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63,109,497 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait%20Space%20Rocket | The Kuwait Space Rocket (KSR), is a Kuwaiti project to build and launch the first suborbital liquid bi-propellant rocket in Arabia. The project is intended to be the first step towards starting a space industry in the country and a launch service provider in the GCC region. The project is divided into two phases with two separate vehicles. An initial testing phase with KSR-1 as a test vehicle capable of reaching an altitude of and a more expansive suborbital test phase with the KSR-2 planned to fly to an altitude of . in May 16 Ambition-1 launched but had a malfunction with the parachute and crashed in free fall.
History
The project began in January 2018 for conceptual design and planning. The team started the fabrication of KSR-1 in early 2019, and as of January 2020, KSR-1 was fully built.
KSR-1
KSR-1 is a vertically-launched single stage rocket. It uses a liquid bi-propellant rocket engine burning methanol as fuel and nitrous oxide as the oxidizer. KSR-1 is intended to be a test vehicle for the development of KSR-2, the goal of which is to reach space. As such, all the major components and technologies that are expected to be used in KSR-2 are present in KSR-1. The main components of KSR 1 are the engine—consisting of the injector, nozzle, and cooling jacket— with fuel and oxidizer tanks, a nitrogen gas tank, and various valves and pressure regulators.
KSR-1 Development Process
Engine Fabrication
The KSR-1 engine was built locally in Kuwait and it utilizes a pressure fed cycle. The engine utilizes the nitrous not only as an oxidizer but as a cooling agent, that flows around the nozzle and back into the injector again.
Cold Flow Testing
The KSR team performed a cold flow testing in October 2019 to verify the engine's flow rate and plumbing.
Static Testing
KSR performed a static testing of the Injector in November 2019.
Structural Assembly
The KSR-1 was fully assembled and presented at the Kuwait Aviation Show 2020.
KSR-2
KSR-2 is a planned liquid bi-propellant suborbital launch vehicle. It is the second installment of the KSR Rocket Family, composed of a single stage, fueled by nitrous oxide and methanol. KSR-2 will have a total length of 4 m, a diameter of 0.4 m and a total mass of 591 kg, its apogee will be around 100 km.
See also
Sub-orbital spaceflight
Launch vehicle
References
Suborbital spaceflight
Aerospace
Research groups | Kuwait Space Rocket | [
"Physics"
] | 561 | [
"Spacetime",
"Space",
"Aerospace"
] |
63,109,976 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20body%20armor%20performance%20standards | Body armor performance standards are lists generated by national authorities, of requirements for armor to perform reliably, clearly indicating what the armor may and may not defeat. Different countries have different standards, which may include threats that are not present in other countries.
VPAM armor standard (Europe)
The VPAM scale as of 2009 runs from 1 to 14, with 1-5 being soft armor, and 6-14 being hard armor. Tested armor must withstand three hits, spaced apart, of the designated test threat with no more than of back-face deformation in order to pass. Of note is the inclusion of special regional threats such as Swiss P AP from RUAG and .357 DAG. According to VPAM's website, it is apparently used in France and Britain.
The VPAM scale is as follows:
TR armor standard (Germany)
The Technische Richtlinie (TR) Ballistische Schutzwesten is a regulation guide in Germany for body armor. It is mainly issued for body armor used by the German police, but also for the German armed forces and civilian available body armor. Producers have to meet the criteria of the TR, if they want to participate in open competitive bidding made by German agencies. The TR specifies different Schutzklassen (SK), which translates to protection classes, which a body armor can have. It specifies five different classes ranging from L to 4 of ballistic protection (e.g. SK 4). It also gives specifications for additional Stichschutz (ST), protection against knives, using the same classes as the ballistic protection, but giving it the additional ST label (e.g. SK L ST). The ballistic tests to determine a class are now integrated into the VPAM guidelines, so that the tests differ just in minor details and only one test (SK 1) is significantly different as of 2008.
The TR scale is as follows:
The German TR are generally comparable to the American NIJ, but the German TR usually tests more threat scenarios, as there are no point-blank shots as well as no police special rounds. In contrast the NIJ tests for bigger calibers and higher man stopping power. And while the German TR tests smaller calibers and lighter bullets, it also tests more aggressive rounds, as the first test already uses steel FMJ bullets, while the NIJ uses normal FMJ rounds. In addition SK 4, the highest protection class, is specified to withstand three hits, while Level IV needs only to withstand one hit - although by a bigger caliber (7.62×63mm).
HOSDB armor standard (United Kingdom)
The Home Office Scientific Development Branch is governing standards and testing protocols for police body armor.
BFD (Back Face Deformation) to be measured after each shot, maximum allowed BFD for HG1/A class is and for the rest.
GOST armor standard (Russia)
GOST R 50744-95 is the Russian Federation standard for body armor. Prior to the 2017 revision, the threat levels ran from 1 to 6. Noticeably, it included threats with the suffix A, which denote heightened ratings as opposed to lowered ratings in the NIJ standard.
The old (pre-2017) standards are as follows:
With the 2017 revision, the standards have changed significantly. Threat classes now range from BR1 to BR6. 'A'-suffixed classes have been eliminated, and their test threats have been either merged into the new categories, such as Classes 6 and 6A being moved into Class BR5, or removed entirely, as in the case of Class 2A. Additionally, several of the threat levels have been increased in difficulty with the introduction of new test threats; most notably is the introduction of Class BR6, which requires the tested armor to survive three hits of 12.7×108mm B32 API. In spite of the more difficult test threats, the back-face deformation limit remains unchanged.
The updated standards from the 2017 revision are as follows:
NIJ armor standard (United States)
Ballistic resistance (before April 2024)
NIJ Standard-0101.06 had specific performance standards for bullet resistant vests used by law enforcement. This rated vests on the following scale against penetration and also blunt trauma protection (deformation):
"Special Threats" were ratings of armor which provide protection against specific projectiles. For example, the NIJ guidelines did not have any specification for armor that can stop M855 armor piercing ammunition. As a result, some manufacturers designated specific armors as "Level III+" (a designation not recognized by the NIJ) to specify armor which had up to level III protection and could protect against special threats like the M855, but did not provide level IV protection.
Ballistic resistance (after April 2024)
In April 2024, NIJ began testing with NIJ Standard-0101.07 in conjunction with NIJ Standard-0123.00. NIJ Standard-0101.07 outlines testing procedures, while NIJ Standard-0123.00 describes ballistic protection levels. These standards completely replaced the NIJ Standard-0101.06. HG is rated for handgun threats and RF is rated for rifle threats.
The ballistic protection levels outlined in NIJ Standard 0123.00 are as follows:
NIJ standards are used for law enforcement armors. Armor used by the United States military is not required to be tested under NIJ standards. Textile armor is tested for both penetration resistance by bullets and for the impact energy transmitted to the wearer.
Backface deformation
Backface deformation is defined in NIJ Standard-0101.07 as "the indentation in the backing material caused by a projectile impact on the test item during testing". It is measured by shooting armor mounted in front of a backing material, typically oil-based modeling clay. The clay is used at a controlled temperature and verified for impact flow before testing. After the armor is impacted with the test bullet, the vest is removed from the clay and the depth of the indentation in the clay is measured.
Conditioned armor
Some armor tested under NIJ Standard-0101.07 is conditioned before testing, meaning it has been subjected to stress factors such as submersion, vibration, or impacts. These stress factors have been shown in some cases to degrade the performance of some armor material. The test-round velocity for conditioned armor is the same as that for unconditioned armor during testing, whereas in the previous standard the velocities would have varied. For example, under NIJ Standard-0101.06, conditioned Level IIIA would have been shot with a .44 Magnum round at , while unconditioned Level IIIA would have been shot at . Under NIJ Standard-0101.07, the velocity used for testing conditioned and unconditioned armor is the same. Armor conditioning procedures are outlined in ASTM E3078 Standard Practice for Conditioning of Hard Armor Test Items.
Generally, textile armor material temporarily degrades when wet. As a result of this, the major test standards call for wet testing of textile armor. Mechanisms for this loss of performance are not known. Neutral water at room temp has not been shown in testing to negatively affect the performance of para-aramid or UHMWPE but acidic, basic and some other solutions can permanently reduce para-aramid fiber tensile strength.
From 2003 to 2005, a large study of the environmental degradation of Zylon armor was undertaken by the US-NIJ. This concluded that water, long-term use, and temperature exposure significantly affect tensile strength and the ballistic performance of PBO or Zylon fiber. This NIJ study on vests returned from the field demonstrated that environmental effects on Zylon resulted in ballistic failures under standard test conditions.
Stab resistance
The NIJ's stab resistance standards (Standard–0115.00) define three levels of protection:
Level 1 armor is low-level protection suitable for extended wear and is usually covert. This armor protects against stab threats with a strike energy of 24±0.50 J (17.7±0.36 ft·lbf). The overtest condition for this level is 36±0.60 J (26.6±0.44 ft·lbf).
Level 2 armor is medium-level protection suitable for extended wear and may be either overt or covert. This armor protects against stab threats with a strike energy of 33±0.60 J (24.3±0.44 ft·lbf). The overtest condition for this level is 50±0.70 J (36.9±0.51 ft·lbf).
Level 3 is high-level protection suitable for wear in high risk situations and is usually overt. This armor protects against stab threats with a strike energy of 43±0.60 J (31.7±0.44 ft·lbf). The overtest condition for this level is 65±0.80 J (47.9±0.59 ft·lbf).
For all three levels, the maximum blade or spike penetration allowed is 7 mm (0.28 in), with this limit being determined through research indicating that internal injuries to organs would be extremely unlikely at this depth of penetration. The overtest condition, which is intended to ensure an adequate margin of safety in the armor design, permits a maximum blade or spike penetration of 20 mm (0.79 in).
The standard does not directly address slash resistance and instead notes that, since stab threats are more difficult to defeat, any armor that can defeat a stab threat will also defeat a slash threat.
US military armor standards
Although the US military requirements for body armor mirror the NIJ's on a surface level, the two are very different systems. The two systems share a limit on back-face deformation, but SAPI-series plates increase linearly in protection (with each plate tested against the preceding plate's threats), and require a soft armor backer in order to reach their stated level of protection.
Armor is tested using a standard set of test methods under ARMY MIL-STD-662F and STANAG 2920 Ed2. The Department of Defense armor programs-of-record (Modular Tactical Vest for example) procure armor using these test standards. In addition, special requirements can be defined under this process such as flexible rifle protection, fragment protection for the extremities, etc.
GA141 armor standard (China)
The Chinese Ministry of Public Security has maintained GA141, a standard document for describing the ballistic resistance of police armor, since 1996. , the latest revision is GA141-2010. The standard defines the following grades using domestic weapons:
Levels higher than 6 are marked "special". Levels 1 through 5 are to be tested with 6 shots. Level 6 is to be tested with 2 shots.
Annex A describes the use of GA grades against other "common" threats. 9×18mm Makarov is assigned to GA 1, 9×19mm to GA 2, 9×19mm AP (steel) and 5.8×21mm DAP92 AP to GA 4, 5.8×42mm DBP87 to GA 6, and "type 53" 7.62×54mmR API to "special grade".
Ballistic testing V50 and V0
Measuring the ballistic performance of armor is based on determining the kinetic energy of a bullet at impact (Ek = mv2). Because the energy of a bullet is a key factor in its penetrating capacity, velocity is used as the primary independent variable in ballistic testing. For most users the key measurement is the velocity at which no bullets will penetrate the armor. Measuring this zero penetration velocity (v0) must take into account variability in armor performance and test variability. Ballistic testing has a number of sources of variability: the armor, test backing materials, bullet, casing, powder, primer and the gun barrel, to name a few.
Variability reduces the predictive power of a determination of V0. If for example, the v0 of an armor design is measured to be with a 9 mm FMJ bullet based on 30 shots, the test is only an estimate of the real v0 of this armor. The problem is variability. If the v0 is tested again with a second group of 30 shots on the same vest design, the result will not be identical.
Only a single low velocity penetrating shot is required to reduce the v0 value. The more shots made the lower the v0 will go. In terms of statistics, the zero penetration velocity is the tail end of the distribution curve. If the variability is known and the standard deviation can be calculated, one can rigorously set the V0 at a confidence interval. Test Standards now define how many shots must be used to estimate a v0 for the armor certification. This procedure defines a confidence interval of an estimate of v0. (See "NIJ and HOSDB test methods".)
v0 is difficult to measure, so a second concept has been developed in ballistic testing called the ballistic limit (v50). This is the velocity at which 50 percent of the shots go through and 50 percent are stopped by the armor. US military standard MIL-STD-662F V50 Ballistic Test define a commonly used procedure for this measurement. The goal is to get three shots that penetrate that are slower than a second faster group of three shots that are stopped by the armor. These three high stops and three low penetrations can then be used to calculate a v50 velocity.
In practice this measurement of v50 requires 1–2 vest panels and 10–20 shots. A very useful concept in armor testing is the offset velocity between the v0 and v50. If this offset has been measured for an armor design, then v50 data can be used to measure and estimate changes in v0. For vest manufacturing, field evaluation and life testing both v0 and v50 are used. However, as a result of the simplicity of making v50 measurements, this method is more important for control of armor after certification.
Military testing: fragment ballistics
After the Vietnam War, military planners developed a concept of "Casualty Reduction". The large body of casualty data made clear that in a combat situation, fragments, not bullets, were the most important threat to soldiers. After WWII, vests were being developed and fragment testing was in its early stages. Artillery shells, mortar shells, aerial bombs, grenades, and antipersonnel mines are all fragmentation devices. They all contain a steel casing that is designed to burst into small steel fragments or shrapnel, when their explosive core detonates. After considerable effort measuring fragment size distribution from various NATO and Soviet bloc munitions, a fragment test was developed. Fragment simulators were designed, and the most common shape is a right circular cylinder or RCC simulator. This shape has a length equal to its diameter. These RCC Fragment Simulation Projectiles (FSPs) are tested as a group. The test series most often includes 2 grain (0.13 g), 4 grain (0.263 g), 16 grain (1.0 g), and 64 grain (4.2 g) mass RCC FSP testing. The 2-4-16-64 series is based on the measured fragment size distributions.
The second part of "Casualty Reduction" strategy is a study of velocity distributions of fragments from munitions. Warhead explosives have blast speeds of to . As a result, they are capable of ejecting fragments at very high speeds of over , implying very high energy (where the energy of a fragment is mass × velocity2, neglecting rotational energy). The military engineering data showed that, like the fragment size, the fragment velocities had characteristic distributions. It is possible to segment the fragment output from a warhead into velocity groups. For example, 95% of all fragments from a bomb blast under have a velocity of or less. This established a set of goals for military ballistic vest design.
The random nature of fragmentation required the military vest specification to trade off mass vs. ballistic-benefit. Hard vehicle armor is capable of stopping all fragments, but military personnel can only carry a limited amount of gear and equipment, so the weight of the vest is a limiting factor in vest fragment protection. The 2-4-16-64 grain series at limited velocity can be stopped by an all-textile vest of approximately 5.4 kg/m2 (1.1 lb/ft2). In contrast to the design of vest for deformable lead bullets, fragments do not change shape; they are steel and can not be deformed by textile materials. The FSP (the smallest fragment projectile commonly used in testing) is about the size of a grain of rice; such small fast moving fragments can potentially slip through the vest, moving between yarns. As a result, fabrics optimized for fragment protection are tightly woven, although these fabrics are not as effective at stopping lead bullets.
Backing materials for testing
Ballistic
One of the critical requirements in soft ballistic testing is measurement of "back side signature" (i.e. energy delivered to tissue by a non-penetrating projectile) in a deformable backing material placed behind the targeted vest. The majority of military and law enforcement standards have settled on an oil/clay mixture for the backing material, known as Roma Plastilena. Although harder and less deformable than human tissue, Roma represents a "worst case" backing material when plastic deformations in the oil/clay are low (less than ). (Armor placed over a harder surface is more easily penetrated.) The oil/clay mixture of "Roma" is roughly twice the density of human tissue and therefore does not match its specific gravity, however "Roma" is a plastic material that will not recover its shape elastically, which is important for accurately measuring potential trauma through back side signature.
The selection of test backing is significant because in flexible armor, the body tissue of a wearer plays an integral part in absorbing the high energy impact of ballistic and stab events. However the human torso has a very complex mechanical behavior. Away from the rib cage and spine, the soft tissue behavior is soft and compliant. In the tissue over the sternum bone region, the compliance of the torso is significantly lower. This complexity requires very elaborate bio-morphic backing material systems for accurate ballistic and stab armor testing. A number of materials have been used to simulate human tissue in addition to Roma. In all cases, these materials are placed behind the armor during test impacts and are designed to simulate various aspects of human tissue impact behavior.
One important factor in test backing for armor is its hardness. Armor is more easily penetrated in testing when backed by harder materials, and therefore harder materials, such as Roma clay, represent more conservative test methods.
Stab
Stab and spike armor standards have been developed using 3 different backing materials. The Draft EU norm calls out Roma clay, The California DOC called out 60% ballistic gelatin and the current standard for NIJ and HOSDB calls out a multi-part foam and rubber backing material.
Using Roma clay backing, only metallic stab solutions met the 109 joule Calif. DOC ice pick requirement
Using 10% Gelatin backing, all fabric stab solutions were able to meet the 109 joule Calif. DOC ice pick requirement.
Most recently the Draft ISO prEN ISO 14876 norm selected Roma as the backing for both ballistics and stab testing.
This history helps explain an important factor in Ballistics and Stab armor testing, backing stiffness affects armor penetration resistance. The energy dissipation of the armor-tissue system is Energy = Force × Displacement when testing on backings that are softer and more deformable the total impact energy is absorbed at lower force. When the force is reduced by a softer more compliant backing the armor is less likely to be penetrated. The use of harder Roma materials in the ISO draft norm makes this the most rigorous of the stab standards in use today.
References
Performance standards
Ballistics
Lists of standards
Weapons countermeasures | List of body armor performance standards | [
"Physics"
] | 4,097 | [
"Applied and interdisciplinary physics",
"Ballistics"
] |
63,110,858 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covilh%C3%A3%20Data%20Center | The Covilhã Data Center is one of the largest data centers in the world and the largest in Portugal. It is owned by Altice Portugal.
See also
Altice
Altice Portugal
References
Altice Portugal
Data centers | Covilhã Data Center | [
"Technology"
] | 45 | [
"Data centers",
"Computers"
] |
63,111,964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum%20industry%20in%20Equatorial%20Guinea | Equatorial Guinea is a significant oil producer in Africa. Crude oil produced by the country is primarily extracted from the Alba, Zafiro, and Ceiba regions. As a result of the recent increase in the extraction of petroleum, the country's economy has grown significantly. In fact, during the period from 1997 to 2001, the country experienced an average GDP growth of 41.6% per year. However, there have been recent accusations of corruption and repression by the government resulting from the nation's newfound wealth.
History
Throughout much of the 1990s, Equatorial Guinea was considered to be a poor country with little prospects of economic growth. Although the country had been rather successful at independence due to its cocoa industry, the Macias regime that quickly exerted its repressive forces eventually diminished it to a shell of its former glory. In fact, the cocoa industry accounted for 75% of the nation's GDP in 1968-- the year of their independence from Spain. However, just 10 years later, the overall cocoa production reduced to one seventh of what it was before.
In 1980, the Spanish petroleum corporation Hispanoil signed in agreement with the Equatoguinean government to form the joint venture GEPSA. Shortly after, the firm successfully drilled a gas well in the Alba region that appeared to be promising. However, the Spanish oil company decided to withdraw from the country in 1990 due to the lack of a viable market for the gas discovered there. As a result, the government allowed for bids from other companies to extract oil.
Walter International was given the rights to drill in the region. Just one year later, a site close to the original drilling site set up by GEPSA began producing oil. Yet, it was not until 1995, when Mobil struck oil in its Zafiro field, that the country truly became a major oil-producing nation. Soon after in 1999, the American oil firm Triton discovered oil at its Ceiba field.
Due to several corporate changes through the early 2000s, the major oil companies that operated in the country were now owned by American firms. In contrast, there is a notable absence of British oil firms in the country. While Americans dominate the industry, Shell and BP both had yet to explore for oil. As a result of the prevalent presence of foreign firm in the country, foreign direct investment from all over has flooded the nation.
Production and exploration
From the dramatic increase in oil production in recent years, Equatorial Guinea has managed to claim the spot as the third largest oil producer in Africa. As a result, its GDP per capita is among the highest in the world. In fact, in 2005, the country had an estimated GDP per capita of $50,240-- only second to that of Luxembourg. In terms of oil extraction, accounting for the three main oil fields that the nation counts on, over 425,000 barrels were extracted per day that same year.
The true turning point in the nation's oil industry came with Mobil's discovery of oil in the Zafiro region. In just a few years, the overall Equatoguinean production of oil increased more than five times over. To the benefit of Mobil and foreign investors in general, the Nigerian and Equatoguinean governments were able to settle a land dispute in the Zafiro region. This paved the way for more confidence among foreign firms hoping to set up shop in the country. However, another important development was the development of the Ceiba oil field by Triton. This proved to be an important development due to its location; it is located far south from the other two oil-producing regions-- away from the Niger Delta. Despite its significant location, it started off as a relatively small operation-- producing just 40,000 barrels per day.
Operating agreements
As is the case in many other developing countries, the Equatoguinean government maintains a stake in much of the oil operations in the country. However, they in no way represent a key player in the industry. For example, they only retain a 3% share in operations in the Alba field and a 5% share in Zafiro field operations, which are significantly low shares in comparison with other industry players in the region and seems like signs of corruption concerning some major oil agreements and the final conditions agreed.
The American-based Riggs Bank was involved in a corruption scandal in which the US government accused them and Obiang of embezzling millions of dollars from the government treasury into personal bank accounts. These allegations highlight the increased level of corruption by high level officials as a result of the amount of wealth that has been brought to Equatorial Guinea's shores.
Political implications
Economic and demographic changes
The rapid rise of the petroleum industry in Equatorial Guinea has provided money for the government from two fronts: oil profits and foreign aid. It is important to note that both of these are without any strings attached. Unlike other developing countries that often have to meet certain requirements to receive aid from foreign donors, the control the government retains overs its oil industry gives them a bargaining chip against any sort of involvement in domestic policies. In fact, there has not been a World Bank lending program for the country since 1999. Additionally, its vast oil reserves allow the government to obtain loans backed by future oil revenues. From these financial resources combined, greater investments in patronage and security forces can implemented.
Given that pools of resources have been secured, Obiang has made it a priority to increase international legitimacy. Juridical statehood to control the money that entered the country and the benefits that come from them. Specifically, he has personally asked the British government for help in running its government in a more efficient manner and providing for more transparency. In return, the government has received praise from many foreign leaders, as the IMF did in 2003. Despite these initiatives, little has actually been done to reduce corruption and improve the lives of the general population.
A number of demographic changes have come since the oil boom. From the increased wealth of the country, populations are more inclined to live in urban settings. However, the higher level of spending has in turn led the domestic currency to inflate. This coupled with a reduction in foreign aid has led to an overall reduction in the standard of living. Although those that are directly employed by oil firms are well-paid by local standards, they represent a small sliver of the population. Additionally, that money stays with the oil companies, as company town models are quite prevalent. Therefore, much of the luxuries that are within the country are only accessible by a select few. This creates a divide between those that are involved with the oil industry and those that are not. In fact, it is a common policy that only those directly employed by the companies are allowed to live within the walls of these compounds; even servants must come and go daily. Thus, this system calls into question whether or not oil money trickles down within the country's society.
Corruption and scandals
Certainly, Obiang's clique has benefited from the control of the country's new wealth despite the fact that the government only has access to less than 10% of the benefits of oil production according to the contracts signed with extractive gas and oil companies, mainly some American oil companies, which makes clear the complicity and corruption in force in several cases of corruption of international coverage. However, there has in recent years been conflicts within the elite as a result of this. In his Esangui clan, there is dispute over who has the greatest influence over domestic policy-- which has traditionally been controlled by his brothers and sons. The public works projects that have been initiated have been inefficient and mostly to facilitate corruption, for which many seek to control the funneling of such funds. Additionally, a lot of wealth is also created through oil contracting companies, from which oil firms derive their labor. However, the nation's biggest ones are controlled by those that are direct family members of Obiang. This highlights the amount of nepotism that is coupled with corruption that cripples the country. From both these sources of wealth, elites have been able to amass a number of luxuries overseas, such as in Washington, D.C., where Obiang and his son are known to frequent and own several opulent properties.
While in many ways Equatorial Guinea can be considered a rentier state, it is not as effective as many states in the Middle East, such as the United Arab Emirates. While it does implement many tactics of repression, it has very little to offer its citizens, and thus the stability of the regime is questionable. Because of this, the number of repressive tactics and human rights abuses have increased since the oil boom. A particular example of this is Black's Prison in Malabo, which has received worldwide attention for the alleged violence and torture that occurs there. This has been particularly useful to coerce or suppress opposition forces that threaten the current regime.
In order to appease critics of corruption within the country, the government in 2004 pledged to sign onto the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. However this does little to combat corruption in that it only makes government salaries more transparent, not expenditures. Additionally, the country has delayed putting into place all the protocols the initiative calls for. Thus, commitments to tackle the corruption and nepotism that are prevalent in the country have been shallow and only for appearances; they have become a handicap towards the development of democracy in Equatorial Guinea.
References
Energy in Equatorial Guinea
Petroleum industry
Political economy | Petroleum industry in Equatorial Guinea | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,931 | [
"Petroleum industry",
"Petroleum",
"Chemical process engineering"
] |
63,112,274 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphanage%20tourism | Orphanage tourism is a type of tourism in which the wealthy of western countries visit orphanages in poorer countries. The practice has been described as commodifying the orphans for the benefit of tour operators and the management of the orphanages, while the tourists are exploited for their money. The children are expected to be "poor but happy" and are encouraged to engage in inappropriately intimate encounters with strangers with the risk of abuse.
References
External links
https://www.hopeandhomes.org/blog-article/orphanage-voluntourism/
https://www.theguardian.com/world/orphanage-tourism
Types of tourism
Orphanages
Philanthropy | Orphanage tourism | [
"Biology"
] | 137 | [
"Philanthropy",
"Behavior",
"Altruism"
] |
63,113,181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20media%20use%20in%20African%20politics | Since the Egyptian Revolution in 2011 and the Tunisian Revolution, social media, especially Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, has started to gain traction as a political tool in Africa. Different political actors have used social media to achieve a wide variety of political motives. States actors can encourage political discourse, campaign via social media, or implement censorship and surveillance. Non-state actors, such as civil society organizations and opposition forces, can use social media as a way to address political concerns and use this space to organize widespread revolutions, such as the 2014 Burkinabé uprising. Meanwhile, extremist organizations can use social media to further their propaganda and recruitment. However, social media is criticized for its inaccessibility and spread of misinformation, causing some skepticism about effectiveness.
Due to low-entry barriers and user-based content, social media creates a platform where people of different social classes can engage and converse with one another. With traditional media, the public did not have a space to voice their opinions about politics. Social media enables people to create content and consume more content. The public starts to become more comfortable and confident in expressing their political opinions online, away from the scrutiny of the government. There are arguments that social media use has democratizing effects on African countries.
State actors
Promoting political discourse
Through social media, the government and its citizens can discuss policy ideas, policy implementation, and political actions. Regardless of geographical location and distance, people are able to voice their opinions to the government. Social media includes citizens who were previously not able to express their discontent or share their ideas to the government. As state actors keep the public informed, social media can increase civic engagement. With more civic engagement, policies can be discussed without politicization. Before the commonplace use of social media, African countries faced weak feedback mechanisms that effectively excluded the average African citizen from policy discourse. In South Africa, the government uses social media to connect with constituencies. The South African president runs an official Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, and Flickr accounts to engage with the public.
Campaigning
Political parties also use social media for political campaigns during election periods. In South Africa, the ANC (African National Congress) and DA (Democratic Alliance) use social media for political purposes. These parties specifically use Facebook as a tool for campaigning and engaging with the public to improve their relationship with citizens. Nigerian President Goodluck Jonathan employed social media to campaign for the presidential election in 2011, which he won. When President Goodluck Jonathan announced his bid for the presidency on social media in 2010, it reached about 217,000 people. As his campaign progressed, President Goodluck Jonathan was able to increase his followers to half a million by early 2011.
Censorship & Surveillance
While state actors can use social media to encourage their party or discourse, social media can be used to censor and surveil citizens. For example, the ANC and DA use Facebook to monitor South Africans. The government is able to track down people who have spoken against the government and translate this information into physical action to stop any possibility of a revolution. Social media platforms can be shut down to manipulate the flow of information. In Chad, citizens cannot access information through online platforms. This censorship blocked "Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp and Viber". In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the government shut down the internet before contested elections. In Zimbabwe, the government shut down the internet to hide civilian protests against fuel price increases.
Non-state actors
Civil society organizations (CSOs)
Civil society organizations have also used social media networks in an effort to recruit supporters and communicate with the public. CSOs can use social media to mobilize people to support their cause, such as the Ghanaian Committee for Joint Action (CJA). In 2005 and 2006, the CJA gathered support to protest against the 50% fuel price increase. CSOs can play the role of a counterforce against state actors and state propaganda during times of crises, such as protests and military clashes. In some cases, CSOs release their own videos and photos on social media which challenges traditional forms of media. CSOs have also served to monitor elections to reduce corruption and violence during election day. For instance, the Zambian Bantu Watch started the #bantuwatch social media campaign to monitor the 2011 presidential election. Zambians used Facebook and Twitter to report polling station results to mitigate election fraud and election violence. In South Africa, CSOs created 'amandla.mobi' to campaign for public policies by creating petitions. Through 'amandla.mobi', CSOs are able to circulate petitions on social media to collect signatures. South African CSOs reported how social media helped their organizations to gain support and share ideas. However, CSOs struggle to attract media attention and often have to pay for media coverage.
Opposition forces against the government
Social media is also used by the public or opposition forces against the government. Through horizontal social media, organizing can lead to street protests and revolutions, some of which are successful. For instance, during the Egyptian revolution of 2011, "The Day of the Revolution Against Torture, Poverty, Corruption, and Unemployment" and "We Are All Khaled Said" gathered support against President Hosni Mubarak. In particular, "We Are All Khaled Said" had Egyptian citizens gather around the death of Khaled Said who was brutally tortured and killed by the Egyptian government because Said wanted to uncover government corruption. As unrest erupted into public demonstrations, President Hosni Mubarak was forced to resign. Witnessing the success of social media during the Egyptian revolution, the Tunisian Revolution, or the Jasmine Revolution, mobilized through Facebook and Twitter. Likewise, in South Africa, Malawi, and Mozambique, these countries have used social media as "new protest drums."
Due to social media's low entry barrier, opposition forces against the government can facilitate political discourse that can lead to accountability. Whistleblowers and opposition forces are able to expose corruption through social media, where they face less repression while reaching a larger audience. For example, the youth of Zimbabwe and South Africa use Facebook to discuss politics without judgment. Specifically, in Zimbabwe, political youth used Facebook to avoid state surveillance. Social media is used as a supplemental tool for activism. In 2015, South African student activists started the hashtag #RhodesMustFall to push the issue of colonialism and racism at the forefront of the public.
Extremist organizations
Social media is easily accessible and created by user-based content. Therefore, marginalized groups are able to use social media to spread extremist ideas. For instance, Boko Haram created the Media Office of West Africa Province and perpetuated propaganda through Twitter and YouTube. Boko Haram's online propaganda campaign targets and persuades young dissuaded Nigerians to join their cause. It is important to note that social media has also been used against Boko Haram. In April 2014, Boko Haram kidnapped 276 schoolgirls and an international campaign fought for their return through #BringBackOurGirls. Another extremist group, Al-Shabaab, has created an online presence through Twitter and YouTube. Through these social media networks, Al-Shabaab recruits new members to their extremist group through their propaganda which emphasizes the group's successes. Albeit their efforts, Al-Shabaab has not been very successful in coordinating their members but they are successful in financing their group. Furthermore, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) use social media to target and recruit individuals to their cause. ISIL's social media usage is more diverse compared to Boko Haram and Al-Shabaab; ISIL uses "Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, WhatsApp, Telegram, JustPaste.it, Kik and Ask.fm." Since ISIL's Twitter accounts kept getting shut down, ISIL uses Telegram and WhatsApp chat rooms to privately conduct meetings. Due to the spread of extremist ideology, Zhuravskaya et al. acknowledge social media's potential to be misused.
Challenges
Although social media can be used as a political tool, it faces challenges in Africa. Due to low literacy rates in Africa, social media networks exclude many of the population members. In addition, lack of access to electricity and the internet can further hinder people from expressing their political opinions online. Some African citizens reported they cannot use social media due to expensive internet expenses. Furthermore, social media networks are vulnerable to misinformation as gatekeeping is weakened. Fake news can undermine the quality of news and create echo chambers, which can contribute to political polarization. Thus, extremist groups are able to use social media as propaganda, recruitment, and fundraising tool. There is also skepticism about the overall effectiveness of social media in politics by African activists. Furthermore, Zhuravskaya et al. examine how social media activism may decrease physical and concrete political activism. Social media is also criticized for its lack of credibility, real leadership, and power that may create internal struggles and undermine the organization.
See also
Social media use in politics
Arab Spring
Tunisian Revolution
2014 Burkinabé uprising
#RhodesMustFall
References
Social media
Political communication | Social media use in African politics | [
"Technology"
] | 1,864 | [
"Computing and society",
"Social media"
] |
63,113,549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Kingdom%20Global%20Navigation%20Satellite%20System | The United Kingdom Global Navigation Satellite System (UK GNSS) was a United Kingdom Space Agency (UKSA) research programme which, between May 2018 and September 2020, developed outline proposals for a United Kingdom (UK) owned and operated conventional satellite navigation system, as a British alternative to the European Union (EU) owned and operated Galileo Global Navigation Satellite System. The main reason was to provide a national and independent system, to ensure UK security following its withdrawal from the EU as a result of Brexit. It was fully supported by the Ministry of Defence.
In September 2020, the UK GNSS programme concluded; it was relaunched as a new entity, namely the United Kingdom Space Based Positioning, Navigation and Timing Programme (UK SBPNTP).
History
With the now universal reliance on the output provided by satellite navigation systems by many aspects of everyday life, in both private and commercial sectors, along with critical uses by military, maritime, and emergency services, continued and reliable access to such navigation systems is vital for the United Kingdom. An earlier study by the UK Government warned that sustained disruption to a reliable satellite navigation could cost the British economy £1 billion per day.
The United Kingdom Global Navigation Satellite System was first discussed by the UK Government in May 2018, after the European Union told the United Kingdom that it would no longer have full access to, nor be able to use the encrypted secure component (known as the Public Regulated Service, which is only accessible to the military, emergency services, and government agencies) of the Galileo system, the European equivalent of the United States of America owned and operated Global Positioning System (GPS), originally known as Navstar GPS. This UK exclusion from Galileo was despite the fact that the United Kingdom had already contributed more than £1.2 billion towards the cost of setting up Galileo, together with providing much of the British development and cutting-edge technology. One suggested name for the new UK system was "Newton", after the English mathematician and scientist Sir Isaac Newton.
The UK GNSS was run by the United Kingdom Space Agency (UKSA). Medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites were planned to be launched from the proposed spaceport in Sutherland, Scotland, using a vertical launch platform in 2025, with the United Kingdom GNSS planned to be fully operational by 2030. In 2019, it was estimated that the cost of the project would be £5 billion.
The United Kingdom government said that it wanted its GNSS to be openly compatible with the United States of America's Global Positioning System (GPS), and the Five Eyes intelligence alliance. The USA, and the other Five Eyes nations contributed expertise to assist the planning and construction, and in exchange, these nations would gain access to the United Kingdom's GNSS encrypted area after it is launched.
In November 2019, the United Kingdom's Space Trade Association (UKSTA) released a United Kingdom Space Manifesto, in which they state "the UK's post-Brexit participation in a new global satellite navigation system must be secured".
In July 2020, the United Kingdom Government and India's Bharti Enterprises were successful in a joint bid to purchase the bankrupt OneWeb satellite communications company, with the UK paying £400 million (US$500 million) for a 45% stake. As a result of further investment in OneWeb from companies including SoftBank Group, Hughes Network Systems, and Hanwha Group, the UK Government's stake has been reduced to less than 20%. The UK government was considering whether the OneWeb low Earth orbit (LEO) satellite constellation could in future provide a form of GNSS service in addition to its primary purpose of fast satellite broadband. If successful, an ongoing merger between OneWeb and French satellite operator Eutelsat, which is partly state-owned through Bpifrance, will result in both UK and French government representation on the board of the resulting company. Analysts are speculating that this could mean greater collaboration between the UK and EU with regards to satellite technology.
On 24 September 2020, the UK Government announced that the UK GNSS programme would be replaced with a new project; the Space Based Positioning, Navigation and Timing Programme; which will explore innovative ways to provide satellite navigation services to the UK, building on findings from the concluded UK GNSS programme. The UK Government had allocated £90 million to developing the proposals.
See also
United Kingdom Space Command
GNSS applications
GNSS augmentation
Automotive navigation system
European Space Agency
References
Further reading
Satellite navigation systems
Space programme of the United Kingdom
2018 establishments in England
2020 disestablishments in England | United Kingdom Global Navigation Satellite System | [
"Technology"
] | 944 | [
"Satellite navigation systems",
"Information systems",
"Wireless locating",
"Computer systems"
] |
65,968,923 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entanglement%20depth | In quantum physics, entanglement depth characterizes the strength of multiparticle entanglement. An entanglement depth means that the quantum state of a particle ensemble cannot be described under the assumption that particles interacted with each other only in groups having fewer than particles. It has been used to characterize the quantum states created in experiments with cold gases.
Definition
Entanglement depth appeared in the context of spin squeezing. It turned out that to achieve larger and larger spin squeezing, and thus larger and larger precision in parameter estimation, a larger and larger entanglement depth is needed.
Later it was formalized in terms of convex sets of quantum states, independent of spin squeezing as follows. Let us consider a pure state that is the tensor product of multi-particle quantum states
The pure state is said to be -producible if all are states of at most particles. A mixed state is called -producible, if it is a mixture of pure states that are all at most -producible.
The -producible mixed states form a convex set.
A quantum state contains at least multiparticle entanglement of particles, if it is not -producible. A -particle state with -entanglement is called genuine multipartite entangled.
Finally, a quantum state has an entanglement depth , if it is -producible, but not -producible.
It was possible to detect the entanglement depth close to states different from spin-squeezed states. Since there is not a general method to detect multipartite entanglement, these methods had to be tailored to experiments with various relevant quantum states.
Thus, entanglement criteria has been developed to detect entanglement close to symmetric Dicke states with
They are very different from spin-squeezed states, since they do not have a large spin polarization.
They can provide Heisenberg limited metrology, while they are more robust to particle loss than Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger (GHZ) states.
There are also criteria for detecting the entanglement depth in planar-squeezed states. Planar squeezed states are quantum states that can be used to estimate a rotation angle that is not expected to be small.
Finally, multipartite entanglement can be detected based on the metrological usefulness of the quantum state. The criteria applied are based on bounds on the quantum Fisher information.
Experiments
The entanglement criterion in Ref. has been used in many experiments with cold gases in spin-squeezed states.
There have also been experiments in cold gases for detecting multipartite entanglement in symmetric Dicke states.
There have been also experiments with Dicke states that detected entanglement based on metrological usefulness in cold gases and in photons.
References
Quantum information science
Quantum optics
Optical quantities | Entanglement depth | [
"Physics",
"Mathematics"
] | 580 | [
"Physical quantities",
"Quantum optics",
"Quantity",
"Quantum mechanics",
"Optical quantities"
] |
65,969,594 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opisthoteuthis%20extensa | Opisthoteuthis extensa is a species of octopus found off the west coast of Sumatra, an Indonesian island. It lives at a recorded depth of . O. extensa lives in a benthic habitat, like many other cirrate octopuses. It occupies a deep part of the ocean where little sunlight penetrates.
The species has not been studied in-depth; not much is known besides its habitat and anatomical description. It is only known from a single female specimen.
The type specimen, upon which the description is based, has small suckers, small eyes, and arms that do not vary much in length. The fins, which it uses for locomotion, are also very small. O. extensa may be the same species as Opisthoteuthis pluto.
References
Octopuses
Cephalopods of Asia
Molluscs of the Indian Ocean
Cephalopods described in 1915
Species known from a single specimen | Opisthoteuthis extensa | [
"Biology"
] | 195 | [
"Individual organisms",
"Species known from a single specimen"
] |
65,970,498 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20coastal%20ecosystem | A marine coastal ecosystem is a marine ecosystem which occurs where the land meets the ocean. Worldwide there is about of coastline. Coastal habitats extend to the margins of the continental shelves, occupying about 7 percent of the ocean surface area. Marine coastal ecosystems include many very different types of marine habitats, each with their own characteristics and species composition. They are characterized by high levels of biodiversity and productivity.
For example, estuaries are areas where freshwater rivers meet the saltwater of the ocean, creating an environment that is home to a wide variety of species, including fish, shellfish, and birds. Salt marshes are coastal wetlands which thrive on low-energy shorelines in temperate and high-latitude areas, populated with salt-tolerant plants such as cordgrass and marsh elder that provide important nursery areas for many species of fish and shellfish. Mangrove forests survive in the intertidal zones of tropical or subtropical coasts, populated by salt-tolerant trees that protect habitat for many marine species, including crabs, shrimp, and fish.
Further examples are coral reefs and seagrass meadows, which are both found in warm, shallow coastal waters. Coral reefs thrive in nutrient-poor waters on high-energy shorelines that are agitated by waves. They are underwater ecosystem made up of colonies of tiny animals called coral polyps. These polyps secrete hard calcium carbonate skeletons that builds up over time, creating complex and diverse underwater structures. These structures function as some of the most biodiverse ecosystems on the planet, providing habitat and food for a huge range of marine organisms. Seagrass meadows can be adjacent to coral reefs. These meadows are underwater grasslands populated by marine flowering plants that provide nursery habitats and food sources for many fish species, crabs and sea turtles, as well as dugongs. In slightly deeper waters are kelp forests, underwater ecosystems found in cold, nutrient-rich waters, primarily in temperate regions. These are dominated by a large brown algae called kelp, a type of seaweed that grows several meters tall, creating dense and complex underwater forests. Kelp forests provide important habitats for many fish species, sea otters and sea urchins.
Directly and indirectly, marine coastal ecosystems provide vast arrays of ecosystem services for humans, such as cycling nutrients and elements, and purifying water by filtering pollutants. They sequester carbon as a cushion against climate change. They protect coasts by reducing the impacts of storms, reducing coastal erosion and moderating extreme events. They provide essential nurseries and fishing grounds for commercial fisheries. They provide recreational services and support tourism. These ecosystems are vulnerable to various anthropogenic and natural disturbances, such as pollution, overfishing, and coastal development, which have significant impacts on their ecological functioning and the services they provide. Climate change is impacting coastal ecosystems with sea level rises, ocean acidification, and increased storm frequency and intensity. When marine coastal ecosystems are damaged or destroyed, there can be serious consequences for the marine species that depend on them, as well as for the overall health of the ocean ecosystem. Some conservation efforts are underway to protect and restore marine coastal ecosystems, such as establishing marine protected areas and developing sustainable fishing practices.
Overview
The Earth has approximately of coastline. Coastal habitats extend to the margins of the continental shelves, occupying about 7 percent by area of the Earth's oceans. These coastal seas are highly productive systems, providing an array of ecosystem services to humankind, such as processing of nutrient effluents from land and climate regulation. However, coastal ecosystems are threatened by human-induced pressures such as climate change and eutrophication. In the coastal zone, the fluxes and transformations of nutrients and carbon sustaining coastal ecosystem functions and services are strongly regulated by benthic (that is, occurring at the seafloor) biological and chemical processes.
Coastal systems also contribute to the regulation of climate and nutrient cycles, by efficiently processing anthropogenic emissions from land before they reach the ocean. The high value of these ecosystem services is obvious considering that a large proportion of the world population lives close to the coast.
Currently, coastal seas around the world are undergoing major ecological changes driven by human-induced pressures, such as climate change, anthropogenic nutrient inputs, overfishing and the spread of invasive species. In many cases, the changes alter underlying ecological functions to such an extent that new states are achieved and baselines are shifted.
In 2015, the United Nations established 17 Sustainable Development Goals with the aim of achieving certain targets by 2030. Their mission statement for their 14th goal, Life below water, is to "conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development". The United Nations has also declared 2021–2030 the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, but restoration of coastal ecosystems is not receiving appropriate attention.
Coastal habitats
Intertidal zone
Intertidal zones are the areas that are visible and exposed to air during low tide and covered up by saltwater during high tide. There are four physical divisions of the intertidal zone with each one having its distinct characteristics and wildlife. These divisions are the Spray zone, High intertidal zone, Middle Intertidal zone, and Low intertidal zone. The Spray zone is a damp area that is usually only reached by the ocean and submerged only under high tides or storms. The high intertidal zone is submerged at high tide but remains dry for long periods between high tides. Due to the large variance of conditions possible in this region, it is inhabited by resilient wildlife that can withstand these changes such as barnacles, marine snails, mussels and hermit crabs. Tides flow over the middle intertidal zone two times a day and this zone has a larger variety of wildlife. The low intertidal zone is submerged nearly all the time except during the lowest tides and life is more abundant here due to the protection that the water gives.
Estuaries
Estuaries occur where there is a noticeable change in salinity between saltwater and freshwater sources. This is typically found where rivers meet the ocean or sea. The wildlife found within estuaries is unique as the water in these areas is brackish - a mix of freshwater flowing to the ocean and salty seawater. Other types of estuaries also exist and have similar characteristics as traditional brackish estuaries. The Great Lakes are a prime example. There, river water mixes with lake water and creates freshwater estuaries. Estuaries are extremely productive ecosystems that many humans and animal species rely on for various activities. This can be seen as, of the 32 largest cities in the world, 22 are located on estuaries as they provide many environmental and economic benefits such as crucial habitat for many species, and being economic hubs for many coastal communities. Estuaries also provide essential ecosystem services such as water filtration, habitat protection, erosion control, gas regulation nutrient cycling, and it even gives education, recreation and tourism opportunities to people.
Lagoons
Lagoons are areas that are separated from larger water by natural barriers such as coral reefs or sandbars. There are two types of lagoons, coastal and oceanic/atoll lagoons. A coastal lagoon is, as the definition above, simply a body of water that is separated from the ocean by a barrier. An atoll lagoon is a circular coral reef or several coral islands that surround a lagoon. Atoll lagoons are often much deeper than coastal lagoons. Most lagoons are very shallow meaning that they are greatly affected by changed in precipitation, evaporation and wind. This means that salinity and temperature are widely varied in lagoons and that they can have water that ranges from fresh to hypersaline. Lagoons can be found in on coasts all over the world, on every continent except Antarctica and is an extremely diverse habitat being home to a wide array of species including birds, fish, crabs, plankton and more. Lagoons are also important to the economy as they provide a wide array of ecosystem services in addition to being the home of so many different species. Some of these services include fisheries, nutrient cycling, flood protection, water filtration, and even human tradition.
Reefs
Coral reefs
Coral reefs are one of the most well-known marine ecosystems in the world, with the largest being the Great Barrier Reef. These reefs are composed of large coral colonies of a variety of species living together. The corals from multiple symbiotic relationships with the organisms around them. Coral reefs are being heavily affected by global warming. They are one of the most vulnerable marine ecosystems. Due to marine heatwaves that have high warming levels coral reefs are at risk of a great decline, loss of its important structures, and exposure to higher frequency of marine heatwaves.
Bivalve reefs
Bivalve reefs provide coastal protection through erosion control and shoreline stabilization, and modify the physical landscape by ecosystem engineering, thereby providing habitat for species by facilitative interactions with other habitats such as tidal flat benthic communities, seagrasses and marshes.
Vegetated
Vegetated coastal ecosystems occur throughout the world, as illustrated in the diagram on the right. Seagrass beds are found from cold polar waters to the tropics. Mangrove forests are confined to tropical and sub-tropical areas, while tidal marshes are found in all regions, but most commonly in temperate areas. Combined, these ecosystems cover about 50 million hectares and provide a diverse array of ecosystem services such as fishery production, coastline protection, pollution buffering, as well as high rates of carbon sequestration.
Rapid loss of vegetated coastal ecosystems through land-use change has occurred for centuries, and has accelerated in recent decades. Causes of habitat conversion vary globally and include conversion to aquaculture, agriculture, forest over-exploitation, industrial use, upstream dams, dredging, eutrophication of overlying waters, urban development, and conversion to open water due to accelerated sea-level rise and subsidence.
Vegetated coastal ecosystems typically reside over organic-rich sediments that may be several meters deep and effectively lock up carbon due to low-oxygen conditions and other factors that inhibit decomposition at depth. These carbon stocks can exceed those of terrestrial ecosystems, including forests, by several times. When coastal habitats are degraded or converted to other land uses, the sediment carbon is destabilised or exposed to oxygen, and subsequent increased microbial activity releases large amounts of greenhouse gasses to the atmosphere or water column. The potential economic impacts that come from releasing stored coastal blue carbon to the atmosphere are felt worldwide. Economic impacts of greenhouse gas emissions in general stem from associated increases in droughts, sea level, and frequency of extreme weather events.
Coastal wetlands
Coastal wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems on Earth and generate vital services that benefit human societies around the world. Sediment-stabilization by wetlands such as salt marshes and mangroves serves to protect coastal communities from storm-waves, flooding, and land erosion. Coastal wetlands also reduce pollution from human waste, remove excess nutrients from the water column, trap pollutants, and sequester carbon. Further, near-shore wetlands act as both essential nursery habitats and feeding grounds for game fish, supporting a diverse group of economically important species.
Mangrove forests
Mangroves are trees or shrubs that grow in low-oxygen soil near coastlines in tropical or subtropical latitudes. They are an extremely productive and complex ecosystem that connects the land and sea. Mangroves consist of species that are not necessarily related to each other and are often grouped for the characteristics they share rather than genetic similarity. Because of their proximity to the coast, they have all developed adaptions such as salt excretion and root aeration to live in salty, oxygen-depleted water. Mangroves can often be recognized by their dense tangle of roots that act to protect the coast by reducing erosion from storm surges, currents, wave, and tides. The mangrove ecosystem is also an important source of food for many species as well as excellent at sequestering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere with global mangrove carbon storage is estimated at 34 million metric tons per year.
Salt marshes
Salt marshes are a transition from the ocean to the land, where fresh and saltwater mix. The soil in these marshes is often made up of mud and a layer of organic material called peat. Peat is characterized as waterlogged and root-filled decomposing plant matter that often causes low oxygen levels (hypoxia). These hypoxic conditions causes growth of the bacteria that also gives salt marshes the sulfurous smell they are often known for. Salt marshes exist around the world and are needed for healthy ecosystems and a healthy economy. They are extremely productive ecosystems and they provide essential services for more than 75 percent of fishery species and protect shorelines from erosion and flooding. Salt marshes can be generally divided into the high marsh, low marsh, and the upland border. The low marsh is closer to the ocean, with it being flooded at nearly every tide except low tide. The high marsh is located between the low marsh and the upland border and it usually only flooded when higher than usual tides are present. The upland border is the freshwater edge of the marsh and is usually located at elevations slightly higher than the high marsh. This region is usually only flooded under extreme weather conditions and experiences much less waterlogged conditions and salt stress than other areas of the marsh.
Seagrass meadows
Seagrasses form dense underwater meadows which are among the most productive ecosystems in the world. They provide habitats and food for a diversity of marine life comparable to coral reefs. This includes invertebrates like shrimp and crabs, cod and flatfish, marine mammals and birds. They provide refuges for endangered species such as seahorses, turtles, and dugongs. They function as nursery habitats for shrimps, scallops and many commercial fish species. Seagrass meadows provide coastal storm protection by the way their leaves absorb energy from waves as they hit the coast. They keep coastal waters healthy by absorbing bacteria and nutrients, and slow the speed of climate change by sequestering carbon dioxide into the sediment of the ocean floor.
Seagrasses evolved from marine algae which colonized land and became land plants, and then returned to the ocean about 100 million years ago. However, today seagrass meadows are being damaged by human activities such as pollution from land runoff, fishing boats that drag dredges or trawls across the meadows uprooting the grass, and overfishing which unbalances the ecosystem. Seagrass meadows are currently being destroyed at a rate of about two football fields every hour.
Kelp forests
Kelp forests occur worldwide throughout temperate and polar coastal oceans. In 2007, kelp forests were also discovered in tropical waters near Ecuador.
Physically formed by brown macroalgae, kelp forests provide a unique habitat for marine organisms and are a source for understanding many ecological processes. Over the last century, they have been the focus of extensive research, particularly in trophic ecology, and continue to provoke important ideas that are relevant beyond this unique ecosystem. For example, kelp forests can influence coastal oceanographic patterns and provide many ecosystem services.
However, the influence of humans has often contributed to kelp forest degradation. Of particular concern are the effects of overfishing nearshore ecosystems, which can release herbivores from their normal population regulation and result in the overgrazing of kelp and other algae. This can rapidly result in transitions to barren landscapes where relatively few species persist. Already due to the combined effects of overfishing and climate change, kelp forests have all but disappeared in many especially vulnerable places, such as Tasmania's east coast and the coast of Northern California. The implementation of marine protected areas is one management strategy useful for addressing such issues, since it may limit the impacts of fishing and buffer the ecosystem from additive effects of other environmental stressors.
Coastal ecology
Coastal food webs
Coastal waters include the waters in estuaries and over continental shelves. They occupy about 8 percent of the total ocean area and account for about half of all the ocean productivity. The key nutrients determining eutrophication are nitrogen in coastal waters and phosphorus in lakes. Both are found in high concentrations in guano (seabird feces), which acts as a fertilizer for the surrounding ocean or an adjacent lake. Uric acid is the dominant nitrogen compound, and during its mineralization different nitrogen forms are produced.
Ecosystems, even those with seemingly distinct borders, rarely function independently of other adjacent systems. Ecologists are increasingly recognizing the important effects that cross-ecosystem transport of energy and nutrients have on plant and animal populations and communities. A well known example of this is how seabirds concentrate marine-derived nutrients on breeding islands in the form of feces (guano) which contains ~15–20% nitrogen (N), as well as 10% phosphorus. These nutrients dramatically alter terrestrial ecosystem functioning and dynamics and can support increased primary and secondary productivity. However, although many studies have demonstrated nitrogen enrichment of terrestrial components due to guano deposition across various taxonomic groups, only a few have studied its retroaction on marine ecosystems and most of these studies were restricted to temperate regions and high nutrient waters. In the tropics, coral reefs can be found adjacent to islands with large populations of breeding seabirds, and could be potentially affected by local nutrient enrichment due to the transport of seabird-derived nutrients in surrounding waters. Studies on the influence of guano on tropical marine ecosystems suggest nitrogen from guano enriches seawater and reef primary producers.
Reef building corals have essential nitrogen needs and, thriving in nutrient-poor tropical waters where nitrogen is a major limiting nutrient for primary productivity, they have developed specific adaptations for conserving this element. Their establishment and maintenance are partly due to their symbiosis with unicellular dinoflagellates, Symbiodinium spp. (zooxanthellae), that can take up and retain dissolved inorganic nitrogen (ammonium and nitrate) from the surrounding waters. These zooxanthellae can also recycle the animal wastes and subsequently transfer them back to the coral host as amino acids, ammonium or urea. Corals are also able to ingest nitrogen-rich sediment particles and plankton. Coastal eutrophication and excess nutrient supply can have strong impacts on corals, leading to a decrease in skeletal growth,
Coastal predators
Food web theory predicts that current global declines in marine predators could generate unwanted consequences for many marine ecosystems. In coastal plant communities, such as kelp, seagrass meadows, mangrove forests and salt marshes, several studies have documented the far-reaching effects of changing predator populations. Across coastal ecosystems, the loss of marine predators appears to negatively affect coastal plant communities and the ecosystem services they provide.
The green world hypothesis predicts loss of predator control on herbivores could result in runaway consumption that would eventually denude a landscape or seascape of vegetation. Since the inception of the green world hypothesis, ecologists have tried to understand the prevalence of indirect and alternating effects of predators on lower trophic levels (trophic cascades), and their overall impact on ecosystems. Multiple lines of evidence now suggest that top predators are key to the persistence of some ecosystems.
With an estimated habitat loss greater than 50 percent, coastal plant communities are among the world’s most endangered ecosystems. As bleak as this number is, the predators that patrol coastal systems have fared far worse. Several predatory taxa including species of marine mammals, elasmobranchs, and seabirds have declined by 90 to 100 percent compared to historical populations. Predator declines pre-date habitat declines, suggesting alterations to predator populations may be a major driver of change for coastal systems.
There is little doubt that collapsing marine predator populations results from overharvesting by humans. Localized declines and extinctions of coastal predators by humans began over 40,000 years ago with subsistence harvesting. However, for most large bodied, marine predators (toothed whales, large pelagic fish, sea birds, pinnipeds, and otters) the beginning of their sharp global declines occurred over the last century, coinciding with the expansion of coastal human populations and advances in industrial fishing. Following global declines in marine predators, evidence of trophic cascades in coastal ecosystems started to emerge, with the disturbing realisation that they affected more than just populations of lower trophic levels.
Understanding the importance of predators in coastal plant communities has been bolstered by their documented ability to influence ecosystem services. Multiple examples have shown that changes to the strength or direction of predator effects on lower trophic levels can influence coastal erosion, carbon sequestration, and ecosystem resilience. The idea that the extirpation of predators can have far-reaching effects on the persistence of coastal plants and their ecosystem services has become a major motivation for their conservation in coastal systems.
Seascape ecology
Seascape ecology is the marine and coastal version of landscape ecology. It is currently emerging as an interdisciplinary and spatially explicit ecological science with relevance to marine management, biodiversity conservation, and restoration. Seascapes are complex ocean spaces, shaped by dynamic and interconnected patterns and processes operating across a range of spatial and temporal scales. Rapid advances in geospatial technologies and the proliferation of sensors, both above and below the ocean surface, have revealed intricate and scientifically intriguing ecological patterns and processes, some of which are the result of human activities. Despite progress in the collecting, mapping, and sharing of ocean data, the gap between technological advances and the ability to generate ecological insights for marine management and conservation practice remains substantial. For instance, fundamental gaps exist in the understanding of multidimensional spatial structure in the sea, and the implications for planetary health and human wellbeing. Deeper understanding of the multi-scale linkages between ecological structure, function, and change will better support the design of whole-system strategies for biodiversity preservation and reduce uncertainty around the consequences of human activity. For example, in the design and evaluation of marine protected areas (MPAs) and habitat restoration, it is important to understand the influence of spatial context, configuration, and connectivity, and to consider effects of scale.
Interactions between ecosystems
The diagram on the right shows the principal interactions between mangroves, seagrass, and coral reefs. Coral reefs, seagrasses, and mangroves buffer habitats further inland from storms and wave damage as well as participate in a tri-system exchange of mobile fish and invertebrates. Mangroves and seagrasses are critical in regulating sediment, freshwater, and nutrient flows to coral reefs.
The diagram immediately below shows locations where mangroves, coral reefs, and seagrass beds exist within one km of each other. Buffered intersection between the three systems provides relative co-occurrence rates on a global scale. Regions where systems strongly intersect include Central America (Belize), the Caribbean, the Red Sea, the Coral Triangle (particularly Malaysia), Madagascar, and the Great Barrier Reef.
The diagram at the right graphically illustrates the ecosystem service synergies between mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs. The ecosystem services provided by intact reefs, seagrasses, and mangroves are both highly valuable and mutually enhance each other. Coastal protection (storm/wave attenuation) maintains the structure of adjacent ecosystems, and associated ecosystem services, in an offshore-to-onshore direction. Fisheries are characterized by migratory species, and therefore, protecting fisheries in one ecosystem increases fish biomass in others. Tourism benefits from coastal protection and healthy fisheries from multiple ecosystems. Here, we do not draw within-ecosystem connections in order to better emphasise synergies between systems.
Network ecology
To compound things, removal of biomass from the ocean occurs simultaneously with multiple other stressors associated to climate change that compromise the capacity of these socio-ecological systems to respond to perturbations. Besides sea surface temperature, climate change also affects many other physical–chemical characteristics of marine coastal waters (stratification, acidification, ventilation) as well as the wind regimes that control surface water productivity along the productive coastal upwelling ecosystems. Changes in the productivity of the oceans are reflected in changes of plankton biomass. Plankton contributes approximately half of the global primary production, supports marine food webs, influences the biogeochemical process in the ocean, and strongly affects commercial fisheries. Indeed, an overall decrease in marine plankton productivity is expected over global scales. Long-term increases and decreases in plankton productivity have already occurred over the past two decades along extensive regions of the Humboldt upwelling ecosystem off Chile, and are expected to propagate up the pelagic and benthic food webs.
Network ecology has advanced understanding of ecosystems by providing a powerful framework to analyse biological communities. Previous studies used this framework to assess food web robustness against species extinctions, defined as the fraction of initial species that remain present in the ecosystem after a primary extinction. These studies showed the importance for food web persistence of highly connected species (independent of trophic position), basal species, and highly connected species that, at the same time, trophically support other highly connected species. Most of these studies used a static approach, which stems from network theory and analyzes the impacts of structural changes on food webs represented by nodes (species) and links (interactions) that connect nodes, but ignores interaction strengths and population dynamics of interacting species. Other studies used a dynamic approach, which considers not only the structure and intensity of interactions in a food web, but also the changes in species biomasses through time and the indirect effects that these changes have on other species.
Coastal biogeochemistry
Globally, eutrophication is one of the major environmental problems in coastal ecosystems. Over the last century the annual riverine inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus to the oceans have increased from 19 to 37 megatonnes of nitrogen and from 2 to 4 megatonnes of phosphorus. Regionally, these increases were even more substantial as observed in the United States, Europe and China. In the Baltic Sea nitrogen and phosphorus loads increased by roughly a factor of three and six, respectively. The riverine nitrogen flux has increased by an order of magnitude to coastal waters of China within thirty years, while phosphorus export has tripled between 1970 and 2000.
Efforts to mitigate eutrophication through nutrient load reductions are hampered by the effects of climate change. Changes in precipitation increase the runoff of N, P and carbon (C) from land, which together with warming and increased dissolution alter the coupled marine nutrient and carbon cycles.
In contrast to the open ocean where biogeochemical cycling is largely dominated by pelagic processes driven primarily by ocean circulation, in the coastal zone, pelagic and benthic processes interact strongly and are driven by a complex and dynamic physical environment. Eutrophication in coastal areas leads to shifts toward rapidly growing opportunistic algae, and generally to a decline in benthic macrovegetation because of decreased light penetration, substrate change and more reducing sediments. Increased production and warming waters have caused expanding hypoxia at the seafloor with a consequent loss of benthic fauna. Hypoxic systems tend to lose many long-lived higher organisms and biogeochemical cycles typically become dominated by benthic bacterial processes and rapid pelagic turnover. However, if hypoxia does not occur, benthic fauna tends to increase in biomass with eutrophication.
Changes in benthic biota have far-reaching impacts on biogeochemical cycles in the coastal zone and beyond. In the illuminated zone, benthic microphytes and macrophytes mediate biogeochemical fluxes through primary production, nutrient storage and sediment stabilization and act as a habitat and food source for a variety of animals, as shown in the diagram on the left above. Benthic animals contribute to biogeochemical transformations and fluxes between water and sediments both directly through their metabolism and indirectly by physically reworking the sediments and their porewaters and stimulating bacterial processes. Grazing on pelagic organic matter and biodeposition of feces and pseudofeces by suspension-feeding fauna increases organic matter sedimentation rates. In addition, nutrients and carbon are retained in biomass and transformed from organic to inorganic forms through metabolic processes. Bioturbation, including sediment reworking and burrow ventilation activities (bioirrigation), redistributes particles and solutes within the sediment and enhances sediment-water fluxes of solutes. Bioturbation can also enhance resuspension of particles, a phenomenon termed "bioresuspension". Together, all these processes affect physical and chemical conditions at the sediment-water interface, and strongly influence organic matter degradation. When up-scaled to the ecosystem level, such modified conditions can significantly alter the functioning of coastal ecosystems and ultimately, the role of the coastal zone in filtering and transforming nutrients and carbon.
Artisan fisheries
Artisanal fisheries use simple fishing gears and small vessels. Their activities tend to be confined to coastal areas. In general, top-down and bottom-up forces determine ecosystem functioning and dynamics. Fisheries as a top-down force can shorten and destabilise food webs, while effects driven by climate change can alter the bottom-up forces of primary productivity.
Direct human impacts and the full suite of drivers of global change are the main cause of species extinctions in Anthropocene ecosystems, with detrimental consequences on ecosystem functioning and their services to human societies. The world fisheries crisis is among those consequences, which cuts across fishing strategies, oceanic regions, species, and includes countries that have little regulation and those that have implemented rights-based co-management strategies to reduce overharvesting.
Chile has been one of the countries implementing Territorial Use Rights (TURFs) over an unprecedented geographic scale to manage the diverse coastal benthic resources using a co-management strategy. These TURFS are used for artisanal fisheries. Over 60 coastal benthic species are actively harvested by these artisanal fisheries, with species that are extracted from intertidal and shallow subtidal habitats. The Chilean TURFs system brought significant improvements in sustainability of this complex socio-ecological system, helping to rebuild benthic fish stocks, improving fishers’ perception towards sustainability and increasing compliance9, as well as showing positive ancillary effects on conservation of biodiversity. However, the situation of most artisanal fisheries is still far from sustainable, and many fish stocks and coastal ecosystems show signs of overexploitation and ecosystem degradation, a consequence of the low levels of cooperation and low enforcement of TURF regulations, which leads to high levels of free-riding and illegal fishing. It is imperative to improve understanding of the effects of these multi-species artisanal fisheries which simultaneously harvest species at all trophic levels from kelp primary producers to top carnivores.
Remote sensing
Coastal zones are among the most populated areas on the planet. As the population continues to increase, economic development must expand to support human welfare. However, this development may damage the ability of the coastal environment to continue supporting human welfare for current and future generations. The management of complex coastal and marine social-ecological systems requires tools that provide frameworks with the capability of responding to current and emergent issues. Remote data collection technologies include satellite-based remote sensing, aerial remote sensing, unmanned aerial vehicles, unmanned surface vehicles, unmanned underwater vehicles, and static sensors.
Frameworks have been developed that attempt to address and integrate these complex issues, such as the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment framework which links drivers, ecosystem services, and human welfare However, obtaining the environmental data that is necessary to use such frameworks is difficult, especially in countries where access to reliable data and their dissemination are limited or non-existent and even thwarted. Traditional techniques of point sampling and observation in the environment do deliver high information content, but they are expensive and often do not provide adequate spatial and temporal coverage, while remote sensing can provide cost-effective solutions, as well as data for locations where there is no or only limited information.
Coastal observing systems are typically nationally funded and built around national priorities. As a result, there are presently significant differences between countries in terms of sustainability, observing capacity and technologies, as well as methods and research priorities. Ocean observing systems in coastal areas need to move toward integrated, multidisciplinary and multiscale systems, where heterogeneity can be exploited to deliver fit-for-purpose answers. Essential elements of such distributed observation systems are the use of machine-to-machine communication, data fusion and processing applying recent technological developments for the Internet of Things (IoT) toward a common cyberinfrastructure. It has been argued that the standardisation that IoT brings to wireless sensing will revolutionise areas like this.
Coastal areas are the most dynamic and productive parts of the oceans, which makes them a significant source of human resources and services. Coastal waters are located immediately in contact with human populations and exposed to anthropogenic disturbances, placing these resources and services under threat. These concerns explain why, in several coastal regions, a rapidly increasing number of observing systems have been implemented in the last decade. Expansion of coherent and sustained coastal observations has been fragmented and driven by national and regional policies and is often undertaken through short-term research projects. This results in significant differences between countries both in terms of sustainability and observing technologies, methods and research priorities.
Unlike the open ocean, where challenges are rather well-defined and stakeholders are fewer and well-identified, coastal processes are complex, acting on several spatial and temporal scales, with numerous and diversified users and stakeholders, often with conflicting interests. To adapt to such complexity coastal ocean observing system must be an integrated, multidisciplinary and multiscale system of systems.
Regime shifts
Marine ecosystems are affected by diverse pressures and consequently may undergo significant changes that can be interpreted as regime shifts. Marine ecosystems worldwide are affected by increasing natural and anthropogenic pressures and consequently undergo significant changes at unprecedented rates. Affected by these changes, ecosystems can reorganise and still maintain the same function, structure, and identity. However, under some circumstances, the ecosystem may undergo changes that modify the system’s structure and function and this process can be described as a shift to a new regime.
Usually, a regime shift is triggered by large-scale climate-induced variations, intense fishing exploitation or both. Criteria used to define regime shifts vary and the changes that have to occur in order to consider that a system has undergone a regime shift are not well-defined. Normally, regime shifts are defined as high amplitude, low-frequency and often abrupt changes in species abundance and community composition that are observed at multiple trophic levels (TLs). These changes are expected to occur on a large spatial scale and take place concurrently with physical changes in the climate system.
Regime shifts have been described in several marine ecosystems including Northern Benguela, the North Sea, and the Baltic Sea. In large upwelling ecosystems, it is common to observe decadal fluctuations in species abundance and their replacements. These fluctuations might be irreversible and might be an indicator of the new regime, as was the case in the Northern Benguela ecosystem. However, changes in the upwelling systems might be interpreted as fluctuations within the limits of natural variability for an ecosystem, and not as an indicator of the regime shift. The Portuguese continental shelf ecosystem (PCSE) constitutes the northernmost part of the Canary Current Upwelling System and is characterised by seasonal upwelling that occurs during the spring and summer as a result of steady northerly winds. It has recently changed in the abundance of coastal pelagic species such as sardine, chub mackerel, horse mackerel, blue jack mackerel and anchovy. Moreover, in the last decades, an increase in higher trophic level species has been documented. The causes underlying changes in the pelagic community are not clear but it has been suggested that they result from a complex interplay between environmental variability, species interactions and fishing pressure.
There is evidence, that changes in the intensity of the Iberian coastal upwelling (resulting from the strengthening or weakening northern winds) had occurred in the last decades. However, the character of these changes is contradictory where some authors observed intensification of upwelling-favourable winds while others documented their weakening. A 2019 review of upwelling rate and intensity along the Portuguese coast documented a successive weakening of the upwelling since 1950 that lasted till mid/late 1970s in the north-west and south-west and till 1994 in the south coast. An increase in upwelling index over the period 1985–2009 was documented in all studied regions while additionally upwelling intensification were observed in the south. A continuous increase in water temperature, ranging from 0.1 to 0.2 °C per decade has also been documented.
Threats and decline
Many marine fauna utilise coastal habitats as critical nursery areas, for shelter and feeding, yet these habitats are increasingly at risk from agriculture, aquaculture, industry and urban expansion. Indeed, these systems are subject to what may be called "a triple whammy" of increasing industrialisation and urbanisation, an increased loss of biological and physical resources (fish, water, energy, space), and a decreased resilience to the consequences of a warming climate and sea level rise. This has given rise to the complete loss, modification or disconnection of natural coastal ecosystems globally. For example, almost 10% of the entire Great Barrier Reef coastline in Australia (2,300 km) has been replaced with urban infrastructure (e.g., rock seawalls, jetties, marinas), causing massive loss and fragmentation of sensitive coastal ecosystems. Global loss of seagrass reached around 7% of seagrasses area per year by the end of the twentieth century. A global analysis of tidal wetlands (mangroves, tidal flats, and tidal marshes) published in 2022 estimated global losses of from 1999-2019, however, this study also estimated that these losses were largely offset by the establishment of of new tidal wetlands that were not present in 1999. Approximately three-quarters of the net decrease between 1999 and 2019 occurred in Asia (74.1%), with 68.6% concentrated in three countries: Indonesia (36%), China (20.6%), and Myanmar (12%). Of these global tidal wetland losses and gains, 39% of losses and 14% of gains were attributed to direct human activities.
Approximately 40% of the global mangrove has been lost since the 1950's with more than 9,736 km2 of the world's mangroves continuing to be degraded in the 20 years period between 1996 and 2016. Saltmarshes are drained when coastal land is claimed for agriculture, and deforestation is an increasing threat to shoreline vegetation (such as mangroves) when coastal land is appropriated for urban and industrial development, both of which may result in the degradation of blue carbon storages and increasing greenhouse gas emissions.
These accumulating pressures and impacts on coastal ecosystems are neither isolated nor independent, rather they are synergistic, with feedbacks and interactions that cause individual effects to be greater than their sums. In the year before the ecosystem restoration Decade commences, there is a critical knowledge deficit inhibiting an appreciation of the complexity of coastal ecosystems that hampers the development of responses to mitigate continuing impacts—not to mention uncertainty on projected losses of coastal systems for some of the worst-case future climate change scenarios.
Restoration
The United Nations has declared 2021–2030 the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. This call to action has the purpose of recognising the need to massively accelerate global restoration of degraded ecosystems, to fight the climate heating crisis, enhance food security, provide clean water and protect biodiversity on the planet. The scale of restoration will be key. For example, the Bonn Challenge has the goal to restore 350 million km2, about the size of India, of degraded terrestrial ecosystems by 2030. However, international support for restoration of blue coastal ecosystems, which provide an impressive array of benefits to people, has lagged.
The diagram on the right shows the current state of modified and impacted coastal ecosystems and the expected state following the decade of restoration. Also, shown is the uncertainty in the success of past restoration efforts, current state of altered systems, climate variability, and restoration actions that are available now or on the horizon. This could mean that delivering the Decade on Ecosystem Restoration for coastal systems needs to be viewed as a means of getting things going where the benefits might take longer than a decade.
Only the Global Mangrove Alliance comes close to the Bonn Challenge, with the aim of increasing the global area of mangroves by 20% by 2030. However, mangrove scientists have reservations about this target, voicing concerns that it is unrealistic and may prompt inappropriate practices in attempting to reach this target.
Conservation and connectivity
There has recently been a perceptual shift away from habitat representation as the sole or primary focus of conservation prioritisation, towards consideration of ecological processes that shape the distribution and abundance of biodiversity features. In marine ecosystems, connectivity processes are paramount, and designing systems of marine protected areas that maintain connectivity between habitat patches has long been considered an objective of conservation planning. Two forms of connectivity are critical to structuring coral reef fish populations: dispersal of larvae in the pelagic environment, and post-settlement migration by individuals across the seascape. Whilst a growing literature has described approaches for considering larval connectivity in conservation prioritisation, relatively less attention has been directed towards developing and applying methods for considering post-settlement connectivity
Seascape connectivity (connectedness among different habitats in a seascape, c.f. among patches of the same habitat type is essential for species that utilise more than one habitat, either during diurnal movements or at different stages in their life history. Mangroves, seagrass beds, and lagoon reefs provide nursery areas for many commercially and ecologically important fish species that subsequently make ontogenetic shifts to adult populations on coral reefs. These back-reef habitats are often overlooked for conservation or management in favour of coral reefs that support greater adult biomass, yet they can be equally if not more at risk from habitat degradation and loss. Even where juveniles are not targeted by fishers, they can be vulnerable to habitat degradation, for example from sedimentation caused by poor land-use practices.
There is clear empirical evidence that proximity to nursery habitats can enhance the effectiveness (i.e. increasing the abundance, density, or biomass of fish species) of marine protected areas on coral reefs. For example, at study sites across the western Pacific, the abundance of harvested fish species was significantly greater on protected reefs close to mangroves, but not on protected reefs isolated from mangroves. The functional role of herbivorous fish species that perform ontogenetic migrations may also enhance the resilience of coral reefs close to mangroves. Despite this evidence, and widespread calls to account for connectivity among habitats in the design of spatial management, there remain few examples where seascape connectivity is explicitly considered in spatial conservation prioritisation (the analytical process of identifying priority areas for conservation or management actions).
See also
Blue carbon
Coast
Coastal biogeomorphology
Shallow water marine environment
Tides in marginal seas
References
Further reading
Ecosystems
Biological oceanography | Marine coastal ecosystem | [
"Biology"
] | 8,784 | [
"Symbiosis",
"Ecosystems",
"Marine biology"
] |
65,971,393 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland%27s%20%22Rain%20Tax%22 | Maryland's "rain tax" was implemented in 2012 through the Watershed Protection and Restoration Act to fund stormwater management aiming to reduce the level of pollution in the Chesapeake Bay. This bill, HB 987, utilized a stormwater fee in the ten most urban jurisdictions in Maryland.
Background
The first stormwater fee nationwide was enacted in Washington in 1974. There are now nearly 1,500 jurisdictions with similar policies to address stormwater management. Numerous counties in Maryland have implemented fees and programs to address polluted runoff since the 1980s. In 2010, the U.S. EPA ordered the states in the Chesapeake Bay watershed to reduce stormwater runoff through independent funding methods. Maryland voted to use stormwater fees to cover the $14.8 billion cost.
The "Rain Tax"
The "rain tax" raised revenue to improve the stormwater management system while creating a financial incentive to minimize the construction of and replace current impervious surfaces. Collection of the stormwater fee on impervious surfaces varied from annually on the property tax bill to quarterly on the water bill. The rates and number of square feet used to calculate the Equivalent Residential Unit were set by local officials across the ten jurisdictions to adequately finance the work needed to meet the targets of the Chesapeake Clean Water Blueprint. The revenue collected was used to maintain and repair the stormwater infrastructure to reduce pollution, improve water quality, and enhance the livability of these jurisdictions.
Outcomes
Frederick County adopted an annual tax of one cent in protest, while Carroll County refused to impose any tax. Government agencies sited on properties with impervious surfaces, including the Department of Navy, declined to pay the stormwater fee. State and local governments and volunteer fire departments were exempt whereas churches and non-profit organizations were not. Residents and businesses had the opportunity to participate in stormwater remediation projects to lower their fees. In 2015, revisions eliminated the tax mandate and allowed each jurisdiction to determine whether to impose the tax. These jurisdictions are still required to clean up stormwater pollution and must demonstrate that they have adequate funding and plans to address the issue. Funding must be assigned to a dedicated fund, now financed from the stormwater fee or general revenues. Jurisdictions, including Baltimore City, have chosen to continue to fund stormwater pollution cleanup through the fee.
See also
Stormwater fee
References
Stormwater management
Environmental tax
Chesapeake Bay watershed
Water resource management in the United States
Environment of Maryland | Maryland's "Rain Tax" | [
"Chemistry",
"Environmental_science"
] | 483 | [
"Water treatment",
"Stormwater management",
"Water pollution"
] |
65,971,885 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Horvath%20%28mathematician%29 | John Michael Horvath (born János Horváth; 30 July 1924 in Budapest – 12 March 2015) was a Hungarian-American mathematician noted for his contributions to analysis especially in functional analysis and distribution theory.
Education and career
Horvath received his doctorate in 1947 from the University of Budapest as a student of Lipót Fejér and Frigyes Riesz. Four other talented mathematicians also graduated in the class of 1947: János Aczél, Ákos Császár, László Fuchs and István Gál. Together with Horvath, they were referred to as the Big Five.
After obtaining his doctorate, he went to the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) to do research. At the recommendation of John von Neumann and Salomon Lefschetz, in 1951 he came to the newly founded University of Los Andes in Bogota, where he became the first head of the mathematics department and established modern mathematics in Bolivia. At his invitation, Laurent Schwartz and Jean Dieudonné visited the university. His later work on analytic continuations and a general definition of the Convolution of distributions spread the ideas of Schwartz's theory of distributions. In 1957 Horvath finally went to the United States, where he taught at the University of Maryland until 1994 and was then awarded the title of Professor Emeritus.
It was Schwartz, who recommended him to write elementary textbook on distribution theory. MathSciNet called his book Topological Vector Spaces and Distributions (1966), "The most readable introduction to the theory of vector spaces available in English and possibly any other language." In 2006, Horvath edited and wrote one of the chapters (Holomorphic Functions) for A Panorama of Hungarian Mathematics in the Twentieth Century.
He was an American Mathematical Society since 1958. In 1997, he received a honorary doctorate of the Universidad de los Andes. And in 1998, he became a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, in 2001 he was elected to the Colombian Academy of Sciences.
Works
(1966) Topological Vector Spaces and Distributions Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts.
(2005) A Panorama of Hungarian Mathematics in the Twentieth Century Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
References
External links
1924 births
2015 deaths
20th-century Hungarian mathematicians
Mathematical analysts
Budapest University alumni
Members of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
University of Maryland, College Park faculty
University of Los Andes (Colombia) alumni
Expatriate academics in the United States
Hungarian expatriates in the United States | John Horvath (mathematician) | [
"Mathematics"
] | 498 | [
"Mathematical analysis",
"Mathematical analysts"
] |
65,972,423 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Society%20for%20the%20History%2C%20Philosophy%2C%20and%20Social%20Studies%20of%20Biology | The International Society for the History, Philosophy, and Social Studies of Biology (ISHPSSB) is an international academic organization founded in 1989. THe society hosts the largest and most important meeting for the fields of philosophy of biology, history of biology, and the social studies/science studies/sociological studies of biology. The society hosts a biennial meeting, supports off-year workshops, runs a monthly newsletter, and offers various types of academic prizes.
Pronunciation
The acronym of the society —ISHPSSB— is "utterly unpronounceable as written." In 1994, David Hull suggested the pronunciation "ishkabibble" as a homage to comedian Merwyn Bogue.
History of the society
The idea of an ISHPSSB started with Marjorie Grene. Recruiting Richard Burian to co-organize, Grene received funding in 1981 from the Council of Philosophical Studies to run a seminal meeting in 1982 at Cornell University. In the same year, Burian organized an interest group meeting with attendees of a four-society meeting-- History of Science, History of Technology, Philosophy of Science, and Social Studies of Science. The interest group decided to organize an informal summer meeting in 1983. This became the beginning of the odd-numbered two-year conference cycle.
Accounts here differ on where the 1983 meeting was held. In an article on Marjorie Grene's legacy, it was stated that the meeting occurred at Kenyon College. According to the first ISHPSSB newsletter in 1989, however, it was held in 1983 at Denison University. A much larger group gathered in 1985 at St. Mary's College in Indiana and then in 1987 at Virginia Tech. In a footnote of a paper analyzing the history of philosophy of biology, the first 1983 meeting was stated as occurring at Virginia Tech. Regardless, it was decided thereafter that a society should be founded to officially organize regular conferences that can bring together current research on the history, philosophy, and social studies of biology. ISHPSSB was officially named at the University of Western Ontario meeting in 1989 and its bylaws and governance were formalized in 1990. In 1991, ISHPSSB passed its first official resolution: they will never meet in a place that has sodomy laws. This "political" resolution proposed by David Hull was passed with no dissents or questions.
According to Jane Maienschein, the first president of ISHPSSB after the 1989 meeting, there were multiple "presidents" at the beginning of the society. The title of "Honorary Past President" was given to Richard Burian and Marjorie Grene and Ernst Mayr were both Honorary Presidents. The first elected vice president was David Hull, who was then elected president from 1991 to 1993. They were all deeply involved in the founding of the society. Other individuals and events that were formative for the society included William C. Wimsatt and the 1977 Council for Philosophical Studies Summer Institute on "Biological and Social Perspectives on Human Nature" in Colorado.
The history of the society still awaits proper documentation. As noted by Maienschein, "it is amusing that a society that includes History in its title hasn't done such a great job of recording and writing its own history." Records of the society were kept by archivist Pam Henson. Richard Burian has offered to write up a history of the society, but the link is currently inactive.
Significance of the society
ISHPSSB is noted as one of the few prominent interdisciplinary societies that strive to put scientists and philosophers in the same room. The spirit of the conference, as envisioned by founder Marjorie Grene, was that the teaching of philosophy biology necessarily requires "intimate contact with biology, history of biology, and the social, institutional, and technological settings in which biological work was done." This was achieved by establishing intimate contact with professionals in each discipline. The first few meetings of the society were thus informal and involved a changing mix of biologists, historians, philosophers, and social scientists organized around thematic sessions to break through barriers that block collaboration and mutual understanding. As Maienschein recounted, David Hull stated his vision in 1991 that ISHPSSB "is a place where everybody can come and feel included. It is a place for all of us from all those alphabet soup of disciplines or those working between and across disciplines. A place for established scholars
migrating from other fields, well-known leaders in their fields, and new graduate students. A place for people to try out new ideas as well a to present more polished works."
The interdisciplinarity scope of the society was the subject of several studies. Celebrated for its informality, inclusivity, and interdisciplinarity, the society has experienced "uncontrollable growth," thus presenting difficult logistic challenges for meeting organizers.
Meetings
The society runs a biennial conference that gathers on odd-numbered years. On even-numbered "off" years, it sponsors several workshops that bear the ISHPSSB name. In 2017, the main conference was hosted in a South American country for the first time in the society's history, at University of São Paulo, Brazil. Information about past meetings up to 1997 can be found on the conference website.
Prizes
The society offers three types of prizes, each recognizing a different type of achievement. The prizes are named after "pivotal and dearly missed" members of the community.
The Werner Callebaut Prize
The Werner Callebaut Prize, in memory of Werner Callebaut, is offered as an interdisciplinary early career prize to graduate students "working at the intersection of the fields represented by the ISHPSSB." The award is given on the basis of a manuscript that came out of a presentation at one of the last two annual meetings. The paper has to take an interdisciplinary approach and the recipient must be a graduate student at the time of the presentation. The prize was first awarded in 2015.
The Marjorie Grene Prize
The Marjorie Grene Prize is named after Marjorie Grene. The criteria are the same as that for the Werner Callebaut Prize, minus the interdisciplinarity requirement. The prize was first awarded in 1997.
The David L Hull Prize
The David L. Hull Prize in memory of David Hull, is awarded to individuals at any stage of their career. The intention is to recognize extraordinary scholarship and to promote awareness of the significant efforts made to combine scholarship with service. The prize was first awarded in 2011.
Presidents
The current president of the society is Vassiliki Betty Smocovitis and the current president-elect is Sabina Leonelli.
An incomplete list of past presidents is as follows:
2023—2025 Betty Smocovitis
2021—2023 Rachel Ankeny
2019—2021 Gregory Radick
2017—2019 Marsha Richmond
2015—2017 Michel Morange
2013—2014 Werner Callebaut
2011—2013 Paul E. Griffiths
2009—2011 Ana Barahona
2007—2009 James R. Griesemer
2003—2005 Michael R. Dietrich
2001—2003 Lindley Darden
1999—2001 Richard Burian
1997—1999 Elisabeth Lloyd
1995—1997 Peter Taylor
1991—1993 David Hull
1989—1991 Jane Maienschein
References
External links
Philosophy organizations
Philosophy of science
Philosophy of biology
History of biology
Science and technology studies associations | International Society for the History, Philosophy, and Social Studies of Biology | [
"Technology"
] | 1,483 | [
"Science and technology studies",
"Science and technology studies associations"
] |
65,972,535 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christy%20Mathewson%20Jr. | Christopher "Christy" Mathewson Jr. (1906–1950) was an American pilot and the son of Baseball Hall of Fame pitcher Christy Mathewson.
Early life
Mathewson was born in New York City on October 19, 1906, to Christy and Jane Mathewson. He grew up in New York City, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, Marlin, Texas, and Los Angeles, California. He graduated from Saranac Lake High School in 1923. He went on to attend his father's alma mater, Bucknell University, where he majored in electrical engineering and played saxophone in the school orchestra. During his junior year at Bucknell, Mathewson Sr. died and Mathewson Jr. was elected to succeed him on the Boston Braves board of directors. Mathewson graduated from Bucknell in 1927.
Military career
In July 1928, Mathewson applied for an appointment as a flying cadet in the United States Army Air Corps. On September 15, 1929, he was one of 124 civilian applicants selected for appointment to the Air Corps. He began his training on October 15, 1929, at Brooks Field in San Antonio, Texas. In 1930, Mathewson graduated from the Army Air Corps Advanced Flying School at Kelly Field. In 1932, Mathewson was assigned to active duty in Hangzhou, where he helped establish the Central Aviation School and served as an aviation advisor to the National Revolutionary Army.
On December 24, 1932, Mathewson married Margaret Phillips of Philadelphia. On January 8, 1933, he and his wife were returning from their honeymoon Shanghai in a Sikorsky amphibious plane that he had borrowed from T. V. Soong. Thirty seconds after takeoff, Mathewson lost control of the plane, which hit the Huangpu River, struck a mudflat, and overturned. The couple was rushed to Huadong Hospital, where Margaret was pronounced dead. Mathewson survived, but suffered serious injuries. In July, Mathewson's left leg was amputated above the knee, and on August 7, he returned to the United States for further medical treatment. On August 12, he went to see specialists at Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center in New York City, hoping to get help regaining use of his left arm. Mathewson settled in Hagerstown, Maryland and eventually regained use of his arms and learned to walk with an artificial leg. On December 22, 1936, Mathewson married Lee Morton in Coral Gables, Florida.
In 1939, his commission as a first lieutenant on inactive duty in the Air Corps Reserve expired and he was denied reinstatement for physical defects. In March 1941, he was given a job with the Air Corps in Washington D.C. In October 1941, he was assigned to the Western Procurement Division of the Materiel Command to help train cadets from China. He was later moved to Phoenix, Arizona, where he still assisted in training Chinese cadets. In May 1942, he was promoted to the rank of captain on active duty with the Flying Training Command in California. In November 1944, while serving with the Air Transport Command in Europe, Mathewson met Lola Finch of London; two months later, Mathewson divorced his wife to marry Finch. Mathewson retired from the Air Corps in 1946 with the rank of Lieutenant Colonel.
Later life
Following his retirement, Mathewson moved to Dos Huevos Ranch, a half-mile north of Helotes, Texas. On August 15, 1950, a butane explosion occurred while Mathewson was installing an electric dishwasher in his basement. He was able to crawl out of the house and reach a neighbor for assistance. He died the following day at the age of 43.
References
1906 births
1950 deaths
Accidental deaths in Texas
American amputees
Bucknell University alumni
People from Hagerstown, Maryland
People from Lewisburg, Pennsylvania
People from Los Angeles
People from Marlin, Texas
People from New York City
Military personnel from San Antonio
People from Saranac Lake, New York
Survivors of aviation accidents or incidents
United States Army aviators | Christy Mathewson Jr. | [
"Chemistry"
] | 797 | [
"Deaths from explosion",
"Explosions"
] |
65,973,341 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate%20luminosity%20optical%20transient | An Intermediate Luminosity Optical Transient (ILOT) is an astronomical object which undergoes an optically detectable explosive event with an absolute magnitude (M) brighter than a classical nova (M ~ −8) but fainter than that of a supernova (M ~ −17). That nine magnitude range corresponds to a factor of nearly 4000 in luminosity, so the ILOT class may include a wide variety of objects. The term ILOT first appeared in a 2009 paper discussing the nova-like event NGC 300 OT2008-1. As the term has gained more widespread use, it has begun to be applied to some objects like KjPn 8 and CK Vulpeculae for which no transient event has been observed, but which may have been dramatically affected by an ILOT event in the past. The number of ILOTs known is expected to increase substantially when the Vera C. Rubin Observatory becomes operational.
A very wide variety of objects have been classified as ILOTs in the astronomical literature. Kashi and Soker proposed a model for the outburt of ASASSN-15qi, in which a Jupiter-mass planet is tidally destroyed and accreted onto a young main sequence star. Luminous red novae, believed be caused by the merger of two stars, are classified as ILOTs. Some luminous blue variables, such as η Car have been classified as ILOTs. Some objects which have been classified as failed supernovae may be ILOTs. The common thread tying all of these objects together is a transfer of a large amount of mass (0.001 M⊙ to a few M⊙) from a planet or star to a companion star, over a short period of time, leading to a massive eruption. That large range in accretion mass explains the large range in ILOT event brightness.
See also
Fast blue optical transient
References
External links
The ILOT Club
Stellar phenomena
Astronomical events | Intermediate luminosity optical transient | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 389 | [
"Physical phenomena",
"Stellar phenomena",
"Astronomical events"
] |
65,973,427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2%2C4%2C5-Trichlorophenol | 2,4,5-Trichlorophenol (TCP) is an organochloride with the molecular formula C6H3Cl3O. It has been used as a fungicide and herbicide. Precursor chemical used in the production of 2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) and hexachlorophene involves the intermediate production of 2,4,5-trichlorophenol (TCP) and the formation of 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD, commonly referred to simply as dioxin) as an unwanted by-product. In the course of purifying the hexachlorophene, still bottom wastes were created with concentrated levels of TCP and dioxin.
References
Cited sources
See also
Agent Orange
2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid
2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
Organochlorides
Fungicides
Herbicides
Phenols | 2,4,5-Trichlorophenol | [
"Biology"
] | 232 | [
"Fungicides",
"Herbicides",
"Biocides"
] |
65,973,612 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notholaena%20hookeri | Notholaena hookeri is a species name, which may refer to:
Argyrochosma chilensis, described in 1856 as Notholaena hookeri E.J.Lowe
Notholaena standleyi, described in 1879 as Notholaena hookeri D.C.Eaton
hookeri | Notholaena hookeri | [
"Biology"
] | 66 | [
"Set index articles on plants",
"Set index articles on organisms",
"Plants"
] |
65,974,052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annick%20Pouquet | Annick Gabrielle Pouquet (born 24 December 1946) is a computational plasma physicist specializing in plasma turbulence. She was awarded the 2020 Hannes Alfvén Prize for "fundamental contributions to quantifying energy transfer in magneto-fluid turbulence". She currently holds positions in the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics and National Center for Atmospheric Research at the University of Colorado Boulder.
The Politano–Pouquet relation, an exact scaling law for magnetohydrodynamic turbulence, was partly named after her.
Early life and career
Pouquet graduated with a thèse d'état in astrophysics (French equivalent of Ph.D.) from the Observatoire de Nice in 1976, where she studied turbulence in the presence of a magnetic field using models and direct numerical simulation. She then remained at the observatory upon graduation, eventually becoming the director of the observatory's Cassini Laboratory in 1998.
In 2000, Pouquet joined the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) at the University of Colorado Boulder as director of the Geophysical Turbulence Program and section head of the Turbulence Numerics Team, where she led efforts to investigate wave-turbulence interactions in the Earth's atmosphere and in space. Pouquet also founded the Earth and Sun System Laboratory as the first acting director in 2004 and became its deputy director between 2006 and 2009.
Pouquet retired in 2013 and became an emeritus Senior Scientist at NCAR. She also became an adjunct professor at the Department of Applied Mathematics, and a visiting scientist of the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado Boulder.
Honours and awards
Pouquet was inducted as a fellow of the American Physical Society in 2004. She was awarded the Hannes Alfvén Prize in 2020.
References
1946 births
Living people
21st-century American physicists
20th-century French physicists
Plasma physicists
Fellows of the American Physical Society
Côte d'Azur University alumni
Paris Diderot University alumni | Annick Pouquet | [
"Physics"
] | 393 | [
"Plasma physicists",
"Plasma physics"
] |
65,977,551 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uwu | uwu (), also stylized UwU, is an emoticon representing a cute face. The u characters represent closed eyes, while the w represents a cat mouth. It is used to express various warm, happy, or affectionate feelings.
Usage and variants
The emoticon uwu is often used to denote cuteness (kawaii), happiness, or tenderness. Excessive usage of the emoticon can also have the intended effect of annoying its recipient. It is popularly used in the furry fandom.
The emoticon also has a more surprised and sometimes allusive variant, owo (also stylized OwO; ; also associated with the furry fandom and often the response "what's this?") that may also denote cuteness, as well as curiosity and perplexion. owo gained popularity in 2018; as opposed to uwu, the o characters represent open eyes. It is also sometimes used for trolling. Another variant, TwT, is often used to symbolize crying, with each T representing a closed eye with tears streaming down.
History
The emoticon uwu is known to date back as far as April 11, 2000, when it was used by furry artist Ghislain Deslierres in a post on the furry art site VCL (Vixen Controlled Library). A 2005 anime fanfiction contained another early use of the word. The origin of the term is unknown, with many people believing it to originate in Internet chat rooms. By 2014, the emoticon had spread across the Internet into Tumblr, becoming an Internet subculture.
The word uwu is included in the Royal Spanish Academy's word observatory, defined as an "emoticon used to show happiness or tenderness".
Notable uses
In 2018, the official Twitter account tweeted "uwu" in response to a tweet by an artist.
In 2020, the U.S. Army Esports Twitter account tweeted "uwu" in reply to a tweet by Discord, which was met by significant backlash from Twitter users. This event culminated in a trend of attempting to get banned from the U.S. Army Esports Discord server as quickly as possible, with a common technique being to link to the Wikipedia article on war crimes committed by the United States.
See also
List of emoticons
Notes
References
External links
Emoticons
Furry fandom
Internet memes introduced in 2000
2000 neologisms
Internet slang | Uwu | [
"Mathematics"
] | 506 | [
"Symbols",
"Emoticons"
] |
65,978,125 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myxococcus%20llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogochensis | Myxococcus is a gram-negative, rod-shaped species of myxobacteria found in soil. It is a predator on other bacteria.
The ends of the rod-shaped vegetative cells taper slightly. The colonies are usually pale brown and show swarming motility. It produces orange, roughly spherical fruiting bodies. A draft sequence of its genome showed significant differences from all previously known species of the genus Myxococcus.
The species was isolated from soil collected near the village of Llanfairpwllgwyngyll, on the island of Anglesey in North Wales, and its specific name was given after the settlement's 58-character lengthened name (), which is the longest in Europe.
The scientific name of this bacterial species is considered the longest name in the binomial nomenclature system, bearing 73 letters in total.
The species name has been criticized for not following recommendations in the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes, that specifies that long and difficult to pronounce names should be avoided. Since the International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology plays an important role in nomenclature validation, some critics have argued that the species name can not be considered valid before being published in that Journal. With its publication in a list in 2021, the name was confirmed as valid.
See also
List of long species names
References
Myxococcota
Bacteria described in 2020
Llanfairpwllgwyngyll | Myxococcus llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogochensis | [
"Biology"
] | 297 | [
"Bacteria stubs",
"Bacteria"
] |
65,978,396 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reporter%20virus%20particles | Reporter virus particles (RVPs) are replication-incompetent virus particles engineered to express one or more reporter genes upon infecting susceptible cells. Since the RVP genome lacks genes essential for viral replication, RVPs are capable of only a single round of infection. Thus they are safe to work with under BSL-2 conditions, enabling the study of highly pathogenic viruses using standard laboratory facilities. Expression of a reporter such as luciferase can provide a quantitative readout of infection. With proper design and quality control, RVPs remain stable under common assay conditions and yield reproducible results that correlate with those obtained from live virus. These qualities make RVPs a safer and faster alternative to plaque assays, and especially well-suited for high-throughput applications. RVPs offer flexibility for different uses, as they are antigenically identical to wild-type virus, and can be engineered with various proteins or express mutant envelopes to study infectivity or antigenicity.
Applications
RVPs are most commonly used in neutralization assays, which measure the ability of serum or antibodies to prevent virus infectivity in vitro, with applications in vaccine development, antibody discovery, and serological testing. A related assay tests for antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE), a phenomenon where non-neutralizing antibodies against viruses can increase infectivity through their binding to the cellular Fc receptor, aiding entry of the virus into host cells.
Structure
Depending on the virus of interest and the desired application, RVPs can be pseudotypes, containing a heterologous self-assembling core (typically of lentiviral origin), as well as native envelope proteins corresponding to the studied virus. This type of RVP facilitates exceptional reliability and reproducibility of neutralization assay results, while maintaining antigenicity and safety. Alternatively, for structurally complex viruses such dengue and Zika viruses, RVPs are engineered to be antigenically identical to wild-type virus, using all of the structural proteins of the native virus.
Limitations
RVP production requires optimization of several elements, such as expression constructs, cell lines, and processing steps, to reach a yield sufficient for downstream applications and reproducibility across production lots. Although ideal for studying the effects of the immune response on virus entry, RVPs are replication-incompetent, and therefore typically do not allow study of the later stages of the viral life cycle. RVPs formed by pseudotyping contain the native form of the viral Envelope (or Spike) protein, but may not contain other structural elements from the original virus. Results obtained with RVPs are often compared to those obtained with live virus.
References
Virology
Viruses | Reporter virus particles | [
"Biology"
] | 551 | [
"Viruses",
"Tree of life (biology)",
"Microorganisms"
] |
65,978,769 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythia%20%28machine%20learning%29 | Pythia is an ancient text restoration model that recovers missing characters from a damaged text input using deep neural networks. It was created by Yannis Assael, Thea Sommerschield, and Jonathan Prag, researchers from Google DeepMind and the University of Oxford.
To study the society and the history of ancient civilisations, ancient history relies on disciplines such as epigraphy, the study of ancient inscribed texts. Hundreds of thousands of these texts, known as inscriptions, have survived to our day, but are often damaged over the centuries. Illegible parts of the text must then be restored by specialists, called epigraphists, in order to extract meaningful information from the text and use it to expand our knowledge of the context in which the text was written. Pythia takes as input the damaged text, and is trained to return hypothesised restorations of ancient Greek inscriptions, working as an assistive aid for ancient historians. Its neural network architecture works at both the character- and word-level, thereby effectively handling long-term context information, and dealing efficiently with incomplete word representations. Pythia is applicable to any discipline dealing with ancient texts (philology, papyrology, codicology) and can work in any language (ancient or modern).
References
Machine learning
Digital humanities projects
Digital humanities
Epigraphy
Ancient history | Pythia (machine learning) | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 273 | [
"Digital humanities",
"Artificial intelligence engineering",
"Computing and society",
"Machine learning"
] |
51,773,669 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MythBusters%3A%20The%20Search | MythBusters: The Search is an American reality competition series that was broadcast by Science Channel. Premiering on January 7, 2017, the spin-off featured a field of contestants competing for a chance to become the hosts for a revival of MythBusters on Science Channel.
History
The original run of MythBusters concluded in 2016, after its original hosts Adam Savage and Jamie Hyneman confirmed in October 2015 that the then-upcoming season would be their 14th and final season. In late March 2016, it was revealed by Variety that Discovery Channel's sister network Science was planning a spin-off reality series, tentatively titled Search for the Next MythBusters, which would determine hosts for a revival of the series.
In September 2016, it was announced that Nerdist science editor Kyle Hill would host the series.
The revival, featuring the winners Jon Lung and Brian Louden, premiered on Science in November 2017.
Show format
The series started with 10 contestants; in each episode, contestants compete in one team task (two or three teams competing) and one individual task. In each task, as in the original MythBusters series, the contestants are instructed to scientifically test the validity of a claim (with some tasks based on or expanding from myths covered by previous episodes of MythBusters). At the end of each episode, an MVP is declared, who is granted immunity from elimination. In most episodes, the worst-performing contestant was eliminated.
Contestants
– Winner
– Runner-up
– MVP
Series overview
References
External links
2010s American reality television series
2017 American television series debuts
2017 American television series endings
2017 Australian television series debuts
2017 Australian television series endings
American educational television series
American non-fiction television series
American television spin-offs
Australian educational television series
Australian non-fiction television series
Australian television spin-offs
American English-language television shows
Science Channel original programming
Television series about urban legends
Television shows set in San Francisco
Television shows filmed in California
Television shows filmed in New Jersey
Television series by Beyond Television Productions
Television in the San Francisco Bay Area
Engineering competitions | MythBusters: The Search | [
"Technology"
] | 410 | [
"Science and technology awards",
"Engineering competitions"
] |
51,774,438 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active%20design | Active design is a set of building and planning principles that promote physical activity. Active design in a building, landscape or city design integrates physical activity into the occupants' everyday routines, such as walking to the store or making a photocopy. Active design involves urban planners, architects, transportation engineers, public health professionals, community leaders and other professionals in building places that encourage physical activity as an integral part of life. While not an inherent part of active design, most designers employing "active design" are also concerned with the productive life of their buildings and their building's ecological footprint.
History
In England
Sport England considers that the built environment has a vital role to play to encourage people to be physically active as part of their daily lives, enabling communities to lead more active and healthy lifestyles. In 2007 Sport England and David Lock Associates published Active Design, which provided a set of design guidelines to help promote opportunities for sport and physical activity in the design and layout of new development. The guidance was developed in two phases. Phase one (2005) developed the three key active design objects of improving accessibility, enhancing amenity and increasing awareness ("the 3 A's"). Phase two included two stakeholder sessions (May and October 2006) which expanded "the 3 A's" into a criterion-based approach. These criteria formed the guidance which was published in 2007. The guidance was supported by CABE, Department of Health and Department for Culture Media and Sport.
In 2014, Sport England held a stakeholder session made up of a range of bodies and individuals including urban planning and public health professionals to discuss whether active design was still relevant in the current planning and health context, and they concluded that it was. The guide was revised, retaining "the 3 A's" and refining the criteria-based approach to the ten principles of active design. The revised Active Design was published in 2015, and was supported by Public Health England.
In 2016 Active Design: Planning for Health and Wellbeing through Sport and Physical Activity was shortlisted for an award at the Royal Town Planning Institute (RTPI) Awards for Planning Excellence. Active Design was shortlisted in the category of "Excellence in Planning for Community and Wellbeing".
In 2017 Sport England prepared two animated films, Active Design by Sport England and The Ten Principles of Active Design, in addition to three further case studies.
The active design principles are becoming increasingly embedded into built environment practice and placemaking design, with a growing list of local authorities in England making reference to Sport England's active design guidance in planning policy. In 2018 active design was embedded into the principles of the revised "Essex Design Guide" (prepared by Essex County Council and supported by Sport England).
In New York
Recognizing that physical inactivity was a significant factor in decreased life spans, notably because it promoted obesity, high blood pressure and high blood glucose, all precursors of early death, those responsible for planning in New York City developed a set of guidelines that, inter alia, they hoped would promote health by promoting physical activity. They released these guidelines in January 2010. The guidelines were also based on concerns about building longevity and ecological costs, which is generally known as "sustainable design". Impetus for the guidelines began in 2006 with the NYC Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (DOHMH) who then partnered with the American Institute of Architects New York Chapter to hold a series of conferences known as the "Fit City" conferences.
Four key concepts came out of this process:
Buildings should encourages greater physical movement within them for users and visitors
Cities should provide recreational spaces that are accessible and encourage physical activity for a variety of ages, interests, and abilities
Transportation systems in cities should encourage physical activity and should protect non-motor vehicle use
Cities, market areas and buildings should provide ready access to food and healthy eating environments
From New York City the active design movement spread throughout the United States and the world.
Goals
Sickness can lead to not working efficiently and effectively. Ineffective workers in the work force cause harm to the company and the people in the community. Active design strives to impact public health not only physically but also mentally and socially. For example, active design in transportation supports a safe and vibrant environment for pedestrians, cyclists and transit riders. It creates buildings that encourage greater physical movement within a building by both users and visitors. The active design of recreation sites shapes play and activity spaces for people of different ages, interests, and abilities. Also, improved food accessibility can improve nutrition in communities that need it the most.
Effects
There are few studies of the effects of implementing active design concepts, but they are in general agreement that the physical activity of occupants is increased. Moving to an active design building seemed to have physical health benefits for workers, but workers' perceptions on productivity about the new work environment have varied. A study reported that staff moved into an active design building decreased the time spent sitting by 1.2 hours per day. There was no significant increase in self-rated quality of work or work related motivation but there was no negative feedback in these areas.
The National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) has published a review of research on public health interventions to prevent obesity. The review covers interventions looking at active travel (including walk and cycle lanes), the impact of new roads, public transport, access to green spaces, blue spaces, and parks, and urban regeneration.
Implementation
Active design concepts may be applied in remodeling or repurposing existing buildings and landscapes. Some elements include widening sidewalks and crosswalks; installing traffic calming elements that slow driving speeds; making stairs that are accessible, visible, attractive, and well-lit; making recreation areas, such as parks, plazas, and playgrounds, more accessible by pedestrians and cyclists. People would be more likely to be active if places for recreation were within walking distance.
There are a number of concerns with the adoption of active design programmes. Developing communities are not always accepting of new forms of architecture and living. Integration of active design may come in conflict with making sure historical culture survives. Vernacular architecture may be abandoned due to it being considered insufficient or uncomfortable.
Future
The future of active design may be to further incorporate requirements into law, as in the city of New York which set active design guidelines to improve public health in the city.
See also
Car-free movement
Cycling infrastructure
Street reclamation
Walkability
Walking audit
References
Further reading
Urban design
Architectural design
Landscape architecture
Public health
Architecture articles needing expert attention | Active design | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,300 | [
"Design",
"Landscape architecture",
"Architectural design",
"Architecture"
] |
51,775,892 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryomyces%20minteri | Cryomyces minteri is a fungus of uncertain placement in the class Dothideomycetes, division Ascomycota. The rock-inhabiting fungus that was discovered in the McMurdo Dry Valleys located in Antarctica, on fragments of rock colonized by a local cryptoendolithic community.
In 2008, Cryomyces minteri and Cryomyces antarcticus were simultaneously tested in low Earth orbit conditions on the EXPOSE-E facility on the EuTEF (European Technology Exposure Facility) platform outside the International Space Station for 18 months.
It was also tested in a space vacuum along with polychromatic UV radiation to simulate a Martian environment. The two fungi survived both of the simulations.
References
External links
Catalogue of Life: Dothideomycetes
Enigmatic Dothideomycetes taxa
Fungi described in 2005
Fungi of Antarctica
Fungus species | Cryomyces minteri | [
"Astronomy",
"Biology"
] | 172 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species",
"Astronomy stubs",
"Astrobiology stubs"
] |
51,775,967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time%20path%20planning | Real-Time Path Planning is a term used in robotics that consists of motion planning methods that can adapt to real time changes in the environment. This includes everything from primitive algorithms that stop a robot when it approaches an obstacle to more complex algorithms that continuously takes in information from the surroundings and creates a plan to avoid obstacles.
These methods are different from something like a Roomba robot vacuum as the Roomba may be able to adapt to dynamic obstacles but it does not have a set target. A better example would be Embark self-driving semi-trucks that have a set target location and can also adapt to changing environments.
The targets of path planning algorithms are not limited to locations alone. Path planning methods can also create plans for stationary robots to change their poses. An example of this can be seen in various robotic arms, where path planning allows the robotic system to change its pose without colliding with itself.
As a subset of motion planning, it is an important part of robotics as it allows robots to find the optimal path to a target. This ability to find an optimal path also plays an important role in other fields such as video games and gene sequencing.
Concepts
In order to create a path from a target point to a goal point there must be classifications about the various areas within the simulated environment. This allows a path to be created in a 2D or 3D space where the robot can avoid obstacles.
Work Space
The work space is an environment that contains the robot and various obstacles. This environment can be either 2-dimensional or 3-dimensional.
Configuration Space
The configuration of a robot is determined by its current position and pose. The configuration space is the set of all configurations of the robot. By containing all the possible configurations of the robot, it also represents all transformations that can be applied to the robot.
Within the configuration sets there are additional sets of configurations that are classified by the various algorithms.
Free Space
The free space is the set of all configurations within the configuration space that does not collide with obstacles.
Target Space
The target space is the configuration that we want the robot to accomplish.
Obstacle Space
The obstacle space is the set of configurations within the configuration space where the robot is unable to move to.
Danger Space
The danger space is the set of configurations where the robot can move through but does not want to. Oftentimes robots will try to avoid these configurations unless they have no other valid path or are under a time restraint. For example, a robot would not want to move through a fire unless there were no other valid paths to the target space.
Methods
Global
Global path planning refers to methods that require prior knowledge of the robot's environment. Using this knowledge it creates a simulated environment where the methods can plan a path.
Rapidly Exploring Random Tree (RRT)
The rapidly exploring random tree method works by running through all possible translations from a specific configuration . By running through all possible series of translations a path is created for the robot to reach the target from the starting configuration.
Local
Local path planning refers to methods that take in information from the surroundings in order to generate a simulated field where a path can be found. This allows a path to be found in the real-time as well as adapt to dynamic obstacles.
Probabilistic Roadmap (PRM)
The probabilistic roadmap method connects nearby configurations in order to determine a path that goes from the starting to target configuration. The method is split into two different parts: preprocessing phase and query phase. In the preprocessing phase, algorithms evaluate various motions to see if they are located in free space. Then in the query phase, the algorithms connects the starting and target configurations through a variety of paths. After creating the paths, it uses Dijkstra's shortest path query to find the optimal path.
Evolutionary Artificial Potential Field (EAPF)
The evolutionary artificial potential field method uses a mix of artificial repulsive and attractive forces in order to plan a path for the robot. The attractive forces originate from the target which leads the path to the target in the end. The repulsive forces come from the various obstacles the robot will come across. Using this mix of attractive and repulsive forces, algorithms can find the optimal path.
Indicative Route Method (IRM)
The indicative route method uses a control path towards the target and an attraction point located at the target. Algorithms are often used to find the control path, which is oftentimes the path with the shortest minimum-clearance path. As the robot stays on the control path the attraction point on the target configuration leads the robot towards the target.
Modified Indicative Routes and Navigation (MIRAN)
The modified indicative routes and navigation method gives various weights to different paths the robot can take from its current position. For example, a rock would be given a high weight such as 50 while an open path would be given a lower weight such as 2. This creates a variety of weighted regions in the environment which allows the robot to decide on a path towards the target.
Applications
Humanoid Robots
For many robots the number of degrees of freedom is no greater than three. Humanoid robots on the other hand have a similar number of degrees of freedom to a human body which increases the complexity of path planning. For example, a single leg of a humanoid robot can have around 12 degrees of freedom. The increased complexity comes from the greater possibility of the robot colliding with itself. Real-time path planning is important for the motion of humanoid robots as it allows various parts of the robot to move at the same time while avoiding collisions with the other parts of the robot.
For example, if we were to look at our own arms we can see that our hands can touch our shoulders. For a robotic arm this may pose a risk if the parts of the arms were to collide unintentionally with each other. This is why path planning algorithms are needed to prevent these accidental collisions.
Self-Driving Vehicles
Self-driving vehicles are a form of mobile robots that utilizes real-time path planning. Oftentimes a vehicle will first use global path planning to decide which roads to take to the target. When these vehicles are on the road they have to constantly adapt to the changing environment. This is where local path planning methods allow the vehicle to plan a safe and fast path to the target location.
An example of this would be the Embark self-driving semi-trucks, which uses an array of sensors to take in information about their environment. The truck will have a predetermined target location and will use global path planning to have a path to the target. While the truck is on the road it will use its sensors alongside local path planning methods to navigate around obstacles to safely reach the target location.
Video games
Oftentimes in video games there are a variety of non-player characters that are moving around the game which requires path planning. These characters must have paths planned for them as they need to know where to move to and how to move there.
For example, in the game Minecraft there are hostile mobs that track and follow the player in order to kill the player. This requires real-time path planning as the mob must avoid various obstacles while following the player. Even if the player were to add additional obstacles in the way of the mob, the mob would change its path to still reach the player.
References
Robotics engineering | Real-time path planning | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 1,477 | [
"Computer engineering",
"Robotics engineering"
] |
51,777,563 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20260 | NGC 260 is a spiral galaxy located in the constellation Andromeda. It was discovered on August 27, 1865 by Heinrich d'Arrest.
References
External links
0260
Spiral galaxies
Andromeda (constellation)
002844 | NGC 260 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 46 | [
"Andromeda (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
51,777,638 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20261 | NGC 261 is a diffuse nebula located in the constellation Tucana. It was discovered on September 5, 1826, by James Dunlop.
See also
List of NGC objects (1–1000)
References
External links
0261
Tucana
Discoveries by James Dunlop | NGC 261 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 51 | [
"Nebula stubs",
"Tucana",
"Astronomy stubs",
"Constellations"
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51,777,785 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio%20One%20%28software%29 | Studio One (formally known as Studio One Pro) is a digital audio workstation (DAW) application, used to create, record, mix and master music and other audio, with functionality also available for video. Initially developed as a successor to the KRISTAL Audio Engine, it was acquired by PreSonus and first released in 2009 for macOS and Microsoft Windows. PreSonus and Studio One were then acquired by Fender in 2021.
Since September 2024, users who purchase & register a copy of Studio One receive a permanent license for the software, alongside one year of subsequent feature updates. Studio One is also available as part of the Studio One Pro+ monthly subscription program.
History
Early development and release (2004–2011)
Studio One originally began development under the name K2, as a follow-up to the KRISTAL Audio Engine. Although development for this follow-up began in 2004, it transitioned in 2006 to a cooperation between PreSonus and KristalLabs Software Ltd., a start-up founded by former Steinberg employees Wolfgang Kundrus and Matthias Juwan. Kundrus was one of the developers for initial versions of Cubase, and established concepts for the first version of Nuendo. Juwan was the author of the original KRISTAL Audio Engine, wrote the specification for version 3 of the VST plug-in standard, and had also worked on multiple Steinberg products, including Cubase, Nuendo, and HALion.
KristalLabs then became part of PreSonus in 2009, and the former KristalLabs logo was used as the basis for the logo of Studio One.
The first version of Studio One was announced on 1 April 2009 at Musikmesse, and released on 27 September 2009. The final update for Studio One version 1 (v1.6.5) was released in July 2011.
Versions 2 & 3 (2011–2018)
Version 2 of Studio One was announced on 17 October 2011, and released on 31 October 2011 (alongside the 2.0.2 update). This release of the software introduced multiple enhancements, including integration with Celemony Melodyne, transient detection & quantization, groove extraction, multi-track comping, folder tracks, multi-track MIDI editing, an updated browser, and new plug-ins.
The integration of Studio One version 2 with Melodyne was achieved via the creation of a new plug-in extension, known as Audio Random Access (ARA). This extension, developed jointly by PreSonus and Celemony, allows an audio plug-in to appear as an integrated part of the application.
Version 3 of Studio One was released on 20 May 2015. The new features included an arranger track, scratchpads for idea experimentation, the ability to chain together different effects and instruments, MIDI note effects, new plug-ins, and the ability to use curves in automation.
Versions 4 & 5 (2018–2022)
Following teaser images on social media websites in the preceding weeks, version 4 of Studio One was announced via a YouTube live stream event on 22 May 2018, and released simultaneously. New features in version 4 included a chord track (with chord detection, transposition and chord substitution options), a dedicated drum editing interface, expanded drum machine & sampler plug-ins, AAF-format import/export functionality (to exchange data with other DAW applications), and support for version 2 of the ARA plug-in extension.
Almost exactly a year later, on 21 May 2019, this functionality was expanded further with the live stream announcement and simultaneous release of version 4.5. New functionality introduced with version 4.5 included input channel gain staging and phase/polarity options, a built-in plug-in manager, M4A (AAC/ALAC) support, video export options, new grouping options, RMS metering, pre-fader metering, CPU multi-core optimization, and expanded macro features, alongside a new add-on for batch audio conversion & processing.
The release of version 4.6 was preceded by a launch party event, hosted by PreSonus at the Red Bull Studios building in London. Its release on 10 December 2019 included a re-designed and expanded version of the Ampire guitar amplifier and effects plugin (including new effects pedal options), a re-designed content browser, and new templates & macros for podcast production.
Version 5 of Studio One, described as "ten years in the making", was announced via live-stream video on 7 July 2020. Features added in this new version included a full score editor (with features similar to that of PreSonus' notation software, Notion), a show interface focused on supporting live performances, MIDI support enhancements (such as polyphonic expression, custom ROLI device support, and the ability to use MTC & MMC to synchronize Studio One with external clocks). Version 5 also added support for recording in 64-bit floating-point WAV format, bringing the maximum precision for recording & processing to 64-bit/384 kHz and thereby making Studio One one of the highest-resolution audio production and mastering applications available. Version 5.4 of the software, released in September 2021, added native support for Apple computers with Apple silicon chips, thereby providing improved performance on such machines (which would previously have run the application via Rosetta 2 emulation).
Versions 6 & 7 (2022–2024)
Version 6 of the software (the first following PreSonus' acquisition by Fender in 2021) was both announced and released on 29 September 2022. The new release included enhancements focused on making the application "simpler [and] more intuitive" (as previously alluded to by Fender CEO, Andy Mooney), such as "smart" templates, additional UI customization, song lyric support, and cloud-based collaboration (via their PreSonus Sphere subscription service). Following the launch, Evan Jones, Fender CMO, stated that the company was "fully invested in supporting the continued expansion and adoption of Studio One as the total solution for professional and committed at-home creators." In addition, version 6 introduced a video track with basic editing tools.
Subsequently, version 6.5, released on 26 September 2023, introduced support for spatial audio mixing and Dolby Atmos, as well as import and export support for the new open-source DAWproject file format which, at time of release, was also supported by Bitwig Studio. This version also added Linux support to Studio One for the first time, in the form of a public beta.
In September 2024, it was announced that version 7 of Studio One would be released on October 9th. The announcement also confirmed that the lower-priced Artist and free Prime editions of the software would no longer be offered, shifting instead to "one DAW for all," specifically called Studio One Pro.
PreSonus' general software manager, Arnd Kaiser, described version 7 as an iteration which "breaks down the barriers between different workflows..." A number of the release's features included aspects augmented by artificial intelligence, including stem extraction, enhanced tempo-detection, and full integration with the Splice platform and it's AI-powered search features (making Studio One the first DAW to implement this integration). Other features included within this version on initial release included dynamic song-wide transposition, looping for both audio & MIDI events, a dynamic grid of loops and patterns (known as the Launcher), and support for the open-source CLAP plug-in format.
Time-based release model (2024–Present)
Alongside the first announcement of Studio One version 7, PreSonus also announced multiple changes to the software's release model, which were made as a "direct result of user feedback."They stated that, "to deliver more major new features, faster, as soon as they’re ready," they would be moving to "a faster feature release cycle with multiple major new feature releases each year." Because of this change, Studio One 7 was confirmed to be the final numbered release, with future versions using time-based naming conventions.
To support the change in release schedule, it was announced that each perpetual license of Studio One Pro would "include one full year of new feature releases from the time of registration," so that users can "upgrade [their] licence on [their] schedule ... without worrying about the timing of major releases."
Features
Standard DAW features
In addition to its other functionality, Studio One includes fundamental features which are common across most digital audio workstation software, such as the functionality found in multi-track recorders and audio mixing consoles, plus additional functions not possible with analog recording (such as undoing previous actions, editing without loss of information, use of virtual instruments, etc.).
Studio One has no fixed limits on the number of inputs/outputs, tracks, and buses available to users. Its audio engine supports 64-bit audio resolution with sample rates up to 768 kHz.
Supported formats, plug-ins, and standards
Studio One features support for importing & exporting multiple audio and video file formats, including WAV/AIFF, M4A (AAC/ALAC), FLAC/MP3, DDP, and MPEG‑4/M4V (using H.264/AVC and HEVC). For third-party plug-in support, it is compatible with the VST/VST2/VST3, Audio Unit, CLAP, and ReWire formats, plus the ARA/ARA2 plug-in extension (allowing plug-ins to closely integrate as part of the application).
Other standards supported by the software include MIDI Polyphonic Expression / Poly Pressure, spatial audio mixing (including Apple Spatial Audio and Dolby Atmos, up to 9.1.6 channels), and MTC/MMC (to synchronize with external clocks). To enable connectivity with third-party hardware, Studio One supports integration with Native Instruments Komplete Kontrol series keyboards, plus the Mackie Control Universal communications protocol (which combines functionality from Mackie Control, Logic Control and HUI), for interfacing with audio control surfaces.
Additionally, Studio One includes support for the importing & exporting of open-source DAWproject (.dawproject) files, to exchange project information with other DAW applications.
Non-audio tracks
In addition to the traditional audio- and MIDI-focused tracks found in digital audio workstations, Studio One includes additional types of track which users can place within their songs & projects, to synchronize other key information with the same timeline. These include a dedicated video track (with video export functionality), a chord track (with automatic chord detection from audio or MIDI tracks, and options for chord transposition and substitution), an arranger track (for navigating song sections and re-arranging them via drag-and-drop), and a lyrics track (for attaching song lyrics to notes, either word by word or syllable by syllable).
Song, Project, and Show workflows
In addition to its standard song workflow, which most closely resembles a typical DAW, Studio One also provides two additional workflows and dedicated user interfaces for specific focus areas: A project interface, with tools for mastering, managing the metadata of, and exporting one or more songs simultaneously, including options for creating Red Book Standard CDs or disk images, and a show interface, focused on performance rather than creation, for use in coordinating all aspects of live performances from a single location. Both of these alternative interfaces support direct integration with Studio One's standard .song file format.
Scratch Pad and Launcher panels
Studio One has several panels that function alongside the traditional, linear timeline view common across DAWs: Scratch pads allow users to experiment with different song layouts without impacting the original version, whereas the launcher is a dynamic grid of audio and/or MIDI loops & patterns, with real-time editing features. Both of these panels allow their content to be extracted back to the main timeline.
Artificial intelligence features
Multiple aspects of Studio One functionality are supported by artificial intelligence (AI), such as audio tempo detection (including for free-tempo recordings) powered by neural network technology, AI-powered un-mixing to extract stems (such as vocals, bass, and drums) from a combined audio track (to allow separate processing on each), and full integration with Splice for browsing & previewing of royalty-free samples, including via its AI-powered sample search.
Other features
The other core features of Studio One include the following:
Integrated Celemony Melodyne.
Audio transient detection and real-time audio time-stretching features.
Dynamic global transposition options for all chosen audio & MIDI tracks within a song, allowing for simple key changes.
Integrated music score editor and side-by-side support for Notion.
Multiple automation patterns for tracks and plug-ins, including straight lines, exponential/parabolic curves, and square/triangle/sine waves.
Looping functionality for both audio and MIDI events, offering an alternative to duplicating them.
A batch-audio interface, for processing multiple files simultaneously.
The ability to create chains of virtual instruments and/or effects.
Support for custom user-defined macros.
MIDI note-level effects, such as an arpeggiator and a chord generator.
A dedicated interface for editing programmed drums, including configurable kit piece names for each note pitch.
Mix Engine effects: plug-ins that can be used to modify/bypass/replace the standard mixing processes for a specific bus/channel.
Support for users to switch to the keyboard shortcuts from other DAW software, such as Pro Tools, Logic Pro, Cubase, and Sonar.
Ability to directly upload mastered songs to SoundCloud and TuneCore.
Studio One Pro+
In addition to perpetual licenses, the software is also available as part of the Studio One Pro+ monthly subscription program (previously known as PreSonus Sphere), which also includes other PreSonus software, such as Notion, and all of its available plug-ins.
Add-ons
Introduced with version 2.6.2 in January 2014, add-ons are optional items, developed either by PreSonus, or by third-parties, which can be acquired separately from the PreSonus store to expand the capabilities of Studio One. This can include new functionality (often known as extensions), plug-ins, virtual instrument presets, loops, and other assets. Example add-on functionality includes the Audio Batch Converter (released alongside version 4.5), which allows for the offline conversion and processing of multiple audio files simultaneously, including the use of both native and third-party plug-ins.
Add-ons are also available to expand Studio One Artist to include other functionality from the Professional edition, including VST/AU/ReWire plug-in support, MP3 support, and Studio One Remote support.
Studio One Remote
Introduced alongside Studio One version 3 in 2015, Studio One Remote is an app for wirelessly controlling Studio One via a tablet device connected to the same network. Whilst originally released for the Apple iPad, Remote was subsequently released for Microsoft Windows & Surface tablets (February 2016), and for Android tablets (June 2017). It uses PreSonus' own UCNET protocol, which is used for network connectivity and remote control across multiple PreSonus products.
Aspects of Studio One functionality which can be controlled via Remote include:
The mixing console, including inserts, sends, inputs, outputs, and cue mixes.
The transport bar and timeline ruler, including markers and arranger sections.
Track macro controls.
Plug-in parameters.
Studio One Exchange
Studio One Exchange (previously known as PreSonus Exchange when it was first released in January 2012, alongside version 2.0.4) is a service which allows registered Studio One users to exchange plug-in presets, MIDI files and other resources from directly within the application. The Studio One Browser allows users to explore, preview, download, and review items uploaded to this service by other users, as well as upload their own.
A re-designed version of Exchange, referred to as Exchange 2.0 was released as part of Studio One v4.6 on 10 December 2019.
Reception
Studio One has received mostly positive reviews since its initial release. Common areas of praise include rapid workflow, cost-effectiveness, and usability.
Studio One won the Japanese V.G.P. (Visual Grand Prix) Gold award for three consecutive years, in 2011, 2012, and 2013.
In 2012, readers of Resolution Magazine named Studio One (version 2) as the Resolution Award winner in the DAW category.
In 2013, Studio One (version 2.5) won a M.I.P.A. (Musikmesse International Press Awards) award in the "Best Recording Software" category. Other awards received in 2013 included the Visual Grand Prix Audio Excellence award (in the DAW category), the ProSoundWeb & Live Sound International, Readers’ Choice Award, and Audio Media's "Gear of the Year" award, and the C.I.F. (Customers in Focus) award from the music studio website DAWfreak.se.
In 2016, Studio One (version 3) won Music and Sound Retailer's award for "Best Multitrack Recorder/Recording & Mixing Software of 2015" at NAMM.
Release history
See also
Comparison of digital audio editors
List of music software
References
Further reading
Studio References (2016-10-25). The Unofficial Studio One User's Manual. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. .
PreSonus (2016-06-04). Studio One 3 - Reference Manual. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. .
Edstrom Jr., William (2013). Studio One for Engineers and Producers. Hal Leonard Books. .
The O, Larry (2012). Power Tools for Studio One 2: Master PreSonus' Complete Creation and Production Software, Volume 1. Hal Leonard Corporation. .
Terry, David (2012). Alfred's Teach Yourself Studio One: Version 2.0. Alfred Publishing Company. .
External links
Digital audio workstation software
Music production software
Music software
Audio editors
Audio mixing software
Audio software
Computer music software
Windows multimedia software
MacOS multimedia software
MacOS audio editors
2009 software | Studio One (software) | [
"Engineering"
] | 3,762 | [
"Audio engineering",
"Audio software"
] |
51,778,056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita%20virgineoides | Amanita virgineoides, known as the false virgin's lepidella, is a species of fungus in the genus Amanita.
Description
The basidiocarps are medium-sized to large. The cap is wide, convex to applanate, sometimes concave, and white, covered with white, conical to pyramid volval remnants high and wide. The cap margin is smooth and appendiculate, and the context is white and unchanging.
The gills are free to subfree and white to cream; the short gills are attenuate.
The stipe is × , subcylindric or slightly attenuate upwards, white, covered with white floccose squamules; the context is white; the stipe's basal bulb is wide, ventricose, ovoid to subglobose, with its upper part covered with white, verrucose to granular volval remnants. The annulus is white; its upper surface bears fine, radial striations; and its lower surface, verrucose to conical warts. The annulus is often broken during expansion of the cap.
The spores measure 8–10 × 6–7.5 μm and are broadly ellipsoid to ellipsoid and amyloid. Clamps are common at bases of basidia.
See also
List of Amanita species
References
virgineoides
Fungus species | Amanita virgineoides | [
"Biology"
] | 293 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
51,778,615 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testosterone%20buciclate | Testosterone buciclate (developmental code names 20 Aet-1, CDB-1781) is a synthetic, injected anabolic–androgenic steroid (AAS) which was never marketed. It was developed in collaboration by the Contraceptive Development Branch (CDB) of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) and the World Health Organization (WHO) in the 1970s and early 1980s for use in androgen replacement therapy for male hypogonadism and as a potential male contraceptive. It was first described in 1986. The medication is an androgen ester – specifically, the C17β buciclate (4-butylcyclohexane-1-carboxylate) ester of testosterone – and is a prodrug of testosterone with a very long duration of action when used as a depot via intramuscular injection. Testosterone buciclate is formulated as a microcrystalline aqueous suspension with a defined particle size of at least 75% in the range of 10 to 50 μm.
A single intramuscular injection of testosterone buciclate has been found to produce physiological levels of testosterone within the normal range in hypogonadal men for 3 to 4 months. The elimination half-life and mean residence time (average amount of time a single molecule of drug stays in the body) of testosterone buciclate were found to be 29.5 days and 60.0 days, respectively, whereas those of testosterone enanthate in castor oil were only 4.5 days and 8.5 days. Testosterone buciclate also lasts longer than testosterone undecanoate, which has elimination half-lives and mean residence times of 20.9 days and 34.9 days in tea seed oil and 33.9 days and 36.0 days in castor oil, respectively. In addition, there is a spike in testosterone levels with testosterone enanthate and testosterone undecanoate that is not seen with testosterone buciclate, with which levels stay highly uniform and decrease very gradually and progressively. Testosterone buciclate can maintain testosterone levels in the normal male range for up to 20 weeks with a single intramuscular injection.
Testosterone buciclate is able to reversibly and completely suppress spermatogenesis in men when used at sufficiently high dosages. As such, the results of clinical studies for use of testosterone buciclate as a male contraceptive were promising, and trials continued as late as 1995, but progress ultimately came to a standstill because the WHO was unable to find an industry partner willing to continue the development of the drug. Because of this, the WHO backed away from testosterone buciclate and focused its research instead on testosterone undecanoate, which is also very long-lasting and has the advantage of having already been marketed and approved for medical use.
See also
List of androgen esters § Testosterone esters
Polytestosterone phloretin phosphate
References
Abandoned drugs
Anabolic–androgenic steroids
Androstanes
Buciclate esters
Contraception for males
Ketones
Testosterone esters | Testosterone buciclate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 632 | [
"Ketones",
"Functional groups",
"Drug safety",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
51,779,060 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethyltestosterone | Ethyltestosterone, or 17α-ethyltestosterone, also known as 17α-ethylandrost-4-en-17β-ol-3-one or 17α-pregn-4-en-17-ol-3-one, is a synthetic, orally active anabolic–androgenic steroid (AAS) of the 17α-alkylated group related to methyltestosterone which was never marketed. Like methyltestosterone, ethyltestosterone is the parent compound of many AAS. Derivatives of ethyltestosterone include norethandrolone (ethylnandrolone, ethylestrenolone), ethylestrenol (ethylnandrol), norboletone, ethyldienolone, tetrahydrogestrinone, bolenol (ethylnorandrostenol), and propetandrol.
Ethyltestosterone is described as a very weak AAS and is considerably weaker as an AAS than is methyltestosterone. It is reported to have 1/10 of the anabolic potency and 1/20 of the androgenic potency of testosterone propionate in rodents. Ethyltestosterone was also inactive in boys with dwarfism at 20 to 40 mg/day orally. The low potency of ethyltestosterone is in notable contrast to norethandrolone (17α-ethyl-19-nortestosterone), the C19 nor analogue. Analogues of ethyltestosterone with longer C17α chains such as propyltestosterone (topterone) have further reduced androgenic activity or even antiandrogenic activity. In contrast to ethyltestosterone, its 19-demethyl variant, norethandrolone, is a potent AAS comparable in anabolic activity to testosterone propionate.
See also
List of androgens/anabolic steroids
References
Abandoned drugs
1-Ethylcyclopentanols
Anabolic–androgenic steroids
Androstanes
Enones | Ethyltestosterone | [
"Chemistry"
] | 456 | [
"Drug safety",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
51,779,233 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic%20wind | Cosmic wind is a powerful cosmic stream of charged particles that can push interstellar dust clouds of low density into intergalactic space. Although it easily pushes low density gas and dust clouds, it cannot easily push high density clouds. As the cosmic winds start to push the clouds, they start to separate and start looking like taffy being pulled apart. It has a primary composition of photons ejected from large stars and sometimes thermal energy from exploding stars. It can be caused by orbital motion of gas in the cluster of a galaxy, or can be ejected from a black hole. Because new stars and planets form from gases, the cosmic winds that push the gases away are preventing new stars from forming and are ultimately playing a role in galaxy evolution.
Description
These winds come from the thermal expansion of galactic halos in O and B stars and are further increased by cosmic rays, which shoot out and help push gas out of the halo and disk of its galaxy. In these supernovae, these winds are a result of the conversion of the supernova's thermal energy into kinetic energy which is also further increased by cosmic rays. It is a combination of these hot and cooling flows that cause cosmic wind. In smaller stars, such as the Sun, the wind comes from the Sun's corona and is referred to as solar wind.
Observation
The presence of cosmic wind in the vicinity of a black hole can be noted through the meticulous inspection of absorption line features in the spectra of the accretion disk surrounding said black hole. These features are commonly seen through X-ray telescopes such as the Chandra X-ray Observatory, NuSTAR, and NICER. Before 2007, this was only theorized to occur but several physicists including an astrophysicist named Andrew Robinson analyzed the accretion disk of galaxy that is about 3 billion light years away from the Milky Way. They used the William Herschel Telescope to observe this galaxy, and they noticed that the light surrounding the accretion disk was rotating at similar speeds, proving that accretion disks do release winds. The investigation of the origin and regulating mechanisms of the wind is an active research topic.
Calculations
A method used to calculate these winds is done by using the absorption lines. At low redshifts of ultraviolet star forming galaxies, the outflow velocity and mass loading factor of the wind, scale with the star formation rate (SFR) and stellar mass of the galaxy. The surface area of these winds can be estimated by finding the radius, in the case of a spherically symmetric thin shell, the formula to find this is , where is the covering fraction, the radius, the column density of Hydrogen atoms, the mass of the hydrogen atoms, and is the mean molecular weight.
See also
Galactic superwind
Stellar wind
Solar wind
Planetary wind
Stellar-wind bubble
Colliding-wind binary
Pulsar wind nebula
Superwind
References
Astronomical events
Cosmic dust
Interstellar media
Free-floating substellar objects
Black holes | Cosmic wind | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 596 | [
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"Interstellar media",
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"Outer space",
"Astronomical events",
"Unsolved problems in physics",
"Astrophysics",
"Density",
"Stellar phenomena",
"Astronomical objects",
"Cosmic dust"
] |
51,779,301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jetset%20Magazine | Jetset Magazine is an American lifestyle magazine founded in 2006, aimed at those with an affluent lifestyle. It is available as a quarterly print magazine and is distributed in private jets, private yachts, private jet terminals, yacht charters, exclusive resorts and events around the world. It is also available online with content created on a weekly basis.
Editors
Darrin Austin - entrepreneur, philanthropist
Robert Kiyosaki – entrepreneur, author, Rich Dad Poor Dad
Daymond John – entrepreneur; founder, FUBU
Barry LaBov – entrepreneur; chief executive officer
Ken McElroy – real estate investor; author
Tom Zenner – executive editor, Rylin Media; television sports anchor
Scott Walcheck – philanthropist and investor
Tami Austin - editor-in-chief
Readership
The magazines targeted readership is the wealthiest one percent. The print magazine is circulated exclusively to private airport lounges, private yachts, exclusive events and travel locations. It is selective with advertisers to ensure it retains its target audience.
Covers
The magazine has featured many celebrities and entrepreneurs on the cover, with exclusive interviews. These include Richard Branson, Tom Hanks, Margot Robbie, Jackie Chan, Daniel Craig, Tom Cruise, Dwyane Wade, Donald Trump, Dwayne Johnson, Ryan Reynolds, Scarlett Johansson, Chris Hemsworth, Charlize Theron and Hugh Jackman.
Controversy
In 2014, the magazine interviewed and filmed Dana White in his office where he revealed he had a piece of art which contained cocaine and black tar heroin within it.
Famously, the magazine featured American presidential candidate Donald Trump on the cover of its issue 4 in 2015 with exclusive pictures from inside his private jet.
Miss Jetset
The magazine runs an annual competition to find "Miss Jetset". Women from all around the world compete, while raising awareness for the Andrew McDonough B+ Foundation, a children's cancer charity.
2015 winner - Becca Tepper
2016 winner - Laura Lydall
2017 winner - Adaliz Martinez
2018 winner - Lara Sebastian
2019 winner - Enea Culverson
2020 winner - Janeilla Burns
2021 winner - Tanaya Peck
2022 winner - Jessica Ceballos
See also
List of United States magazines
References
External links
, the magazine's official website
2006 establishments in Arizona
Lifestyle magazines published in the United States
Quarterly magazines published in the United States
Visual arts magazines published in the United States
Design magazines
Entertainment magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 2006
Magazines published in Arizona
Sailing magazines
Scottsdale, Arizona
Women's fashion magazines published in the United States | Jetset Magazine | [
"Engineering"
] | 509 | [
"Design magazines",
"Design"
] |
51,779,654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery%20and%20development%20of%20NS5A%20inhibitors | Nonstructural protein 5A (NS5A) inhibitors are direct acting antiviral agents (DAAs) that target viral proteins, and their development was a culmination of increased understanding of the viral life cycle combined with advances in drug discovery technology. However, their mechanism of action is complex and not fully understood. NS5A inhibitors were the focus of much attention when they emerged as a part of the first curative treatment for hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections in 2014. Favorable characteristics have been introduced through varied structural changes, and structural similarities between NS5A inhibitors that are clinically approved are readily apparent. Despite the recent introduction of numerous new antiviral drugs, resistance is still a concern and these inhibitors are therefore always used in combination with other drugs.
Hepatitis C virus
HCV is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus that has been demonstrated to replicate in the hepatocytes of both humans and chimpanzees. A single HCV polyprotein is translated, and then cleaved by cellular and viral proteases into three structural proteins (core, E1, and E2) and seven nonstructural proteins (p7, NS2, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, NS5A, and NS5B).
HCV is among the leading causes of liver disease around the world. It is transmitted by blood and is most commonly contracted through the use of infected needles. Patients with chronic HCV infection are at significant risk of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, which are the leading causes of death for those infected.
The virus has been around for over a millennium and has been classified into six known genotypes, each of which contains numerous subtypes. The seventh remains uncharacterized. The genotype contracted dictates which specific treatments are viable.
NS5A receptor
Basic structure and chemical properties
NS5A is a large hydrophilic phosphoprotein that is essential for the HCV life cycle and is found in association with virus-induced membrane vesicles, termed the membranous web. NS5A is a proline-rich protein composed of approximately 447 amino acids, which is divided into three domains. These domains are linked by two low-complexity sequences that are either serine- or proline-rich. Domain I is a zinc binding domain and X-ray crystallography studies indicated alternative dimer conformations of domain I of NS5A. Domain II and III are unstructured, shown by NMR studies. Domain I is preceded by an N-terminal amphipathic helix which allows the protein to associate with endoplasmic reticulum-derived membranes. Although X-ray crystallographic studies revealed dimer conformations of NS5A domain1, recent in solution structural characterization studies showed that NS5A proteins form higher-order structures by dimeric subunits of NS5A domain 1. Moreover, the overall structural model of NS5A highlights the variability of intrinsic conformations of the D2 and D3 domains between HCV genotypes. Therefore, it is still under debate which conformation\s of NS5A is functional and also targeted by NS5A inhibitors.
NS5A mainly exists in two distinct phosphorylated forms, a hypophosphorylated and a hyperphosphorylated form, but the exact function of the phosphorylation has not been determined.
Function
The NS5A protein plays an important role in viral RNA replication, viral assembly, and complex interactions with cellular functions. The protein has been implicated in the modulation of host defenses, apoptosis, the cell cycle, and stress-responsive pathways. However, its function and complete structure have yet to be elucidated.
NS5A seems to be key in triggering the formation of the membranous web in the absence of other similar nonstructural proteins. Many proteins within the host cell can be affected by NS5A, e.g. phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase IIIα (PI4KIIIα), a kinase required for the replication of HCV. This kinase takes part in the biosynthesis of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) by interacting with NS5A, which stimulates its activity and appears to improve the integrity of the membranous web.
Recently, the central role of NS5A in viral proliferation has made it the target for drug development. As a result, new antiviral agents have been introduced for the treatment of HCV.
Mechanism of action
NS5A inhibitors have been developed to target the NS5A protein. These inhibitors have achieved a significant reduction in HCV RNA blood levels and can therefore be considered as potent antivirals. Their mechanism of action is thought to be diverse but the exact mechanism is not fully understood. Most studies assume that NS5A inhibitors act on two essential stages of the HCV life cycle; the replication of the genomic RNA, and virion assembly. Other studies propose an alteration of host cell factors as a possible third mechanism.
The structure of NS5A inhibitors is characterized by dimeric symmetry. This suggests that NS5A inhibitors act on dimers of NS5A. A number of modeling studies have shown that daclatasvir, which is an NS5A inhibitor, only binds to the "back-to-back" NS5A dimer and that the binding has to be symmetrical. Other modeling studies have shown that binding to other conformations of NS5A might be possible, as well as asymmetrical binding. Research has shown that daclatasvir's target is most likely domain I of NS5A. Even though the mechanism is not completely understood, it has been demonstrated that the inhibitors downregulate NS5A hyperphosphorylation, leading to the suppression of HCV replication and its processing of polyproteins, as well as resulting in an unusual protein location. Hitherto, this inhibition was thought to require only NS5A domain I, but not domains II and III. However, recent studies have shown that both domains I and II are relevant to this disruption of RNA replication.
NS5A inhibitors appear to furthermore disrupt the formation of new replicase complexes resulting in a gradual slowing of viral RNA synthesis. Effect on previously formed complexes has yet to be demonstrated.
Available evidence suggests that NS5A inhibitors modify the location of NS5A inside the cell. This may cause abnormal assembly leading to malformed viruses. Some studies have revealed that inhibition of the viral assembly has a more important role in RNA reduction than viral replication reduction.
Studies have shown that NS5A inhibitors block the formation of the membranous web, which protects the viral genome and features the main sites for viral replication and assembly. This mechanism is thought to be independent of RNA replication, but seems to be affected by NS5A inhibitors blocking the formation of the PI4KIIIα-NS5A complex, essential to the synthesis of the PI4P, resulting in decreased integrity of the membranous web and therefore reduced HCV RNA replication.
History
HCV research has taken great strides in recent years with the discovery and clinical development of multiple new HCV drugs. Among those drugs are the DAAs which include NS5A inhibitors.
NS5A inhibitors have been found particularly effective in the treatment of HCV where they have been used in combination with protease inhibitors such as glecaprevir or NS5B inhibitors (e.g., sofosbuvir), pegylated interferons (e.g. peginterferon alfa-2a), and ribonucleic analogs (e.g. ribavirin). The ever present risk of viral strains developing resistance has been a main factor in why they are used in combination with one or more complementary drug.
Adverse effects, and extensive and complicated drug regimens with accompanying low compliance rates, have been a hindrance in the development of antiviral treatments. The combination of NS5A and NS5B inhibitors has produced positive results in this regard.
Drug discovery and development
Discovery
The discovery of NS5A inhibitors took place within the context of a pursuit for a treatment for HCV. NS5A is among the seven nonstructural proteins that form a complex with viral RNA within infected cells to initiate HCV replication. HCV research has produced several DAAs including NS3A, NS4A and NS5B inhibitors, as well as NS5A inhibitors.
Development
The development of antiviral drugs capable of interfering with the proteins responsible for viral replication has been intimately linked with advancements in techniques for establishing the efficient cell culture systems needed to screen for them.
In 1999 a breakthrough came when a full-length consensus genome cloned from HCV RNA was found to replicate at high levels when transfected into a human hepatoma cell line. This method has since been improved upon with the use of cell culture-adaptive mutations that enhance RNA replication.
Screening has now produced a number of NS5A inhibitors, which have been incorporated into treatments for HCV. The first in this new class of drugs was daclatasvir (Daklinza), gaining first global approval from the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW) in July 2014 in combination with asunaprevir. Daclatasvir received FDA approval in July 2015. Other drugs have since been approved, among them notably the first FDA-approved NS5A inhibitor ledipasvir, approved October 2014 in combination with sofosbuvir to comprise the HCV drug Harvoni.
Although NS5A inhibitors have proven effective antivirals, they must be used alongside complementary antiviral drugs due to how quickly they lead to the development of resistant mutations when given as a single agent. This has shaped the focus of NS5A inhibitor development, from which asymmetrical variants that metabolize into analogues with complementary resistance profiles have emerged, amongst other discoveries.
Structure-activity relationship
The structural similarities between the inhibitors are readily apparent. The appendages of the central core are typically symmetrical and have an imidazole-proline structure. The natural L-configuration of the proline derivatives was found to be critical for inhibition since the unnatural D-configuration had drastically weaker activity. The potency of the inhibitors was correspondingly sensitive to changes in the amine capping element. These observations suggest that the amine region of the molecules plays an important role in the inhibitory activity.
Favorable characteristics in an NS5A inhibitor include high potency and long plasma half-life in order to achieve a once-daily-dosage. Slightly asymmetrical appendages, as seen in ledipasvir, were found to have distinctive benefits for the optimization of inhibitor potency and pharmacokinetics. The structure of the central core changes the spacing and the projection of the appendages as well as the position of the lipophilicity in the central core, which affects inhibitory activity notably. Structures with fused central rings consistently show greater inhibitory activity, whereas less lipophilic central cores provide weaker activity. Symmetrical bis-imidazol structures, such as daclatasvir, experience a loss in potency when fluorene is substituted for the biaryl group. This substitution also gives rise to some serious stability problems. However, a smaller lipophilic connector such as difluoromethylene generates the most potent inhibitor in an asymmetrical structure. Additionally, it provides improved bioavailability and more favorable plasma half-life. There is also a remarkable increase in potency when phenyl is replaced with naphthyl as a central core. This increase is significantly higher in an asymmetrical structure than it is in a symmetrical structure. In asymmetrical structures, a difference in potency between the phenyl-alkyne inhibitors demonstrates the importance of the position of the lipophilicity. A more centrally located alkyne, which is a less lipophilic connector than phenyl, improves potency.
Resistance
The potential HCV resistance against DAA drugs is a concern. Among the HCV quasispecies there are pre-existing variants with the potential to confer resistance to NS5A inhibitors without having any previous exposure to those drugs. Generally, the replication of these variants happens only in minute quantities, making them undetectable by current techniques. On the other hand, it is possible to selectively grow immune variants in the presence of NS5A inhibitors. HCV resistance is characterized by a certain escape pattern. This pattern is often associated with amino acid substitutions that confer upon the virus a robust drug resistance without impairing the viral fitness. It has been established that NS5A inhibitors possess a relatively low threshold for resistance, and variants that are associated with NS5A resistance have been shown to endure for up to six months in patients following treatment cessation. Therefore, combination therapies produce higher efficacy and shorter treatment periods.
Future research and new generations of NS5A inhibitors
DAA developers face foreseeable challenges in the years to come. Therapeutic gaps for individuals with complicating conditioned such as chronic kidney disease and cirrhosis will need to be bridged. Shorter therapies with milder side effects would yield greater adherence, and the ever present spectre of drug resistance is looming. The highly adaptive HCV has evolved into a number of different genomes that all need to be adequately treated, preferably with pan-genotypic regimens.
Some of these challenges already have possible solutions in sight. The protease inhibitor ABT-493 and the next-generation NS5A inhibitor ABT-530 are considered active against all HCV genotypes, including the hard to treat genotype 3. In vitro, ABT-530 showed potency against the resistance associated variants which are immune to the first generations of NS5A inhibitors, including ledipasvir, daclatasvir and ombitasvir. Because this drug combination has the additional quality of being hepatically cleared, it holds the promise that patients with chronic kidney disease and HCV could receive a safe, non-sofosbuvir-based treatment in the near future.
At least three drug combinations for the treatment of HCV are in the pipeline to be approved in 2016-2017: Sofosbuvir in combination with velpatasvir, ABT-493 in combination with ABT-530, and grazoprevir in combination with elbasvir, of which velpatasvir, ABT-530 and elbasvir are NS5A inhibitors.
See also
References
NS5A inhibitors
Drug discovery | Discovery and development of NS5A inhibitors | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 3,071 | [
"Life sciences industry",
"Medicinal chemistry",
"Drug discovery"
] |
51,780,003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebei%20Yuxing%20Bio-Engineering%20Co.%20Ltd | Hebei Yuxing Bio-Engineering Co. Ltd is a Chinese active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) company that exports to the United States of America. Recently, the US FDA issued a warning letter due to "evidence that the company was keeping incomplete documentation and did not adequately investigate instances of microbial contamination."
References
Pharmaceutical companies of China | Hebei Yuxing Bio-Engineering Co. Ltd | [
"Chemistry"
] | 68 | [
"Pharmacology",
"Pharmacology stubs",
"Medicinal chemistry stubs"
] |
51,780,083 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheng%20Fong%20Chemical | Cheng Fong Chemical Co. Ltd is a Chinese active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) company that exports to the United States of America. In September 2016, the US FDA issued a warning letter "following a five-day inspection in April 2016 that found the company failed to appropriately maintain its facilities and investigate reports of foreign particles in finished batches." According to the FDA, Cheng Fong officials told investigators "that the rooms had never been cleaned.".
References
Pharmaceutical companies of China | Cheng Fong Chemical | [
"Chemistry"
] | 98 | [
"Pharmacology",
"Pharmacology stubs",
"Medicinal chemistry stubs"
] |
51,782,084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%27Ilm%20al-huruf | ʿIlm al-Ḥurūf () or the science of letters, also called Islamic lettrism, is a process of Arabic numerology whereby numerical values assigned to Arabic letters are added up to provide total values for words in the Quran, similar to Hebrew gematria. Used to infer meanings and reveal secret or hidden messages.
ʿIlm al-Ḥurūf is composed of the two words ʿilm () meaning "knowledge", and ḥurūf (), the plural of the word ḥarf (), meaning "letters".
Table of letter values
See also
Gematria
Hurufism
Hurufiyya movement
Western Arabic numerals
Eastern Arabic numerals
Bibliography
Sciences occultes et Islam, Pierre Lory, Annick Regourd, Institut français de Damas, 1993, , .
Coran et talismans : textes et pratiques magiques en milieu musulman, Hommes et sociétés, Constant Hamès, KARTHALA Éditions, 2007, , .
René Guénon, Les Symboles de la Science Sacrée, Éditions Gallimard, Paris, "La Science des lettres", "Les Mystères de la lettre Nun", "La Montagne et la Caverne"
Michel Valsan, L’Islam et la fonction de René Guénon, Éditions de l’Œuvre, Paris, un symbole idéographique de l’Homme Universel, le Triangle de l’Androgyne et le monosyllabe Ôm.
Ibn Arabi, Les Illuminations de La Mecque, Éditions Albin Michel, Paris, 1997, "La Science des lettres", translation and commentary by Denis Gril.
Charles André Gilis, Les sept étendards du califat, Éditions Al-bouraq, Paris, 1993.
Arabic orthography
Numerology
Language and mysticism | 'Ilm al-huruf | [
"Mathematics"
] | 398 | [
"Numerology",
"Mathematical objects",
"Numbers"
] |
51,784,737 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical%20device%20hijack | A medical device hijack (also called medjack) is a type of cyber attack. The weakness they target are the medical devices of a hospital. This was covered extensively in the press in 2015 and in 2016.
Medical device hijacking received additional attention in 2017. This was both a function of an increase in identified attacks globally and research released early in the year. These attacks endanger patients by allowing hackers to alter the functionality of critical devices such as implants, exposing a patient's medical history, and potentially granting access to the prescription infrastructure of many institutions for illicit activities. MEDJACK.3 seems to have additional sophistication and is designed to not reveal itself as it searches for older, more vulnerable operating systems only found embedded within medical devices. Further, it has the ability to hide from sandboxes and other defense tools until it is in a safe (non-) environment.
There was considerable discussion and debate on this topic at the RSA 2017 event during a special session on MEDJACK.3. Debate ensued between various medical device suppliers, hospital executives in the audience and some of the vendors over ownership of the financial responsibility to remediate the massive installed base of vulnerable medical device equipment. Further, notwithstanding this discussion, FDA guidance, while well intended, may not go far enough to remediate the problem. Mandatory legislation as part of new national cyber security policy may be required to address the threat of medical device hijacking, other sophisticated attacker tools that are used in hospitals, and the new variants of ransomware which seem targeted to hospitals.
Overview
In such a cyberattack the attacker places malware within the networks through a variety of methods (malware-laden website, targeted email, infected USB stick, socially engineered access, etc.) and then the malware propagates within the network. Most of the time existing cyber defenses clear the attacker tools from standard serves and IT workstations (IT endpoints) but the cyber defense software cannot access the embedded processors within medical devices. Most of the embedded operating systems within medical devices are running on Microsoft Windows 7 and Windows XP. The security in these operating systems is no longer supported. So they are relatively easy targets in which to establish attacker tools. Inside of these medical devices, the cyber attacker now finds safe harbor in which to establish a backdoor (command and control). Since medical devices are FDA certified, hospital and cybersecurity team personnel cannot access the internal software without perhaps incurring legal liability, impacting the operation of the device or violating the certification. Given this open access, once the medical devices are penetrated, the attacker is free to move laterally to discover targeted resources such as patient data, which is then quietly identified and exfiltrated.
Organized crime targets healthcare networks in order to access and steal the patient records.
Because of the vast breadth of interconnection between medical devices and hospital networks, there are security concerns because medical equipment are not usually considered for routine discovery scans within the context of IT. The IP addresses connecting these devices to the hospital network might lack the necessary software patching and this exposes both the network and devices to a plethora of vulnerabilities.
Impacted devices
Virtually any medical device can be impacted by this attack. In one of the earliest documented examples testing identified malware tools in a blood gas analyzer, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) system, computerized tomogram (CT) scan, and x-ray machines. In 2016 case studies became available that showed attacker presence also in the centralized PACS imaging systems which are vital and important to hospital operations. In August 2011, representatives from IBM demonstrated how an infected USB device can be used to identify the serial numbers of devices within a close range and facilitate fatal dosage injections to patients with an insulin pump in the annual BlackHat conference.
Impacted institutions
This attack primarily centers on the largest 6,000 hospitals on a global basis. Healthcare data has the highest value of any stolen identity data, and given the weakness in the security infrastructure within the hospitals, this creates an accessible and highly valuable target for cyber thieves. Besides hospitals, this can impact large physician practices such as accountable care organizations (ACOs) and Independent Physician Associations (IPAs), skilled nursing facilities (SNFs) both for acute care and long-term care, surgical centers and diagnostic laboratories.
Instances
There are many reports of hospitals and hospital organizations getting hacked, including ransomware attacks, Windows XP exploits, viruses, and data breaches of sensitive data stored on hospital servers.
Community Health Systems, June 2014
In an official filing to the United States Securities and Exchange Commission, Community Health Systems declared that their network of 206 hospitals in 28 states were targets of a cyber-attack between April and June 2014. The breached data included sensitive personal information of 4.5 million patients including social security numbers. The FBI determined that the attacks were facilitated by a group in China and issued a broad warning to the industry, advising companies to strengthen their network systems and follow legal protocols to help the FBI restraint future attacks.
Medtronic, March 2019
In 2019 the FDA submitted an official warning concerning security vulnerabilities in devices produced by Medtronic ranging from Insulin pumps to various models of cardiac implants. The agency concluded that CareLink, the primary mechanism used for software updates in addition to monitoring patients and transferring data during implantation and follow-up visits, did not possess a satisfactory security protocol to prevent potential hackers from gaining access to these devices. The FDA recommended that health care providers restrict software access to established facilities while unifying the digital infrastructure in order to maintain full control throughout the process.
Scope
Various informal assessments have estimated that medical device hijacking currently impacts a majority of the hospitals worldwide and remains undetected in the bulk of them. The technologies necessary to detect medical device hijacking, and the lateral movement of attackers from command and control within the targeted medical devices, are not installed in the great majority of hospitals as of February 2017. A statistic would note that in a hospital with 500 beds, there are roughly fifteen medical devices (usually internet of things (IoT) connected) per bed. That is in addition to centralized administration systems, the hospital diagnostic labs which utilized medical devices, EMR/EHR systems and CT/MRI/X-ray centers within the hospital.
Detection and remediation
These attacks are very hard to detect and even harder to remediate. Deception technology (the evolution and automation of honeypot or honey-grid networks) can trap or lure the attackers as they move laterally within the networks. The medical devices typically must have all of their software reloaded by the manufacturer. The hospital security staff is not equipped nor able to access the internals of these FDA approved devices. They can become reinfected very quickly as it only takes one medical device to potentially re-infect the rest in the hospital.
Organized crime targets healthcare networks in order to access and steal the patient records. This poses a significant risk to patient data such as credit card information and other protected health information.
Because of the vast breadth of interconnection between medical devices and hospital networks, there are security concerns because medical equipment are not usually considered for routine discovery scans within the context of IT (cybersecurity). The IP addresses connecting these devices to the hospital network might lack the necessary software patching and this exposes both the network and devices to a plethora of vulnerabilities.
Countermeasures
On 28 December 2016 the US Food and Drug Administration released its recommendations that are not legally enforceable for how medical device manufacturers should maintain the security of Internet-connected devices. The United States Government Accountability Office studied the issue and concluded that the FDA must become more proactive in minimizing security flaws by guiding manufacturers with specific design recommendations instead of exclusively focusing on protecting the networks that are utilized to collect and transfer data between medical devices. The following table provided in the report highlights the design aspects of medical implants and how they affect the overall security of the device in focus.
See also
References
Medical privacy
Hijack
Malware | Medical device hijack | [
"Technology",
"Biology"
] | 1,640 | [
"Malware",
"Medical devices",
"Computer security exploits",
"Medical technology"
] |
64,475,086 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal%20Engineering%20Council | Nepal Engineering Council (NEC) is an autonomous government body formed on 11 March 1999 under The Nepal Engineering Council Act. The council was established in order to mobilize the engineering profession in a systematic and scientific manner by making it effective, as well as to make provision for, among other matters, the registration of the names of engineers as per their qualifications.
The council used to register engineers based on academic certificates until 2022. An amendment bill was registered in the parliament in June 2019 and was passed in August 2022 which makes mandatory to take exams from the council to get license. As of 2022, there are 37 engineering field for which license are issued.
Councilors
Nepal Engineering Council has 21 Councilors as follows:
Chairman appointed by the government of Nepal
Vice Chairman appointed by the government of Nepal
Seven engineers(from each province) with minimum of 3 ladies appointed by the government of Nepal
President of Nepal Engineers Association
Five engineers elected from Nepal Engineering Association
One representative from Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University
One campus chief from various engineering colleges
Registrar
Two members(Minimum 1 lady) elected by the council
One teacher from any engineering certified university to be nominated by Government of Nepal
Jurisdiction of Council
Licensing (Registration) of Engineers
Accreditation of certificates of academic qualifications
Recognition of the academic institutions
Professional code of conduct
Registration Category
The council has provision to register Engineers in three categories:
General Engineer ( Category - A )
Professional Engineer ( Category - B )
Foreign Engineer ( Category - C )
See also
Nepal Bar Council
Nepal Medical Council
References
External links
Education in Nepal
Organisations based in Nepal
Regulatory agencies of Nepal
1999 establishments in Nepal
Engineering organizations in Nepal | Nepal Engineering Council | [
"Engineering"
] | 324 | [
"Engineering organizations in Nepal"
] |
64,477,696 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyle%20Milliken | Kyle Milliken is an American computer hacker from Arkansas best known for hacking Kickstarter, Disqus, and Imgur for the purpose of sending unsolicited email. Milliken stole data on more than 168 million people. In 2014 the FBI raided his $2 million, 25,000-square-foot estate in the Burbank Hills. He is reported to have earned over $1.4 million between 2010 and 2014. In 2018 he was sentenced to 17 months in a federal work camp. Upon his release, Milliken said he was not interested in returning to a life of crime, but in using his skills for good as a security consultant.
References
1989 births
Living people
American cybercriminals
Hackers
Criminals from Arkansas | Kyle Milliken | [
"Technology"
] | 156 | [
"Lists of people in STEM fields",
"Hackers"
] |
64,478,770 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character%20computing | Character computing is a trans-disciplinary field of research at the intersection of computer science and psychology. It is any computing that incorporates the human character within its context. Character is defined as all features or characteristics defining an individual and guiding their behavior in a specific situation. It consists of stable trait markers (e.g., personality, background, history, socio-economic embeddings, culture,...) and variable state markers (emotions, health, cognitive state, ...). Character computing aims at providing a holistic psychologically driven model of human behavior. It models and predicts behavior based on the relationships between a situation and character. Three main research modules fall under the umbrella of character computing: character sensing and profiling, character-aware adaptive systems, and artificial characters.
Overview
Character computing can be viewed as an extension of the well-established field of affective computing. Based on the foundations of the different psychology branches, it advocates defining behavior as a compound attribute that is not driven by either personality, emotions, situation or cognition alone. It rather defines behavior as a function of everything that makes up an individual i.e., their character and the situation they are in. Affective computing aims at allowing machines to understand and translate the non-verbal cues of individuals into affect. Accordingly, character computing aims at understanding the character attributes of an individual and the situation to translate it to predicted behavior, and vice versa.
''In practical terms, depending on the application context, character computing is a branch of research that deals with the design of systems and interfaces that can observe, sense, predict, adapt to, affect, understand, or simulate the following: character based on behavior and situation, behavior based on character and situation, or situation based on character and behavior.'' The Character-Behavior-Situation (CBS) triad is at the core of character computing and defines each of the three edges based on the other two.
Character computing relies on simultaneous development from a computational and psychological perspective and is intended to be used by researchers in both fields. Its main concept is aligning the computational model of character computing with empirical results from in-lab and in-the-wild psychology experiments. The model is to be continuously built and validated through the emergence of new data. Similar to affective and personality computing, the model is to be used as a base for different applications towards improving user experience.
History
Character computing as such was first coined in its first workshop in 2017. Since then it has had 3 international workshops and numerous publications. Despite its young age, it has already drawn some interest in the research community, leading to the publication of the first book under the same title in early 2020 published by Springer Nature.
Research that can be categorized under the field dates much older than 2017. The notion of combining several factors towards the explanation of behavior or traits and states has long been investigated in both Psychology and Computer Science, for example.
Character
The word character originates from the Greek word meaning “stamping tool”, referring to distinctive features and traits. Over the years it has been given many different connotations, like the moral character in philosophy, the temperament in psychology, a person in literature or an avatar in various virtual worlds, including video games. According to character computing character is a unification of all the previous definitions, by referring back to the original meaning of the word. Character is defined as the holistic concept representing all interacting trait and state markers that distinguish an individual. Traits are characteristics that mainly remain stable over time. Traits include personality, affect, socio-demographics, and general health. States are characteristics that vary in short periods of time. They include emotions, well-being, health, cognitive state. Each characteristic has many representation methods and psychological models. The different models can be combined or one model can be preset for each characteristic. This depends on the use-case and the design choices.
Areas
Research into character computing can be divided into three areas, which complement each other but can each be investigated separately. The first area is sensing and predicting character states and traits or ensuing behavior. The second area is adapting applications to certain character states or traits and the behavior they predict. It also deals with trying to change or monitor such behavior. The final area deals with creating artificial agents e.g., chatbots or virtual reality avatars that exhibit certain characteristics.
The three areas are investigated separately and build on existing findings in the literature. The results of each of the three areas can also be used as a stepping stone for the next area. Each of the three areas has already been investigated on its own in different research fields with focus on different subsets of character. For example, affective computing and personality computing both cover different areas with a focus on some character components without the others to account for human behavior.
The Character-Behavior-Situation triad
Character computing is based on a holistic psychologically driven model of human behavior. Human behavior is modeled and predicted based on the relationships between a situation and a human's character. To further define character in a more formal or holistic manner, we represent it in light of the Character–Behavior–Situation triad. This highlights that character not only determines who we are but how we are, i.e., how we behave. The triad investigated in Personality Psychology is extended through character computing to the Character–Behavior–Situation triad. Any member of the CBS triad is a function of the two other members, e.g., given the situation and personality, the behavior can be predicted. Each of the components in the triad can be further decomposed into smaller units and features that may best represent the human's behavior or character in a particular situation. Character is thus behind a person's behavior in any given situation. While this is a causality relation, the correlation between the three components is often more easily used to predict the components that are most difficult to measure from those measured more easily. There are infinitely many components to include in the representation of any of C, B, and S. The challenge is always to choose the smallest subset needed for prediction of a person's behavior in a particular situation.
References
Artificial intelligence
Behavior
Interdisciplinary branches of psychology | Character computing | [
"Biology"
] | 1,253 | [
"Behavior"
] |
64,479,442 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simcenter%20STAR-CCM%2B | Simcenter STAR-CCM+ is a commercial Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) based simulation software developed by Siemens Digital Industries Software. Simcenter STAR-CCM+ allows the modeling and analysis of a range of engineering problems involving fluid flow, heat transfer, stress, particulate flow, electromagnetics and related phenomena.
Formerly known as STAR-CCM+, the software was first developed by CD-adapco and was acquired by Siemens Digital Industries Software as part of the purchase of CD-adapco in 2016. It is now a part of the Simcenter Portfolio of software tools.
History
Development work on STAR-CCM+ was started after a decision was taken to design a new, integrated CFD tool to replace the existing product STAR-CD which had been developed during the 1980s and 1990s by Computational Dynamics Ltd, a spin-off company from an Imperial College London CFD research group. STAR-CD was widely used most notably in the automotive industry. STAR-CCM+ aimed to take advantage of more modern programming methods and to provide an expandable framework.
STAR-CCM+ was announced at the 2004 AIAA Aerospace Sciences Conference in Reno, Nevada. A unique feature was a generalized polyhedral cell formulation, allowing the solver to handle any mesh type imported. The first official release included the first commercially available polyhedral mesher, offering faster model convergence compared to an equivalent tetrahedral mesh.
Development
Simcenter STAR-CCM+ is developed according to a continual improvement process, with a new version released every four months. The program uses a client-server architecture, implemented using object-oriented programming.
Capabilities
Simcenter STAR-CCM+ is primarily Computational fluid dynamics software which uses the Finite element analysis or Finite volume method
to calculate the transport of physical quantities on a discretized mesh.
For fluid flow the Navier–Stokes equations are solved in each of the cells.
Simcenter STAR-CCM+ has multiphysics capabilities including:
Fluid flow through porous media
Multiphase flow
Discrete element method
Volume of fluid method
Non-Newtonian fluid
Rheology
Turbulence
Viscoelasticity
Release history
Usage
Prior to CD-adapco's acquisition by Siemens, the customer base was approximately 3,200 accounts with 52% of licence sales attributed to the automotive industry.
See also
Computational fluid dynamics
Computer simulation
Computer-aided design
Computer-aided engineering
References
External links
Simcenter STAR-CCM+ webpage
Simcenter STAR-CCM+ on Simcenter Community
Simcenter STAR-CCM+ Technical Forum
Simulation software
Numerical software
Computational fluid dynamics
Computer-aided engineering
Computer-aided engineering software
Finite element software | Simcenter STAR-CCM+ | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Mathematics",
"Engineering"
] | 541 | [
"Computational fluid dynamics",
"Mathematical software",
"Industrial engineering",
"Computational physics",
"Construction",
"Computer-aided engineering",
"Numerical software",
"Fluid dynamics"
] |
64,480,315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chouf%20TV | Chouf TV () is an arabophone Moroccan media company created in 2013 by and owned by S W Media, LLC, of which Chahtane is the sole shareholder. It describes its content as "web TV" with over a million subscribers on its YouTube channel. Chouf TV has been characterized as tabloid journalism and described as an "unprecedented media phenomenon."
Name
In Moroccan vernacular Arabic, (shūf) is the imperative of the verb (shāf, "to look"). The company's name in Latin script is romanized according to French orthography.
History
The founder of the company, Driss Chahtane was the previous publishing director of Al-Michaal newspaper. He was sentenced to one year in prison for sexual assault, and publishing of adult content, and was incarcerated in Morocco in 2009, but he was released by order from Mohammed VI in 2010.
Driss said "The idea at the beginning was to present something new, as I saw that the readership of the written press was eroding. The transition was digital. At the time, newspapers used the digital but in a very traditional way."
The media company publishes content with the potential to create buzz.
References
Digital media
Mass media in Morocco
Moroccan news websites | Chouf TV | [
"Technology"
] | 255 | [
"Multimedia",
"Digital media"
] |
64,481,481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakeview%20Mining%20Company | The Lakeview Mining Company was a uranium reduction plant north of Lakeview, Lake County, Oregon. The mill began operating in February 1958 and operating until November 1960. The site covered ; of ore were processed, leaving behind large amounts of residual radioactive material. These were moved to an engineered disposal cell in 1986–1988.
The plant was built in 1957–1958 for a cost of approximately $3 million, selling the yellowcake to Atomic Energy Commission. The plant employed approximately 50 workers. Two successful mines were open in the area, Lucky Lass and White King, feeding the Lakeview plant.
Seven raffinate ponds across were used for the uranium extraction process, and a uranium tailings pile existed. In 1961 Kerr-McGee purchased the site; it changed hands several times and by 1968 was owned by Atlantic Richfield (ARCO), which began radiation remediation. More radiation was found in 1976, leading to an ARCO decontamination in 1977 and then sale in 1978, when a lumber company purchased the mill site and reused the ponds and buildings on the eastern edge as a lumber mill.
The Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act was passed in 1978, leading to federal control of remediation. Starting in 1986, the US Department of Energy remediated the site, creating an engineered disposal cell approximately away. () were removed from the mill site, creating a cell. Work was completed in June 1988 at a cost of $24.5 million. The majority of the contamination was from the ponds, not the tailings pile.
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory and EPA visited the site in 2012 for a feasibility study on geothermal heating, as it is adjacent to Hunter's Hot Springs. The report found it to be "economically marginal".
The lumber mill is still in operation, having been purchased by Pacific Pine Products in 1995, producing custom doors with imported lumber for their Lakeview Millworks division. The company is still using some of the original buildings.
A solar power farm was planned on the western 170 acres of the former mine by Origis Energy in 2016. It was completed in 2017 and named OR Solar 6.
See also
Climax Uranium Mill
Sequoyah Fuels Corporation
References
External links
OLM DOE site from US Department of Energy
Lakeview Uranium Sites from Oregon Department of Energy
Lakeview Disposal Cell at Center for Land Use Interpretation
Uranium mines in the United States
Radioactive waste
Cleaning and the environment
Lake County, Oregon | Lakeview Mining Company | [
"Chemistry",
"Technology"
] | 492 | [
"Radioactive waste",
"Environmental impact of nuclear power",
"Radioactivity",
"Hazardous waste"
] |
64,482,082 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%20233731 | HD 233731, or HAT-P-22, is a suspected multiple star system in the northern circumpolar constellation of Ursa Major. It is invisible to the naked eye, having an apparent visual magnitude of 9.732. This system is located at a distance of 267 light years from the Sun based on parallax, and is drifting further away with a radial velocity of +13 km/s.
The stellar classification of the primary is G5V, matching an ordinary G-type main-sequence star. The star has a low level of stellar activity with an estimated age of 9 to 12 billion years old. Its metallicity is twice that of the Sun, unusual for its advanced age. HD 233731 has a similar mass and radius as the Sun, and is spinning with a rotation period of 28.7 days. It is radiating 77% of the luminosity of the Sun from its photosphere at an effective temperature of 5314 K.
A faint stellar companion (2MASS J10224397+5007504) with a red hue is located at an angular separation of from the primary. In 2015, a spectroscopic stellar companion was reported with a semimajor axis of less than . This star has an effective temperature of with a mass of .
Planetary system
In 2010 a transiting hot Jupiter like planet was detected, designated HAT-P-22b. It has an equilibrium temperature of , and planetary atmosphere is cloudy. The measurement of Rossiter-McLaughlin effect in 2018 has allowed to detect what the planetary orbit is well aligned with the equatorial plane of the star, with a misalignment angle equal to .
In 2017, analysis of additional HARPS data showed a long-term trend that suggested the presence of an additional orbiting companion, HAT-P-22c.
References
G-type main-sequence stars
Planetary systems with one confirmed planet
Planetary transit variables
Ursa Major
J10224361+5007420
233731 | HD 233731 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 410 | [
"Ursa Major",
"Constellations"
] |
64,482,200 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenite%20fluoride | A selenite fluoride is a chemical compound or salt that contains fluoride and selenite anions ( and ). These are mixed anion compounds. Some have third anions, including nitrate (), molybdate (), oxalate (), selenate (), silicate () and tellurate ().
Naming
A selenite fluoride compound may also be called a fluoride oxoselenate(IV) using IUPAC naming for inorganic compounds.
Production
Rare earth selenite fluorides can be produced by dissolving the rare earth selenate into molten lithium fluoride at over 800°C, whereupon the selenate loses oxygen to become selenite, and crystals of the selenite fluoride can form. Another similar method involves heating the rare earth oxide, with a rare earth fluoride and selenium dioxide with a caesium bromide flux. If glass or silica containers are used, they are eaten away by the molten flux and silicates are formed some of which may be fluoride selenite silicate compounds.
Related
Related to these are the selenite chlorides and selenite bromides by varying the halogenide. Similar compounds by varying the chalcogen also include the sulfite fluorides and tellurite fluorides.
List
SHG=second harmonic generator
References
Selenites
Fluorides
Mixed anion compounds | Selenite fluoride | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 307 | [
"Matter",
"Mixed anion compounds",
"Salts",
"Fluorides",
"Ions"
] |
64,485,122 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics%20of%20nanotechnologies | Ethics of nanotechnology is the study of the ethical issues emerging from advances in nanotechnology and its impacts.
According to Andrew Chen, ethical concerns about nanotechnologies should include the possibility of their military applications, the dangers posed by self-replicant nanomachines, and their use for surveillance monitoring and tracking. Risks to environment to public health are treated in a report from the Dutch National Institute for Public Health and the Environment as well as is a report of the European Environment Agency. Academic works on ethics of nanotechnology can be found in the journal Nanoethics.
Guidelines
According to the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics possible guidelines for an Ethics of nanotechnology could include:
Nanomachines should only be specialized, not for general purpose
Nanomachines should not be self replicating
Nanomachines should not be made to use an abundant natural compound as fuel
Nanomachines should be tagged so that they can be tracked
Concerns
Ethical concern about nanotechnology include the opposition to their use to fabricate Lethal autonomous weapon, and the fear that they may self replicate ad infinitum in a so-called gray goo scenario, first imagined by K. Eric Drexler. For the EEA the challenge posed by nano-materials are due to their properties of being novel, biopersistent, readily dispersed, and bioaccumulative; by analogy, thousands cases of mesothelioma were caused by the inhalation of asbestos dust. See nanotoxicology. Nanotechnology belongs to the class of emerging technology known as GRIN: geno-, robo-, info- nano-technologies.
Another common acronym is NBIC (Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Information Technology, and Cognitive Science). These technologies are hoped - or feared, depending on the viewpoint, to be leading to improving human bodies and functionalities, see transhumanism. The possible application of nanotechnology in human genome sequencing (e.g. Nanopores based sequencing) raises further ethical and societal concerns.
Further reading
European Environment Agency, 2013, Late lessons from early warning II Chapter 22 - Nanotechnology - early lessons from early warnings. See also Steffen et al., 2008.
Jaco Westra (editor), 2014, Assessing health and environmental risks of nanoparticles. An overview, RIVM Rapport.
Rene von Schomberg (2011), Introduction: Towards Responsible Research and Innovation in the Information and Communication Technologies and Security Technologies Fields.
R. Feynman, Cargo Cult Science, Commencement Speech at Caltech 1974. (also available in the book: Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!).
European Commission, 2009, Commission recommendation on A code of conduct for responsible nanosciences and nanotechnologies research & Council conclusions on Responsible nanosciences and nanotechnologies research.
C. Marris, Final Report of the PABE research project, 2001.
E.A.J. Bleeker, S. Evertz, R.E. Geertsma, W.J.G.M. Peijnenburg, J. Westra, S.W.P. Wijnhoven, Assessing health & environmental risks of nanoparticles Current state of affairs in policy, science and areas of application, RIVM Report.
Roger Strand, 2011, Nano Ethics, In: Nanotechnology in the Agri‐Food Sector: Implications for the Future.
R. Feynman, There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom lecture given at the annual American Physical Society meeting at Caltech on December 29, 1959.
Job Timmermans; Zhao Yinghuan; and Jeroen van den Hoven, 2011. Ethics and nanopharmacy: Value sensitive design of new drugs. Nanoethics 5(3): 269–283.
Steven Umbrello and Seth D. Baum, 2018. Evaluating future nanotechnology: The net societal impacts of atomically precise manufacturing. Futures 100(June): 63–73.
K. Eric Drexler, 2013. Radical abundance: How a revolution in nanotechnology will change civilization. Public Affairs: New York.
See also
Nanotechnology
Impact of nanotechnology
Molecular Manufacturing
Nanotoxicity
Nanomaterials
Nanoparticles
References
Ethics of science and technology | Ethics of nanotechnologies | [
"Technology"
] | 889 | [
"Ethics of science and technology"
] |
64,485,992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir%20Varyukhin | Vladimir Alekseevich Varyukhin (December 14, 1921 — July 8, 2007) was a Soviet and Ukrainian scientist, Professor, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Honored Scientist of the Ukrainian SSR, Major-General, founder of the theory of multichannel analysis, and creator of the scientific school on digital antenna arrays (DAAs).
Scientific results
In 1962, he founded the well-known scientific school on multichannel analysis and digital antenna arrays. The theory of multichannel analysis that was developed by him considers the methods of determination of the angular coordinates of sources as functions of the angular distances between the sources and the phase and energy relations between signals and gives the basis for the functional schemes of units realizing the theoretical conclusions. The determination of the parameters of sources is carried on by the direct solution of systems of high-order transcendental equations describing the response function of a multichannel analyzer. In this case, the super-Rayleigh resolution of the sources of signals is ensured. The difficulties arising at the solution of the transcendental systems of high-order equations were overcome by V. A. Varyukhin by means of the “separation” of the unknowns, at which the determination of angular coordinates is reduced to the solution of algebraic equations, and the complex amplitudes are found by the solution of the linear systems of equations of the N-th order.
The Interdepartmental scientific-technical meeting organized in 1977 by the Scientific Council of the USSR Academy of Sciences on the problem “Statistical radiophysics” (Chairman — Academician Yuri Kobzarev) dated officially the start of the studies performed under the guidance of V. A. Varyukhin in the trend of digital antenna arrays by 1962 and recognized the priority of Varyukhin's scientific school in the development and practical realization of the theory of multichannel analysis.
In the subsequent years, V. A. Varyukhin supervised a number of theoretical works realized in several experimental radar stations with DAAs which were successfully tested on testing sites.
Life data
Participant of the World War II
27.09.1939 — 08.03.1942 — radio operator of the 2nd Red-Banner army of the Far-East front;
08.03.1942 — 05.08.1942 — commander of a radiostation of the 927-th separate signal battalion of the 96-th infantry division;
05.08.1942 — 11.01.1943 — commander of a radioplatoon, Stalingrad (Don) front;
11.01.1943 — 28.04.1943 — wound, medical treatment at the evacuation hospital No. 3755;
28.04.1943 — January 1944 — commander of a radioplatoon, Ural military district;
January 1944 — 12.04.1944 — commander of a radioplatoon, one of the Ukrainian fronts,
12.04.1944 — 10.07.1945 — commander of a radioplatoon (Soviet-American Operation Frantic);
After of the World War II
10.07.1945 — 23.05.1951 — listener of S. M. Budennyi Military Electrotechnical Academy of Communication (Leningrad);
23.05.1951 — 18.11.1961 — lecturer at the Military Command Academy of Communication and then at S. M. Budennyi Military Electrotechnical Academy of Communication (Leningrad);
27.11.1956 – defended the dissertation for a Candidate degree (Techn. Sci.) at the Council of S. M. Budennyi Military Red-Banner Engineering Academy of Communication. Since 18.11.1961, he served at Kiev Higher Air Defense Engineering School and then was the Head of a chair at A. M. Vasilevskii Military Academy of Air Defense of the Land Forces till 1981.
The significant stage of the recognition of Varyukhin's scientific results became the defense of the dissertation for a Doctoral degree (Techn. Sci.) in 1968. The distinctive feature of the theoretical trend developed by him is the maximal automatization of the process of estimation of the coordinates and the parameters of signals under conditions of their superresolution.
Professor — since 1972, Honored Scientist of the UkrSSR — 1979.
Since 1996 — work at the Academy of Armed Forces of Ukraine (Kyiv).
Selected publications
V. A. Varyuhin, S. A. Kas'yanyuk, “On a certain method for solving nonlinear systems of a special type”, Zh. Vychisl. Mat. Mat. Fiz., 6:2 (1966), 347–352; U.S.S.R. Comput. Math. Math. Phys., 6:2 (1966), 214–221
V. A. Varyuhin, S. A. Kas'yanyuk, V. G. Finogenova, “A problem of constrained extremum for a class of functions representable by a Stieltyes integral”, Izv. Vyssh. Uchebn. Zaved. Matematika, 1966, 6 (55), 40–49.
V. A. Varyuhin, S. A. Kas'yanyuk, “The effects of the fluctuations of the terms of a positive sequence on its canonical principal representations”, Zh. Vychisl. Mat. Mat. Fiz., 8:1 (1968), 169–173; U.S.S.R. Comput. Math. Math. Phys., 8:1 (1968), 230–236
V. A. Varyuhin, S. A. Kas'yanyuk, “Iteration methods for sharpening the roots of equations”, Zh. Vychisl. Mat. Mat. Fiz., 9:3 (1969), 684–687; U.S.S.R. Comput. Math. Math. Phys., 9:3 (1969), 247–252
V. A. Varyuhin, S. A. Kas'yanyuk, “The iteration methods of the solution of nonlinear systems”, Zh. Vychisl. Mat. Mat. Fiz., 10:6 (1970), 1533–1536; U.S.S.R. Comput. Math. Math. Phys., 10:6 (1970), 234–239
V. A. Varyuhin, S. A. Kas'yanyuk, “A class of iterative procedures for the solution of systems of nonlinear equations”, Zh. Vychisl. Mat. Mat. Fiz., 17:5 (1977), 1123–1131; U.S.S.R. Comput. Math. Math. Phys., 17:5 (1977), 17–23
V.A. Varyukhin, V.I. Pokrovskii, and V. F. Sakhno, “On the exactness of measurement of angular coordinates with antenna arrays,” Radiotekhn. Élektr., 1982.– Vol. 27, No. 11. – Pp. 2258 - 2260
V. A. Varyuhin, V. I. Pokrovskii, V. F. Sakhno, “Modified likelihood function in the problem of the source angular coordinate determination using an antenna array”, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, No.270:5 (1983), 1092–1094
V.A. Varyukhin, V.I. Pokrovskii, and V.F. Sakhno, “On the exactness of measurements of angular coordinates of several sources with the help of an antenna array,” Radiotekhn. Élektr., 1984.– Vol. 29, No. 4. – Pp. 660 – 665.
R.S. Sudakov and V.A. Varyukhin, “Linear combinations of inverse matrices and the method of least squares,” in: Stochastic Models of Systems [in Russian], AS UkrSSR, Military Air Defense Academy, Kiev, 1986.
V.A. Varyukhin, V.I. Pokrovskii, and V.F. Sakhno, “Quasisolutions of overdetermined incompatible systems,” in: Stochastic Models of Systems [in Russian], AS UkrSSR, Military Air Defense Academy, Kiev, 1986.
V.A. Varyukhin, V.I. Pokrovskii, and V.F. Sakhno, “A modified likelihood function in the problems of multichannel analysis,” in: Stochastic Models of Systems [in Russian], AS UkrSSR, Military Air Defense Academy, Kiev, 1986
V.A. Varyukhin, Fundamental Theory of Multichannel Analysis (VA PVO SV, Kyiv, 1993) [in Russian].
Selected Awards
Order of the Red Star
Order of the Red Star
Order of the Patriotic War, 1st class
Order of the Patriotic War, 2nd class
Medal "For Battle Merit"
Medal "For the Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945"
Order "For Service to the Homeland in the Armed Forces of the USSR", 3rd class
Gallery
See also
Digital antenna array
References
External links
Varyuhin, V A. People on the Math-Net.Ru
Varyukhin V.A. Mendeley Profile
Varyukhin V.A. in the Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine (in Ukrainian)
Archive TsAMO about Varyukhin V.A.
1921 births
2007 deaths
People from Vinnytsia Oblast
Soviet military personnel of World War II from Ukraine
Soviet scientists
Soviet systems scientists
Systems engineers
Soviet mathematicians
Soviet computer scientists
Soviet inventors
Soviet Army officers
Soviet colonels
Soviet Air Defence Force officers
Soviet military engineers
Ukrainian generals
Major generals of Ukraine
Electronics engineers
Radar signal processing
Recipients of the Order of the Red Star
Recipients of the Order "For Service to the Homeland in the Armed Forces of the USSR", 3rd class | Vladimir Varyukhin | [
"Engineering"
] | 2,073 | [
"Systems engineers",
"Systems engineering",
"Electronic engineering",
"Electronics engineers"
] |
64,486,992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submechanophobia | Submechanophobia (; and and φόβος (phóbos) 'fear') is a fear of submerged human-made objects, either partially or entirely underwater. These objects could be shipwrecks, statues, sea mines, animatronics as seen in theme parks, or old buildings, but also more mundane items such as buoys, chains, and miscellaneous debris.
Causes
While a fear of water (aquaphobia) or a fear of sharks (galeophobia) are rational fears (hence, "phobia") that can be linked to understandable reasons, submechanophobia can be triggered by harmless objects which cannot reasonably cause harm to the sufferer. Many submechanophobics do not attribute the development of their phobia to any specific experience or traumatic memory—in fact, most claim that their symptoms arose after a lifetime of contact with their triggers. There are several proposed causes of submechanophobia, though none are proven. Submechanophobia could be caused by a fear of the unknown, and the common terror of not knowing what lies beneath the waterline. Objects could be visually distorted by water and its movement, which could make them seem alive, and thus, possibly harmful. However, submechanophobia, by definition, only concerns artificial, human-made creations—not living creatures. A suggested explanation is that the human mind instinctively detects a foreign object in an otherwise natural environment, and this triggers a fight-or-flight response, as humans respond negatively to that which is outside of the norm.
Criteria
To qualify for a diagnosis of a specific phobia such as submechanophobia, subjects must display several symptoms and fulfill a list of requirements.
Unreasonable and excessive fear
Immediate anxiety response
Avoidance/extreme distress
Life-limiting
6+ month duration of fear
Not attributable to another disorder
Symptoms
Many individuals afflicted with submechanophobia exhibit some symptoms in common.
Severe anxiety associated with the thought of submerged human-made objects
Muscle tension, body aches
Breathlessness, sensations of choking
Increased blood pressure
Sweating, nausea
Dizziness, feeling faint
Inability to concentrate
Avoidance of locations where contact is likely to be made with triggers
Treatment
Treatment of a fear of artificial submerged objects generally involves identifying and eliminating the underlying fears. A patient can undergo therapy should they believe that their condition is out of control, and interfering with their everyday life. Treatment plans may include cognitive behavioral therapy, virtual reality therapy, exposure therapy, or a combination of these. A sufferer's needs will be unique to themselves, as well as to the nature of their affliction.
See also
List of phobias
Thalassophobia – fear of the sea
References
Further reading
Phobias
Water | Submechanophobia | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 574 | [
"Water",
"Hydrology"
] |
64,487,875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Whitwell | Thomas Whitwell (24 October 1837 – 5 August 1878) was a British engineer, inventor and metallurgist.
Known as Tom, he was the third son of William and Sarah Whitwell of Kendal. Tom was initially educated at home via private tutors he was sent to the Quaker run York School at 10 years old. In 1858, at 16, he travelled with his elder brother William to Darlington. As apprentice to Alfred Kitching in his locomotive building shop he learned engineering and metallurgy. From there he continued to build his skills, working with Robert Stephenson & Co in Newcastle.
In 1859 he and William started iron-smelting at Thornaby. Iron ore had been discovered in the area four years previously. The brothers designed and built large scale hot blast fire brick stoves that were much larger and more efficient that anything built in the area until that point. By 1873 the three re-built blast furnaces were 80 feet high and 22 feet in diameter and the works had over 750 employees.
In 1878 Tom died due to an accident at his works. A steam explosion caught him and his foreman John Thompson whilst they were investigating a problem with the rolling mill furnace.
The works continued to run under family ownership, under the chairmanship of Tom's nephew William Fry Whitwell until 1922 when they were eventually closed due to a global glut of pig iron.
Key inventions
Tom filed at least five patents in the UK and two in the US. He invented and patented the technology used at Thornaby as the Whitwell Heating Stove. Over two hundred stoves were installed in over 70 furnaces around the globe. He also patented a continuous brick-burning kiln and a more efficient fire grate.
US Influence
The City of Whitwell in Tennessee is named in his honour. Tom was a founder and Chairman of the Southern States Coal, Iron and Land Company which developed coal mining in Whitwell and Iron smelting in nearby South Pittsburg. Tom visited the area at least twice hosting a banquet for five hundred workers and guests of ‘all classes’. After his death, the company was acquired by the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company.
Influence at home
Throughout his life, Tom was a committed Christian and contributed to wider society, helping to form over thirty Young Men's Christian Associations across the North of England. He was also Captain of his local Fire Brigade. One of his lasting legacies is the Cleveland Institution of Engineers. The Institution is one of the oldest such engineering bodies in the world. Tom hosted the inaugural meeting at his home on Church Road in Stockton and was the first secretary of the organisation. There were 12 members at that first meeting, but by the time of his death (when he was president) the ranks had grown to over 460.
Death and Funeral
Thousands of residents assembled to pay respects to Tom at his funeral filling the south end of Stockton High Street and the entire length of Bridge Road. His funeral procession, was four deep and numbered about two thousand people – an unusual turnout for a 40 year old industrialist and engineer.
References
British inventors
British metallurgists
Metallurgists
1837 births
1878 deaths | Thomas Whitwell | [
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science"
] | 639 | [
"Metallurgists",
"Metallurgy"
] |
54,600,212 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%204111 | NGC 4111 is a lenticular galaxy in the constellation Canes Venatici. It is located at a distance of circa 50 million light-years from Earth, which, given its apparent dimensions, means that NGC 4111 is about 55,000 light-years across. It was discovered by William Herschel in 1788. NGC 4111 possesses both thin and thick discs.
Characteristics
The galaxy is characterised by a series of dusty filaments running through its centre. They are associated with a ring of material encircling the galaxy's core, which is not aligned with the galaxy's main disc, suggesting that this polar ring of gas and dust is actually the remains of a smaller galaxy. The polar ring has a diameter of 450 pc and in it is embedded one with a diameter of 220 pc visible in H21-0 imaging. The estimated cold molecular gas mass within the polar ring is estimated to be . The ring can provide enough material for an active galactic nucleus and for circumnuclear star formation. The galaxy also possesses an X-shaped, (peanut shell)-shaped bulge, thought to arise from an unstable stellar bar.
The stellar population within the disk is quite young (2 ±0.3 billion years mean age) and its metallicity is subsolar.
The nucleus of the galaxy features a low-ionization nuclear emission-line region (LINER), which is emitting X-rays. The nucleus is the only source that was identified in observations by Chandra X-ray Observatory and there was also diffuse emission. The central sources accounts for approximately 77% of the hard X-rays emission of the galaxy. Its central source has also been detected in radiowaves and is believed to be a low luminosity active galactic nucleus.
Nearby galaxies
NGC 4111 is the foremost galaxy in NGC 4111 galaxy group, one of the subgroups of Ursa Major Cluster. The NGC 4111 Group is the second most massive subgroup, after the M109 Group. According with Makarov and Karachentsev, members of the NGC 4111 group are the galaxies UGC 6818, NGC 3938, NGC 4013, IC 749, IC 750, NGC 4051, UGC 7089, UGC 7094, NGC 4117, NGC 4138 and NGC 4183.
NGC 4111 appears disturbed in HI imaging, with HI extending 28 arcminutes south of the central position of NGC 4111, which corresponds in 120 kpc if the distance is 15 Mpc, and connects NGC 4111 with the nearby galaxies NGC 4117 and NGC 4118, which lie 7 arcminutes to east-northeast.
References
External links
Lenticular galaxies
Canes Venatici
4111
07103
38440
Ursa Major Cluster
Discoveries by William Herschel | NGC 4111 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 574 | [
"Canes Venatici",
"Constellations"
] |
54,601,434 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alinaghi%20Khamoushi | Alinaghi Khamoushi () is an Iranian business magnate and conservative politician.
An influential lobbyist in Iranian political and economic arena, he is a senior member of the Islamic Coalition Party and runs three large textile companies owned by two religious centers and the CEO of Iran Investments Company.
Khamoushi served as the president of the Iran Chamber of Commerce Industries and Mines from 1984 to 2007. He also represented Tehran, Rey, Shemiranat and Eslamshahr electoral district in the Parliament of Iran from 1992 to 1996. Khamoushi was the first head of Mostazafan Foundation, a Bonyad.
References
External linlks
Profile at Bloomberg.com
1939 births
Living people
Islamic Coalition Party politicians
Iranian billionaires
21st-century Iranian businesspeople
Members of the 4th Islamic Consultative Assembly
Textile engineers | Alinaghi Khamoushi | [
"Engineering"
] | 166 | [
"Textile engineers",
"Textile engineering"
] |
54,601,961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipally%20owned%20corporation | A municipally owned corporation is a corporation owned by a municipality. They are typically "organisations with independent corporate status, managed by an executive board appointed primarily by local government officials, and with majority public ownership." Some municipally owned corporations rely on revenue from user fees, distinguishing them from agencies and special districts funded through taxation. Municipally owned corporations may also differ from local bureaucracies in funding, transaction costs, financial scrutiny, labour rights, permission to operate outside their jurisdiction, and, under some circumstances, in rights to make profits and risk of bankruptcy.
The causes and effects of municipally owned corporations are posited to be different from those of state-owned enterprises. Corporatization may be more utilised locally rather than nationally allowing more hybrid or flexible forms of public service delivery such as public-private partnerships and inter-municipal cooperation. It also allows charging user fees. Effects can be different because of lower regulator expertise, lower contracting capacity for municipalities, and the higher presence of scale economies. Current research shows that municipally owned corporations are frequently more efficient than bureaucracy but have higher failure rates because of their legal and managerial autonomy. An additional problem is the fact that municipally owned corporations often have more than one municipal owner, and conflict between municipal owners can lead to reduced output for the municipally owned corporation due to various negative spillovers.
Background
Under New Public Management, corporatization became prominent as a step towards (partial) privatization. It soon became an end in itself, aiming to combine government control with efficient, businesslike service delivery that was considered lacking in bureaucratic service delivery. The state-owned enterprises that resulted were to be organized akin to private corporations, with the difference that the company's shares remain state ownership are not traded on the stock market.
This also became a trend at the local level. Municipal corporation followed a process of externalization that required new skills and orientations from the respective local governments, and followed common changes in the institutional landscape of public services. There was a substantial growth in the number of municipally owned corporations in the 1990s and 2000s throughout Europe and the United States.
Reasons and effects
Municipal corporatization can be used to improve efficiency of public service delivery (with mixed successes) or as a step towards (partial) privatization or hybridization. Its reasons and effects are somewhat similar as those of corporatization.
(Potentially) improving efficiency
A key purpose of corporatization is externalization. Such externalization gives the service delivery organization legal and managerial autonomy from politicians, which could potentially increase efficiency, because it safeguards the firm from political exploitation. However, it can also fail to bring efficiency (or cause inefficiency), because this autonomy also reduces the government's ability to monitor its management. Whether corporatization is beneficial may depend on the nature of the service that is corporatized, where autonomy may be less beneficial for more politicized and complex services. At the local level there may also be higher transaction costs, because contracting capacity may be lower.
Step towards privatization or hybridization
Once a service has been corporatised, it is often relatively easy to (partially) privatise it by selling some or all of the company's shares via the stock market. Thus corporatisation can be a stop on the way towards (partial) privatization. Corporatization also can be a step towards the creation of hybrid forms of organization, such as institutional private-partnerships or inter-municipal service organizations, which are especially relevant at the local level because of opportunities to capture scale economies.
Alleviating fiscal stress
Municipal corporations tend to be established by local governments experiencing some degree of fiscal stress. Corporatization was a way to allow local governments to "hide their liabilities by allocating them partly to their companies" or "corporatized their utilities (…) to raise new sources of income from their companies."
Problems with multiple ownership
The frequent ownership of municipally owned corporations by multiple municipalities can cause problems, the so-called multiple principal problem, that can lead these to be inefficient, inequitable, or unaccountable or have high failure rates. There can be free-riding or duplication in steering and monitoring procedures, resulting in high costs. If there is heterogeneity in interests between the multiple municipalities, there may be directive ambiguity or lobbying of the corporations by individual municipalities, leading to high inefficiency and low accountability. Delegating governance to one elected party may be a way to solve this problem.
Usage
Municipal corporatization is more prominent for some services than for others. It is typically prominent in:
Water management
Bus services
Refuse collection
Economy & Housing
Social Affairs & Employment
Education & Culture
See also
Corporatization
New Public Management
References
Capitalism
Companies by type
Corporations by type
Government corporations
Public administration
Public economics
Types of business entity
Urban planning | Municipally owned corporation | [
"Engineering"
] | 991 | [
"Urban planning",
"Architecture"
] |
54,602,922 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%204274 | NGC 4274 is a barred spiral galaxy located in the constellation Coma Berenices. It is located at a distance of circa 45 million light years from Earth, which, given its apparent dimensions, means that NGC 4274 is about 95,000 light years across. It was discovered by William Herschel in 1785.
Characteristics
NGC 4274 is characterised by its overlapping outer arms, forming a ring structure with apparent diameter 2.8. The inner arms begin near the edge of the bulge and they are bright and dusty, with dust lanes that are more prominent at the near side. Outside the near-ring a set of fainter outer arms has been detected. These outer arms also form a ring, with diameter 5.9. A third rings exists near the nucleus. The nuclear ring has semimajor axis 9", which corresponds to 680 parsec at that distance.
The bar of the galaxy is 5 kpc long. The galaxy features a nuclear bar that is almost perpendicular to the outer bar.
Supernova
One supernova has been observed in NGC 4274: SN 1999ev. It was a type II supernova, discovered by Tom Boles on 7 November 1999. It peaked at magnitude 15.2.
Nearby galaxies
NGC 4274 is the foremost member of a galaxy group known as NGC 4274 group. Other members of the group are NGC 4173, NGC 4245, NGC 4251, NGC 4283, IC 3215, NGC 4310, and NGC 4314. It is part of the Coma I Group which is part of the Virgo Supercluster.
Gallery
References
External links
Barred spiral galaxies
Coma Berenices
4274
07377
39724
Coma I Group | NGC 4274 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 353 | [
"Coma Berenices",
"Constellations"
] |
54,603,415 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Museum%20for%20Family%20History | The Internationaal Museum voor Familiegeschiedenis (known in English as the International Museum for Family History, or in short "The Family Museum") is a museum located in the former Ursuline Convent in Eijsden, Netherlands. As a museum with a focus on genealogy and family history, it is the first museum of its kind in the world.
The Ursuline sisters commissioned Pierre Cuypers to renovate and extend the building in 1899. It is probable that Cuypers entrusted part of the project to Johannes Kayser, a Dutch architect notable for his neogothic designs.
The museum focuses especially on genealogy, DNA-research, the life and work of Eugène Dubois, human evolution, heraldry, Charlemagne, family law and the working lives of our ancestors. the museum also houses the office, archives and collections of the International Qajar Studies Association.
The museum is a "Public Benefit Organisation" (Algemeen nut beogende instelling) and it has won awards such as the 'VVV price for innovation'.
The advisory board of the museum includes notable figures such as former Prime Minister of the Netherlands Dries van Agt, American historian at Yale University Ned Blackhawk, professor Michel Hockx of the University of Notre Dame, professor of Russian and Inner Asian history at Brock University David Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, and professor Tudor Parfitt.
References
Eijsden-Margraten
Museums in Limburg (Netherlands)
History museums in the Netherlands
Genealogy
Museums established in 2014
2014 establishments in the Netherlands
21st-century architecture in the Netherlands | International Museum for Family History | [
"Biology"
] | 333 | [
"Phylogenetics",
"Genealogy"
] |
54,603,848 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian%20Controlled%20Drugs%20and%20Substances%20Act | The Brazilian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (), officially Portaria nº 344/1998, is Brazil's federal drug control statute, issued by the Ministry of Health through its National Health Surveillance Agency (Anvisa). The act also serves as the implementing legislation for the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances in the country.
The list was last updated in May 2024.
Terminology:
Prescription notification - a standardized document intended for notifying Anvisa of the prescription of medications. Written by the doctor and retained by the drugstore
Prescription - a written medication order that provides usage instructions for the patient.
Special control prescription - a prescrition that is filled out in two copies, one that is retained by the drugstore, and another stays with the patient for usage guidance. It can be provided in a digital signed form.
Overview
Class A1
Acetylmethadol
Alphacetylmethadol
Alphameprodine
Alphamethadol
Alphaprodine
Alfentanil
Allylprodine
Anileridine
Bezitramide
Benzethidine
Benzylmorphine
Benzoylmorphine ()
Betaacetylmethadol
Betameprodine
Betamethadol
Betaprodine
Buprenorphine
Butorphanol
Clonitazene
Codoxime
Concentrated opium poppy straw
Dextromoramide
Diampromide
Diethylthiambutene
Diphenoxylate
Difenoxin
Dihydromorphine
Dimepheptanol
Dimenoxadol
Dimethylthiambutene
Dioxaphetyl butyrate
Dipipanone
Drotebanol
Ethylmethylthiambutene
Etonitazene
Etoxeridine
Phenadoxone
Phenampromide
Phenazocine
Phenomorphan
Phenoperidine
Fentanyl
Furethidine
Hydrocodone
Hydromorphinol
Hydromorphone
Hydroxypethidine
Methadone intermediate
Moramide intermediate
Pethidine intermediate A
Norpethidine (Pethidine intermediate B)
Pethidinic acid (Pethidine intermediate C)
Isomethadone
Levophenacylmorphan
Levomethorphan
Levomoramide
Levorphanol
Methadone
Metazocine
Methyldesorphine
Methyldihydromorphine
Metopon
Myrophine
Morpheridine
Morphine
Morinamide
Nicomorphine
Noracymethadol
Norlevorphanol
Normethadone
Normorphine
Norpipanone
Codeine-N-oxide
Morphine-N-oxide
Opium
Oripavine
Oxycodone
Oxymorphone
Pethidine
Piminodine
Piritramide
Proheptazine
Properidine
Racemethorphan
Racemoramide
Racemorphan
Remifentanil
Sufentanil
Tapentadol
Thebacon
Thebaine
Tilidine
Trimeperidine
Viminol
Class A2
Acetyldihydrocodeine
Codeine
Dextropropoxyphene
Dihydrocodeine
Ethylmorphine (Dionine)
Pholcodine
Nalbufina
Nalorphine
Nicocodine
Nicodicodine
Norcodeine
Propiram
Tramadol
Class A3
Amphetamine
Cathine
Chlorphentermine
Dexamphetamine
Dronabinol - Synthetic form with no other cannabinoid.
Phenmetrazine
Phencyclidine
Phenethylline
Levamphetamine
Lisdexamfetamine
Methylphenidate
Methylsynephrine
Thamphetamine
Cannabis sativa derivates containing up to 30mg/mL THC and 30mg/mL CBD
Class B1
Allobarbital
Alprazolam
Amineptine
Amobarbital
Aprobarbital
Armodafinil
Barbexaclone
Barbital
Bromazepam
Bromazolam
Brotizolam
Butabarbital
Butalbital
Camazepam
Ketamine
Ketazolam
Cyclobarbital
Clobazam
Clonazepam
Clonazolam
Chlorazepam (CAS: , , )
Clorazepate
Chlordiazepoxide
Ethyl chloride
Methylene chloride/dichloromethane
Clotiazepam
Cloxazolam
Delorazepam
Diazepam
Diclazepam
Esketamine
Estazolam
Eszopiclone
Ethchlorvynol
Ethylamphetamine (N-Ethylamphetamine)
Ethinamate
Etizolam
Phenazepam
Phenobarbital
Flualprazolam
Flubromazolam
Fludiazepam
Flunitrazepam
Flunitrazolam
Flurazepam
GBL
GHB
Glutethimide
Halazepam
Haloxazolam
Lefetamine
Ethyl loflazepate
Loprazolam
Lorazepam
Lormetazepam
Medazepam
Meprobamate
Mesocarb
Methylphenobarbital (prominal)
Methyprylon
Midazolam
Modafinil
Nimetazepam
Nitrazepam
Fencamfamin
Nordazepam
Oxazepam
Oxazolam
Pemoline
Pentazocine
Pentobarbital
Perampanel
Pinazepam
Pipradrol
Pyrovalerone
Prazepam
Prolintane
Propylhexedrine
Secbutabarbital
Secobarbital
Temazepam
Tetrazepam
Thiamylal
Thiopental
Triazolam
Trichlorethylene
Trihexyphenidyl
Vinylbital
Zaleplon
Zolpidem
Zopiclone
Cannabis derivates containing up to 0,2% THC
Class B2
Aminorex
Amfepramone
Fenproporex
Phendimetrazine
Phentermine
Mazindol
Mefenorex
Sibutramine
Class C1
Acepromazine
Valproic acid
Agomelatine
Amantadine
Amisulpride
Amitriptyline
Amoxapine
Aripiprazole
Asenapine
Atomoxetine
Azacyclonol
Beclamide
Benactyzine
Benfluorex
Benzydamine
Benzoctamine
Benzquinamide
Biperiden
Brexpiprazole
Brivaracetam
Bupropion
Buspirone
Butaperazine
Butriptyline
Cannabidiol - Synthetic form with no other cannabinoid.
Captodiame
Carbamazepine
Caroxazone
Celecoxib
Cyclarbamate
Cyclexedrine (CAS: , )
Cyclopentolate
Cisapride
Citalopram
Clomacran
Clomethiazole
Clomipramine
Chloralodol
Chlorpromazine
Chlorprothixene
Clotiapine
Clozapine
Dapoxetine
Desflurane
Desipramine
Desvenlafaxine
Deutetrabenazine
Dexetimide
Dexmedetomidine
Dibenzepine
Dimetacrine
Disopyramide
Disulfiram
Divalproex sodium
Dixyrazine
Donepezil
Doxepin
Droperidol
Duloxetine
Ectylurea (See Acylurea) (CAS: , )
Emylcamate
Enflurane
Entacapone
Escitalopram
Etomidate
Etoricoxib
Ethosuximide
Levophacetoperane
Phenprobamate
Phenaglycodol
Phenelzine
Pheniprazine
Phenytoin
Fluphenazine
Flumazenil
Fluoxetine
Flupentixol
Fluvoxamine
Gabapentin
Galantamine
Haloperidol
Halothane
Chloral hydrate
Etodroxizine (Hydrochlorbenzethylamine)
Hydroxydione
Homofenazine
Imiclopazine
Imipramine
Imipraminoxide
Iproclozide
Isocarboxazid
Isoflurane
Cenestil (Isopropyl-crotonyl-urea) (CAS: , )
Lacosamide
Lamotrigine
Leflunomide
Levetiracetam
Levomepromazine
Levomilnacipran
Lisuride
Lithium
Loperamide
Loxapine
Lumiracoxib
Lurasidone
Mavacamten
Maprotiline
Meclofenoxate
Mephenoxalone
Mefexamide
Memantine
Mepazine
Mesoridazine
Methylnaltrexone
Methylpentynol
Methysergide
Metixene
Methopromazine (CAS: , )
Methoxyflurane
Mianserin
Milnacipran
Miltefosine
Minaprine
Mirtazapine
Misoprostol - Hospital authorization only.
Moclobemide
Molnupiravir
Moperone
Naloxone
Naltrexone
Nefazodone
Nialamide
Isobutyl nitrite
Isopentyl nitrite
Isopropyl nitrite
Nomifensine
Nortriptyline
Noxiptiline
Olanzapine
Opipramol
Oxcarbazepine
Oxybuprocaine
Hydroxyphenamate
Oxypertine
Paliperidone
Parecoxib
Paroxetine
Penfluridol
Perphenazine
Pergolide
Pericyazine
Pimozide
Pipamperone
Pipotiazine
Pramipexole
Pregabalin
Primidone
Prochlorperazine
Promazine
Propanidid
Propiomazine
Propofol
Prothipendyl
Protriptyline
Proparacaine
Quetiapine
Ramelteon
Rasagiline
Reboxetine
Ribavirin
Rimonabant
Risperidone
Rivastigmine
Rofecoxib
Ropinirole
Rotigotine
Rufinamide
Selegiline
Sertraline
Sevoflurane
Sulpiride
Sultopride
Tacrine
Teriflunomide
Tetrabenazine
Tetracaine
Tiagabine
Tianeptine
Tiapride
Thioproperazine
Thioridazine
Thiothixene
Tolcapone
Topiramate
Tranylcypromine
Trazodone
Triclofos
Trifluoperazine
Trifluperidol
Trimipramine
Troglitazone
Valdecoxib
Sodium valproate
Venlafaxine
Veralipride
Vigabatrin
Vilazodone
Vortioxetine
Ziprasidone
Zotepine
Zuclopenthixol
Class C2
Acitretin
Adapalene
Bexarotene
Isotretinoin
Tretinoin
Class C3
Thalidomide
Lenalidomide
Pomalidomide
Class C4
List revoked in September 2016.
Class C5
Androstanolone
Bolasterone
Boldenone
Chlorodehydromethyltestosterone
Clostebol
Dehydrochlormethyltestosterone
Drostanolone
Stanolone
Stanozolol
Ethylestrenol
Fluoxymesterone
Formebolone
Gestrinone
Mesterolone
Methandienone
Methandranone
Methandriol
Methenolone
Methyltestosterone
Mibolerone
Nandrolone
Norethandrolone
Oxandrolone
Oxymesterone
Oxymetholone
Prasterone (dehydroepiandrosterone - DHEA)
Somapacitan
Somatrogon
Somatropin (Human Growth Hormone)
Testosterone
Trenbolone
Class D
Class D1
1-Boc-4-AP (CAS: , )
1-phenyl-2-propanone
3,4-MDP-2-P ethyl glycidate (PMK ethyl glycidate)
3,4-MDP-2-P methyl glycidic acid (PMK glycidic acid)
3,4-MDP-2-P methyl glycidate (PMK glycidate)
3,4-Methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone
4-AP (N-Phenyl-4-piperidinamine)
Anthranilic acid
Phenylacetic acid
Lysergic acid
N-Acetylanthranilic acid
Alpha-phenylacetoacetonitrile (APAAN) (CAS: , )
Alpha-phenylacetoacetamide (APAA) (CAS: , )
4-ANPP
Dihydroergometrine
Dihydroergotamine
Ephedrine
Ergometrine
Ergotamine
Etafedrine
Helional
Isosafrole
Methyl alpha-acetylphenylacetate (MAPA) - (CAS: , )
Norfentanyl
Sassafras oil
Long pepper oil
Piperidine
Piperonal
Pseudoephedrine
N-phenethyl-4-piperidinone (NPP)
Safrole
Class D2
Acetone
Hydrochloric acid
Sulfuric acid
Acetic anhydride
Ethyl chloride
Methylene Chloride
Chloroform
Ethyl Ether
Methyl ethyl ketone
Potassium permanganate
Sodium sulphate
Toluene
Trichlorethylene
Class E
Cannabis sativa - except for registed products under allowed dosage mentioned in Class A3.
Claviceps paspali (Ergot)
Datura suaveolens
Erythroxylum coca
Lophophora williamsii (Coto Peyote)
Mitragyna speciosa
Papaver somniferum
Prestonia amazonica
Salvia divinorum
Class F
Class F1
2F-Viminol
2-Methyl-AP-237 (methyl analogue of bucinnazine)
3-Methylfentanyl
3-Methylthiofentanyl
4-Fluoroisobutyrfentanyl
7-Hydroxymitragynine
Acetyl-alpha-methylfentanyl
Acetylfentanyl
Acetorphine
Acryloylfentanyl
AH-7921
Alpha-methylfentanyl
Alpha-methylthiofentanyl
Beta-hydroxy-3-methylfentanyl
Beta-hydroxyfentanyl
Brorphine
Butyrfentanyl
Butonitazene
Carfentanil
Ketobemidone
Cyclopropylfentanyl
Cocaine
Crotonylfentanyl
Desomorphine
Dihydroetorphine
Ecgonine
Etazene (Etodesnitazene)
Etonitazepyne
Etorphine
Furanylfentanyl
Heroin
Isotonitazene
MDPV
Metonitazene
Methoxyacetylfentanyl
Mitragynine
MPPP
MT-45
N-Desethyletonitazene
N-Pyrrolidino Metonitazene (, )
Ocfentanil
Orthofluorofentanyl
Parafluorobutyrfentanyl
Parafluorofentanyl
PEPAP
Protonitazene
Tetrahydrofuranylfentanyl
Thiofentanyl
U-47700
Valerylfentanyl
Class F2
LSD
1B-LSD
1cP-LSD
1P-LSD
2C-B
2C-C
2C-D
2C-E
2C-F
2C-I
2C-T-2
2C-T-7
2-MeO-Diphenidine
3-Fluorophenmetrazine
3-MeO-PCP
3-MMC
4-AcO-DMT
4-AcO-MET
4-Bromomethcathinone
4-Chloro-alpha-PVP
4-Chloromethcathinone (4-CMC)
4-Fluoroamphetamine (4-FA)
4-Fluoromethcathinone
4F-MDMB-BINACA
4-HO-MIPT
4-MEAPP
4-MEC
4-Methylaminorex
4-MTA
4,4'-DMAR
5-APB
5-APDB
5C-MDA-19 (BZO-POXIZID, CAS: , )
5-EAPB
5F-AB-FUPPYCA
5F-ADB
5F-AKB48
5F-AMB-PINACA
5F-MDA-19 (5F-BZO-POXIZID, )
5F-MDMB-PICA
5F-PB-22
5-IAI
5-MAPDB
5-MeO-AMT
5-MeO-DALT
5-MeO-DIPT
5-MeO-DMT
5-MeO-MIPT
25B-NBOH
25B-NBOMe
25C-NBF
25C-NBOH
25C-NBOMe
25D-NBOMe
25E-NBOH
25E-NBOMe
25H-NBOH
25H-NBOMe
25I-NBF
25I-NBOH
25I-NBOMe
25N-NBOMe
25P-NBOMe
25T2-NBOMe
25T4-NBOMe
25T7-NBOMe
30C-NBOMe
AB-CHMINACA
AB-FUBINACA
AB-PINACA
ADB-5Br-INACA (, )
ADB-BUTINACA
ADB-CHMINACA
ADB-FUBIATA
ADB-FUBINACA
ADB-INACA (CAS: , )
ALD-52
Alpha-D2Pv
Alpha-EAPP
Alpha-PHP
alpha-PiHP
Alpha-PVP
AKB48
AM-2201
AMT
Benzphetamine
Bk-DMBDB
Brolamphetamine
BZO-4en-POXIZID (4en-pentyl MDA-19)
BZO-CHMOXIZID
BZO-HEPOXIZID, (Z)-N'-(1-heptyl-2-oxoindolin-3-ylidene)benzohydrazide
BZP
Cathinone
CH-PIATA ()
Clobenzorex
CUMYL-4CN-BINACA
CUMYL-PEGACLONE
DET
Diphenidine
Dihydro-LSD (ChemSpider ID: 67024742) (8β)-N,N-Diethyl-6-methyl-9,10-didehydro-2,3-dihydroergoline-8-carboxamide
Dimethylone
DMA
DMAA
DMBA
DMHP
DMT
DOC
DOET
DOI
EAM-2201
Ergine
Eticyclidine
Ethylphenidate
Ethylone
Etryptamine
Eutylone
FUB-AMB
Isopropylbenzylamine
JWH-018
JWH-071
JWH-072
JWH-073
JWH-081
JWH-098
JWH-122
JWH-210
JWH-250
JWH-251
JWH-252
JWH-253
Levomethamphetamine
MAM-2201
MAM-2201 N-(4-hydroxypentyl) (CAS: , , )
MAM-2201 N-(5-chloropentyl) (CAS: , , )
MDMB-4en-PINACA
MDMB-5Br-INACA
MDMB-INACA (CAS: , )
mCPP
MDA-19 (BZO-HEXOXIZID)
MDAI
MDE
MDMA
Mecloqualone
Mephedrone
Mescaline
Methallylescaline
Methanphetamine
Methaqualone
Methcathinone
Methylone
Methiopropamine
MMDA
MXE
N-acetyl-3,4-MDMC (CAS: , )
N-Ethylcathinone
N-Ethylhexedrone (hexen)
N-Ethylpentylone
Parahexyl
Pentedrone
Pentylone
PMA
PMMA
Psilocybin
Psilocin
RH-34
Rolicyclidine (PCPy)
Salvinorin A
DOM (STP)
Tenamfetamine
Tenocyclidine
THC - except for registed products under allowed dosage mentioned in Class A3.
TH-PVP
TMA
TFMPP
UR-144
XLR-11
Zipeprol
Class F3
Phenylpropanolamine (PPA) or norephedrine
Class F4
Dexfenfluramine
Dinitrophenol
Strychnine
Etretinate
Fenfluramine
Lindane
Terfenadine
References
Brazilian legislation
Drug control law
Drug policy of Brazil | Brazilian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act | [
"Chemistry"
] | 4,362 | [
"Drug control law",
"Regulation of chemicals"
] |
54,605,444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular%20thermal%20shift%20assay | CEllular Thermal Shift Assay (CETSA®) is a patented label free chemoproteomics method that has enabled measurements of compound target engagement in intact cells and tissue, without modifications to the target protein. This is accomplished by comparing the measured cellular thermal stability of the protein in the presence and absence of the test compound. An efficacious compound binding to its intended target will affect associated proteins and thereby leave traces in the cell in form of changed signalling patterns. Such patterns can arise from for example loss or gain of protein-protein interactions, phosphorylations or release of regulatory molecules.
References
Chemical biology | Cellular thermal shift assay | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 127 | [
"Chemical biology",
"nan"
] |
54,605,762 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strate%20School%20of%20Design | Strate School of Design (formerly known as Strate College) is a French private institution for technical education founded in 1993. Its main campus is in Sèvres south-west of Paris. It is dedicated to the teaching of industrial design, 3D modeling and design thinking. The school is recognized by the French state and its design degree is certified by the French Ministry of Higher Education.
Key dates
1993
Jean-René Talopp, former designer and director of the "ESDI" design school, founds Strate Collège.
2010
The school moves to a new campus in Sèvres.
2013
Dominique Sciamma becomes the director of Strate.
2014
The school changes its name to Strate School of Design, and logo and adopts a new motto: Making the world +simple, +fair, +beautiful.
2015
The Strate Executive Education programme is launched to train professionals and managerial staff to Design Thinking and innovation by design.
Strate is recognized by the French state in the publication of the Bulletin Officiel de l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche on 7 December 2015. This has entitled the school to welcome government scholars for the design and modeling courses since 2017.
2017
The Ministry’s of Higher Education Bulletin Officiel de l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche lists the school as one of the few design schools in France to deliver a diploma recognized by the Minister in charge of higher education.
Teaching
Some programs last five years (bac+5), others three (MBA). The two main subjects in the curriculum are design and modeling.
Design course
The first two years of the design course are about teaching the fundamentals of drawing, perspective, modeling and design methodology.
In the third year, students specialize in one major: product, transportation, packaging & retail, or interaction. A first six-month internship takes place in the third year.
In year four, students are requested to spend the first semester abroad either at a partner design school of the CUMULUS association, or by doing an internship. The students then come back to school for a period of projects with partner companies.
The fifth year is dedicated to the preparation of the diploma. Students are requested to write a memoir and formalize their project, which they present to a jury of professionals (independent designers, designers in agencies, office managers, marketing managers). After this presentation students are requested to do a final internship in France or abroad.
3D modeling course
The 3D modeling course is a 3-year undergraduate diploma that teaches traditional and digital modeling.
Degrees
Strate issues the industrial designer diploma, which is recognized by the government as a level I title for the 5 years of studies after the French baccalaureate (niveau I RNCP code 200n, JO du 06-07-08). Since the publication of the Higher Education Ministry "Bulletin Officiel de l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche" on June the 29th 2017 the school is one of the few design schools in France to deliver a degree referred to by the Minister of higher education.
For the design course, two double-diploma agreements exist with the Grenoble School of Management and Sciences Po Paris.
Two double-degree designer-manager options are offered to students by doing an additional tuition-free year at the Grenoble School of Management or Sciences Po Paris.
Programs taught in English
Master in Design in Transportation
The Master in Design in Transportation is a 2-year post-graduate master's degree. It is recognized by the French State through its registration by the National Council of Professional Certification (RNCP) at Level 1.
Master in Design for Smart Cities
The Master in Design for Smart Cities is a 2-year post-graduate master's degree. The course can take place in Paris and Singapore. It is recognized by the French State through its registration by the National Council of Professional Certification (RNCP) at Level 1.
Partnerships
Academic partnerships
For the design course student exchanges are made with other schools of the international association of art & design universities, CUMULUS.
Two double-degree agreements exist with Grenoble School of Management and Sciences Po Paris.
The school has developed the collaborative project CPi (Conception de produit innovant) with the engineering school Centrale Supélec and ESSEC Business School. For 9 months mixed teams of students of the three schools work on innovation challenges submitted by partner companies. Since 2005 over fifty compagnies have supported the program producing 150 students projects.
Since 2014 the Design & Science Université Paris-Saclay prize has been led by Strate. It was previously called "ArtScience Prize" from 2014 to 2016. It gathers students of Strate with students from prestigious French engineering schools such as Télécom ParisTech, CentraleSupélec, ENS Paris-Saclay or École Polytechnique to work on a same project. It aims to develop innovative ideas upon advanced scientific themes. Every year about 40 students work together on the same brief for six months, and are coached by professors from their schools; the winners of the prize get a scholarship for the development of their project and other support.
Strate is one of the founding schools of the Web School Factory school in Paris.
Links with businesses
The school has signed various agreements with companies to train the employees through the Strate Executive Education branch and companies to offer innovation, research projects and internships to students:
Korian in October 2017
Laval Virtual in March 2017
CEA List in March 2017
L'Oréal in March 2016
Derichebourg Multiservices in September 2015
Carrefour in June 2015
Renault in December 2013
Research
The school has a research branch, Strate Research, and is part of various French institutes:
member of the Institut Vedecom for clean and sustainable transportation;
member of Institut Carnot Telecom & Société numérique which has been labeled Carnot for the quality of its research partnerships;
member of Institut de recherche et d'innovation;
In June 2017 the EXALT Design Lab for design valorization in businesses was created at Strate, in cooperation with 5 large companies and two major academic laboratories. All partners are engaged in a 4-year research project.
Rankings
The French student magazine l'Étudiant published some years a ranking of the "product design schools preferred by professionals" (écoles de design produit préférées des pros). There are about 77 design schools in France and Strate is regularly mentioned as one of the best.
In 2017 the student news website l'Étudiant said Strate School of Design distinguished itself through its dynamism, following closely the mutations of the designer's profession, and also by creating partnerships with foreign schools and collaborations with various research actors.
The school is well known in the car design world since its transportation design course has existed since the school's opening in 1993. The website Car Design News by adding up all the successive results for the years 2011 to 2015 of student participation in the Car Design Awards competition ranked the school as one of the top transportation design schools in the world.
Alumni
The association Strate Alumni has over 1200 members.
International
Strate School of Design is a member of the international association of art & design universities, CUMULUS. For the design course, student exchanges are made with other schools in CUMULUS.
The school is also a member of the World Design Organization, an international non-governmental organization that promotes the profession of industrial design and its ability to generate better products, systems, services, and experiences.
Singapore and Bangalore campuses
Strate School of Design was established in Singapore in 2017, and received in 2018 the registration from the Committee For Private Education / SkillsFuture (part of Ministry of Education). Strate also signed a partnership with the Social Innovation Park, a not-for-profit organization aiming to educate, empower and enhance social entrepreneurs and innovators. The campus of Strate is located in the epicenter of design for Singapore, namely the National Design Centre.
Strate Singapore offers a suite of design curricula of which the Master in Design for Smart Cities, in both full-time and part-time formats.
Strate School of Design opened a large campus in Bangalore, India in 2018, with other institutions from the Studialis group.
Ownership
The school is a member of the Studialis group that belongs to the investment fund GALILEO.
References
Private universities and colleges in France
Design schools in France
Design schools in India
Industrial design
Buildings and structures in Hauts-de-Seine
Education in Île-de-France
1993 establishments in France
Educational institutions established in 1993 | Strate School of Design | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,746 | [
"Industrial design",
"Design engineering",
"Design"
] |
54,606,306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letters%20in%20Organic%20Chemistry | Letters in Organic Chemistry (usually abbreviated as Lett. Org. Chem.), is a peer-reviewed monthly scientific journal, published since 2004 by Bentham Science Publishers. Letters in Organic Chemistry is indexed in: Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS), EBSCOhost, British Library, PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus.
Letters in Organic Chemistry publishes letters and articles on all areas related to organic chemistry.
According to the Journal Citation Reports, the impact factor of this journal is 0.867 for the year 2020. The Editor-in-Chief is Alberto Marra (University of Montpellier, France). who took over from Gwilherm Evano (Université libre de Bruxelles, Belgium) who resigned in February 2018 after a strong disagreement with Bentham on the scientific management of this journal.
References
Organic chemistry journals
Bentham Science Publishers academic journals | Letters in Organic Chemistry | [
"Chemistry"
] | 180 | [
"Organic chemistry journals"
] |
54,606,452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20computing%20mascots | This is a list of computing mascots. A mascot is any person, animal, or object thought to bring luck, or anything used to represent a group with a common public identity. In case of computing mascots, they either represent software, hardware, or any project or collective entity behind them.
Within collaborative software projects, the use of mascots often allow for the existence of a non-trademarked symbol for use by the software's community, as opposed to Logos and Wordmarks, which often have more stringent protections.
See also
List of mascots
List of video game mascots
References
Notes
Citations
Mascots | List of computing mascots | [
"Mathematics"
] | 126 | [
"Symbols",
"Mascots"
] |
54,606,485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low%20magnetic%20electric%20motor | A low magnetic electric motor (or non magnetic electric motor) is an AC or DC motor with a reduced magnetic stray field signature.
Description
Low magnetic or nonmagnetic electric motors are used on board mine countermeasures vessels, minehunters, minesweepers and specific types of submarines. For about a hundred years sea mines or naval mines have been an established element in naval warfare. Modern naval mines nowadays react on magnetic, acoustic and pressure signals. By far the most important step in their development was the invention of the magnetic influence firing principle, which utilizes the magnetic interference field of passing ships. Naval mines with magnetic fuzes are effective, inexpensive and easy to deploy. An electric motor produces two types of magnetic fields: a dynamic alternating stray field, whilst running and a static remnant or residual magnetic during standstill. To avoid detection it is necessary to reduce these signatures at the source as much as possible.
Signature
Electric motors generate internal magnetic fields to rotate the rotor in the stator. A significant part of these magnetic stray fields emanate to the outside of the electric motor housing and can be measured and/or detected. During running an electric motor also produce air borne and structure borne noises. The primary goal to avoid detection is to reduce these signatures as much as possible, to be able to operate in stealth mode. The measurements of ships' signature as a whole are usually performed at a magnetic ranging facility.
Low magnetic
Low magnetic motors or nonmagnetic electric motors are designed to provide a reduced emanating magnetic stray field signature. These electric motors are manufactured from as little magnetic material as possible. The parts and components used to manufacture these electric motors are selected from materials with a low magnetic permeability. There are three major means of reducing the emanating magnetic stray fields of an electric motor: a dedicated electric and magnetic layout, electromagnetic shielding and additional compensating coils. Reduction and ways to achieve this are described in the American standard DOD-STD-2146, the British Defence-Standard 02-717 and the German Standard BV3013. Further reduction to the electric motors' magnetic signature, as well as the reduction of the ships' magnetic signature can be obtained by additional degaussing coils.
Airborne Noise
The primary source of air borne noise from an electric motor is the cooling fan to provide air to the electric motor. Reduction of air borne noise can be achieved by reducing the cooling air speed. An alternative is to use water or oil cooled electric motors. Air borne noise levels for different type of equipment on board Navy Vessels are laid down in the American military standard MIL-STD-1474D, the British Defence Standard 02-813 or the Indian Naval Engineering Standard NES 847.
Structure Borne Noise
Structure borne noise in an electric motor is the result of roller bearing inaccuracies, rotor bar pass frequencies, magnetic unbalance, non-matching rotor and stator slot combinations, providing acoustic signals. Reducing structure borne noise can be done by various means. A correct rotor/stator slot combination, selected precision roller bearings, reduced magnetic saturation in the stator can help to reduce the structure borne noise levels. Methods of measurements and acceptance criteria are defined in the American military MIL-STD-740-2(SH) and the British Defence Standard 02-813
Vibration (internally exited)
Mechanical unbalance of the rotor will generate vibration. The vibration will result in structure borne noise, as well as unwanted acceleration forces or resonance, which eventually will harm or damage parts of the electric motor. To reduce the unbalance forces, precision balancing, as described in the American military standard MIL-STD-167-1A, type I (internally exited) will be necessary.
Vibration (externally exited)
Electric motors on board naval vessel may experience shock and vibration. A dedicated rigid design will allow electric motors to withstand these environmental impacts and provide sufficient active hardening. Passive hardening is done by installation of shock and vibration mounts onto the motor and/or system. Test method and limits are described in the American standard MIL-STD-167-1A, type II (environmental).
Shock
Due to the nature of naval applications, equipment on board of mine countermeasures vessels and submarines may be subject to underwater explosions. Therefore, low magnetic electric motors need to be shock proof or shock resistant. Naval shock requirements on ships are specified in standards, such as the American standard NAVSEA-908-LP-000-3010 (Rev 1). Equipment on board of naval vessels is specified in different standards, such as the American military standard MIL-S-901D, the British and Indian naval standard BR3021 or the German standard BV 0230. A large part of the environmental tests and measurements are stipulated in the American standard MIL-STD-810. Shock testing on equipment is performed by specialist institutes, such as TNO, NTS Navy, Thales-ECC or QinitiQ.
Users
Osprey-class minehunter
Tripartite-class minehunter
Huon-class minehunter
Oksøy-class minehunter
Alta-class minesweeper
Sandown-class minehunter
Lerici-class minehunter
Katanpää-class minehunter
Kormoran 2-class minehunter
Visby-class korvette
References
External links
Magnetic Ranging and Treatment Facilities for Naval Applications
Magnetic Ranging
Acoustic & Magnetic Signatures Management
Magnetic Ranging Site
Magnetic Ranging Site - WTD 71
Electric motors | Low magnetic electric motor | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 1,109 | [
"Electrical engineering",
"Engines",
"Electric motors"
] |
54,606,546 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia%208 | The Nokia 8 is a flagship Nokia-branded smartphone running the Android operating system. Announced on 16 August 2017 in London, England by HMD Global. The phone began sales in Europe in September 2017. Nokia 8 is the first high-end Nokia-branded device since the Nokia Lumia 930 in 2014. An improved version, the Nokia 8 Sirocco, was announced on 25 February 2018 at the Mobile World Congress in Barcelona.
Specifications
Design
The Nokia 8 has a 5.3-inch display and averages 7.3 mm thick and 4.3 mm thick at the edges. It is available in four colors: Polished Blue, Polished Copper, Tempered Blue, and Steel. The device features a full-length graphite-shielded copper cooling pipe for efficient cooling. The phone is not water-resistant, but is IP54 splash-resistant.
Hardware
The Nokia 8 comes with the Qualcomm Snapdragon 835 CPU, backed by either 4 or 6 GB of RAM and 64 GB of internal storage (Tempered Blue, Steel, and Polished Copper-coloured models), or 6 GB of RAM and 128 GB of internal storage (Polished Blue). Both are expandable with microSD cards. The QHD display is protected by Gorilla Glass 5. The device has a USB-C port and a 3.5mm headphone jack.
Cameras and multimedia
The Nokia 8 is the first Nokia-branded phone to feature a dual-lens camera system. The rear camera module includes a set of two 13 MP sensors, of which one is an RGB sensor, and the other a monochrome sensor. The rear camera is equipped with optical image stabilization (OIS), f/2.0 aperture, PDAF, an IR rangefinder, and a dual-LED flash.
The front and rear cameras' combined standout feature is an advanced dualphotographic image camera (rebranded "Bothie" by Nokia), where the cameras can be used simultaneously by dividing the screen into a split-image setup, a technology Nokia calls Dual-Sight mode. Both the front and main cameras use ZEISS optics.
Video recording can be done in resolutions of 2160p at 30fps (4K) and 1080p at 30fps (FHD), with single-touch live streaming to social networks. The cellphone contains several microphones able to record spatial audio 360° with binaural audio codecs, providing high fidelity playback through OZO Audio technology, which was derived from the Nokia OZO camera. The phone is equipped with a single bottom mounted loudspeaker, so is not fully Dolby Atmos compatible.
These audio outputs use OZO spatial audio playback to produce high quality 360° surround sound from stereo speakers (or ear buds) and use decoding standards compatible with Dolby Atmos and other earlier surround sound standards.
Software
Like the Nokia 3, Nokia 5 and Nokia 6, the device ran a near-stock version of Android 7.1.1 Nougat on release. One difference is the camera mobile app, so as to cater for the phone's Dual-Sight feature. It also comes with an always-on display, similar to Nokia's previous Glance Screen on the Nokia Lumia series.
On 24 November 2017, HMD started rolling out a partial (excluding the Treble feature for device independent system updates) software upgrade to Android 8.0 Oreo. The main rollout was phased over two days, however some network operators released the software upgrade in the following weeks.
On 13 February 2018, Nokia released Android 8.1 Oreo for the Nokia 8.
On 27 September 2018, it was announced that the Nokia 8's bootloader could be unlocked.
On 19 December 2018, Android 9.0 Pie was released for the Nokia 8.
Reception
The Nokia 8 generally received positive reviews.
James Peckham of TechRadar praised the device for its "beautiful design, especially with shiny effect, dual-sensor rear camera with interesting software, and gorgeous QHD display", while criticising the "lack of unique features, slightly higher price and lack of waterproofing".
Andrew Lanxon of CNET praised the performance and battery, while criticising the "lack of some cutting-edge features for a high-end phone in 2017, like waterproofing and a slim, standout design".
Rehan Hooda of Firstpost praised the software, display and performance, while criticising the camera.
References
8
Mobile phones introduced in 2017
Mobile phones with multiple rear cameras
Discontinued flagship smartphones | Nokia 8 | [
"Technology"
] | 922 | [
"Discontinued flagship smartphones",
"Flagship smartphones"
] |
54,607,286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20Signature%20Service | Mobile Signature Service (MSS) is a high-level service specified by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute that defines the roles participating in mobile identity management and mobile signature transactions, as well as functional and business-related requirements and interfaces. The specification is the governing standard for PKI and enables cross-compatible mobile signature solutions.
Background
The mobile signature services industry began in the early 2000s, with the release of the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) mobile commerce standards (ETSI 102 203, 102 204, 102 206 and 102 207). The standards defined mobile signature as a universal method for using a mobile device to confirm the intention of a citizen to proceed with a transaction (digitally sign transactions on their mobile devices, turning the mobile device into personal trusted devices.) and mobile signature service as a facility that coordinates and manages the mobile signature process.
Roles
Mobile user
The mobile user is either a private person in possession of the mobile device, or a device embedded in the mobile device to which a mobile signature is associated.
Application provider
The application provider (AP) provides the service that the mobile user wishes to authenticate themselves to or the contract that the user wishes to sign.
Smart card issuer
The smart card issuer, typically a mobile network operator, issues the mobile user with a smart card that is in some form capable of completing signature operations and on-board key generation. The issuer associates itself with an MSSP.
Registration authority
The registration authority (RA), typically a mobile network operator, is in charge of registering Mobile Users to MSS.
Certificate authority
The certificate authority (CA) is a service, typically a third party, that issues digital certificates to the mobile user's public key.
Mobile signature service provider
The mobile signature service provider (MSSP) is a service that facilitates the communication between the AP and the mobile user's SIM card. The MSSP of the ETSI specification typically consists of a HomeMSSP, AE (acquiring entity) MSSP and possibly an RE (routing entity). APs connect to a HomeMSSP via AE MSSPs. HomeMSSPs connect to the mobile user's SIM card directly.
Establishing a mobile identity
When a Mobile User subscribes to a Mobile Signature Service, the RA confirms their identity and binds their identity to a key pair as per public key infrastructure. The keys can be generated server-side or on the User's SIM card with On-Board Key Generation. With OBKG, the SIM card generates the key pair, sends the public key to the MSSP to be bound by the RA and certified by the CA, and has the Mobile User assign a signing PIN on the private key, which begins its existence on and never leaves the SIM card.
Completing a signature transaction
When a mobile user accesses an AP's service and wishes to perform a mobile signature, the AP sends a signature request to the mobile user's HomeMSSP via an AE MSSP. The MSSP forwards the AP's request to the mobile user's SIM card. Upon receiving the signature request, the mobile user's SIM card can only complete the signature when the mobile user gives their signing PIN. The requested data is signed with the mobile user's private key and sent back to the mobile user's HomeMSSP, which then returns the signature to the AP, who can verify it with the mobile user's public key.
Roaming
The ETSI mobile commerce standard TS 102 207 defines a roaming framework between multiple MSS systems. If the AP and Mobile User's HomeMSSPs are different, the AP's MSSP can reach the Mobile User's by roaming.
This way, an AP can make a contract with any of the MSS system operators provide a service for all Mobile Users in the MSS mesh.
Revoking an identity
If at any point there is reason to believe that the user's mobile identity is at risk, they may ask the mobile network operator to have the CA revoke their certificate. Revoking the certificate of a user's public key makes the key pair unusable. Commonly, a revoked certificate cannot be reinstated remotely. Instead, a user must re-register in person in order to resume the use of MSS.
References
Mobile telecommunications standards
Signature | Mobile Signature Service | [
"Technology"
] | 868 | [
"Mobile telecommunications",
"Mobile telecommunications standards"
] |
54,607,553 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%204494 | NGC 4494 is an elliptical galaxy located in the constellation Coma Berenices. It is located at a distance of circa 45 million light years from Earth, which, given its apparent dimensions, means that NGC 4494 is about 60,000 light years across. It was discovered by William Herschel in 1785.
Characteristics
The galaxy hosts a supermassive black hole with estimated mass 26.9 ± 20.4 millions M⊙, based on velocity dispersion. A nuclear dust ring has been detected in NGC 4494, based on observations by the Hubble Space Telescope. It has semimajor axis 0.6 arcseconds, which corresponds to 60 parsec at the distance of NGC 4494. Its ring is symmetric, implying that the dust has settled in this galaxy, after the galaxy merger with a relatively gas rich galaxy that led to its creation. The core of NGC 4494 is kinematically decoupled, as with many elliptical galaxies, probably a result of a galaxy merger.
Dark matter
In observations by XMM-Newton observatory, the galaxy was quite faint in X-rays, nearly two orders of magnitude fainter than galaxies with similar optical luminosities. This fact has been attributed to lack of dark matter and hot gas of the galaxy.
The amount of dark matter existing in the halo of NGC 4494 has been debated. The galaxy is characterised as "naked" by Romanowsky et al., Napolitano et al. found that the dark matter halo has unexpectedly low central density and the analysis by Deason et al. revealed an unusually low dark matter fraction, 0.32 ± 0.12 at 5Re. Rodionov and Athanassoula tried to set strict constraint to the halo mass, but with only partial success. On the other hand, Morganti et al. found the dark matter fraction to be about 0.6 ± 0.1 at 5Re, with particularly high dark matter fraction inside ~ 3Re.
Nearby galaxies
NGC 4494 belongs to the NGC 4565 group, named after the spiral galaxy NGC 4565. Other members of the group are NGC 4525, NGC 4562, NGC 4570, NGC 4725 and NGC 4747. NGC 4494 is also a member of the Coma I Group which is part of the Virgo Supercluster.
Gallery
References
External links
Elliptical galaxies
Coma Berenices
4494
07662
41441
Coma I Group | NGC 4494 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 505 | [
"Coma Berenices",
"Constellations"
] |
54,608,156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestication%20syndrome | Domestication syndrome refers to two sets of phenotypic traits that are common to either domesticated plants or domesticated animals.
Domesticated animals tend to be smaller and less aggressive than their wild counterparts; they may also have floppy ears, variations to coat color, a smaller brain, and a shorter muzzle. Other traits may include changes in the endocrine system and an extended breeding cycle. These animal traits have been claimed to emerge across the different species in response to selection for tameness, which was purportedly demonstrated in a famous Russian fox breeding experiment, though this claim has been disputed.
Other research suggested that pleiotropic change in neural crest cell regulating genes was the common cause of shared traits seen in many domesticated animal species. However, several recent publications have either questioned this neural crest cell explanation or cast doubt on the existence of domestication syndrome itself. One recent publication points out that shared selective regime changes following transition from wild to domestic environments are a more likely cause of any convergent traits. In addition, the sheer number, diversity, and phenotypic importance of neural crest cell-derived vertebrate features means that changes in genes associated with them are almost inevitable in response to any significant selective change.
The process of plant domestication has produced changes in shattering/fruit abscission, shorter height, larger grain or fruit size, easier threshing, synchronous flowering, and increased yield, as well as changes in color, taste, and texture.
Origin
Charles Darwin's study of The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication in 1868 identified various behavioral, morphological, and physiological traits that are shared by domestic animals, but not by their wild ancestors. These shared traits became known as "the domestication syndrome", a term originally used to describe common changes in domesticated grains. In animals, these traits include tameness, docility, floppy ears, altered tails, novel coat colors and patterns, reduced brain size, reduced body mass and smaller teeth. Other traits include changes in craniofacial morphology, alterations to the endocrine system, and changes to the female estrous cycles including the ability to breed all year-round.
A recent hypothesis suggests that neural crest cell behaviour may be modified by domestication, which then leads to those traits that are common across many domesticated animal species. This hypothesis has claimed support from many gene-based studies; e.g., However, recent publications have disputed this support; pointing out that observed change in neural crest related genes only reveals change in neural crest-derived features. In effect, it is not evidence of linked trait changes in different species due to pleiotropic neural crest mechanisms as claimed by the neural crest cell hypothesis. For example, all of the craniofacial skeleton is derived from the neural crest, so any animal population that experiences evolutionary change in craniofacial features will show changes in genes associated with the neural crest. The number and importance of neural crest cell features in all vertebrates means change in these features is almost inevitable under the major selective regime shifts experienced by animals making the wild to domestic transition.
Cause
Many similar traits – both in animals and plants – are produced by orthologs; however, whether this is true for domestication traits or merely for wild forms is less clear. Especially in the case of plant crops, doubt has been cast because some domestication traits have been found to result from unrelated loci.
In 2018, a study identified 429 genes that differed between modern dogs and modern wolves. As the differences in these genes could also be found in ancient dog fossils, these were regarded as being the result of the initial domestication and not from recent breed formation. These genes are linked to neural crest and central nervous system development. These genes affect embryogenesis and can confer tameness, smaller jaws, floppy ears, and diminished craniofacial development, which distinguish domesticated dogs from wolves and are considered to reflect domestication syndrome. The study concluded that during early dog domestication, the initial selection was for behavior. This trait is influenced by those genes which act in the neural crest, which led to the phenotypes observed in modern dogs.
The 2023 parasite-mediated domestication hypothesis suggests that endoparasites such as helminths and protozoa could have mediated the domestication of mammals. Domestication involves taming, which has an endocrine component; and parasites can modify endocrine activity and microRNAs. Genes for resistance to parasites might be linked to those for the domestication syndrome; it is predicted that domestic animals are less resistant to parasites than their wild relatives.
In animals
A dog's cranium is 15% smaller than an equally heavy wolf's, and the dog is less aggressive and more playful. Other species pairs show similar differences. Bonobos, like chimpanzees, are a close genetic cousin to humans, but unlike the chimpanzees, bonobos are not aggressive and do not participate in lethal inter-group aggression or kill within their own group. The most distinctive features of a bonobo are its cranium, which is 15% smaller than a chimpanzee's, and its less aggressive and more playful behavior. These, and other, features led to the proposal that bonobos are a 'self-domesticated' ape. In other examples, the guinea pig's cranium is 13% smaller than its wild cousin the cavy, and domestic fowl show a similar reduction to their wild cousins. In a famous Russian farm fox experiment, foxes selectively bred for reduced aggression appeared to show other traits associated with domestication syndrome. This prompted the claim that domestication syndrome was caused by selection for tameness. The foxes were not selectively bred for smaller craniums and teeth, floppy ears, or skills at using human gestures, but these traits were demonstrated in the friendly foxes. Natural selection favors those that are the most successful at reproducing, not the most aggressive. Selection against aggression made possible the ability to cooperate and communicate among foxes, dogs and bonobos. The more docile animals have been found to have less testosterone than their more aggressive counterparts, and testosterone controls aggression and brain size. The further away a dog breed is genetically from wolves, the larger the relative brain size is.
Challenge
The domestication syndrome was reported to have appeared in the domesticated silver fox cultivated by Dmitry Belyayev's breeding experiment. However, in 2015 canine researcher Raymond Coppinger found historical evidence that Belyayev's foxes originated in fox farms on Prince Edward Island and had been bred there for fur farming since the 1800s, and that the traits demonstrated by Belyayev had occurred in the foxes prior to the breeding experiment. A 2019 opinion paper by Lord and colleagues argued that the results of the "Russian farm fox experiment" were overstated, although the pre-domesticated origins of these Russian foxes were already a matter of scientific record.
In 2020, Wright et al. argued Lord et al.'s critique refuted only a narrow and unrealistic definition of domestication syndrome because their criteria assumed it must be caused by genetic pleiotropy, and arises in response to 'selection for tameness'--as was claimed by Belyaev, Trut, and the proposers of the neural crest hypothesis. In the same year, Zeder pointed out that it makes no sense to deny the existence of domestication syndrome on the basis that domestication syndrome traits were present in the pre-domesticated founding foxes.
The hypothesis that neural crest genes underlie some of the phenotypic differences between domestic and wild horses and dogs is supported by the functional enrichment of candidate genes under selection. But, the observation of changed neural crest cell genes between wild and domestic populations need only reveal changes to features derived from neural crest, it does not support the claim of a common underlying genetic architecture that causes all of the domestication syndrome traits in all of the different animal species.
Gleeson and Wilson synthesised this debate and showed that animal domestication syndrome is not caused by selection for tameness, or by neural crest cell genetic pleiotropy. However, it could result from shared selective regime changes (which they termed 'reproductive disruption') leading to similarly shared trait changes across different species--in effect, a series of partial trait convergences. They proposed four primary selective pathways that are commonly altered by the shift to a domestic selective context, and would often lead to similar shifts in different populations. These pathways are:
Disrupted inter-sexual selection in males (reduced/altered female choice).
Disrupted intra-sexual selection in males (reduced/altered male-male competition).
Changed resource availability and predation pressure affecting female fertility and offspring survival.
Intensified potential for maternal stress, selecting for altered reproductive physiology in females.
Because the 'Reproductive Disruption' hypothesis explains domestication syndrome as a result of changed selective regimes, it can encompass multiple genetic or physiological ways that similar traits might emerge in the different domesticated species. For example, tamer behaviour might be caused by reduced adrenal reactivity, by increased oxytocin production, or by a combination of these or other mechanisms, across the different populations and species.
In plants
Syndrome traits
The same concept appears in the plant domestication process which produces crops, but with its own set of syndrome traits. In cereals, these include little to no shattering/fruit abscission, shorter height (thus decreased lodging), larger grain or fruit size, easier threshing, synchronous flowering, altered timing of flowering, increased grain weight, glutinousness (stickiness, not gluten protein content), increased fruit/grain number, altered color compounds, taste, and texture, daylength independence, determinate growth, lesser/no vernalization, less seed dormancy.
Cereal genes by trait
Control of the syndrome traits in cereals is by:
Shattering
SH1 in sorghum, rice, and maize/corn
sh4 in the rachis of rice
qPDH1 in soybean
Q in wheat
LG1 in rice
Plant height
Rht-B1/Rht-D1 (two orthologous versions of Rht-1 on different subgenomes, Rht standing for reduced height) in wheat
GA20ox-2 in rice and barley
KO2 in one Japanese cultivar of rice
either dw3 or d2 in sorghum and pearl millet
Ghd7 in rice
Q in wheat
Grain size
GS3 in maize/corn and rice
GS5 in rice
An-1 in rice
GAD1/RAE2 (smaller) in rice
Yield
SPL14/LOC4345998 in rice.
pyl1, pyl4, pyl6 in the PYL gene family in rice
Threshability
Q and Nud An-1 (by reducing or eliminating awns) in rice
An-2/LABA1 - small awn reduction/barbless awns - in rice
GAD1/RAE2 - awn elimination in rice
tga1 - naked kernels in maize
Flowering time
VRN1 in barley, wheat, ryegrass
Grain weight
GW2 in rice, wheat, maize/corn
GW5 in rice
GLW2 in rice
GASR7 in wheat
GW5 in rice
TGW6 in rice
Glutinousness
GBSSI or Waxy in rice (especially glutinous rice), wheat, corn, barley, sorghum, foxtail millet
SBEIIb in rice
Determinate growth
TERMINAL FLOWER 1/TFL1 in Arabidopsis thaliana and orthologs
Specifically, four orthologs in Glycine max and eight in Phaseolus vulgaris Standability
PROSTRATE GROWTH/Prog1/PROG1 in rice
teosinte branched1/tb1 (apical dominance) in maize/corn
Grain/fruit number
An-1 in rice
GAD1/RAE2 in rice
PROG1 (by increasing tiller number) in rice
Gn1a in rice
AAP3 (by increasing tiller number) in rice
Panicle size
DEP1 in rice and wheat
Spike number
vrs1 in barley
Fragrance
BADH2 produces 2-Acetyl-1-pyrroline when defective in rice; can be artificially disrupted to produce the same compound
Delayed sprouting
pyl1, pyl4, pyl6 in the PYL gene family - reduced preharvest sprouting in rice
Altered color
Rc - white pericarp in rice
Unspecified trait
Teosinte glume architecture/tga'' in maize/corn
Many of these are mutations in regulatory genes, especially transcription factors, which is likely why they work so well in domestication: They are not new, and are relatively ready to have their magnitudes altered. In annual grains, loss of function and altered expression are by far the most common, and thus are the most interesting goals of mutation breeding, while copy number variation and chromosomal rearrangements are far less common.
See also
Agricultural weed syndrome
References
Domestication
Genetics
Agriculture | Domestication syndrome | [
"Biology"
] | 2,690 | [
"Humans and other species",
"Genetics",
"Domestication"
] |
54,608,359 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Log%20reduction | Log reduction is a measure of how thoroughly a decontamination process reduces the concentration of a contaminant.
It is defined as the common logarithm of the ratio of the levels of contamination before and after the process, so an increment of 1 corresponds to a reduction in concentration by a factor of 10.
In general, an -log reduction means that the concentration of remaining contaminants is only times that of the original. So for example, a 0-log reduction is no reduction at all, while a 1-log reduction corresponds to a reduction of 90 percent from the original concentration, and a 2-log reduction corresponds to a reduction of 99 percent from the original concentration.
Mathematical definition
Let and be the numerical values of the concentrations of a given contaminant, respectively before and after treatment, following a defined process.
It is irrelevant in what units these concentrations are given, provided that both use the same units.
Then an -log reduction is achieved, where
.
For the purpose of presentation, the value of is rounded down to a desired precision, usually to a whole number.
Example
Let the concentration of some contaminant be 580 ppm before and 0.725 ppm after treatment. Then
Rounded down, is 2, so a 2-log reduction is achieved.
Conversely, an -log reduction means that a reduction by a factor of has been achieved.
Log reduction and percentage reduction
Reduction is often expressed as a percentage. The closer it is to 100%, the better.
Letting and be as before, a reduction by % is achieved, where
Example
Let, as in the earlier example, the concentration of some contaminant be 580 ppm before and 0.725 ppm after treatment. Then
So this is (better than) a 99% reduction, but not yet quite a 99.9% reduction.
The following table summarizes the most common cases.
{| class="wikitable"
! Log reduction
! Percentage
|-
|1-log reduction
|90%
|-
|2-log reduction
|99%
|-
|3-log reduction
|99.9%
|-
|4-log reduction
|99.99%
|-
|5-log reduction
|99.999%
|}
In general, if is a whole number, an -log reduction corresponds to a percentage reduction with leading digits "9" in the percentage (provided that it is at least 10%).
See also
Decimal reduction time
References
Dimensionless numbers of chemistry
Logarithmic scales of measurement
Units of measurement
Units of chemical measurement | Log reduction | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Mathematics"
] | 526 | [
"Physical quantities",
"Quantity",
"Chemical quantities",
"Logarithmic scales of measurement",
"Units of chemical measurement",
"Dimensionless numbers of chemistry",
"Units of measurement"
] |
54,608,601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziegler%20spectrum | In mathematics, the (right) Ziegler spectrum of a ring R is a topological space whose points are (isomorphism classes of) indecomposable pure-injective right R-modules. Its closed subsets correspond to theories of modules closed under arbitrary products and direct summands. Ziegler spectra are named after Martin Ziegler, who first defined and studied them in 1984.
Definition
Let R be a ring (associative, with 1, not necessarily commutative). A (right) pp-n-formula is a formula in the language of (right) R-modules of the form
where are natural numbers, is an matrix with entries from R, and is an -tuple of variables and is an -tuple of variables.
The (right) Ziegler spectrum, , of R is the topological space whose points are isomorphism classes of indecomposable pure-injective right modules, denoted by , and the topology
has the sets
as subbasis of open sets, where range over
(right) pp-1-formulae and denotes the subgroup of consisting of all elements that satisfy the one-variable formula . One can show that these sets form a basis.
Properties
Ziegler spectra are rarely Hausdorff and often fail to have the -property. However they are always compact and have a basis of compact open sets given by the sets where are pp-1-formulae.
When the ring R is countable is sober. It is not currently known if all Ziegler spectra are sober.
Generalization
Ivo Herzog showed in 1997 how to define the Ziegler spectrum of a locally coherent Grothendieck category, which generalizes the construction above.
References
Model theory | Ziegler spectrum | [
"Mathematics"
] | 360 | [
"Mathematical logic",
"Model theory"
] |
54,609,039 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma%20Hart%20%28computer%20scientist%29 | Professor Emma Hart, FRSE (born 1967) is an English computer scientist known for her work in artificial immune systems (AIS), evolutionary computation and optimisation. She is a professor of computational intelligence at Edinburgh Napier University, editor-in-chief of the Journal of Evolutionary Computation (MIT Press), and D. Coordinator of the Future & Emerging Technologies (FET) Proactive Initiative, Fundamentals of Collective Adaptive Systems.
Early life and education
Hart was born in Middlesbrough, England in 1967. In 1990 she graduated from the University of Oxford with a first class BA(Hons) in Chemistry. She then continued her studies at the University of Edinburgh, graduating with an MSc in Artificial Intelligence in 1994, followed by a PhD that explored the use of immunology as an inspiration for computing, examining a range of techniques applied to optimization and data classification problems. Her dissertation was titled Immunology as a metaphor for computational information processing: Fact or fiction?, and her doctoral advisor was Peter Ross.
Career
In 2000 Hart took a position as a lecturer at Edinburgh Napier University, and was promoted to a Reader, Professor, and in 2008 Chair in Natural Computation. She is now director of the Centre of Algorithms, Visualisation and Evolving Systems (CAVES) group in the School of Computing. She continues to research in the area of developing novel bio-inspired techniques for solving a range of real-world optimisation and classification problems, as well as exploring the fundamental properties of immune-inspired computing through modelling and simulation. She is also involved in editorial activity and currently occupies the position of Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Evolutionary Computation (MIT Press).
Her interests lie in the area of bio-inspired computing, in particular artificial immune systems (AIS). She also undertakes research in three main areas: optimisation, self-organising/self-adaptive systems, and artificial intelligence.
Hart is D. Coordinator of Fundamentals of Collective Adaptive Systems (FoCAS), a Future and Emerging Technologies Proactive Initiative funded by the European Commission under FP7.
Selected works
Conference talks
TED talk 2021.
Journal articles
"An immune system approach to scheduling in changing environments". E.Hart, P.Ross. 1999. Proceedings of the 1st Annual Conference on Genetic and Evolutionary Computation (2), 1559-1566.
"Exploiting the analogy between immunology and sparse distributed memories: A system for clustering non-stationary data". E.Hart, P.Ross. 2002. 1st International Conference on Artificial Immune Systems.
"Evolutionary scheduling: A review". E Hart, P Ross, D Corne. 2005. Genetic Programming and Evolvable Machines 6(2), 191-220. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10710-005-7580-7
"Application areas of AIS: The past, the present and the future". E.Hart, J.Timmis. 2008. Applied soft computing 8(1), 191-201. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asoc.2006.12.004
"Structure versus function: a topological perspective on immune networks". E.Hart, H.Bersini, F.Santos. 2010. Natural computing 9(3), 603-624. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11047-009-9138-8
"On the life-long learning capabilities of a nelli*: A hyper-heuristic optimisation system". E.Hart, K.Sim. 2014. International Conference on Parallel Problem Solving from Nature, 282-291. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-10762-2_28
"A hyper-heuristic ensemble method for static job-shop scheduling". E.Hart, K.Sim. 2016. Evolutionary computation 24(4), 609-635. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1162/EVCO_a_00183
Awards and recognition
2016, Featured article on Lifelong Learning in Optimisation, IFORS newsletter
2016, "A Combined Generative and Selective Hyper-heuristic for the Vehicle Routing Problem" presented at GECCO 2016 (Denver, USA), ACM
2016, "A Hybrid Parameter Control Approach Applied to a Diversity-based Multi-objective Memetic Algorithm for Frequency Assignment Problems" presented at WCCI 2016 (Vancouver, Canada), IEEE
2017, Keynote Speaker, 2017 International Joint Conference on Computational Intelligence
2018, Bronze Award in International Human-Competitive Awards (Humies), International Conference on Genetic and Evolutionary Computation, Kyoto Japan
2018, Nomination for best paper award, GECCO 18, Kyoto, Japan
2022, Elected Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
References
External links
Artificial immune systems
British artificial intelligence researchers
Evolutionary computation
Living people
People from Middlesbrough
Academics of Edinburgh Napier University
English women academics
21st-century English women scientists
1967 births
British women computer scientists
Alumni of the University of Oxford
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
21st-century English women educators
21st-century English educators
21st-century English women engineers
21st-century English engineers
Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh | Emma Hart (computer scientist) | [
"Biology"
] | 1,088 | [
"Bioinformatics",
"Evolutionary computation"
] |
54,609,406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo%20Stintzing | Hugo Stintzing (10 August 1888 in Munich, Germany – 11 December 1970 in Darmstadt, West Germany) was a German university lecturer in physics at the Technische Hochschule Darmstadt. He was involved in early research on the electron scanning microscope, studied radioactive elements and developed a model for the periodic table. He was the Director of the Institute of X-Ray Physics and Technology at Darmstadt from 1936 to 1945. He was removed from his position due to his involvement in the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP, Nazi Party, joined 1933), and was interned in 1946.
Childhood
Hugo Stintzing was born in Munich, Germany on 10 August 1888 the son of Roderich Stintzing, an internist and later professor of internal medicine.
Education
Hugo studied chemistry and metallurgy, graduating in May 1911 with the title Diplomingenieur (a degree in engineering) from the Technische Hochschule in Charlottenburg (now Technische Universität Berlin).
From 1913 he was assistant at the Photochemical Department of the Physikalisch-Chemisches Institut (the Institute of Physical Chemistry) at the University of Leipzig. His dissertation on the subject of the influence of light on colloid systems was published in 1914. He received his Doctorate in Philosophy on 12 January 1915 from the University of Giessen.
In 1916 he proposed a model for the periodic table, organized as a cone-like rotational body. His paper, "Eine neue Anordnung des periodischen Systems der Elemente" (A new arrangement of the periodic system of the elements) was published in Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie. His representation of the elements is one of several early helix-based displays.
From 1918 he was an assistant at the Physikalisch-Chemisches Institut of the University of Giessen. He habilitated in 1923 with a thesis on the use of x-rays for chemical investigations: Röntgenographisch-chemische Untersuchungen.
Career
Hugo Stintzing then became a lecturer in physical chemistry and technology at the University of Giessen. On 4 July 1928 he was appointed an extraordinary professor of physical chemistry at the University of Giessen, lecturing on X-ray spectroscopy. During the early part of his career, he translated some of the works of Niels Bohr into German.
In 1929, Stintzing filed a patent for a proposed electron scanning microscope, to be capable of automatic detection and measurement of particles using a light beam or beam of electrons. He suggested the use of crossed slits to obtain a small diameter probe. A light beam could be mechanically scanned, while an electron beam could be detected using electric or magnetic fields. Detectors would observe the beam transmitted after absorption or scattering. A chart recorder would represent the linear dimension of a particle by the width of a deflection, and its amplitude by thickness. No drawings accompany the specification, and Stintzing is presumed not to have attempted construction of such an instrument. Almost forty years later, a computer-controlled scanning electron microscope based on his specifications was built and tested. The results were presented at the Fifth International Congress on X-Ray Optics and Microanalysis at Tübingen University in 1968.
Stintzing worked on the chemical analysis of x-ray spectra, developing apparatus with x-ray tubes for the measurement of secondary fluorescent emission lines. He published a textbook on Rontgenstrahlen und Chemische Bindung ("X-ray and chemical bonding") in 1931.
In 1936, Stintzing was appointed to Technische Hochschule Darmstadt, to replace Paul Knipping, who had died unexpectedly. Knipping had founded an institute for X-ray physics and technology at Darmstadt in 1929/30.
Stintzing held a lectureship (Lehrauftrag) at Darmstadt as of 1 April 1936, and was appointed Director of the Institute of X-Ray Physics and Technology as of 1 October 1936. On 10 June 1943 he received promotion to the rank of extraordinary professor of X-ray physics and technology at Darmstadt.
As early as 1942, the Stintzing X-ray Institute was classified as important to the war and the state, which meant that the institute obtained funding and privileges during the Second World War.
Military and political involvement
During the First World War Hugo Stintzing was in the artillery with the rank of lieutenant of the reserve.
On 1 May 1933, Hugo Stintzing joined the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP, Nazi Party) as well as its paramilitary wing, the Sturmabteilung. From September 1938 to June 1940, he held the position of National Socialist lecturer at the University of Darmstadt. Like Karl Lieser, Friedrich List and Jakob Sprenger, he was a strong supporter of Nazism.
On 8 October 1945 Hugo Stintzing was removed from his position at the university by the American military government. In 1946 he was interned. The Institute for X-Ray Physics and X-Ray Technology was merged into the Technische Hochschule Darmstadt, under the direction of Richard Vieweg.
As of 4 November 1955, Stintzing applied for a patent for a Method and apparatus for improving the effectiveness of radioactive sources, which was granted on 27 March 1958. A notice in Physick Journal in 1958 commemorated his 70th birthday.
Personal life
Hugo Stintzing was married to Friedel (Frieda) Gertrud Keferstein (1899–1989) on 15 October 1929.
Hugo Stintzing died at the age of 82 on 11 December 1970 and was buried in the Old Cemetery in Darmstadt, Germany.
References
1888 births
1970 deaths
20th-century German chemists
People involved with the periodic table
Technische Universität Berlin alumni
Academic staff of Technische Universität Darmstadt
Scientists from Darmstadt | Hugo Stintzing | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,178 | [
"Periodic table",
"People involved with the periodic table"
] |
54,610,932 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung%20Galaxy%20Note%208 | The Samsung Galaxy Note 8 is an Android-based smartphone phablet developed, produced and marketed by Samsung Electronics. The successor to the discontinued Samsung Galaxy Note 7, Samsung Galaxy Note Fan Edition and Samsung Galaxy Note 5, it was unveiled on 23 August 2017 and became available on 15 September 2017.
The Note 8 improves on the core device specifications and hallmark S Pen features of earlier devices. While retaining the same overall look and approximate size of the Galaxy S8+, it features an upgraded processor and, for the first time in Samsung's smartphone history, a dual-camera system on the rear of the device; one functions as a wide-angle lens and the other as a telephoto lens, with both featuring 12 MP resolution and optical image stabilization. The S Pen has increased pressure sensitivity levels and its software has been upgraded to offer improved note taking capabilities on the always-on display, as well as animated GIF and improved translation features.
History
On 20 July 2017, Samsung tweeted a teaser video showing a darkened device with a stylus, stating the date of its next "Unpacked" event as 23 August 2017. The Galaxy Note 8 was unveiled at that event, with a release date on 15 September 2017. Samsung Galaxy Note 7 owners could buy this phablet at a special discount of $524.
Specifications
Hardware
Chipsets
The Note 8 is powered by an Exynos 8895 or Snapdragon 835 processor, depending on geographic region, along with 6 GB of RAM.
Battery
The Galaxy Note 8 is equipped with a non-user-replaceable 3300 mAh battery with up to 15 Watts of charging performance using Qualcomm Quick Charge 2.0.
Display
The Note 8 has a 6.3-inch 1440p Super AMOLED display with curved edges similar to the Galaxy S8, but with a slightly more flat surface area. Samsung marketed it as an "Infinity Display".
Camera
It is Samsung's first phone to feature a dual-lens camera system, which comes with a 12 MP wide-angle lens with f/1.7 aperture and a 12 MP telephoto lens with f/2.4 aperture and twice the focal length, both equipped with optical image stabilization.
Like the predecessor, it supports video recording with 2160p (4K) at 30fps (limited to 10 minutes each video), 1080p (Full HD) at up to 60 frames per second and 720p (HD) slow motion at up to 240 frames per second.
Storage
In the United States, it is sold with 64 GB of internal storage, along with microSD card support, but increases storage to 128 GB and 256 GB internationally.
Biometrics
The handset features a fingerprint scanner next to the rear camera, and retains facial recognition and iris recognition similar to the S8.
Audio
The Note 8 comes bundled with high-end AKG-tuned earbuds as well as the Note series' proprietary S Pen. Compared to the Note 5, the S Pen in the Note 8 has enhanced levels of pressure sensitivity (4,096 distinct levels of pressure), though The Verge noted that those enhancements were featured in the defunct Note 7. Ports include a 3.5 mm headphone jack and a USB-C port for charging and data transfer. It has support for Samsung DeX as well, letting Note 8 users connect their device to a dock and monitor to enable a PC-like computing environment with mouse and keyboard input.
Exterior
Both the Note 8 and its S Pen are certified with IP68 rating for water and dust resistance, and is available in five color variants: "Midnight Black," "Orchid Gray," "Maple Gold," "Deepsea Blue," and "Blossom Pink" – which is often dubbed "Star Pink." However, the Maple Gold, Deep-Sea Blue, and Blossom Pink variants are not available worldwide, and are limited to certain regions and/or countries. Similar to the Galaxy S8, the Note 8 has a dedicated physical key for launching the Bixby virtual assistant.
A limited edition version for the 2018 Winter Olympics was made, with a white back, gold accents, and themed wallpapers.
Software
The Note 8 came with Android 7.1.1 "Nougat" with Samsung's own custom user interface pre-installed. The S Pen offers expanded software features, including "Live Message" for the creation of handwritten notes combined with emojis resulting in short animated GIFs. Users can remove the S Pen from the device and immediately write notes on the display through "Screen Off Memo," which works due to the screen's always-on capabilities. The screen can collect up to 100 notes and allows the user to easily go back to notes pinned directly on the always-on screen. A "Translate" feature now recognizes punctuation marks, letting users highlight entire sentences rather than single words, and supports 71 different languages. The edges of the screen on the Note 8 allow the user to open two apps at once in a multi-window view, dubbed "App Pair." In the Camera application, a new "Live Focus" effect lets users adjust the intensity of background blur both before and after capturing photos, while "Dual Capture" makes both rear cameras take individual photos of the same subject, with one acting as a close-up shot and the other from a distance capturing the whole scene.
The Samsung Galaxy Note 8 received an Android 8.0 "Oreo" update on March 30, 2018, with Samsung's custom skin overlaid. The software update brought enhancements and changes in the user interface with the menu options in the home screen and settings streamlined. The Edge lighting has also been improved with introductions to new lighting options. The Oreo update also brought enhanced stability to the Samsung DEX (UI/UE) docking system as well as introduced improvements to the DEX interface, where the Apps screen displays in full screen instead of in a pop-up window. An update to Android 9 Pie was released on 26 February 2019.
Reception
Camera testing company DxOMark gave the Note 8 a rating of 94, the joint-highest score of any phone, shared with the iPhone 8 Plus. Just a few days after the report of the Note 8 published was, the Pixel 2 was tested and given a 98 score, besting them both. It was noted that the Note 8 had better optical image stabilization than the IPhone X.
Like the Galaxy S8 and Galaxy S8+, the Note 8 was heavily criticized for its placement of the fingerprint scanner, which unlike most other Android phones that have the fingerprint scanner placed underneath the rear camera, the S8, S8+ and Note 8 instead had it placed next to the camera, making it uncomfortable and forces many users to shift their hands upwards in order to reach it.
Due to the battery incident with the Note 7, Samsung was more cautious with the Note 8, implementing a slightly smaller battery than the Note 7, which had a 3500 mAh battery; a non-removable 3300mAh lithium-ion battery was used in the Note 8. As a result, the Note 8 did not have the best battery life, and many users did not hold back from complaining about it.
The Note 8 was praised by both consumers and critics for the "Infinity Display" (meaning the display has much smaller bezels than the traditional smartphone), for its "punchy colors" and brightness, which is approximately 1200 nits.
Multiple tech reviewers pointed out that the Note 8 had a weak mono speaker. However, it was also praised for being one of the few 2017 flagships left that still included a headphone jack, unlike most flagships that followed Apple's 2016 controversial decision to remove the headphone jack entirely from the IPhone 7 and 7 Plus, which required users to use the included 3.5 mm headphone jack adapter or use wireless ear buds instead.
See also
Samsung Galaxy Note series
Samsung Galaxy S8
References
Further information
Android Authority Review
BGR — Tests show the Note 8 will survive almost anything – even flames
External links
Official website
Mobile phones introduced in 2017
Samsung Galaxy
8
Samsung mobile phones
Samsung smartphones
Android (operating system) devices
Mobile phones with multiple rear cameras
Mobile phones with stylus
Mobile phones with 4K video recording
Discontinued flagship smartphones
Discontinued Samsung Galaxy smartphones
Mobile phones with pressure-sensitive touch screen | Samsung Galaxy Note 8 | [
"Technology"
] | 1,708 | [
"Discontinued flagship smartphones",
"Flagship smartphones"
] |
54,610,954 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1878%20Tariffville%20train%20crash | The Tariffville train crash was a railroad accident that occurred on January 15, 1878 on the Connecticut Western line, then a route linking Hartford and the Hudson Valley.
On January 15, 1878, around 10:00 PM, a passenger train returning from Hartford crossed the wooden bridge spanning the Farmington River at Tariffville, as one of the two main bridge spans collapsed, dropping two locomotives, one baggage car and three passenger coaches into the icy river. Some people from New Hartford hitching a ride between the cars were killed when they were thrown beneath the wreck. The wreck claimed 13 lives and injured more than 70, some severely. Many of the passengers were returning from a Protestant revival meeting in Hartford featuring well-known evangelist Dwight L. Moody.
Residents of Tariffville provided emergency assistance for passengers and provided them with dry clothing and shelter. Dr. D.P. Pelletier was the first Hartford surgeon notified of the accident. He went to a drug store on Capitol Avenue and used the store's telephone to summon other doctors for a relief train in what is possibly the first emergency telephone call. A special relief train carrying physicians and other rescue personnel was sent that became known as the "Samaritan Special."
Further reading
References
January 1878
Railway accidents and incidents in Connecticut
1878 disasters in the United States
1878 in Connecticut
Simsbury, Connecticut
Events in Hartford County, Connecticut | 1878 Tariffville train crash | [
"Technology"
] | 275 | [
"Railway accidents and incidents",
"Rail accident stubs"
] |
54,611,624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophiocordyceps%20robertsii | Ophiocordyceps robertsii, known in New Zealand as vegetable caterpillar (Māori: āwhato or āwheto) is an entomopathogenic fungus belonging to the order Hypocreales (Ascomycota) in the family Ophiocordycipitaceae. It invades the caterpillars of leaf-litter dwelling moths and turns them into fungal mummies, sending up a fruiting spike above the forest floor to shed its spores. Caterpillars eat the spores whilst feeding on leaf litter to complete the fungal life cycle. Evidence of this fungus can be seen when small brown stems push through the forest floor: underneath will be the dried remains of the host caterpillar. This species was first thought by Europeans to be a worm or caterpillar that burrowed from the top of a tree to the roots, where it exited and then grew a shoot of the plant out of its head. It was the first fungus provided with a binomial name from New Zealand.
Uses
The parasitised caterpillar has been used by Māori as a food or to create an ink called ngārahu for traditional tā moko tattoos. The charred caterpillars were mixed with tree sap to make an almost black ink. Scientists suggest that the fungus produces antiseptic chemicals that can prevent infection. In the early 20th century, mummified caterpillars were sold to tourists as a curio.
Genomics
Ophiocordyceps robertsii has a genome that is relatively large for species in the Ophiocordycipitaceae family, estimated at between of 95-103 million base pairs. This size is comparable to that of the related species Ophiocordyceps sinensis. Analysis of the genome sequence revealed much of the size is due to DNA that is repetitive. The analysis also identified the mating-type locus, supporting a heterothallic lifecycle for the species, in which strains of the MAT1-1 and MAT1-2 types are required for mating.
References
External links
Ophiocordyceps robertsii discussed in RNZ Critter of the Week, 21 July 2017
Fungi described in 1837
Fungi of New Zealand
Ophiocordycipitaceae
Taxa named by William Jackson Hooker
Fungus species | Ophiocordyceps robertsii | [
"Biology"
] | 467 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
54,611,650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal%20of%20the%20History%20of%20the%20Behavioral%20Sciences | The Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal covering the history of social and behavioral sciences. It was established in 1965 and is published by John Wiley & Sons. The editor-in-chief is Alexandra Rutherford (York University). According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2023 impact factor of 0.69. It was ranked 22nd out of 34 journals in the category "History of Social Sciences".
References
External links
History of science journals
Behavioural sciences
Academic journals established in 1965
Quarterly journals
English-language journals
Wiley (publisher) academic journals | Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences | [
"Biology"
] | 121 | [
"Behavioural sciences",
"Behavior"
] |
68,815,072 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution%2016 | Solution 16 was the first Brazilian all-in-one PC, introduced by Prológica in 1986.
General information
Based on the Intel 8088 was launched in the national market as the first 16-bit 4.77MHz microprocessor integrated computer in the market, it had 254 KB RAM configuration expandable up to 512 KB, and two 5-1/4" floppy disk drives with capacity for up to 320 KiB of storage.
SO 16 operating system
The Solution 16 came with an operating system named SO16 (portuguese for "Sistema Operacional 16" meaning "Operating System 16"). This was a translated copy of MS-DOS 2.11, which was the first to support hard disks, directories, and character tables for international languages. Microsoft filed a lawsuit in Brazil, accusing the manufacturer of piracy, and later forced the company to pass on a percentage of the profits made with the software, which ended up putting the company in financial difficulties.
Data Storage
Two floppy disk drives, double density, double-sided, 360 kB. Audio cables were supplied with the computer for connection with a regular tape recorder.
References
Prológica computers
Computer-related introductions in 1986
Goods manufactured in Brazil
Personal computers | Solution 16 | [
"Technology"
] | 252 | [
"Computing stubs",
"Computer hardware stubs"
] |
68,816,224 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytelluride | In chemistry, a polytelluride usually refers to anions of the formula (Ten)2-. Many main group and transition metals form complexes with polytelluride anions.
Preparation
Conceptually, polytellurides are derived from polytelluranes H2Ten, but such neutral species are not known (even H2Te is labile). Instead, analogous to the preparation of many Zintl ions, polytellurides are produced by reduction of elemental Te with alkali metals. Such reactions can be conducted by heating a mixture of the solids or by dissolving Te metal in amine solvents of alkali metals. Once generated, these alkali metal polytellurides can be converted to lipophilic salts by treatment cryptand ligands or by ion exchange with quat salts.
Structures
Salts of polytellurides have often been characterized by X-ray crystallography. Polytelluride salts generally feature open chains, which adopt a zig-zag conformation. In some cases, cyclic structures are observed as in Li2Te7, which features a square-planar Te center bound to two Te-Te-Te chains.
As ligands in coordination complexs, polytellurides are generally bidentate. Complexes of penta-, tetra-, and tritelluride ligands are known. One example is the spirocyclic [Zn(Te4)2]2-.
See also
Polyselenide
Further reading
References
Tellurides
Tellurium heterocycles
Ligands | Polytelluride | [
"Chemistry"
] | 323 | [
"Ligands",
"Coordination chemistry"
] |
68,818,241 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotane | Carotane is a plant pigment that belongs to a class of tetraterpenes called carotenoids. These tetraterpenes are known for their yellow, orange, and red colors as these are organic pigments. These colors are beneficial to their host species that tend to be plants and algae. Within plants, carotenoids play the major roles of allowing light to be absorbed via photosynthesis as well ad providing photoprotection through a non-photochemical quenching.
The tetraterpene is also a product of the degradation of carotene and thus represents an important biomarker. However, where carotene has double bonds, carotane only has single bonds. This is the only difference in the structure given that carotane represents the degradation of carotene. Given the length of time it takes to degrade carotane, the species allows for a more extensive geologic record.
Measurement techniques
Green River Formation
Carotane was first measures in the Green River Formation. It was discovered using gas-liquid chromatography and GC/MS. The sample was purified with a thin layer of Ag+ silica, and larger samples of 5 μg were used to give more accurate results and reduce the noise in the MS peaks. What was found was the degradation results of carotene.
Preservation
Given its long degradation time, carotane acts as an important biomarker Given how long it is preserved. It remains best in sediment and oil environments where it can last years. Beta-carotane, in specific, acts as a biomarker for saline and low lacustrine environments. This means carotane can be used as a biomarker to identify previous water-based habitats.
Barney Creek
The Barney Creek Study was set up to determine why deep levels of carotane did not exist in the Barney Creek Formation. The two guesses as to the reason were that it was a biological phenomenon within the species or that the species had just degraded. Using chromatography with He as a carrier gas, degradation was visible in the samples. There was found to be a presence of beta and gamma carotane derivatives. The derivatives were cross-referenced with synthesized derivatives that were produced via the catagenesis of beta carotene through hydrous pyrolysis.
References
Carotenoids
Green River Formation | Carotane | [
"Biology"
] | 488 | [
"Biomarkers",
"Carotenoids"
] |
68,820,503 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgene%20%28company%29 | Transgene S.A. is a French biotechnology company founded in 1979. It is based in Illkirch-Graffenstaden, near Strasbourg, Alsace. The company develops and manufactures immunotherapies for the treatment of cancer. Based on viral vectors, these therapies stimulate the immune defenses of patients to specifically target cancer cells.
Transgene has two technological platforms based on these respective approaches: individual therapeutic vaccines, shared antigens cancer vaccines oncolytic viruses.
Transgene’s portfolio consists of four products currently in clinical development. Its lead product TG4050, a neoantigen individualized therapeutic cancer vaccine is currently being developed in a randomized Phase I/II trial in the adjuvant treatment of head and neck cancer.
The company is listed on the regulated market of Euronext in Paris.
History
Transgene was founded in 1979, on the initiative of Pierre Chambon and Philippe Kourilsky. Jean-Pierre Lecocq was the first Scientific Director of Transgene in 1980.
Dr Alessandro Riva, MD, joined Transgene in 2022 as Chairman of the Board of Directors. In May 2023 the board appointed him Chairman adn Chief Executive Officer of the company,.
Technological platforms
Transgene owns two technological platforms:
Invir.IO is a technology platform based on the patented oncolytic viruses that replicate only in cancer cells. The genome of these viruses has been modified to express anti-tumor therapies directly within the tumor.
The myvac® platform is based on an MVA vector which safety, biological activity and ability to induce an immune response against tumor antigens are established and recognized. The platform enables the design of personalized viruses based on each patient’s tumor mutations. Transgene selects around 30 neoantigens per patient, based on the AI of its partner NEC, and then encodes them into viral DNA.
Products in development
The Company has several clinical-stage products in its portfolio.
1- TG4050 : This neoantigen individualized therapeutic cancer vaccine is currently being developed in a randomized Phase I/II trial in the adjuvant treatment of head and neck cancer.
2- TG4001 : is a therapeutic vaccine designed to express the E6 and E7 antigens of the HPV-16 virus (human papillomavirus type 16). Transgene is currently evaluating the full study results in detail to determine the best way forward for this program.
3- Oncolytic viruses: TG6050 and BT-001. Transgene’s oncolytic viruses are designed to directly and selectively destroy the cancer cells by using an oncolysis mechanism, while also inducing immune responses against tumor cells. In addition, during their replication, the virus expresses the payloads integrated in its genome and therefore allows the expression of immunomodulators and/or therapeutic agents specifically in the tumors,,,,.
4- Transgene and AstraZeneca have been collaborating since 2019 to co-develop oncolytic viruses from the Invir.IO™ platform.
Management Committee
Transgene’s Management Committee is composed of the following members:
Alessandro Riva, Chairman & Chief Executive Officer (CEO)
Hedi Ben Brahim, Chairman & Chief Executive Officer (CEO);
Éric Quéméneur, Executive Vice-President, Chief Scientific Officer (CSO);
Christophe Ancel, Vice-President Pharmaceutical Operations & Qualified Pharmacist;
Maud Brandely-Talbot, Vice-President Medical Affairs, Chief Medical Officer (CMO);
Jean-Philippe Del, Vice-President, Chief Financial Officer (CFO);
Thibaut du Fayet, Vice-President Corporate Development;
John Felitti, Vice-President, General Counsel, Corporate Secretary;
Gaëlle Stadtler, Vice-President, Human Resources Director.
References
External links
Mérieux family
Biotechnology companies established in 1979
Biotechnology companies of France
Companies listed on Euronext Paris
Life sciences industry
Pharmaceutical companies established in 1979
French companies established in 1979
Pharmaceutical companies of France | Transgene (company) | [
"Biology"
] | 834 | [
"Life sciences industry"
] |
68,824,274 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber%20photometry | Fiber photometry is a calcium imaging technique that captures 'bulk' or population-level calcium (Ca2+) activity from specific cell-types within a brain region or functional network in order to study neural circuits Population-level calcium activity can be correlated with behavioral tasks, such as spatial learning, memory recall and goal-directed behaviors. The technique involves the surgical implantation of fiber optics into the brains of living animals. The benefits to researchers are that optical fibers are simpler to implant, less invasive and less expensive than other calcium methods, and there is less weight and stress on the animal, as compared to miniscopes. It also allows for imaging of multiple interacting brain regions and integration with other neuroscience techniques. The limitations of fiber photometry are low cellular and spatial resolution, and the fact that animals must be securely tethered to a rigid fiber bundle, which may impact the naturalistic behavior of smaller mammals such as mice.
Technical description
Fiber photometry relies on the expression of genetically encoded calcium indicators (GECIs), like GCaMP or RCaMP, which can be targeted to specific cells using cell-specific promoters like Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) and human synapsin (hSyn) that confer excitatory neuronal and pan-neuronal expression, respectively. These promoters can be used to target various neuronal subtypes as well as non-neuronal cells that exhibit calcium dynamics, such as astrocytes, using the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) promoter. In both neurons and astrocytes, cellular activity in the form of action potentials, exocytosis of neurotransmitters, changes in synaptic plasticity and gene transcription is coupled to an influx of Ca2+ ions.
These activity-dependent changes in intracellular calcium levels can be monitored by introducing GECIs to the cell. Following this influx of ions, GECIs fluoresce upon Ca2+ binding and the change in fluorescence corresponds proportionally to intracellular calcium changes. The most commonly used calcium indicator for fiber photometry (and other in vivo imaging method) is GCaMP6, although additional GECIs continue to be developed with unique fluorescence spectra, kinetics, signal-to-noise ratios and calcium-sensitivities. These indicators can be expressed in the brain in two main ways: viral expression and transgenic mouse lines. Recently, there has been a growing list of indicators that have become available to measure different chemical signals, like dLight to record dopamine signaling, or OxLight to record orexin, for example. GCaMP, RCaMP, dLight and other indicators are excited by a light source at an optimal wavelength and emit their own light in return, allowing for recording of calcium or neurotransmitter dynamics across time.
Fiber photometry systems are designed to deliver precise excitation wavelengths of light that are specific to a calcium (e.g. GCaMP) or neurotransmitter indicator (e.g. dLight). This light travels down an optical fiber to a fiber optic that is implanted in the brain region or regions of interest. The calcium indicator is that is expressed in a cell-type specific manner is excited by this light and in turn, emits its own signal that travels back through the same fiber. These collected emission signals are spectrally-separated by a dichroic mirror, passed through a filter and focused onto a photodetector, scientific camera, or PMT. The collected signal represents a change in fluorescence (ΔF) relative to an initial baseline (F). In turn, researchers can observe a signal that corresponds to calcium transients (ΔF/F). This time series data can be analyzed using a variety of open-source pipelines, such as pMAT, pyPhotometry and GuPPy.
Importantly, isosbestic signals are calcium-independent signals (i.e. approximately 405-415 nm) that are in contrast to the calcium-dependent wavelength (i.e. 470 nm for GCaMP). Because GCaMP has two states, Ca2+ bound and un-bound, the two protein conformations have unique excitation and emission spectra. The wavelength of excitation at which GCaMP has the same absorbance with and without Ca2+ is the isosbestic and determines the calcium-independent fluorescence baseline. Animal motion and tissue autofluorescence are reflected in this calcium-independent signal and can be subtracted or regressed to reveal the true change in fluorescence.
Genetically-encoded calcium indicators (GECIs)
Expression
Optimal expression of genetically encoded calcium indicators (GECIs) can be accomplished in two ways: adeno-associated viral vectors and transgenic rodent lines. Viral injection requires GECI infusion into the brain region of interest. This virus can be targeted to infect unique cell-types through the use of cell-specific promoters like CaMKII and GFAP to target excitatory neurons and astrocytes, respectively. This allows for neural activity to be recorded from a genetically defined subpopulation of neurons or glial cells through an implanted optical fiber. Viral expression requires titration of dilutions to obtain optimal expression in the brain, which may be necessary instead of using transgenic rodent lines for certain experiments. Expression of GECIs can also be accomplished through the use of transgenic lines that allow for ubiquitous expression throughout the entire brain. Depending on the strain of mouse or rat, the expression can vary across brain regions, posing potential challenges during recording.
GCaMP
GCaMP is a genetically encoded calcium indicator (GECI) that is commonly used in multiple imaging methods. GCaMP emits fluorescence when the indicator is bound to a calcium ion (Ca2+). This calcium signal is directly tied to neural response patterns, neurotransmitter release, and membrane excitability. The excitation wavelengths for GCaMP and its isosbestic signal are approximately 470 nm and 415 nm (blue), respectively. The goal is to photo-excite the maximum absorption and isosbestic points of the indicator. The isosbestic point of GCaMP is the calcium-independent signal, approximately 405-415 nm. This is determined based on GCaMP having two functional states, bound and unbound to calcium ions. These two states have unique protein excitation and emission spectra. The wavelength of excitation where these two protein states have the same absorbance is the isosbestic point and determines the baseline fluorescence. Motion and autofluorescence are reflected in this calcium-independent signal and can be subtracted or regressed to reveal the true change in cellular fluorescence during a behavioral task or experimental manipulation.
The emission wavelength of GCaMP is approximately 525 nm (green), which can be analyzed and correlated across time during behavioral tasks.
Multiple-color fiber photometry
To observe simultaneous calcium dynamics in multiple cell types, researchers have combined two or more GECIs in a single brain region. For example, a research group recorded fluorescence from the green and red GECIs, GCaMP6f and jRGECO1a, that were differentially expressed in striatal direct- and indirect-pathway spiny projection neurons in freely behaving mice. The expression of multiple GECIs in the same brain region can not only be performed in two sets of neurons, as shown in the previous study. These simultaneous recordings of bulk calcium can also be performed with multiple cell types, such as neurons and astrocytes. These cell types express unique promoters, such as GFAP and hSyn, and the GECIs can be targeted specifically in this way. Another research group performed successful dual-color fiber photometry using astrocyte- and neuron-specific promoters while mice freely performed a working memory task (T-maze).
Equipment
The goal of fiber photometry is to precisely deliver, extract and record bulk calcium signal from specific populations of cells within a brain region of interest. To access the signal, an optical cannula/fiber must be surgically implanted at the site of GECI expression. This optical fiber can only collect population-level calcium signal, not individual cell activity. Additionally, optical fibers allow recording from both deep and shallow brain structures, and minimize tissue damage unlike GRIN lenses or cortical windows.
GCaMP has specific excitation and emission spectra at approximately 470 nm and 530 nm, respectively. LED light sources are amongst the most commonly selected, due to the low optical power necessary to excite GECIs. Proper transmission of the excitation and emission signals bidirectionally from the brain to the imaging device is coordinated by dichroic mirrors and excitation/emission filters. There are three different types of imaging devices: photodetectors, photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) and scientific cameras. When collecting signal from a single brain region, it is typical to use a photodetector or PMT due to their fast acquisition and low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Alternatively, when collecting from multiple brain regions, scientific cameras or multiple photodetectors or PMTs must be used.
Overall, this system allows for coupling between the optical cannula, light source and imaging device. Precise light delivery to the GECI is enabled by the optical cannula/fiber and the emission signal is collected by the imaging device during recording.
Some examples of commercially available fiber photometry systems include Neurophotometrics, Inscopix and MightexBio.
Benefits and limitations
All scientific methods have considerations that must be taken into account before use. Fiber photometry has many benefits over other techniques for calcium imaging, but it comes with limitations.
Benefits
For individuals in labs that want to integrate calcium imaging into their experiments but may not have the financial or technical circumstances to do so yet, fiber photometry is a low barrier of entry. Optical fibers are simpler to implant, less invasive and are more inexpensive than other calcium methods such as one- or two-photon imaging. It is good for longitudinal behavioral paradigms because there is less weight and stress on the animal, as compared to miniscopes. It limits mobility of the animal significantly less than other methods, allowing for more freely-moving, naturalistic behaviors in larger rodent models. It is a versatile technique, allowing for imaging of multiple interacting brain regions and integration with optogenetics, electrophysiology and more systems-level neuroscience techniques. More recently, this technique can be coupled with other fluorescent indicators for neurotransmitter activity or pH changes.
Limitations
It is important when planning experiments to consider the major limitation of fiber photometry: low cellular and spatial resolution. This lack of optical resolution can be attributed to the collection of an aggregation of activity within a field of view, only allowing for 'bulk' changes in fluorescent signal. Although the size of an optical cannula is much smaller than technology used in other calcium imaging methods, such as one- and two-photon microscopy, animals must be securely tethered to a rigid fiber bundle. This may limit the naturalistic behavior and of smaller mammals, such as mice.
Integration with other methods
Optogenetics and DREADDs
Fiber photometry can be integrated with cellular manipulation to draw a causal link between neural activity and behavior. Targeted modulation of defined cell types and projections in the brain can be accomplished using optogenetics or Designer Receptors Exclusively Activated by Designer Drugs (DREADDs). The method is chosen based on the temporal precision necessary for the experimental design, amongst other factors. Optogenetics allows for manipulation of a specific cell-type with high temporal precision. DREADDs have a much lower temporal precision due to the pharmacokinetics of the ligand, such as clozapine-N-oxide (CNO) or deschloroclozapine (DCZ). It is important to note that simultaneous optical readout and optogenetic manipulation comes with several potential issues that are discussed below.
In vivo electrophysiology
Additionally, fiber photometry can be coupled with in vivo electrophysiology within the same animal. When combined, this combination of electrophysiological recording and calcium imaging can be used to observe cell-type specific activity with higher temporal precision read-outs of neuronal action potentials in freely-behaving animal models.
Potential problems and solutions
Delivery and expression of optogenetic probes and calcium indicators to the same neurons can pose problems. Calcium indicators and manipulation channels can have overlapping excitation spectrums, such as GCaMP and channelrhodopsin (ChR2), which both have a peak wavelength of excitation at approximately 470 nm. Excitation of the calcium indicator can potentially activate the optogenetic light-sensitive ion channel. The measured change in calcium signal cannot be easily attributed to actual changes in calcium or optogenetic-induced signal. Solutions to this issue include the combination of indicators that have non-overlapping excitation spectrum with your optogenetic probe or calcium indicator. Calcium indicators (GCaMP, RCaMP) and optogenetic probes for excitation (ChR2, Crimson) and inhibition (eNpHR, Arch, Jaws) are options for this.
Other calcium imaging methods
Miniscopes and single-photon imaging
Miniscopes are head-mounted, miniature microscopes that allow imaging of large populations of neural activity in freely-behaving mice and rats. This is possible due to their small size, as they are light enough for a mouse or rat to easily carry without interfering greatly with behavior. Researchers couple miniscopes with implanted gradient-refractive-index (GRIN) lenses or cortical windows that enable deep and superficial brain imaging. This method is ideal for monitoring the activity of hundreds of genetically- and spatially-defined cells within a single animal. As compared to fiber photometry, miniscopes allow imaging with high cellular resolution, detecting changes in calcium within individual neurons and non-neuronal cells. Additionally, this method enables repeated imaging over time to analyze the transition from 'healthy' to pathological states or changes over the course of behavior. However, this method of imaging has low sensitivity and high noise, producing lower resolution imaging compared to other multi-photon methods like two-photon. These miniature microscopes are limited in their ability to detect far-red-shifted indicators that would be necessary for combination of optogenetics and calcium imaging here, as is discussed above.
Two-photon imaging
Two-photon imaging is another calcium imaging method that records fluctuations in cellular GECI dynamics. It provides a way to penetrate highly light-scattering brain tissue up to 600-700 microns below the surface of the brain. As compared to other techniques, two-photon offers higher cellular and sub-cellular spatial resolution, such as within dendrites and axonal boutons, within a well-defined focal plane. However, without the assistance of an optical cannula or micro-endoscope, this method is limited to more superficial brain areas. This type of imaging also requires that the animals remain head-fixed, limiting naturalistic behaviors necessary for some complex behavioral tasks.
References
Calcium
Imaging
Neuroscience | Fiber photometry | [
"Biology"
] | 3,124 | [
"Neuroscience"
] |
68,824,618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11-Hydroxycannabinol | 11-Hydroxycannabinol (11-OH-CBN) is the main active metabolite of cannabinol (CBN), one of the active components of cannabis, and has also been isolated from cannabis itself. It is more potent than CBN itself, acting as an agonist of CB1 with around the same potency as THC, but is a weak antagonist at CB2.
See also
11-Hydroxyhexahydrocannabinol
11-Hydroxy-THC
11-Hydroxy-Delta-8-THC
Cannabinodiol
References
Cannabinoids
Benzochromenes
Diols
Hydroxyarenes
Human drug metabolites | 11-Hydroxycannabinol | [
"Chemistry"
] | 142 | [
"Chemicals in medicine",
"Human drug metabolites"
] |
68,824,917 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP-450 | CP 450 was a large cabinet containing a floppy disk drive interface, exactly like the TRS-80 Color Computer, manufactured by Prológica, a computer company located in Brazil.
General information
The standard operating system is DOS-400, an adapted and renamed copy of disk Extended Color BASIC (DECB or RSDOS). It was also possible to run other operating systems, such as Microware OS-09 and TSC Flex9. Using OS-9 allowed the user to access all 64 KB of RAM available on this particular version of the CP 400.
The CP 450 units stopped being manufactured at the end of 1986, along with other accessories suitable for the CP 400.
Bibliography
Micro Computador - Curso Básico. Rio de Janeiro: Rio Gráfica, 1984, v. 1, pp. 49–50.
ABREU, Carlos Alberto C. 77 programas para linha TRS-80. Rio de Janeiro: Microkit, 1985.
References
Computer-related introductions in 1984 | CP-450 | [
"Technology"
] | 203 | [
"Computing stubs",
"Computer hardware stubs"
] |
68,825,404 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizostomins | Rhizostomins are proteins that are part of a pigment family only found in jellyfish in the order Rhizostomeae. These proteins are composed of a Kringle domain inserted within a cysteine-rich Frizzled domain, first identified in 2004 as the blue pigment in the barrel jellyfish Rhizostoma pulmo. It also appears in rhizostome jellyfish that do not appear blue, such as in Nemopilema nomurai, which typically presents red-brown coloration. It has been hypothesized that pigments in this family act as a sunscreen, protecting from harmful ultraviolet radiation. Natural blue pigments, such as some of the rhizostomins, are rare and there is a growing need for industrial purposes.
References
Protein domains
Biological pigments
Rhizostomeae | Rhizostomins | [
"Biology"
] | 179 | [
"Protein domains",
"Biological pigments",
"Pigmentation",
"Protein classification"
] |
47,642,770 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/549th%20Electrical%20and%20Mechanical%20Company%2C%20Royal%20Engineers | 549th Electrical and Mechanical Company was a unit of the British Royal Engineers (RE) formed during World War II. It served in North West Europe, where it repaired damaged infrastructure.
Origin
Whereas the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers maintained vehicles and complex weapons and equipment, the RE's E&M companies worked with heavy electrical engineering plant, such as generators and pumps. Although termed a Company, 549 E&M Co often only had a strength of just 3 officers and 28 other ranks.
The unit's war diary begins in April 1944, when it was based at 43 Albemarle Cresecent, Scarborough. It moved to Arncott Depot for training, where it came under the command of No 11 Lines of Communication Area which would play a crucial role in maintaining the beachhead once the invasion of mainland Europe (Operation Overlord) began.
Normandy
The company travelled to Southampton on 10 July 1944 and on 14 July disembarked from HMS Princess Astrid in Normandy. For the next few weeks most of its work involved establishing water-points in the beachhead area for 21st Army Group, often under fire from German artillery.
Caen
In late August the company HQ was sent to Caen to start work on rebuilding the electricity power station. The town and surrounding country relied for its power on this installation, which had been wrecked by Allied bombing. 'First inspection presented a gloomy picture. There was no roof and little remained of the walls but the steel stanchions, and the machinery and boilers were buried under pules of rubble. When the latter was cleared somewhat it was seen that the situation was not so bad as it had appeared. It was found that two turbo-generators could be put into commission at reduced load if certain damaged parts could be replaced by parts taken from others in a worse state. The boilers were found to be capable of raising steam to meet this reduced load after overhaul and similar replacements. Similarly sufficient switchgear was assembled by cannibalization to meet initial requirements'.(RE History)
The Chief Engineer of 21st Army Group's Lines of Communications later described the first day of operation of this patched-up installation:
'When the steam valves were opened clouds of steam came out of the main pipes from many unauthorized places, but gradually the turbine began to turn, slowly working up speed as the throttle was opened till about 1,000 revs. per minute had been reached.
'At this point horrible expensive noises came from the interior of the turbine. Steam was hastily shut off, and when the machine had come to rest it was examined anxiously. No apparent damage had been done, so the R.E. officer in charge decided to try again in the afternoon.
'Speed was slowly built up, with everyone on the alert for any unusual noise, but nothing occurred, and the turbine reached its normal running speed without mishap.
'The first large electrical installation in France had been made to work amid the wreckage all around'.
Restoring the power meant that Caen docks and railway workshops could function, the rail line through Caen could be reopened, and US Engineers could build transmission lines from the power station to restart the electricity grid in the area.
Antwerp
549 E&M Company completed work at Caen Power Station at the end of November and moved to the port of Antwerp in Belgium, which had recently been opened by the Allies. Mobile generating plants on railway trains and ships were linked up to provide power. This work was done under occasional long-range artillery fire, which damaged some equipment, and the sustained bombardment of the city by V-1 flying bombs and V-2 rockets, which damaged the company's barracks. As soon as the floating power stations were in operation, 549 Company began building a 20-mile power line to supply the liberated parts of the Netherlands. To do this, the company had to locate and lift several hundred anti-tank and anti-personnel mines from the route of the power line. Work to restore the Belgian and Dutch power grids, and to provide electricity for the large Prisoner of War camps, was still continuing when the war in Europe ended in May 1945.
Germany
After VE Day and into 1946 until disbandment, the company often with as many as four platoons under command) continued working in Germany as part of British Army of the Rhine on restoring power and water supplies, and tasks such as installing traffic lights on British Bailey bridges and German autobahns. 549 Company RE was not reformed after the war.
Awards
549 E&M Company's commanding officer, Temporary Major Thomas Martin, was awarded a US Bronze Star for his work in this campaign.
Notes
References
Major L. F. Ellis, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: Victory in the West, Vol I: The Battle of Normandy, London: HM Stationery Office, 1962/Uckfield: Naval & Military, 2004, .
Maj-Gen R. P. Pakenham-Walsh, History of the Royal Engineers, Vol VIII, 1938–1948, Chatham: Institution of Royal Engineers, 1958.
Graham E. Watson & Richard A. Rinaldi, The Corps of Royal Engineers: Organization and Units 1889–2018, Tiger Lily Books, 2018, .
Field companies of the Royal Engineers
Electrical engineering units of the Royal Engineers | 549th Electrical and Mechanical Company, Royal Engineers | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,074 | [
"Electrical engineering organizations",
"Electrical engineering units of the Royal Engineers"
] |
47,642,826 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotic%20process%20automation | Robotic process automation (RPA) is a form of business process automation that is based on software robots (bots) or artificial intelligence (AI) agents. RPA should not be confused with artificial intelligence as it is based on automotive technology following a predefined workflow. It is sometimes referred to as software robotics (not to be confused with robot software).
In traditional workflow automation tools, a software developer produces a list of actions to automate a task and interface to the back end system using internal application programming interfaces (APIs) or dedicated scripting language. In contrast, RPA systems develop the action list by watching the user perform that task in the application's graphical user interface (GUI), and then perform the automation by repeating those tasks directly in the GUI. This can lower the barrier to the use of automation in products that might not otherwise feature APIs for this purpose.
RPA tools have strong technical similarities to graphical user interface testing tools. These tools also automate interactions with the GUI, and often do so by repeating a set of demonstration actions performed by a user. RPA tools differ from such systems in that they allow data to be handled in and between multiple applications, for instance, receiving email containing an invoice, extracting the data, and then typing that into a bookkeeping system.
Historic evolution
The typical benefits of robotic automation include reduced cost; increased speed, accuracy, and consistency; improved quality and scalability of production. Automation can also provide extra security, especially for sensitive data and financial services.
As a form of automation, the concept has been around for a long time in the form of screen scraping, which can be traced back to early forms of malware. However, RPA is much more extensible, consisting of API integration into other enterprise applications, connectors into ITSM systems, terminal services and even some types of AI (e.g. machine learning) services such as image recognition. It is considered to be a significant technological evolution in the sense that new software platforms are emerging which are sufficiently mature, resilient, scalable and reliable to make this approach viable for use in large enterprises (who would otherwise be reluctant due to perceived risks to quality and reputation).
A principal barrier to the adoption of self-service is often technological: it may not always be feasible or economically viable to retrofit new interfaces onto existing systems. Moreover, organisations may wish to layer a variable and configurable set of process rules on top of the system interfaces which may vary according to market offerings and the type of customer. This only adds to the cost and complexity of the technological implementation. Robotic automation software provides a pragmatic means of deploying new services in this situation, where the robots simply mimic the behaviour of humans to perform the back-end transcription or processing. The relative affordability of this approach arises from the fact that no new IT transformation or investment is required; instead the software robots simply leverage greater use out of existing IT assets.
Use
The hosting of RPA services also aligns with the metaphor of a software robot, with each robotic instance having its own virtual workstation, much like a human worker. The robot uses keyboard and mouse controls to take actions and execute automations. Normally all of these actions take place in a virtual environment and not on screen; the robot does not need a physical screen to operate, rather it interprets the screen display electronically. The scalability of modern solutions based on architectures such as these owes much to the advent of virtualization technology, without which the scalability of large deployments would be limited by the available capacity to manage physical hardware and by the associated costs. The implementation of RPA in business enterprises has shown dramatic cost savings when compared to traditional non-RPA solutions.
There are however several risks with RPA. Criticism includes risks of stifling innovation and creating a more complex maintenance environment of existing software that now needs to consider the use of graphical user interfaces in a way they weren't intended to be used.
Impact on employment
According to Harvard Business Review, most operations groups adopting RPA have promised their employees that automation would not result in layoffs. Instead, workers have been redeployed to do more interesting work. One academic study highlighted that knowledge workers did not feel threatened by automation: they embraced it and viewed the robots as team-mates. The same study highlighted that, rather than resulting in a lower "headcount", the technology was deployed in such a way as to achieve more work and greater productivity with the same number of people.
Conversely, however, some analysts proffer that RPA represents a threat to the business process outsourcing (BPO) industry. The thesis behind this notion is that RPA will enable enterprises to "repatriate" processes from offshore locations into local data centers, with the benefit of this new technology. The effect, if true, will be to create high-value jobs for skilled process designers in onshore locations (and within the associated supply chain of IT hardware, data center management, etc.) but to decrease the available opportunity to low-skilled workers offshore. On the other hand, this discussion appears to be healthy ground for debate as another academic study was at pains to counter the so-called "myth" that RPA will bring back many jobs from offshore.
RPA actual use
Banking and finance process automation
Mortgage and lending processes
Customer care automation
eCommerce merchandising operations
Social media marketing
Optical character recognition applications
Data extraction process
Fixed automation process
Impact on society
Academic studies project that RPA, among other technological trends, is expected to drive a new wave of productivity and efficiency gains in the global labour market. Although not directly attributable to RPA alone, Oxford University conjectures that up to 35% of all jobs might be automated by 2035.
There are geographic implications to the trend in robotic automation. In the example above where an offshored process is "repatriated" under the control of the client organization (or even displaced by a business process outsourcer) from an offshore location to a data centre, the impact will be a deficit in economic activity to the offshore location and an economic benefit to the originating economy. On this basis, developed economies – with skills and technological infrastructure to develop and support a robotic automation capability – can be expected to achieve a net benefit from the trend.
In a TEDx talk hosted by University College London (UCL), entrepreneur David Moss explains that digital labour in the form of RPA is likely to revolutionize the cost model of the services industry by driving the price of products and services down, while simultaneously improving the quality of outcomes and creating increased opportunity for the personalization of services.
In a separate TEDx in 2019 talk, Japanese business executive, and former CIO of Barclays bank, Koichi Hasegawa noted that digital robots can be a positive effect on society if we start using a robot with empathy to help every person. He provides a case study of the Japanese insurance companies – Sompo Japan and Aioi – both of whom introduced bots to speed up the process of insurance pay-outs in past massive disaster incidents.
Meanwhile, Professor Willcocks, author of the LSE paper cited above, speaks of increased job satisfaction and intellectual stimulation, characterising the technology as having the ability to "take the robot out of the human", a reference to the notion that robots will take over the mundane and repetitive portions of people's daily workload, leaving them to be used in more interpersonal roles or to concentrate on the remaining, more meaningful, portions of their day.
It was also found in a 2021 study observing the effects of robotization in Europe that, the gender pay gap increased at a rate of .18% for every 1% increase in robotization of a given industry.
Unassisted RPA
Unassisted RPA, or RPAAI, is the next generation of RPA related technologies. Technological advancements around artificial intelligence allow a process to be run on a computer without needing input from a user.
Hyperautomation
Hyperautomation is the application of advanced technologies like RPA, artificial intelligence, machine learning (ML) and process mining to augment workers and automate processes in ways that are significantly more impactful than traditional automation capabilities. Hyperautomation is the combination of technologies that allow faster application authorship (like low-code and no-code) with automation technologies that coordinate different worker types (i.e. human and artificial) for intelligent and strategic workflow optimization.
Gartner's report notes that this trend was kicked off with robotic process automation (RPA). The report notes that, "RPA alone is not hyperautomation. Hyperautomation requires a combination of tools to help support replicating pieces of where the human is involved in a task."
Outsourcing
Back office clerical processes outsourced by large organisations - particularly those sent offshore - tend to be simple and transactional in nature, requiring little (if any) analysis or subjective judgement. This would seem to make an ideal starting point for organizations beginning to adopt robotic automation for the back office. Whether client organisations choose to take outsourced processes back "in house" from their business process outsourcing (BPO) providers, thus representing a threat to the future of the BPO business, or whether the BPOs implement such automations on their clients' behalf may well depend on a number of factors.
Conversely however, a BPO provider may seek to effect some form of client lock-in by means of automation. By removing cost from a business operation, where the BPO provider is considered to be the owner of the intellectual property and physical implementation of a robotic automation solution (perhaps in terms of hardware, ownership of software licences, etc.), the provider can make it very difficult for the client to take a process back "in house" or elect a new BPO provider. This effect occurs as the associated cost savings made through automation would - temporarily at least - have to be reintroduced to the business whilst the technical solution is reimplemented in the new operational context.
The geographically agnostic nature of software means that new business opportunities may arise for those organisations that have a political or regulatory impediment to offshoring or outsourcing. A robotised automation can be hosted in a data centre in any jurisdiction and this has two major consequences for BPO providers. Firstly, for example, a sovereign government may not be willing or legally able to outsource the processing of tax affairs and security administration. On this basis, if robots are compared to a human workforce, this creates a genuinely new opportunity for a "third sourcing" option, after the choices of onshore vs. offshore. Secondly, and conversely, BPO providers have previously relocated outsourced operations to different political and geographic territories in response to changing wage inflation and new labor arbitrage opportunities elsewhere. By contrast, a data centre solution would seem to offer a fixed and predictable cost base that, if sufficiently low in cost on a robot vs. human basis, would seem to eliminate any potential need or desire to continually relocate operational bases.
Limitations of robotic process automation
While robotic process automation has many benefits including cost efficiency and consistency in performance, it also has some limitations. Current RPA solutions demand continual technical support to handle system changes, therefore it lacks the ability to autonomously adapt to new conditions. Because of this limitation, the system sometimes needs manual reconfiguration, which in turn has an effect on efficiency.
The difference between RPA and AI
RPA is based on automotive technology following a predefined workflow, and artificial intelligence is data-driven and focuses on processing information to make predictions. Therefore, there is a distinct difference between how the two systems operate. AI aims to mimic human intelligence, whereas RPA is focused on reproducing tasks that are typically human-directed. Moreover, RPA could also be explained as virtual robots that take over routinized human work, it can identify data by interpreting the underlying tags. RPA, therefore, is based on machine learning, whereas AI utilizes self-learning technologies.
Examples
Voice recognition and digital dictation software linked to join up business processes for straight through processing without manual intervention
Specialised remote infrastructure management software featuring automated investigation and resolution of problems, using robots for the first line IT support
Chatbots used by internet retailers and service providers to service customer requests for information. Also used by companies to service employee requests for information from internal databases
Presentation layer automation software, increasingly used by business process outsourcers to displace human labor
Interactive voice response (IVR) systems incorporating intelligent interaction with callers
See also
Automation
Business process automation
References
Further reading
External links
Jobs, productivity and the great decoupling, by Professor McAfee, Principal Research Scientist at MIT's Center for Digital Business.
Rise of the software machines, Economist Magazine.
London School of Economics Releases First in a Series of RPA Case Studies, Reuters
Humans and Machines: The role of people in technology-driven organisations , Economist Magazine.
Robotic Automation as Threat to Traditional Low-Cost Outsourcing, HfS Research.
Robotics
Business software
Automation software
Information economy
Machine learning | Robotic process automation | [
"Engineering"
] | 2,691 | [
"Machine learning",
"Automation",
"Automation software",
"Robotics",
"Artificial intelligence engineering"
] |
47,643,062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre%20for%20Advanced%20Structural%20Ceramics | The Centre for Advanced Structural Ceramics is a multidisciplinary research centre focusing on materials science and engineering involving ceramic materials for applications such as aerospace, energy and tissue engineering. It is located within Imperial College London in the United Kingdom. The college's Department of Materials is closely involved with the centre's research.
The centre was founded to facilitate research between associated institutions and academics, and the UK's industrial structural ceramics community, with a stated goal to provide a "critical mass of UK expertise in the fundamental understanding of structural ceramics that is highly relevant to key areas of the economy including, energy generation, aerospace and defence, transport and healthcare". Funding initially came through the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council but it is now funded through an industrial consortium, including members such as Rolls-Royce Holdings, Morgan Advanced Materials, and Reaction Engines.
The CASC's work draws from skills of multiple fields, including chemistry, physics, materials and earth sciences and business. It supports the dissemination of knowledge of ceramic materials through annual summer schools, industry days, workshops and lectures.
References
External links
Official webpage
Research institutes of Imperial College London
Research institutes in London
Research institutes established in 2008
Materials science institutes | Centre for Advanced Structural Ceramics | [
"Materials_science"
] | 241 | [
"Materials science organizations",
"Materials science institutes"
] |
47,643,389 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE%20Transportation%20Technologies%20Award | The IEEE Transportation Technologies Award is a technical field award given for advances in technologies within the fields of interest to the IEEE as applied in transportation systems. This IEEE-level award, was created in 2011 by the board of directors of the IEEE and sponsored by the IEEE Industry Applications Society, IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Society, IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Society, IEEE Power Electronics Society, IEEE Power & Energy Society, IEEE Vehicular Technology Society.
The award is given to an individual, a team, or multiple recipients up to three in number.
Recipients of this award receive a bronze medal, a certificate, and an honorarium.
Recipients
The following people have received the IEEE Transportation Technologies Award :
2021: Philip T. Krein
2020: Markos Papageorgiou
2019: Hao Huang
2018: C.C. Chan
2017: Claire J.Tomlin
2016: Petros Ioannou
2015: Robert Dean King
2014: Linos J. Jacovides
References
IEEE Transportation Technologies Award | IEEE Transportation Technologies Award | [
"Technology"
] | 206 | [
"Science and technology awards",
"Science award stubs"
] |
47,643,595 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chytriomyces%20elegans | Chytriomyces elegans is a species of fungus in the genus Chytriomyces. It is saprophytic on dead cells of Ceratium hirundinella and Peridinium.
References
External links
Chytridiomycota
Fungi described in 1976
Fungus species | Chytriomyces elegans | [
"Biology"
] | 62 | [
"Fungus stubs",
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,643,800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corallomycetella%20elegans | Corallomycetella elegans is one of the two recognized species in the fungus genus Corallomycetella. It is a parasite of rubber, cacao and tea trees.
See also
List of cacao diseases
List of tea diseases
References
External links
mycobank.org
Nectriaceae
Fungi described in 2013
Cacao diseases
Tea diseases
Fungal tree pathogens and diseases
Fungus species | Corallomycetella elegans | [
"Biology"
] | 79 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,644,950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler-283%20c | Kepler-283 c is an exoplanet orbiting the K-type star Kepler-283 every 93 days in the circumstellar habitable zone, discovered by the Kepler space telescope in 2014.
Characteristics
Mass, radius and temperature
It has a surface equilibrium temperature of . Its radius is 1.82 . Its orbit is circular with an eccentricity of 0.
Host star
The planet orbits a late orange dwarf star called Kepler-283, spectral type K7V, about 1,596 light years from Earth in the constellation of Cygnus.
Orbit
The planet orbits its star every 93 days, at a distance of around 0.336 AU.
References
283c
Exoplanets discovered in 2014
Transiting exoplanets
Super-Earths in the habitable zone
Exoplanets in the habitable zone
Super-Earths
Cygnus (constellation) | Kepler-283 c | [
"Astronomy"
] | 178 | [
"Astrobiology stubs",
"Cygnus (constellation)",
"Astronomy stubs",
"Constellations"
] |
47,646,612 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braze%2C%20Inc. | Braze, Inc. is an American cloud-based software company based in New York City. It is a customer engagement platform used by businesses for multichannel marketing.
History
Braze was co-founded as Appboy in 2011 by Bill Magnuson, Jon Hyman, and Mark Ghermezian, who raised $3 million from investors to start the company. In 2016, Appboy launched the CRM and reward system Canvas.
In August of 2017, the company received $50 million in Series D Financing and later that year, Appboy rebranded to Braze, Inc. The company launched Braze Alloys in 2018, a network of over 45 integration applications with companies like Segment, , and Amplitude. The company raised $80 million in Series E funding, with a valuation of $850 million, and opened an office in Singapore.
In 2019, Braze added Google AMP for email and passed $100 million in annual recurring revenue. In 2020, Braze boycotted Facebook advertising and encouraged other brands to do the same over content moderation practices. The company also joined several other marketing tech firms to offer technology grants to Black founded businesses with the Tech for Black Founders program. At this time, Braze was delivering over 100 billion messages each month and had raised over $175 million in funding.
Braze also commissioned the Data Privacy Report which provides details about consumers and their privacy concerns. Along with Skyscanner and Apptopia, Braze published the Ready for Takeoff 2021 Travel Industry Trends, Insights and Strategies. Braze introduced integrations with Snowflake and Shopify.
In October 2021, Braze filed to go public. On November 17, 2021, Braze’s IPO raised $520 million and had a market valuation of $5.9 billion. In 2023, Braze acquired North Star, its exclusive reseller in the ANZ region. North Star is now Braze Australia. In 2023, Braze updated its artificial intelligence capabilities, and renamed it Sage AI by Braze. In 2024, the company announced further expansion to Brazil, Bucharest, Dubai, and Seoul.
Activities
Braze provides customer engagement technology for MAX, Skyscanner, PureGym, Burger King, Babylon Health, Grubhub, NASCAR, OkCupid, TUI, and the NBA.
References
External links
Digital marketing companies of the United States
Software companies established in 2011
American companies established in 2011
Marketing companies established in 2011
Multinational companies based in New York City
Software companies based in New York City
Mobile marketing
Mobile technology companies
2021 initial public offerings
Software companies of the United States
2011 establishments in New York City
Cloud computing providers
Companies listed on the Nasdaq | Braze, Inc. | [
"Technology"
] | 538 | [
"Mobile content",
"Mobile marketing",
"Mobile technology companies"
] |
47,648,733 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal%20of%20Physics%20and%20Chemistry%20of%20Solids | Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids is a peer-reviewed scientific journal of condensed matter physics and material science. The journal is edited by M. Azuma, A. Bansil, H.-P. Cheng, and K. Prassides. The journal was established in 1957 by Harvey Brooks, and is published monthly by Elsevier.
In 1963 the Letters section of the journal split to form Solid State Communications.
Abstracting and indexing
The journal is abstracted and indexed in the following databases:
Cambridge Scientific Abstracts
Chemical Abstracts
Current Contents/Engineering, Computing & Technology
Materials Science Citation Index
EIC/Intelligence
Engineering Index
INSPEC
PASCAL
SSSA/CISA/ECA/ISMEC
Scopus
References
External links
Hybrid open access journals
Physics journals
Chemistry journals
Materials science journals
Academic journals established in 1957
Elsevier academic journals | Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids | [
"Materials_science",
"Engineering"
] | 167 | [
"Materials science journals",
"Materials science"
] |
47,650,504 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamiltonian%20coloring | Hamiltonian coloring, named after William Rowan Hamilton, is a type of graph coloring. Hamiltonian coloring uses a concept called detour distance between two vertices of the graph. It has many applications in different areas of science and technology.
Terminologies
Radio coloring
A graph G with diameter D with n nodes that is colored (i.e. has a positive integer assigned to each vertex) with k colors is called a radio k-coloring G if for every pair of vertices a and b, the sum of the distance between them and the difference between their labels ("colors") is greater than k. For example, two nodes labelled 3 and 7 with a distance of 5 is acceptable for a radio 8-coloring, but not for a radio 9-coloring, since , which is not greater than 9.
Antipodal coloring
A radio (d-1)-coloring, that is, where k is equal to one less than the graph's diameter, is known as an antipodal coloring because antipodal vertices may be colored the same, but all nodes between them must be different.
Detour distance
The distance between two vertices in a graph is defined as the minimum of lengths of paths connecting those vertices. The detour distance between two vertices, say, u and v is defined as the length of the longest u-v path in the graph. In the case of a tree the detour distance between any two vertices is same as the distance between the two vertices.
Hamiltonian coloring
Hamiltonian colorings are a variation on antipodal colorings where, instead of considering the regular distance between nodes, the detour distance is instead considered. Specifically, a Hamiltonian coloring's nodes have the property that the detour distance plus the difference in colors is greater than or equal to one less than n, the number of nodes in the graph. If the graph G is a path, then any Hamiltonian coloring is also an antipodal coloring, which is the inspiration for the definition of Hamiltonian coloring.
References
Chartrand, Gary et al. "Hamiltonian Coloring of Graphs." Discrete Applied Mathematics, vol. 146, no. 3, 15 Mar. 2005, .
Graph coloring | Hamiltonian coloring | [
"Mathematics"
] | 445 | [
"Graph theory stubs",
"Graph coloring",
"Mathematical relations",
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67,453,836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustavian%20style | The Gustavian style () is a Swedish furniture and interior design style that emerged in the late 18th century, primarily during the reign of King Gustav III of Sweden (1771–1792) and continued into the reign of his son, Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden. It is a Swedish variant of French Neoclassicism, influenced by the Louis XVI style and elements of Rococo.
The style is marked by a return to classical ideals, with a focus on restrained decoration, symmetry, and proportion. The Gustavian style is often described as a reaction against the excesses of Rococo, seeking simplicity and elegance, while maintaining classical references.
History
The Gustavian style emerged during the reign of King Gustav III, who was instrumental in the development and dissemination of the style. After visiting Versailles in 1771, Gustav III became highly influenced by French Neoclassicism and sought to adopt elements of the Louis XVI style, but tailored to Swedish tastes and available materials. The king’s support of artists, architects, and craftsmen was key in the propagation of the style throughout Sweden during his reign. This period saw a strong cultural exchange between Sweden and France, and the king encouraged the development of Swedish art and architecture under these new influences.
Key to the development of the style was the work of designer and architect Jean Eric Rehn, who was inspired by both the French Louis XVI and earlier Rococo designs. Rehn is credited with introducing restrained and classical elements into Swedish design, such as fluted columns, straight lines, and Greco-Roman motifs. His work, alongside the contributions of other prominent designers such as Louis Masreliez and Georg Haupt, defined the aesthetic of Swedish interiors during this period.
The style initially dominated the Swedish court and noble homes, but as the middle class expanded, it began to appear in bourgeois homes as well. During the later years of Gustavian rule, especially during the reign of Gustav IV Adolf, the style began to evolve towards more simplified forms, and the influence of French decorative arts waned, replaced by greater British and Swedish design influences. This period, known as the "late Gustavian" style, saw furniture designs becoming more restrained, with square legs and plain surfaces becoming common.
Characteristics
The Gustavian style is primarily characterised by its adaptation of French Neoclassicism, and its relative simplicity. Key elements of the style include:
Symmetry and proportion: Following classical ideals, Gustavian design adhered to strict symmetry, with geometric shapes and balanced proportions.
Neoclassical influences: Motifs such as laurel wreaths, festoons, and Greek and Roman-inspired decorations are commonly featured in Gustavian design.
Muted colour palette: The style is often associated with light, neutral colours like whites, pale blues, greens, and soft greys. These colours evoke the appearance of marble.
Functionality: Furniture was made to be both functional and aesthetically pleasing, with straight backs, tapered legs, and minimal ornamentation. The furniture was often painted in soft pastels, which allowed for the use of local wood such as pine instead of more expensive mahogany or walnut.
The late Gustavian style is noted for its use of simpler forms. Legs and feet of furniture became square and often undecorated, and the ornamentation was toned down further.
Architecture and Interiors
The Gustavian style extended beyond furniture and interior decoration to architecture as well. The period saw the construction of notable buildings in the style, such as Gustav III's Pavilion at Haga Park and Svartå Castle () in Finland. Influential architects of the period included Jean Eric Rehn, Louis Jean Desprez, and Erik Palmstedt, all of whom incorporated classical design elements into their work. Their designs often featured symmetrical layouts, classical porticos, and simple facades.
Interiors during the Gustavian period were marked by a transition from the asymmetry of Rococo to the restrained classical decoration that emphasised simplicity. While the earlier Gustavian style (c. 1772–1785) featured intricate mouldings and lighter colours, the late Gustavian style (c. 1785–1810) saw more simple forms with an emphasis on straight lines and unadorned surfaces.
Legacy
The Gustavian style left a lasting legacy on Swedish interior design and architecture, and continues to influence Swedish design today. The relatively minimal aesthetic of the Gustavian style laid the groundwork for later Swedish design movements, including Scandinavian design, and the Swedish Grace and Swedish Modern styles.
Carl Larsson (1853–1919) and Karin Bergöö Larsson (1859–1928) adapted the style in their home at Lilla Hyttnäs incorporating furniture and decorations characteristic of the Gustavian period.
In the late 20th century, the Gustavian style experienced a revival, particularly in the 1990s, with furniture retailers such as IKEA incorporating elements of the style into their collections. These modern reinterpretations, using less expensive materials but retaining some aesthetics of the 18th-century originals, helped introduce the Gustavian style to a worldwide audience.
References
Sweden during the Gustavian era
History of furniture
Gustav III
Design history
Swedish design
History of Sweden | Gustavian style | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,025 | [
"Design history",
"Design"
] |
67,454,425 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%205384 | NGC 5384 is a lenticular galaxy in the constellation Virgo. It was discovered on May 8, 1864, by the astronomer Albert Marth. It is located about 250 million light-years (79.21 megaparsecs) away.
References
External links
Virgo (constellation)
5384
Lenticular galaxies | NGC 5384 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 67 | [
"Virgo (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
67,454,670 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum%20state%20discrimination | The term quantum state discrimination collectively refers to quantum-informatics techniques, with the help of which, by performing a small number of measurements on a physical system, its specific quantum state can be identified . And this is provided that the set of states in which the system can be is known in advance, and we only need to determine which one it is. This assumption distinguishes such techniques from quantum tomography, which does not impose additional requirements on the state of the system, but requires many times more measurements.
If the set of states in which the investigated system can be is represented by orthogonal vectors, the situation is particularly simple. To unambiguously determine the state of the system, it is enough to perform a quantum measurement in the basis formed by these vectors. The given quantum state can then be flawlessly identified from the measured value. Moreover, it can be easily shown that if the individual states are not orthogonal to each other, there is no way to tell them apart with certainty. Therefore, in such a case, it is always necessary to take into account the possibility of incorrect or inconclusive determination of the state of the system. However, there are techniques that try to alleviate this deficiency. With exceptions, these techniques can be divided into two groups, namely those based on error minimization and then those that allow the state to be determined unambiguously in exchange for lower efficiency.
The first group of techniques is based on the works of Carl W. Helstrom from the 60s and 70s of the 20th century and in its basic form consists in the implementation of projective quantum measurement, where the measurement operators are projective representations. The second group is based on the conclusions of a scientific article published by ID Ivanovich in 1987 and requires the use of generalized measurement, in which the elements of the POVM set are taken as measurement operators. Both groups of techniques are currently the subject of active, primarily theoretical, research, and apart from a number of special cases, there is no general solution that would allow choosing measurement operators in the form of expressible analytical formula.
More precisely, in its standard formulation, the problem involves performing some POVM on a given unknown state , under the promise that the state received is an element of a collection of states , with occurring with probability , that is, . The task is then to find the probability of the POVM correctly guessing which state was received. Since the probability of the POVM returning the -th outcome when the given state was has the form , it follows that the probability of successfully determining the correct state is .
Helstrom Measurement
The discrimination of two states can be solved optimally using the Helstrom measurement. With two states comes two probabilities and POVMs . Since for all POVMs, . So the probability of success is:
To maximize the probability of success, the trace needs to be maximized. That's accomplished when is a projector on the positive eigenspace of , and the maximal probability of success is given by
where denotes the trace norm.
Discriminating between multiple states
If the task is to discriminate between more than two quantum states, there is no general formula for the optimal POVM and success probability. Nonetheless, the optimal success probability, for the task of discriminating between the elements of a given ensemble , can always be written asThis is obtained observing that is the a priori probability of getting the -th state, and is the probability of (correctly) guessing the input to be , conditioned to having indeed received the state .
While this expression cannot be given an explicit form in the general case, it can be solved numerically via Semidefinite programming. An alternative approach to discriminate between a given ensemble of states is to the use the so-called Pretty Good Measurement (PGM), also known as the square root measurement. This is an alternative discrimination strategy that is not in general optimal, but can still be shown to work pretty well.
References
External links
Interactive demonstration about quantum state discrimination
Quantum information science
Quantum information theory
Quantum measurement
Quantum computing | Quantum state discrimination | [
"Physics"
] | 827 | [
"Quantum measurement",
"Quantum mechanics"
] |
67,455,126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottini%20of%20Siena | The Bottini di Siena are a complex system of medieval underground aqueducts for the water supply of the city of Siena with a total length of . The system used to be the main water supply of the entire city of Siena until 1914 and nowadays continues to supply water to the fountains of Siena.
Structure of the underground aqueduct system
It is named after the Latin word buctinus, used for the first time in 1226, and the word botte (Italian for "barrels"), which describes the shape of the arched walls, mostly made of terracotta, composing the roofs of the underground tunnels of the aqueduct. The underground canal system of the Bottini (singular Bottino ) consists of several waterways which supply the wells within the city walls of Siena and in their vicinity, bringing water from sources located several miles away. The Bottini collect rainwater through the permeable roof, carrying it into the city, divert part of the Tressa, Staggia and Arbia rivers towards the city of Siena, collecting rainwater through the permeable roof along the way. This complex underground system was not only used to supply the city with drinking water, but also for the operation of many water-dependent medieval artisan industries (like dyers and leather workers), for cleaning and fire prevention activities, irrigation and agriculture, which would otherwise have been impossible in a city like Siena, located kilometers away from the nearest watercourse.
The Bottini are not to be seen as a uniform canal system. In addition to the main veins Bottino maestro di Fonte Gaia and Bottino maestro di Fontebranda and their side arms (called Ramo, plural rami) there are many independent Bottini that only feed individual fountains. The watercourses are not identical to the streets of Siena. Most of the canals (called Gorello , plural: gorelli) are about wide and are mostly located in brick-walled corridors that are about wide. The height of the corridors varies from . The Bottini are not closed off from the outside world, there are several air shafts in each Bottino (called smiraglio, pl.: smiragli, sometimes also called occhio, pl.: occhi).
The Bottino maestro di Fonte Gaia is supplied by three main tributaries from Colombaio (also del Castagno, with of maximum distance from Fonte Gaia), Michele a Quarto (also San Dalmazio) and Uopini, which is close to the Fontebecci fountain. Smaller tributaries are that of Vico Alto (before Fontebecci in the Ramo di Colombaio) and those of Acqua Calda, Marciano and Poggiarello (between Fontebecci and Porta Camollia). The entire route has a constant incline of 1 ‰ (1 m of difference in height over 1 km length) and transports per second. The excavations took place starting from two different points. One started from the Piazza del Campo to the north, while the other one starts from Santa Petronilla (near the Antiporto di Camollia), in the direction of Fonte Gaia (south) and in the direction of Fontebecci (north).
The Bottino maestro di Fontebranda is the shortest (most distant point north of Fontebranda), oldest and deepest of the two main canals. It starts north of the city walls and transports per second. The most important tributary is the Ramo di Chiarenna, other important tributaries are those of Santa Petronilla and San Prospero.
History
First excavations and birth of the medieval aqueduct system
The first underground watercourses already existed in the 4th century, during the Roman period, when Siena was still limited to the area of Castelvecchio. The Fontanella fountain is mentioned here in 394. The reason for the construction of the aqueduct system in the Middle Ages was mainly due to the shortage of water in the city of Siena, which experienced a period of strong population growth starting from the 11th century.
They were first documented with their Latin name in 1226 as Buctinus. Bricked Bottini were documented during the expansion works of Fontebranda in 1246 when thousands of stones were used. Further work on the tributaries took place in March 1250, here work was carried out on the wells of Val di Montone, Val di Follonica, Fontebranda, Pescaia and Vetrice, with that of Pescaia on the two main arms attached (Bottino di Fonte Gaia and Bottino di Fontebranda). In 1267 there were attempts to direct the waters of the Merse to Siena, but these plans failed shortly afterwards. After that, the focus was again on repairing the existing waterways. New water veins were found in 1274, which later led to the construction of the Fontenuova and Fonte d'Ovile fountains.
Development and evolution of the Bottini
In order to finally lead the water to the central Piazza del Campo, the city government accepted on December 16, 1334, Jacopo di Vanni was entrusted with bringing the water from the veins to the north into the city and this, already in 1343, arrived in Piazza del Campo, the center of the life of the city. In 1343 the booty reached Fontebecci and an attempt was made to connect it to the water of the river Staggia, which is the real Quercegrossa. Since 1344, for the most difficult parts of the excavations, were hired professional miners from Massa Marittima and Montieri called Guerchi that received higher wages than the inexperienced workers Sienese. The first stones of Fonte Gaia were laid in April 1343, the fountain was consecrated in 1346 (with the water coming from Fontebecci) and then redesigned from 1409 to 1419 by Jacopo della Quercia. The Ramo di Uopini was completed in 1387. In order to increase the water quality, between 1437 and 1438, under the Prato di Porta Camollia, the Galazzoni were built a system that removes the impurities from the water by decanting it. These basins are deep and contain at least . After 1466 no significant changes or extensions were made to the main structure of the Bottini system 1438.
The first private branches to private households emerged from 1474 onwards. In fact, on July 14, 1474, Alessandro di Mariano Sozzini received permission from the city government to build a drain near the Pantaneto fountain to his private residence in Via Pantaneto at his own expense. In September of the same year Pietro Forteguerri also received permission to draw water from the fountain in Via del Casato to his house. Bartolo di Tura also received permission in 1474 to create a private connection. The aim of allowing the creation of private connections was to reduce illegal discharges, the immense extent of which was officially denounced as early as 1446.
From the Florentine conquest of Siena to the unification of Italy
The air shafts (smiragli) outside the city walls proved to be problematic in times of war. Already in the run-up to the Battle of Camollia (1526) the conspirator Lucio Aringhieri tried to bring troops into the city via the Bottini. In the run-up to the Fiorentine siege (1554–1555), the Bottini began to be walled up in March 1553 so that only water could flow under the barriers.
Throughout the period from the surrender of Siena in 1555 to the entry into operation of the Vivo aqueduct after the 1st World War, Siena continued to use the spoils as the only source of water supply.
From September 1691, some private individuals demanded and obtained connections to the municipal water supply through wells that collected the water from the gorello: based on how much they paid, they received the relative amount of water, measured by the municipality in "Dadi". The dado, also called forellino, was a small hole in the center of a plate that blocked the junction channel and corresponded to about of water in 24 hours. People could have contracts for 1/2 dado, for 1, 2, 3 dadi, and so on.
The oldest planimetric map still in existence dates from 1768 and is now in the Siena State Archives. In July 1825, Giovanni Gani created a connection between the two main canals at an intersection near the Palazzo dei Diavioli. In order to supply water to the almost dry canal of Fontegaia, it was taken with two pumps from the canal of Fontebranda, located twenty meters below. After the waterflow in the Bottino of Fontegaia normalized, the connection was interrupted again in the same year. This system was used in 1835 and 1851 for the same reasons. In order to cope with the water shortage in the Fontegaia Canal, restoration work took place from 1851 to 1868, during which several areas of the canal affected by landslides were cleared. The (modernized) pump approach was resumed in 1870 when Vico Bello installed steam pumps. However, these were already moved in 1873 in the direction of the road to San Domenico; the length of the connecting pipe is . This connection also supplied the area of the Fortezza Santa Barbara fortress and was active until 1931.
The end of the Bottini as a water supply system for drinking water
At the end of the 19th century, the water supply via the Bottini was no longer considered to be sufficient in quantitative and hygienic terms. From 1885, 18 sources were examined, from 1886 the rivers Arbia, Elsa and Masellone as well as Bozzone (river), Staggia and Tressa were shortlisted, whether or not they corresponded to the water quality for the city supply. Ultimately, in 1895 the choice fell on the Vivo, which flow from the Monte Amiata. From just below the source at Vivo d'Orcia to the city of Siena, an underground aqueduct was built over the municipal areas of Castiglione d'Orcia, Montalcino, San Quirico d'Orcia (near Bagno Vignoni) and Murlo, which is called Acquedotto del Vivo and which today, alongside later supply lines (for example the Ente and Fiora rivers ), which supplies the city of Siena with drinking water. The aqueduct reached Porta San Marco on May 15, 1914, while the inner-city distribution system was completed in 1918.
Fountains
The fountains belonging to the Bottini water system are divided into two categories. The main wells (fonti maggiori) include the wells that have larger water inlets, the secondary wells (fonti minori) include the wells whose water quantity and importance is much lower.
Main fountains
Secondary fountains
Citations
General bibliography
Antonio Maria Baldi: Gli antichi bottini senesi. In: Leonardo Lombardi, Gioacchino Lena, Giulio Pazzagli (Hrsg.): Tecnica di idraulica antica. Geologia dell'Ambiente, Supplemento al numero 4/2006 (Periodico della SIGEA, Società Italiana di Geologia Ambientale), Rom 2006 (Onlineausgabe, PDF)
Comune di Siena (Hrsg.): I Bottini. Acquedotti medievali senesi. Edizioni Gielle, Siena 1984
Comune di Siena, Santa Maria della Scala, Associazione La Diana (Hrsg.): A ritrovar la Diana. Protagon Editori, Siena 2001,
Duccio Balestracci, Laura Vigni, Armando Constantini: La memoria dell'Acqua. I bottini di Siena. Protagon Editori, Siena 2006
Acquedotto del Fiora/La Diana (Hrsg.); Benedetto Bargagli Petrucci, Giacomo Luchini, Luca Luchini, Laura Vigni, Giacomo Zanibelli: Acqua per la città. Nel centenario dell'acquedotto del Vivo. Una tormentata avventura senese fra XIX e XX secolo. Tipografia senese, Siena 2014
Fabio Bargagli Petrucci: Le fonti di Siena e i loro aquedotti, note storiche dalle origini fino al MDLV. Siena 1906 (Onlineausgabe bei archive.org, PDF)
External links
Offizielle Webseite der Stadt Siena
La Diana, Associazione La Diana, Website Bottini di Siena.
Webseite des Museo dell'Acqua
Enjoy Siena, Website Bottini di Siena.
Enjoy Siena, Website Museo dell'Acqua.
Bottini medievali senesi
La mia terra di Siena: Fonti e bottini di Siena
Fountains in Siena
History of construction
Populated places established in the 1st millennium BC
Roman sites of Tuscany
Siena
Water
World Heritage Sites in Italy | Bottini of Siena | [
"Engineering",
"Environmental_science"
] | 2,715 | [
"Construction",
"History of construction",
"Hydrology",
"Water"
] |
67,456,408 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space%20diplomacy | Space diplomacy refers to the integration of the collaboration of the knowledge, technology, and legislation involved in science diplomacy as applied to the expanded exploration of space. As diplomatic relationships are integral to the mitigation of various health, scientific, natural or technological issues across nations, space diplomacy is a growing field in which various nations can come to a consensus on what is fair when it comes to the exploration and commercialization of space travel.
Background
Space travel is a necessary resource for people around the world, especially when considering the use of satellites in areas like research or telecommunications. With the exploration of space, major issues are merging, such as environmental concerns and pollution or the monopolization of space travel. Space diplomacy allows for the consideration of such concerns, as officials, scientists, environmental activists, and private corporations can come together in order for both national and private space exploration to prosper. As a term, space diplomacy dates back to at least the 1960s.
Space diplomacy policy and legislation have evolved to accommodate novel space activities and challenges. Initially, from 1959 to 1980, U.S.-Soviet Cold War considerations drove the emergence of the majority of space diplomacy in the form of the slew of binding international agreements that continue to form the basis of the majority of today's space governance. Then, from 1980 to 2000, the rise in the number of both space activities actors and space actors slowed the development of next generation governance. This resulted in weaker, more voluntary diplomatic outputs. This trend continued from 2000, as actors like the European Union and Japan developed their own space diplomacy via instruments like the E.U.'s Galileo satellite navigation system, which went live in 2016, and Japan's Basic Space Law of 2008, while actors like China and the U.S. struggled to find common ground despite China's increasing capacity to reach into space. Today's picture is of increasingly complex space diplomacy, with governments and civil society keen to influence space development despite lacking strong international norms, laws, or standards that might inform such governance, a goal pursued by the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs.
The development of future space diplomacy for 2030 and beyond will have to accommodate these trends, which are likely to continue in terms of increasing numbers of activities and actors, for instance through greater involvement of civil society and Global South actors in the attempt to develop supportive legislative and policy solutions. Crucially, in order for space diplomacy to become effective in allowing the sustainable development of space, according to agencies like the U.N., governments must better incorporate civil society in the creation of norms and rules. An increase in the diversity of activities and actors may also result from the U.N.-facilitated Human Space Technology Initiative, launched in 2010 and instrumental in promoting access to space education, space data, and space technology and research facilities, as well as direct access to space via, for example, the U.N. facilitated launch of CubeSats.
International space law
Established international laws and regulations
Outer space is one of the four identified "global commons", along with the ocean, the atmosphere, and Antarctica. Although the definition of what is a global domain is changing with time and inclusivity, these four domains representing aspects of the environment are the "common heritage of mankind," and as such they are resources that should be shared with all the countries of Earth. In other words, no nation has a sole claim, and the resources associated with these domains should be preserved for everyone. Current international regulations to protect space as a global common and for space travel have been set by the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, which governs that space exploration and the use of celestial bodies are to be used for “peaceful purposes” and for scientific research, as established in Resolution 2222 (XXI). The Treaty states that no country can achieve sovereign control over regions of space. Consequently, the Treaty requires that space should be used as a resource of all people. Space law itself is relatively new as a branch of international law, encompassing the need to designate the access to, and freedom to explore, space. Especially with the establishment of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) in 1959, participating countries within the United Nations have worked to regulate further human expansion into space, via five main international treaties of space law. These treaties include the Rescue Agreement, the Space Liability Convention, the Registration Convention, and the Moon Treaty, which together regulate activities conducted on celestial bodies. Other agreements aside from the main five were also established in efforts to avoid the use of weapons of mass destruction in space, such as the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963, which bans the testing of nuclear based weapons in domains including space.
Rising pressure to reform space law treaties and principles
As the Outer Space Treaty was signed in 1967 as a consequence of the space race between the United States and the Soviet Union, continuous updates to the international agreement to space accounts for the great expansion of space travel in the past 20 years. Despite the attempts to preserve space as a global commons, demands due to technological and science advancements in space, including space exploration and private spaceflight, like in the other global commons domains, have been threatening the guidelines set by the Outer Space Treaty. The “New Space” sector of private industry, which refers to civilian space activities funded by companies such as SpaceX, has been an increasingly competitive entity in the exploration and commercialization of space travel. Representing a contemporaneous space race, the growing network of privatized space flight requires legislation that would facilitate the union between both the public and private sectors of space travel and research across nations. Coupled with growing orbital and suborbital launches across the world, there is a growing need to reform the established legislation set by the United Nations. Another consideration for law reform is the increase in space trash and debris as a result of international orbital launches and exploration.
The Outer Space Treaty and other principles of space law ban the use or testing of weapons of mass destruction, such as nuclear warheads, including in stations in the Earth's orbit. Yet, it is still possible for a nation to participate in space military activities, such as the launching of a nuclear missile through space. Aside from private spaceflight or rover launches in the field of research, nations around the world have recognized the potential to use the domain of space for military defense. For example, the United States and Russia, two of the main actors in the current space race, have not signed the Moon Agreement and so have not agreed to the stipulations of the peaceful treatment of celestial bodies. Signed under the Trump administration in December 2019, the Space Force represents a new branch of the Defense Department and served to establish formal military jurisdiction in the Earth's orbit. The release of the 2020 Defense Space Strategy represents another effort by the United States to expand its national military and defense into space.
Other nations have also been involved in security considerations, such as the effort by the European Union to establish its own policies towards space security. This collaboration of European countries builds upon current shared policies while prioritizing the sustainability and security of space travel.
Prevention of the militarization of space
The members of the UN have been discussing the provisions of the Outer Space Treaty since the 1980s. In 1981, the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space was presented by the UN General Assembly and has been discussed during the Conference on Disarmament as a resolution that reestablishes the principles of peace outlined in the original Outer Space Treaty. However, due to the clash between the priorities of the UN members, discussions for a Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space initiative have never come to full fruition. In favour of such hard legislation, in 2008, both China and Russia drafted and proposed the Prevention of an Arms Race in Space Treaty, which would serve to reaffirm the principles of the Outer Space Treaty while also preventing the militarization of space. Working on a softer policy-driven path, in 2019, the U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space Working Group on the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities finally reached consensus among its 84 member states on 21 'Guidelines for the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities.' The following year, to specifically counter an arms race in outer space, the U.N. General Assembly adopted Resolution 75/36, Reducing Space Threats through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behaviours. Issues like dual-use technology and the efficacy of an agreed set of principles versus the long time a formal U.N. treaty might take to be signed and ratified, and especially policed and verified, continue to pose problems.
Space privatization
Over the past few decades, the space environment has dramatically changed as private companies entered the space exploration domain, meaning the sector is no longer the sole preserve of governments and their space agencies, such as NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA). Unlike the space race that occurred between the United States and Russia, this new era of the space race is accelerated by the competition of customers. Private companies in many nations have been involved in the satellite market for many years, and their efforts have paved the way for entrepreneurs to develop their own vision and contribution to space exploration.
Privatization in the United States
The U.S. space industry is composed of four sectors: (1) defense (2) intelligence, (3) commercial, and (4) civil space sectors. Space privatization is associated with the commercial space sector. For the most part, the U.S. national launch infrastructure has been privatized or leased to companies such as SpaceX, Blue Origin, Virgin Galactic, Bigelow Aerospace, and the Sierra Nevada Corporation. These competitors are focused on reducing the cost of access to space, for example through the reuse of launchers and spacecraft, making space accessible to people and not just trained astronauts.
SpaceX
SpaceX was created in 2002 by entrepreneur, engineer, and inventor Elon Musk with the mission of taking humans to Mars and revolutionizing space technology. Over the past two decades, the company specialized in the manufacture and launch of rockets that directly competed with the United Launch Alliance, the contract holder for the launch of NASA and Department of Defense rocket launches. SpaceX was the first private company to dock a ship at the International Space Station (ISS), with the development of the Falcon 9 launch and Dragon spacecraft. SpaceX designed the Falcon Heavy to not only launch future satellites into space and carry cargo, but to launch people to destinations like the Moon, or even Mars. SpaceX's ability to design a successful orbital transport system and Falcon 9 launch success at one-third the price of a traditional NASA-contracted launch demonstrates the private-sector capability to fulfill many current NASA functions at a fraction of the cost. Such achievement frees up NASA to concentrate on its core research and exploration missions in space and allows the private sector to invest in a self-sustaining space-based industry.
Blue Origin
Blue Origin was founded by Amazon's CEO, Jeff Bezos, in September 2000, with the goal of making space travel more accessible and cheaper through reusable launch systems. Unlike SpaceX, Blue Origin aims to target the space tourism industry. The company development a vertical launch vehicle, the New Shepard, that could reach an altitude of 100 km and descend back to Earth by landing vertically. Blue Origin has also created the New Glenn rocket, a reusable heavy-lift launch vehicle that can carry a payload to orbit. Both innovations demonstrate the competition that is occurring in the private sector. Similar to Elon Musk's intention with SpaceX, Bezos aims to make innovations that will allow future generations to inhabit space. Specifically, Blue Origin's goal is to promote future generations to construct a space station in orbit around Earth, perpetually in motion to produce artificial gravity, where humans would re-create cities, national parks, and even famous sites.
Virgin Galactic
Founded by technology and retail entrepreneur Richard Branson in 2004, Virgin Galactic is a private space company that describes itself as “the world's first commercial space line.” Virgin Galactic has been planned to carry six passengers at a time into sub-orbital space and provide them six minutes of weightlessness in the course of a two and a half our flight. The technology differs from SpaceX and Blue Origin because the launch into space was not from the ground, but from a jet airplane. This ship flies to an altitude of about 18 km and releases a smaller, rocket powered spacecraft called SpaceShip Two, which is propelled to an altitude of about 100 km. Like SpaceX and Blue Origin, Virgin Galactic aims to transform the space sector by making space exploration easier for people.
Bigelow Aerospace
Bigelow Aerospace was founded by hotel magnate Robert Bigelow in 1999. The company wanted to provide a low-cost, low Earth orbit space station that is accessible to the commercial sectors. To accomplish this, the company started to create habitats that can expand after being deployed in space. The places would provide some protection from solar and cosmic radiation, space debris, and other elements. Biglelow first licensed an expandable module technology from NASA after the agency canceled a project called TransHab, which had developed it. The company then launched two spacecraft, Genesis 1 in 2006 and Genesis 2 in 2007, on Dnepr rockets from Russia, to demonstrate that expandable module technology. The spacecraft demonstrated that the modules were stable and maintained air pressure. In 2013, the company signed a contract with NASA to build a similar expandable module, called the Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM), and install it on the ISS. In April 2016, this module was successfully deployed outside the International Space Station. The company is currently developing another module, the B330, in the hope of creating outposts in Earth orbit, lunar orbit, and on surface of the Moon, which could be visited by paying customers. In March 2020, however, Bigelow Aerospace laid off its workforce, and the company's future ambitions are unknown.
Sierra Nevada Corporation
Founded in 1963 by John Chisholm, the Sierra Nevada Corporation (SNC) is a privately held electronic systems provider and systems integrator specializing in microsatellites, telemedicine, and commercial orbital transportation services. SNC is notable for its Dream Chaser, a planned commercial crew spacecraft, which will ferry up to seven astronauts and cargo to and from the International Space Station. SNC was able to transition from small satellites to crewed spacecraft by partnering with companies such as Draper Laboratory, NASA's Langley Research Center, Boeing, and United Launch Alliance. Nevertheless, SNC hopes to use this mini shuttle, the Dream Chaser, to take a lead in space tourism and commerce real estate. In 2021, SNC will use the United Launch Alliance's Vulcan Centaur rocket as the launch vehicle for Dream Chaser's cargo configuration. Furthermore, other products created by SNC includes spacecraft actuators that power the Mars rovers and hybrid rocket technologies that powered the first commercial astronaut to space.
International space privatization
Space privatization is not only becoming prominent in the U.S.: competition amongst space programs in Russia, Europe, Japan, India, and China has been growing significantly. The European Space Agency was established before the alliance between Russia and the U.S. in 1975, following many years of independent aeronautical engineering research by individual nations. Similarly, Chinese, Japanese and Indian space agencies began in the 1960s. A number of smaller countries, including the United Arab Emirates, also are participating in the space competition.
China became the third nation to independently launch a human into orbit, in 2003, and its capabilities have since grown. China's visions include sending people to the Moon and building a space station as well as creating its own robotic explorer. Meanwhile, India launched its first unmanned mission to Mars in late 2013, and its probe entered Mars's orbit in September 2014. Since then, the Indian Space Research Organization has reached an agreement with NASA on subsequent explorations of Mars. China and the United Arab Emirates successfully sent spacecraft to orbit Mars in February 2021, which was when NASA landed its rover there.
The advancements of transportation infrastructure by both national and international private players have created an environment conducive to developing space-based industries that use commerce to greatly increase the quality of life and decrease the cost of living. Examples of space-based activities that have commercial potential include, but are not limited to, tapping space-based clean energy sources, mining asteroids for useful raw materials, developing safe venues for scientific experiments, upcycling/sequestering hazardous but valuable debris currently in space, tapping sources of water already in space, to decouple into oxygen and hydrogen for space fuels and oxidizers and to provide radiation shielding mass, and so forth. Collaboration between both public and private space companies in which the private sector develops the space industry and government parties and agencies, like NASA, buy transport and other key services, such as on-orbit facilities, as customers of the private providers. NASA, as an example, has already begun buying some space transportation in this manner. Such actions are leading to a comprehensive advancement in space.
Environmental consequences
Due to the lack of sufficient established international space laws able to create boundaries and define the regulation of space, space exploration and private ownership of space incur negative consequences for Earth's environment and for space itself. Rocket and space launches have been steady since the space race, starting from 1955. However, the recent space race between billionaires Elon Musk, Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson have significantly increased the number of space launches: in 2019 alone, there were 443 launches. Space launches provide in-depth knowledge of space, create new markets, and spur space diplomacy; however, such a high increase in launches has several negative effects for Earth.
Carbon dioxide emissions
Space launches pose a problem for the environment because it can emit a very high quantity of carbon dioxide, depending on the size of the spacecraft or rocket, into the environment. Carbon dioxide occurs naturally in the atmosphere; however, a significantly increased amount of CO2 pollutes the air and traps radiation and heat from the sun. The build up of carbon dioxide prevents the Earth from cooling at night and causes climate change. The Falcon 9 launched by SpaceX in 2018, burned 112,184 kilograms of kerosene, which released 336,552 kg of carbon dioxide into the Earth's atmosphere. In 2020 alone, there were a total of 104 successful space launches, with each launch adding significantly to the CO2 buildup. Furthermore, because no strict space regulations exist for environmental maintenance, the amount of carbon dioxide emitted is left unregulated, causing environmental issues such as greenhouse gas emissions. Recently, there has been a surge in space companies professing awareness of the issues, and some are actively innovating ways to combat these large emissions. For example, Virgin Galactic announced it will burn fuel for only 60 seconds to limit the environmental effect.
Black carbon accumulation
Launching kerosene-fueled rockets and spaceships adds black carbon, also known as soot, to the upper layer of the atmosphere. Black carbon is a particle that absorbs solar energy, and in comparison to carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, it absorbs more than one million times of energy than CO2. The accumulation of black carbon that absorbs solar energy in the atmosphere can warm the atmosphere and so can significantly increase the rate of global warming. In addition, black carbon not only stays in the atmosphere but precipitates back onto the Earth while lowering the reflecting power of surfaces, important to maintaining a cool temperature. With the accumulation of black carbon, absorption replaces reflection. The increased absorption targets snow covered regions such as the Arctic ice caps. Because of the absorbance of solar energy in the ice, the Arctic ice cap is melting at an alarming rate. Sea levels are rising as a consequence, which threatens many cities and even countries. In response, some space companies, such as Orbex, plan on reducing black carbon in order to be more space conscious.
Space junk
Space junk is human made debris in the form of the remnants of rockets and spaceships; there exists no international agreement on the best way to remove it. This is problematic as four thousand active and inactive satellites in space are in danger of being struck by space debris. Space equipment affected in this way, as well as space junk itself, can plummet towards Earth and harm its environment and people. Removing such space junk is problematic because with the increasing amount of space equipment deployed by increasingly numerous countries, it is difficult to know if one piece of space junk targeted for removal is actually another country's active space property. Although the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs has developed space debris mitigation guidelines where space launches should have a plan to remove the junk produced within 25 years, it is voluntary and is followed by only 40% of all space missions.
The Space2030 Agenda
Rooted in the realization that space is a frontier transcending national boundaries and interests, with benefits that should be accessible to all countries, The Space2030 Agenda underscores the importance of international cooperation and the peaceful use of outer space. The Space2030 Agenda, created by the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) in partnership with UN Member States, aims to harness the potential of space science, technology, applications, and infrastructure for the benefit of humanity. It is designed as a key instrument for global sustainable development, fostering peaceful cooperation among the UN's Member States. The agenda encompasses space usage by government, intergovernmental, and non-governmental organizations, including private enterprises and industries from each UN Member State.
By integrating space technologies within the broader framework of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the agenda aims to leverage space technology and exploration to support sustainable development worldwide. It aims to address critical issues such as climate change, global health, disaster risk reduction, and socioeconomic development. A joint study titled 'Space4SDGs' between UNOOSA and the European Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Agency discovered that space technology benefits all 17 SDGs.
This agenda aims to make the benefits of space exploration and technology accessible to all countries, contributing to humanity's betterment. It’s objectives and implementation plan are structured around the four overarching pillars of space economy, space society, space accessibility, and space diplomacy, highlighting the multifaceted role of space in modern society. However, the implementation of the Space2030 Agenda may face various challenges, necessitating the creation of a more comprehensive space sustainability framework and regulatory structure. This is essential for establishing a circular space economy that operates within Earth's safe and just boundaries while simultaneously unlocking space's potential for everyone.
Four Overarching Pillars
There are four overarching pillars which under-gird The Space2030 Agenda and inform the strategic objectives within the document. These are:
Space Diplomacy: Fostering space diplomacy through partnerships and strengthening global collaboration in the peaceful utilization of outer space.
Space Economy: Boosting the economic advantages derived from space and reinforcing the space sector's impact as a key contributor to a sustainable economy.
Space Society: Promoting the societal advantages of space-related endeavors and maximizing the application of space technologies and services to enhance the quality of life on Earth.
Space Accessibility: Enhancing the availability of space for everyone, guaranteeing that nations worldwide can gain socioeconomic advantages from the use of space science, technology, and space-derived data and products.
Objectives
The primary objectives of the Space2030 Agenda are organized around the four pillars, and these are:
Objective 1: Boost the economic advantages gained from space and reinforce the space sector's role as a key catalyst for sustainable development.
Objective 2: Utilize the capabilities of space to address daily challenges and capitalize on space-related advancements to enhance the quality of life.
Objective 3: Improve the accessibility of space for everyone and guarantee that all nations can reap socioeconomic advantages from the applications of space science and technology, as well as from space-derived data, information, and products, thus aiding in the fulfillment of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Objective 4: Forge alliances and bolster global collaboration for the peaceful exploration of outer space, as well as in the international management of activities in outer space.
Implementation
UNOOSA will play a central role in facilitating the implementation of the Space2030 Agenda. This will be carried out in collaboration with Member States, international organizations, the private sector, academia, and civil society.
Key Initiatives
The Space2030 Agenda drives several key implementation initiatives to realize its goals, including a global partnership that includes international cooperation on space exploration, data sharing, and joint research. It also emphasizes the role of space tools in supporting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through applications in environmental monitoring, agriculture, health, and disaster management. Additionally, the development of policy and legal frameworks is critical for fostering the peaceful use of outer space and promoting responsible conduct among nations and private entities engaged in space activities.
Progress Reviews
The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) is tasked with monitoring the progress of The Space2030 Agenda. It includes regular agenda items for Member States and permanent observers to exchange experiences and best practices. A midterm review is scheduled for 2025, followed by a final review in 2030, where the committee will report to the United Nations General Assembly on the implementation outcomes.
Challenges
The implementation of the Space2030 Agenda faces significant hurdles, including geopolitical tensions, resource limitations, and the complexities of space exploration. A major issue is ensuring equitable access to space, as disparities in technological advancement among nations persist. The growth of the space sector, driven by private enterprise, has led to increased space data usage for societal benefits but also exacerbated challenges like space debris, orbital congestion and increasing greenhouse gas emissions. This situation creates a 'space sustainability paradox,' where efforts to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through space could become counterproductive due to environmental impacts on Earth and in space. Current regulations are insufficient, risking a 'tragedy of the commons' in space, where unregulated exploitation leads to resource depletion. Sustainable space development must consider three pillars: 1) addressing global challenges through space; 2) preserving space as a resource; and 3) protecting Earth from the impacts of space activities. Without comprehensive international policies and regulation, the long-term accessibility and safety of space are jeopardized, underlining the need for immediate action to ensure space's sustainable use.
Future Direction
In the future the Space2030 Agenda imagines a world in which space exploration and technology play a key role in driving progress on the SDGs and promoting peaceful relationships between nations. The agenda encourages ongoing innovation, adaptation to emerging space challenges, and sustained commitment from the global community to realize the full potential of space for humanity.
See also
Politics of Outer Space
Private spaceflight
Space debris
United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space
Further reading
Alekseĭ Georgievich Arbatov and Vladimir Dvorkin. (2014). Outer Space: Weapons, Diplomacy, and Security. KW Publishers. .
Maximilian Betman. (2016). Space Diplomacy: Shedding Light on the Current Initiatives to Prevent Conflict in Outer Space. Vienna, European Space Policy Institute (ESPI).
Alexander de Avila. (2021). Good Heavens: How Space Diplomacy Can Help Humanity and Improve America's Strategic Position in the Indo-Pacific. John F. Kennedy School of Government.
External links
Astropolitics
Boosting Space Diplomacy at State
Foreign Policy: Space
Space diplomacy and research
Space diplomacy DiploFoundation topic page
References
Space exploration
Space law
Science diplomacy | Space diplomacy | [
"Astronomy"
] | 5,630 | [
"Space exploration",
"Space law",
"Outer space"
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67,459,229 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitis%20%27Ornamental%20Grape%27 | Vitis 'Ornamental Grape', also known as ornamental grapevine, Ganzin glory, glory vine and crimson glory, is a nonfruiting ornamental plant that is a hybrid of Vitis vinifera (Aramon noir) and Vitis rupestris (Alicante Ganzin).
Origins
The vine was bred in 1879 by Victor Ganzin (1838-1900) in Le Pradet near Toulon in France, who had anticipated to mix the fruit characteristics of V. vinifera with V. Rupestris's resistant feature to root damage by phylloxera. It was collected at the CSIRO at Merbein, where it was imported from the Viticultural Research Station at Nuriootpa, South Australia in 1963 and was called 'Tinto' (syn. 'Teinturier Male').
Description
The ornamental grape is hardy and generally nonfruiting, vigorously growing, deciduous vine with glossy leaves that have a coppery colour when young which mature to greyish green, turning to amber and orange in early autumn, and then become a brilliant scarlet or crimson by mid-autumn. The leaves tend to be entire to moderately three-lobed, having a thin V-shaped petiolar sinus. The leaves and shoots are representative of hybrids between Vitis vinifera and Vitis rupestris.
It grows to a height of 32 metres and reaches a width of 3 metres and, like the other Vitis species, it climbs by using twining tendrils.
Inflorescence and fruit
The vine produces numerous inflorescences of male flowers with plenteous pollen and a strong fragrance. The inflorescences would then abscess, but occasionally a few flowers produce functional ovaries and at times develop some very small blackish fruit if the climate allows it to, though they don't normally last on the plant and they tend to taste bitter, although birds consume them.
Cultivation
In Australia, the vine is grown for its impressive leaves that turn brilliant red, scarlet, purple and as well as orange in autumn. Easily grown from cuttings, it thrives in a range of climates from hot and dry, to cool moist and subtropical, but would colour best in cooler climates under a sunny spot. It is grown widely in South Australia and has been popular in the state since the early 20th century. It is also present in Mildura and is cultivated elsewhere in Victoria and New South Wales, where it is usually grown over a pergola or fence.
It is oftentimes called 'Ornamental Grape', but is sold by nurseries under a number of different names, such as 'Crimson Glory', 'Glory Vine', 'Alicante Bouschet', `Teinturier' or `Teinturier Male'. It can get fungal leaf diseases in humid coastal climates.
Gallery
See also
Vitis coignetiae, an ornamental grapevine that produces fruit and is also known as 'crimson glory'
References
Vitis
Vines
Ornamental plant cultivars
Hybrid plants
Garden plants
Garden plants of Europe
Horticulture in France | Vitis 'Ornamental Grape' | [
"Biology"
] | 636 | [
"Hybrid plants",
"Plants",
"Hybrid organisms"
] |
67,459,232 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gowers%27%20theorem | In mathematics, Gowers' theorem, also known as Gowers' Ramsey theorem and Gowers' FINk theorem, is a theorem in Ramsey theory and combinatorics. It is a Ramsey-theoretic result about functions with finite support. Timothy Gowers originally proved the result in 1992, motivated by a problem regarding Banach spaces. The result was subsequently generalised by Bartošová, Kwiatkowska, and Lupini.
Definitions
The presentation and notation is taken from Todorčević, and is different to that originally given by Gowers.
For a function , the support of is defined . Given , let be the set
If , have disjoint supports, we define to be their pointwise sum, where . Each is a partial semigroup under .
The tetris operation is defined . Intuitively, if is represented as a pile of square blocks, where the th column has height , then is the result of removing the bottom row. The name is in analogy with the video game. denotes the th iterate of .
A block sequence in is one such that for every .
The theorem
Note that, for a block sequence , numbers and indices , the sum is always defined. Gowers' original theorem states that, for any finite colouring of , there is a block sequence such that all elements of the form have the same colour.
The standard proof uses ultrafilters, or equivalently, nonstandard arithmetic.
Generalisation
Intuitively, the tetris operation can be seen as removing the bottom row of a pile of boxes. It is natural to ask what would happen if we tried removing different rows. Bartošová and Kwiatkowska considered the wider class of generalised tetris operations, where we can remove any chosen subset of the rows.
Formally, let be a nondecreasing surjection. The induced tetris operation is given by composition with , i.e. . The generalised tetris operations are the collection of for all nondecreasing surjections . In this language, the original tetris operation is induced by the map .
Bartošová and Kwiatkowska showed that the finite version of Gowers' theorem holds for the collection of generalised tetris operations. Lupini later extended this result to the infinite case.
References
Ramsey theory
Theorems in combinatorics | Gowers' theorem | [
"Mathematics"
] | 496 | [
"Theorems in combinatorics",
"Combinatorics",
"Ramsey theory",
"Theorems in discrete mathematics"
] |
67,459,377 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook%20emotional%20manipulation%20experiment | In 2012, Facebook, Inc. conducted one-week experiment where they tried manipulating people their emotions negatively. It was revealed in 2014.
Reaction by Facebook
The leader of the experiment Adam D. I. Kramer, apologized for the experiment and suggested that the results were insignificant and not worth the anxiety that the reports of the experiment.
References
Emotion
Facebook criticisms and controversies | Facebook emotional manipulation experiment | [
"Biology"
] | 73 | [
"Emotion",
"Behavior",
"Human behavior"
] |
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