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Snowboarding at the Winter Olympics Snowboarding is a sport at the Winter Olympic Games. It was first included in the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan.[1] Snowboarding was one of five new sports or disciplines added to the Winter Olympic program between 1992 and 2002, and was the only one not to have been a previous medal or demonstration event.[2] In 1998, four events, two for men and two for women, were held in two specialities: the giant slalom, a downhill event similar to giant slalom skiing; and the half-pipe, in which competitors perform tricks while going from one side of a semi-circular ditch to the other.[2] Canadian Ross Rebagliati won the men's giant slalom and became the first athlete to win a gold medal in snowboarding.[3] Rebagliati was briefly stripped of his medal by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) after testing positive for marijuana. However, the IOC's decision was reverted following an appeal from the Canadian Olympic Association.[4] For the 2002 Winter Olympics, giant slalom was expanded to add head-to-head racing and was renamed parallel giant slalom.[5] In 2006, a third event, the snowboard cross, was held for the first time. In this event, competitors race against each other down a course with jumps, beams and other obstacles.[6] On July 11, 2011, the International Olympic Committee's Executive Board approved the addition of Ski and Snowboard Slopestyle to the Winter Olympics roster of events, effective in 2014. The decision was announced via press conference from the IOC's meeting in Durban, South Africa. A fifth event, parallel slalom, was added only for 2014. Big air was added for 2018.
Historiography of the May Revolution Historiographical studies of the May Revolution started in the second half of the 19th century in Argentina and have extended to modern day. All historiographical perspectives agree in considering the May Revolution as the turning point that gave birth to the modern nation of Argentina, and that the Revolution was unavoidable in 1810. The main topics of disagreement between Argentine historians are the specific weight of the diverse causes of the May Revolution, who were the leaders of it among the different involved parties, whenever there was popular support for it or not, and whenever the loyalty to the captive Spanish king Ferdinand VII was real or an elaborate masquerade to conceal pro-independence purposes.
Yes, the cells do have a high level of control in such processes. It's controlled levels of random collisions. We can see the manipulation of concentrations to favor the amino acid charged tRNA molecules' collisions by looking at the regulation and expression of the Trp operon and many other similar systems. Regulation based on molecular concentrations have an innate connection with the kinematics and "randomness" of intracellular interactions. The more molecules there are, the more likely there will be a constructive collision/interaction. The exploitation of the "statistics" at this scale (which are relatively easily manipulated through changing the concentrations of substrates within the cell) are far more efficient than other mechanisms for sequestering individual molecules.
Shane Bannon (born April 20, 1989) is a former American football fullback in the National Football League. He was drafted by the Chiefs out of Yale University in the seventh round (223rd pick overall) in the 2011 NFL Draft. Bannon is the first Yale Football player to be drafted by an NFL team since the Tampa Bay Buccaneers drafted tight end Nate Lawrie in the sixth round (181st pick overall) of the 2004 NFL Draft. The Chiefs waived Bannon on September 3, 2011. After he cleared waivers, he was signed to the Chiefs practice squad.
In medicine, an adverse effect is an undesired harmful effect resulting from a medication or other intervention such as surgery. An adverse effect may be termed a side effect, when judged to be secondary to a main or therapeutic effect. If it results from an unsuitable or incorrect dosage or procedure, this is called a medical error and not a complication.
A: Metformin is an oral diabetes medication that helps control blood glucose (sugar) levels. It is used to treat type 2 diabetes, either alone or in combination with insulin or other medications. Common side effects include headache, weakness, mild nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, gas, and stomach pain.: Metformin (glucophage) is a medication used to lower blood sugar in type 2 diabetes. The most common side effects with metformin are diarrhea, nausea/vomiting and gas. Other side effects with metformin include indigestion and abdominal discomfort.
Two-Fisted is a 1935 American comedy film directed by James Cruze and written by Sam Hellman , Francis Martin and Eddie Moran . The film stars Lee Tracy , Roscoe Karns , Gail Patrick , Kent Taylor , Grace Bradley and Billy Lee . The film was released on October 4 , 1935 , by Paramount Pictures .
The Dog Who Came in from the Cold is the second online novel by Alexander McCall Smith, author of the The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency series. In the first series, the author wrote a chapter a day, starting on 15 Sep 2008, the series running for 20 weeks and totalling 100 episodes. The daily chapters, read by Andrew Sachs were also available as an audio download.
If current trends continue, missiles will replace gun systems completely in "first line" service.[citation needed] Guns are being increasingly pushed into specialist roles, such as the Dutch Goalkeeper CIWS, which uses the GAU-8 Avenger 30 mm seven-barrel Gatling gun for last ditch anti-missile and anti-aircraft defence. Even this formerly front-line weapon is currently being replaced by new missile systems, such as the RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile, which is smaller, faster, and allows for mid-flight course correction (guidance) to ensure a hit. To bridge the gap between guns and missiles, Russia in particular produces the Kashtan CIWS, which uses both guns and missiles for final defence. Two six-barrelled 30 mm Gsh-6-30 Gatling guns and 9M311 surface-to-air missiles provide for its defensive capabilities.
The 348th Rifle Division was first formed in August, 1941, as a standard Red Army rifle division, at Kuibyshev. It was assigned to 60th Reserve Army shortly after forming and took part in the winter counteroffensive in front of Moscow. Until the end of 1942 it was involved in the dismal and costly battles around the Rzhev Salient, until it was shifted to take part in the equally difficult fighting around the Demyansk Salient. Both of these German positions were evacuated in March, 1943, and, after rebuilding, the division returned to the front to take part in the summer offensive along the Smolensk axis. During Operation Bagration the 348th distinguished itself in the liberation of Bobruisk, and received the name of that city as an honorific. Not long after it was also decorated for its role in the liberation of Bialystok. In 1945 it helped to liberate northern Poland during the Vistula-Oder Offensive, before being reassigned to 3rd Belorussian Front in East Prussia. In the last weeks of the war it formed part of the reserves of 1st Belorussian Front during the Berlin Operation.
Presidential Vehicles - Lyndon B Johnson National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service) Presidential Vehicles The Presidency of the United States is certainly a demanding job. The need for relaxation; to refresh one’s wholeness, is imperative for the tough days that lie ahead. President Johnson’s daily schedule was at the very least, exhausting. From early morning until long after sunset, Vietnam and his Great Society programs consumed his time and energy. On those occasions when he would have some free days he would retreat to his ranch in Stonewall, Texas. This is where he found the peace and serenity that was needed to recharge himself mentally, physically and spiritually. He particularly enjoyed his many vehicles; his presidential toys. Inspecting his ranch in one of his cherished Lincolns; the practical jokes on unsuspecting guests with his Amphicar; hitching up a couple of donkeys to his little wagon and making children smile; ringing the fire bell; yes, these were the types of simple pleasures that re-energized our 36th president. Oh, how he loved his vehicles! Lincoln Continental Convertibles These were the cars probably most associated with President Johnson. Here his Special Assistant, Joseph A. Califano, Jr recalls a ride with the President: In the early afternoon, the President, with me next to him in the front seat, took his white Lincoln convertible, top down, for a drive around the ranch. It was incredibly hot; the dust clouds made it hard to breathe. But there was relief. As we drove around we were followed by a car and a station wagon with Secret Service agents. The President drank Cutty Sark scotch and soda out of a large white plastic foam cup. Periodically, Johnson would slow down and hold his left arm outside the car, shaking the cup and ice. A Secret Service agent would run up to the car, take the cup and go back to the station wagon. There another agent would refill it with ice, scotch, and soda as the first agent trotted behind the wagon. Then the first agent would run the refilled cup up to LBJ’s outstretched and waiting hand, as the President’s car moved slowly along. 1915 Fire Truck The fire truck is a 1915-type 12 American La France given to the President by the people of Brady, Texas in 1964. When it was new it carried 1200 feet of standard fire hose and could deliver 1000 gallons of water per minute at any pressure desired up to 400 pounds per square inch. It is electrically equipped throughout, having lights near each gauge on the pump and around the motor, as well as an electric starter. The motor is a six cylinder and provides 105 horsepower. 1934 Ford Phaeton President Johnson used his 1934 Ford Phaeton touring car for hunting. It's equipped with a V8 Lincoln Zepher engine and a steel plate underneath to prevent damage when going over rough terrain. It was a maroon color with tan upholstery until 1962 when it was repainted red. A bar with running water is mounted on back of the front seat. V.I.P.’s to ride in this car include Hubert Humphrey, Dean Rusk, and Robert McNamara. The car is believed to have been given to the President by Wesly West. Amphicar Built in Germany from 1961 to 1968, the Amphicar is the only civilian amphibious passenger automobile ever to be mass produced. A total of 3,878 vehicles were produced in four colors: Beach White, Regatta Red, Fjord Green (Aqua), and Lagoon Blue--the color of President Johnson's Amphicar. President Johnson enjoyed surprising unsuspecting guests when taking them for a ride in his Amphicar. The President, with Vicky McCammon in the seat alongside him and me in the back,was now driving around in a small blue car with the top down. We reached a steep incline at the edge of the lake and the car started rolling rapidly toward the water. The President shouted, "The brakes don’t work! The brakes won’t hold! We’re going in! We’re going under!" The car splashed into the water. I started to get out. Just then the car leveled and I realized we were in a Amphicar. The President laughed. As we putted along the lake then (and throughou
All India Services The All India Services (AIS) comprises Civil Services of India, namely the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), the Indian Forest Service (IFS) and the Indian Police Service (IPS) .[1] A common unique feature of the All India Services is that the members of these services are recruited by the Centre(Union government in federal polity), but their services are placed under various State cadres, and they have the liability to serve both under the State and under the Centre.[1] Due to the federal polity of the country, this is considered one of the tools that makes union government stronger than state governments. Officers of these three services comply to the All India Services Rules relating to pay, conduct, leave, various allowances etc.[2]
Program Notes for Symphonie fantastique Program Notes for Symphonie fantastique Sept 25 - 27 Overture to Fidelio, Op. 72 Concerto No. 2 for Piano and Orchestra Allegro Dream of the Witches’ Sabbath Overture to Fidelio, Op. 72 Timing: approx. 6 min. Instrumentation: 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 2 trombones, timpani, strings CSO SUBSCRIPTION PERFORMANCES Premiere: December 1920, Eugene Ysaÿe conducting Most Recent: September 2007, Paavo Järvi conducting Beethoven was born on December 16, 1770 in Bonn and died on March 26, 1827 in Vienna. The Fidelio Overture, the last of the four he composed for the opera, was written in 1814 as part of the work’s final version, which began its run at Vienna’s Kärntnertor Theater on May 23; the Overture was not finished for the first performance, however, and was premiered two days later, under the composer’s direction. The decade (1804–1814) that Beethoven devoted to his only opera, Fidelio, was an unprecedented amount of time to spend perfecting such a work during the early 19th century. Given the same time span, Rossini dispensed 31 (!) operas between 1810 and 1820, and Donizetti cranked out 35 (!!) specimens of the genre from 1827 to 1837. Even Mozart launched seven operas during his decade in Vienna. For Beethoven, however, Fidelio was more than just a mere theatrical diversion—it was his philosophy set to music. This story of the triumph of justice over tyranny and love over inhumanity was a document of his faith. To present such grandiose beliefs in a work that would not fully serve them was unthinkable, and so Beethoven hammered and rewrote and changed until he was satisfied. In his book The Interior Beethoven, Irving Kolodin noted: As tended to be the life-long case with Beethoven, the overriding consideration remained: achievement of the objective. How long it might take or how much effort might be required was not merely incidental—such consideration was all but nonexistent. The most visible remnants of Beethoven’s extensive revisions are the quartet of overtures he composed for Fidelio, the only instance in the history of music in which a composer generated so many curtain-raisers for a single opera. The first version of the opera, written between January 1804 and early autumn 1805, was initially titled Leonore after the heroine, who courageously rescues her husband from his wrongful incarceration. For this production, Beethoven wrote the Overture in C Major now known as the Leonore No. 1, using themes from the opera. The composer’s friend and early biographer Anton Schindler recorded that Beethoven rejected this first attempt after hearing it privately performed at Prince Lichnowsky’s palace before the premiere. (Another theory, supported by recent detailed examination of the paper on which the sketches for the piece were made, holds that this work was written in 1806–07 for a projected performance of the opera in Prague that never took place, thus making Leonore No. 1 the third of the Fidelio overtures.) He composed a second C major overture, Leonore No. 2, and this piece was used at the first performance, on November 20, 1805. (The management of Vienna’s Theatre an der Wien, site of the premiere, insisted on changing the opera’s name from Leonore to Fidelio to avoid confusion with Ferdinand Paër’s Leonore.) The opera foundered. Not only was the audience unsympathetic—it was largely populated by French officers of Napoleon’s army, which had invaded Vienna exactly one week earlier—but there were also problems in Fidelio’s dramatic structure. Beethoven was encouraged by his aristocratic supporters to rework the opera and present it again. This second version, for which the magnificent Leonore Overture No. 3 was written, was presented in Vienna on March 29, 1806, but met with only slightly more acclaim than its forerunner. In 1814, some members of the Court Theater approached Beethoven, by then Europe’s most famous composer, about reviving Fidelio. The idealistic subject of the opera had never been far from his thoughts,
Floor Thirteen is a Canadian alternative rock band formed in Winnipeg in 1998 . The band has always classified their music as `` rock and roll '' and their 1960s and 1970s influenced yet modern sound have often been compared to bands such as AC/DC , Led Zeppelin , Mötley Crüe , Jet , and Wolfmother .
Boston Terrier The Boston Terrier is a breed of dog originating in the United States. This "American Gentleman" was accepted in 1893 by the American Kennel Club as a non-sporting breed.[2] Color and markings are important when distinguishing this breed to the AKC standard. They should be either black, brindle or seal with white markings.[3][4] Bostons are small and compact with a short tail and erect ears. The AKC says they are highly intelligent and very easily trained.[5] They are friendly and can be stubborn at times. The average life span of a Boston is around 11 to 13 years, though some can live well into their teens.[6]
KETV, virtual channel 7 (UHF digital channel 20), is an ABC-affiliated television station licensed to Omaha, Nebraska, United States and also serving Council Bluffs, Iowa. The station is owned by the Hearst Television subsidiary of the Hearst Corporation and its studios are located on 10th Street in the historic Burlington Station; the building carries the address of 7 Burlington Station. The transmitter is located on a "tower farm" near North 72nd Street and Crown Point Avenue in north-central Omaha.
Journey to Spirit Island is a 1988 U.S. Emmy Award-winning family adventure film directed by Lásló Pal , produced by Bruce Clark , with a screenplay by Crane Webster from a story by Lásló Pal and Crane Webster . `` Journey to Spirit Island '' stars Bettina Bush , Brandon Douglas and Marie Antoinette Rodgers . The cinematography is by the Oscar-winning Vilmos Zsigmond . On the Olympic Peninsula and a nearby , unspoilt San Juan island ; a young Native American girl , her brother and their two new friends battle land developers determined to build a holiday resort on the sacred burial site that is Spirit Island .
The history of the United States from 1964 through 1980 includes the climax and victory of the Civil Rights Movement ; the escalation and ending of the Vietnam War ; Second wave feminism ; the drama of a generational revolt with its sexual freedoms and use of drugs ; and the continuation of the Cold War , with its Space Race to put a man on the Moon . The economy was prosperous and expanding until the recession of 1969-70 , then faltered under new foreign competition and the 1973 oil crisis . American society was polarized by the ultimately futile war and by antiwar and antidraft protests , as well as by the shocking Watergate affair , which revealed corruption and gross misconduct at the highest level of government . By 1980 and the seizure of the American Embassy in Iran , including a failed rescue attempt by U.S. armed forces , there was a growing sense of national malaise . The period closed with the victory of conservative Republican Ronald Reagan , opening the `` Age of Reagan '' with a dramatic change in national direction . The Democratic Party split over the Vietnam War and other foreign policy issues , with a new strong dovish element based on younger voters . Many otherwise liberal Democratic `` hawks '' joined the Neoconservative movement and started supporting the Republicans -- especially Reagan -- based on foreign policy . Meanwhile Republicans were generally united on a hawkish and intense American nationalism , strong opposition to Communism , and strong support for Israel . Memories of the 1960s shaped the political landscape for the next half-century . As Governor of Arkansas Bill Clinton explained in 1990 , `` If you look back on the Sixties and think there was more good than bad , you 're probably a Democrat . If you think there was more harm than good , you 're probably a Republican . ''
In studying adolescent development, adolescence can be defined biologically, as the physical transition marked by the onset of puberty and the termination of physical growth; cognitively, as changes in the ability to think abstractly and multi-dimensionally; or socially, as a period of preparation for adult roles. Major pubertal and biological changes include changes to the sex organs, height, weight, and muscle mass, as well as major changes in brain structure and organization. Cognitive advances encompass both increases in knowledge and in the ability to think abstractly and to reason more effectively. The study of adolescent development often involves interdisciplinary collaborations. For example, researchers in neuroscience or bio-behavioral health might focus on pubertal changes in brain structure and its effects on cognition or social relations. Sociologists interested in adolescence might focus on the acquisition of social roles (e.g., worker or romantic partner) and how this varies across cultures or social conditions. Developmental psychologists might focus on changes in relations with parents and peers as a function of school structure and pubertal status.
Varendra rebellion The Varendra rebellion (also known as the Kaivarta revolt) means the revolt against King Mahipala II led by Divya.[1] It is known as not only the first successful rebellion of Bengal but also of Indian Subcontinent. The Kaivarta were able to capture Varendra by this rebellion. Later on, in 1082 CE, King Rampala was succeed to recapture his fatherland Varendra by defeating Vim with the assistance of neighboring vassals. Thus, the first revolt of rebellious Kaibarta came to an end.[2]
Burrito bowl with chicken, fajita veggies, lettuce, tomato salsa, corn salsa, and guacamole. The total calorie count for this meal is 465âand I often canât finish the entire dish because itâs so filling!uckily, most fast food chains like Chipotle now have nutrition calculators available on their websites that help you figure out how many calories and fat are in a meal. So before ordering with the group, I always check Chipotleâs online nutrition calculator to carefully craft my meal.
Before the beginning of astronomical twilight in the morning and after the end of astronomical twilight in the evening the Sun does not contribute to sky illumination; for a considerable interval after the beginning of morning twilight and before the end of evening twilight, sky illumination is so faint that it is practically imperceptible.
Because your post isn't asking a simplified conceptual explanation, but rather for an answer, it has been removed. You should try /r/answers, /r/askreddit or even one of the more specialized answers subreddits like /r/askhistorians, /r/askscience or others too numerous and varied to mention. Rest assured this doesn't make your question bad, it just makes it more appropriate for another subreddit. Good luck!
1 While both hourly and by-the-project rates do have a wide range of pricing, monthly retainers are certainly the most distributed of the price questions asked in our survey. 2 The two most common were $251-$500/month (13.8%) and $2,501-$5,000/month (11.3%). Pure SEO consultants/agencies may be fading as broader inbound marketing services firms (offering SEO, social, content, conversion, analytics, etc) rise. 2 The data showed 150 respondents (25%) saying they were primarily focused on SEO while a slightly greater number, 160 (26.7%), offered a broader range.
When Will I Feel My Baby Kicking? You should feel your baby's first movements, called quickening, between weeks 16 and 25 of your pregnancy. If this is your first pregnancy, you may not feel your baby move until closer to 25 weeks. By the second pregnancy, some women start to feel movements as early as 13 weeks. You're more likely to feel baby move when you're in a quiet position, either sitting or lying down. What Does the Baby's Kicking Feel Like?
The meaning of mandala comes from Sanskrit meaning circle.. Even though it may be dominated by squares or triangles, a mandala has a concentric structure. Mandalas offer balancing visual elements, symbolizing unity and harmony.The meanings of individual mandalas is usually different and unique to each mandala.he meaning of mandala comes from Sanskrit meaning circle.. Even though it may be dominated by squares or triangles, a mandala has a concentric structure. Mandalas offer balancing visual elements, symbolizing unity and harmony.
1994 FIFA World Cup (USA '94) - U.S. Soccer U.S. Soccer Licensees World Cup USA 1994 was the most successful event in FIFA history, demonstrating that the United States is without peer in staging major international events, and that Americans can embrace the world’s most popular sport. The cumulative attendance of 3,587,538 broke the previous record by more than 1 million, and the average attendance for the 52-game tournament of 68,991 also established a new mark. U.S. stadia were filled to approximately 96 percent capacity during the World Cup. The success of the U.S. team, which advanced to the round of 16 for the first time since 1930, helped boost already high U.S. television ratings. Approximately 11 million Americans were tuned in to the USA vs. Brazil round of 16 match on July 4, an all-time high for soccer in the United States. In the final, after a scoreless regulation and overtime, Brazil defeated Italy on penalty kicks 3-2 to become the first country to win four World Cup titles. World Cup matches were played at nine venues — the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, Calif. (including the final); Foxboro (Mass.) Stadium; Soldier Field in Chicago; the Cotton Bowl in Dallas; the Pontiac (Mich.) Silverdome; Giants Stadium in East Rutherford, N.J.; the Citrus Bowl in Orlando, Fla.; Stanford Stadium in Palo Alto, Calif.; and RFK Stadium in Washington, D.C. World Cup USA 1994 also left behind a legacy for soccer in the U.S. A surplus of approximately $50 million — more than double original projections — was contributed to the U.S. Soccer Foundation, the U.S. Soccer organization created to administer the World Cup surplus. Improved training facilities and renovated stadiums in World Cup communities, upgraded to meet FIFA standards, will serve as a reminder of the success of World Cup USA 1994 for years to come. Follow Us
Summer Lovers is a 1982 American romantic comedy film written and directed by Randal Kleiser, starring Peter Gallagher, Daryl Hannah and Valerie Quennessen. It was filmed on location on the island of Santorini, Greece. The original music score is composed by Basil Poledouris. "Summer Lovers" featured "Hard to Say I'm Sorry", a No. 1 hit for Chicago and "I'm So Excited" by The Pointer Sisters.
Straits State Park is a state park in the U.S. state of Michigan located in St. Ignace, Mackinac County, on the northern shore of the Straits of Mackinac. The Father Marquette National Memorial and park is also located within the state park boundaries. The park is equipped with 255 campsites and offers several ideal locations for viewing the Mackinac Bridge.
Powers of the President of the United States The Constitution explicitly assigned the president the power to sign or veto legislation, command the armed forces, ask for the written opinion of their Cabinet, convene or adjourn Congress, grant reprieves and pardons, and receive ambassadors. The president may make treaties which need to be ratified by two-thirds of the Senate. The president may also appoint Article III judges and some officers with the advice and consent of the U.S. Senate. In the condition of a Senate recess, the president may make a temporary appointment.
List of Super Bowl champions The Pittsburgh Steelers (6–2) have won the most Super Bowls with six championships, while the New England Patriots (5–5), the Dallas Cowboys (5–3), and the San Francisco 49ers (5–1) have five wins. New England has the most Super Bowl appearances with ten, while the Buffalo Bills (0–4) have the most consecutive appearances with four (all losses) from 1990 to 1993. The Miami Dolphins are the only other team to have at least three consecutive appearances: 1972–1974. The Denver Broncos (3–5) and Patriots have each lost a record five Super Bowls. The Minnesota Vikings (0–4) and the Bills have lost four. The record for consecutive wins is two and is shared by seven franchises: the Green Bay Packers (1966–1967), the Miami Dolphins (1972–1973), the Pittsburgh Steelers (1974–1975 and 1978–1979, the only team to accomplish this feat twice), the San Francisco 49ers (1988–1989), the Dallas Cowboys (1992–1993), the Denver Broncos (1997–1998), and the New England Patriots (2003–2004). Among those, Dallas (1992–1993; 1995) and New England (2001; 2003–2004) are the only teams to win three out of four consecutive Super Bowls. The 1972 Dolphins capped off the only perfect season in NFL history with their victory in Super Bowl VII. The only team with multiple Super Bowl appearances and no losses is the Baltimore Ravens, who in winning Super Bowl XLVII defeated and replaced the 49ers in that position. Four current NFL teams have never appeared in a Super Bowl, including franchise relocations and renaming: the Cleveland Browns, Detroit Lions, Jacksonville Jaguars, and Houston Texans, though both the Browns (1964) and Lions (1957) had won NFL championship games prior to the creation of the Super Bowl.
Boudin Blanc Description. The term boudin comes from the French word boud meaning cold cut. It is a general name for various types of sausages from French, German, Acadian, Belgian, Creole, Cajun and Quebec cuisine. The term blanc pertains to the white color of the sausage. Boudin blanc is a type of white sausage that can be found in both France and Louisiana. First made in the town of Rethel in the Champagne Ardenne region of France, this is a traditional specialty sausage eaten during festive occasions such as Christmas.
Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics. The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke, and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom. The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu. As deists, they were influenced by ideas of John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733). During the Enlightenment there was a great emphasis upon liberty, democracy, republicanism and religious tolerance. Attempts to reconcile science and religion resulted in a widespread rejection of prophecy, miracle and revealed religion in preference for Deism – especially by Thomas Paine in The Age of Reason and by Thomas Jefferson in his short Jefferson Bible – from which all supernatural aspects were removed.
Fire bricks nay be called by various definitions. It depends on who works with them, names them too. fire brick = fire-clay brick = refractory brick = chamotte brick = fireplace brick = heat resistant brick = chimney brick = dense/heavy kiln brick (for building kilns) = industrial ceramic brick (heavy).
It is not an absolute right, however, since the possessor of the right of way is not relieved from the duty of exercising due care for her own safety and that of others. 1 West's Encyclopedia of American Law, edition 2. 2 Copyright Â© 1981-2005 by Gerald N. Hill and Kathleen T. Hill. 3 Burton's Legal Thesaurus, 4E.
Phosphorus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search This article is about the chemical element. For other uses, see Phosphorus (disambiguation). Phosphorus, 15 Pwaxy white (yellow cut), red (granules centre left, chunk centre right), and violet phosphorus General properties Pronunciation / ˈ f ɒ s f ər ə s / ( FOS -fər-əs)Appearance Colourless, waxy white, yellow, scarlet, red, violet, black Standard atomic weight ( A r, standard)30.973 761 998 (5) [1]Abundancein the Earth's crust 5.2 (taking silicon as 100)Phosphorus in the periodic table Hydrogen Helium Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson N ↑ P ↓ Assilicon ← phosphorus → sulfur Atomic number ( Z) 15Group group 15 (pnictogens)Period period 3Element category polyatomic nonmetal Block p-block Electron configuration [ Ne] 3s 2 3p 3Electrons per shell 2, 8, 5Physical properties Phase at STP solid Density (near r.t.) white: 1.823 g·cm −3 red: ≈ 2.2–2.34 g·cm −3 violet: 2.36 g·cm −3 black: 2.69 g/cm 3Heat of fusion white: 0.66 k J/mol Heat of vaporisation white: 51.9 k J/mol Molar heat capacity white: 23.824 J/ (mol·K)Vapour pressure (white)P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 kat T (K) 279 307 342 388 453 549Vapour pressure (red, b.p. 431 °C)P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 kat T (K) 455 489 529 576 635 704Atomic properties Oxidation states 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, [2] −1, −2, −3 (a mildly acidic oxide)Electronegativity Pauling scale: 2.19Ionisation energies1st: 1011.8 k J/mol2nd: 1907 k J/mol3rd: 2914.1 k J/mol ( more)Covalent radius 107±3 pm Van der Waals radius 180 pm Spectral lines Miscellanea Crystal structure body-centred cubic (bcc)Thermal conductivity white: 0.236 W/ (m·K) black: 12.1 W/ (m·K)Magnetic ordering white, red, violet, black: diamagnetic [3]Magnetic susceptibility −20.8·10 −6 cm 3 /mol (293 K) [4]Bulk modulus white: 5 GPa red: 11 GPa CAS Number 7723-14-0 (red) 12185-10-3 (white)History Discovery Hennig Brand (1669)Recognised as an element by Antoine Lavoisier [5] (1777)Main isotopes of phosphorus Isotope Abundance Half-life ( t 1/2)Decay mode Product31 P 100% stable32 P trace 14.28 d β − 32S33 P trace 25.3 d β − 33Sview talk edit\| references \| in Wikidata Phosphorus is a chemical element with symbol P and atomic number 15. As an element, phosphorus exists in two major forms, white phosphorus and red phosphorus, but because it is highly reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Earth. With a concentration of 0.099%, phosphorus is the most abundant pnictogen in the Earth's crust. Other than a few exceptions, minerals containing phosphorus are in the maximally oxidized state as inorganic phosphate rocks. The first form of elemental phosphorus that was produced (white phosphorus, in 1669) emits a faint glow when exposed to oxygen – hence the name, taken from Greek mythology, Φωσφόρος meaning "light-bearer" (Latin Lucifer ), referring to the " Morning Star ", the planet Venus (or Mercury ). The term " phosphorescence ", meaning glow after illumination, originally derives from this property of phosphorus, although this word has since been used for a different physical process that produces a glow. The glow of phosphorus itself originates from oxidation of the white (but not red) phosphorus — a process now termed chemiluminescence. Together with nitrogen, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, phosphorus is classified as a pnictogen. Phosphorus is essential for life. Phosphates (compounds containing the phosphate ion, PO 4 3−) are a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and phospholipids. Elemental phosphorus was first isolated from human urine, and bone ash was an important early phosphate source. Phosphate mines contain fossils because phosphate is present in the fossilized deposits of animal remains and excreta. Low phosphate levels are an important limit to growth in some aquatic systems. The vast majority of phosphorus compounds produced are consumed as fertilisers. Phosphate is needed to replace the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, and its annual demand is rising nearly twice as fast as the growth of the human population. Other applications include organophosphorus compounds in detergents, pesticides, and nerve agents. Contents1 Characteristics1.1 Allotropes1.2 Chemiluminescence1.3 Isotopes2 Occurrence2.1 Universe2.2 Crust and organic sources3 Compounds3.1 Phosphorus (V)3.2 Phosphorus (III)3.3 Phosphorus (I) and phosphorus (II)3.4 Phosphides and phosphines3.5 Oxoacids3.6 Nitrides3.7 Sulfides3.8 Organophosphorus compounds4 History4.1 Discovery4.2 Bone ash and guano4.3 Phosphate rock4.4 Incendiaries5 Production5.1 Peak phosphorus5.2 Elemental phosphorus6 Applications6.1 Fertiliser6.2 Organophosphorus6.3 Metallurgical aspects6.4 Matches6.5 Water softening6.6 Miscellaneous7 Biological role7.1 Bone and teeth enamel7.2 Phosphorus deficiency7.3 Dietary recommendations7.4 Food sources8 Precautions8.1 US DEA List I status9 Notes10 References11 Bibliography Characteristics Allotropes Main article: Allotropes of phosphorus White phosphorus exposed to air glows in the dark Crystal structure of red phosphorus Crystal structure of black phosphorus Phosphorus has several allotropes that exhibit strikingly different properties. [6] The two most common allotropes are white phosphorus and red phosphorus. [7]From the perspective of applications and chemical literature, the most important form of elemental phosphorus is white phosphorus, often abbreviated as WP. It is a soft and waxy solid which consists of tetrahedral P 4 molecules, in which each atom is bound to the other three atoms by a single bond. This P 4 tetrahedron is also present in liquid and gaseous phosphorus up to the temperature of 800 °C (1,470 °F) when it starts decomposing to P 2 molecules. [8] White phosphorus exists in two crystalline forms: α (alpha) and β (beta). At room temperature, the α-form is stable, which is more common and it has cubic crystal structure and at 195.2 K (−78.0 °C), it transforms into β-form, which has hexagonal crystal structure. These forms differ in terms of the relative orientations of the constituent P 4 tetrahedra. [9] [10]White phosphorus is the least stable, the most reactive, the most volatile, the least dense, and the most toxic of the allotropes. White phosphorus gradually changes to red phosphorus. This transformation is accelerated by light and heat, and samples of white phosphorus almost always contain some red phosphorus and accordingly appear yellow. For this reason, white phosphorus that is aged or otherwise impure (e.g., weapons-grade, not lab-grade WP) is also called yellow phosphorus. When exposed to oxygen, white phosphorus glows in the dark with a very faint tinge of green and blue. It is highly flammable and pyrophoric (self-igniting) upon contact with air. Owing to its pyrophoricity, white phosphorus is used as an additive in napalm. The odour of combustion of this form has a characteristic garlic smell, and samples are commonly coated with white " phosphorus pentoxide ", which consists of P 4O 10 tetrahedra with oxygen inserted between the phosphorus atoms and at their vertices. White phosphorus is insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulfide. [11]Thermolysis of P 4 at 1100 kelvin gives diphosphorus, P 2. This species is not stable as a solid or liquid. The dimeric unit contains a triple bond and is analogous to N 2. It can also be generated as a transient intermediate in solution by thermolysis of organophosphorus precursor reagents. [12] At still higher temperatures, P 2 dissociates into atomic P. [11]Red phosphorus is polymeric in structure. It can be viewed as a derivative of P 4 wherein one P-P bond is broken, and one additional bond is formed with the neighbouring tetrahedron resulting in a chain-like structure. Red phosphorus may be formed by heating white phosphorus to 250 °C (482 °F) or by exposing white phosphorus to sunlight. [13] Phosphorus after this treatment is amorphous. Upon further heating, this material crystallises. In this sense, red phosphorus is not an allotrope, but rather an intermediate phase between the white and violet phosphorus, and most of its properties have a range of values. For example, freshly prepared, bright red phosphorus is highly reactive and ignites at about 300 °C (572 °F), [14] though it is more stable than white phosphorus, which ignites at about 30 °C (86 °F). [15] After prolonged heating or storage, the color darkens (see infobox images); the resulting product is more stable and does not spontaneously ignite in air. [16]Violet phosphorus is a form of phosphorus that can be produced by day-long annealing of red phosphorus above 550 °C. In 1865, Hittorf discovered that when phosphorus was recrystallised from molten lead, a red/purple form is obtained. Therefore, this form is sometimes known as "Hittorf's phosphorus" (or violet or α-metallic phosphorus). [17]Black phosphorus is the least reactive allotrope and the thermodynamically stable form below 550 °C (1,022 °F). It is also known as β-metallic phosphorus and has a structure somewhat resembling that of graphite. [18] [19] It is obtained by heating white phosphorus under high pressures (about 12,000 standard atmospheres or 1.2 gigapascals). It can also be produced at ambient conditions using metal salts, e.g. mercury, as catalysts. [20] In appearance, properties, and structure, it resembles graphite, being black and flaky, a conductor of electricity, and has puckered sheets of linked atoms. [21]Another form, scarlet phosphorus, is obtained by allowing a solution of white phosphorus in carbon disulfide to evaporate in sunlight. [17]Properties of some allotropes of phosphorus [6] [17]Form white (α) white (β) violet black Symmetry Body-centred cubic Triclinic Monoclinic Orthorhombic Pearson symbol a P24 m P84 o S8Space group I 4 3m P 1 No.2 P2/c No.13 Cmca No.64Density (g/cm 3) 1.828 1.88 2.36 2.69Band gap (e V) 2.1 1.5 0.34Refractive index 1.8244 2.6 2.4Chemiluminescence It was known from early times that the green glow emanating from white phosphorus would persist for a time in a stoppered jar, but then cease. Robert Boyle in the 1680s ascribed it to "debilitation" of the air; in fact, it is oxygen being consumed. By the 18th century, it was known that in pure oxygen, phosphorus does not glow at all; [22] there is only a range of partial pressures at which it does. Heat can be applied to drive the reaction at higher pressures. [23]In 1974, the glow was explained by R. J. van Zee and A. U. Khan. [24] [25] A reaction with oxygen takes place at the surface of the solid (or liquid) phosphorus, forming the short-lived molecules HPO and P 2O 2 that both emit visible light. The reaction is slow and only very little of the intermediates are required to produce the luminescence, hence the extended time the glow continues in a stoppered jar. Since that time, phosphors and phosphorescence were used loosely to describe substances that shine in the dark without burning. Although the term phosphorescence is derived from phosphorus, the reaction that gives phosphorus its glow is properly called chemiluminescence (glowing due to a cold chemical reaction), not phosphorescence (re-emitting light that previously fell onto a substance and excited it). [26]Isotopes Main article: Isotopes of phosphorus Twenty-three isotopes of phosphorus are known, [27] including all possibilities from 24P up to 46P. Only 31P is stable and is therefore present at 100% abundance. The half-integer nuclear spin and high abundance of 31 P make phosphorus-31 NMR spectroscopy a very useful analytical tool in studies of phosphorus-containing samples. Two radioactive isotopes of phosphorus have half-lives suitable for biological scientific experiments. These are:32P, a beta -emitter (1.71 Me V) with a half-life of 14.3 days, which is used routinely in life-science laboratories, primarily to produce radiolabeled DNA and RNA probes, e.g. for use in Northern blots or Southern blots.33P, a beta-emitter (0.25 Me V) with a half-life of 25.4 days. It is used in life-science laboratories in applications in which lower energy beta emissions are advantageous such as DNA sequencing. The high energy beta particles from 32P penetrate skin and corneas and any 32P ingested, inhaled, or absorbed is readily incorporated into bone and nucleic acids. For these reasons, Occupational Safety and Health Administration in the United States, and similar institutions in other developed countries require personnel working with 32P to wear lab coats, disposable gloves, and safety glasses or goggles to protect the eyes, and avoid working directly over open containers. Monitoring personal, clothing, and surface contamination is also required. Shielding requires special consideration. The high energy of the beta particles gives rise to secondary emission of X-rays via Bremsstrahlung (braking radiation) in dense shielding materials such as lead. Therefore, the radiation must be shielded with low density materials such as acrylic or other plastic, water, or (when transparency is not required), even wood. [28]Occurrence See also: Category: Phosphate minerals. Universe In 2013, astronomers detected phosphorus in Cassiopeia A, which confirmed that this element is produced in supernovae as a byproduct of supernova nucleosynthesis. The phosphorus-to- iron ratio in material from the supernova remnant could be up to 100 times higher than in the Milky Way in general. [29]Crust and organic sources At 0.099%, phosphorus is the most abundant pnictogen in the Earth's crust but it is not found free in nature; it is widely distributed in many minerals, mainly phosphates. [7] Inorganic phosphate rock, which is partially made of apatite (a group of minerals being, generally, pentacalcium triorthophosphate fluoride (hydroxide)), is today the chief commercial source of this element. According to the US Geological Survey (USGS), about 50 percent of the global phosphorus reserves are in the Arab nations. [30] Large deposits of apatite are located in China, Russia, Morocco, [31] Florida, Idaho, Tennessee, Utah, and elsewhere. [32] Albright and Wilson in the UK and their Niagara Falls plant, for instance, were using phosphate rock in the 1890s and 1900s from Tennessee, Florida, and the Îles du Connétable ( guano island sources of phosphate); by 1950, they were using phosphate rock mainly from Tennessee and North Africa. [33]Organic sources, namely urine, bone ash and (in the latter 19th century) guano, were historically of importance but had only limited commercial success. [34] As urine contains phosphorus, it has fertilising qualities which are still harnessed today in some countries, including Sweden, using methods for reuse of excreta. To this end, urine can be used as a fertiliser in its pure form or part of being mixed with water in the form of sewage or sewage sludge. Compounds See also: Category: Phosphorus compounds. Phosphorus (V)The tetrahedral structure of P 4 O 10 and P 4 S 10. The most prevalent compounds of phosphorus are derivatives of phosphate (PO 4 3− ), a tetrahedral anion. [35] Phosphate is the conjugate base of phosphoric acid, which is produced on a massive scale for use in fertilisers. Being triprotic, phosphoric acid converts stepwise to three conjugate bases: H 3 PO 4 + H 2 O ⇌ H 3 O + + H 2 PO 4 − K a1 = 7.25×10 −3H 2 PO 4 − + H 2 O ⇌ H 3 O + + HPO 4 2− K a2 = 6.31×10 −8HPO 4 2− + H 2 O ⇌ H 3 O + + PO 4 3− K a3 = 3.98×10 −13Phosphate exhibits the tendency to form chains and rings with P-O-P bonds. Many polyphosphates are known, including ATP. Polyphosphates arise by dehydration of hydrogen phosphates such as HPO 4 2− and H 2 PO 4 −. For example, the industrially important trisodium triphosphate (also known as sodium tripolyphosphate, STPP) is produced industrially on by the megatonne by this condensation reaction:2 Na 2 [ (HO)PO 3] + Na [ (HO) 2 PO 2] → Na 5 [O 3 P-O-P (O) 2 -O-PO 3] + 2 H 2 OPhosphorus pentoxide (P 4 O 10) is the acid anhydride of phosphoric acid, but several intermediates between the two are known. This waxy white solid reacts vigorously with water. With metal cations, phosphate forms a variety of salts. These solids are polymeric, featuring P-O-M linkages. When the metal cation has a charge of 2+ or 3+, the salts are generally insoluble, hence they exist as common minerals. Many phosphate salts are derived from hydrogen phosphate (HPO 4 2− ). PCl 5 and PF 5 are common compounds. PF 5 is a colourless gas and the molecules have trigonal bypramidal geometry. PCl 5 is a colourless solid which has an ionic formulation of PCl 4 + PCl 6 −, but adopts the trigonal bypramidal geometry when molten or in the vapour phase. [11] PBr 5 is an unstable solid formulated as PBr 4 + Br − and PI 5 is not known. [11] The pentachloride and pentafluoride are Lewis acids. With fluoride, PF 5 forms PF 6 −, an anion that is isoelectronic with SF 6. The most important oxyhalide is phosphorus oxychloride, (POCl 3 ), which is approximately tetrahedral. Before extensive computer calculations were feasible, it was thought that bonding in phosphorus (V) compounds involved d orbitals. Computer modeling of molecular orbital theory indicates that this bonding involves only s- and p-orbitals. [36]Phosphorus (III)All four symmetrical trihalides are well known: gaseous PF 3, the yellowish liquids PCl 3 and PBr 3, and the solid PI 3. These materials are moisture sensitive, hydrolysing to give phosphorous acid. The trichloride, a common reagent, is produced by chlorination of white phosphorus: P 4 + 6 Cl 2 → 4 PCl 3The trifluoride is produced from the trichloride by halide exchange. PF 3 is toxic because it binds to haemoglobin. Phosphorus (III) oxide, P 4 O 6 (also called tetraphosphorus hexoxide) is the anhydride of P (OH) 3, the minor tautomer of phosphorous acid. The structure of P 4 O 6 is like that of P 4 O 10 without the terminal oxide groups. Phosphorus (I) and phosphorus (II)A stable diphosphene, a derivative of phosphorus (I). These compounds generally feature P-P bonds. [11] Examples include catenated derivatives of phosphine and organophosphines. Compounds containing P=P double bonds have also been observed, although they are rare. Phosphides and phosphines Phosphides arise by reaction of metals with red phosphorus. The alkali metals (group 1) and alkaline earth metals can form ionic compounds containing the phosphide ion, P 3−. These compounds react with water to form phosphine. Other phosphides, for example Na 3 P 7, are known for these reactive metals. With the transition metals as well as the monophosphides there are metal rich phosphides, which are generally hard refractory compounds with a metallic lustre, and phosphorus rich phosphides which are less stable and include semiconductors. [37]Schreibersite is a naturally occurring metal rich phosphide found in meteorites. The structures of the metal rich and phosphorus rich phosphides can be structurally complex. Phosphine (PH 3) and its organic derivatives (PR 3) are structural analogues with ammonia (NH 3) but the bond angles at phosphorus are closer to 90° for phosphine and its organic derivatives. It is an ill-smelling, toxic compound. Phosphorus has an oxidation number of -3 in phosphine. Phosphine is produced by hydrolysis of calcium phosphide, Ca 3 P 2. Unlike ammonia, phosphine is oxidised by air. Phosphine is also far less basic than ammonia. Other phophines are known which contain chains of up to nine phosphorus atoms and have the formula P n H n+2. [11] The highly flammable gas diphosphine (P 2 H 4) is an analogue of hydrazine. Oxoacids Phosphorous oxoacids are extensive, often commercially important, and sometimes structurally complicated. They all have acidic protons bound to oxygen atoms, some have nonacidic protons that are bonded directly to phosphorus and some contain phosphorus - phosphorus bonds. [11] Although many oxoacids of phosphorus are formed, only nine are important, and three of them, hypophosphorous acid, phosphorous acid, and phosphoric acid, are particularly important. Oxidation state Formula Name Acidic protons Compounds+1 HH 2 PO 2 hypophosphorous acid 1 acid, salts+3 H 2 HPO 3 phosphorous acid 2 acid, salts+3 HPO 2 metaphosphorous acid 1 salts+3 H 3 PO 3 (ortho) phosphorous acid 3 acid, salts+4 H 4 P 2 O 6 hypophosphoric acid 4 acid, salts+5 (HPO 3) n metaphosphoric acids n salts (n=3,4,6)+5 H (HPO 3) n OH polyphosphoric acids n+2 acids, salts (n=1-6)+5 H 5 P 3 O 10 tripolyphosphoric acid 3 salts+5 H 4 P 2 O 7 pyrophosphoric acid 4 acid, salts+5 H 3 PO 4 (ortho) phosphoric acid 3 acid, salts Nitrides The PN molecule is considered unstable, but is a product of crystalline phosphorus nitride decomposition at 1100 K. Similarly, H 2 PN is considered unstable, and phosphorus nitride halogens like F 2 PN, Cl 2 PN, Br 2 PN, and I 2 PN oligomerise into cyclic Polyphosphazenes. For example, compounds of the formula (PNCl 2) n exist mainly as rings such as the trimerhexachlorophosphazene. The phosphazenes arise by treatment of phosphorus pentachloride with ammonium chloride: PCl 5 + NH 4 Cl → 1/ n (NPCl 2) n + 4 HCl When the chloride groups are replaced by alkoxide (RO − ), a family of polymers is produced with potentially useful properties. [38]Sulfides Main article: phosphorus sulfide Phosphorus forms a wide range of sulfides, where the phosphorus can be in P (V), P (III) or other oxidation states. The most famous is the three-fold symmetric P 4 S 3 which is used in strike-anywhere matches. P 4 S 10 and P 4 O 10 have analogous structures. [39] Mixed oxyhalides and oxyhydrides of phosphorus (III) are almost unknown. Organophosphorus compounds Main article: organophosphorus compounds Compounds with P-C and P-O-C bonds are often classified as organophosphorus compounds. They are widely used commercially. The PCl 3 serves as a source of P 3+ in routes to organophosphorus (III) compounds. For example, it is the precursor to triphenylphosphine: PCl 3 + 6 Na + 3 C 6 H 5 Cl → P (C 6 H 5) 3 + 6 Na Cl Treatment of phosphorus trihalides with alcohols and phenols gives phosphites, e.g. triphenylphosphite: PCl 3 + 3 C 6 H 5 OH → P (OC 6 H 5) 3 + 3 HCl Similar reactions occur for phosphorus oxychloride, affording triphenylphosphate: OPCl 3 + 3 C 6 H 5 OH → OP (OC 6 H 5) 3 + 3 HCl History The name Phosphorus in Ancient Greece was the name for the planet Venus and is derived from the Greek words (φῶς = light, φέρω = carry), which roughly translates as light-bringer or light carrier. [13] (In Greek mythology and tradition, Augerinus (Αυγερινός = morning star, still in use today), Hesperus or Hesperinus (΄Εσπερος or Εσπερινός or Αποσπερίτης = evening star, still in use today) and Eosphorus (Εωσφόρος = dawnbearer, not in use for the planet after Christianity) are close homologues, and also associated with Phosphorus-the-planet). According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the correct spelling of the element is phosphorus. The word phosphorous is the adjectival form of the P 3+ valence: so, just as sulfur forms sulfur ous and sulfur ic compounds, phosphor us forms phosphor ous compounds (e.g., phosphorous acid) and P 5+ valence phosphor ic compounds (e.g., phosphoric acids and phosphates ). Discovery Robert Boyle The discovery of phosphorus, the first element to be discovered that was not known since ancient times, [40] is credited to the German alchemist Hennig Brand in 1669, although other chemists might have discovered phosphorus around the same time. [41] Brand experimented with urine, which contains considerable quantities of dissolved phosphates from normal metabolism. [13] Working in Hamburg, Brand attempted to create the fabled philosopher's stone through the distillation of some salts by evaporating urine, and in the process produced a white material that glowed in the dark and burned brilliantly. It was named phosphorus mirabilis ("miraculous bearer of light"). [42]Brand's process originally involved letting urine stand for days until it gave off a terrible smell. Then he boiled it down to a paste, heated this paste to a high temperature, and led the vapours through water, where he hoped they would condense to gold. Instead, he obtained a white, waxy substance that glowed in the dark. Brand had discovered phosphorus. We now know that Brand produced ammonium sodium hydrogen phosphate, (NH 4)Na HPO 4. While the quantities were essentially correct (it took about 1,100 litres [290 US gal] of urine to make about 60 g of phosphorus), it was unnecessary to allow the urine to rot. Later scientists discovered that fresh urine yielded the same amount of phosphorus. [26]Brand at first tried to keep the method secret, [43] but later sold the recipe for 200 thalers to D. Krafft from Dresden, [13] who could now make it as well, and toured much of Europe with it, including England, where he met with Robert Boyle. The secret that it was made from urine leaked out and first Johann Kunckel (1630–1703) in Sweden (1678) and later Boyle in London (1680) also managed to make phosphorus, possibly with the aid of his assistant, Ambrose Godfrey-Hanckwitz, who later made a business of the manufacture of phosphorus. Boyle states that Krafft gave him no information as to the preparation of phosphorus other than that it was derived from "somewhat that belonged to the body of man". This gave Boyle a valuable clue, so that he, too, managed to make phosphorus, and published the method of its manufacture. [13] Later he improved Brand's process by using sand in the reaction (still using urine as base material),4 Na PO 3 + 2 Si O 2 + 10 C → 2 Na 2Si O 3 + 10 CO + P 4Robert Boyle was the first to use phosphorus to ignite sulfur-tipped wooden splints, forerunners of our modern matches, in 1680. [44]Phosphorus was the 13th element to be discovered. For this reason, and due to its use in explosives, poisons and nerve agents, it is sometimes referred to as "the Devil's element". [45]Bone ash and guano Guano mining in the Central Chincha Islands, ca. 1860. In 1769, Johan Gottlieb Gahn and Carl Wilhelm Scheele showed that calcium phosphate ( Ca 3 (PO 4) 2) is found in bones, and they obtained elemental phosphorus from bone ash. Antoine Lavoisier recognised phosphorus as an element in 1777. [46] Bone ash was the major source of phosphorus until the 1840s. The method started by roasting bones, then employed the use of clay retorts encased in a very hot brick furnace to distill out the highly toxic elemental phosphorus product. [47] Alternately, precipitated phosphates could be made from ground-up bones that had been de-greased and treated with strong acids. White phosphorus could then be made by heating the precipitated phosphates, mixed with ground coal or charcoal in an iron pot, and distilling off phosphorus vapour in a retort. [48] Carbon monoxide and other flammable gases produced during the reduction process were burnt off in a flare stack. In the 1840s, world phosphate production turned to the mining of tropical island deposits formed from bird and bat guano (see also Guano Islands Act ). These became an important source of phosphates for fertiliser in the latter half of the 19th century. [49]Phosphate rock Phosphate rock, which usually contains calcium phosphate, was first used in 1850 to make phosphorus, and following the introduction of the electric arc furnace by James Burgess Readman in 1888 [50] (patented 1889), [51] elemental phosphorus production switched from the bone-ash heating, to electric arc production from phosphate rock. After the depletion of world guano sources about the same time, mineral phosphates became the major source of phosphate fertiliser production. Phosphate rock production greatly increased after World War II, and remains the primary global source of phosphorus and phosphorus chemicals today. See the article on peak phosphorus for more information on the history and present state of phosphate mining. Phosphate rock remains a feedstock in the fertiliser industry, where it is treated with sulfuric acid to produce various " superphosphate " fertiliser products. Incendiaries White phosphorus was first made commercially in the 19th century for the match industry. This used bone ash for a phosphate source, as described above. The bone-ash process became obsolete when the submerged-arc furnace for phosphorus production was introduced to reduce phosphate rock. [52] [53] The electric furnace method allowed production to increase to the point where phosphorus could be used in weapons of war. [24] [54] In World War I, it was used in incendiaries, smoke screens and tracer bullets. [54] A special incendiary bullet was developed to shoot at hydrogen -filled Zeppelins over Britain (hydrogen being highly flammable ). [54] During World War II, Molotov cocktails made of phosphorus dissolved in petrol were distributed in Britain to specially selected civilians within the British resistance operation, for defence; and phosphorus incendiary bombs were used in war on a large scale. Burning phosphorus is difficult to extinguish and if it splashes onto human skin it has horrific effects. [11]Early matches used white phosphorus in their composition, which was dangerous due to its toxicity. Murders, suicides and accidental poisonings resulted from its use. (An apocryphal tale tells of a woman attempting to murder her husband with white phosphorus in his food, which was detected by the stew's giving off luminous steam). [24] In addition, exposure to the vapours gave match workers a severe necrosis of the bones of the jaw, the infamous " phossy jaw ". When a safe process for manufacturing red phosphorus was discovered, with its far lower flammability and toxicity, laws were enacted, under the Berne Convention (1906), requiring its adoption as a safer alternative for match manufacture. [55] The toxicity of white phosphorus led to discontinuation of its use in matches. [56] The Allies used phosphorus incendiary bombs in World War II to destroy Hamburg, the place where the "miraculous bearer of light" was first discovered. [42]Production Mining of phosphate rock in Nauru Most production of phosphorus-bearing material is for agriculture fertilisers. For this purpose, phosphate minerals are converted to phosphoric acid. It follows two distinct chemical routes, the main one being treatment of phosphate minerals with sulfuric acid. The other process utilises white phosphorus, which may be produced by reaction and distillation from very low grade phosphate sources. The white phosphorus is then oxidised to phosphoric acid and subsequently neutralised with base to give phosphate salts. Phosphoric acid produced from white phosphorus is relatively pure and is the main route for the production of phosphates for all purposes, including detergent production. In the early 1990s, Albright and Wilson's purified wet phosphoric acid business was being adversely affected by phosphate rock sales by China and the entry of their long-standing Moroccan phosphate suppliers into the purified wet phosphoric acid business. [57]Peak phosphorus Main article: Peak phosphorus In 2017, the USGS estimated 68 billion tons of world reserves, where reserve figures refer to the amount assumed recoverable at current market prices; 0.261 billion tons were mined in 2016. [58] Critical to contemporary agriculture, its annual demand is rising nearly twice as fast as the growth of the human population. [31]The production of phosphorus may have peaked already (as per 2011), leading to the possibility of global shortages by 2040. [59] In 2007, at the rate of consumption, the supply of phosphorus was estimated to run out in 345 years. [60] However, some scientists now believe that a " peak phosphorus " will occur in 30 years and that "At current rates, reserves will be depleted in the next 50 to 100 years." [61] Cofounder of Boston -based investment firm and environmental foundation Jeremy Grantham wrote in Nature in November 2012 that consumption of the element "must be drastically reduced in the next 20-40 years or we will begin to starve." [31] [62] According to N. N. Greenwood and A. Earnshaw, authors of the textbook, Chemistry of the Elements, however, phosphorus comprises about 0.1% by mass of the average rock, and consequently the Earth's supply is vast, although dilute. [11]Elemental phosphorus Presently, about 1,000,000 short tons (910,000 t) of elemental phosphorus is produced annually. Calcium phosphate (phosphate rock), mostly mined in Florida and North Africa, can be heated to 1,200–1,500 °C with sand, which is mostly Si O 2, and coke (refined coal) to produce vaporised P 4. The product is subsequently condensed into a white powder under water to prevent oxidation by air. Even under water, white phosphorus is slowly converted to the more stable red phosphorus allotrope. The chemical equation for this process when starting with fluoroapatite, a common phosphate mineral, is:4 Ca 5 (PO 4) 3 F + 18 Si O 2 + 30 C → 3 P 4 + 30 CO + 18 Ca Si O 3 + 2 Ca F 2Side products from this process include ferrophosphorus, a crude form of Fe 2 P, resulting from iron impurities in the mineral precursors. The silicate slag is a useful construction material. The fluoride is sometimes recovered for use in water fluoridation. More problematic is a "mud" containing significant amounts of white phosphorus. Production of white phosphorus is conducted in large facilities in part because it is energy intensive. The white phosphorus is transported in molten form. Some major accidents have occurred during transportation; train derailments at Brownston, Nebraska and Miamisburg, Ohio led to large fires. The worst incident in recent times was an environmental contamination in 1968 when the sea was polluted from spillage and/or inadequately treated sewage from a white phosphorus plant at Placentia Bay, Newfoundland. [63]Another process by which elemental phosphorus is extracted includes applying at high temperatures (1500 °C): [64]2 Ca 3 (PO 4) 2 + 6 Si O 2 + 10 C → 6 Ca Si O 3 + 10 CO + P 4Historically, before the development of mineral-based extractions, white phosphorus was isolated on an industrial scale from bone ash. [65] In this process, the tricalcium phosphate in bone ash is converted to monocalcium phosphate with sulfuric acid: Ca 3 (PO 4) 2 + 2 H 2 SO 4 → Ca (H 2 PO 4) 2 + 2 Ca SO 4Monocalcium phosphate is then dehydrated to the corresponding metaphosphate: Ca (H 2 PO 4) 2 → Ca (PO 3) 2 + 2 H 2 OWhen ignited to a white heat with charcoal, calcium metaphosphate yields two-thirds of its weight of white phosphorus while one-third of the phosphorus remains in the residue as calcium orthophosphate:3 Ca (PO 3) 2 + 10 C → Ca 3 (PO 4) 2 + 10 CO + P 4Applications Fertiliser Main article: Fertiliser Phosphorus is an essential plant nutrient (often the limiting nutrient), and the bulk of all phosphorus production is in concentrated phosphoric acids for agriculture fertiliser s, containing as much as 70% to 75% P 2 O 5. Its annual demand is rising nearly twice as fast as the growth of the human population. That led to large increase in phosphate (PO 4 3−) production in the second half of the 20th century. [31] Artificial phosphate fertilisation is necessary because phosphorus is essential to all life organisms, natural phosphorus-bearing compounds are mostly insoluble and inaccessible to plants, and the natural cycle of phosphorus is very slow. Fertiliser is often in the form of superphosphate of lime, a mixture of calcium dihydrogen phosphate (Ca (H 2 PO 4) 2 ), and calcium sulfate dihydrate (Ca SO 4 ·2H 2 O) produced reacting sulfuric acid and water with calcium phosphate. Processing phosphate minerals with sulfuric acid for obtaining fertiliser is so important to the global economy that this is the primary industrial market for sulfuric acid and the greatest industrial use of elemental sulfur. [66]Widely used compounds Use Ca (H 2PO 4) 2·H 2O Baking powder and fertilisers Ca HPO 4·2H 2O Animal food additive, toothpowder H 3PO 4Manufacture of phosphate fertilisers PCl 3Manufacture of POCl 3 and pesticides POCl 3Manufacture of plasticiser P 4S 10Manufacturing of additives and pesticides Na 5P 3O 10Detergents Organophosphorus White phosphorus is widely used to make organophosphorus compounds through intermediate phosphorus chlorides and two phosphorus sulfides, phosphorus pentasulfide and phosphorus sesquisulfide. [67] Organophosphorus compounds have many applications, including in plasticisers, flame retardants, pesticides, extraction agents, nerve agents and water treatment. [11] [68]Metallurgical aspects Phosphorus is also an important component in steel production, in the making of phosphor bronze, and in many other related products. [69] [70] Phosphorus is added to metallic copper during its smelting process to react with oxygen present as an impurity in copper and to produce phosphorus-containing copper ( Cu OFP) alloys with a higher hydrogen embrittlement resistance than normal copper. [71]Matches Match striking surface made of a mixture of red phosphorus, glue and ground glass. The glass powder is used to increase the friction. Main article: Match The first striking match with a phosphorus head was invented by Charles Sauria in 1830. These matches (and subsequent modifications) were made with heads of white phosphorus, an oxygen-releasing compound ( potassium chlorate, lead dioxide, or sometimes nitrate ), and a binder. They were poisonous to the workers in manufacture, [72] sensitive to storage conditions, toxic if ingested, and hazardous when accidentally ignited on a rough surface. [73] [74] Production in several countries was banned between 1872 and 1925. [75] The international Berne Convention, ratified in 1906, prohibited the use of white phosphorus in matches. In consequence, the 'strike-anywhere' matches were gradually replaced by 'safety matches', wherein the white phosphorus was replaced by phosphorus sesquisulfide (P 4 S 3 ), sulfur, or antimony sulfide. Such matches are difficult to ignite on any surface other than a special strip. The strip contains red phosphorus that heats up upon striking, reacts with the oxygen-releasing compound in the head, and ignites the flammable material of the head. [14] [67]Water softening Sodium tripolyphosphate made from phosphoric acid is used in laundry detergents in some countries, but banned for this use in others. [16] This compound softens the water to enhance the performance of the detergents and to prevent pipe/boiler tube corrosion. [76]Miscellaneous Phosphates are used to make special glasses for sodium lamps. [16]Bone-ash, calcium phosphate, is used in the production of fine china. [16]Phosphoric acid made from elemental phosphorus is used in food applications such as soft drinks, and as a starting point for food grade phosphates. [67] These include mono-calcium phosphate for baking powder and sodium tripolyphosphate. [67] Phosphates are used to improve the characteristics of processed meat and cheese, and in toothpaste. [67]White phosphorus, called "WP" (slang term "Willie Peter") is used in military applications as incendiary bombs, for smoke-screening as smoke pots and smoke bombs, and in tracer ammunition. It is also a part of an obsolete M34 White Phosphorus US hand grenade. This multipurpose grenade was mostly used for signaling, smoke screens, and inflammation; it could also cause severe burns and had a psychological impact on the enemy. [77] [78] Military uses of white phosphorus are constrained by international law. In trace amounts, phosphorus is used as a dopant for n-type semiconductors.32 P and 33 P are used as radioactive tracers in biochemical laboratories. [79]Phosphate is a strong complexing agent for the hexavalent uranyl (UO 2 2+) species; for this reason, apatite and other natural phosphates can be very rich in uranium. Tributylphosphate is an organophosphate soluble in kerosene used to extract uranium in the Purex process for reprocessing spent nuclear fuel. Biological role Inorganic phosphorus in the form of the phosphate PO 3−4 is required for all known forms of life. [80] Phosphorus plays a major role in the structural framework of DNA and RNA. Living cells use phosphate to transport cellular energy with adenosine triphosphate (ATP), necessary for every cellular process that uses energy. ATP is also important for phosphorylation, a key regulatory event in cells. Phospholipids are the main structural components of all cellular membranes. Calcium phosphate salts assist in stiffening bones. [11]Every living cell is encased in a membrane that separates it from its surroundings. Cellular membranes are composed of a phospholipid matrix and proteins, typically in the form of a bilayer. Phospholipids are derived from glycerol with two of the glycerol hydroxyl (OH) protons replaced by fatty acids as an ester, and the third hydroxyl proton has been replaced with phosphate bonded to another alcohol. [81]An average adult human contains about 0.7 kg of phosphorus, about 85–90% in bones and teeth in the form of apatite, and the remainder in soft tissues and extracellular fluids (~1%). The phosphorus content increases from about 0.5 weight% in infancy to 0.65–1.1 weight% in adults. Average phosphorus concentration in the blood is about 0.4 g/L, about 70% of that is organic and 30% inorganic phosphates. [82] An adult with healthy diet consumes and excretes about 1–3 grams of phosphorus per day, with consumption in the form of inorganic phosphate and phosphorus-containing biomolecules such as nucleic acids and phospholipids; and excretion almost exclusively in the form of phosphate ions such as H 2PO −4 and HPO 2−4. Only about 0.1% of body phosphate circulates in the blood, paralleling the amount of phosphate available to soft tissue cells. Bone and teeth enamel The main component of bone is hydroxyapatite as well as amorphous forms of calcium phosphate, possibly including carbonate. Hydroxyapatite is the main component of tooth enamel. Water fluoridation enhances the resistance of teeth to decay by the partial conversion of this mineral to the still harder material called fluoroapatite: [11]Ca 5 (PO 4) 3OH + F − → Ca 5 (PO 4) 3F + OH −Phosphorus deficiency In medicine, phosphate deficiency syndrome may be caused by malnutrition, by failure to absorb phosphate, and by metabolic syndromes that draw phosphate from the blood (such as in refeeding syndrome after malnutrition [83]) or pass too much of it into the urine. All are characterised by hypophosphatemia, which is a condition of low levels of soluble phosphate levels in the blood serum and inside the cells. Symptoms of hypophosphatemia include neurological dysfunction and disruption of muscle and blood cells due to lack of ATP. Too much phosphate can lead to diarrhoea and calcification (hardening) of organs and soft tissue, and can interfere with the body's ability to use iron, calcium, magnesium, and zinc. [84]Phosphorus is an essential macromineral for plants, which is studied extensively in edaphology to understand plant uptake from soil systems. Phosphorus is a limiting factor in many ecosystems; that is, the scarcity of phosphorus limits the rate of organism growth. An excess of phosphorus can also be problematic, especially in aquatic systems where eutrophication sometimes leads to algal blooms. [31]Dietary recommendations The U. S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for phosphorus in 1997. If there is not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs, an estimate designated Adequate Intake (AI) is used instead. The current EAR for phosphorus for people ages 19 and up is 580 mg/day. The RDA is 700 mg/day. RDAs are higher than EARs so as to identify amounts that will cover people with higher than average requirements. RDA for pregnancy and lactation are also 700 mg/day. For children ages 1–18 years the RDA increases with age from 460 to 1250 mg/day. As for safety, the IOM sets Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of phosphorus the UL is 4000 mg/day. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs). [85]The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL defined the same as in United States. For people ages 15 and older, including pregnancy and lactation, the AI is set at 550 mg/day. For children ages 4–10 years the AI is 440 mg/day, for ages 11–17 640 mg/day. These AIs are lower than the U. S RDAs. In both systems, teenagers need more than adults. [86] The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question and decided that there was not sufficient information to set a UL. [87]For U. S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For phosphorus labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value was 1000 mg, but as of May 27, 2016 it was revised to 1250 mg to bring it into agreement with the RDA. [88] A table of the old and new adult Daily Values is provided at Reference Daily Intake. The original deadline to be in compliance was July 28, 2018, but on September 29, 2017 the FDA released a proposed rule that extended the deadline to January 1, 2020 for large companies and January 1, 2021 for small companies. [89]Food sources The main food sources for phosphorus are the same as those containing protein, although proteins do not contain phosphorus. For example, milk, meat, and soya typically also have phosphorus. As a rule, if a diet has sufficient protein and calcium, the amount of phosphorus is probably sufficient. [90]Precautions Phosphorus explosion Organic compounds of phosphorus form a wide class of materials; many are required for life, but some are extremely toxic. Fluorophosphate esters are among the most potent neurotoxins known. A wide range of organophosphorus compounds are used for their toxicity as pesticides ( herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, etc.) and weaponised as nerve agents against enemy humans. Most inorganic phosphates are relatively nontoxic and essential nutrients. [11]The white phosphorus allotrope presents a significant hazard because it ignites in air and produces phosphoric acid residue. Chronic white phosphorus poisoning leads to necrosis of the jaw called " phossy jaw ". White phosphorus is toxic, causing severe liver damage on ingestion and may cause a condition known as "Smoking Stool Syndrome". [91]In the past, external exposure to elemental phosphorus was treated by washing the affected area with 2% copper sulfate solution to form harmless compounds that are then washed away. According to the recent US Navy's Treatment of Chemical Agent Casualties and Conventional Military Chemical Injuries: FM8-285: Part 2 Conventional Military Chemical Injuries, "Cupric (copper (II)) sulfate has been used by U. S. personnel in the past and is still being used by some nations. However, copper sulfate is toxic and its use will be discontinued. Copper sulfate may produce kidney and cerebral toxicity as well as intravascular hemolysis." [92]The manual suggests instead " a bicarbonate solution to neutralise phosphoric acid, which will then allow removal of visible white phosphorus. Particles often can be located by their emission of smoke when air strikes them, or by their phosphorescence in the dark. In dark surroundings, fragments are seen as luminescent spots. Promptly debride the burn if the patient's condition will permit removal of bits of WP (white phosphorus) that might be absorbed later and possibly produce systemic poisoning. DO NOT apply oily-based ointments until it is certain that all WP has been removed. Following complete removal of the particles, treat the lesions as thermal burns. " [note 1] [ citation needed] As white phosphorus readily mixes with oils, any oily substances or ointments are not recommended until the area is thoroughly cleaned and all white phosphorus removed. People can be exposed to phosphorus in the workplace by inhalation, ingestion, skin contact, and eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the phosphorus exposure limit ( Permissible exposure limit) in the workplace at 0.1 mg/m 3 over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a Recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.1 mg/m 3 over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 5 mg/m 3, phosphorus is immediately dangerous to life and health. [93]US DEA List I status Phosphorus can reduce elemental iodine to hydroiodic acid, which is a reagent effective for reducing ephedrine or pseudoephedrine to methamphetamine. [94] For this reason, red and white phosphorus were designated by the United States Drug Enforcement Administration as List I precursor chemicals under 21 CFR 1310.02 effective on November 17, 2001. [95] In the United States, handlers of red or white phosphorus are subject to stringent regulatory controls. 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"Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry" 3rd Ed. Worth Publishing: New York, 2000. ISBN 1-57259-153-6.^ Bernhardt, Nancy E.; Kasko, Artur M. (2008). Nutrition for the Middle Aged and Elderly. Nova Publishers. p. 171. ISBN 1-60456-146-7.^ Mehanna HM, Moledina J, Travis J (June 2008). "Refeeding syndrome: what it is, and how to prevent and treat it". BMJ. 336 (7659): 1495–8. doi: 10.1136/bmj.a301. PMC 2440847. PMID 18583681.^ Anderson, John J. B. (1996). "Calcium, Phosphorus and Human Bone Development". Journal of Nutrition. 126 (4 Suppl. ): 1153S–1158S. PMID 8642449.^ Institute of Medicine (1997). "Phosphorus". Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. pp. 146–189.^ "Overview on Dietary Reference Values for the EU population as derived by the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies" (PDF). 2017.^ Tolerable Upper Intake Levels For Vitamins And Minerals (PDF), European Food Safety Authority, 2006^ "Federal Register May 27, 2016 Food Labeling: Revision of the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels. FR page 33982" (PDF).^ "Changes to the Nutrition Facts Panel - Compliance Date"^ Phosphorus in diet: Medline Plus Medical Encyclopedia. Nlm.nih.gov (2011-11-07). Retrieved on 2011-11-19.^ "CBRNE – Incendiary Agents, White Phosphorus (Smoking Stool Syndrome)". Retrieved 2009-05-05.^ "US Navy's Treatment of Chemical Agent Casualties and Conventional Military Chemical Injuries: FM8-285: Part 2 Conventional Military Chemical Injuries". Archived from the original on November 22, 2005. Retrieved 2009-05-05.^ "CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Phosphorus (yellow)". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2015-11-21.^ Skinner, H. F. (1990). "Methamphetamine synthesis via hydriodic acid/red phosphorus reduction of ephedrine". Forensic Science International. 48 (2): 123–134. doi: 10.1016/0379-0738 (90)90104-7.^ a b "66 FR 52670—52675". 17 October 2001. Retrieved 2009-05-05.^ "21 cfr 1309". Retrieved 2009-05-05.^ "21 USC, Chapter 13 (Controlled Substances Act)". Retrieved 2009-05-05. Bibliography Emsley, John (2000). The Shocking history of Phosphorus. A biography of the Devil's Element. London: Mac Millan. ISBN 0-333-76638-5. Parkes, G. D.; Mellor, J. W. (1939). Mellor's Modern Inorganic Chemistry. Longman's Green and Co. Podger, Hugh (2002). Albright & Wilson. The Last 50 years. Studley: Brewin Books. ISBN 1-85858-223-7. Threlfall, Richard E. (1951). The Story of 100 years of Phosphorus Making: 1851–1951. Oldbury: Albright & Wilson Ltd.v t e Periodic table (Large cells)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 181 H He2 Li Be B C N O F Ne3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe6 Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn7 Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Lanthanide Actinide Transition metal Post-transition metal Metalloid Polyatomic nonmetal Diatomic nonmetal Noble gas Unknown chemical propertiesv t e Phosphorus compounds Authority control LCCN: sh85101119 GND: 4045855-6 BNF: cb119329562 (data) NDL: 00569477 BNE: XX534851Categories: Phosphorus Chemical elements Pnictogens Polyatomic nonmetals Biology and pharmacology of chemical elements Dietary minerals Pyrotechnic fuels
Iran Air, branded as The Airline of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: هواپیمايی جمهوری اسلامی ایران‎ ‎ "Havâpeymâyiye Jomhuriye Eslâmiye Irân"), is the national flag carrier airline of Iran headquartered on the grounds of Mehrabad Airport in Tehran. Tehran-Imam Khomeini and Tehran-Mehrabad are its main bases for international and domestic flights. As of August 2017, it operates scheduled services to 59 destinations in Asia and Europe. The airline has a subsidiary for cargo services, called Iran Air Cargo, that operates scheduled and charter services.
'Necessity is the mother of invention' - the meaning and origin of this phrase Necessity is the mother of invention Meaning Difficult situations inspire ingenious solutions. Origin The author of this proverbial saying isn't known. It is sometimes ascribed to Plato and it does appear in translations of Plato's Republic. Those translations weren't made until much later than the phrase was in common use in English and are more likely to be the work of the translator than being a literal version of Plato's words. The proverb was known in England by the 16th century, although at that point it must have been known to very few as it was then documented in its Latin form rather than in English. Many well-known proverbs appeared first in Latin and were transcribed into English by Erasmus and others, often as training texts for latin scholars. William Horman, the headmaster of Winchester and Eton, included the Latin form 'Mater artium necessitas' in Vulgaria, a book of aphorisms for the boys of the schools to learn by heart, which he published in 1519. Roger Ascham came close to an English version of the phrase in his manual on how to use a longbow, which is by the way the first book ever written about archery, Toxophilus, 1545: "Necessitie, the inuentour of all goodnesse." George Chapman also had a 'close but no cigar' moment with his tragic play The Conspiracy and Tragedy of Charles, Duke of Byron, 1608: "The great Mother, Of all productions (grave Necessity)." The earliest actual usage of 'necessity is the mother of invention' that I can find in print is in Richard Franck's 'Northern Memoirs, calculated for the meridian of Scotland'. Originals of this text are difficult to locate, but it was republished in 1821, with a foreword by Sir Walter Scott. The frontispiece of the reprint states that the original was "writ in the year 1658". It contains this: Art imitates Nature, and Necessity is the Mother of Invention. 1658 seems the best date we have as the birth of the phrase in English. Frank Zappa gave this phrase an extra lease of life when he chose the name of his inventive jazz/rock band in 1964 - The Mothers of Invention. His use of 'mothers' clearly had a ribald meaning that Erasmus wouldn't have approved of but Zappa did at least keep the expression from dropping into 'granny phrase' obscurity.
The Benefits of Eating Raw Garlic Cloves. Garlic may provide many health benefits. Every woman certainly knows the disadvantage of eating raw garlic -- bad breath -- but because there seems to be many health benefits linked to the little white cloves, they could offset the social stigma of their scent.
Prior to the 20th century drugs were generally produced by small scale manufacturers with little regulatory control over manufacturing or claims of safety and efficacy. To the extent that such laws did exist, enforcement was lax. In the United States, increased regulation of vaccines and other biological drugs was spurred by tetanus outbreaks and deaths caused by the distribution of contaminated smallpox vaccine and diphtheria antitoxin. The Biologics Control Act of 1902 required that federal government grant premarket approval for every biological drug and for the process and facility producing such drugs. This was followed in 1906 by the Pure Food and Drugs Act, which forbade the interstate distribution of adulterated or misbranded foods and drugs. A drug was considered misbranded if it contained alcohol, morphine, opium, cocaine, or any of several other potentially dangerous or addictive drugs, and if its label failed to indicate the quantity or proportion of such drugs. The government's attempts to use the law to prosecute manufacturers for making unsupported claims of efficacy were undercut by a Supreme Court ruling restricting the federal government's enforcement powers to cases of incorrect specification of the drug's ingredients.
The London Underground in England is one of the few networks that uses a four-rail system. The additional rail carries the electrical return that, on third rail and overhead networks, is provided by the running rails. On the London Underground, a top-contact third rail is beside the track, energized at +420v DC, and a top-contact fourth rail is located centrally between the running rails at −210v DC, which combine to provide a traction voltage of 630v DC. London Underground is now upgrading its fourth rail system to 750v DC with a positive conductor rail energised to +500v DC and a negative conductor rail energised to -250v DC. However, many older sections in tunnels are still energised to 630v DC. The same system was used for Milan's earliest underground line, Milan Metro's line 1, whose more recent lines use an overhead catenary or a third rail.
Medicines, often referred to as drugs, can be: 1 Prescriptions. What you can get only with a doctorâs order (for example, pills to lower your cholesterol or an asthma inhaler) 2 Over-the-counter pills, liquids, or creams. What you buy without a prescription (for example, pills for headaches or chew tablets for heartburn)
Romulus was credited with several religious institutions. He founded the Consualia festival, inviting the neighbouring Sabines to participate; the ensuing rape of the Sabine women by Romulus's men further embedded both violence and cultural assimilation in Rome's myth of origins. As a successful general, Romulus is also supposed to have founded Rome's first temple to Jupiter Feretrius and offered the spolia opima, the prime spoils taken in war, in the celebration of the first Roman triumph. Spared a mortal's death, Romulus was mysteriously spirited away and deified.
List of Formula One Grand Prix winners Michael Schumacher holds the record for the most Grand Prix victories, having won 91 times.[5] Lewis Hamilton is second with 67 wins and Sebastian Vettel is third with 52 wins. Michael Schumacher holds the distinction of having the longest time between his first win and his last. He won his first Grand Prix in 1992 at the Belgian Grand Prix, and his last in 2006 at the Chinese Grand Prix, a span of 14 years, 1 month and 1 day.[6] Riccardo Patrese holds the record for the longest period of time between two race wins–more than six-and-a-half years between the 1983 South African Grand Prix and the 1990 San Marino Grand Prix.[7] Mario Andretti had to wait the longest time between his maiden victory at the 1971 South African Grand Prix and his second win–coming five years, seven months and 18 days later at the 1976 Japanese Grand Prix.[8] Sebastian Vettel holds the record for the most consecutive wins, having won nine Grands Prix in a row from the 2013 Belgian Grand Prix to the 2013 Brazilian Grand Prix. Max Verstappen is the youngest winner of a Grand Prix; he was 18 years and 227 days old when he won the 2016 Spanish Grand Prix.[9] Luigi Fagioli is the oldest winner of a Formula One Grand Prix; he was 53 years and 22 days old when he won the 1951 French Grand Prix.[10]
Sicca syndrome: WHAT: Keratoconjunctivitis sicca. Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca (KCS): an eye condition in which there is decreased tear production and inflammation of the cornea and conjunctiva.WHY: Keratoconjunctivitis sicca is found in a significant number of patients with rheumatoid arthritis.CS plus xerostomia is called the sicca syndrome. The association of the sicca syndrome with rheumatoid arthritis is known as Sjogren's syndrome. HOW: Clinically, patients with KCS may present with itching, burning eyes.
Quick and Easy Iced Chai Latte Recipe ben phillips/Getty Images4 mins Prep: 2 mins, Cook: 2 mins Yield: 3 cups (2 servings) (4)By Lindsey Goodwin Updated 12/26/17Share Pin Email The iced chai latte is everything you love about warm masala chai tea, it's just served as a chilled latte. It is deliciously creamy, perfectly spiced, and the recipe could not be any easier. This recipe is made with an instant masala chai concentrate (or powdered chai tea) so it really is an 'instant' coffee drink. All you need to do is mix the powdered tea with milk and ice, maybe add a little chocolate syrup. That's it, you're done!You can choose to serve the milky tea over ice or blend it into a creamy smoothie. Either way, a smooth, frosty drink will be ready in just a matter of minutes. What You'll Need1 1/2 cups ice (roughly 12 to 15 ice cubes)1 cup masala chai concentrate1/2 cup whole milk1-2 teaspoons good quality chocolate or white chocolate syrup (optional)How to Make It Combine all of the ingredients. Stir well or blend in a blender until smooth. Tip: Powders can be tricky in the blender and it's best to add the ice, then the powder tea, then the liquid ingredients. This prevents any clumping issues that the blender blades may not be able to reach. Masala Chai Tea Recommendations Real, made-from-scratch masala chai tea is always your best option for an authentic chai experience. However, that is not the case in recipes like this latte. In fact, we want you to buy a concentrated, powdered version of the tea. These are often called 'instant masala chai tea' or 'concentrate masala chai tea.' This form is different from loose-leaf or tea bag masala chai because it is a powdered, just-add-milk version of the tea. It is, essentially, the instant coffee of masala chai. While many masala chai fans look down on these powdered teas, there are some very good options available. Among our favorites are: Rishi Tea's Masala Chai Tea Concentrate - Rishi specializes in masala chai, but they focus on loose-leaf and bagged teas. Don't get those confused with the concentrate. Oregon Chai - This company specializes in instant chai concentrates. They regularly offer a variety of flavors, including sugar- and caffeine-free versions. The Masala Chai Simple Syrup Alternative There is an easy, homemade alternative to chai concentrates. It is a chai-flavored simple syrup and it is easy to make if you have the spices. There is no tea in this recipe, so it is a caffeine-free syrup that simply has the spices found in masala chai and it is useful in a variety of drinks. Homemade Chai Simple Syrup Recipe If you enjoy chai lattes on a regular basis, this would be an excellent syrup to keep in the refrigerator. It has an incredibly long shelf life of about six months. Rate This Recipe I don't like this at all. It's not the worst. Sure, this will do. I'm a fan—would recommend. Amazing! I love it! Thanks for your rating!
Russell A. Bufalino also known as "McGee" and "The Old Man" (September 25, 1903 – February 25, 1994) was a Sicilian-born American mafioso who became the boss of the Northeastern Pennsylvania crime family (also known as the Bufalino crime family) which he ruled from 1959 to 1989. Despite being the boss of a small crime family, Bufalino was a significant influence in the national Cosa Nostra criminal organization.
A Song of Ice and Fire A Song of Ice and Fire takes place on the fictional continents Westeros and Essos. The point of view of each chapter in the story is a limited perspective of a range of characters growing from nine, in the first novel, to thirty-one by the fifth. Three main stories interweave a dynastic war among several families for control of Westeros, the rising threat of the supernatural Others in the northernmost reaches of Westeros, and the ambition of Daenerys Targaryen, the deposed king's exiled daughter, to assume the Iron Throne.
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About CIS About CISThe Council of International Schools (CIS) is a membership community committed to high quality international education. As a global non-profit membership organization, CIS provides services to primary and secondary schools, higher education institutions and individuals that share these ideals:a desire to provide students with the knowledge, skills and abilities to pursue their lives as global citizens; anda commitment to high quality international education. To achieve this goal, our members must infuse their programmes and offerings with international and intercultural perspective so that students can move forward with the attitudes and understanding that will provide them with a solid base wherever their studies or work may take them. Primary and secondary school members must further commit to undertaking an ongoing external quality assurance process to enhance student learning. The CIS community includes 733 schools and 580 colleges and universities representing 116 countries.
However, if people with a severe hearing impairment are included with those who are deaf, then the number is 4 to 10 times higher. That is, anywhere from 9 to 22 out of every 1,000 people have a severe hearing impairment or are deaf. Again, at least half of these people reported their hearing loss after 64 years of age.
Arcangelo Corelli -LRB- -LSB- kɔːˈrɛli -RSB- 17 February 1653 -- 8 January 1713 -RRB- was an Italian violinist and composer of the Baroque era . His music was key in the development of the modern genres of sonata and concerto , in establishing the preeminence of the violin , and as the first coalescing of modern tonality and functional harmony .
The Agency -LRB- known as Mind Games on video -RRB- is a 1980 Canadian dramatic/thriller film . It was directed by George Kaczender , with a screenplay by Noel Hynd . Based on a novel by Paul Gottlieb , it is a political thriller involving advertising copywriter Philip Morgan -LRB- Lee Majors -RRB- who discovers the agency he works for , run by Ted Quinn -LRB- Robert Mitchum -RRB- , is using subliminal advertising to manipulate a presidential election . It features appearances by Canadian actors Saul Rubinek as an audio technician -LRB- earning a `` Best Supporting Actor '' Genie nomination -RRB- , Jonathan Welsh as a police detective , and familiar supporting players Michael Kirby and Gary Reineke as hitmen . The film was shot on locations in Montréal and rural Québec .
In the routine laboratory test for hemoglobin (Hb), it is usually measured as total hemoglobin and the result is expressed as the amount of hemoglobin in grams (gm) per deciliter (dl) of whole blood, a deciliter being 100 milliliters.emoglobin normal values: Hemoglobin is the oxygen-carrying pigment in the blood, the predominant protein in the red blood cells.
In February 1974, the British Prime Minister, Edward Heath, advised the Queen to call a general election in the middle of her tour of the Austronesian Pacific Rim, requiring her to fly back to Britain. The election resulted in a hung parliament; Heath's Conservatives were not the largest party, but could stay in office if they formed a coalition with the Liberals. Heath only resigned when discussions on forming a coalition foundered, after which the Queen asked the Leader of the Opposition, Labour's Harold Wilson, to form a government.
Winston Churchill - OLPC Digital Library Winston Churchill The Rt Hon Sir Winston Churchill Prime Minister of the United Kingdom In office 10 May 1940 – 27 July 1945 26 October 1951 – 7 April 1955 Deputy 6 November 1924 – 4 June 1929 Preceded by Hyde Park Gate, London , England Political party Spouse Clementine Churchill, Baroness Spencer-Churchill Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill KG OM CH TD FRS PC PC (Can) (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was an English statesman and author, best known as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during the Second World War . Well-known as an orator, strategist, and politician, Churchill was one of the most important leaders in modern British and world history . He won the 1953 Nobel Prize in Literature for his many books on English and world history. Sir Winston Churchill was voted the greatest-ever Briton in the 2002 BBC poll the 100 Greatest Britons. Contents 20 Offices Early life Churchill's legal surname was Spencer-Churchill (he was related to the Spencer family), but starting with his father, Lord Randolph Churchill, his branch of the family used the name Churchill in their public life. Winston Churchill was a descendant of the first famous member of the Churchill family, John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. Winston's politician father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was the third son of the 7th Duke of Marlborough; Winston's mother was Lady Randolph Churchill (née Jennie Jerome), daughter of American millionaire Leonard Jerome. Winston Churchill was born in Blenheim Palace in Woodstock, Oxfordshire on 30th November 1874. As was typical for upper-class boys at that time, he spent much of his childhood at boarding schools. At Harrow School, he had an independent and rebellious nature and generally did poorly, for which he was punished. However, he did well in English and history. He was also the school's fencing champion. He was rarely visited by his mother (then known as Lady Randolph), whom he loved very dearly, and wrote letters begging her to either come or let his father permit him to come home. As an adult, Winston developed a closer, sibling-like relationship with his mother. He followed his father's career keenly but had a distant relationship with him. His desolate, lonely childhood stayed with him throughout his life. On the other hand, as a child he was very close to his nanny, Elizabeth Anne Everest. The Army After three attempts, Churchill was finally accepted at and attended the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. Upon his graduation at age 20, Churchill joined the army as a Subaltern of the IV (Queen's Own) Hussars Cavalry regiment. He dislocated and injured his shoulder while disembarking upon his arrival in India for his first posting, an injury that would cause him problems in later years. In India, the main preoccupation of Churchill's regiment was polo, a situation which did not appeal to the young man, hungry for more military action. He devoted his time to educating himself from books which he had sent out to him. In 1895, he traveled to Cuba to observe the Spanish battles against Cuban guerrillas. Churchill obtained a commission to write about the conflict from the Daily Graphic newspaper. To Churchill's delight[1], he came under fire for the first time on his twenty-first birthday. In 1897, Churchill attempted to travel to the Greco-Turkish War, but this conflict effectively ended before he could arrive. He went on to England on leave before rushing back to India to help put down the Pathan revolt on the North West Frontier. During the campaign, he wrote articles for the newspapers The Pioneer and The Daily Telegraph. By October 1897, Churchill was back in Britain and his first book, The Story of the Malakand Field Force, on that campaign, was published in December. While in India, Churchill used his family connections to get himself assigned to the army being put together and commanded by Lord Kitchener and intended to achieve the reconquest of the Sudan. While in the Sudan, Churchill participated in what has been described as the last meaningful British
Armistice Day The first Armistice Day was held at Buckingham Palace, commencing with King George V hosting a "Banquet in Honour of the President of the French Republic"[1] during the evening hours of 10 November 1919. The first official Armistice Day events were subsequently held in the grounds of Buckingham Palace on the morning of 11 November 1919. This would set the trend for a day of Remembrance for decades to come.
Since June 2009 VidZone has offered a free music video streaming service in Europe, Australia and New Zealand. In October 2009, Sony Computer Entertainment and Netflix announced that the Netflix streaming service would also be available on PlayStation 3 in the United States. A paid Netflix subscription was required for the service. The service became available in November 2009. Initially users had to use a free Blu-ray disc to access the service; however, in October 2010 the requirement to use a disc to gain access was removed.
âWhat makes it miserable for humans makes it perfect for peaches.â. Georgia began its peach dominance as the South rebuilt itself after the Civil War. In the late 1800s, the state began shipping the Elberta â a firm, yellow-fleshed peach named for a farmerâs wife â to New York and other East Coast cities. But by the 1950s, South Carolina had taken over as the biggest peach-producing state.
Million Dollar Quartet is a recording of an impromptu jam session involving Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, Carl Perkins, and Johnny Cash made on December 4, 1956, at the Sun Record Studios in Memphis, Tennessee. An article about the session was published in the Memphis Press-Scimitar under the title Million Dollar Quartet.
Rio Rio You're Reading a Free Preview Pages 3 to 24 are not shown in this preview. This action might not be possible to undo. Are you sure you want to continue? CANCEL We've moved you to where you read on your other device. Get the full title to continue Get the full title to continue reading from where you left off, or restart the preview. Restart preview
The Pete Snodden Breakfast Show is the breakfast show on Cool FM in Northern Ireland , presented by Pete Snodden along with Paulo Ross and Rebecca McKinney . It originally aired from 2004 until 2 November 2012 and returned on 2 June 2014 . It airs from 6:00 am to 10:00 am on weekdays .
Applied psychology is the use of psychological methods and findings of scientific psychology to solve practical problems of human and animal behavior and experience. Mental health, organizational psychology, business management, education, health, product design, ergonomics, and law are just a few of the areas that have been influenced by the application of psychological principles and findings. Some of the areas of applied psychology include clinical psychology, counseling psychology, evolutionary psychology, industrial and organizational psychology, legal psychology, neuropsychology, occupational health psychology, human factors, forensic psychology, engineering psychology, school psychology, sports psychology, traffic psychology, community psychology, medical psychology. In addition, a number of specialized areas in the general field of psychology have applied branches (e.g., applied social psychology, applied cognitive psychology). However, the lines between sub-branch specializations and major applied psychology categories are often blurred. For example, a human factors psychologist might use a cognitive psychology theory. This could be described as human factor psychology or as applied cognitive psychology.
There 's a Riot Goin ' On is the fifth studio album by American band Sly and the Family Stone . It was released on November 20 , 1971 , by Epic Records . The album was recorded during 1970 and 1971 at Record Plant Studios in Sausalito , California , with sessions dominated by band frontman Sly Stone during a period of drug use and intra-group tension . There 's a Riot Goin ' On embraced a darker and more challenging sound than the optimistic psychedelic soul style of the group 's previous records , making use of hard funk rhythms , primitive drum machines , excessive overdubbing , and unconventional mixing techniques . The album 's planned title was Africa Talks to You , but it was retitled in response to Marvin Gaye 's album What 's Going On -LRB- 1971 -RRB- , released five months before . There 's a Riot Goin ' On entered the Billboard Pop Album and Soul Album charts at number one upon its release , while the album 's lead single , `` Family Affair '' -LRB- 1971 -RRB- , topped the Pop Singles chart . By 2001 , it had sold one million copies and been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America -LRB- RIAA -RRB- . Received with ambivalence upon its release , the album is now praised as one of the greatest and most influential recordings of all-time , and ranked at or near the top of many publications ' `` best album '' lists . In 2003 it was ranked number 99 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
Miguel Ángel Luis Gamboa Pedemonte -LRB- born June 21 , 1951 in Santiago -RRB- is a retired football striker from Chile . He represented his native country at the 1982 FIFA World Cup , wearing the number 21 jersey . He also played for several clubs in Chile , including Colo Colo , and in Mexico for Tecos UAG and América . Gamboa is the current coach of the Rapanui national football team .
The major Allied participants were the United States, the Republic of China, the United Kingdom (including the armed forces of British India, the Fiji Islands, Samoa, etc.), Australia, the Commonwealth of the Philippines, the Netherlands (as the possessor of the Dutch East Indies and the western part of New Guinea), New Zealand, and Canada, all of whom were members of the Pacific War Council. Mexico, Free France and many other countries also took part, especially forces from other British colonies.
History of silk The earliest evidence of silk was found at the sites of Yangshao culture in Xia County, Shanxi, where a silk cocoon was found cut in half by a sharp knife, dating back to between 4000 and 3000 BC. The species was identified as Bombyx mori, the domesticated silkworm. Fragments of primitive loom can also be seen from the sites of Hemmed culture in Yuyao, Zhejiang, dated to about 4000 BC. The earliest example of silk fabric is from 3630 BC, and was used as wrapping for the body of a child. The fabric comes from a Yangshao site in Qingtaicun at Rongyang, Henan.[1] Scraps of silk were found in a Liangzhu culture site at Qianshanyang in Huzhou, Zhejiang, dating back to 2700 BC.[2][3] Other fragments have been recovered from royal tombs in the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 â€“ c. 1046 BCE).[4]
James Leighton MBE (born 24 July 1958) is a Scottish former football goalkeeper. Among the clubs he played for are Aberdeen (two spells), Manchester United and Hibernian. Leighton was part of the highly successful Aberdeen team of the 1980s, which won three Scottish league championships, four Scottish Cups and the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1983. Alex Ferguson, who had managed Leighton at Aberdeen, signed him for Manchester United in 1988. After he conceded three goals in the 1990 FA Cup Final, Leighton was dropped from the United team for the replay. After short stints with Arsenal, Reading, Dundee and Sheffield United, Leighton rebuilt his international career after he moved to Hibernian in 1993. He returned to Aberdeen in 1997 and retired from playing professional football in 2000. Leighton also played in 91 international games for Scotland and earned selection for four World Cup squads (1982, 1986, 1990 and 1998).
BBC SPORT \| Cricket \| International Teams \| Sri Lanka \| Muralitharan - the record-breaker International teams Muttiah Muralitharan is one of the most divisive figures in cricket history. Muralitharan receives the acclaim of his home-town crowd To his admirers, he is a sports phenomenon. To his detractors, he is a spin bowler whose action should have been outlawed by the game's rule-makers. Whichever view you take, there is no arguing with statistics. And by bowling England's Paul Collingwood in Kandy on Monday to claim his 709th victim, he became the leading wicket-taker in Test cricket for the second time. It is, by any standards, an astonishing feat - and it should not be forgotten that he also has 457 wickets in one-day and Twenty20 internationals to his credit as well. When England fast bowler Fred Trueman became the first player to take 300 Test wickets, he was asked whether he thought anyone would surpass his achievement. "If anyone beats it, they'll be bloody tired" was his typically robust response. 606: DEBATE I have found it a joy to watch him weaving his magic over the years DeltaAlpha Trueman's record stood for 11 years until his final total of 307 wickets was bettered by West Indies off-spinner Lance Gibbs. But with 35-year-old Muralitharan keen to push on towards 800, 900, perhaps even 1,000 victims, it is unlikely his record will be broken for many years to come - if ever. CONTROVERSY Muralitharan made a modest international debut in August 1992 when he took four wickets in a drawn Test against Australia in Colombo, but he had already shown them he had the potential to become something special. "The first time anyone in Australia saw Murali bowl, he delivered one over before lunch to Allan Border in a President's XI warm-up [game] - and we all looked stunned. MURALITHARAN'S WICKETS 67 v India 59 v Australia "We asked AB what he was bowling, and AB said he was a leg-spinner. We eventually realised he was bowling a wrist spin version of off-spin," said ex-Sri Lanka coach Tom Moody. It was on tours to Australia, however, where his career became mired in controversy as he was called for throwing by umpires Darrell Hair and Ross Emerson. And in 2004, biomechanics expert Professor Bruce Elliott ruled that Muralitharan's doosra, a ball which turns from leg to off, was illegal as he straightened his arm by 10 degrees. The following year, the International Cricket Council relaxed its rules, making it legal for bowlers to straighten their arms up to 15 degrees. Former England batsman Geoffrey Boycott described it as "a sad day for cricket" and former India spin bowler Bishen Bedi said the ICC had "created a monster" by legitimising his action. Muralitharan was born with a permanently bent arm but it is a double-jointed wrist, perhaps combined with the deformity, which is primarily responsible for the amount of turn he is able to obtain on even the most batsman-friendly surfaces. But that is only part of the spin bowler's art - and Muralitharan is also a master of the subtleties of flight, disguise, change of pace, line and length. RIVALRY In years to come, Muralitharan's wicket-taking duel with Australia's great leg-spinner Shane Warne will go down as one of the game's great rivalries. Muralitharan first broke the record in May 2004 when he had Zimbabwe's Mluleki Nkala caught in Harare - his 520th Test victim. Kings of spin: Shane Warne and Muttiah Muralitharan But a lengthy spell on the sidelines following shoulder surgery enabled Warne, who had been first to 500, to establish a lead which he held for the remainder of his career. Warne bowed out last winter with 708 wickets at a cost of 25.4 runs each. To the purists, he remains the superior performer - only 17 of his wickets came against Bangladesh and Zimbabwe, whereas Muralitharan's tally has been swollen by 163 successes against Test cricket's two weakest sides. Muralitharan, on the other hand, has a bowling average of 21.67. Such a debate, however, can never be resolved definitively one way or the other. "Muralitharan is what I would call a freakish genius, wh
Blackjack Pizza is a Colorado-based pizza delivery chain founded in 1983 by a former Domino's Pizza employee, Vince Schmuhl, because Domino's Pizza was the only major pizza delivery company in the Rocky Mountain region and he thought customers would appreciate an alternative. The pizza chain is the largest in Colorado with 800 employees, some of whom work part-time. On January 1, 2013, Blackjack Pizza was acquired by Askar Brands.
The chart below gives the sizes in inches and meters for the four main types of mattresses sold in most of the Western world. The other size you might want to know for knitting is the size of cribs, which can vary in size but usually have a mattress around 28 by 52 inches. Standard Matress Sizes.
During this time, Link also helps Midna find the Fused Shadows, fragments of a relic containing powerful dark magic. In return, she helps Link find Ordon Village's children while helping the monkeys of Faron, the Gorons of Eldin, and the Zoras of Lanayru. Once Link has restored the Light Spirits and Midna has all the Fused Shadows, they are ambushed by Zant. After he relieves Midna of the Fused Shadow fragments, she ridicules him for abusing his tribe's magic, but Zant reveals that his power comes from another source as he uses it to turn Link back into a wolf, and then leaves Midna in Hyrule to die from the world's light. Bringing a dying Midna to Zelda, Link learns he needs the Master Sword to return to human form. Zelda sacrifices herself to heal Midna with her power before vanishing mysteriously. Midna is moved by Zelda's sacrifice, and begins to care more about Link and the fate of the light world.
MAXIMUS: Ancestors, I ask you for your guidance. Blessed Mother, come to me with the Gods' desire for my future. Blessed Father, watch over my wife and my son with a ready sword. Whisper to them that I live only to hold them again. Ancestors, I honour you and will try to live with the dignity you have taught me.
Ouvrage Simserhof is a "gros ouvrage" of the Maginot Line, located near the community of Sierstal in the French "département" of Moselle. Simserhof is adjoined by "petit ouvrage" Rohrbach and "gros ouvrage" Schiesseck, and faces the German frontier. Located 4 km to the west of Bitche, the "ouvrage" derived its name from a nearby farm. It was a part of the Fortified Sector of Rohrbach. During the Battle of France in 1940, Simserhof supported its neighboring fortifications with covering artillery fire, with partial success. After the surrender of France, it was occupied by the Germans as a storage depot for torpedoes, and later resisted the American advances of late 1944. Taken by the Americans, it was briefly re-occupied by the Germans during Operation Nordwind. Following the war it was repaired for use by the French Army, but was proposed as a museum of the Maginot Line as early as the 1960s. Retained by the Ministry of Defense, Simserhof now functions as a museum, and has the most extensive visitor infrastructure of any of the preserved Maginot fortifications.
Imagine that you threw a rock into a still pond. It creates waves going out from itself. Now, if you threw two rocks they would each create their own series of waves. When the peaks from two waves overlapped they would create a higher wave than either of the individual ones. That's what's happening with sound. The sound waves add up and reinforce each other. Note that there is a sound wave which is exactly the opposite to the original which will completely cancel out both of them. This is the principle behind noise-cancelling headphones.
Halfpenny (British decimal coin) The halfpenny coin's obverse featured the profile of Queen Elizabeth II; the reverse featured an image of St Edward's Crown. It was minted in bronze (like the 1p and 2p coins). It was the smallest decimal coin in both size and value. The size was in proportion to the 1p and 2p coins. It soon became Britain's least favourite coin.[1] The Treasury had continued to argue that the halfpenny was important in the fight against inflation (preventing prices from being rounded up).[1] The coin was demonetised and withdrawn from circulation in December 1984.[1]
Supreme Court of the United States The Supreme Court of the United States (sometimes colloquially referred to by the acronym SCOTUS)[2] is the highest federal court of the United States. Established pursuant to Article Three of the United States Constitution in 1789, it has ultimate (and largely discretionary) appellate jurisdiction over all federal courts and state court cases involving issues of federal law plus original jurisdiction over a small range of cases. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is generally the final interpreter of federal law including the United States Constitution, but it may act only within the context of a case in which it has jurisdiction. The Court may decide cases having political overtones but does not have power to decide nonjusticiable political questions, and its enforcement arm is in the executive rather than judicial branch of government.
Corrosion is a natural process, which converts refined metal to their more stable oxide. It is the gradual destruction of materials (usually metals) by chemical reaction with their environment.In the most common use of the word, this means electrochemical oxidation of metal in reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen.or effective CP, the potential of the steel surface is polarized (pushed) more negative until the metal surface has a uniform potential. With a uniform potential, the driving force for the corrosion reaction is halted.
Traditionally, Icelandic yogurt is only made with non-fat milk and Greek is made with full fat, but big brands have changed all of that. We recounted the votes, twice -- even three times -- and it's true. Icelandic is triumphant. Check out the reviews below to see the best and worst tasting nonfat, plain yogurts.
Resurrection: Why We Need Mahler's Second Symphony on the 10th Anniversary of 9/11 \| The Huffington Post Resurrection: Why We Need Mahler's Second Symphony on the 10th Anniversary of 9/11 09/02/2011 04:29 pm ET \| Updated Nov 02, 2011 Albert Imperato Co-founded 21C Media Group Recently, The New York Times published a lengthy list of special 9/11 programming that will hit the airwaves, the concert hall, houses of worship, and movie theaters around the country over the next couple of weeks. Among the events is a special free concert by conductor Alan Gilbert (a client of my company) and the New York Philharmonic of Mahler's Symphony No. 2, which bears the subtitle "Resurrection." Alan and the orchestra will perform this iconic symphony at Avery Fisher Hall on Saturday, September 10; it will also be simulcast onto a big screen on the Lincoln Center Plaza and broadcast on radio and television that night and on the evening of Sunday, September 11. Information about obtaining tickets for the concert is available here . Mahler's "Resurrection" Symphony was first performed in 1895. The inspiration for the work came from music that Mahler heard at the funeral of Hans von Bülow, a conductor he revered. It's a massive and utterly awe-inspiring work, which begins with an often-terrifying funeral march and ends, more than 80 minutes later, with a blazing choral hymn celebrating the ultimate rebirth of the spirit. The adjective "life-changing" is overused to describe many things, but Mahler's Second genuinely has that kind of transformative power. Some fans of the symphony have a religious, almost cultish devotion to it. For many orchestras and conductors, it is a musical Everest, a benchmark, and a go-to piece for momentous occasions. It is simply one of the greatest works of art ever created, and it is exactly the music that we need to listen to right now. A decade of war, and now more than two years of extreme economic hardship -- much of it caused by wanton greed -- has left America with a profound hope deficit. Approaching 50 years old now, I look back and realize that a full decade of my life has been lived deep in the shadow of 9/11. My memories of that terrible day are still painfully vivid, but my desire for the country to move beyond fear and sadness, and fully into the light of hope and renewed possibility, is very real and very intense. Mahler's "Resurrection" Symphony can help us. For all its titanic reach, dramatic force and visceral power, Mahler's "Resurrection" has some unforgettable moments of repose that provide great salve for the ravaged soul. My favorite is the fourth movement, "Urlicht" ("Primeval Light") -- a tender song of innocence sung by the mezzo-soprano. Here's one of the greats, Janet Baker, singing it with Leonard Bernstein conducting the London Symphony Orchestra: You don't need to be a religious person to be overtaken by the sincerity and sweetness of this music. "Man lies in greatest need! Man lies in greatest pain!" she sings at the beginning. Look around us: that's the world we live in, partly because of our inherent frailty as mortals, but also because so many of us have acquiesced to the pain and need around us, victims, as we often are, of our own self-absorption. But Mahler's "Urlicht" takes us beyond all of this, beyond blame and worry, and squarely onto the road of redemption. "I am from God and shall return to God!" she sings. And, for me, these simple words are cause for enduring hope. The New York Philharmonic has called its September 10 performance of Mahler's Second Symphony, "A Concert for New York for the Tenth Anniversary of 9/11 -- In Remembrance and Renewal." Mahler's "Resurrection" Symphony suits this occasion perfectly, and I hope that the work's message of rebirth and transcendence will resonate long after the occasion for which it has been programmed. Follow Albert Imperato on Twitter: www.twitter.com/ajimperato More:
The first newspaper in Namibia was the German-language Windhoeker Anzeiger, founded 1898. Radio was introduced in 1969, TV in 1981. During German rule, the newspapers mainly reflected the living reality and the view of the white German-speaking minority. The black majority was ignored or depicted as a threat. During South African rule, the white bias continued, with mentionable influence of the Pretoria government on the "South West African" media system. Independent newspapers were seen as a menace to the existing order, critical journalists threatened.
The simplest way to turn a noun into an adjective is to add suffixes to the end of the root word. The most common suffixes used to create adjectives are-ly, -able, -al, -ous, -ary, -ful, -ic, -ish, -less, -like and-y. For example, turn the noun danger into the adjective dangerous by adding the suffix-ous.
A person convicted of perjury under federal law may face up to five years in prison and fines. The punishment for perjury under state law varies from state to state, but perjury is a felony and carries a possible prison sentence of at least one year, plus fines and probation. Penalties are increased in relation to how much the perjury interfered with the proceeding.
Even more complex morphological changes are sometimes possible. For example, when starved of amino acids, Myxobacteria detect surrounding cells in a process known as quorum sensing, migrate toward each other, and aggregate to form fruiting bodies up to 500 micrometres long and containing approximately 100,000 bacterial cells. In these fruiting bodies, the bacteria perform separate tasks; this type of cooperation is a simple type of multicellular organisation. For example, about one in 10 cells migrate to the top of these fruiting bodies and differentiate into a specialised dormant state called myxospores, which are more resistant to drying and other adverse environmental conditions than are ordinary cells.
There are 3 common tests that make up this blood panel. Sometimes the doctor may ask to check your blood again six months after your first visit to confirm your hepatitis B status. If you think you have been recently infected with hepatitis B, it will take 4 -6 weeks before the virus will be detected in your blood.
(There'll Be Bluebirds Over) The White Cliffs of Dover "(There'll Be Bluebirds Over) The White Cliffs of Dover" is a popular World War II song composed in 1941 by Walter Kent to lyrics by Nat Burton. Made famous in Vera Lynn's 1942 version, it was one of Lynn's best-known recordings and among the most popular World War II tunes.
The New York State League was an independent baseball league that played six seasons between 2007 and 2012 in the New York City metro area . Over 500 NYSL players have been signed by professional teams . Players from forty-eight states and eleven countries have competed in the league . The NYSL was the developmental league for the Can-Am League . Its level of play was self-described as being on par with the lowest level of minor league baseball , the complex-based `` rookie '' leagues -LRB- it explicitly compared its format to that of the Gulf Coast League -RRB- .
Opal Dream (also known as Pobby and Dingan) is a 2006 Australian drama film, based on the Ben Rice novella "Pobby and Dingan", directed by Peter Cattaneo and starring an ensemble cast including Vince Colosimo, Jacqueline McKenzie, Christian Byers and Sapphire Boyce. It was filmed on location around South Australia, in Adelaide, Coober Pedy and Woomera. "Opal Dream" was released in Australia on 28 September 2006, with eventual release around the world.
"I ate his liver with some fava beans and a nice Chianti": University of Waikato "I ate his liver with some fava beans and a nice Chianti" 31 October 2002 When the dust from the collapse of the Berlin wall cleared, Hannibal Lecter emerged as the archetypal screen villain of the Post-Cold War era. Hollywood could no longer depend on the stock Russian/communist villain. A new representation of evil was needed. That search will be the subject of a doctoral study by Screen and Media Studies student Neil Bather, supported by a three year Bright Futures Scholarship from the Foundation for Research Science and Technology. Neil's research looks at the messages beneath the surface of popular film, at the ways evil is thought of and represented in society. Those films, Neil believes, particularly Hollywood blockbusters, provide mass audiences with reference points on the world. "Look at people's reaction to September 11. They saw the attacks and said 'It was like a movie'. What kind of movie did they have in mind? You're talking about movies like 'Armageddon' and 'Deep Impact', the Hollywood block buster." In the PC '80s and '90s a move to stock middle-Eastern villains seemed too blatant. One interesting move was the substitution in "Sum of All Fears" of neo-Nazis for the middle eastern terrorists of Tom Clancy's original novel. Character is only one way evil is represented in film, and Neil is also interested in the use of nature as a depiction of malevolence. Films like 'Twister' and 'The Perfect Storm' have extended the range of forces against which heroes battle. The real trend was perhaps the adoption of bogeymen closer to home - the local psychopath, the Hannibal Lecter next door. The past year, following the terrorist attacks on New York and Washington, has seen film makers rapidly adapt to the sensitivities and patriotism of the American audience. Scenes in films as apparently apolitical as "Spiderman" were remade to strengthen their patriotic appeal. Another interesting link to the political world is found in films like "Black Hawk Down", and Neil has found recent speeches by President Bush and US military leaders very interesting. "The American government reaction to September 11 was interchangeable with the script for 'Air Force One'." That fact alone underscores the importance of analyzing what is presented on screen, Neil says. "It is important to know what we are being shown. Film can frame our responses, but our own knowledge also shapes our reaction to film. For instance, 'Black Hawk Down" was based on truth, but reactions to it ranged from seeing it as American pro-war pornography to a Somalian view of it as anti-American." Neil's used simple economics to cut his potential database down to size. No movie will make his cut unless it has taken at least $100m at the US box office. That officially puts it in the "popular" movie class, with over 200 such blockbusters having been produced since 1989. It's still an ambitious project, and Neil's likely to get much more familiar with his own collection of 75 videos and DVDs over the three years of his scholarship. FRST will provide the funding for the study and conference leave; Neil's responsible for his own popcorn.
Charles H. Irby was the chief software architect on SRI International's oN-Line System (NLS) that was used in The Mother of All Demos, which established many of the user interface standards that exist today, and also lead the design group for the Xerox Star. He co-founded Metaphor Computer Systems and lead the design of its products.
Where does the expression âfifth columnistâ come from and What does fifth columnist mean? Where does the expression âfourth estateâ come from and What does fourth estate mean? Where does the term âfifth wheelâ come from and What does fifth wheel mean? What Do the Terms âLeft-Wingâ and âRight-Wingâ Mean in Politics and How Did the Terms Originate?
It has a sweet, floral fragrance and is used mainly as a fragrance in perfumes, cleansers, aromatherapy products, massage oils and other cosmetics. In addition to ylang-ylang's flowery fragrance, some people claim that the oil of this flower of flowers can even out the skin's oiliness. Skin naturally produces oil, known as sebum, to protect it and seal in its moisture. Oily skin produces too much sebum, whereas dry skin produces too little.
William Shakespeare's Romeo + Juliet (shortened to Romeo + Juliet) is a 1996 American romantic drama film directed, co-produced, and co-written by Baz Luhrmann, co-produced by Gabriella Martinelli, and co-written by Craig Pearce, being an adaptation and modernization of William Shakespeare's tragedy "Romeo and Juliet". The film stars Leonardo DiCaprio and Claire Danes in the leading roles of Romeo and Juliet, who instantly fall in love when Romeo crashes a party and meets her, despite their being members of the Montague and Capulet family; Brian Dennehy, John Leguizamo, Pete Postlethwaite, Paul Sorvino, and Diane Venora star in supporting roles.
History of Western civilization In 1492, the Genovese born mariner, Christopher Columbus set out under the auspices of the Crown of Castile to seek an oversea route to the East Indies via the Atlantic Ocean. Rather than Asia, Columbus landed in the Bahamas, in the Caribbean. Spanish colonization followed and Europe established Western Civilization in the Americas. The Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama led the first sailing expedition directly from Europe to India in 1497-1499, by the Atlantic and Indian oceans, opening up the possibility of trade with the East other than via perilous overland routes like the Silk Road. Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer working for the Spanish Crown (under the Crown of Castile), led an expedition in 1519â€“1522 which became the first to sail from the Atlantic Ocean into the Pacific Ocean and the first to cross the Pacific. It also completed the first circumnavigation of the Earth (although Magellan himself was killed in the Philippines).
Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States Heart of Atlanta Motel Inc. v. United States, 379 U.S. 241 (1964),[1][2] was a landmark United States Supreme Court case holding that the U.S. Congress could use the power granted to it by the Constitution's Commerce Clause to force private businesses to abide by the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Quarantine L.A. , also known as Infected , is a 2013 American action horror film about seven strangers who band together for survival in the aftermath of a devastating viral outbreak . The film is the third installment of Quarantine film series . The film was written and directed by Filip Maciejewicz , in his directorial debut , and starred Bo Linton , Eugenia Kuzmina and Adrian Voo .
Las Vegas: Annual Weather Averages. July is the hottest month in Las Vegas with an average temperature of 34Â°C (92Â°F) and the coldest is December at 8Â°C (46Â°F) with the most daily sunshine hours at 13 in August. The wettest month is August with an average of 14mm of rain. Loading weather data. Please waitâ¦.
George Clinton -LRB- April 20 , 1812 -RRB- was an American soldier and statesman , considered one of the Founding Fathers of the United States . He was Governor of New York from 1777 to 1795 , and again from 1801 to 1804 , then served as the fourth Vice President of the United States from 1805 to 1812 , under Presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Madison . He and John C. Calhoun are the only people to have served as US Vice President under two different presidents .
Richard Hull is an American media executive , and film and television financier/producer . He is the Executive Chairman of Latin Everywhere , which controls one of the largest libraries of Spanish-language content in the world . He has produced more than 20 films and television shows , including She 's All That starring Freddie Prinze , Jr. and Rachel Leigh Cook . In 2011 , he won the NAACP Image Award for his film For Love of Liberty : The Story of America 's Black Patriots , which he produced with Halle Berry with an introduction by Colin Powell . In 2000 , he and Matthew McConaughey produced The Story of Darrell Royal about legendary University of Texas football coach Darrell Royal . The film featured President George W. Bush , Willie Nelson , Ed Marinaro , Keith Jackson , Mack Brown and Tom Hicks . He contributed an essay to the book Dancing with Digital Natives : Staying in Step with the Generation That 's Transforming the Way Business Is Done . The book won the 2012 Axiom Bronze Award and it was a 2011 USA Awards Best Books finalist . He has authored numerous articles about media and entertainment for eContent Magazine and he gave the keynote address at the Buying and Selling eContent Executive Conference in 2010 . He is a frequent speaker at the Digital Hollywood conference .
Soon it will be time for fireflies and barbecue, for long, bright days at the Shore and balmy summer nights on the boardwalk. To embrace the spirit of spring and look ahead to those warmer days, here's a rundown of summer festivals in New Jersey, whether celebrations of food, music, art, film or plain ol' fun. The list starts in the weeks before Memorial Day and wraps up in September.

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