor or other high officers was not only exercised with reference to the individuals themselves; it was claimed by the government to be applicable to their children as well.
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The tyranny caused many to feel desperate and to flee from oppression, even before the 1700 trekking began. In 1780, Joachim van Plettenberg, the governor, proclaimed the Sneeuberge to be the northern boundary of the colony, expressing "the anxious hope that no more extension should take place, and with heavy penalties forbidding the rambling peasants to wander beyond". In 1789, so strong had feelings amongst the burghers become that delegates were sent from the Cape to interview the authorities at Amsterdam. After this deputation, some nominal reforms were granted.
It was largely to escape oppression that the farmers trekked farther and farther from the seat of government. VOC, to control the emigrants, established a magistracy at Swellendam in 1745 and another at Graaff Reinet in 1786. The Gamtoos River had been declared, , the eastern frontier of the colony but it was soon passed. In 1780, however, the Dutch, to avoid collision with the Bantu peoples, agreed with them to make the Great Fish River the common boundary. In 1795 the heavily taxed burghers of the frontier districts, who were afforded no protection against the Bantus, expelled the VOC officials, and set up independent governments at Swellendam and Graaff Reinet.
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The trekboers of the 19th century were the lineal descendants of the trekboers of the 18th century. The end of the 19th century saw a revival of the same tyrannical monopolist policy as that in the VOC government in the Transvaal. If the formula, "In all things political, purely despotic; in all things commercial, purely monopolist", was true of the VOC government in the 18th century, it was equally true of Kruger's government in the latter part of the 19th.
The underlying fact which made the trek possible is that the Dutch-descended colonists in the eastern and northeastern parts of the colony were not cultivators of the soil, but of purely pastoral and nomadic habits, ever ready to seek new pastures for their flocks and herds, possessing no special affection for any particular locality. These people, thinly scattered over a wide territory, had lived for so long with little restraint from the law that when, in 1815, by the institution of "Commissions of Circuit", justice was brought nearer to their homes, various offences were brought to light, the remedying of which caused much resentment.
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The Dutch-descended colonists in the eastern and northeastern parts of the colony, as a result of the Great Trek, had removed themselves from governmental rule and become widely spread out. However, the institution of "Commissions of Circuit" in 1815 allowed the prosecution of crimes, with offences committed by the trekboers—notably including many against people they had enslaved—seeing justice. These prosecutions were very unpopular amongst the trekkers and were seen as interfering with their rights over the enslaved people they viewed as their property.
Invasion of the Cape Colony.
The Invasion of the Cape Colony was a British military expedition launched in 1795 against the Dutch Cape Colony at the Cape of Good Hope. The Netherlands had fallen under the revolutionary government of France and a British force under General Sir James Henry Craig was sent to Cape Town to secure the colony from the French for the Prince of Orange, a refugee in England. The governor of Cape Town at first refused to obey the instructions from the Prince, but when the British proceeded to land troops to take possession anyway, he capitulated. His action was hastened by the fact that the Khoikhoi, escaping from their former enslavers, flocked to the British standard. The burghers of Graaff Reinet did not surrender until a force had been sent against them; in 1799 and again in 1801 they rose in revolt. In February 1803, as a result of the peace of Amiens (February 1803), the colony was handed over to the Batavian Republic which introduced many reforms, as had the British during their eight years' rule. One of the first acts of General Craig had been to abolish torture in the administration of justice. The country still remained essentially Dutch, and few British citizens were attracted to it. Its cost to the British exchequer during this period was £16,000,000. The Batavian Republic entertained very liberal views as to the administration of the country, but had little opportunity to enact them.
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When the War of the Third Coalition broke out in 1803, a British force was once again sent to the Cape. After an engagement (January 1806) on the shores of Table Bay, the Dutch garrison of Castle of Good Hope surrendered to the British under Sir David Baird, and in the 1814 Anglo-Dutch treaty the colony was ceded outright by The Netherlands to the British crown. At that time the colony extended to the line of mountains guarding the vast central plateau, then called Bushmansland (after a name for the San people), and had an area of about sq km and a population of some , of whom were whites, free Khoikhoi and the rest enslaved people, mostly non-indigenous blacks and Malays.
Dislike of British rule.
Although the colony was fairly prosperous, many of the Dutch farmers were as dissatisfied with British rule as they had been with that of the VOC, though their grounds for complaint were not the same. In 1792, Moravian missions had been established which targeted the Khoikhoi, and in 1799 the London Missionary Society began work among both Khoikhoi and the Bantu peoples. The missionaries' championing of Khoikhoi grievances caused much dissatisfaction among the majority of the Dutch colonists, whose views temporarily prevailed, for in 1812 an ordinance was issued which empowered magistrates to bind Khoikhoi children as apprentices under conditions which differed little from slavery. Simultaneously, the movement for the abolition of slavery was gaining strength in England, and the missionaries appealed from the colonists to the mother country.
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Slachter's Nek.
A farmer named Frederick Bezuidenhout refused to obey a summons issued on the complaint of a Khoikhoi, and, firing on the party sent to arrest him, was killed by the return fire. This caused a small rebellion in 1815, known as Slachters Nek, described as "the most insane attempt ever made by a set of men to wage war against their sovereign" by Henry Cloete. Upon its suppression, five ringleaders were publicly hanged at the spot where they had sworn to expel "the English tyrants". The feeling caused by the hanging of these men was deepened by the circumstances of the execution, as the scaffold on which the rebels were simultaneously hanged broke down from their united weight and the men were afterwards hanged one by one. An ordinance was passed in 1827, abolishing the old Dutch courts of and (resident magistrates being substituted) and establishing that henceforth all legal proceedings should be conducted in English. The granting in 1828, as a result of the representations of the missionaries, of equal rights with whites to the Khoikhoi and other free coloured people, the imposition (1830) of heavy penalties for harsh treatment of enslaved people, and finally the emancipation of the enslaved people in 1834, were measures which combined to aggravate the farmers' dislike of government. Moreover, what the Boers viewed as the inadequate compensation for the freeing of the slaves, and the suspicions engendered by the method of payment, caused much resentment; and in 1835 the farmers again removed themselves to unknown country to escape the government. While emigration beyond the colonial border had been continuous for 150 years, it now took on larger proportions.
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Cape Frontier Wars (1779–1879).
The migration of the trekboers from the Cape Colony into the Eastern Cape parts of South Africa, where the native Xhosa people had established settlements, gave rise to a series of conflicts between the Boers and the Xhosas. In 1775 the Cape government established a boundary between the trekboers and the Xhosas at the Bushmans and Upper Fish Rivers. The Boers and Xhosas ignored the boundary, with both groups establishing homes on either side of the frontier. Governor van Plettenberg attempted to persuade both groups to respect the boundary line without success. The Xhosas were accused of stealing cattle and in 1779 a series of skirmishes erupted along the border which initiated the 1st Frontier War.
The frontier remained unstable, resulting in the outbreak of the 2nd Frontier War in 1789. Raids carried out by Boers and Xhosas on both sides of the boundary caused much friction in the area which resulted in several groups being drawn into the conflict. In 1795, the British invasion of the Cape Colony resulted in a change of government. After the government takeover the British began to draw up policies with regards to the frontier resulting in a Boer rebellion in Graaff-Reinet. The policies caused the Khoisan tribes to join some Xhosa chiefs in attacks against British forces during the 3rd Frontier War (1799–1803).
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Peace was restored to the area when the British, under the Treaty of Amiens, returned the Cape Colony to the Dutch Batavian Republic in 1803. In January 1806 during a second invasion, the British reoccupied the colony after the Battle of Blaauwberg. Tensions in the Zuurveld led the colonial administration and Boer colonists to expel many of the Xhosa tribes from the area, initiating the 4th Frontier War in 1811. Conflicts between the Xhosas on the frontier led to the 5th Frontier War in 1819.
The Xhosas, due to dissatisfaction with vacillating government policies regarding where they were permitted to live, undertook large-scale cattle thefts on the frontier. The Cape government responded with several military expeditions. In 1834 a large Xhosa force moved into the Cape territory, which began the 6th Frontier War. Additional fortifications were built by the government and mounted patrols were not well received by the Xhosas, who continued with raids on farms during the 7th Frontier War (1846–1847). The 8th (1850–1853) and 9th Frontier Wars (1877–1878) continued at the same pace as their predecessors. Eventually the Xhosas were defeated and the territories were brought under British control.
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Great Trek.
The Great Trek occurred between 1835 and the early 1840s. During that period some 12,000 to 14,000 Boers (including women and children), impatient with British rule, emigrated from Cape Colony into the great plains beyond the Orange River, and across them again into Natal and the vastness of the Zoutspansberg, in the northern part of the Transvaal. Those Trekboers who occupied the eastern Cape were semi-nomadic. A significant number in the eastern Cape frontier later became ('border farmers') who were the direct ancestors of the Voortrekkers.
The Boers addressed several correspondence to the British Colonial Government before leaving the Cape Colony as reasons for their departure. Piet Retief, one of the leaders of the Boers during the time, addressed a letter to the government on 22 January 1837 in Grahamstown stating that the Boers did not see any prospect for peace or happiness for their children in a country with such internal commotions. Retief further complained about the severe financial losses which they felt had resulted from the laws of the British administration. While there was financial compensation for the freeing of the people they had enslaved, the Boers found it to be inadequate. They also felt that the English church system was incompatible with the Dutch Reformed Church. By this time the Boers had already formed a separate code of laws in preparation for the great trek and were aware of the dangerous territory they were about to enter. Retief concluded his letter with "We quit this colony under the full assurance that the English Government has nothing more to require of us, and will allow us to govern ourselves without its interference in future".
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Boer states and republics.
As the Voortrekkers progressed further inland, they continued to establish Boer colonies on the interior of South Africa.
Anglo-Boer wars.
Following the British annexation of the Transvaal in 1877, Paul Kruger was a key figure in organizing a Boer resistance which led to expulsion of the British from the Transvaal. The Boers then fought the Second Boer War in the late 19th and early 20th century against the British in order to ensure the republics of the Transvaal (the ) and the Orange Free State, remaining independent, ultimately capitulating in 1902.
Boer War diaspora.
After the Second Boer War, a Boer diaspora occurred. Starting in 1903, the largest group emigrated to the Patagonia region of Argentina and to Brazil. Another group emigrated to the British colony of Kenya, from where most returned to South Africa during the 1930s, while a third group under the leadership of General Ben Viljoen emigrated to Mexico and to New Mexico and Texas in the southwestern United States.
1914 Boer Revolt.
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The Maritz Rebellion (also known as the Boer Revolt, the Five Shilling Rebellion or the Third Boer War) occurred in 1914 at the start of World War I, in which men who supported the re-creation of the Boer republics rose up against the government of the Union of South Africa because they did not want to side with the British against the German Empire so soon after the war with the British.
Many Boers had German ancestry and many members of the government were themselves former Boer military leaders who had fought with the Maritz rebels against the British in the Second Boer War. The rebellion was put down by Louis Botha and Jan Smuts, and the ringleaders received heavy fines and terms of imprisonment. One, Jopie Fourie, an officer in the Union Defence Force, was convicted for treason when he refused to take up arms alongside the British, and was executed by the South African government in 1914.
Characteristics.
Language.
Afrikaans is a West Germanic language spoken widely in South Africa and Namibia, and to a lesser extent in Botswana and Zimbabwe. It evolved from the Dutch vernacular of South Holland (Hollandic dialect) spoken by the mainly Dutch colonists of what is now South Africa, where it gradually began to develop distinguishing characteristics in the course of the 18th century. Hence, it is a daughter language of Dutch, and was previously referred to as "Cape Dutch" (also used to refer collectively to the early Cape colonists) or "kitchen Dutch" (a derogatory term used in its earlier days). However, it is also variously (although incorrectly) described as a creole or as a partially creolised language. The term is ultimately derived from Dutch meaning "African Dutch".
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Culture.
The desire to wander, known as , was a notable characteristic of the Boers. It figured prominently in the late 17th century when the Trekboers began to inhabit the northern and eastern Cape frontiers, again during the Great Trek when the Voortrekkers left the eastern Cape "en masse", and after the major republics were established during the Thirstland (") Trek. One such trekker described the impetus for emigrating as, "a drifting spirit was in our hearts, and we ourselves could not understand it. We just sold our farms and set out northwestwards to find a new home".
A rustic characteristic and tradition was developed quite early on as Boer society was born on the frontiers of white colonisation and on the outskirts of Western civilisation.
The Boer quest for independence manifested in a tradition of declaring republics, which predates the arrival of the British; when the British arrived, Boer republics had already been declared and were in rebellion from the VOC.
Beliefs.
The Boers of the frontier were known for their independent spirit, resourcefulness, hardiness, and self-sufficiency, whose political notions verged on anarchy but had begun to be influenced by republicanism.
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The Boers had cut their ties to Europe as they emerged from the Trekboer group.
The Boers possessed a distinct Protestant culture, and the majority of Boers and their descendants were members of a Reformed Church. The ('Dutch Reformed Church') was the national Church of the South African Republic (1852–1902). The Orange Free State (1854–1902) was named after the Protestant House of Orange in the Netherlands.
The Calvinist influence, in such fundamental Calvinist doctrines such as unconditional predestination and divine providence, remains present in a minority of Boer culture, who see their role in society as abiding by the national laws and accepting calamity and hardship as part of their Christian duty. Many Boers have since converted denominations and are now members of Baptist, Charismatic, Pentecostal or Lutheran Churches.
Modern usage.
During recent times, mainly during the apartheid reform and post-1994 eras, some white Afrikaans-speaking people, mainly with conservative political views, and of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent, have chosen to be called , rather than "Afrikaners", to distinguish their identity. They believe that many people of Voortrekker descent were not assimilated into what they see as the Cape-based Afrikaner identity. They suggest that this developed after the Second Anglo-Boer War and the subsequent establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910. Some Boer nationalists have asserted that they do not identify as a right-wing element of the political spectrum.
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They contend that the Boers of the South African Republic and Orange Free State republics were recognised as a separate people or cultural group under international law by the Sand River Convention (which created the South African Republic in 1852), the Bloemfontein Convention (which created the Orange Free State Republic in 1854), the Pretoria Convention (which re-established the independence of the South African Republic 1881), the London Convention (which granted the full independence to the South African Republic in 1884), and the Vereeniging Peace Treaty, which formally ended the Second Anglo-Boer War on 31 May 1902. Others contend, however, that these treaties dealt only with agreements between governmental entities and do not imply the recognition of a Boer cultural identity "per se".
The supporters of these views feel that the Afrikaner label was used from the 1930s onwards as a means of politically unifying the white Afrikaans speakers of the Western Cape with those of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent in the north of South Africa, where the Boer Republics were established.
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Since the Anglo-Boer war, the term ('farmer people') was rarely used in the 20th century by the various regimes because of the effort to assimilate the with the Afrikaners. A portion of those who are the descendants of the have reasserted use of this designation.
The supporters of the "Boer" designation view the term "Afrikaner" as an artificial political label which usurped their history and culture, turning Boer achievements into Afrikaner achievements. They feel that the Western-Cape based Afrikaners – whose ancestors did not trek eastwards or northwards – took advantage of the republican Boers' destitution following the Anglo-Boer War. At that time, the Afrikaners attempted to assimilate the Boers into the new politically based cultural label.
In contemporary South Africa, "Boer" and "Afrikaner" have often been used interchangeably. directly translated means "African", and thus refers to all Afrikaans-speaking people in Africa who have their origins in the Cape Colony founded by Jan Van Riebeeck. "Boer" is a specific group within the larger Afrikaans-speaking population.
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During apartheid, "Boer" was used by opponents of apartheid in various contexts, referring to institutional structures such as the National Party, or to specific groups of people, such as members of the Police Force (colloquially known as "Boere") and Army, Afrikaners, or white South Africans generally. This usage is often viewed as pejorative in contemporary South Africa.
Education.
The Movement for Christian-National Education is a federation of 47 Calvinist private schools, primarily in the Free State and the Transvaal, committed to educating Boer children from grade 0 through to 12.
Media.
Some local radio stations promote the ideals of those who identify with the Boer people, like Radio Rosestad 100.6 FM (in Bloemfontein), Overvaal Stereo and Radio Pretoria. An internet-based radio station, "Boerevolk Radio", promotes Boer separatism.
Territories.
Territorial areas in the form of a ('Boer State') are being developed as colonies exclusively for Boers/Afrikaners, notably Orania in the Northern Cape and Kleinfontein near Pretoria.
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Notable Boers.
Voortrekker leaders
Great trek
Participants in the Second Anglo-Boer War
Politicians
Spies
Persecution.
Since the early 2000s, South African farmers, including many Boers, have faced a wave of violent attacks in rural areas, often involving extreme brutality such as torture and murder. These incidents, which have drawn international attention, have led many within the Boer community to fear for their safety. Some have emigrated to countries like Australia, while others have invested in private security measures to protect their families and property. The ongoing attacks remain a significant concern for South Africa's rural communities. In 2020 a group of protestors in Senekal demanded that two men accused of murdering white farmers be handed over to them. The protest fell into chaos, and was described as “anarchic” by Justice Minister Ronald Lamola. Protestors attempted to force their way into the court cells, and a police vehicle was overturned and set alight.
In modern fiction.
The history of the Cape Colony and the Boers in South Africa is covered at length in the 1980 novel "The Covenant" by American author James A. Michener.
The Boers appear as a civilization in the 'Scramble to Africa' scenario in "". Paul Kruger leads the civilization during the scenario. The Boers' unique unit is the foreign volunteer. |
Bronze Star Medal
The Bronze Star Medal (BSM) is a United States Armed Forces decoration awarded to members of the United States Armed Forces for either heroic achievement, heroic service, meritorious achievement, or meritorious service in a combat zone.
When the medal is awarded by the Army, Air Force, or Space Force for acts of valor in combat, the "V" device is authorized for wear on the medal. When the medal is awarded by the Navy, Marine Corps, or Coast Guard for acts of valor or meritorious service in combat, the Combat "V" is authorized for wear on the medal.
Officers from the other Uniformed Services of the United States are eligible to receive this award, as are foreign soldiers who have served with or alongside a service branch of the United States Armed Forces.
Civilians serving with U.S. military forces in combat are also eligible for the award. For example, UPI reporter Joe Galloway was awarded the Bronze Star with "V" device for actions during the Vietnam War, specifically rescuing a badly wounded soldier under fire in the Battle of Ia Drang Valley, in 1965. Another civilian recipient was writer Ernest Hemingway.
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General information.
The Bronze Star Medal was established by Executive Order 9419, 4 February 1944 (superseded by Executive Order 11046, 24 August 1962, as amended by Executive Order 13286, 28 February 2003).
The Bronze Star Medal may be awarded by the Secretary of a military department or the Secretary of Homeland Security with regard to the Coast Guard when not operating as a service in the Department of the Navy, or by such military commanders, or other appropriate officers as the Secretary concerned may designate, to any person who, while serving in any capacity in or with the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, Coast Guard, or Space Force of the United States, after 6 December 1941, distinguishes, or has distinguished, herself or himself by heroic or meritorious achievement or service, not involving participation in aerial flight—
The acts of heroism are of a lesser degree than required for the award of the Silver Star. The acts of merit or acts of valor must be less than that required for the Legion of Merit but must nevertheless have been meritorious and accomplished with distinction.
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The Bronze Star Medal (without the "V" device) may be awarded to each member of the Armed Forces of the United States who, after 6 December 1941, was cited in orders or awarded a certificate for exemplary conduct in ground combat against an armed enemy between 7 December 1941 and 2 September 1945. For this purpose, the US Army's Combat Infantryman Badge or Combat Medical Badge award is considered as a citation in orders. Documents executed since 4 August 1944 in connection with recommendations for the award of decorations of higher degree than the Bronze Star Medal cannot be used as the basis for an award under this paragraph.
Effective 11 September 2001, the Meritorious Service Medal may also be bestowed in lieu of the Bronze Star Medal (without Combat "V" device) for meritorious achievement in a designated combat theater.
Appearance.
The Bronze Star Medal was designed by Rudolf Freund (1878–1960) of the jewelry firm Bailey, Banks & Biddle. (Freund also designed the Silver Star.)
The medal is a bronze star in circumscribing diameter. In the center is a diameter superimposed bronze star, the center line of all rays of both stars coinciding. The reverse bears the inscription with a space for the name of the recipient to be engraved. The star hangs from its ribbon by a rectangular metal loop with rounded corners. The suspension ribbon is wide and consists of the following stripes: white 67101; scarlet 67111; white; center stripe ultramarine blue 67118; white; scarlet; and white.
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Authorized devices.
The Bronze Star Medal with the "V" device to denote heroism is the fourth highest military decoration for valor. Although a service member may be cited for heroism in combat and be awarded more than one Bronze Star authorizing the "V" device, only one "V" may be worn on each suspension and service ribbon of the medal. The following ribbon devices must be specifically authorized in the award citation in order to be worn on the Bronze Star Medal, the criteria for and wear of the devices vary between the services:
History.
Colonel Russell P. "Red" Reeder conceived the idea of the Bronze Star Medal in 1943; he believed it would aid morale if captains of companies or of batteries could award a medal to deserving people serving under them. Reeder felt another medal was needed as a ground equivalent of the Air Medal, and suggested calling the proposed new award the "Ground Medal". The idea eventually rose through the military bureaucracy and gained supporters. General George C. Marshall, in a memorandum to President Franklin D. Roosevelt dated 3 February 1944, wrote
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The Air Medal had been adopted two years earlier to raise airmen's morale. President Roosevelt authorized the Bronze Star Medal by Executive Order 9419 dated 4 February 1944, retroactive to 7 December 1941. This authorization was announced in War Department Bulletin No. 3, dated 10 February 1944.
President John F. Kennedy amended Executive Order 9419 per Executive Order 11046 dated 24 August 1962 to expand the authorization to include those serving with friendly forces. This allowed for awards where US service members become involved in an armed conflict where the United States was not a belligerent. At the time of the Executive Order, for example, the US was not a belligerent in Vietnam, so US advisers serving with the Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces would not have been eligible for the award.
Since the award criteria state that the Bronze Star Medal may be awarded to "any person ... while serving in any capacity in or with" the US Armed Forces, awards to members of foreign armed services serving with the United States are permitted. Thus, a number of Allied soldiers received the Bronze Star Medal in World War II, as well as UN soldiers in the Korean War, Vietnamese and allied forces in the Vietnam War, and coalition forces in recent military operations such as the Persian Gulf War, War in Afghanistan, and the Iraq War. A number of Bronze Star Medals with the "V" device were awarded to veterans of the Battle of Mogadishu.
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World War II infantry award.
As a result of a study conducted in 1947, a policy was implemented that authorized the retroactive award of the Bronze Star Medal (without the "V" device) to all soldiers who had received the Combat Infantryman Badge or the Combat Medical Badge during World War II. The basis for this decision was that these badges were awarded only to soldiers who had borne the hardships which resulted in General Marshall's support of the establishment of the Bronze Star Medal. Both badges required a recommendation by the commander and a citation in orders.
U.S. Air Force criteria controversy.
In 2012, two U.S. airmen were allegedly subjected to cyber-bullying after receiving Bronze Star Medals for meritorious non-combat service. The two airmen, who had received the medals in March 2012, had been finance NCOICs in medical units deployed to the War in Afghanistan. The awards sparked a debate as to whether or not the Air Force was awarding too many medals to its members, and whether the Bronze Star should be awarded for non-combat service. This prompted the Air Force to take down stories of the two posted to the internet, and to clarify its criteria for awarding medals. The Air Force contended that meritorious service awards of the Bronze Star outnumber valor awards, and that it views awards on a case-by-case basis to maintain the integrity of the award.
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This is not the first time that the USAF has been criticized for offering this award. The Department of Defense investigated the award of the Bronze Star Medal (BSM) by the USAF to some 246 individuals after operations in Kosovo in 1999. All but 60 were awarded to officers, and only 16 of those awarded were actually in the combat zone. At least five were awarded to officers who never left Whiteman Air Force Base in Missouri. During this campaign, the Navy had awarded 69 BSMs, and the Army with 5,000 troops in neighboring Albania (considered part of the combat zone) awarded none. In the end, there was a Pentagon review and decision by Congress in 2001 to stop the awarding of Bronze Stars to personnel outside the combat zone. |
Ballarat
Ballarat ( ) () is a city in the Central Highlands of Victoria, Australia. At the 2021 census, Ballarat had a population of 111,973, making it the third-largest urban inland city in Australia and the third-largest city in Victoria.
Within months of Victoria separating from the colony of New South Wales in 1851, gold was discovered near Ballarat, sparking the Victorian gold rush. Ballarat subsequently became a thriving boomtown that for a time rivalled Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, in terms of wealth and cultural influence. In 1854, following a period of civil disobedience in Ballarat over gold licenses, local miners launched an armed uprising against government forces. Known as the Eureka Rebellion, it led to the introduction of white male suffrage in Australia, and as such is interpreted as the origin of Australian democracy. The rebellion's symbol, the Eureka Flag, has become a national symbol.
Proclaimed a city on 9 September 1870, Ballarat's prosperity, unlike that of many other gold boomtowns, continued until the late 19th century, as the city's fields experienced sustained high gold yields for many decades. By the turn of the century, Ballarat's importance relative to Melbourne rapidly faded with the slowing of gold extraction. It has endured as a major regional centre and is the commercial capital and largest city of the Central Highlands, as well as a significant tourist destination. Ballarat is known for its history, culture and well-preserved colonial-era heritage, with much of the city subject to heritage overlays.
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History.
Prehistory and European settlement.
The Ballarat region was first populated by the Wadawurrung people, an Indigenous Australian people. The first Europeans to sight the area were an August 1837 party of six men, including Thomas Livingstone Learmonth and Henry Anderson, who scaled Mount Buninyong. Some of this party set off again in January 1838, this time with others including Thomas' brother Somerville Learmonth and William Cross Yuille and his cousin Archibald Buchanan Yuille.
The Yuille cousins arrived in 1838 and took up a sheep run at Ballarat. The first houses were built near Woolshed Creek (Sebastopol) by Henry Anderson and taken over by the Yuilles. William Yuille established a hut on the northern edge of the swamp which would be called Yuille's Swamp, later Lake Wendouree. Archibald Yuille named his property "Ballaarat", from the local Wathaurong Aboriginal words, "balla" and "arat", meaning a camping or 'resting place', with the word 'balla' meaning bent elbow. Both 'Ballaarat' and 'Ballarat' were used interchangeably until the present spelling was officially adopted by the City of Ballarat in 1994, when the city amalgamated with surrounding local government areas.
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Gold rush era.
The first publicised discovery of gold in the region was by Thomas Hiscock on 2 August 1851, in Buninyong to the south. The find brought other prospectors to the area and on 19 August 1851, more gold was found at Poverty Point. Within days, a gold rush began, bringing thousands of prospectors to the Yarrowee Valley, which became known as the Ballarat diggings. Yields were particularly high, with the first prospectors in the area extracting between half an ounce (which was more than the average wage of the time) and up to five ounces of alluvial gold per day. As news of the Victorian gold rush reached the world, Ballarat gained an international reputation as a particularly rich goldfield. As a result, a huge influx of immigrants occurred, including many from Ireland and China, gathering in a collection of prospecting shanty towns around the creeks and hills. Within a few months, numerous alluvial runs were established, several deep mining leads began, and the population had swelled to over 1,000 people.
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The first post office opened on 1 November 1851, the first to open in a Victorian gold-mining settlement. Parts of the district were first surveyed by William Urquhart as early as October 1851. By 1852 his grid plan and wide streets for land sales in the new township of West Ballarat, built upon a plateau of basalt, contrasted markedly with the existing narrow unplanned streets, tents, and gullies of the original East Ballarat settlement. The new town's main streets of the time were named in honour of police commissioners and gold commissioners of the time, with the main street, Sturt Street, named after Evelyn Pitfield Shirley Sturt; Dana Street named after Henry Dana; Lydiard Street after his assistant; Doveton Street after Francis Crossman Doveton, Ballarat's first gold commissioner; Armstrong after David Armstrong; and Mair Street after William Mair. These officials were based at the government encampment (after which nearby Camp Street was named), which was strategically positioned on an escarpment with an optimal view over the district's diggings.
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The first newspaper, "The Banner", published on 11 September 1853, was one of many to be distributed during the gold-rush period. Print media played a large role in the early history of the settlement. Ballarat attracted a sizable number of miners from the Californian 1848 gold rush, and some were known as Ballafornians.
Civil disobedience in Ballarat led to an armed civil uprising, the Eureka Rebellion (colloquially referred to as the "Eureka Stockade") which took place in Ballarat on 3 December 1854. The event, in which 22 miners were killed, is considered to be a defining moment in Australian history.
The city earned the nickname "The Golden City" in the 1850s. The gold rush population peaked at almost 60,000, mostly male diggers, by 1858. However the early population was largely itinerant. As quickly as the alluvial deposits drew prospectors to Ballarat, the rate of gold extraction fluctuated and, as they were rapidly worked dry, many quickly moved to rush other fields as new findings were announced, particularly Mount Alexander in 1852, Fiery Creek in 1855, and Ararat in 1857. By 1859, a smaller number of permanent settlers numbering around 23,000, many of whom had built personal wealth in gold, established a prosperous economy based around a shift to deep underground gold mining.
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Confidence of the city's early citizens in the enduring future of their city is evident in the sheer scale of many of the early public buildings, generous public recreational spaces, and opulence of many of its commercial establishments and private housing. A local steam locomotive industry developed from 1854 with the Phoenix Foundry operating until 1906. The railway came to the town with the opening of the Geelong–Ballarat line in 1862 and Ballarat developed as a major railway town. As the city grew the region's original indigenous inhabitants were quickly expelled to the fringe and by 1867 few remained.
Post gold rush.
From the late 1860s to the early 20th century, Ballarat made a successful transition from a gold rush town to an industrial-age city. The ramshackle tents and timber buildings gradually made way for permanent buildings, many impressive structures of solid stone and brick mainly built from wealth generated by early mining.
Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh visited between 9 and 13 December 1867 and as the first royal visit, the occasion was met with great fanfare. The Prince Room was prepared at Craigs Royal Hotel for his stay. The city's first civic centre—Prince Alfred Hall—erected over the Yarrowee between the two municipalities, was named in his honour during his visit. The later attempt by Ballaratian Henry James O'Farrell to assassinate the Prince was met with shock and great horror from locals.
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Ballarat was proclaimed a city in 1871. Gong Gong dam was built in 1877 to alleviate flooding and to provide a permanent water supply. A direct railway to Melbourne was completed in December 1889. Many industries and workshops had been established as a result of manufacturing and servicing for the deep lead mining industry.
20th century.
Local boosters at the start of the 20th century adopted the nickname "Athens of Australia", first used to describe Ballarat by the jurist and politician Sir John Madden. The first electricity supply was completed in 1901, and that year a bluestone power station was built at the corner of Ripon Street and Wendouree Parade with the main aim of electrifying the city's tramway network. Despite such advancements, mining activity slowed at this time and Ballarat's growth all but stopped, leading to a decades-long period of decline. The Sunshine rail disaster in 1908 resulted in the death of dozens of Ballarat residents, and in August 1909, a great storm lashed the city, resulting in the death of one person and the injury of seven others, as well as the destruction of numerous homes.
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Ballarat's significant representation in World War I resulted in heavy human loss. Around this time, it was overtaken in population by the port city of Geelong, further diminishing its provincial status. In response, local lobbyists continually pushed the Victorian government for decentralisation, the greatest success being the Victorian Railways opening the Ballarat North Workshops in April 1917. The Great Depression proved a further setback for Ballarat, with the closure of many institutions and causing the worst unemployment in the city's history, with over a thousand people in the dole queue.
The city's two municipalities, Ballarat East and West Town Councils, finally amalgamated in 1921 to form the City of Ballarat.
While deep, the depression was also brief. The interwar period proved a period of recovery for Ballarat with a number of major infrastructure projects well underway including a new sewerage system. In 1930, Ballarat Airport was established. By 1931, Ballarat's economy and population was recovering strongly with further diversification of industry, although in 1936 Geelong displaced it as the state's second largest city. During World War II an expanded Ballarat airport was the base of the RAAF Wireless Air Gunners' School as well as the base for USAAF Liberator bomber squadrons. In 1942, Ballarat became connected to the state electricity grid by a 66,000 kV line. Prior to this, power supply was generated locally.
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During World War II, Ballarat was the location of RAAF No.1 Inland Aircraft Fuel Depot (IAFD), completed in 1942 in the defence of Australia against a Japanese invasion and decommissioned on 29 August 1944. Usually consisting of four tanks, 31 fuel depots were built across Australia for the storage and supply of aircraft fuel for the RAAF and the US Army Air Forces at a total cost of £900,000 ($1,800,000).
In the post-war era, Ballarat's growth continued. In response to an acute housing shortage, significant suburban expansion occurred. An extensive Housing Commission of Victoria estate was built on the former Ballarat Common (today known as Wendouree West). The estate was originally planned to contain over 750 prefabricated houses. While planning for the estate began in 1949, main construction occurred between 1951 and 1962.
The 1950s brought a new optimism to the city. On 17 April 1952 it was announced that Lake Wendouree was to be the venue for rowing events of the 1956 Summer Olympics, and work soon began on an Olympic village in Gillies Street. A new prefabricted power terminal substation at Norman Street Ballarat North was constructed between 1951 and 1953 by the State Electricity Commission. The first Begonia Festival, a highly successful community celebration, was held in 1953. Elizabeth II visited on 8 March 1954. The Civic Centre, Prince Alfred Hall had burned down suspiciously that year; however a new Civic Hall was constructed and opened in March 1955. On 23 November 1956, the Olympic torch was carried through the city, and the following day the rowing events were held at the lake. On 2 March 1958 the Queen Mother visited Ballarat.
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During the following decades, the city saw increased threats to its heritage. In 1964, the Ballarat City Council passed laws banning pillar-supported verandahs in the CBD, which threatened the removal of historic cast iron verandahs in the city. The by-law was met by staunch opposition from the National Trust, which had begun campaigning to protect some of the city's most historic buildings. By the 1970s, Ballarat began to officially recognise its substantial heritage, and the first heritage controls were recommended to ensure its preservation. With the opening of Sovereign Hill, the city made a rapid shift to become a major cultural tourist destination, visited by thousands each year.
During the 1970s, a further 300 houses were constructed at Wendouree West. Private housing in the adjacent suburb of Wendouree closely matched and eventually eclipsed this by the mid-1960s. The suburb of greater Wendouree and Wendouree West had evolved as the suburban middle-class heart of the city. Charles, Prince of Wales visited Ballarat on 28 October 1974 during which he toured Sovereign Hill, the Ballarat College of Advanced Education's new Mt Helen Campus and the White Swan Reservoir and spoke at Civic Hall.
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Ballarat played an important role in the Stolen Generation throughout the 20th century, where the Ballarat Orphanage saw Aboriginal children who had been taken from their families. The Ballarat and District Aboriginal Co-operative (BADAC) was established by members of the Ballarat and district Aboriginal community in 1979. It became a co-operative to deliver health, social, welfare and community development programs to local Aboriginal people. In 2017, local Aboriginal community elder Ted Lovett was awarded the Order of Australia Medal for services to the indigenous community and for his works in eliminating racism in sports in south-west Victoria. Karen Heap and Ted Lovett were listed on the Victoria's Aboriginal Honour Role both in part for their work at BADAC.
21st century.
The city continued to grow at the national average throughout the late 20th century and early 21st century. In 2008 the City of Ballarat released a plan directing that growth of the city over the next 30 years is to be concentrated to the west of the city centre. The Ballarat West Growth Area Plan was approved by the city and state government in 2010, planning an extensive fringe development consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents including new activity centres and employment zones.
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The Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse final report, published on 15 December 2017, found that 139 people made a claim of child sexual abuse to the Diocese of Ballarat between 1980 and 2015, and 21 alleged perpetrators were identified in these claims. Seventeen of the 21 alleged and convicted perpetrators were priests, which is 8.7% of the priests who ministered during this period. About 45 victims are estimated to have committed suicide.
Geography.
Ballarat lies at the foothills of the Great Dividing Range in Central Western Victoria. Also known as the Central Highlands, it is named so because of its elevated position and moderate hills and terrain with a lack of any alpine mountains that are situated a few hundred kilometres NE. The city lies within a mostly gently undulating section of the midland volcanic plains which stretch from Creswick in the north, to Rokewood in the south, and from Lal Lal in the south-east to Pittong in the west.
Geologically, the area consists of alluvial sediment and volcanic flows originating from now-extinct volcanoes such as nearby Buninyong (750m, 2460 ft) and Warrenheip (746m, 2446 ft), which are the area's tallest peaks. As a result, the basin contains large areas of fertile agricultural soil. Ballarat itself is situated on an alluvial basin of the Yarrowee catchment and its tributary creeks, penetrated by sub-ranges of schists composed of granites and quartz. Along with the visible river and creeks, the catchment basin has numerous active and inactive aquifers and natural wetlands, which are used for urban water supply, agriculture and recreation.
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There are numerous densely forested areas around Ballarat; however due to historic wood milling and land clearing there remain no old-growth forests. The major natural bodies of water are in the west and include the former shallow swamps of Lake Wendouree which is central to the city's western suburbs and beyond Winter's Swamp and the large Lake Burrumbeet wetland complex. Almost all of the other numerous bodies of water have been created artificially and include several reservoirs, the largest being the White Swan Reservoir and smaller suburban lakes such as Lake Esmond.
The contiguous urban area of Ballarat covers approximately of the local government area's . Approximately 90% of the urban area's land use is residential and suburban. From the city centre this area extends approximately north to the hills around Invermay, approximately east to Leigh Creek in the foothills of Mount Warrenheip, approximately west along the plains to Lucas and approximately south along the Yarrowee River and Canadian Creek valley to the fringe of Buninyong. The central city is situated low in the valley of the Yarrowee River and surrounded by hills such that the city skyline is visible only from the hills and the lower lying inner eastern suburbs. The reach of the Yarrowee River toward Ballarat Central becomes a stormwater drain and is completely covered over as it flows under the CBD.
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Urban structure.
The city is home to nationally significant heritage structures. These include the Ballarat Botanical Gardens (established 1857), with the greatest concentration of public statuary, the official Prime Ministers Avenue, the longest running lyric theatre building (Her Majesty's Theatre, established 1875), the first municipal observatory, established 1886, and the earliest and longest war memorial avenue (the Avenue of Honour, established between 1917 and 1919).
Ballarat is a primarily low-rise city. The City of Ballarat defines two Major Activity Centres within the urban area – the Central Business District (CBD) and Wendouree with a high concentration of business, retail and community function based primarily on the Melbourne 2030 planning model and a further 11 neighbourhood activity centres. The tallest building in urban Ballarat is the seven-storey Henry Bolte wing of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1994). Beyond the central area, urban Ballarat extends into several suburban areas with a mixture of housing styles. Predominant styles are 19th-century villas, Victorian terraces, Federation homes and Georgian red brick homes. Settlement patterns around Ballarat consist of small villages and country towns, some with less than a few thousand people.
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The central business district (located in Ballarat Central) is a large mixed-use office and retail district bounded to the north by railway lines, to the west by Drummond Street, to the south to Grant Street and to the east by Princes Street and spanning the floodplain of the Yarrowee River. Lydiard, Sturt Streets, Armstrong, Doveton, Dana Street and Bridge Street (known as Bridge Mall) along with the historic centre of East Ballarat—Main Street and Bakery Hill have retained stands of commercial and civic buildings of state and national heritage significance.
The inner established suburbs were initially laid out around the key mining areas and include Ballarat East, Bakery Hill, Golden Point, Soldiers Hill, Black Hill, Brown Hill, Eureka, Canadian, Mount Pleasant, Redan, Sebastopol and Newington.
The post gold rush era has seen a boom in expansion, extending the conurbation north, south and west. To the west, Ballarat has expanded West to Lucas, Alfredton, Delacombe To The North West Wendouree, Wendouree West and Miners Rest To the north it has expanded to Ballarat North, Invermay Park, Invermay, Victoria Invermay and Nerrina; to the east to Warrenheip and south to Sebastopol, Mount Clear and Mount Helen with the urban area encroaching the large town of Buninyong.
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Wendouree is currently the only major suburban activity centre with a large indoor shopping mall—Stockland Shopping Centre (expanded in 2007) and also has a number of surrounding retail parks including a strip shopping centre along Howitt Street including the large retail chain Harvey Norman. Elsewhere are small suburban hubs with supermarkets such as IGA (supermarkets) and small stretches of shopfronts.
Unlike Melbourne, Ballarat does not have a defined urban growth boundary. This has put continuing pressure on the city council to approve development applications for subdivisions outside of the city fringe. In response to lobbying by landholders, the Ballarat West Growth Area Plan, a major greenfield land development plan, was prepared and has approved by the city and state government to allow for planned fringe communities consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents, effectively doubling the city's urban area by extending the urban sprawl from Sebastopol, Delacombe and Alfredton west toward Bonshaw, Smythes Creek and Cardigan with a new suburb to be known as Lucas to be created. New activity centres have been developed at Delacombe and Alfredton.
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Architecture.
Ballarat is renowned for its Victorian architectural heritage. In 2003 Ballarat was the first of two Australian cities to be registered as a member of the International League of Historical Cities and in 2006 hosted the 10th World League of Historical Cities Congress. The city's history is a major focus of the Collaborative Research Centre in Australian History, part of Federation University Australia, and is located at old Ballarat Gaol.
The legacy of the wealth generated during Ballarat's gold boom is still visible in a large number of fine stone buildings in and around the city, especially in the Lydiard Street area. This precinct contains some of Victoria's finest examples of Victorian era buildings, many of which are on the Victorian Heritage Register or classified by the National Trust of Australia. Notable civic buildings include the Town Hall (1870–72), the former Post Office (1864), the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery (1887), the Mechanics' Institute (1860, 1869), the Queen Victoria Wards of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1890s) and the Ballarat railway station (1862, 1877, 1888). Other historic buildings include the Provincial Hotel (1909), Reid's Coffee Palace (1886), Craig's Royal Hotel (1862–1890) and Her Majesty's Theatre (1875), the oldest intact and operating lyric theatre in Australia and Ballarat Fire Station (1864, 1911) one of Victoria's oldest fire fighting structures and the Jewish synagogue (1861) the oldest surviving synagogue on the Australian mainland.
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Restoration of historic buildings is encouraged including a low interest council Heritage Loans Scheme. and the prevention of demolition by neglect discouraged by council policies. Since the 1970s, the local council has become increasingly aware of the economic and social value of heritage preservation. This is in stark contrast to the 1950s and 60s when Ballarat followed Melbourne in encouraging the removal of Victorian buildings, verandahs in particular. Recent restoration projects funded by the Ballarat include the reconstruction of significant cast iron lace verandahs including the Mining Exchange, Art Gallery (2007), Mechanics institute (2005–) on Lydiard Street and in 2010 the restoration of the Town Hall and the long neglected Unicorn Hotel façade on Sturt Street.
Ballarat Citizens for Thoughtful Development formed in 1998 and was incorporated as Ballarat Heritage Watch in 2005 to ensure that the city's architectural heritage is given due consideration in the planning process.
The Ballarat Botanical Gardens (established in 1858) are recognised as the finest example of a regional botanical gardens in Australia and are home to many heritage listed exotic tree species and feature a modern glasshouse and horticultural centre and the Prime Ministers Avenue which features bronze busts of every past Australian Prime Minister.
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Ballarat is notable for its very wide boulevards. The main street is Sturt Street with over of central gardens known as the Sturt Street Gardens featuring bandstands, fountains, statues, monuments, memorials and lampposts. Ballarat is home to the largest of a collection of Avenues of Honour in Victoria. The Ballarat Avenue of Honour consists of a total of approximately 4,000 trees, mostly deciduous which in many parts arch completely over the road. Each tree has a bronze plaque dedicated to a soldier from the Ballarat region who enlisted during World War I. The Avenue of Honour and the Arch of Victory are on the Victorian Heritage Register and are seen by approximately 20,000 visitors each year.
The city also has the greatest concentration of public statuary in any Australian city with many parks and streets featuring sculptures and statues dating from the 1860s to the present. Some of the other notable memorials located in the Sturt Street Gardens in the middle of Ballarat's main boulevard include a bandstand situated in the heart of the city that was funded and built by the City of Ballarat Band in 1913 as a tribute to the bandsmen of the , a fountain dedicated to the early explorers Burke and Wills, and those dedicated to monarchs and those who have played pivotal roles in the development of the city and its rich social fabric. These include, Robert Burns, Peter Lalor, Sir Albert Coates, Harold "Pompey" Elliott, William Dunstan, King George V, Queen Victoria and more.
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Ballarat has an extensive array of significant war memorials, the most recent of which is the Australian Ex Prisoner of War Memorial. The most prominent memorial in the city is the Ballarat Victory Arch that spans the old Western Highway on the Western approaches of the city. The archway serves as the focal point for the Avenue of Honour. Other significant individual monuments located along Sturt Street include those dedicated to the Boer War (1899–1901), the World War II (1939–1945) cenotaph, and Vietnam (1962–1972) (located adjacent to the Arch of Victory).
Climate.
Ballarat has a moderate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification "Cfb") with four distinct seasons. Its elevation, ranging between above sea level, causes its mean monthly temperatures to tend to be on average below those of Melbourne, especially in winter. The mean daily maximum temperature for January is , while the mean minimum is . In July, the mean maximum is ; average July minimum is . Ballarat has 55.2 clear days annually, with the grand majority in summer and early autumn. Ballarat has very rainy winters.
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