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73,407,619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterman%20v.%20Colorado | Counterman v. Colorado, 600 U.S. 66 (2023), is a case of the Supreme Court of the United States concerning the line between true threats of violence punishable as crimes and free speech protected by the First Amendment. The states and lower courts were divided over how to define the line. By a 7-2 majority, the court decided that statements are not free speech if the defendant recklessly disregarded a substantial risk that their statements would be viewed as threatening violence.
Beginning in 2010, Billy Counterman sent thousands of messages to singer-songwriter Coles Whalen that foreboded her death and followed her activities. Counterman was convicted of stalking in Colorado, with his conviction left intact by the Colorado Court of Appeals and Colorado Supreme Court. Under Colorado law, statements are not free speech if a reasonable person would view the statements as threatening, with no need to prove that the speaker had subjective intent to threaten. Writing for the majority, Justice Elena Kagan wrote that there must be some subjective understanding of the threatening nature of the statements, but that a mental state of recklessness is sufficient, with no need for any more demanding form of subjective intent. Although the decision left Counterman vulnerable to conviction on retrial, some criticized it for declaring that stalking was protected by the First Amendment.
Background
State of the law
Although the First Amendment protects free speech, there are exceptions for incitement, defamation, obscenity, fighting words, and true threats. Before the Supreme Court ruling, there were conflicting standards in different states as well as in different federal courts of appeal over how to determine whether a threatening statement is not protected by the First Amendment. Some standards were based on whether a "reasonable person" would interpret the statement as threatening, known as an "objective" standard. Others were "subjective" standards based on the speaker's recklessness as to their statement's threatening nature, knowledge that their statement will be seen as a threat, or intent that their statement be a threat. Colorado uses the reasonable-person standard.
Lower court history
Beginning in 2010, Billy Counterman sent thousands of Facebook messages to singer-songwriter Coles Whalen over a six-year period. "You're not being good for human relations. Die. Don't need you," Counterman wrote. "Was that you in the white Jeep?" She blocked him several times, but he created new accounts and continued sending messages. "Staying in cyber life is going to kill you," Counterman wrote. "Seems like I'm being talked about more than I'm being talked to. This isn't healthy." Counterman was arrested in 2016 and prosecuted for stalking under Colorado law based only on the text messages he sent. Counterman was convicted and sentenced to four-and-a-half years of prison. Colorado did not present any evidence of physical stalking acts, such as following, at the trial; the lack of a proven physical act exposed the case to First Amendment review under the true threats doctrine because the proven criminal act involved only speech. The Colorado Court of Appeals affirmed his conviction in 2021 under the standard that a person could "reasonably perceive" that the threats were serious. The Colorado Supreme Court denied review.
Supreme Court
On January 13, 2023, the Supreme Court granted his petition for a writ of certiorari. The Biden administration submitted an amicus brief, warning that "Threats of violence against public officials in particular have proliferated in recent years, including threats against Members of Congress, judges, local officials, and election workers".
Oral arguments
Oral arguments were held on April 19, 2023. Justice Clarence Thomas said, "We are more hypersensitive about different things now, and people can feel threatened in different ways." Justice Neil Gorsuch said, "We live in a world in which people are sensitive, and maybe increasingly sensitive. As a professor, you might have issued a trigger warning from time to time when you had to discuss a bit of history that's difficult or a case that's difficult. What do we do in a world in which reasonable people may deem things harmful, hurtful, threatening? And we're going to hold people liable willy-nilly for that?" Justice Amy Coney Barrett asked what if a professor gives a lecture "about just how vicious it was to be in a Jim Crow South and puts up behind them on a screen a picture of a burning cross and reads aloud some threats of lynching that were made at the time" and Black students interpret the lecture as a physical threat "because they don't understand it"? Chief Justice John Roberts made light of Counterman's messages, prompting laughter from other justices and the audience. Justice Elena Kagan said that from Whalen's perspective, Counterman's actions "can be objectively terrifying".
Opinion of the court
The case was decided on June 27, 2023. Justice Elena Kagan delivered the opinion of the court. In a 7–2 decision, the court ruled that the Court of Appeals erred in interpreting that the burden on the government to establish the statement being a "true threat" is to prove that a reasonable person would understand his statements as threats. The majority stated that for "true threat" cases, the government must prove that the speaker was reckless in their comments, but it does not need to prove that the speaker intended harm with their comments. "The State must show that the defendant consciously disregarded a substantial risk that his communications would be viewed as threatening violence," Kagan wrote. "The State need not prove any more demanding form of subjective intent to threaten another." She explained that the recklessness standard involves "insufficient concern with risk, rather than awareness of impending harm".
The court vacated the judgment of the Colorado Court of Appeals and remanded the case back down, which means the lower court will reconsider the case and could still convict Counterman if he's found guilty of stalking under the new standard set forth by the court.
Concurrence
Justice Sonia Sotomayor concurred in the judgement but wrote, "There is simply no need to reach out in this stalking case to determine whether anything more than recklessness is needed for punishing true threats generally." Justice Gorsuch agreed to her concurrence in part.
Dissent
Justice Amy Coney Barrett dissented, writing that the decision "unjustifiably grants true threats preferential treatment" and that, because the majority decided it as a First Amendment matter, the standard would apply to civil cases as well as criminal. Justice Thomas joined her dissent and separately wrote to address the majority's "surprising and misplaced reliance" on New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, the landmark 1964 Supreme Court case that raised the requirement for public figures to claim libel.
Reaction
Law specialists said the messages would probably still lead to reconviction under the recklessness doctrine. Rhonda Saunders, a prosecutor specializing in stalking law, said many states already had the recklessness doctrine in their laws but added, "I'm afraid police agencies and prosecutors are going to use [the Supreme Court decision] as an excuse not to do the job they are supposed to do." Annie Seifullah, a civil litigator and cyberbullying survivor, said, "As the dust settles, I believe we'll find that a lot of egregious behavior will still fall under this new standard. But some won't...We need something more tailored to the actual harm here."
Law professor Mary Anne Franks, whose focus is cyberbullying, wrote: "The court ignores the reality that many stalkers fervently believe that their actions are or should be welcomed by their victims; indeed, the court's holding means that the more delusional the stalker, the more the stalking is protected." She wrote that "the Supreme Court has declared stalking to be protected by the First Amendment" and that the decision "elevates stalkers into free speech heroes". Victims' rights advocate Lenora Claire said, "My phone is blowing up with victims who are absolutely terrified. If you even get as far as prosecution, you've already been through the gauntlet, navigating the restraining order process, convincing law enforcement to take you seriously."
Brian Hauss, senior staff attorney with the American Civil Liberties Union's Speech, Privacy, & Technology Project said, "We're glad the Supreme Court affirmed today that inadvertently threatening speech cannot be criminalized. In a world rife with misunderstandings and miscommunications, people would be chilled from speaking altogether if they could be jailed for failing to predict how their words would be received."
See also
Mens rea
Elonis v. United States
Notes
References
External links
Colorado Court of Appeals, Division II opinion in case No. 17CA1465 People v. Counterman. July 22, 2021. 497 P.3d 1039.
Colorado Court of Appeals Oral Argument (from 18:03 to 49:04)
2023 in United States case law
United States Free Speech Clause case law
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Roberts Court | Counterman v. Colorado | [
"Technology"
] | 1,880 | [
"Computing and society",
"Social media"
] |
73,410,057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladium%20hexafluoride | Palladium hexafluoride is an inorganic chemical compound of palladium metal and fluorine with the chemical formula . It is reported to be a still hypothetical compound. This is one of many palladium fluorides.
Synthesis
Fluorination of palladium powder with atomic fluoride at 900–1700 Pa.
Physical properties
Palladium hexafluoride is predicted to be stable. The compound is reported to form dark red solid that decomposes to . Palladium hexafluoride is a very powerful oxidizing agent.
References
Palladium compounds
Fluorides
Hexafluorides
Metal halides
Oxidizing agents
Hypothetical chemical compounds
Theoretical chemistry | Palladium hexafluoride | [
"Chemistry"
] | 145 | [
"Redox",
"Inorganic compounds",
"Oxidizing agents",
"Inorganic compound stubs",
"Salts",
"Hypotheses in chemistry",
"Theoretical chemistry",
"Hypothetical chemical compounds",
"Metal halides",
"nan",
"Fluorides"
] |
73,410,855 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeteletinib | Zeteletinib (BOS-172738, DS-5010) is an experimental anticancer medication which acts as a RET inhibitor.
See also
Enbezotinib
Pralsetinib
Rebecsinib
Resigratinib
Selpercatinib
References
Oxazoles
Acetamides
Pyridines
Quinolinols
Methoxy compounds
Trifluoromethyl compounds
Enzyme inhibitors | Zeteletinib | [
"Chemistry"
] | 90 | [
"Pharmacology",
"Pharmacology stubs",
"Medicinal chemistry stubs"
] |
73,411,485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americium%20hexafluoride | Americium hexafluoride is an inorganic chemical compound of americium metal and fluorine with the chemical formula . It is still a hypothetical compound. Synthesis by fluorination of americium tetrafluoride was unsuccessfully attempted in 1990. A thermochromatographic identification in 1986 remains inconclusive. Calculations suggest that it may be distorted from octahedral symmetry.
Synthesis
It is proposed that can be prepared by in both the condensed and gaseous states by the reaction of with in anhydrous HF at 313–333 K.
References
Americium compounds
Metal halides
Hexafluorides
Hypothetical chemical compounds
Theoretical chemistry
Actinide halides | Americium hexafluoride | [
"Chemistry"
] | 144 | [
"Inorganic compounds",
"Theoretical chemistry stubs",
"Hypotheses in chemistry",
"Salts",
"Theoretical chemistry",
"nan",
"Hypothetical chemical compounds",
"Metal halides"
] |
73,411,647 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucoagaricus%20croceus | Leucoagaricus croceus is a species of mushroom-producing fungus in the family Agaricaceae.
Taxonomy
It was described in 2022 by the mycologists S.M. Tang and Kevin D. Hyde who classified it as Leucoagaricus croceus.
Description
Leucoagaricus croceus is a small dapperling mushroom with a reddish orange cap and white stem and flesh.
Cap: 3-6cm wide, starting bulbous before becoming subumbonate and expanding to plano-convex with an obtuse umbo. The surface is reddish-orange when immature but fades towards the cap edges as it expands until it has a reddish-orange centre with a pale, pastel red colour spreading across the surface to the white margins. It has floccose to pulverent scales across the immature cap but becomes smooth with age. The cap may split to reveal the white, unchanging flesh within. Gills: Free, crowded and white. Stem: 3-5cm long and 3-5mm thick tapering upwards from the bulbous 8-12mm thick base. The surface is cream to white with unchanging white flesh inside. The membranous stem ring is white and located towards or above the middle of the stem (median to superior). Spores: (3.5) 4.1–7.2 (7.9) x (2.4) 2.6–4.4 (4.6) μm. Ovoid to ellipsoidal, smooth with a thin wall. Hyaline. Basidia: 15-20 x 9-10 μm. Clavate, 4 spored.
Etymology
The specific epithet croceus is named in reference to the reddish orange cap colour.
Habitat and distribution
The species is known from Thailand and China where it grows on soil.
References
croceus
Fungi described in 2022
Fungi of Asia
Fungus species | Leucoagaricus croceus | [
"Biology"
] | 401 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,411,753 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pholiota%20lignicola | Pholiota lignicola is a species of mushroom-forming fungus belonging to the family Strophariaceae.
It has a cosmopolitan distribution.
References
Strophariaceae
Fungi described in 1989
Taxa named by Charles Horton Peck
Fungus species | Pholiota lignicola | [
"Biology"
] | 48 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,413,251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimi%20Dai | Mimi Dai is a mathematician who specializes in partial differential equations, fluid dynamics, and complex fluids. She is a professor at the University of Illinois Chicago.
Education and career
Dai received her PhD in applied mathematics from the University of California, Santa Cruz in 2012. Her dissertation, Nematic liquid crystal systems and magneto-hydrodynamics system: The properties of their solutions, was supervised by her advisor, Maria E. Schonbek. She is currently an associate professor for the Department of Mathematics, Statistics, and Computer Science at the University of Illinois Chicago. She specializes in partial differential equations, fluid dynamics, complex fluids.
Awards and honors
Dai became an American Mathematical Society (AMS) Centennial Fellow in 2022. In 2021 Dai also became an Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) von Neuman Fellow in 2021. Dai has been an IAS Scholar since 2022. In 2018 Dai was awarded a National Science Foundation (NSF) grant for Mathematical Studies of Magnetohydrodynamic Flows with Hall Effect, and another grant from the NSF for Mathematical Analysis of Magnetohydrodynamic Flows with Hall Effect in 2020.
References
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
University of Illinois Chicago faculty
University of California, Santa Cruz alumni
Fellows of the American Mathematical Society
Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars
21st-century American mathematicians
21st-century American women mathematicians
Fluid dynamicists | Mimi Dai | [
"Chemistry"
] | 280 | [
"Fluid dynamicists",
"Fluid dynamics"
] |
73,413,252 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nandi%20Olive%20Leslie | Nandi Olive Leslie is an applied mathematician and senior engineering fellow at Raytheon Technologies.
Early life and education
Leslie grew up in Evanston, Illinois where her father, Joshua Leslie, was a professor of mathematics at Northwestern University. She enrolled in university math programs at Northwestern and would accompany her father to various math conferences and speeches around the United States.
Leslie graduated magna cum laude with a B.S. in Mathematics from Howard University and then a M.A. and PhD in Applied and Computational Mathematics and Ecology and Evolutionary Biology from Princeton University. Her thesis at Princeton was Spatial Stochastic Models for Forest Degradation and Deforestation in Bolivia and Brazil.
Professional career
Leslie serves as a Senior Engineering Fellow at Raytheon Technologies and currently serves as the Raytheon Intelligence and Space Internal Research Development Chief Engineer and Chief Data scientist. Her research interests include machine learning, stochastic processes, cybersecurity, and sensor performance. In 2019, Leslie became the first African American woman at Raytheon to achieve the distinction of engineering fellow. She currently serves on five different scientific advisory boards and was received the Black Engineer of the Year Award for Outstanding Technical Contribution in Industry in 2020.
Beginning in 2020, Leslie has served as a Lecturer and Research Advisor for Master's Degree Theses and Computational Mathematics and Data Science Programs at Johns Hopkins University.
References
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
African-American mathematicians
African-American women mathematicians
21st-century American women mathematicians
21st-century American mathematicians
American applied mathematicians
Howard University alumni
Princeton University alumni
RTX Corporation people
Aerospace engineers | Nandi Olive Leslie | [
"Engineering"
] | 316 | [
"Aerospace engineers",
"Aerospace engineering"
] |
73,413,468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucoagaricus%20laosensis | Leucoagaricus laosensis is a species of mushroom-producing fungus in the family Agaricaceae.
Taxonomy
It was described in 2022 by the mycologist Phongeun Sysouphanthong who classified it as Leucoagaricus laosensis.
Description
Leucoagaricus laosensis is a small dapperling mushroom with a brown scaly cap and thin (up to 3mm wide) white flesh.
Cap: 1.5–3 cm wide, starting convex to sub-umbonate with a small umbo. As it matures, the cap expands to become flat or plano-convex with only a slight, low umbo. The surface is covered with brown fibrillose scales on a white background, which are denser and darker in the center, creating a broad, dark brown area that lightens toward the margins. The margins are straight, with sulcate striations, and may be appendiculate with white and light brown veil remnants.
Gills: Free, crowded, and white, with an eroded edge and a ventricose bulge, measuring 4–6 mm wide.
Stem: 2.5–3.5 cm long and 5–8 mm thick, tapering upwards from a bulbous base 12 mm wide. The surface is white, with a white fibrillose coating along its length, but with light brown to dark brown fibrillose scales near the base. The exterior is occasionally covered with transparent droplets, and the interior is white and hollow. The membranous, white stem ring is located toward or above the middle of the stem (median to superior) and is pendant, with light brown to brown fibrillose scales on its edges.
Spore print: White.
Spores: 7–7.5 × 4.3–5 μm, ellipsoidal to ovoid or slightly amygdaliform, with a thick wall. Hyaline, dextrinoid, congophilous, cyanophilous, and metachromatic.
Basidia: 17–20 × 7–8 μm, clavate, and 4-spored.
Etymology
The specific epithet laosensis is named in reference to the location in which this species was found, Laos.
Habitat and distribution
The specimens studied were found growing in Northern Laos where they were growing on soil solitary or in small clusters.
References
laosensis
Fungi described in 2022
Fungi of Asia
Fungus species | Leucoagaricus laosensis | [
"Biology"
] | 503 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,414,173 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20G.%20Wilhelm | Robert Gerard Wilhelm (born June 27, 1960) is an American mechanical engineer.
Wilhelm holds the Kate Foster professorship in Mechanical and Materials Engineering at the University of Nebraska — Lincoln. From 2018 to 2023 he served as the Vice Chancellor for Research and Economic Development at UNL.
Before joining the University of Nebraska — Lincoln, he served as Vice Chancellor for Research and Economic Development at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. There, he also held a faculty appointment as a professor.
His expertise is in precision engineering and advanced manufacturing.
Early life and education
Bob Wilhelm was born June 27, 1960, in Mobile, Alabama. As a child, his family moved to Raleigh, North Carolina, where his father, William J. Wilhelm, earned a PhD in Civil Engineering at North Carolina State University. Their family relocated to Morgantown, West Virginia when William J. Wilhelm joined the West Virginia University civil and environmental engineering faculty. While there, Wilhem's mother, Patricia Zietz, earned a Bachelor of Arts in elementary education and Master of Arts in special education. Later, his father joined Wichita State University as the Dean of the College of Engineering, and their family relocated to Wichita, Kansas.
Wilhelm earned a Bachelor of Science in Industrial Engineering from Wichita State University in 1981, after beginning coursework at West Virginia University from 1977 to 1979. From 1981 to 1982, he studied the history of science and technology at the University of Leicester and the Ironbridge Gorge Museum as a Rotary Foundation Fellow. In 1984, he earned a Master of Science in Industrial Engineering from Purdue University. In 1992, he received a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Illinois.
Career
Early in his career, Wilhelm worked on naval structures and submarines. He also worked in restoration of historic structures including the original iron furnace at Ironbridge (Coalbrookdale, United Kingdom), Jackson's Mill (Lewis County, West Virginia), Staats Mill Covered Bridge and the Fink-Type Truss Bridge (Hamden, New Jersey).
Wilhelm has also worked in engineering at Cincinnati Milacron and the Palo Alto Laboratory of Rockwell Science Center. His engineering has impacted results in mechanical design and computational geometry, digital twin approaches to manufacturing for Caterpillar Inc., aerospace design and manufacturing for the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and AI approaches to logistics for the US military program Dynamic Analysis and Replanning Tool.
He joined University of North Carolina at Charlotte in 1992 as a faculty member and later co-founded a high-tech company in Charlotte, OpSource.
In 1994, he was recognized with the Young Investigator Award of the National Science Foundation. He was a founding faculty member at UNC Charlotte in 5 different PhD programs: Mechanical Engineering, Biology and Biotechnology, Information Technology, Optical Sciences, and Nanoscale Sciences. Wilhelm was a very early and longstanding member of the Precision Engineering and Metrology Group at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte.
Wilhelm's engineering research has addressed metrology and measurement theory for complex mechanical parts, virtual manufacturing for design of manufacturing systems, software, and automation and artificial intelligence for mechanical design and tolerance synthesis.
As a higher education leader he has led university organizations at UNC Charlotte and UNL that envisioned, built and operated innovation campuses with partner companies working collaboratively on the university site. In Charlotte, these organizations included The Charlotte Research Institute Campus at UNC Charlotte and the University Research Park. In Nebraska, Wilhelm led the Nebraska Innovation Campus during his time as vice chancellor at the University of Nebraska - Lincoln.
Awards
Wilhelm is a fellow of the National Academy of Inventors and the International Academy for Production Engineering.
In 2012, he received the Society of Manufacturing Engineers S.M. Wu Research Implementation Award.
References
Mechanical engineering
1960 births
Living people
Fellows of the National Academy of Inventors | Robert G. Wilhelm | [
"Physics",
"Engineering"
] | 769 | [
"Applied and interdisciplinary physics",
"Mechanical engineering"
] |
73,414,919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilar%20Ibarrola | María del Pilar Ibarrola Muñoz (born 1944) is a Spanish statistician and stochastic control theorist, part of the early expansion of statistics into an academic discipline in Spain in the 1960s and 1970s. She was named professor of decision theory at Complutense University of Madrid in 1974, but soon after left for the University of La Laguna, where she was named as University Professor. She returned to the professorship of decision theory at Complutense University in 1979.
Ibarrola served as the third president of the Spanish Statistics and Operations Research Society (SEIO), from 1984 to 1986. She received the SEIO Medal in 2013.
References
1944 births
Living people
Spanish statisticians
Spanish women statisticians
Control theorists
Academic staff of the University of La Laguna
Academic staff of the Complutense University of Madrid | Pilar Ibarrola | [
"Engineering"
] | 172 | [
"Control engineering",
"Control theorists"
] |
73,415,702 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QQ%20Telescopii | QQ Telescopii, also known as HD 185139 or simply QQ Tel, is a solitary variable star located in the southern constellation Telescopium. It has an apparent magnitude of 6.25, placing it near the limit for naked eye visibility, even under ideal conditions. Gaia DR3 parallax measurements imply a distance of 333 light years and it is currently receding with a heliocentric radial velocity of . At its current distance, QQ Telescopii's brightness is diminished by two tenths of a magnitude due to interstellar dust and it has an absolute magnitude of +1.01.
HD 185139 was discovered to be a δ Scuti variable in 1982 by Debora W. Kurtz along with HR 151 (BG Ceti). After a few years of subsequent observations, it was given the variable designation QQ Telescopii in 1985. In 2002, C. Koen and colleagues attempted to identify the pulsation modes of the star. The brightness of QQ Tel fluctuates by about 0.05 magnitudes in the blue passband within 1.56 hours.
QQ Telescopii has a stellar classification of F2 IV, indicating that it is a slightly evolved F-type subgiant. It was previously classified as kA6mF0 III and A0pSr(CrSi), indicating that it is either a chemically peculiar Ap star or Am star. However, Renson & Manfroid (2009) considers its chemical peculiarity to be doubtful. Andersen & Nordstöm (1978) give it a class of F0 III:, indicating that it is an evolved F-type giant star with uncertainty about the luminosity class. Evolutionary models place it very close to the end of its main sequence life.
With 1.68 times the mass of the Sun and an enlarged radius 3.19 times that of the Sun, QQ Telescopii radiates 26.1 times the luminosity of the Sun from its photosphere at an effective temperature of , giving it a yellowish-white hue. It is slightly metal enriched at [Fe/H] = +0.07 but the value is poorly constrained. The star is estimated to be 995 million years old and it spins modestly with a projected rotational velocity of .
References
F-type subgiants
Delta Scuti variables
Telescopium
Telescopii, QQ
Telescopii, 66
CD-45 13354
185139
096721
7461
Ap stars | QQ Telescopii | [
"Astronomy"
] | 535 | [
"Telescopium",
"Constellations"
] |
73,416,090 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esproquin | Esproquin is an α2-adrenergic receptor agonist derived from tetrahydroisoquinoline. It has a positive inotropic effect, suggesting potential use in treatment of chronic heart failure.
References
Tetrahydroisoquinolines
Sulfones
Experimental cardiovascular drugs | Esproquin | [
"Chemistry"
] | 63 | [
"Sulfones",
"Functional groups"
] |
73,416,591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofeq-13 | Ofeq-13, also known as Ofek-13, is an Israeli synthetic-aperture radar observation satellite. It is part of the Ofeq intelligence satellite family, designed and built by Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI) for the Israeli Ministry of Defence and IDF, and is operated by Unit 9900.
Launch
Ofeq-13 was launched on 29 March 2023, 02:10 IST (28 March, 23:10 UTC) from the Palmachim Airbase in Israel. It was delivered using a Shavit 2 launcher. Ofeq-13 was launched westward in a retrograde orbit.
References
Synthetic aperture radar satellites
Reconnaissance satellites of Israel
Spacecraft launched in 2023 | Ofeq-13 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 142 | [
"Astronomy stubs",
"Spacecraft stubs"
] |
66,132,386 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandberg%20Institute | The Sandberg Institute (Dutch: Sandberg Instituut) is a postgraduate institution in Amsterdam that offers the master's programme of the Gerrit Rietveld Academy. It is named after Willem Sandberg. Since 1995, the Sandberg Institute has been offering a number of master's programmes in art and design. The director of the Sandberg Institute since 2010 is Jurgen Bey.
History
The Sandberg Institute was first founded in 1990 by Simon den Hartog, a former direct of Gerrit Rietveld Academy, originally to organise post-academic activities that included seminars and exhibitions. It is named after Willem Sandberg, the former director of the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam, designer and advocate of the new and others in art. In 1995, it developed into the postgraduate department of the Gerrit Rietveld Academy. Under its director Jos Houweling, it offered four MA programmes in art and design: Fine Arts, Applied Arts, Design, and Interior Architecture.
Jos Houweling retired in 2010, and he was succeeded by Jurgen Bey. Bey introduced a series of two-year Temporary Programmes starting in 2011, such as Vacant NL, School of Missing Studies, Material Utopias, Materialism in Art, Master of Voice, and others. In 2017, Sandberg also introduced Hosted Programmes in collaboration with other institutions and companies, starting with the Master Design of Experiences introduced with the University of the Underground.
Sandberg is housed in the building designed by Benthem & Crouwel in 2003, and it also occupies part of a new building by FedLev and Hootsmans Architects built in 2019. Sandberg now has five main departments: Critical Studies, Design, The Dirty Art Department (Applied Arts), Fine Arts, and Studio for Immediate Spaces (Interior Architecture).
Designs
The design department is based on engagement and experiment. From 2002 to 2008, the department was led by designer/artist Mieke Gerritzen, and from 2008 to 2019 by designer and initiator Annelys de Vet.
Mediafonds@Sandberg
From 2005 to 2013, the Media Fonds and the Sandberg Institute co-organised the masterclass Mediafonds@Sandberg (formerly Stifo@Sandberg). Experienced media makers and designers looked together for new forms of storytelling and work on a self-formulated research question that resulted in a demo for a cultural media production. Each year, a main theme was chosen which, according to the organizers, had social urgency. The aim was to develop other, new or experimental forms of media by bringing together people and organisations from different media fields and by creating overarching insights and synergy. The master class was for the participants a broadening of the field and a deepening on thematic parts. The master class took the form of a laboratory: thematically defined with coherence between the projects and additional lectures. It was organized from the Sandberg Institute, in collaboration with the Media Fund and an annually changing third party.
Artvertising
The building in which the Sandberg Institute has been housed since 2005 received widespread attention after it was used temporarily in the Artvertising project of Teun Castelein, then a student in the design department. Artvertising was a spatial interpretation of The Million Dollar Homepage, a 2005 internet project by Alex Tew. For this project, Castelein sold the facade of the building in Amsterdam as an advertising space at €19.99 a tile, and over 300 companies, institutions and individuals bought 13,000 of its tiles. It was official opened on 13 December 2006.
Autonomous art
The Autonomous Art department was one of the master's programs in liberal arts in the Netherlands. In the past, the department organized De Kunstvlaai, which is an alternative Dutch art's fair every two years for artists initiatives and other master courses in the arts.
Free Design
The Free Design department focused on spatial design. Marjan Unger was head of the department from 1995 to 2006.
Alumni
Bas Bouman
Heimir Björgúlfsson
Iris Bodemer
Helen Britton
Broersen and Lukács
Margi Geerlinks
Hendrik-Jan Grievink
Gunnhildur Hauksdóttir
Floris Kaayk
Dafna Kaffeman
Chequita Nahar
Evert Nijland
Tina Rath
Frank Tjepkema
Terhi Tolvanen
Koert van Mensvoort
Tim Leyendekker
References
See also
Gerrit Rietveld Academy
External link
Education in Amsterdam
Gerrit Rietveld Academie
Design
Arts in the Netherlands | Sandberg Institute | [
"Engineering"
] | 938 | [
"Design"
] |
66,134,024 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jensen%20Hughes |
Jensen Hughes (previously stylized as JENSEN HUGHES) is a professional engineering and consulting services company headquartered in Baltimore that provides services, software, and consulting in fire protection engineering, forensic engineering, and security. The company has approximately 90 offices globally in part due to its acquisitions of and mergers with related safety and security middle-market companies in recent years. As of 2019, it has been led by CEO Raj Arora. The company's projects include conducting forensic investigations of fire accident scenes on behalf of local courts, studying fire dynamics of chemicals with the National Institute of Justice, and working with healthcare associations to stock local clinical practices and hospitals with PPE and other medical supplies.
History
Acquisitions
Hughes Associates, a fire protection engineering consultant, was founded in 1980 in Baltimore and, among other projects, performed safety upgrades to historic buildings and landmarks such as the Library of Congress. In 2011, as part of a larger movement into the professional services sector, the private equity firm Huron Capital partners signed an agreement with the management team of Hughes Associates to recapitalize the business.
The business later became Jensen Hughes following a merger with Rolf Jensen & Associates, Inc., a firm founded by Illinois Institute of Technology professor and safety engineer Rolf Jensen. In 2015, Gryphon Investors acquired Jensen Hughes from Huron Capital partners. Since then, Jensen Hughes itself has gone on to acquire additional companies, strengthening its Fire Engineering Consultancy through the acquisition of JGA Fire Engineering in August 2018.
Karen Gardner report
In response to the public outcry surrounding the city's police actions during the arrest of the elderly Karen Gardner, the company was hired to investigate the Loveland police department. Jensen Hughes found that the officers failed to further investigate whether Garner was injured.
Awards and scholarships
Jensen Hughes has placed in the Building Design + Construction Top 80 Engineering Firms list and, in 2019, it placed in two of Engineering News-Record lists, Top 225 International Design Firms and Top 500 Design firms. In 2018, Siemens awarded Jensen Hughes its annual Engineering Innovation Award for Fire and Life Safety Design.
Jensen Hughes endows the yearly Rolf H. Jensen Award for Outstanding Committee Service through the Society of Fire Protection Engineers. It also sponsors the Jensen Hughes Graduate Fire Safety Award at the University of Waterloo.
References
External links
Jensen Hughes website
Fire Modeling GitHub Project led in part by experts employed at Jensen Hughes
Engineering companies of the United States
Engineering consulting firms of the United States
International engineering consulting firms
Companies based in Maryland
Private equity firms
Forensics organizations
Fire protection organizations | Jensen Hughes | [
"Engineering"
] | 500 | [
"Engineering consulting firms",
"International engineering consulting firms"
] |
66,134,116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RKS%20Design | RKS Design is a product design firm, industrial design firm, product development company, and innovation consultancy founded in 1980 by designer Ravi Sawhney. The company designs and develops consumer, medical, and industrial products, as well as user interfaces, and user experiences. As an industrial design and development firm, it is known for designing Teddy Ruxpin and RKS Guitars.
Design projects
The company also designed a design-thinking methodology called Psycho-Aesthetics, a process that helps designers focus on understanding consumer need and emotion in order to create new products. Psycho-Aesthetics is taught at UCLA, USC, SCAD, and Harvard Business School.
Using the approach, the company designed Lego's sustainable packaging, Teddy Ruxpin, a popular children's toy in the 1980s and early 1990s,
the RKS Guitar, a sustainable electric guitar, in collaboration with Dave Mason, Gamevice mobile controller for Wikipad, and cAIR transportation concept.
Psycho-Aesthetics
RKS Founder Ravi Sawhney has published three book under the title of Psycho-Aesthetics. Psycho Aesthetics is a design-thinking methodology used to create hardware, software products.
See also
Ammunition Design
IDEO
Frog Design
Product design
Industrial design
References
External links
Office site
Industrial design firms
Product designers
1980 establishments in California
Design companies of the United States | RKS Design | [
"Engineering"
] | 263 | [
"Design stubs",
"Design"
] |
66,134,466 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alona%20Ben-Tal | Alona Ben-Tal is an Israeli and New Zealand applied mathematician who works as an associate professor and deputy head of school in the School of Natural and Computational Sciences at Massey University. Her research concerns dynamical systems and the mathematical modeling of human and bird breathing and of electrical power systems.
Education and career
Ben-Tal originally studied mechanical engineering at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, earning a bachelor's degree there in 1991 and a master's degree in 1994. After working in industry for three years, she moved with her family to New Zealand and returned to graduate study in mathematics, completing a Ph.D. in 2001 at the University of Auckland with the dissertation A Study of Symmetric Forced Oscillators supervised by Vivien Kirk, Graeme Wake and Geoff Nicholls.
After she completed her doctorate, she held positions at the University of Auckland as a fixed-term lecturer in mathematics, and then as a NZ Science & Technology Post-doctoral Fellow in the Bioengineering Institute, before moving to Massey University as a lecturer in 2005.
Contributions
In her work on human breathing, Ben-Tal has studied respiratory sinus arrhythmia, the phenomenon that the heart rate speeds up while inhaling and slows down while exhaling. Initially hypothesising that this variability would improve the rate of gas exchange in the lungs, her research found that instead it saves effort by the heart while maintaining even levels of blood oxygenation.
In birds, Ben-Tal has studied the one-way nature of certain air passages in bird lungs, and the ability of birds to change the speed of airflow through these passages. Her research found that, in some circumstances, birds spend less time inhaling than they do exhaling.
Recognition
Ben-Tal was named a fellow of the New Zealand Mathematical Society in 2016.
References
External links
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Israeli mathematicians
Israeli women mathematicians
New Zealand women mathematicians
Applied mathematicians
Technion – Israel Institute of Technology alumni
Academic staff of the University of Auckland
Academic staff of Massey University
University of Auckland alumni | Alona Ben-Tal | [
"Mathematics"
] | 416 | [
"Applied mathematics",
"Applied mathematicians"
] |
66,134,978 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadashi%20Fukami | Tadashi Fukami is an associate Professor of Biology and community ecologist at Stanford University. He is currently the head of Fukami Lab which is a community ecology research group that focuses on "historical contingency in the assembly of ecological communities." Fukami is an elected Fellow of the Ecological Society of America.
Early life and education
In an interview with Oikos Editorial Office, Fukami explains that even though he grew up near Tokyo, he would visit Wakayama with his family for vacation several times a year, sparking his interest in nature.
Fukami received his Bachelor's degree from Waseda University in 1996, his Master's degree at the University of Tokyo in 1998, and his Ph.D. in ecology and evolutionary biology at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, in 2003.
Career and research
Fukami was a postdoctoral fellow at Landcare Research in New Zealand from 2003-2005. He then went on to be an assistant professor at the University of Hawaii at Manoa from 2006-2008. He has been at Stanford University since 2008.
Fukami's work has aimed to better understand how patterns of species immigration into communities, including via dispersal, influences community assembly. In 2019, he was elected as a fellow to the Ecological Society of America for his "contributions to advancing community, ecosystem, and evolutionary ecology through a novel focus on historical contingency in community assembly". His work has also explored how historical contingency and priority effects influences the function as well as the structure of ecological communities.
Notable publications
Fukami's research on community ecology, community assembly, alternate stable states and historical contingency has been published in multiple academic journals. Below, some of his most-cited papers are listed.
Selected publications
McFall-Ngai, M., Hadfield, M.G., Bosch, T.C., Carey, H.V., Domazet-Lošo, T., Douglas, A.E., Dubilier, N., Eberl, G., Fukami, T., Gilbert, S.F. and Hentschel, U., 2013. Animals in a bacterial world, a new imperative for the life sciences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(9), pp.3229-3236.
Nemergut, D.R., Schmidt, S.K., Fukami, T., O'Neill, S.P., Bilinski, T.M., Stanish, L.F., Knelman, J.E., Darcy, J.L., Lynch, R.C., Wickey, P. and Ferrenberg, S., 2013. Patterns and processes of microbial community assembly. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, 77(3), pp.342-356.
Fukami, T., 2015. Historical contingency in community assembly: integrating niches, species pools, and priority effects. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 46, pp.1-23.
Fukami, T., Martijn Bezemer, T., Mortimer, S.R. and van der Putten, W.H., 2005. Species divergence and trait convergence in experimental plant community assembly. Ecology letters, 8(12), pp.1283-1290.
Fukami, T., Dickie, I.A., Paula Wilkie, J., Paulus, B.C., Park, D., Roberts, A., Buchanan, P.K. and Allen, R.B., 2010. Assembly history dictates ecosystem functioning: evidence from wood decomposer communities. Ecology letters, 13(6), pp.675-684.
Fukami, T. and Wardle, D.A., 2005. Long-term ecological dynamics: reciprocal insights from natural and anthropogenic gradients. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 272(1577), pp.2105-2115.
Honors and awards
Awards include:
Fellow, Ecological Society of America (2019)
Presidential Award, American Society of Naturalists (2019)
Outstanding Ecological Theory Paper Award, Ecological Society of America Theoretical Ecology Section (2017)
Dean’s Award for Distinguished Teaching, School of Humanities and Sciences, Stanford University (2015)
Science prize for inquiry-based instruction, Science magazine, AAAS (2013)
CAREER award, National Science Foundation (2012)
Denzaburo Miyadi Award, Ecological Society of Japan (2005)
References
External links
Ecologists
Stanford University Department of Biology faculty
University of Tennessee alumni
University of Tokyo alumni
Waseda University alumni
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people | Tadashi Fukami | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 988 | [
"Ecologists",
"Environmental scientists"
] |
66,137,241 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voxtalisib | Voxtalisib (XL-765, SAR245409) is a drug which acts as a dual inhibitor of the kinase enzymes phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR). It is in clinical trials for the treatment of various types of cancer.
References
Phosphoinositide 3-kinase inhibitors
Experimental cancer drugs | Voxtalisib | [
"Chemistry"
] | 90 | [
"Pharmacology",
"Pharmacology stubs",
"Medicinal chemistry stubs"
] |
66,137,611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron%20Heeren | Ron M.A. Heeren (born 1965, Tilburg) is a Dutch scientist in mass spectrometry imaging. He is currently a distinguished professor at Maastricht University and the scientific director of the Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute (M4I), where he heads the division of Imaging Mass Spectrometry.
Scientific career
Heeren obtained a PhD degree in Technical Physics at the University of Amsterdam in 1992 under the supervision of Aart Kleyn.
He led a FOM-AMOLF research group on macromolecular ion physics and biomolecular imaging mass spectrometry (1995–2014). He was also professor at the chemistry faculty of Utrecht University in 2001–2019.
Between 1995 and 2015, he worked on new approaches towards high spatial resolution and high-throughput molecular imaging mass spectrometry using secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) and matrix-assisted laser desorption and ionization (MALDI).
Heeren has coauthored over 300 peer-reviewed articles, which have been cited over 12,600 times (Google Scholar).
Research
Heeren’s academic research interests are fundamental studies of the energetics of macromolecular systems, conformational studies of non-covalently bound protein complexes, translational imaging research, high-throughput bioinformatics, and the development and validation of new mass spectrometry–based proteomic imaging techniques for the life sciences.
During his postdoctoral fellowship, he worked on the development of innovative ion sources, vacuums systems, data acquisition systems and novel temperature-controlled ion cyclotron resonance cells. He used the FTICR-MS instrument for the study of collisional energy transfer and internal energy distributions. These methods were deployed to investigate their role in the determination of dissociation pathways of biomolecular systems.
As a project leader (1995–1997), Heeren led the application of high-resolution MS (FTICR-MS, FTIR imaging spectroscopy and SIMS) to the field of conservation science. He discovered and identified saponified pigment particulates in so-called protrusions in Rembrandt’s “The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp” in collaboration with the Mauritshuis museum in The Hague.
Heeren and his group have pioneered the development of active pixelated detectors for mass spectrometry imaging. One such detector, the Medipix detector has been adapted to enable microscope-mode imaging mass spectrometry for biomolecules to enable combined high-throughput and high-resolution molecular imaging using MALDI and SIMS.
Professional activities
From 2008 to 2013, Heeren was the research director for emerging technologies at the Netherlands Proteomics Centre. In 2014, he was appointed to his current position as one of the scientific directors of M4I at Maastricht University. He was president of the Dutch Society of Mass Spectrometry between 2001–2005. He is one of the founding members of the Mass Spectrometry Imaging Society, and was elected its president in 2017.
Commercialization
Heeren holds 7 patents and has established two spin-off companies, Omics2Image/ASI and the Dutch Screening Group. In 2019, he was awarded the NWO Valorisation Prize in Physics.
Awards
2020 Hans Fisher Senior Fellowship, Institute of Advanced Studies, Technical University of Munich Hans Fisher senior fellowship
2020 Thomson medal, International Mass Spectrometry Foundation for distinguished contribution to international MS
2019 NWO-Physics Valorisation prize (see above)
2019 Brightlands Convention Award
2014 Robert Feulgen lecturer, Society for Histochemistry
2013 Winner, 10th Venture Challenge, Netherlands Genomics Initiative
2012 Award, Exploratory Measurement Science Group (EMSG), University of Edinburgh, UK
2010 Distinguished Wiley Visiting Scientist award, Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Department of Energy, US
2008 RCM Beynon Prize, Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry
2002 Bert L. Schram Award, Dutch Society for Mass Spectrometry (NVMS)
Most cited publications
References
1965 births
People from Tilburg
21st-century Dutch chemists
Academic staff of Maastricht University
Living people
Thomson Medal recipients
Mass spectrometrists
University of Amsterdam alumni | Ron Heeren | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 875 | [
"Biochemists",
"Mass spectrometry",
"Spectrum (physical sciences)",
"Mass spectrometrists"
] |
66,138,588 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central%20Vista%20Redevelopment%20Project | Central Vista Redevelopment Project refers to the ongoing redevelopment to revamp the Central Vista, India's central administrative area located near Raisina Hill, New Delhi. The area was originally designed by Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker during British colonial rule and was retained by the Government of India after independence.
Scheduled between 2020 and 2026, the project as of 2020 aims to revamp a long Kartvyapath between Rashtrapati Bhavan and India Gate, convert North and South Blocks to publicly accessible museums by creating a new common Central Secretariat to house all ministries, a new Parliament building near the present one with increased seating capacity for future expansion, new residence and office for the vice-president and the Prime Minister near the North Block and South Block and convert some of the older structures into museums.
The cost of the Central Vista Redevelopment project, which also includes a Common Central Secretariat and the Special Protection Group (SPG) building, has been estimated to be around spread over four years.
Background
The Central Vista was first designed by architect Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker, when the capital of the British Raj was moved from Calcutta to
Delhi. The Parliament building alone took six years to construct, from laying the foundation stone on 12 February 1921 to the inauguration by then Viceroy Lord Irwin on 18 January 1927. After Independence in 1947, it became the seat of the government of the new Republic. The Parliament campus was declared a heritage precinct in the 1962 Master plan of Delhi.
The government statement for the new Vista development project stated “As the needs and duties of the government expanded, so did the usage of the space. However, due to the development in the area being around a century old, and the current growth and development of India, the current Central Vista has failed to keep up with the needs of the country”.
The Central Vista Redevelopment Project was launched in 2019. The project includes converting North and South Blocks into public museums, creating an ensemble of new secretariat buildings to house all ministries, relocating the Vice President and the Prime Minister's offices and residences near the North and South Blocks, and revamping the long Rajpath between Rashtrapati Bhavan and India Gate. A new Parliament building with increased seating capacity will be built beside the older one as India aims to expand its Parliamentary membership in 2026. The project aims for completion in 2026. This plan did not include the proposed PMO as there were issues of pending land-use change and litigation. The construction of the new Parliament building was temporarily put on hold by Supreme Court of India but was released again within few days with some riders.
Tender Notice
Approval Process
The criteria for the competition were set by the Council of Architecture, which included no building being taller than India Gate. The project proponent or client had to seek conceptual approval from the Delhi Urban Arts Commission (DUAC). Financial decisions received clearance from the Central Vigilance Commission. Monetary allocation was provided from the Finance Ministry. Project assessment studies were done by the New Delhi Municipal Corporation (NDMC). The regulatory master plan was done by the Central Public Works Department (CPWD).
Competition
In reality, instead of a call to competition, there was a Notice Inviting Tender (NIT). The difference is that in a competition the winner is awarded a prize, not a contract; in a tender, there is a firm intent and the winner receives the contract. The bidding was held in two rounds. In the first round, merit was given on possibilities and innovation. In the second round, the winner was decided based on their capacity to deliver results. The winner was decided by a jury, and the names of jury members were announced before the competition.
Finalists
There were six bidders in the final competition, who presented their proposal to the Central Public Works Department (CPWD), Government of India:
HCP Design Planning and Management Pvt. Ltd.
CP Kukreja and Associates Pvt. Ltd.
HS Contractor Consultancy Pvt. Ltd.
Sikka Associates Architects.
ARCOP Associates Pvt. Ltd.
INI Design Studio Pvt. Ltd.
The design contract was won by Bimal Patel led HCP Design Planning and Management Pvt. Ltd. of Ahmedabad, Gujarat in October 2019. There are different components to the overall project, and the contractors for each component are to be chosen by individual bidding processes.
Plan for Redevelopment
The project is expected to cost around over several years and to be fully completed by 2026.
New Parliament House
A new triangular-shaped building to house the Parliament of India was built beside the existing structure as the first building under the project. The new structure is spread on area of and have a built-up area of , throughout four floors ( each floor) and have a larger seating capacity than the current building as India aims to expand its parliament in 2026. The new Rajya Sabha hall has a capacity of 384 seats while the new Lok Sabha hall has 888 seats, with additional capacity up to 1272 seats for hosting joint sessions. It has digital interface systems, will consume significantly less power and serve for following 150 years while the older structure will be retained as an archeological asset of the country and will be refurbished to house a museum. Tata Projects won the bid to construct the building at a cost of ₹861.90 cr (₹8619 million) in September 2020 and began construction in January 2021. It was inaugurated on 28 May 2023 by the Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi.
Kartavya Path
Under this project of the long Central Vista Avenue (renamed as Kartavya Path) was refurbished & redeveloped with construction of new bridges over canals, pedestrian underpasses, wide footpaths, new parking lots, more green areas, benches as well as trees. Shapoorji Pallonji was awarded the tender for the redevelopment of the Central Vista Avenue in January 2021. They were required to complete the project within 300 days and maintain it for five years post-completion. It was inaugurated on 8 September 2022 by the Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi.
Common Central Secretariat
A set of ten doughnut-shaped buildings on four plots as Secretariat will be built on either side of Kartavya Path. The height of all the buildings will be less than 42 meters (height of India Gate) and they will have 7 floors. Exteriors of all buildings will be similar to surrounding Lutyens buildings and they will be connected to each other and to the Delhi Metro network by electric people-movers in underground ways and overground buses.
The existing Secretariat Building houses only 22 ministries with 41,000 employees while the rest are spread across the city of New Delhi. The new facility itself will house all the 51 ministries.
Central Conference Center
Vigyan Bhavan will be demolished and a new Central Conference Center will be built.
New office and residence for the Vice President and the Prime Minister
The residence of the Vice President will be relocated to a plot north of the North Block, while the residence and office of the Prime Minister will be moved to a plot south of the South Block. Bringing them both within the Central Vista will cut down on travel time and decrease traffic restrictions.
The Vice President's enclave will be on a site of 15 acres, with 32 five-storey buildings at a maximum height of 15 meters. The Prime Minister's new office and residence will be on a site of 15 acres, with 10 four-storey buildings at a maximum height of 12 meters with a building for keeping Special Protection Group.
Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts
The Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) will be relocated from its current home on Man Singh Road, and its role as a cultural space will be expanded. A 15-acre plot near Jamnagar House has been identified to relocate the present building. The new building will retain IGNCA's existing role as a centre for research, publication, events and training while allowing additional facilities to be added.
Reception
Supporters of the project have disputed labelling transformation as an erasure, but rather recognition of the sentiment that India can no longer be defined by colonial symbols. Colonial symbols will neither be destroyed nor appropriated but simply remain. The engaged architect Bimal Patel called the project a triumph of "common sense" with a simple and functional design. He has also stated that the existing listed heritage buildings will be integrated into the project, with any new buildings will be "aesthetically harmonious" with existing buildings.
The project was criticized for being built at a time when India was facing an unprecedented crisis due to Covid-19, as the money allocated for the project could have been used for controlling the pandemic.
Approvals
The project construction requires approval from the local body, which is New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) in this case. The NDMC was bypassed for the redevelopment project as that would require project to be adhered to municipal building laws. NDMC was replaced by Central Public Works Department (CPWD). A colonial law (The Government Building Act, 1899) was activated to empower CPWD. This law gives central government power to build anywhere without approval of the urban local body. Other bodies like Delhi Urban Art Commission (DUAC) were notified to treat CPWD as local body. As the CPWD was empowered, no technical drawings for any part of the project were sent to other authorities for approval including the independent environmental impact assessment as the project did not require clearance for environment, as mandated by Environment Ministry's 2006 notification on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).
Timeline
Sep 2019: The plan of Redevelopment of Central Vista Avenue is conceived by the Government of India.
Oct 2019: Ahmedabad based HCP Design Planning and Management Pvt. Ltd., wins the architectural consultancy work.
Sep 2020: Tata Projects Ltd wins the construction work of New Parliament Building for ₹862 cr by the CPWD.
Dec 2020: Foundation stone of the New Parliament Building is laid by Narendra Modi.
Jan 2021: Supreme Court of India approves the Central Vista Project on 5 January. Shapoorji Pallonji and Company Pvt Ltd wins the construction work of Rajpath Redevelopment for ₹477 cr from CPWD.
May 2021: The High Court of Delhi dismisses the plea on 31 May, that sought direction to suspend the construction activities.
Jun 2021: The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs issues a clarification about the project value of Central Vista Avenue.
16 Sep 2021: Inauguration of the new Defense Offices Complex takes place.
23 Jun 2022: Vanijya Bhawan is inaugurated by PM, as the new headquarters of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
11 Jul 2022: Modi unveils a bronze cast of India's National Emblem on top of the new parliament building.
8 September 2022: Modi inaugurates the revamped Central Vista Avenue and renames it Kartavya Path. He also unveils the Statue of Subhas Chandra Bose installed at the India Gate Hexagon, under the Grand Canopy.
28 May 2023: Modi inaugurates the New Parliament Building.
4 April 2024: Vice President Jagdip Dhankar shifts to the newly built Vice President's Enclave at Church Road.
See also
Architecture of India
Bimal Patel
Raisina Hill
Lutyens' Delhi
References
New Delhi
Infrastructure in India
Redevelopment | Central Vista Redevelopment Project | [
"Engineering"
] | 2,305 | [
"Construction",
"Redevelopment"
] |
66,139,472 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valneva%20COVID-19%20vaccine | Valneva COVID-19 vaccine is a COVID-19 vaccine developed by French biotechnology company Valneva SE in collaboration with the American biopharmaceutical company Dynavax Technologies.
In April 2022, the United Kingdom Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) approved the vaccine, being the first in the world to do so. It was approved for medical use in the European Union in June 2022.
Technology
It is a whole inactivated virus vaccine, grown in culture using the Vero cell line and inactivated with BPL. It also contains two adjuvants: alum and CpG 1018. It uses the same manufacturing technology as Valneva's Ixiaro vaccine for Japanese encephalitis.
History
Clinical trials
Valneva COVID-19 vaccine completed phase I/II trial with 153 participants in the United Kingdom. The trials were supported by the UK National Institute for Health Research and four British universities.
In April 2021, Valneva COVID-19 vaccine commenced phase III trials with approximately 4,000 participants. In August 2021, New Zealand was chosen for trialing on 300 adult volunteers, due to low case numbers and slow vaccine rollout. Positive results for the phase III trials were reported in October 2021.
Society and culture
Legal status
United Kingdom
In April 2022, Valneva COVID-19 vaccine was approved by the United Kingdom's Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA).
United Arab Emirates
In May 2022, the company announced that Valneva COVID-19 vaccine was granted emergency use authorization from the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
European Union
In May 2022, the European Union's drug regulator, the European Medicines Agency (EMA), accepted Valneva's filing of a marketing authorization for Valneva COVID-19 vaccine.
In June 2022, the EMA announced that it would propose to authorize COVID-19 Vaccine (inactivated, adjuvanted) Valneva in the EU, primarily for vaccination of people aged 18 to 50 years. It was approved for medical use in the European Union in June 2022.
Economics
In September 2020, Valneva reached an agreement with Dynavax to help manufacture up to 100 million doses of vaccine in 2021 at its facility in Livingston, Scotland, and to provide up to 190 million doses over a 5-year period to the UK government. Due to government support, Valneva progressed immediately into Phase III trials and develop production capacity before the full evaluation of the Phase I/II trial, rather than the traditional slower sequential approach which has lower financial risk.
In September 2021, Valneva announced that the UK government had cancelled the vaccine order. The cancellation reason was not officially given, but seems to be related to difficulties getting building materials due to Brexit and not vaccine quality.
In November 2021, the European Commission approved a contract with Valneva providing the possibility to purchase almost 27 million doses of its vaccine in 2022. This also includes the possibility to adapt the vaccine to new variants as well as the order of an additional 33 million vaccine doses in 2023.
Valneva COVID-19 vaccine was granted a marketing authorization in the European Union in June 2022. In October 2023, the authorization was withdrawn for commercial reasons at the request Valneva Austria GmbH.
References
External links
COVID-19 Vaccine (inactivated, adjuvanted) Valneva Safety Updates from the European Medicines Agency
French COVID-19 vaccines
Inactivated vaccines
Withdrawn drugs | Valneva COVID-19 vaccine | [
"Chemistry"
] | 724 | [
"Drug safety",
"Withdrawn drugs"
] |
66,139,551 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COM-HPC | COM-HPC is a computer-on-module form factor standard that targets high performance compute and high I/O levels. Each COM-HPC module integrates core CPU and memory functionality and input and output including USB up to Gen 4, audio (MIPI SoundWire, I2S and DMIC), graphics, (PCI Express) up to Gen. 5, and Ethernet up to 25 Gbit/s per lane. All I/O signals are mapped to two high density, high speed and low profile connectors on the bottom side of the module. COM-HPC employs a mezzanine-based approach. The COM modules plug into a carrier or base board that is typically customized to the application. Over time, the COM-HPC mezzanine modules can be upgraded to newer, backwards-compatible versions. COM-HPC targets Industrial, Military/Aerospace, Gaming, Medical, Transportation, IoT, and General Computing embedded applications and even scales up to RAM and performance hungry server or edge server applications.
History
The PICMG work-group officially started in October 23, 2018.
Rev. 1.00 Release date: Feb 19, 2021
Rev. 1.10 added HD Audio as alternative for SoundWire, functional safetey signals and a second 5V standby power pin. Release date: Jan 21, 2022
Rev. 1.20 added definition for the Mini. Release date: Oct. 3, 2023
Rev. 1.30 work started June 25, 2024. Major topics for the workgroup are:
Signal integrity for PCIe Gen 6
Modern Standby S0ix
CXL
Types
There are 3 different pin outs defined in the specification.
Size
The specification defines 6 module sizes:
Size Mini:
The sizes A, B and C are typical Client Type sizes.
Size A:
Size B:
Size C:
The larger D and E sizes are typical Server Type sizes to support full size DRAM modules
Size D:
Size E:
Specification
The COM-HPC specification is hosted by PICMG. It is not freely available but may be purchased from the PICMG website.
PICMG provides a preview version for free download.
The COM-HPC hardware specification will be released Jan 2021.
Further COM-HPC related documents will be released in 2021
Carrier Board Design Guide for Ethernet KR
Full Carrier Board Design Guide
Platform Management Specification
Embedded EEPROM Specification (EEEP)
See also
ETX
XTX
Qseven
SMARC
COM Express
References
External links
COM-HPC Overview PICMG
COM-HPC Overview ADLINK
COM-HPC Overview congatec
COM-HPC Overview Kontron
COM-HPC Overview Samtec
COM-HPC Overview Advantech
COM-HPC Overview Avnet
COM-HPC Overview Comtel
COM-HPC Overview Eurotech
COM-HPC Overview Seco
COM-HPC Overview Trenz
Motherboard form factors
Computer hardware standards | COM-HPC | [
"Technology"
] | 596 | [
"Computer standards",
"Computer hardware standards"
] |
66,141,214 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20metallurgy%20in%20the%20Urals | The history of metallurgy in the Urals stands out to historians and economists as a separate stage in the history of Russian industry and covers the period from the 4th millennium BC to the present day. The emergence of the mining district is connected with the history of Ural metallurgy. The geography of the Ural metallurgy covers the territories of modern Perm Krai, Sverdlovsk Oblast, Udmurtia, Bashkortostan, Chelyabinsk Oblast and Orenburg Oblast.
In the 18th century, periods of formation and development of industrial metallurgical centers stand out in Urals metallurgy, for example, the rapid construction and economic growth of more than two hundred metallurgy factories during the 18th to the first half of the 19th centuries until the abolition of serfdom on February 19, 1861 in the Russian Empire, which led to reductions in the labor force. There was also a sharp drop in production rates in the early 1900s but that was followed by recovery and growth by 1913. In the 20th century, after recovering from the decline caused by the Russian Revolution(s): 1905, February 1917, and October 1917 and the Russian Civil War (November 1917 - June 1923), Ural metallurgy had a strategic impact on ensuring the defense of the USSR on the Eastern Front of World War II which is known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War. In the 21st century, the development of metallurgical enterprises in the Urals is associated with the formation of vertically integrated full cycle companies.
The main milestones in the development of metal production technologies in the Urals include the transition from bloomery or the old iron production method to the Kontuazsky forge (for remelting heavy scrap) and the puddling method in the second half of the 19th century. Later, there was the development of hot blast at the end of the 19th century. Further, there was a transition to coke fuel and the introduction of steam engines. Finally, there was the development of open-hearth and Bessemer methods of steel production at the beginning of the 20th century.
Primitive metallurgy
The first period of metallurgical production in the Urals date back to the 4th and 3rd millennia BC. During the Bronze Age, primitive copper-bronze metallurgy was developed among the pastoral tribes of the Urals. The beginning of the development of the Kargalinsky copper ore deposit, located along the Kargalka and Yangiz Rivers, began during this period. In the first half of the third millennium BC, centers of copper metallurgy were formed in the Western Urals and in the Kama region, the ore base that provided numerous mineral deposits of copper sandstone.
The second millennium BC was characterized by the massive spread of copper-bronze metallurgy practically throughout the Urals, and the development of new technologies and metal processing. The Seima-Turbino phenomenon of the distribution of high-quality bronze products in the vast expanses of the forest-steppe zone of Eurasia belongs to this period. The centers of metallurgy of the Southern Urals of the 2nd millennium BC include settlements of the Sintashta, Abashevo and Arkaim cultures. The development of bronze metallurgy in the Urals was hindered by the lack of tin deposits, the alloying of copper which allowed to obtain high-quality bronze. Therefore, the metal objects found at the excavations of the Bronze Age settlements are mainly represented by products made of ordinary copper and arsenic bronze.
During the period from the end of the 2nd millennium BC to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, the most ore-rich areas of the southern Ural copper mines were depleted and abandoned. In the middle of the first millennium BC, metallurgical products were mastered by representatives of Srubnaya culture. In the second half of the 1st millennium BC, there were isolated pockets of Ananyino culture in the Kama-Volga region and Itkul culture in the Urals.
The appearance of iron in the Urals dates back to the 1st millennium BC. In the Kama-Volga region iron products were made from the 8th to the 6th centuries BC, and in the Ural Mountains from the fifth to the fourth centuries BC. In general, the massive penetration of primitive iron metallurgy with the use of forges in the Urals began in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. Forest tribes of the northern Urals and in the north of Western Siberia mastered iron metallurgy by the end of the 1st millennium BC. In the settlements of the Gorokhovo and Kara-Abyz cultures, along with bronze, iron products were found to be in use.
The 1st millennium AD was characterized by the massive distribution of iron in the Urals and Western Siberia. The oldest blast furnace in the Urals, belonging to the Pyanoborsk culture, was discovered by Vladimir Gening at the settlement of Cheganda I, on the territory of modern Udmurtia. Also, for the settlements of the Upper Kama region at the beginning of the Iron Age, the separation of metallurgical production into a separate craft was characteristic, which made up the specialization of entire villages or parts of them. The spread of iron crafts was facilitated by the resettlement of the Ugric tribes of the Petrogrom culture in the Urals. Remains of iron-smelting furnaces of the 6th-9th centuries were found during excavations of hill forts near modern Yekaterinburg.
In the 11th to the 13th centuries, metal goods made by Western European artisans began to penetrate the Urals through trade routes, which contributed to the expansion of the range of products smelted. Excavations at the Kama settlements or hill forts of Idnakar, Vasyakar, Dondykar, Kushmansky, and others have shown that in the 11th to the 15th centuries the main unit for smelting iron was a blast furnace. The metalworking complexes consisted of forges and tool kits. The development of heat treatment and welding of metals proceeded unevenly throughout the Urals. In the 1st millennium, the main products of metallurgists were items for military and hunting purposes: arrowheads, spears, axes, knives, and fishhooks. From the beginning of the second millennium, agricultural implements began to predominate.
By the end of the 1st millennium, ore mining and its own copper-bronze and iron production in the Urals gradually ceased due to the depletion of available resources, competition with more developed cultures, and ethnographic changes that had begun. The penetration of Russians into the Urals, associated mainly with the abundance of furs in the region, facilitated the infiltration of new technologies, including metallurgical ones. In the 17th to the 18th centuries, abandoned ancient mines served as a kind of indicator for geologists in search of ore. With the help of such finds, the Gumeshev and Kargalin deposits of copper ores, the deposits of the Verkh-Isetsky (Upper Iset) and Kyshtym mining districts, as well as the Mednorudyansk deposit were discovered.
The 14th to the 16th centuries
During the period of active colonization of the Urals, which began in the 14th to early 15th centuries, there were rumors about subsurface deposits in Perm land and Yugra. But when conditions were dangerous for the settlers, because of the indigenous population, industrial land development was practically not carried out. In 1491, Ivan III sent an expedition to the Northern Urals, to Pechora, with the task of searching for silver and copper ores. As a result, a small silver ore deposit was discovered on the Tsilma River, which was quickly developed. Ivan IV declared the prospecting and mining of ores a state monopoly and in 1567-1568 he sent an expedition to search for silver and copper ores on the Yayva River. The expedition ended in vain. In 1568, Ivan IV allocated extensive lands to Y. A. Stroganov in the Kama region with permission to use iron ores, but was banned from using silver, copper and tin ores, and he had to immediately report their discovery to Moscow.
The active resettlement of Russians to the Urals was facilitated by the agrarian crisis of the agricultural central part of Russia at the end of the 16th century. From 1579 to 1678 the Russian population of Great Perm increased from 2,197 to 11,811 households (by 463%). By 1724, the population of the Urals was already about 1 million people, while the total population of Russia was about 14 million people.
Until the beginning of the 17th century, all of the Ural and Russian metallurgy was locally handcrafted production in the form of small peasant blast furnaces and forges, in which all the processes of obtaining finished products were concentrated.
The 17th to the 19th century
The 17th century
Beginning in 1618, the government on an almost continual basis organized expeditions to the Urals and Siberia to search for ore deposits. Also, the practice of issuing permits was used, which made it possible to search for ores throughout the territory of the state.
In the 16th-17th centuries, primitive blast furnaces were built by peasant families in the forests adjacent to their villages. The resulting metal pieces were processed into iron in forges or sold. It is known that 40 years before the arrival of Georg Wilhelm de Gennin to the Urals, the peasants of the Aramil settlement smelted iron in small furnaces and sold it, paying tithes to the district office. Even at the beginning of the 18th century, the smelting of ore in small blast furnaces was widespread in many regions of the Urals. In 1720-1722, the artisanal farms of the Kungur district produced 3 thousand poods of iron, 203 poods of strip iron and 897 poods of other varieties. Subsequently, artisanal metallurgical production was legally prohibited on the initiative of G. W. de Gennin.
In the 1630s, with the involvement of foreign engineers, the construction of arms metallurgical factories began in the central part of Russia. Despite the construction of more than 20 state and private factories in the central region in the 17th century, the country experienced a shortage of metal and continued to buy it abroad. In 1629, 25 thousand poods of iron bars were bought in Sweden. To meet the needs of the Ural and Siberian enterprises (primarily salt-making) and settlements settled by Russians, iron was purchased in the central regions. At the same time, the cost of the metal increased sharply with the distance to the east due to transport costs. The impetus for the development of the Ural industry at the beginning of the 17th century was the plans of the authorities to create metallurgical enterprises in the eastern regions of Russia. After his trip abroad, Peter I, realizing the shortage of coal in the central regions and the need to strengthen weapons potential, ordered the construction of mining plants in the Urals, providing them with engineers from Tula, Kashira and other factories. The Ural factories were built on the model of factories in central Russia, which, in turn, were created using the French, German and Swedish types. The rapid development of the metallurgical industry in the Urals in the 17th-18th centuries was facilitated by the abundance of rich natural alloyed (copper, chromium and vanadium) ores in the region, as well as the availability of accessible forest and water resources. The lack of railways led to the development of a large number of small mines. Iron ore reserves were considered practically inexhaustible, while copper ore reserves, on the contrary, were quickly depleted, which led to the closure of 40 copper smelters in the Western Urals in the late 17th - first half of the 18th century.
In the absence of their own specialists in mining and metallurgy, craftsmen were invited from abroad, but they worked mainly in the central regions of the country. In 1618-1622, the Englishman John Water, and in 1626 Fritsch, Gerold and Bulmerr, together with Russian attendants, carried out fruitless expeditions to search for ores in the region of the upper Kama and the Pechora. Others such as the Bergman brothers also unsuccessfully searched for ore in 1626 in the Cherdyn region. Only in 1635, the Saxon, Aris Petzold, and the Moscow merchant Nadia Sveteshnikov found two copper deposits, which became the basis of the first copper smelter in the Urals - Pyskorsky. Failures of geological exploration expeditions at the beginning of the 17th century forced the state to weaken its monopoly on exploration for non-ferrous and precious metals. Major rewards were promised for the found deposits. This decision was followed by a series of discoveries of new deposits of copper and iron in the Urals. In particular, thanks to local residents who brought samples of bog ore to the offices of the Turin and Tobolsk governors for a fee, the deposits of the first iron-making plant in the Urals - Nitsynsky - were discovered. In the 1670s, the expeditions, not finding ore in the Penza district, began to advance to the Urals and found silver ores along the banks of the Kama, Yayva and Kosva.
Government incentives for the found ores led to a sharp increase in exploration activity in the Urals. In the second half of the 17th century, the focus of the search shifted from the Kama region to the Verkhotursky district, where a number of large copper and iron deposits were discovered. In 1669-1674, the state organized an expedition to the Trans-Urals to search for silver and gold ores. During the expedition, no suitable ore was found. Rich ores were found only at the end of the 17th century far beyond the Urals, in the valley of the Argun River, on the basis of which, in 1704, the first Russian silver-smelting Nerchinsk plant was launched.
In general, the Ural metallurgy in the 17th century did not go beyond the limits of artisanal production, the central regions received greater development during this period.
Mining factories
With the appearance of the first factories in the Urals and the establishment of production and economic relations between the authorities and the owners, pronounced features of a subsistence economy appeared: everything necessary to ensure production was prepared and carried out at the factories on their own. Mining factories had their own landholdings, mines, quarries, forestry, stable yards, hayfields, marinas, courts, mills, and various auxiliary workshops. Such industrial and economic complexes were called mining districts and were legally described in the Mountain Regulations of 1806. The first mining plants of the Urals were fortified settlements with defensive structures to protect them from the raids of the Bashkirs.
In total, about 250-260 mining plants of various specializations were built in the Urals and the Kama region: iron foundries, copper smelting, iron-making and processing plants. In total, there were about 500 mining plants in Russia. The first Ural ironworks of the 17th century did not have blast furnaces and were small forges of several smelting furnaces. Such factories include Nitsynsky (founded in 1630), Krasnoborsky (1640), Tumashevsky (1669), Dalmatovsky Monastery Zhelezenskoye settlement (1683, the Kamensky iron foundry was founded on the site of the plant) and the plant in Aramashevskaya Sloboda (1654). The first full-fledged mining plants in the Urals were the Nevyansky and Kamensky plants, founded in 1699-1700 and equipped with blast furnaces, the last mining plant was Ivano-Pavlovsky, launched in 1875. Later, metallurgical plants and mills were already under construction. Actually, the beginning of the history of the mining industry in the Urals is considered to be January 1697, when Governor D. M. Protasyev reported to Moscow about the discovery of iron ore on the Tagil and Neyva rivers. The iron obtained from this ore was studied by Moscow gunsmiths and the Tula blacksmith N. D. Antufiev (Demidov) and was given a high appraisal. On May 10 and June 15, 1697, decrees were issued for the construction of the first Ural factories. And the date of birth of Ural metallurgy is considered to be 1701 when blast-furnace plants were launched and produced the first cast iron.
A specific feature of the Ural mining plants was the obligatory presence of a dam and a pond, which ensured the operation of factory mechanisms through water wheels. Therefore, mining plants were built in close proximity to ore deposits and the river. In a drought, when the water level in the navigable river decreased, the passage of ships was ensured by the synchronous discharge of water from several factory ponds located on the tributaries. The supply of charcoal was provided by the vast forest dachas assigned to the factories. The length of the dams of large factories reached 200–300 m and more (the largest dam of the Byngovsky plant was 695 m long), the width was 30–40 m, and the height was 6–10 m. Due to the climatic conditions of the Urals, it was necessary to maintain a large volume of water in the pond in order to avoid it freezing in the winter. The complete dependence of factories on the availability of water in the ponds led to frequent shutdowns of enterprises or their individual shops for a period of up to 200 days a year. To increase the water pressure, various methods were used: connecting ponds through channels with lakes or other ponds, replenishing ponds from high-mountain reservoirs through gutters. Another difference from European dams was the presence of pine or larch log cabins with valves to regulate the water level in the pond. A wide (up to 10 m and more) slot or "Veshnyak" served to let in excess water during spring floods or in summer after heavy rains. A narrower (about 2 m wide) working slot was intended to supply water to a water conduit - a wooden trough, which was laid along the entire length of the plant's territory and through which water was supplied by a system of wooden pipes and gutters to the impellers of numerous plant mechanisms. The dams of large factories had several slots. All production buildings were located along the working slots. At the same time, industries that required more energy to drive mechanisms were located closer to the dam. Directly behind the dam there was usually a blast-furnace shop, behind it - blast factories, further along the trough there were drilling, stacking, steel, armature and auxiliary factories. The blast furnace was connected to the dam by a bridge across which ore, coal and fluxes were delivered. Almost all the Ural mining plants of the 18th century had two blast furnaces in their composition; in the future, the number of furnaces could increase. Pig iron, as a rule, was sent to a blast factory, where it was processed into blast iron and pounded with hammers. At large factories, the number of hammers reached 8-13.
As a rule, the factory office, the manor house, the houses of the employees of the plant administration, and the church were located on the square in front of the plant. Subsequently, with the expansion of factories, such a layout became environmental stress on factory settlements, which gradually grew into cities. Factory ponds, where industrial waste was dumped, were at the same time a source of drinking water, which contributed to the spread of all kinds of illnesses. The plants located close to each other were eventually united by one settlement: Verkh-Neyvinsky and Nizhny-Verkhneyvinsky plants in Verkh-Neyvinsky, Yekaterinburg and Verkh-Isetsky plants in Yekaterinburg, and others.
The management of state-owned factories was carried out on the military settlements model. Mining superiors, who received the title of generals, were appointed by the authorities. The plant was provided with a military garrison, which partly supported the convoy with products. The work was led by mining officers and craftsmen, who were replaced on average every five years. In 1834, state-owned factories were legally equated with military organizations and their workers with soldiers. The management of private factories was carried out by the factory owners under the supervision of the state. The presence of one owner of factories in different regions contributed to the exchange of experience and technologies between enterprises.
In literature, over time, the term "mining district" became more widely used meaning a historically established complex of enterprises with lands and forests belonging to it, pits, mines, and a mining population living on its territory. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the term "mining plant" is practically not used.
The 18th century
At the turn of the 17th-18th centuries, the country's need for metal was exacerbated by the outbreak of wars for access to the Black and Baltic Seas. Olonets and Kashiro-Tula plants in the central and northwestern parts of Russia had already depleted forest and ore bases and did not meet the growing demand for weapons-grade metal, and could not produce high-quality metal due to the presence of harmful impurities in the ores, primarily sulfur and phosphorus. These same prerequisites contributed to the shift of priority from the smelting of non-ferrous and noble metals towards iron. After the defeat of the Russian troops at Narva on November 19, 1700, the Swedes were left with all the Russian artillery, which exacerbated the need for accelerated production of guns. To make up for these losses, Peter I gave the order to melt the church bells into cannons and mortars. As a result, 300 cannons were cast in one year.
In 1696, at the initiative of the head of the Siberian order, the Duma clerk A.A. Vinius, the ore found in the Verkhotursky district was sent for examination to the Moscow gunsmiths and the Tula blacksmith N. D. Antufiev (Demidov). The samples were highly appraised, which played a decisive role in government decision-making. On May 10 and June 15, 1697, decrees of Peter I were issued on the construction of the first Ural blast furnace plants. The construction was supervised by the Siberian Order headed by A. A. Vinius. The first craftsmen arrived in the Urals to build the Nevyansk and Kamensk factories in the spring of 1700. By 1717, out of 516 workers at the Nevyansk plant, 118 people came from central Russia, including 52 from Tula, and 66 people from Moscow and the Moscow region. The launch of the first two plants in 1701 showed good prospects for Ural metallurgy. In 1702, the Uktussky, Verkhne- and Nizhne-Alapaevsky plants were launched, supplying metal, including for the construction of buildings in St. Petersburg.
On March 4, 1702, by the decree of Peter I, the unfinished Nevyansk plant was transferred to the private property of N. D. Demidov. He proved to be a talented organizer and was able to significantly increase production volumes, with the support of the authorities. Demidov easily achieved the registration of additional peasants to factories, as well as relaxation in taxes and supervision by local administrations. Since 1716, the Demidovs became the first Russian exporters of iron to Western Europe. In total, the Demidovs built 55 metallurgical plants, including 40 in the Urals. By 1740, the Demidov factories produced about 64% of all Ural and 46% of Russian iron. At the same time, the productivity of the Demidovs' factories was on average 70% higher than that of state-owned.
In April 1703, the first convoy with guns and iron made in the Urals (323 cannons, 12 mortars, 14 howitzers) was sent from the Utkinskaya pier on the Chusovaya River. From the factories, the guns were transported by horse-drawn transport 176 versts to Chusovaya, then they were delivered by water to Moscow or St. Petersburg, wintering in Tver. The first convoy arrived in Moscow in 11 weeks and 6 days, on July 18, 1703. Tests of the first guns, which had been cast in a hurry, were unsuccessful: of the first two guns, one was torn into 20 parts due to the poor quality of the cast iron. Later, in the course of mass testing of the guns, 102 guns out of 323 were torn apart. After that, A. A. Vinius ordered the guns to be tested at the factories before shipment. Later, due to the unsatisfactory quality of the metal and high transportation costs, the manufacture of cannons was moved to the factories of the Central part of Russia. By a decree on 19 January 1705, the smelting of cannons at the Ural factories was terminated.
In the first years of the 18th century, with the launch of the first state-owned and private factories, the production base of mining districts and the management system of the enterprises included in them began to be built. Almost all of the first Ural factories were built by local peasants, who were then assigned to factories. In 1700, the first registration of more than 1.6 thousand peasants to the Nevyansk plant was carried out. In 1703, an additional postscript was made to the same plant, which was already owned by N. D. Demidov. By 1762, about 70% of state peasants were assigned to factories in the Middle Urals and Kamsky Urals. The registered peasants at the factories performed mainly auxiliary work: they prepared firewood for the production of coal and heating houses, mined and fired ore and limestone, transported goods, and erected dams. On December 10, 1719, the privileges of miners were enshrined in law with the Berg Privilege, which allowed representatives of all classes to search for ores and build metallurgical plants. At the same time, manufacturers and artisans were exempted from state taxes and recruiting, and their houses were exempt from the post of troops. The law also guaranteed the inheritance of the ownership of factories, proclaimed industrial activity a matter of state importance and protected manufacturers from interference in their affairs by local authorities. The same law established the Berg Board, and managed the entire mining and metallurgical industry, and local administrations. The provisions of the Berg Privilege were extended to foreign nationals in 1720, and remained in force until the early 19th century.
In the 1720s, V.N. Tatishchev and, later, V. de Gennin, who founded the Yekaterinburg state-owned plant in 1723, were sent to the Urals as leaders of the local mining administration. Tatishchev came into conflict with Demidov, trying to weaken his power at the beginning of his work in the Urals. Demidov complained of infringement in Petersburg, and Tatishchev was recalled. Later, de Gennin, who came to replace Tatishchev, and completed the construction of the plant in 1722-1723, confirmed the abuse of the Demidovs in organizing the work of private plants. In 1720, Tatishchev established the Office of Mining Affairs in Kungur, and in 1722 transferred it to the Uktussky plant and renamed it the Siberian Mining Authority, and then the Siberian Higher Mining Authority. De Gennin transferred the Office to Yekaterinburg in 1723 and renamed the institution the Siberian Ober-Bergamt. The achievements of Tatishchev include creating competition for the Demidovs by inviting other mining companies to the Urals, developing rules for managing mining plants and staffing standards.
In the 1720s and 1740s, the Yekaterinburg plant, which gave rise to Yekaterinburg, was the largest metallurgical plant in Europe. The blast furnaces of the plant were more economical and more productive than the English and Swedish ones, which were considered the best in the industry at that time. If the specific consumption of charcoal per 100 kg of iron in Swedish furnaces ranged from 300 to 350 kg, then in Yekaterinburg the consumption of coal was 150–170 kg.
On January 18, 1721, a decree was issued that allowed factory owners, regardless of whether they had a noble rank, to buy serfs. At the same time, the villages purchased by the tycoon with their population could only be sold together with the factory. Later, these peasants and the factories that used their labor became known as possessory factories. Later, in 1744, the norms for the purchase of peasants with factories were established: in the factories of ferrous metallurgy with one blast furnace — 100 peasants, and in the copper smelters - 200 men for every thousand pounds of copper. The addition of peasants to factories led to unrest and riots, which were suppressed during the 2nd half of the 18th century. Later, until the middle of the 19th century, free labor contributed to the intensive development of the metallurgical industry.
In the first quarter of the 18th century, 20 blast furnaces were built in the Urals, and in 1725 they smelted about 0.6 million poods of cast iron. During the same period, small businesses built several small metallurgical plants: Mazuevsky, Shuvakishsky, and Davydovsky. All of them existed for no more than 40 years. After the end of the Northern War, due to a decrease in demand for ferrous metals, the construction of iron smelters was suspended, mainly copper smelters were built. From 1721 to 1725, 11 plants were built in the Urals, of which only Nizhny Tagil was blast-furnace and iron-making, the rest were either copper-smelting (Polevskoy and Pyskorsky), or copper-smelting and iron-making (Verkhne-Uktussky and Yekaterinburg). In total, from 1701 to 1740, 24 state and 31 private metallurgical plants were built in the Urals, which determined the specialization of the region as a quality industrial metallurgical center. Private factories were characterized by higher profitability compared to state-owned. The growth of iron smelting in the Urals over 25 years (from 1725 to 1750) amounted to 250%: from 0.6 million poods to 1.5 million poods.
In the 1730s, the construction of fortresses and factories began in the Southern Urals, on the lands of the Bashkirs. In 1734, Anna Ioannovna approved the project of colonization of the Southern Urals submitted by the Chief Secretary of the Senate, I. K. Kirilov, and appointed him the Chief Commander of the Orenburg expedition. The tasks of the expedition included the construction of the fortress city of Orenburg, a line of defensive fortresses in order to exclude the raids of the Bashkirs, development of the natural resources of the region, and the opening of trade routes to Asia. In autumn of 1736, 100 versts to the south-east of Ufa and 10 versts from the Tabynsky fortress, the construction of the Resurrection (Tabynsky) copper smelter, the first in the Southern Urals, was started. On May 22, 1744, a decree of the Berg Collegium was issued, which allowed for the purchase from the Bashkirs and other owners of the deposit, forests and land for the construction of mining plants. In the period from 1745 to 1755, 20 factories were built on the territory of Bashkiria. By 1781, there were 38 factories in total. During the years of the Peasant War, 89 mining plants were damaged to varying degrees. With the beginning of the uprising, in the first half of October 1773, the closest private copper plants to Orenburg were seized: Verkhotorsky, Voskresensky, Preobrazhensky and Kano-Nikolsky plants. From November to December, all plants in the Southern Urals (24 plants) were seized. By the beginning of 1774, the uprising covered the Middle Urals, the number of captured factories in January reached 39, in February - 92. Individual factories resumed work for short periods of time in 1774, despite the occupation. With the suppression of the uprising, the work of the factories began to recover. By the beginning of 1775, about two thirds of all the Ural factories were working. By the end of 1775, the least destroyed factories of the Southern Urals began to resume their work.
Since the middle of the 18th century, state-owned Ural factories began to produce gold, and since 1819, platinum. Later, mining was permitted for all Russian subjects, which led to the rapid propagation of gold mines in the Urals. In the 1750s and 1760s, the construction of factories in the Urals continued intensively, thanks to the high profitability of production and the support of the authorities. In addition to the Demidovs and Stroganovs, entrepreneurs Osokins, Tverdyshevs, I. S. Myasnikov, and M. M. Pokhodyashin, as well as officials and nobles: P. I. Shuvalov, M. M. Golitsyn, and A. I. Glebov began to build factories. Only the Yekaterinburg and Kamensky plants remained in the state administration, the rest were transferred to private management. Later, many private factories were returned to the treasury for debts (in 1764 — the factories of Count Shuvalov, in 1770 — Count Chernyshev's, in 1781 — Count Vorontsov's). By the end of the 17th century, the largest companies in Russia were the Demidovs, Yakovlevs, Batashovs and Mosolovs, which produced about half of all iron in the country.
In 1767, about 140 metallurgical plants operating in the Urals made the region a leader in world iron production and secured a monopoly position in Russia in copper smelting. By the end of the 18th century, the number of serf workers in the Ural factories reached 74.1 thousand people, and the number of registered peasants reached 212.7 thousand people. In 1800, the Ural factories produced 80.1% of cast iron, 88.3% of iron, and 100% of copper of the all-Russian production volume. Thanks to this, Russia came out on top in the world for iron production and smelted from 20 to 27% of the world's copper.
From the end of the 18th century to the beginning of the 19th century, problems with the supply of wood worsened at most of the Ural mining plants. The forests of the factory dachas were cut down at a distance of 5 to 25 versts. The old factories had even greater distances: the Kamensk plant had 50-55 versts, and the Nevyansk plant had 40-70 versts. Decrees were issued prohibiting unauthorized logging.
The 19th century
The industrial revolution at the Ural mining plants consisted of three major stages:
Early 19th century - 1830s: the appearance of the first steam engines, the development of blast furnace production, and the introduction of rolling mills.
1840-1870s: the development and implementation of more progressive methods of obtaining iron: puddling, kontuaz furnaces, and Lancashire hearth.
1880-1910s: introduction of open-hearth and Bessemer methods of steel production, and the complete displacement of water wheels by steam and other engines.
The replacement of wooden bellows with cylindrical blowers in the early 19th century reduced coal consumption by up to 20% and doubled the productivity of blast furnaces. Further development of blast furnace technology was associated with increasing the height of the furnaces, optimizing their profile and increasing the power of the blower motors. Cupola furnaces appeared at factories, and the casting of metals became a separate production. In 1808, serf S. I. Badaev invented a method for producing cast steel, later called Badaevskaya, for which he received his freedom and in 1811 was sent to the Votkinsk Plant to organize production. At the Zlatoust plant since 1828, experiments on the production of cast steel were conducted by P. P. Anosov.
Foreign engineers played a significant role in the development of existing plants and the construction of new ones in the Urals. In the 18th century, up to 600 German metallurgists worked at the factories of the Yekaterinburg Department at various times. At the beginning of the 19th century, 140 craftsmen from Europe were invited to the Izhevsk Arms Factory, and 115 German gunsmiths and steelworkers were invited to the Zlatoust Arms Factory. After the end of the contract, many foreigners remained in the factories as freelance workers.
Administrative changes at the beginning of the 19th century were associated with the approval in 1806 of the Mining Charter, compiled by A. F. Deryabin and later included in part in the Code of Laws of 1832, and the formation of the Mining Department, which was transformed in 1811 into the Department of Mining and Salt Affairs.
In the period from 1801 to 1860, 37 new plants were built in the Urals, including 3 copper smelters. Next to the previously built factories, auxiliary plants were built, which used the wastewater of the main factories and were actually their rolling shops. During the same period, 14 Ural copper smelters were closed due to the refusal of mints' coinage and the transition to paper money. To stabilize the situation, the government in 1834 abolished all taxes from factories, except for tithes. At the same time, the level of copper production at the beginning of the century was reached only in 1826. Since the 1850s, due to the appearance of cheap English, and later — Chilean, North American, and Australian copper on the market, the metallurgical industry of the Southern Urals entered a period of long-term crisis. In 1859, the price of Russian copper in comparison with the level of 1854 had decreased by 50%.
Steam engines were introduced and took root in the Urals slowly. The first steam engines appeared in the Ural factories in the last years of the 18th century. From 1800 to the 1810s, machines often failed and consumed a lot of firewood, which caused their slow spread. In the 1830s, the machines became more reliable, there were machine-building enterprises that designed, assembled, and repaired steam engines. In 1834, the Cherepanovs built the first steam locomotive and the first railway with a length of 853.4 m, designed to deliver ore from the Vysokogorsky mine to the Vysky plant. By 1840, the number of steam engines in the Ural factories reached 73 units. Also in the 1840s, hydraulic turbines became widespread in the Urals, replacing low-performance water wheels.
In the 1840s, the introduction of the Kontuaz method of iron production began at the Ural factories. The Yuryuzan-Ivanovsky plant in 1840 and the Simsky plant in 1842 were the first to switch to it. Subsequently, the Kontuaz forges were built at state-owned factories, and later at private ones. By 1861, 364 Kontuaz forges operated at 37 factories in the Urals. In the 1860s and 1870s, when production was already supplanted by steelmaking, Lancashire forges appeared in the Urals. A more productive puddling process was introduced in the Urals in 1817 in a test mode at the Pozhevsky plant, from 1825 to 1830 at the Nizhniy Tagil plant, and in September 1837 the Votkinsky plant completely switched to puddling. By 1861, among 58 factories, there were 201 puddling furnaces, 34 gas puddling, 153 welding, and 23 gas welding furnaces. Before the widespread use of steel-making processes in 1857, P. M. Obukhov invented a cheap method, called Obukhov, of steel production at the Zlatoust plant.
The height of the Ural blast furnaces in the 19th century reached 18 meters, which significantly exceeded the height of European furnaces. This advantage made it possible to carry out the blast furnace process on a cold blast with relatively low costs. This led to the later introduction of hot blast in the Urals, although successful experiments on its use were carried out back in the 1830s and 1840s at the Kushvinsky, Lysvensky, Verkh-Isetsky, and other plants. Thanks to the events of the Industrial Revolution in England, the average productivity of blast furnaces in the Ural factories in the second half of the 19th century was already inferior to those in England. So, in 1800, one blast furnace in the Urals produced an average of 91.6 thousand poods of iron, and in 1860, 137 thousand poods. British furnaces produced respectively 65.5 thousand and 426 thousand poods.
Since the middle of the 19th century, rolling production has developed, and steel and iron casting continued to develop. Castings from the Kasli plant have become world-famous. At large factories, rail rolling production was mastered. In 1859, 12.2 million poods of iron were smelted at the factories of the Urals, which was about 2/3 of all iron smelted in Russia.
During the Patriotic War of 1812, many Ural factories were converted to weapons production facilities. The Kamensk plant issued 87,274 poods of artillery pieces during 1810-1813. During the war years, 47 private factories crossed over to manufacturing shells, some of which had never produced such products. Often, production plans were frustrated, and the cast guns did not withstand testing due to haste and unexploited technologies. The victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 did not allow the authorities to identify these problems. At the same time, the war substantially reduced the demand of the domestic market for metal, which led to inflation and long standstills at factories.
The casting of artillery pieces resumed in 1834. Before the beginning of the Crimean War, from 1834 to 1852, the Ural factories cast 1,542 guns instead of the 3,250 ordered, on average, orders for the production of shells were fulfilled by about 23-25 %. Already during the war, the supply of 60-pounder guns was disrupted due to a gap in testing. During the defense of Sevastopol, 900 Ural guns were unsuitable.
The development of the Ural copper-smelting industry in the 19th century was associated with an increase in the height of furnaces, the use of hot blast and coal. Steam engines began to be used to lift the ore to the surface and pump water out of the mines. Copper production has shifted to the Northern and Southern Urals. In the second half of the 19th century, copper smelting began to decline due to the depletion of deposits and reduced demand from mints.
Since the 1820s, gold and platinum mining has been rapidly developing in the Urals. In 1823, there were 309 mines in the region. 105 poods of gold were mined. In 1842, the largest Ural gold nugget weighing 36.04 kg was found at the Tsarevo-Alexandrovsky mine. Platinum was mined at the mines of the Nizhniy Tagil district of the Demidovs, at the Isov mines of the Verkh-Isetsk district, and at the Krestovozdvizhensk mines. In the 19th century, the Urals produced 93–95% of the world's platinum.
In the 18th century and first half of the 19th century, the use of adolescent and child labor was widespread in the mines and factories of the Urals, sanctioned by a number of legislative acts and reinforced in the Mining Statute of 1842. In the 1850s, children and adolescents accounted for 30 to 50% of all workers in factories, and in mines - from 40 to 85%. At the beginning of the 19th century, women were employed in 17% of factories. In the 1850s, female labor was already more widely used, and the proportion of women was about 10% of the workers.
By the time of the abolition of serfdom, the Ural metallurgy was in a deep crisis, which was facilitated by a sharp increase in grain prices in 1857 due to crop failures, especially significant in the Northern Urals. Of the 41 mining districts, 13 had a total debt of 8.1 million rubles, which increased to 12.4 million rubles by the end of the 1860s. The transition to freelance labor led to a sharp reduction in the number of workers in factories. If in 1860 there were 8,663 workers at the seven Goroblagodatsky factories, in 1861 — 7,030, then in 1862 the number decreased to 4,671 people, in 1863 - to 3,097, and in 1864 - to 2,839 people. During this period, there were 154 metallurgical plants of various specializations and gold crafts in the Urals, including 24 state-owned, 78 possessory, and 52 manorial ones. Of these, 115 enterprises were located within the Perm Governorate, 26 in the Orenburg Governorate, and 13 in the Vyatka Governorate.
In 1824, to support the miners, the government established a State Loan Bank. According to the data of 1849, the State Loan Bank pledged the Kanonikolsky, Beloretsky, Voskresensky, Troitsky, Blagoveshchensky, Yuryuzan-Ivanovsky mining districts a total amount of 1,106,995 rubles in silver. In 1851, the Beloretsk Mining District was re-mortgaged to the bank, and in 1852, the Preobrazhensky Plant was mortgaged to private investors in the amount of 300 thousand rubles with the obligation to pay the debt to the bank. In general, the pre-reform level of production at the Ural factories was reached only in 1870. The Government provided support to mining companies in the form of soft loans secured by metals and orders for the construction of railways. The industry was heavily influenced by commercial banks and wealthy entrepreneurs who bought up entire mountain districts. In the 1880s, mining plants began to be incorporated.
In 1870, at the invitation of the Russian government, the Austrian metallurgist P. von Tunner visited an industrial exhibition in St. Petersburg and inspected the Ural metallurgical plants. As a result of this trip, in 1871, he published a book with a description of the factories, in which he noted the technical and organizational backwardness of the metallurgy of the Urals, and the high cost of production. Von Tunner's book eventually became the first systematic description of the Ural mining plants.
The lack of customs regulation of foreign supplies of metals had a negative impact on the development of Ural metallurgy. European metallurgical companies in the 2nd half of the 19th century actively united in syndicates to regulate market prices and control production volumes. The surplus, as a rule, was exported to the Russian markets and sold at low prices. This led to overstocking of markets and lower prices for metals. The amount of unsold metal at the Nizhny Novgorod Fair was 0.9 million poods in 1883, 1.16 million poods in 1884, 1.84 million poods in 1885, and 1.94 million poods in 1886.
In the 1880s and 1890s, 16 metallurgical plants were built in the Urals, including the large Chusovsky (1883) and Nadezhdinsky plants(1896). The old factories underwent significant modernization, including the introduction of mechanical processing plants, the construction of open-hearth shops, power plants, and air heaters. The introduction of hot blast was promoted in the 1860s and 1870s in the factories of the Urals. Rashet blast furnaces equipped with trapping devices for heating the air were used. Despite these successes, since 1896, the Urals has lost the primacy in the share of metal produced to enterprises in Southern Russia. In 1900, the Ural factories smelted 50.1 million poods of iron. The first open-hearth furnaces in the Urals were built in 1871 at Votkinsky and in 1875 at the Perm Cannon Factory. By 1900, there were a total of 42 of the furnace. Bessemerization in the Urals was first introduced at the Nizhnesaldinsky and Katav-Ivanovsky plants. In 1900, 48.9% of the Ural finished ferrous metal was produced by open-hearth and Bessemer methods.
By the end of the 19th century, with the expansion of factories in the Urals, the problems with the depletion of forest resources and environmental pollution intensified.
In 1899, on behalf of S. Yu. Witte, an expedition of scientists headed by D. I. Mendeleev was sent to the Urals, the main task of which was to find out the causes of stagnation in the metallurgical industry. In his report, Mendeleev called the main reasons for the industrial crisis of the Ural metallurgy, off-road conditions, the preserved serf relations between factory owners and peasants, the use of outdated equipment and technologies, the monopoly of large entrepreneurs on ore and forests, and the arbitrariness of local authorities. As a result of the expedition, a plan was drawn up for the development of Ural metallurgy with an increase in the volume of iron smelting to 300 million poods per year, which did not find the support of the authorities.
The 20th to the 21st centuries
At the beginning of the 20th century, the entire Russian industry was in a deep crisis, the consequences of which affected the factories of the Urals until 1909. In 1909, the Ural iron and steel plants smelted 34.7 million tons of iron, which is 30.9% less than in 1900. During the crisis years, the share of finished iron increased, new markets were searched for, syndicates and associations were created to fight the competition of factories in Southern Russia. To a lesser extent, the crisis affected the copper smelting industry, thanks to continued demand and an increase in customs duties on copper imports. In the first decade of the 20th century, small technically backward factories with worn-out equipment, which had become unprofitable, were closed. Of the 111 metallurgical plants operating in the Urals in 1900, 35 plants were shut down by 1913. In conditions of tough competition, factories were forced to modernize: blast furnaces with a lightweight casing were erected, hot blast was introduced everywhere, steam engines and ore preparation for smelting, furnaces and puddling furnaces were replaced by open-hearth furnaces, more powerful rolling mills were built, and factories received electricity. In the mountainous districts, the optimization and reorganization of capacities were carried out: the final processing was concentrated, as a rule, at the main plant of the district, the rest of the factories provided supplies of iron. During the Russo-Japanese War, the Izhevsk, Perm, and Zlatoust arms factories sharply increased the production of guns, rifles, and shells.
In 1908, the construction of the Porogi electrometallurgical plant for the production of ferroalloys, and one of the first hydroelectric power plants in Russia to provide the plant with electricity began. Until 1931, the plant was the only producer of ferroalloys in the country.
In 1910, an industrial boom began, which continued until the First World War. From 1910 to 1913, the production of iron increased to 55.3 million poods (by 29.9%), finished metal products - up to 40.8 million poods (by 9.6%). But the share of the Ural factories in the all-Russian iron smelting fell to 21.6%. Commercial banks actively invested in the development of the metallurgy of the Urals. The most important role in the Urals was played by the Azov-Don Commercial Bank, Saint Petersburg International Commercial Bank, and Russo-Asiatic Bank. The volume of investments at the turn of the 20th century was estimated at 10.8 million rubles. Modernization and reconstruction of mountain districts continued. In 1911, a new blast furnace with a volume of 150 m³ and an open-hearth furnace with a capacity of 25 tons were launched at the Nizhniy Tagil plant; two Bessemer converters and two new blast furnaces were installed at the Nizhnesaldinsky plant. The Votkinsk plant was reconstructed for the production of steam locomotives and river vessels. The factories that produced weapons were reconstructed and switched over to the production of civilian products. Also in the pre-war years, the concentration of production at large factories increased: in 1914, out of 49 Ural plants, 16 had the productivity of more than 1 million poods of iron per year and produced 65% of the total volume, including 5 factories with a capacity of more than 2 million poods of iron per year. Nadezhdinsky, Nizhnesaldinsky, Zlatoustovsky, Chusovskoy, and Votkinsky produced 36.1% of the total volume.
Copper smelters of the Urals at the beginning of the 20th century mastered pyrite smelting, which made it possible to process poor sulfur ores. In the pre-war years, the Nizhnekyshtymsky Copper Electrolytic Plant, the Karabashsky, and Kalatinsky plants were launched. Through syndicates formed, British companies owned 65.5% of the copper mined in the Urals. The gold-platinum mining industry underwent mechanization. The first Dutch dredges appeared in 1900 at the Neozhidany Mine on the Is River. By 1913, the number of dredges in the Urals reached 50, they ensured the extraction of 20% of gold and 50% of platinum. Until 1913, the average production of gold in the Urals was 550-650 poods per year, while the average production of platinum was 300-350 poods per year.
World War I and Civil War
The modernization of private and state-owned factories and the construction of railways, which began in the 1910s, were not completed by the beginning of the war. Thinking the war would be brief, the government did not involve the private factories of the Urals in the production of guns and shells until the summer of 1915. As a result, the Ural industry was late in getting involved in providing the army with weapons and equipment. In 1914-1916, state-owned factories maintained the pre-war production of iron, but completely stopped the production of roofing iron in favor of military products. The production of high-grade iron and projectile steel was almost doubled. The sharp increase in production volumes was hindered by the lack of fuel resources, labor, and means for transporting goods. In 1915-1916, due to the lack of fuel in the Urals, 22 blast furnaces were stopped, and 11 furnaces worked at a reduced capacity. The situation was aggravated by the disorganization of railway transportation due to the priority of military needs and the mobilization of qualified personnel. In the summer of 1915, a commission headed by General A. A. Manikovsky was sent to the Urals to negotiate with private factory owners and explore the possibility of private factories participating in the production of military products, and to coordinate the actions of private factories. On November 7, 1915, the Ural Factory Meeting was established under the leadership of the Chief Head of the Ural Mining Department, P. I. Yegorov. In the future, it became obvious that the created administrative apparatus could not fulfill the tasks assigned to it. The difficult situation at the front in 1915 and the acute shortage of weapons forced the government to accept the inflated demands of entrepreneurs. As a result of negotiations, military orders were accepted by private factory owners at increased prices. The total cost of the orders was estimated at 200 million rubles.
The position of the working people worsened during the war years. The working day increased to 12 hours, women and children worked on an equal basis with men, but they were paid half as much. The organization of production was unsatisfactory: the factories received orders that they could not fulfill due to the lack of necessary equipment. After the defeat of the Russian troops in 1915-1916, 87% of the Ural factories switched to the production of military products. With the support of the authorities, commercial companies with the participation of foreign capital developed. In 1915-1918, large machine-building plants were evacuated from the front-line territories of the Baltics and Petrograd, to the Urals. The staff of the arms factories was replenished with evacuated specialists.
After the February Revolution, power passed into the hands of provincial commissars appointed by the Provisional Government. Ural miners supported the Provisional Government and its bodies. On March 4, 1917, the Council of Miners' Congresses asked the government to appoint a commissar to control the work of the Ural factories. Such a commissar was appointed, businessman V. I. Europeus, who headed the created Provisional Committee of the Ural Mining District. At some factories (Nyazepetrovsky, Sosvensky, Bilimbaevsky, Zlatoustovsky, Nizhne-Ufaleysky), before the October Revolution, power was partially or completely seized by the Soviets of Workers' Deputies. The state of production continued to deteriorate, there was a critical shortage of fuel, railroad transportation became practically unmanageable, enterprises worked with interruptions, equipment was not repaired or updated in a timely manner. Smelting of pig iron and steel declined rapidly, and the number of industrial accidents increased. The commission sent by the Provisional Government in 1917 to restore the working capacity of the Ural enterprises failed to manage the task.
After the October Revolution, in November 1917, the Ural Factory Meeting was reorganized under the leadership of the Bolsheviks. Its powers were extended by the decree of the Supreme Economic Council of the Republic to the Vyatka, Orenburg, Perm and Ufa provinces, and a number of adjacent districts. The Ural Mining Board and the Yekaterinburg Bureau of the Council of the Congress of Mining Industrialists of the Urals were liquidated. In November - December 1917, the boards of Ural joint-stock companies suspended the transfer of money to factories where Soviet control was introduced, which led to delays in the payment of wages and the accumulation of debts for the supply of raw materials and food. There were pockets of famine and epidemics of diseases, the situation of workers-prisoners of war was especially difficult. In December 1917, the Council of People's Commissars began the nationalization of the mountain districts of the Urals, earlier than other enterprises of the country. By July 1918, more than 4,340 enterprises (25 out of 34 mountain districts of the Urals) had been nationalized. In 1918, in addition to the factory committees established earlier, business councils were established to manage the factories, whose activities were coordinated by the regional board of the nationalized enterprises of the Urals. Such actions led to a certain dual power in the management of enterprises in the industry, and since March 1918, factory committees have been merged with trade unions. Since 1918, systematic training of engineers and workers for the metallurgical industry began in educational institutions of the Urals.
Due to supply disruptions and salary delays in the summer and autumn of 1918, anti-Soviet demonstrations took place at the Ural factories. By July 1918, out of 89 Ural blast furnaces, 51 were in operation, and 59 of 88 open-hearth furnaces were in operation. In August, Soviet power was overthrown in Izhevsk and Votkinsk. At the same time, the Regional Government of the Urals was formed in Yekaterinburg, the Ural Industrial Committee was created to manage the industry, the Main Directorate of Mining Affairs of the Urals was established to manage the mining industry, which was transformed in December into the Ural Mining Administration. On August 19, the Provisional Regional Government of the Urals, in its declaration, announced its intention to return the factories to their previous owners. By December 10, 1918, only 36 mining and 9 small and medium-sized coal enterprises in the Urals and Siberia were denationalized. All these changes had practically no effect on the real state of the Ural industry. The plans of the Kolchak government to subsidize the Ural factories also did not come true. The situation was aggravated by the complete dependence of the inhabitants of the factory settlements on the work of enterprises and the political struggle of the provisional governments. In late 1918 - early 1919, the enterprises of Verkh-Isetsky, Revdinsky, Shaitansky, Zlatoustovsky, and a number of other districts were stopped.
After the restoration of Soviet power in the Urals in mid-1919, the management of the factories was centralized under the auspices of the Supreme Council of the National Economy. Later, the Ural Industrial Bureau of the Supreme Economic Council was created. The debts of the enterprises were canceled, a free supply of raw materials and materials was established, finished products were also handed over without payment according to centralized orders. By the end of 1919, 14 blast furnaces, 16 open-hearth furnaces, and 49 rolling mills were operating at the Ural factories. To manage the factories, five regional departments were created: Vysokogorskoe (18 enterprises), Bogoslovskoe (5 enterprises), Yekaterinburg (31 enterprises), Permskoe (17 enterprises), and Yuzhno-Uralskoe (20 enterprises). In 1920, the re-evacuation of workers and specialists from Siberia began, as well as the return of the factory equipment taken out by the White Guards. On the whole, in 1919-1920, only 20% of the metallurgical plants of the Urals operated, and the volume of production was about 10% of the pre-war level. Of the 7 blast furnaces of the Nadezhdinsky Plant, the largest at that time, only one operated; the plants of the Goroblagodatsky Mining District were completely stopped. In total, in the Urals in December 1920, only 9 blast furnaces, 10 open-hearth furnaces, and about a dozen rail, pipe-rolling, and sheet mills were operating, which were completely shut down by August 1921. During the years of the Civil War, the equipment of enterprises was significantly damaged. The smelting of iron in 1921 amounted to 69 thousand tons, which was 7.5% of the pre-war level.
The NEP years and the first five-year plans
With the end of the war and the adoption of the New Economic Policy (NEP) in March 1921, the restoration of the Ural industry began. Uralplan was created, under whose auspices the development of a program for the integrated development of the region was carried out. Most of the enterprises switched to a self-supporting scheme, which led to the emergence of industrial trusts, which united factories according to industry characteristics. 5 metallurgical trusts were formed in geographical areas, as well as separate trusts "Uralzoloto," "Uralmed," and trusts for the extraction of coal. In 1925, Uralplan developed a "Three-Year Program for the Development of the Metallurgical Industry in the Urals," then a plan for the development of the Urals for 1925-1930 was drawn up, which included, among other things, the construction of the Magnitogorsk Metallurgical Complex. Concession contracts for the smelting of metals and the extraction of minerals operated with varying degrees of success. In 1927, the number of concession contracts in the Urals included 12 companies. Subsequently, the trusts were downsized with the allocation of iron ore trusts. In total, on October 1, 1925, there were 31 trusts in the Urals. After the adoption of the first five-year plan, in 1929 the trust system was abolished.
In the 1920s-1930s, the concentration of production and specialization of factories, which began at the beginning of the 20th century, continued in the metallurgy of the Urals. The Nadezhdinsky Plant focused on rolling of all Ural rails, the Nizhny Salda Plant switched to the production of shaped rolled products, the production of pipes was concentrated at the Pervouralsk Plant, the Verkh-Isetsky Plant switched to the production of transformer steel. Machine-building and mechanical enterprises were separated from metallurgical enterprises. Small mines were actively closed, ore mining was concentrated at the large deposits of Bakalsky, Tagilo-Kushvinsky, Nadezhdinsky, and Alapaevsky districts. Geological exploration work began in 1920 in the Urals, and by 1933 the explored reserves of iron ore amounted to about 2 billion tons, including 478 million tons along Magnitnaya Mountain. There was an acute shortage of fuel resources, which forced metallurgists to switch to mineral fuel. The first successful blast-furnace smelting in the Urals of Kuznetsk coke took place on June 13, 1924 at the Nizhnesaldinsky Plant. Later, Kushvinsky, Nizhnetagilsky, and other plants switched to using coke. By 1926, 37% of the Ural pig iron was smelted using coke, the number of operating blast furnaces was 32, open-hearth furnaces was 47 (in 1913 - 61 and 75, respectively), and their productivity increased 1.5 and 1.7 times, respectively, to the level of production in 1913.
The recovery of the copper and gold-platinum industries was much slower due to the greater damage inflicted during the Civil War. In 1921-1922, the extraction of copper ore in the Urals amounted to only 2.2% of the level of 1913, gold - 1.9%, and platinum - 4.3%. By 1928, production amounted to 585.4 thousand tons (88.7% of the level of 1913), and 15 copper mines were able to resume operation.
At the end of the 1920s, Soviet design institutes, with the involvement of foreign companies, began designing the giants of the Ural metallurgy and mechanical engineering — Magnitogorsk, Chelyabinsk and Novotagilsky metallurgical plants, Ural Heavy Machinery Plant, Uralvagonzavod and Pyshminsky Copper-Electrolyte Plant. On May 15, 1930, the Central Committee of the CPSU(b) issued a resolution "On the work of Uralmet," which emphasized the need to create a coal and metallurgical center in the East of the USSR on the basis of coal and ore deposits of the Urals and Siberia. Investments in the construction of new and reconstruction of old plants have increased dramatically. In 1925-1926, 52.6 million rubles were disbursed, and in 1932 — already 1447.7 million rubles. The management of the metallurgical industry was also centralized. In 1931, the Main Directorate of the Metallurgical Industry of the VSNH was liquidated, the main committees were created: Glavchermet, Glavspetsstal, Glavmetiz, and Glavtrubostal. Later, in 1939, the People's Commissariats of Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metallurgy of the USSR were established.
During the 1st and 2nd five-year plans, mining, ore dressing and ore preparation for smelting developed intensively. Flotation and melting of concentrates in water packs and reverberatory furnaces have been successfully applied in non-ferrous metallurgy. By 1934, 62% of all mined ore was being enriched in the Urals. By the beginning of the 2nd five-year plan, drilling at the mines was fully mechanized. Iron ore production by 1937 reached 8.7 million tons (31% of production in the USSR), and copper ore by 1935 had reached 2.96 million tons. The conversion of blast furnaces to mineral fuel continued: in 1940 86.8% of Ural pig iron was smelted on coke. Only 8 furnaces worked on charcoal, producing special and high-quality cast iron. During the same period, non-ferrous metallurgy plants were built: Krasnouralsky and Sredneuralsky copper smelters, Pyshminsky Copper Electrolytic, Ural Aluminum, Chelyabinsk Zinc, Ufaleysky, Rezhsky and Yuzhno-Uralsky Nickel, Solikamsk and Berezniki Magnesium. Most of the equipment of the new plants was purchased abroad. In 1931, 600 million rubles were spent on the purchase of imported equipment, in 1932 — 270 million rubles, in 1933 — 60 million rubles.
In 1933 and 1937, the People's Commissar of Heavy Industry of the USSR, G.K. Ordzhonikidze issued orders for the development of the gold-platinum industry. The measures taken made it possible in 1936 to extract in the Urals a record 12.8 tons of gold (156.3% compared to the level of 1913) and 4.8 tons of platinum (97.8% compared to the level of 1913).
The Great Patriotic War (WWII)
By the end of 1941, the Germans occupied most of the industrial territory of the USSR, where 59 blast furnaces, 126 open-hearth furnaces and 13 Electric arc furnace, 16 converters and 105 rolling mills functioned, about 66% of Soviet pig iron, more than 50% of steel and 60% of aluminum were produced. During 1941-1942, equipment and personnel of 832 large factories, which ended up in the front-line zone, were evacuated to the Urals. At the Novotagilsk Plant, an armored mill was launched, removed from the Kirov Plant. At the Sinarsky Plant, a thin-walled pipe workshop was launched from the equipment of the Dnepropetrovsk Pipe Plant. A middle-sheet workshop was built at the Magnitogorsk plant with equipment from Zaporizhstal, and an armored mill was evacuated from the Mariupol Plant. The Urals became the main supplier of metal in the country. The production of civilian products was minimized. All metallurgical plants switched to the production of weapons. To increase the production of alloy steels required for the manufacture of military equipment, the production of ferroalloys was often carried out in units not intended for this - blast furnaces and open-hearth furnaces.
During the war years, the construction of metallurgical enterprises continued. Magnitogorsk and Nizhnetagilsky combines, Zlatoust, Pervouralsky, Beloretsk Iron and Steel Works, Chusovsky Metallurgical, Magnitogorsk Hardware, and Chelyabinsk Ferroalloy Plant were declared shock construction sites. In total, during the war years, 10 blast furnaces and 32 open-hearth furnaces, 16 electric furnaces, 16 ferroalloy furnaces, 2 Bessemer converters, 12 rolling and 6 pipe rolling mills, 11 coke batteries, more than 100 shafts and coal mines were built, and launched in the Urals. Chelyabinsk and Chebarkul Metallurgical, Chelyabinsk Pipe Rolling, Magnitogorsk Calibration, Berezniki Magnesium, Bogoslovsky Aluminum, and Miass Machine-Building Plant were also built.
In conditions of martial law, it was required to dramatically increase the volume of mined ore. Priority was given to the rich and accessible deposits of the Magnitnaya and Vysokaya mountains, which in 1943 accounted for 81.1% of all Ural iron ore. Intensive production at these fields led to their rapid depletion. To provide manganese in a short time, the Polunochnoye and Marsyatskoye fields were developed in the north of the modern Sverdlovsk Oblast. At the Magnitogorsk Combine, the smelting of armor steel in open-hearth furnaces was first mastered and extended to other plants. During the war years, the Izhevsky Metallurgical Plant mastered the smelting of 19 new grades of steel, and for the first time applied stamping of breeches and planting of barrels on horizontal forging machines. At the Pervouralsk Novotrubny plant, reinforced with evacuated equipment from Ukrainian factories, during the war, 5 new workshops were built and the production of 129 types of pipes was mastered. At Uralvagonzavod, Uralmash, and the Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant, the production of tanks was launched in the shortest possible time. In Sverdlovsk, and Ust-Katav, from the framework of the evacuated equipment, the production of artillery pieces and shells was built, supplementing the potential of the Motovilikhinsky, Zlatoust, and Izhevsky arms factories.
Due to the expansion of the Ural Aluminum Plant, the volume of aluminum production increased during the war years from 13.3 to 71.5 thousand tons. In 1942, UAZ produced 100% of aluminum in the USSR. About 80% of all shell and cartridge cases during the war years were made of copper smelted by the Pyshminsky plant. The South Ural Nickel Plant significantly increased the production of nickel and cobalt. The Chelyabinsk Zinc Plant provided 75% of zinc supplies by the end of the war. At the Solikamsk Magnesium Plant, the design capacity was closed 4.5 times due to the addition of evacuated equipment. On July 22, 1943, the first magnesium was produced by the Bereznikovsky Plant, having been completed in a short time because of a simplification of the project. Evacuated equipment spread to Revda, Kamensk-Uralsky, Verkhnyaya Salda, and Orsk. Plants for the processing of non-ferrous metals and the production of aluminum and magnesium alloys were created. In 1942, the Kirovgrad Hard Alloys Plant was commissioned, which began to produce hard alloy armor-piercing cores for shells and cartridges. In March 1942, the Kamensk-Uralsky Foundry was launched, which throughout the war was the only enterprise that produced aircraft wheels.
During the Great Patriotic War, the scientific potential of the Urals was strengthened by evacuated institutes. The Academy of Sciences of the USSR was located in Sverdlovsk. Academicians I. P. Bardin and M. A. Pavlov made a great contribution to the development of Ural metallurgy during the war years. Geological research in the Urals was led by A. N. Zavaritsky, D. V. Nalivkin, and V. I. Luchitsky. Academician L. D. Shevyakov made a significant contribution to the development of the Ural coal industry. V. V. Wolf developed and introduced a new method of processing Ural bauxite. N. S. Siunov invented a transformer to improve welding performance. A. E. Malakhov discovered new cobalt deposits. P. S. Mamykin was engaged in the development of new refractory materials.
In general, up to 90% of iron ore, 70% of manganese, and 100% of aluminum, nickel, chromium, and platinum were produced in the Urals during the war years. Pig iron production increased by 88.4%, steel by 65.5%, rolled metal production by 54.9%, rough copper by 59.9%, electrolytic copper by 94.8%, nickel by 186.5%, aluminum by 554.1%, and cobalt by 1782.1%. The volume of production of defense equipment has grown sixfold. In total, the Urals produced about 40% of all military products of the country: 70% of all tanks (including 60% of medium and 100% of heavy), 50% of artillery pieces, and 50% of ammunition.
Post-war era
After the war, the engineers evacuated from the western regions returned to their native places, which led to a shortage of engineering and technical personnel at Ural enterprises. Also, the Urals experienced a lack of funding for the reconversion of factories, since the bulk of the funds were directed to the restoration of areas liberated from occupation. At most factories in the region, the equipment required repair and updating. The equipment coming to the Urals on account of reparations from Germany and other aggressor countries was outdated and worn out.
The restructuring of the Ural metallurgy for the production of peacetime assortment was completed in 1946. Replacement and reconstruction of technological lines was often accompanied by a decrease in the quality of products due to untrained personnel and organizational problems. Since 1948, there has been a steady increase in production volumes. The construction of the Orsko-Khalilovsky Metallurgical Plant was continued, the capacities of the Magnitogorsk, Novotagilsky, Chelyabinsk, Chusovsky, and Lysvensky plants increased. The development of jet aviation, the nuclear industry, rocket engineering, and cosmonautics in the post-war period created the need for high-alloy steels, non-ferrous metal products, and the requirements for the quality of metals also sharply increased.
The main directions of technical progress in ferrous metallurgy in the post-war period were:
further increase in the volume of blast furnaces and open-hearth furnaces
increasing the share of steel smelting in electric furnaces and converters
mechanization and automation of production processes
the use of oxygen-enriched blast
the use of natural gas as fuel
mastering continuous and semi-continuous rolling
introduction of continuous casting of steel
In April 1959, the Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works began heating open-hearth furnaces with associated gas. By the end of the 1960s, more than 80% of steel was smelted in furnaces using natural gas. Since 1956, at the Nizhny Tagil Metallurgical Plant, and later at all Ural plants, oxygen enrichment began to be used, which made it possible to increase the productivity of open-hearth furnaces by 15-25% and reduce specific fuel consumption by 15-20%. In the 1960s, more than 60% of open-hearth steel and 72% of electric steel were smelted using oxygen.
In the copper-smelting industry, the mechanization of cleaning tuyeres and loading furnaces, and automation of units were introduced. These measures made it possible to almost double the production of copper at the Krasnouralsk and Kirovgrad copper-smelting plants. Due to the introduction of the roasting of copper charge and zinc concentrates in a fluidized bed at the Chelyabinsk Zinc Plant, zinc production increased, and the integrated use of raw materials was improved. At the Ufaleisk Nickel Plant, sulfation roasting of nickel matte was introduced; at the Karabash Plant, a system for automation of the thermal regime of reverberatory furnaces was introduced, which made it possible to increase the production of nickel and copper. At the Ural aluminum smelter, a continuous bauxite leaching process was developed, and two-tier thickeners were installed, which increased the production of alumina.
The restoration and development of metallurgy in the Urals in the post-war period was stimulated by a significant increase in capital investments. In 1961-1970, out of 2,457 million rubles of capital investments in metallurgy, 2,074 million rubles (84.4%) were invested in five enterprises: Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works - 752 million rubles (30.6%), Chelyabinsk Metallurgical Plant - 610 million rubles (24.8%), Nizhniy Tagil Iron and Steel Works - 401 million rubles (16.3%), Orsko-Khalilovskiy Iron and Steel Works - 230 million rubles (9.4%), Verkh-Isetsky Iron and Steel Works - 81 million rubles (3.3%). From 1946 to 1965, 4 blast furnaces, 6 coke oven batteries, 14 open-hearth furnaces, 6 rolling shops were built and launched at the Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works. From 1947 to 1959, 4 blast furnaces, 18 open-hearths, 6 rolling mills, a unique converter shop for processing vanadium pig iron, and the country's first continuous casting machine were built at the Nizhniy Tagil Metallurgical Plant from 1947 to 1959. During the same period, blast furnaces, open-hearths, and electric furnaces were built and reconstructed at the Chelyabinsk Metallurgical Plant, and a sinter plant, electric steel-making shops No. 1 and No. 2, sheet-rolling, crimping, and section-rolling shops were put into operation. In 1950, a by-product coke plant was launched at the Orsko-Khalilovsky Metallurgical Plant; in 1955-1963 - 3 blast furnaces; in 1958-1966 - 9 open-hearth furnaces, blooming and sheet rolling mills. In 1950, the Magnitogorsk, Nizhniy Tagil and Chelyabinsk Combines smelted a total of 71.6% of all Ural pig iron, 53.4% of steel, and 57.1% of rolled products. Although the level of technical equipment of the Ural metallurgical plants was lower than in other regions, the cost of iron and steel produced was 10-15% less than the average for the USSR Ministry of Ferrous Metallurgy.
To cover the shortage of iron ore, supplies of ore from the Sokolovsko-Sarbaisky Plant in Kazakhstan began in 1957, and from the 1960s from the mines of the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly and the Kola Peninsula. At Vysokogorsky Mining and Processing Plant, the Magnetitovaya, Operational, and Yuzhnaya mines were commissioned in 1949-1954 to mine deep horizons. In 1963, the Kachkanarsky Mining and Processing Plant was put into operation, extracting iron ore with a relatively low (15-16%) iron content, but containing valuable vanadium, which significantly increases the strength properties of steel. To provide copper ore raw materials in the late 1950s - early 1960s, the Gaysky and Uchalinsky mining and processing plants were built. The main supplier of the Ural aluminum raw materials in the post-war years was the North Ural bauxite mines. The Bogoslovsky and Uralsky aluminum plants in 1949-1953 carried out the reconstruction of production facilities and mastered new technological processes.
In the 1950s and 1960s, a massive reconstruction of the Verkhnesaldinsky Metallurgical Plant was carried out with the transition to the production of semi-finished products from titanium alloys. The area of the plant was increased by 5 times. The world's largest press with a force of 75 thousand tons was installed for stamping slabs. Rolling, forging, and stamping shops were built. Since 1966, the production of small diameter pipes has been mastered at cold rolling mills. After reconstruction, the plant became the world's largest producer of titanium and aluminum alloys.
In the 1970s, reconstruction and refit of the Ural ferrous metallurgy enterprises were carried out. At the Kachkanarsky Mining and Processing Plant, for the first time in the Urals, the production of iron ore pellets was started, at the Nizhny Tagil Metallurgical Plant — wide flange beams, at the Chelyabinsk Metallurgical Plant — stainless steel sheets, at the Magnitogorsk Metallurgical Plant - bent profiles, and at the Verkh-Isetsky Plant — cold-rolled transformer sheets. The Ural Plant of Precision Alloys was built. The deposits of the region provided only 50% of iron ore raw materials for metallurgical plants during this period. Steelmaking in the 1970s developed through the introduction of out-of-furnace steel processing, reconstruction of open-hearth furnaces into two-shaft furnaces, and increasing the capacity of converters. Demand from the engineering and oil industries contributed to the expansion of pipe rolling enterprises. In 1975, the Sinarsky Pipe Plant launched pipe rolling shop No. 2, which produced drill pipes. In December 1976, a pipe rolling shop was launched at the Seversky Pipe Plant. At the Pervouralsky Novotrubny Plant in 1976, for the first time in the country, the production of stainless steel pipes for the nuclear industry was mastered. About 65% of Ural steel pipes were produced by the Chelyabinsk Pipe Rolling Plant, the Sinarsky Pipe Plant was the largest producer of cast iron pipes in the country. In general, Ural plants produced more than 33% of all pipes produced in the USSR. In 1980, Ural metallurgical plants smelted 28.6 million tons of pig iron, which became an absolute historical record for the region.
In 1990, Ural metallurgy accounted for the production of 24.5% of all-Union cast iron, 26.1% of steel, 27.5% of rolled products, and 30.7% of steel pipes. In the last years of the existence of the USSR, in the Ural metallurgical industry, problems with an outdated equipment park and extensive development based on outdated technologies have become aggravated. The proportion of obsolete equipment in ferrous metallurgy was estimated at 57%, in non-ferrous - 70%. About 90% of the equipment of blast furnace shops and 85% of the equipment of rolling shops in the Urals by the early 1990s had a service life of more than 20–25 years. In 1985, the share of open-hearth steel in total production in the Urals was 78.2%, while in Western countries and in Japan in the 1980s, environmentally dirty open-hearth production was discontinued. The problem of environmental pollution has significantly worsened. The surroundings of the Karabash plant have become an ecological disaster zone. There were 0.2 million hectares (200,000 hectares = 494,210.76 acres) of land that were dumps and slurry pits.
After the collapse of the USSR
There are three stages in the post-Soviet history of Ural metallurgy:
1991-1994 - adaptation to market conditions, search for sources of raw materials and sales markets, accumulation of working capital.
1994-2003 - formation of vertically integrated companies and their development.
since 2003 - modernization of enterprises within vertically integrated companies.
Restructuring and the transition to market conditions led to a 2-fold reduction in production at the Ural metallurgical enterprises. The Nizhniy Tagil and Orsko-Khalilovsky plants went bankrupt. Some enterprises went through bankruptcy proceedings several times. The privatization and corporatization of the enterprises of the Ural metallurgy were completed in 1992-1994. In the late 1990s - early 2000s, vertically integrated structures began to form around large enterprises, including all stages of a closed technological cycle. In addition to the Magnitogorsk Metallurgical Combine, the MMK Group includes: the Magnitogorsk Hardware, Metallurgical, and Calibration Plants; the Mechel group united the Chelyabinsk Metallurgical Plant, Yuzhuralnickel, Beloretsk Metallurgical Plant, Izhstal, and Korshunovsky Mining and Processing Plant; NTMK and Kachkanarsky Mining and Processing Plant, together with the West Siberian and Kuznetsk metallurgical plants, entered Evraz-holding; Chelyabinsk Pipe Rolling Plant and Pervouralsk Novotrubny Plants were merged into the ChTPZ Group; copper smelters became part of UMMC and Russian Copper Company; aluminum - Rusal and SUAL, united in 2007.
The main directions of development of ferrous metallurgy in the Urals in the market conditions were the reconstruction of blast furnaces with optimization of the profile and process control systems, the replacement of open-hearth furnaces with oxygen converters and electric furnaces, the widespread introduction of out-of-furnace steel processing, evacuation of steel before casting, as well as an increase in the share of continuous casting of steel. From 1985 to 2000, the share of the Ural steel smelted by the open-hearth method decreased from 78.2% to 46.9%; the share of converter steel in the same period increased from 15% to 46.9%, the share of continuously cast steel - from 1.2% to 33.1%. The share of electric steel in the same period remained at the level of about 6-7%.
After the reconstruction and launch of new capacities, about 85% of the Ural steel was produced at the 4 largest metallurgical plants: MMK (39.1% of the total steel volume in 2006), NTMK (17.6%), Mechel (15.2% ), and Ural steel (11.4%).
In the late 20th - early 21st century, the Ural metallurgical plants are developing taking into account the interests of holding structures. The main directions of development are the automation of production and the minimization of costs. Key investment development projects are the reconstruction of the converter shop and the construction of a pulverized coal injection unit at NTMK in 2010-2012, the launch in 2010 of the "Vysota 239" large-diameter pipe production shop at ChTPZ, as well as the launch in 2009 of Mill-5000 at MMK, which supplies workpieces including for the new ChelPipe workshop. By 2014, the share of Ural steel processed by the out-of-furnace method and poured at the continuous casting machine was brought to 100%.
In 2008, the Ural plants produced 43.1% of all-Russian pig iron, 43.4% of steel, 43.4% of rolled products, 46.4% of pipes, 47.9% of hardware, 72.8% of ferroalloys, about 80% of bauxite, 60% of alumina, 36% of refined copper, 100% of titanium and magnesium alloys, 64% of zinc, 15% of lead, and 8% of aluminum. The largest contribution to the metallurgy of the region is made by enterprises of the Chelyabinsk and Sverdlovsk Oblasts. As of 2013, the contribution of the Ural enterprises was estimated at 38% of steel and rolled products and about 50% of steel pipes.
See also
Metallurgical plants of the Urals
History of production and use of iron
Notes
References
Bibliography
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Мударисов Р. З. К вопросу о кризисе горнозаводской промышленности Южного Урала в первой половине XIX века // Урал индустриальный. Бакунинские чтения. Индустриальная модернизация России в XVIII–XXI вв.: материалы XIII Всероссийской научной конференции, Екатеринбург, 18—19 октября 2018 г.: в 2-х томах. — Екатеринбург: УрО РАН, 2018. — Т. 1. — С. 63—72. — ISBN 978-5-7691-2504-1.
Пыхалов И. В. Развитие чёрной металлургии в Российской империи // Проблемы современной экономики : журнал. — СПб.: ООО «Научно-производственная компания «РОСТ», 2017. — № 1 (61). — С. 95—140. — ISSN 1818-3395.
External links
Metallurgy
Urals | History of metallurgy in the Urals | [
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science"
] | 24,301 | [
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"History of metallurgy"
] |
66,141,422 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nandini%20Trivedi | Nandini Trivedi is an Indian-American physicist and Professor of Physics at Ohio State University. Her research is on the emergence of new states of matter arising from strong interactions between electrons in quantum materials. She was elected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2020.
Early life and education
Trivedi started her scientific career at the Indian Institutes of Technology. She moved to Cornell University for her graduate studies, where she worked on transport in disordered systems and quantum size effects in thin film heterostructures. After earning her doctorate, Trivedi was a postdoctoral research fellow at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign and at the State University of New York in Stony Brook.
Research and career
Trivedi started her career at the Argonne National Laboratory as an assistant scientist and got promoted to scientist. She then joined the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research as a faculty in 1995. In 2004 Trivedi joined Ohio State University as a Professor in the Department of Physics. Her research explores the emergence of new phases of matter in condensed matter systems.
Awards and honours
2010 Elected Fellow of the American Physical Society
2015 Simons Foundation Fellow
2019 Ohio State University Distinguished Scholar
2020 Elected Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Select publications
References
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
American people of Indian descent
Indian Institutes of Technology alumni
Cornell University alumni
Ohio State University faculty
Condensed matter physicists
Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Fellows of the American Physical Society | Nandini Trivedi | [
"Physics",
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] | 301 | [
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] |
66,141,540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotary%20friction%20welding | Rotary friction welding (RFW) one of the methods of friction welding, the classic way of which uses the work of friction to create a not separable weld. Typically one welded element is rotated relative to the other and to the forge (pressed down by axial force). The heating of the material is caused by friction work and creates a permanent connection. In this method, the materials to be welded can be the same, dissimilar, composite or non-metallic materials. Friction welding methods of are often considered as solid-state welding.
History
Some applications and patents connected with friction welding date back to the turn of the 20th century, and rotary friction welding is the oldest of these methods. W. Richter patented the method of the linear friction welding (LFW) process in 1924 in England and 1929 in the Weimar Republic; however, the description of the process was vague and H. Klopstock patented the same process in the Soviet Union in 1924. But the first description and experiments related to rotary friction welding took place in the Soviet Union in 1956, by a machinist named A. J. Chudikov (А. И. Чудиков), who after researching a myriad of scientific studies, suggested the use of this welding method as a commercial process. At first he discovered the method by accident in the Elbrussky mine where he worked: Chudikov did not pay enough attention to lubricating the lathe chuck's insides and then learned he had welded the workpiece to the lathe. He wondered if this accident could be used for joining and came to conclusion that it was necessary to work at high rotation speeds ( about 1000 revolutions per second), immediately brake and press down welded components. He decided to write a letter to the Ministry of Metallurgy and received the answer that this welding was inappropriate, but short notes about the method were published in the newspapers of the Union, arousing interest from Yu. Ya. Terentyeva who was manager of the national Scientific Research Institute of Electrical Welding Equipment, and with time Chudikov's method was disseminated. The process was introduced to the United States in 1960. The American companies Caterpillar Tractor Company (Caterpillar - CAT), Rockwell International, and American Manufacturing Foundry all developed machines for this process. Patents were also issued throughout Europe and the former Soviet Union. The first studies of friction welding in England were carried out by the Welding Institute in 1961. The US through Caterpillar Tractor Company and MTI developed an inertia process in 1962. Europe through KUKA AG and Thompson launched rotary friction welding for industrial applications in 1966, developed a direct-drive process and in 1974 built the rRS6 double spindle machine for heavy truck axles.
newIn 1997, an international patent application was filed, entitled "Method of Friction Welding Tubular Members". Inventor A. Graham demonstrated, on welding pipes with a diameter of 152.4 mm, a method that uses radial friction welding with an intermediate ring for connecting long pipes, at long last succeeding after some attempts occurred in 1975, and after scientists in Leningrad theorized on the idea in newspapers. Another method was invented and experimentally proven at The Welding Institute (TWI) in the UK and patented in 1991, called the friction stir welding (FSW) process. In 2008 KUKA AG developed the SRS 1000 rotary friction welding machine with a forging force of 1000 tons. An improved modification is Low Force Friction Welding, a hybrid technology developed by EWI and Manufacturing Technology Inc. (MTI). The process can apply to both linear and rotary friction welding. KUKA has been operating in 44 countries and has built more than 1200 systems, including for subcontract facilities;
However, there are more companies in the world with experience; for example, The Welding Institute TWI has more than 50 years of expertise and insight inherent to process development. , with the help of more and more companies, friction welding has become popular worldwide with various materials both in scientific studies and industrial applications.
Applications
Rotary friction welding is widely implemented across the manufacturing sector and has been used for numerous applications, including:
Parts in gas turbine such as: turbine shafts, turbine discs, compressor drums,
Automotive parts including steel truck axles and casings, overhead valve engine, motor hollow pistons, passenger car wheel rims, converter for passenger car automatic gears, drive shafts, yoke shaft
Turbine for aircraft engine,
Monel to steel marine fittings,
Piston rods,
Copper - aluminium electrical connections,
Heat exchangers,
Cutting tools for example for lengthening drill bits,
Drill pipes,
Reactor pressure vassels nozzles,
Tubular transition joints combining dissimilar metals (Aluminium - Titanium and Aluminium - Stainless steel),
Potential for medical applications,
For learning students at technical universities.
Connections geometry
Rotary Friction Welding can join a wide range of part geometries Typically:
Tube to Tube, Tube to Plate, Tube to Bar, Tube to Disk, Bar to Bar, Bar to Plate and in addition, to this a rotating ring is used to connect long components.Geometry of the component surface is not always flat for example it can be conical surface and not only.
Types of materials to be welded
Rotary friction welding enables to weld various materials.
Metallic materials of the same name or dissimilar either composite, superalloys and non-metallic e.g. thermoplastic polymers can be welded and even the welding of wood has been investigated. Weldability tables of metallic alloy can be found on the Internet and in books.
Sometimes an interlayer is used to connect non-compatible materials.
Division due to drive motor
In direct-drive friction welding (also called continuous drive friction welding) the drive motor and chuck are connected. The drive motor is continually driving the chuck during the heating stages. Usually, a clutch is used to disconnect the drive motor from the chuck, and a brake is then used to stop the chuck.
In inertia friction welding the drive motor is disengaged, and the workpieces are forced together by a friction welding force. The kinetic energy stored in the rotating flywheel is dissipated as heat at the weld interface as the flywheel speed decreases. Before welding, one of the workpieces is attached to the rotary chuck along with a flywheel of a given weight. The piece is then spun up to a high rate of rotation to store the required energy in the flywheel. Once spinning at the proper speed, the motor is removed and the pieces forced together under pressure. The force is kept on the pieces after the spinning stops to allow the weld to "set".
Stages of process
Step 1 and 2, friction stage: one of the components is set in rotation, and then pressed to the other stationary one in axial of rotation,
Step 3, braking stage: the rotating component is stopped in braking time,
Step 4, upsetting stage: the welded elements are still forging by forge pressure (pressed down),
Step 5: in standard RFW welding (standard parameters), a flash will be created. Outside flash can be cut off on the welder.
However, referring to the stages chart:
modifications of the process exist,
may depend on the version of the process: direct-drive, inertia friction welding, hybrid welding,
there are many versions of welding machines,
many materials can are welded with not the same properties, with various geometries,
the real life process does not have to match to the ideal settings on the welding machine.
RFW Friction work on cylindrical rods workpieces
Friction work create weld and can believe that is calculated for cylindrical workpieces from math:
Work:
(1)
Moment of force M general formula:
(2)
The force F will be the frictional force T (F=T) so substituting for the formula (2):
(3)
The friction force T will be the pressure F times by the friction coefficient μ:
(4)
So moment of force M:
(5)
The alpha angle that each point will move with the axis of rotating cylindrical workpieces will be:
(6)
So friction work:
(7) [verification needed]
For variable value μ over friction time:
(8)
This requires verification but from the equation it appears that turnover and force (or pressure on surface ) is linear to friction work (W) so for example if the pressure increases 2 times then the friction work also increase 2 times, if the turnover increase 2 times then the friction work also increase 2 times and referring to conservation of energy this can heat 2 times the material to the same temperature or the temperature may increase 2 times. Pressure has the same effect over the entire surface but rotation has more impact away from the axis of rotation because it is a rotary motion. Referring to thermal conductivity the friction time affects to the flash size when shorter time was used then friction work is more concentrated in a smaller area.
or variable values μ, n, F over friction time:
(9)
t [s]- time of friction (when piece rotary),
μ - coefficient of friction,
F [N]- pressure force,
r [m]- radius of workpiece,
n [1/s] - turnover per second,
W [J] - friction work.
Therefore, the calculation in this way is not reliable in real is complicated. An example article considering the variable depends on the temperature coefficient of friction steel - aluminum Al60611 - Alumina is described by authors from Malaysia in for example this paper "Evaluation of Properties and FEM Model of the Friction Welded Mild Steel-Al6061-Alumina" and based on this position someone created no step by step but whatever an instructional simulation video in abaqus software and in this paper is possible to find the selection of the mesh type in the simulation described by the authors and there are some instructions such as use the Johnson-Cook material model choice, and not only, there is dissipation coefficient value, friction welding condition, the article included too the physical formulas related to rotary friction welding described by the authors such as: heat transfer equation and convection in rods, equations related to deformation processes. Article included information on the parameters of authors research, but it is not a step by step and simple instruction such as also the video and good add that it is not the only one position in literature. The conclusion include information that: "Even though the FE model proposed in this study cannot replace a more accurate analysis, it does provide guidance in weld parameter development and enhances understanding of the friction welding process, thus reducing costly and time consuming experimental approaches."
The coefficient of friction changes with temperature and there are a number of factors internal friction (viscosity - e.g. Dynamic viscosity according to Carreau's fluid law), forge, properties of the material during welding are variable, also there is plastic deformation.
Carreau's fluid law:
Generalized Newtonian fluid where viscosity, , depends upon the shear rate, , by the following equation:
(10)
Where:
, , and are material coefficients.
= viscosity at zero shear rate (Pa.s)
= viscosity at infinite shear rate (Pa.s)
= relaxation time (s)
= power index
Modelling of the frictional heat generated within the RFW process can be realized as a function of conducted frictional work and its dissipation coefficient, incremental frictional work of a node 𝑖 on the contacting surface can be described as a function of its axial distance from the rotation centre, current frictional shear stress, rotational speed and incremental time. The dissipation coefficient 𝛽FR is often set to 0.9 meaning that 90% of frictional work is dissipated into heat.
(11) 𝑑𝑞FR(𝑖) = 𝛽FR ∙ 𝑑𝑊FR(𝑖) = 𝛽FR ∙ 𝜏𝑅(𝑖) ∙ 𝜔 ∙ 𝑟𝑖 ∙ 𝑑𝑡 on contacting surface of node 𝑖
𝛽FR - dissipation coefficient,
𝑊FR - frictional work,
𝑟𝑖 - distance from the rotation centre,
dt - time increment,
𝜏𝑅(𝑖) - current frictional shear stress,
𝜔 - rotational speed.
Friction work can also calculate from power of used for welding and friction time (will not be greater than the friction time multiply to the power of the welder - engine of the welder) referring to rules conservation of energy. This calculation looks the simplest.
(12) E = Pxt or for not constant power
E - energy,
P - power,
t - power runtime.
However, in this case, energy can be also stored in the flywheel if is used depending on the welder construction.
General flywheel energy formula:
(13)
where:
is the stored kinetic energy,
ω is the angular velocity, and
is the moment of inertia of the flywheel about its axis of symmetry.
Sample calculations not by computer simulation also exist in the literature for example related to power input and temperature distribution can be found in the script from 1974:
K. K. Wang and Wen Lin from Cornell University in "Flywheel friction welding research" manually calculates welding process and even at this time the weld structure was analysed.
However, generally: The calculations can be complicated.
Weld Zone Description
Weld photo gallery
Heat and mechanical affected zones
Friction work is converted into rise of temperature in the welding zone area, and as a result of this the weld structure is changed. In typical rotary friction welding process rise of temperature at the beginning of process should be more extensively away from the axis of rotation because points away axis have greater linear velocity and in time of weld the temperature disperses according to thermal conductivity welded parts.
"Technically the WCZ and the TMAZ are both "thermo-mechanically affected zones" but due to the vastly different microstructures they possess they are often considered separately. The WCZ experiences significant dynamic recrystallisation (DRX), the TMAZ does not. The material in HAZ is not deformed mechanically but is affected by the heat. The region from one TMAZ/HAZ boundary to the other is often referred to as the "TMAZ thickness" or the plastically affected zone (PAZ). For the remainder of this article this region will be referred to as the PAZ."
Zones:
WCZ– weld center zone,
HAZ – heat affected zone,
TMAZ – Thermo-Mechanically Affected Zone,
BM – base material, parent material,
Flash.
Furthermore, in the literature, there is also a subdivided according to the type of grain.
Similar terms exist in welding.
During typical welding initially, the outer region heats up more, due to the higher linear velocity.
Next, the heat spreads, and the material is pushed outside, thus creating an outside flash which can be cut off on the welding machine.
Heat flow, heat flux in rods
It can create a hypothesis that heat flows in welding time like in a cylindrical rod it makes it possible to calculate a temperature in individual places and times from knowing the issues of heat flow and heat flux in rods for example, temperature can be read by using thermocouples and compare with computer simulation.
Weld measuring system
To provide knowledge about the process, monitoring systems are often used and this are carried out in several ways which affects the accuracy and the list of measured parameters.
The list of measured and calculated parameters can looks like this:
axial force and pressure,
angular - rotation speed,
spindle centre,
velocity,
vibration,
length (burn off rate),
temperature.
Temperature measuring systems
Examples of weld measurements. In the literature, can be found measurements of the thermal weld area with thermocouples and not only the non-contact thermographic method is also used.
However, it also depends on the specific case for a very small area of the weld and HAZ there are cans by difficulties in thermal measuring in real time it can be calculated later after friction time there is heat flow.
Sample source code for temperature measurement made on arduino, this is far away from the topic, however there are missing full open friction welding codes. Exists the free open source software for simulation (List of finite element software) but there is no welding open codes and detailed instructions to this software.
Research, temperature, parameters in the rotary friction welding process
Quality requirements of welded joints depend on the form of application, e.g. in the space or fly industry weld errors are not allowed. Science tries to gets good quality welds, also some people have been interested in many years in welding knowledge, so there are many scientific articles describing the methods of joining, for example Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, published in 2019 year a literature review in their paper is possible to find out list of people who are interested in friction welding, however in this list not all off people are mentioned for example there is not mentioned about mti youtube channel also there are not written about low force friction welding additionally, the list of people may change over time.
They are performed weld tests which give knowledge about mechanical properties of material in welded zone e.g. hardness tests, and tensile tests are performed. Based on the tensile tests the stretch curve are created which can give directly knowledge about ultimate tensile strength, breaking strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area and from these measurements the Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics is created.
Where, the articles often contain only data related to tensile tests such as:
Yield Strength in MPa
Ultimate Tensile Strength in MPa
Elongation in % percentage
Where the units of SI are: K, kg, N, m, s and then Pa and this knowledge about this is needed for introducing data, material properties and not do errors in simulation programs.
Research articles also often contain information about:
chemical composition of connected components
and inclusion process parameters is obvious such as:
Friction Pressure (MPa)
Friction Time (s)
Welding Speed (rpm)
Upset Pressure (MPa)
Upset Time (s)
Is also possible to find descriptions in research literature about: mechanical properties, microstructure, corrosion and wear resistance, and even cytotoxicity welded material.
However, why research connect topic of cytotoxicity to welding if it is a subject not closely related (cytotoxicity is the quality of being toxic to cells). On this article can write that exist same off toxic metals and metals vapors such as polonium. It can be written than in some cases when welding at high temperatures, harmful metal vapors are released and then protection is recommended such as access to fresh air and exhaust these vapors to outside.
There are several methods to determine the quality of a weld and for example the weld microstructure is examined by optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy.
The computer finite element method (FEM) is used to predict the shape of the flash and interface, not only for rotary friction welding (RFW), but also for friction stir welding (FSW), linear friction welding (LFW), FRIEX.
In addition to the weld testing, the weld heat-affected zones are described. Knowledge of the maximum temperatures in the welding process make it possible to define the area structural changes. Process are analisis e.g. temperature measurements are also carried out for scientific purposes research materials, journals, by use contact thermocouples or sometimes no contact thermography methods. For example, an ultra fine grain structure of alloy or metal which is obtained by techniques such as severe plastic deformation or Powder metallurgy is desirable, and not changed by the high temperature, a large heat affected zone is unnecessary. Temperature may reduce material properties because dynamic recrystallization will occur, there may be changes in grain size and phase transformations structures of welded materials. In steel between austenite, ferrite, pearlite, bainite, cementite, martensite.
Various parameters of welding are tested. The setting of the completely different parameters can obtain different weld for example the structure changes will not be the same width. It is possible to obtain a smaller heat-affected zone (HAZ) and a plastically affected zone (PAZ). The width of the weld is smaller. The results are for example not the same in welds made for the European Space Agency with a high turnover ω = 14000 rpm or another example from Warsaw technical university 12000 rpm and no typical very short friction time only 60 milliseconds instead of using an standard parameters, in addition, in this case, ultra fine grain alloy was welded, but for this example the welded rod workpiece was only 6mm in diameter so it is small rod friction welding another close to this examples with short friction time only e.g. 40 ms also exist in literature but also for small diameter. Unfortunately, welding in very short time carries the risk of welding imperfections such as weld discontinuities.
Some cases of welding are made only individually or only in research such as: The welds created in with specific parameters such as welding time below 100 ms, with an appropriate front surface for example (conical contact surface), with materials that are difficult to weld (tungsten to steel), these are not always serial production.
The rotations in the research literature for small diameters can be more as standard even e.g. 25000 rpm. Unfortunately the diameter of the workpiece can be a limitation to the use of high speeds of rotation.
The key points to understand is that: Fine grain of the welded metal material according to Hall-Petch relation should have better strength and for the description of one technique for obtaining this material Percy Williams Bridgman won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1946 referring to the achievements related to High Pressure Torsion (HPT),. However, by High Pressure Torsion is obtained only thin film thickness material.
There is also research into the introduction of interlayers. Even though dissimilar material joining is often more difficult the introduction for example nickel interlayer by an experimental electrodeposition deposition technique to increase the connection quality has been investigated by the Indian Institute of Metals, however in this case nickel interlayer thickness was of 70 m (micrometre ) and only small rods of 12mm diameter were welded. This nickel layer is only on top of the welded parts. In addition, this topic is not very related to welding but nickel layer may affect off corrosion resistance.
Some scientists describe material research. Group of known materials is large includes: Ni nickel based superalloys such as Inconel, ultra-fine grain materials such as ultra-fine grain aluminum, low carbon steel e.g. Ultra Low Carbon Bainitic Steel (ULCBS). Friction welding is used for connection many materials including superalloys for example nickel-based Inconel, scientists describe connecting various materials and on the internet is possible finding articles about this and same part of the research relates to joining superalloys materials or materials with improved properties. Nickel based superalloys exhibit excellent high temperature strength, high temperature corrosion and oxidation resistance and creep resistance. However, referring to this research good add that nickel is not the most common and cheapest material: Prices list of chemical elements.
Parameters
Turnover: Typically turnover is selected depending on the type of material and dimensions of welded parts have different values: 400 - 1450 rpm, sometimes max 10000 rpm. Not typically, in research literature turnover is to 25000 rpm.
Friction time: typically 1 - to several dozen seconds. Not typically, in research literature friction time can be in tens of milliseconds, however when time is very short and parameters are not typical process can require a lot of preliminary preparation and testing to the positive result.
Forge time: Up to a few seconds.
However, the parameters will be different as elements of different sizes can be welded. For example, can be produced ranging from the smallest component with a diameter of 3 mm to turbine components with a diameter in excess of 400 mm.
By combining methods of connecting long elements perhaps future science may study the friction welding of rails for example for the high speeds railway industry and use the preheat Low force linear friction welding or modified Linear friction welding (LFW) method and vibrating insert (just like the rotating insert in FRIEX method) for do this if the machine are developed and also good add that most of attention are directed to safety of travelers, user safety should be preserved at the first place.
Preliminary research involving similar welds and geometry has shown improved tensile strength and increased performance in the fatigue tests.
Controversies in research
As of August 2022, there are no step-by-step reviewed instructions on how to simulate the temperature of welded components. There are no shared source files for programs where simulation of welding is possible. On the other hand, some of the knowledge is difficult for example in 08.2022 an article: Hamed, Maien Mohamed Osman the "Numerical simulation of friction welding processes: An arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian approach" was shared on google scholar but it is difficult to understand.
Problem with open article reviews or review no exist.
Correct use of grants, and repeating of knowledge for example the structure of a lot of articles is similar and sometimes generally only the next material is welded so there is nothing new but some of research is granted.
It is only friction welding, generally nothing difficult, on the other hand there are many complicated descriptions, but the practical result of this articles is missing: The expectation is to create something new, unknown so far.
Correct use of grants, time of articles, who is first, announcing about the desire to create something new an innovative device by the university but this is not done:
Poland
Google scholar finds 246 articles in response to the "friction welding" phrase in 8.2022, this is only part of all available research, and for some of them financial grants are given. However, for example in 2016 The Institute of Electronic Materials Technology in Poland published t he article in Polish language about welding Al/Al2O3 Composites, after then two years later the Warsaw University of Technology publishes an article in Polish language about friction welding ultrafine grained 316L steel in 2018, although the materials was different, but the process parameters suggest that the welding machine is the same, so in this case The Institute of Electronic Materials Technology was published the data first, and summarizing in this case: in 2018 only the new material, which was steel, was welded and tested, the machine was not new but for this a grant was obtained (843 920 PLN = ~US$177476). It has not been written into the articles since the two institutes had a machine and since studies with short friction times were carried out.
Students were informed about the willingness to create by the university a new innovative friction welder, but to 08.2022 there is no information about this, there are new research articles, but the device is still old (information valid in 2019 year).
Low Force Friction Welding
An improved modification of the standard friction welding is Low Force Friction Welding, hybrid technology developed by EWI and Manufacturing Technology Inc. (MTI), "uses an external energy source to raise the interface temperature of the two parts being joined, thereby reducing the process forces required to make a solid-state weld compared to traditional friction welding". The process applies to both linear and rotary friction welding.
Following the informations from the Manufacturing Technology blog and website, the technology is promising.
Low force friction advantages:
Little or no flash,
Joining of components previously limited by friction welding,
For example, those with a high melting point such as refractory metals like molybdenum, tantalum, tungsten or if there is a difference in material properties.
The manufacturer also listed same advantages, which are not fully explained, this is not true for every case:
Reduced machine footprint, but machine must have additional heating elements.
Reduced weld cycle time, but preheating also takes time.
Higher orientation precision,
Part repeatability, but this may also occur in some traditional welders if welding is repeatable.
Moreover, in 2021 the number of scientific articles for example on Google Scholar about Low force friction is smaller compared to description of the standard method about friction welding where an external energy source to raise the interface temperature is not used.
Construction of the welding machine
Depending on the construction, but a standard welding machine may include the following systems:
Control system
Motor or motors in e.g. direct-drive welder
Pneumatic or hydraulic pressure system
Handle
Non rotating vice
Clutch in direct-drive friction welder
Spindle
Flywheel in inertia friction welder
Housing
Measuring systems
Producers present solutions and welding machines can include:
Measurement and control dimensional systems: Active Travel Control, burn off rate measurement,
Automation solutions, Defined angle positioning, Component lifter, Automatic door operations, Weld data export, Ready for industrial solutions, Automatic temperature control of the headstock, Monitoring of the cooling unit, servo motor control,
Have solutions for clean environment with no arcs, sparks, smoke or flames,
Have ergonomic workspace, nice design,
No special foundations or power supplies are required,
Process control and documentation systems: All process data is documented numerically and graphically, have program management, Calculated parameters - Smart machine
HMI touchscreen panels,
Barcode scanner for generate database of frictioned elements,
There are optional methods qr, barcode tagging manufactured elements for example on an additional machine such as laser barcode, or tagging if it is necessary and possible,
Flash cut off device systems on the welder, flash removal and facing, chip conveyor,
Completely integrated solution in the specific production workflow using state of the art 3D process simulation,
Service assistance: Remote Service, Alarm conditions,
Have certificates,
Vapor extractor,
Advanced Measurement systems,
Include innovative solutions: for example hybrid technology Low Force Friction Welding, and the system associated with this technology,
However, there is not one manufacturer on the market and no one welder machine model and in addition, not always the same material and diameters is welded and a good presentation, technology description, design, may or not may determine the best solutions. There are also exist advertising presentations related to welding.
Workpiece handles
The type of chuck depends on the technology used, their construction sometimes may be similar to a lathe and milling machine.
Safety during friction welding
Before starting the work, even if the short and basic safety regulations should be known.
Compliance with occupational safety and health regulations
Following the manufacturer's recommendations
Set up the machine in a safe place: not blocking the entrance door, electric wires away from water, free movement of the users
Recommended security systems for example: Emergency stop button, possibility of a quick stop of the machine
Protection against touching a too hot object also it is not always visible that the object is hot - it also depends on the material being welded for example welding copper to aluminum
Protection against lifting to massive components
Caution with hot and sharp things for example the hot welded components, chips if they are cut off on the welding machine
Fresh air, for example do not smoke on the production hall near the machine also in some cases vapor extractor to outside in welder
Covering moving components
The description of the security rules depends on the joining method and situation - access to fresh air, electrical ground, wearing protective clothing, protect the eyes is required.
However, personal protective equipment is recommended, but in some cases may be uncomfortable and in sometimes unnecessary, so protection depends on the situation.
The human factor also influences safety.
Staff negligence:
-theft for example copper grounding, because it can be sold for scrap,
-neglect of medical examinations, performed carelessly, even paided, because it's about earning money and not staff health,
-no cleaning for example because the shift time is over,
-accidents on the way to work,
-alcohol, an employee's bad day,
-Spinal strains - e.g. several hours of quality control of manufactured components in a forced body position because for management workforce productivity, quality and earning money is more important than staff health,
-outsourcing - transferring responsibility to another company,
-neglect of management, because sometimes they want to only make money, they look at production, not to employees.
Other techniques of friction welding
Forge welding
Friction stir welding (FSW)
Friction stir spot welding (FSSW)
Linear friction welding (LFW)
Research on friction welding of pipeline girth welds (FRIEX)
Friction hydro pillar overlap processing (FHPPOW)
Friction hydro pillar processing (FHHP)
Terms and definitions, name shortcuts
Welding vs joining - Definitions depend on the author. Welding in Cambridge English dictionary means: "the activity of joining metal parts together" in Collins dictionary "the activity of uniting metal or plastic by softening with heat and hammering, or by fusion", which means that welding is related to connect. Join or joining has a similar meaning that welding and can mean the same in English dictionary means "to connect or fasten things together" but joining otherwise has many meanings for example "If roads or rivers join, they meet at a particular point". Joining opposed to welding, is a general term and there are several methods available for joining metals, including riveting, soldering, adhesive, brazing, coupling, fastening, press fit. Welding is only one type of joining process.
Solid-state weld - connect below the melting point,
welder - welding machine, but also mean a person who welds metal.
weld - the place of connection where the materials are mixed.
weldability - a measure of the ease of making a weld without errors.
interlayer - an indirect component, indirect material.
To quote ISO (the International Organization for Standardization, unfortunately the all ISO text is not free and open shared) - ISO 15620:2019(en) Welding
"axial force - force in axial direction between components to be welded,
burn-off length - loss of length during the friction phase,
burn-off rate - rate of shortening of the components during the friction welding process,
component - single item before welding,
component induced braking - reduction in rotational speed resulting from friction between the interfaces,
external braking - braking located externally reducing the rotational speed,
faying surface - surface of one component that is to be in contact with a surface of another component to form a joint,
forge force - force applied normal to the faying surfaces at the time when relative movement between the components is ceasing or has ceased,
forge burn-off length - amount by which the overall length of the components is reduced during the application of the forge force,
forge phase - interval time in the friction welding cycle between the start and finish of application of the forge force,
forge pressure - pressure (force per unit area) on the faying surfaces resulting from the axial forge force,
forge time - time for which the forge force is applied to the components,
friction force - force applied perpendicularly to the faying surfaces during the time that there is relative movement between the components,
friction phase - interval time in the friction welding cycle in which the heat necessary for making a weld is generated by relative motion and the friction forces between the components i.e. from contact of components to the start of deceleration,
friction pressure - pressure (force per unit area) on the faying surfaces resulting from the axial friction force,
friction time - time during which relative movement between the components takes place at rotational speed and under application of the friction forces,
interface - contact area developed between the faying surfaces after completion of the welding operation,
rotational speed - number of revolutions per minute of rotating component,
stick-out - distance a component sticks out from the fixture, or chuck in the direction of the mating component,
deceleration phase - interval in the friction welding cycle in which the relative motion of the components is decelerated to zero,
deceleration time - time required by the moving component to decelerate from friction speed to zero speed,
total length loss (upset) - loss of length that occurs as a result of friction welding, i.e. the sum of the burn-off length and the forge burn-off length,
total weld time - time elapsed between component contact and end of forging phase,
welding cycle - succession of operations carried out by the machine to make a weldment and return to the initial position, excluding component - handling operations,
weldment - two or more components joined by welding."
And more than that:
RFW - Rotary friction welding,
LFW - Linear friction welding,
FSSW - Friction stir spot welding,
FRIEX - Research on friction welding of pipeline girth welds,
FHPPOW - Friction hydro pillar overlap processing,
FHHP - Friction hydro pillar processing,
LFFW - Low Force Friction Welding,
FSW - Friction stir welding,
BM - Base material,
HAZ - Heat affected zone,
PAZ - Plastically affected zone,
DRX - Dynamic recrystallization,
TMAZ - Thermo-Mechanically Affected Zone,
UFG - Ultra fine grain,
SPD - Serve plastic deformation,
HPT - High Pressure Torsion,
FEM - Finite element method,
SEM - Scanning electron microscopy,
ADC - Analog to digital converter.
See also
Welding
Friction
Friction welding
Friction stir welding
Temperature
Heat-affected zone
Dynamic recrystallization
Grain boundary strengthening
Severe plastic deformation
Curiosities
Frictional welding (μFSW) was also performed using a CNC machine. which does not mean that it is safe and recommended for the milling machine.
Sometimes it is possible to perform welding on a lathe.
Scientists even describe measurements of acoustic emissions during joining.
References
External links
Rotary Friction Welding at google scholar - scientific search engine also to many articles about rotary friction welding.
Rotary Friction Welding at TWI and search-results at TWI
Welding | Rotary friction welding | [
"Engineering"
] | 7,758 | [
"Welding",
"Mechanical engineering"
] |
66,141,833 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meike%20Akveld | Meike Maria Elisabeth Akveld is a Swiss mathematician and textbook author, whose professional interests include knot theory, symplectic geometry, and mathematics education. She is a tenured senior scientist and lecturer in the mathematics and teacher education group in the Department of Mathematics at ETH Zurich. She is also the organizer of the Mathematical Kangaroo competitions in Switzerland, and president of the Association Kangourou sans Frontières, a French-based international society devoted to the popularization of mathematics.
Education
Akveld earned a bachelor's degree from the University of Warwick and took Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge. She completed her Ph.D. at ETH Zurich in 2000, with the dissertation Hofer geometry for Lagrangian loops, a Legendrian knot and a travelling wave jointly supervised by Dietmar Salamon and Leonid Polterovich.
Books
Akveld's mathematics books include:
Canonical metrics in Kähler geometry (by Tian Gang, based on notes taken by Akveld, Birkhäuser, 2000)
Knoten in der Mathematik: Ein Spiel mit Schnüren, Bildern und Formeln (Knots in mathematics: A game with strings, pictures and formulas, in German, Orell Füssli, 2007)
Hofer geometry for Lagrangian loops: And a Legendrian Knot and a travelling wave (VDM Verlag, 2008)
Integrieren - do it yourself (in German, with Ursula Eisler and Daniel Zogg, Orell Füssli, 2010)
Knots Unravelled: From String to Mathematics (with Andrew Jobbings, Arbelos, 2011)
Analysis I and Analysis II (in German, with René Sperb, VDF Hochschulverlag, 2012 and 2015)
Knopen in de wiskunde (Knots in mathematics, in Dutch, with Ab van der Roest, Epsilon Uitgaven, 2015)
Mathe mit dem Känguru 5: Die schönsten Aufgaben von 2015 bis 2019 (Math with the kangaroo 5: The most beautiful problems from 2015 to 2019, in German, with Alexander Unger, Monika Noack, and , Hanser Verlag, 2019)
References
External links
Home page
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Swiss mathematicians
Swiss women mathematicians
Alumni of the University of Warwick
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
ETH Zurich alumni
Academic staff of ETH Zurich
Mathematics educators
Topologists | Meike Akveld | [
"Mathematics"
] | 502 | [
"Topologists",
"Topology"
] |
66,142,292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GI%20Monocerotis | GI Monocerotis, also known as Nova Monocerotis 1918, was a nova that erupted in the constellation Monoceros during 1918. It was discovered by Max Wolf on a photographic plate taken at the Heidelberg Observatory on 4 February 1918. At the time of its discovery, it had a photographic magnitude of 8.5, and had already passed its peak brightness. A search of plates taken at the Harvard College Observatory showed that it had a photographic magnitude of 5.4 on 1 January 1918, so it would have been visible to the naked eye around that time. By March 1918 it had dropped to ninth or tenth magnitude. By November 1920 it was a little fainter than 15th magnitude.
A single pre-eruption photographic detection of GI Monocerotis exists, showing its magnitude was 15.1 before the nova event.
GI Monoceros dropped by 3 magnitudes from its peak in about 23 days, making it a "fast nova". Long after the nova eruption, six small outbursts with a mean amplitude of 0.9 magnitudes were detected when the star was monitored from the year 1991 through 2000. Radio emission from the nova has been detected at the JVLA in the C (5 GHz), X (8 GHz) and K (23 GHz) bands.
All novae are binary stars, with a "donor" star orbiting a white dwarf. The two stars are so close together that matter is transferred from the donor star to the white dwarf. Worpel et al. report that the orbital period for the binary is probably 4.33 hours, and there is a 48.6 minute period which may represent the rotation period for the white dwarf. Their X-ray observations indicate that GI Mon is a non-magnetic cataclysmic variable star, meaning that the material lost from the donor star forms an accretion disk around the white dwarf, rather than flowing directly to the surface of the white dwarf. It is estimated that the donor star is transferring of material to the accretion disk each year.
A 1995 search for an optically resolved nova remnant using the Anglo-Australian Telescope was unsuccessful.
References
Novae
Monoceros
1918 in science
Monocerotis, GI
058756 | GI Monocerotis | [
"Astronomy"
] | 453 | [
"Novae",
"Astronomical events",
"Monoceros",
"Constellations"
] |
66,142,545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security%20and%20Privacy%20in%20Computer%20Systems | Security and Privacy in Computer Systems is a paper by Willis Ware that was first presented to the public at the 1967 Spring Joint Computer Conference.
Significance
Ware's presentation was the first public conference session about information security and privacy in respect of computer systems, especially networked or remotely-accessed ones.
The IEEE Annals of the History of Computing said that Ware's 1967 Spring Joint Computer Conference session, together with 1970's Ware report, marked the start of the field of computer security.
External links
References
Computer security
Information sensitivity
Information privacy | Security and Privacy in Computer Systems | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 107 | [
"Computer security stubs",
"Computing stubs",
"Information privacy",
"Cybersecurity engineering"
] |
66,142,757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BLC1 | BLC1 (Breakthrough Listen Candidate 1) was a candidate SETI radio signal detected and observed during April and May 2019, and first reported on 18 December 2020, spatially coincident with the direction of the Solar System's closest star, Proxima Centauri.
Signal
The apparent shift in its frequency, consistent with the Doppler effect, was suggested to be inconsistent with what would be caused by the movement of Proxima b, a planet of Proxima Centauri. The Doppler shift in the signal was the opposite of what would be expected from the Earth's spin, in that the signal was observed to increase in frequency rather than decrease. Although the signal was detected by Parkes Radio Telescope during observations of Proxima Centauri, due to the beam angle of Parkes Radio telescope, the signal would be more accurately described as having come from within a circle roughly 16 arcminutes (approximately 1/4 of a degree, half the angular width of Earth's moon) in angular diameter, containing Proxima Centauri, so the signal could have originated elsewhere in the Alpha Centauri system. The signal had a frequency of 982.002 MHz.
The radio signal was detected during 30 hours of observations conducted by Breakthrough Listen through the Parkes Observatory in Australia in April and May 2019. As of December 2020, follow-up observations had failed to detect the signal again, a step necessary to confirm that the signal was a technosignature.
Origin
A paper by other astronomers released 10 days before the news report about BLC1 reports the detection of "a bright, long-duration optical flare, accompanied by a series of intense, coherent radio bursts" from Proxima Centauri also in April and May 2019. Their finding has not been put in direct relation to the BLC1 signal by scientists or media outlets as of January 2021 but implies that planets around Proxima Centauri and other red dwarfs are uninhabitable for humans and other currently known organisms.
In February 2021, a new study proposed that, as the probability of a radio-transmitting civilization emerging on the Sun's closest stellar neighbour was calculated to be approximately 10−8, the Copernican principle made BLC1 very unlikely to be a technological radio signal from the Alpha Centauri System.
On 25 October 2021, researchers published two studies concluding that the signal is unlikely to be a technosignature due to its similarity to previously detected terrestrial interference.
See also
List of interstellar radio messages
Wow! signal
References
External links
Unsolved problems in astronomy
Proxima Centauri
Search for extraterrestrial intelligence
2019 in Australia
2020 in science | BLC1 | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 552 | [
"Concepts in astronomy",
"Unsolved problems in astronomy",
"Astronomical controversies"
] |
66,143,322 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoreline%20development%20index | The shoreline development index of a lake is the ratio of the length of the lake's shoreline to the circumference of a circle with the same area as the lake. It is given in equation form as , where is shoreline development, is the length of the lake's shoreline, and is the lake's area. The length and area should be measured in the units (e.g., m and m2, or km and km2). The shoreline development index is for perfectly circular lakes. for lakes with complex shapes.
Patterns
Shoreline development correlates strongly with lake area, although this partly reflects the scale dependence of the index (see Limitations). To some extent, the shoreline development index reflects the mode of origin for lakes. For example, volcanic crater lakes often have shoreline development index values near 1, where are fluvial oxbow lakes often have very high shoreline development index values.
Application to lakes with islands
The index can also include the length of island shoreline, modifying the formula to , where is the combined length of the lake's islands' shoreline.
Limitations
Lake shorelines are fractal. This means that measurements of shore length are longer when measured on high-resolution maps compared to low-resolution maps. Therefore, a lake's shoreline development index will be greater when calculated based on shorelines measured from high-resolution maps compared to low-resolution maps. Consequently, shoreline development index values cannot be compared for lakes with shorelines measured from maps with different scales. Additionally, the shoreline development index cannot be compared for lakes with different surface areas because large lakes automatically have higher values than smaller lakes, even if they have the same planform shape. Hence the shoreline development index can only be used to compare lakes with the same surface area that are also mapped at the same scale. Making comparisons like this can create suprious correlations between the shoreline development index and ecological variables.
References
Lakes | Shoreline development index | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 388 | [
"Lakes",
"Hydrology"
] |
66,143,499 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree%20wrap | A tree wrap or tree wrapping is a wrap of garden tree saplings, roses, and other delicate plants to protect them from frost damage (e.g. frost cracks or complete death). In the past it was made of straw (straw wrap) . Now there are commercial tree wrap materials, such as crepe paper or burlap tapes. Tree wrapping is also used to prevent saplings from sunscald and drying of the bark. A disadvantage of tape wrapping is dampness under the wrapping during rainy seasons.
References
Further reading
Frost and the Prevention of Frost Damage, by Floyd Dillon Young, 1929 (free at Google Books)
Describes, in part, various kinds of wraps and covers
Horticulture
Cryobiology | Tree wrap | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 148 | [
"Biochemistry",
"Physical phenomena",
"Phase transitions",
"Cryobiology"
] |
53,513,858 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative%20controls | Administrative controls are training, procedure, policy, or shift designs that lessen the threat of a hazard to an individual. Administrative controls typically change the behavior of people (e.g., factory workers) rather than removing the actual hazard or providing personal protective equipment (PPE).
Administrative controls are fourth in larger hierarchy of hazard controls, which ranks the effectiveness and efficiency of hazard controls. Administrative controls are more effective than PPE because they involve some manner of prior planning and avoidance, whereas PPE serves only as a final barrier between the hazard and worker. Administrative controls are second lowest because they require workers or employers to actively think or comply with regulations and do not offer permanent solutions to problems. Generally, administrative controls are cheaper to begin, but they may become more expensive over time as higher failure rates and the need for constant training or re-certification eclipse the initial investments of the three more desirable hazard controls in the hierarchy. The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health recommends administrative controls when hazards cannot be removed or changed, and engineering controls are not practical.
Some common examples of administrative controls include work practice controls such as prohibiting mouth pipetting and rotating worker shifts in coal mines to prevent hearing loss. Other examples include hours of service regulations for commercial vehicle operators, Safety signage for hazards, and regular maintenance of equipment.
References
Industrial hygiene
Safety engineering
Occupational safety and health | Administrative controls | [
"Engineering"
] | 277 | [
"Safety engineering",
"Systems engineering"
] |
53,514,351 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20bitcoin%20forks | Bitcoin forks are defined variantly as changes in the protocol of the bitcoin network or as the situations that occur "when two or more blocks have the same block height". A fork influences the validity of the rules. Forks are typically conducted in order to add new features to a blockchain, to reverse the effects of hacking or catastrophic bugs. Forks require consensus to be resolved or else a permanent split emerges.
Forks of the client software
The following are forks of the software client for the bitcoin network:
Bitcoin XT A fork initiated by Mike Hearn. The current reference implementation for bitcoin contains a computational bottleneck. The actual fork was preceded by Mike Hearn publishing a Bitcoin Improvement Proposal (BIP 64) on June 10, 2014, calling for the addition of "a small P2P protocol extension that performs UTXO lookups given a set of outpoints." On December 27, 2014 Hearn released version 0.10 of the forked client XT, with the BIP 64 changes. It achieved significant attention within the bitcoin community in mid-2015 amid a contentious debate among core developers over increasing the block size cap.
On June 22, 2015, Gavin Andresen published BIP 101 calling for an increase in the maximum block size. The changes would activate a fork allowing eight MB blocks (doubling in size every two years) once 75% of a stretch of 1,000 mined blocks is achieved after the beginning of 2016. The new maximum transaction rate under XT would have been 24 transactions per second.
On August 6, 2015 Andresen's BIP101 proposal was merged into the XT codebase. Bip 101 was reverted and the 2-MB block size bump of Bitcoin Classic was applied instead.
The August 2015 release of XT received widespread media coverage. The Guardian wrote that "bitcoin is facing civil war".
Wired wrote that "Bitcoin XT exposes the extremely social—extremely democratic—underpinnings of the open source idea, an approach that makes open source so much more powerful than technology controlled by any one person or organization." Developer Adam Back was critical of the 75% activation threshold being too low and that some of the changes were insecure.
On August 25, 2017, Bitcoin XT published Release G, which was a Bitcoin Cash client by default. Subsequently, Release H was published, which supported the November 2017 Bitcoin Cash protocol upgrade, followed by Release I, which supported the May 2018 Bitcoin Cash protocol upgrade.
Bitcoin Classic In its first 8 months, Bitcoin Classic promoted a single increase of the maximum block size from one megabyte to two megabytes. In November 2016 this changed and the project moved to a solution that moved the limit out of the software rules into the hands of the miners and nodes.
Bitcoin Unlimited
All three software clients attempt to increase transaction capacity of the network. None achieved a majority of the hash power.
Intended hard forks splitting the cryptocurrency
Hard forks splitting bitcoin (aka "split coins") are created via changes of the blockchain rules and sharing a transaction history with bitcoin up to a certain time and date. The first hard fork splitting bitcoin happened on 1 August 2017, resulting in the creation of Bitcoin Cash.
The following is a list of notable hard forks splitting bitcoin by date and/or block:
Bitcoin Cash: Forked at block 478558, 1 August 2017, for each bitcoin (BTC), an owner got 1 Bitcoin Cash (BCH)
Bitcoin Satoshi Vision: Forked at block 556766, 15 November 2018, for each Bitcoin Cash (BCH), an owner got 1 Bitcoin SV (BSV).
eCash: Forked at block 661648, 15 November 2020, for each Bitcoin Cash (BCH), an owner got 1,000,000 eCash (XEC).
Bitcoin Gold: Forked at block 491407, 24 October 2017, for each bitcoin (BTC), an owner got 1 Bitcoin Gold (BTG)
Intended soft forks splitting from a not-most-work block
The fork fixing the value overflow incident was controversial because it was announced after the exploit was mined. It was assigned CVE-2010-5139.
Intended soft forks splitting from the most-work block
Segwit
Taproot
Taproot is an agreed soft fork in the transaction format. The fork adds support for Schnorr signatures, and improves functionality of smart contracts and the Lightning Network. The fork was installed in November 2021. The upgrade adds privacy features. Taproot includes Bitcoin Improvement Proposal numbers BIP340, BIP341, BIP342.
Advantages:
Complex transactions, such as those requiring multiple signatures or those with delayed release, are indistinguishable from simple transactions in terms of on-chain data.
Reduced transaction costs: The data size of complex Bitcoin transactions is reduced, which leads to lower transaction fees.
Support for more complicated conditions for a transaction via Schnorr signatures.
Benefits for the Lightning Network: More flexibility, privacy enhancement, lower costs.
Bitcoin hard forks
Three hard forks were created by "protocol change" definition:
July 2010 Chain Fork (addition of OP_NOP functions)
March 2013 Chain Fork (migration from BerkeleyDB to LevelDB caused a chain split)
CVE-2018-17144 (Bitcoin 0.15 allowed double spending certain inputs in the same block. Not exploited)
References
Source code
Other references
Computing-related lists
Clients (computing)
Cryptocurrencies | List of bitcoin forks | [
"Technology"
] | 1,190 | [
"Computing-related lists"
] |
53,515,492 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stranger | A stranger is a person who is unknown to another person or group. Because of this unknown status, a stranger may be perceived as a threat until their identity and character can be ascertained. Different classes of strangers have been identified for social science purposes, and the tendency for strangers and foreigners to overlap has been examined.
The presence of a stranger can throw an established social order into question, "because the stranger is neither friend nor enemy; and because he may be both". The distrust of strangers has led to the concept of stranger danger (and the expression "don't talk to strangers"), wherein excessive emphasis is given to teaching children to fear strangers despite the most common sources of abduction or abuse being people known to the child.
Definitions
A stranger is commonly defined as someone who is unknown to another. Since individuals tend to have a comparatively small circle of family, friends, acquaintances, and other people known to them—a few hundred or a few thousand people out of the billions of people in the world—the vast majority of people are strangers to one another. It may also more figuratively refer to a person for whom a concept is unknown, such as describing a contentious subject as "no stranger to controversy," or an unsanitary person as a "stranger to hygiene". A stranger is typically represented as an outsider, and a source of ambivalence, as they may be a friend, an enemy, or both. The word stranger derives from the Middle French word estrangier, meaning a foreigner or alien.
The boundaries of what people or groups are considered strangers varies according to circumstances and culture, and those in the fields of sociology and philosophy in a variety of broader contexts. According to sociologist and philosopher Zygmunt Bauman, every society produces its own strangers, and the natures of "strangeness" is "eminently pliable [and] man-made". Alternatively, Lisa Atwood Wilkinson has written that "[b]y definition, whoever is a stranger to me is someone who is not a philos: a stranger is a person who is not related to me by blood or marriage, not a member of my tribe or ethne, and not a fellow citizen." Another asserts that "[i]t has been argued by many a philosopher that we are all strangers on earth, alienated from others and ourselves even in our own country".
Types of strangers
The state of being a stranger may be examined as a matter of degrees. For example, someone may be a partial stranger in cases where they are unable to communicate, or another is unable to understand aspects of an individual, their perspective or experiences. Alternatively, one may be a moral stranger to another who acts "out of fundamentally divergent moral commitments", even though the person may be a close friend or family member.
A stranger with whom a person has previously had no contact of any kind may be referred to as a "total stranger" or "perfect stranger". Some people who are considered "strangers" due to the lack of a formally established relationship between themselves and others are nonetheless more familiar than a total stranger. A familiar stranger is an individual who is recognized by another from regularly sharing a common physical space such as a street or bus stop, but with whom one does not interact. First identified by Stanley Milgram in the 1972 paper The Familiar Stranger: An Aspect of Urban Anonymity, it has become an increasingly popular topic in research about social networks and technologically-mediated communication. Consequential strangers are personal connections other than family and close friends. Also known as "peripheral" or "weak" ties, they lie in the broad social territory between strangers and intimates. The term was coined by Karen L. Fingerman and further developed by Melinda Blau, who collaborated with the psychologist to explore and popularize the concept.
Strangers and foreigners
A stranger is not necessarily a foreigner, although a foreigner is highly likely to be a stranger:
According to Chris Rumford, referencing the work of sociologist and philosopher Georg Simmel, "people who are physically close by can be remote and those who are far away may in fact be close in many ways". With the conglomeration of populations into large cities, people now have a historically high propensity to "live among strangers".
Adopting a statist view, strangers may be seen as a chaotic challenge to the order imposed and sought by the nation-state, which is then faced with the challenge of assimilating the stranger, expelling them, or destroying them. Although this view may overlook important issues of what authority defines the stranger, and how that determination is made.
Interactions with strangers
Interactions with strangers can vary widely depending on the circumstances and the personalities of the people involved. Some people have no difficulty striking up conversations with strangers, while others experience strong discomfort at the prospect of interacting with strangers. At the opposite end of the spectrum, some people are excited by engaging in sex with strangers. Psychologist Dan P. McAdams writes:
Stranger anxiety
Infants will generally be receptive to strangers until after they achieve object permanence and begin forming attachments. Thereafter stranger anxiety typically emerges, and young children will normally exhibit signs of distress when presented with unfamiliar individuals, and will tend to prefer those with whom they are familiar rather than strangers. This reaction is generally referred to as stranger anxiety or stranger wariness.
According to one review, the reaction to strangers may differ somewhat according to gender. While there were no gender differences observed at three months of age, girls appeared to exhibit stranger fear at an earlier average age than boys, at about eight to nines months old, although boys quickly caught up, and examinations of nine to 17 months old recorded no differences. Studies have shows that infants tend to show a preference for strangers if they are near their own age. However, this preference may reverse in situations which include fear-producing stimuli.
The severity of stranger anxiety may be affected by individual temperament, capacity for self-regulation, and caregiver anxiety. Stranger anxiety may be mitigated through a number of techniques, including positive interaction between the stranger and companions, and arranging for familiar surroundings.
Stranger danger
For older children, instruction is often provided in schools and homes on so called "stranger danger". This often stems from public fears regarding stranger offenders, individuals who may approach children in public places with the intention of abduction or abuse, possibly due in part to their perception of children as vulnerable targets. Statistically, children who are abducted are much more likely to be taken by someone who is an acquaintance or family member. According to one estimate, "classic stranger abductions" accounted for only 0.014% of total missing children annually in the United States, or about 14 per 100,000. Furthermore, of all abductions by non-family members, the majority (59%) were of teenagers, rather than children. In similar statistics reported by the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children (NCMEC), only about 1% of abductions were from non-family members, while 91% of those abducted were classified as endangered runaways.
This has led to calls to de-emphasize stranger danger, as Nancy McBride of NCMEC told NBC News, "let's take stranger-danger and put it in a museum. We need to teach our kids things are actually going to help them if they are in trouble." This was echoed by sociologist, and director of the Crimes Against Children Research Center, David Finkelhor, writing in The Washington Post:
We'd do much better to teach them the signs of people (strangers or not) who are behaving badly: touching them inappropriately, being overly personal, trying to get them alone, acting drunk, provoking others or recklessly wielding weapons. We need to help children practice refusal skills, disengagement skills and how to summon help.
In adults
In their review of the sociological literature, Semin and Fiedler concluded that the perception of strangers tends to be based primarily on group membership, and their identity as a member of an out-group, because a stranger is, by definition, not known individually. This may magnify the perceived motives or intentions of the stranger, but may also vary greatly according to the circumstances and the environment. Among environmental factors, physical uncomfortably, such as presence in a room that is hot and crowded, have been shown to increase negative attitudes toward strangers.
Laboratory evidence has indicated that individuals are likely to behave less modestly when meeting face-to-face with strangers, when no friends or acquaintances were present. As explained by Joinson and colleagues, "they tend to present more of their ideal self-qualities to strangers than they do to friends." However, this appeared to be reversed when two strangers met one another online in the absence of friends, which elicited the most modest self-presentation, more so than online interactions with strangers conducted in the presence of friends.
In willingness to disclose information, researchers have identified what has been dubbed the stranger-on-the-train phenomenon, wherein individuals are inclined to share a great deal of personal information with anonymous individuals. This may be influenced by the temporary nature of their relationship, and the knowledge that the stranger themselves have no access to an individual's wider social circle. As one author put it, the phenomenon is ironically best described by the words of travel writer Paul Theroux, saying:
The conversation, like many others I had with people on trains derived an easy candour from the shared journey, the comfort of the dining care, and the certain knowledge that neither of us would see each other again.
This may be helpful in eliciting self-disclosure in the context of therapy or counseling, and can encourage openness and honesty. However, research also suggests that this phenomenon is mediated by the expectation of future interaction with the stranger.
In religion
The New Testament Greek translation of "stranger" is xenos, which is the root word of the English xenophobia, meaning fear of strangers and foreigners alike. Strangers, and especially showing hospitality to strangers and strangers in need is a theme throughout the Old Testament, and is "expanded upon — and even radicalized — in the New Testament.
In the King James Version of the Old Testament, Exodus 23:9 states: "Also thou shalt not oppress a stranger: for ye know the heart of a stranger, seeing ye were strangers in the land of Egypt". Some other translations use "foreigner" instead of "stranger".
Observations by the stranger
There is a concept in sociological literature of the "professional stranger", the person who intentionally maintains an intellectual distance from the community in order to observe and understand it.
See also
Alterity, a philosophical and anthropological term meaning “otherness"
Hospitality, the relationship between a guest and a host, including the reception and entertainment of guests, visitors, or strangers
Martian scientist, a hypothetical stranger popularly used in thought experiments
Online predator, strangers who prey on victims via the internet
Strangeness, a property of particles in physics
Further reading
Levine, Donald N. (1977). "Simmel at a Distance: On the History and Systematics of the Sociology of the Stranger". Sociological Focus. 10 (1): 15–29.
Notes
References
External links
Interpersonal relationships
Group processes
Developmental psychology
Child safety | Stranger | [
"Biology"
] | 2,296 | [
"Behavior",
"Developmental psychology",
"Behavioural sciences",
"Interpersonal relationships",
"Human behavior"
] |
53,515,724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20research%20on%20Arabidopsis%20thaliana | Arabidopsis thaliana is a first class model organism and the single most important species
for fundamental research in plant molecular genetics.
A. thaliana was the first plant for which a high-quality reference genome sequence was determined and a worldwide research community has developed many other genetic resources and tools.
The experimental advantages of A. thaliana have enabled many important discoveries.
These advantages have been extensively reviewed,
as has its role in fundamental discoveries
about the plant immune system,
natural variation,
root biology,
and other areas.
Early history
A. thaliana was first described by Johannes Thal, and later renamed in his honor.
(See the Taxonomy section of the main article.)
Friedrich Laibach outlined why A. thaliana might be a good experimental system in 1943
and collected a large number of natural accessions.
A. thaliana is largely self-pollinating, so these accessions represent inbred strains,
with high homozygosity that simplifies genetic analysis.
Natural A. thaliana accessions are often referred to as "ecotypes".
Laibach had earlier (1907) determined the A. thaliana chromosome number (5) as part of his PhD research.
Laibach's student Erna Reinholz described mutagenesis of A. thaliana with X-ray radiation in 1945.
George Rédei pioneered the use of A. thaliana for fundamental studies,
mutagenizing plants with ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS)
and then screening them
for auxotrophic defects
and writing an influential review in 1975.
Rédei distributed the standard laboratory accessions 'Columbia-0' and 'Landsberg erecta'''.
Gerhard Röbbelen organized the first International Arabidopsis Symposium in 1965.
Röbbelen also started the 'Arabidopsis Information Service', a newsletter for sharing information in the community.
This newsletter was maintained by A.R. Kranz starting in 1974, and was published until 1990.
Growing interest, 1975-1986
As molecular biology methods progressed,
many investigators
sought to focus community effort
on a common model plant species
such as petunia or tomato.
This concept changed the emphasis
of the long tradition of researchers
using diverse agronomically important species
such as maize, barley, and peas.
The A. thaliana subcommunity espoused an ethos
of freely sharing information and materials,
and investigators were attracted by the perceived wide-open nature
of plant molecular genetics
relative to other fields that were better established and thus more "crowded" and competitive.
The A. thaliana genome was shown to be relatively small and nonrepetitive,
which was an important advantage for early molecular methods.
Pioneering A. thaliana studies have used its natural filamentous pathogenHyaloperonospora arabidopsidis,
the model plant-pathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas syringae, and many other microbes.A. thaliana roots are transparent
and have a relatively simple radially symmetric cellular structure,
facilitating analysis by microscopy.
Molecular cloning, 1986-2000
Cloning of an A. thaliana gene, an alcohol dehydrogenase-encoding locus, was described in 1986,
by which time mutations at over 200 loci had been defined.
Genetic linkage maps, QTL populations, and map-based cloning
Development of genetic maps based on scorable phenotypes
and molecular genetic markers facilitated map-based cloning of mutant loci from classical "forward genetic" screens.
Growing amounts of DNA sequence data
facilitated development and application of such molecular markers.
Descriptions of the first successful map-based cloning projects
were published in 1992.
Recombinant inbred strain/line (RIL) populations
were developed,
notably from a cross of Columbia-0 × Lansberg erecta,
and used to map and clone a wide variety of quantitative trait loci.
Efficient genetic transformationA. thaliana can be genetically transformed using Agrobacterium tumefaciens; transformation was first reported in 1986.
Later work showed that transgenic seed can be obtained by simply dipping flowers into a suitable bacterial suspension. The invention/discovery of this 'floral dip' method, published in 1998, made A. thaliana arguably the most easily transformed multicellular organism, and has been essential to many subsequent investigations.
Efficient transformation facilitated insertional mutagenesis
as described further below.
Transcription factors and regulation
Floral homeotic genes and the ABC model A. thaliana geneticists
made important contributions to development of the ABC model of flower development
via genetic analysis of floral homeotic mutants.
Homeodomain genes
The plant homeodomain finger is so named due to its discovery in an Arabidopsis homeodomain. In 1993 Schindler et al. discovered the PHD finger in the protein . It has since proven to be important to chromatin in a wide variety of taxa.
KNOTTED-like homeobox genes,
homologs of the maize KNOTTED1 gene that control shoot apical meristem identity,
were described in 1994
and cloning of the SHOOT-MERISTEMLESS locus
was published in 1996.
Genome project
An international consortium began developing a physical map for A. thaliana in 1990, and DNA sequencing and assembly efforts were formalized in the Arabidopsis Genome Initiative (AGI) in 1996.
This work paralleled the Human Genome Project
and related projects for other model organisms,
including the budding yeast S. cerevisiae,
the nematode C. elegans,
and the fly Drosophila melanogaster,
which were published in 1996,
1998,
and 2000,
respectively.
The project built on efforts to sequence expressed sequence tags
from A. thaliana.
Descriptions of the sequences of chromosomes 4 and 2 were published in 1999,
and the project was completed in 2000.
This represented the first reference genome for a flowering plant and facilitated comparative genomics.
Functional and comparative genomics, 2000-2010 and beyond
NSF 2010 project
A series of meetings led to an ambitious long-term NSF-funded initiative to determine the function of every A. thaliana gene by the year 2010.
The rationale for this project was to combine new high-throughput technologies with systematic gene-family-wide studies and community resources to accelerate progress beyond what was possible via piecemeal single-laboratory studies.
Microarray and transcriptome analysis
DNA microarray technology
was rapidly adopted for A. thaliana research
and led to the development
of "atlases" of gene expression
in different tissues and under different conditions.
Large-scale "reverse genetic" analysis
The A. thaliana genome sequence,
low-cost Sanger sequencing,
and ease of transformation
facilated genome-wide mutagenesis,
yielding collections
of sequence-indexed transposon mutant
and (especially) T-DNA mutant lines.
The ease and speed
of ordering mutant seed from stock centers
dramatically accelerated
"reverse genetic" study of many gene families;
the Arabidopsis Biological Resource Center
and the Nottingham Arabidopsis Stock Centre
were important in this regard,
and information on stock availability was integrated
into The Arabidopsis Information Resource database.
Syngenta developed and publicly shared a significant T-DNA mutant population,
the Syngenta Arabidopsis Insertion Library (SAIL) collection.
Industry investment in A. thaliana research
suffered a setback
in the closure of Syngenta's Torrey Mesa Research Institute (TMRI), but remained robust.
Mendel Biotechnology
overexpressed the vast majority of A. thaliana transcription factors
to generate leads for genetic engineering.
Cereon Genomics,
a subsidiary of Monsanto,
sequenced the Landsberg erecta accession
(at lower coverage than the Col-0 project)
and shared the assembly,
along with other sequence marker data.
RNA silencing A. thaliana quickly became an important model for the study of plant small RNAs.
The argonaute1 mutant, named for its resemblance to an Argonauta octopuses, was the namesake for the Argonaute protein family central to silencing.
Forward genetic screens focused on vegetative phase change uncovered many genes controlling small RNA biogenesis.
Multiple groups identified mutations in the DICER-LIKE1 gene (encoding the main DICER protein controlling microRNA biogenesis in plants) that cause strong developmental defects.A. thaliana became an important model for RNA-directed DNA methylation (transcriptional silencing), partly because many A. thaliana methylation mutants are viable, which is not the case for several model animals (in which such mutations cause lethality).
Growing popularity of other model plants
As the NSF 2010 project neared completion, there was a perceived decrease in funding agency interest in A. thaliana, evidenced by the cessation of USDA funding for A. thaliana research and the end of NSF funding for the TAIR database. This trend coincided with the progress of the (US NSF-supported) National Plant Genome Initiative, which began in 1998
and put an increased emphasis on crops.
Draft genome sequence for rice
were published in 2002
and followed by publications for sorghum
and maize
in 2009.
A draft genome of the model tree Populus trichocarpa was published in 2006.
The draft genome of Brachypodium distachyon,
a short-statured model grass (Poaceae)
was published in 2010.
The Joint Genome Institute of the United States Department of Energy identified poplar, sorghum, B. distachyon, model C4 grass Setaria viridis (foxtail millet), model moss Physcomitrella patens, model alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, and soybean as its "flagship" species for plant genomics geared towards bioenergy applications.
Awards
Well established investigators
including Ronald W. Davis,
Gerald Fink,
and
Frederick M. Ausubel
adopted A. thaliana as a model in the 1980s,
attracting interest.
Elliot Meyerowitz and Chris R. Somerville were awarded the Balzan Prize in 2006 for their work developing A. thaliana as a model.
Thirteen prominent American A. thaliana geneticists were selected as investigators of the prestigious Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation in 2011: Philip Benfey,
Dominique Bergmann,
Simon Chan,
Xuemei Chen,
Jeff Dangl,
Xinnian Dong,
Joseph R. Ecker,
Mark Estelle,
Sheng Yang He,
Robert A. Martienssen,
Elliot Meyerowitz,
Craig Pikaard,
and Keiko Torii.
(Also selected were wheat geneticist Jorge Dubcovsky and photosynthesis researcher Krishna Niyogi, who has extensively used A. thaliana along with the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.)
Prior to this, a handful of A. thaliana geneticists had become HHMI investigators:
Joanne Chory (1997,
also awarded a 2018 Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences),
Daphne Preuss (2000-2006),
and Steve Jacobsen (2005).
Caroline Dean was awarded many honors
including the 2020 Wolf Prize in Agriculture
for "pioneering discoveries in flowering time control and epigenetic basis of vernalization"
made with A. thaliana.
Impact of second- and third-generation sequencing technology A. thaliana continues to be the subject of intense study using new technologies such as high-throughput sequencing.
Direct sequencing of cDNA ("RNA-Seq")
largely replaced microarray analysis of gene expression,
and several studies sequenced cDNA from single cells (scRNA-seq), particularly from root tissue.
Mapping of mutations from forward screens
is increasingly done
with direct genome sequencing,
combined in some cases with bulked segregant analysis
or backcrossing.A. thaliana is a premier model
for studies of the plant microbiome
and natural genetic variation,
including genome-wide association studies.
Short RNA-guided DNA editing with CRISPR tools has been applied to A. thaliana'' since 2013.
External links
Electronic Arabidopsis Information Service (AIS) archive
Multinational Arabidopsis Steering Committee reports (1990 onward) and meeting minutes
The Arabidopsis book online
1001 Genomes Project site
References
Arabidopsis thaliana
Molecular genetics
Plant genetics
Arabidopsis thaliana | History of research on Arabidopsis thaliana | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 2,533 | [
"Plant genetics",
"Molecular genetics",
"Plants",
"Molecular biology"
] |
53,516,779 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple%20Michael/aldol%20reaction | Multiple Michael/aldol reaction (or domino Michael/aldol reaction) is a consecutive series of reactions composed of either Michael addition reactions or aldol reactions. More than two steps of reaction are usually involved. This reaction has been used for synthesis of large macrocyclic or polycyclic ring structures.
Gary Posner and co-workers were the first to report using multiple Michael/aldol reactions to construct macrolide structures. Their method utilized a Michael-Michael-Michael-ring closure (MIMI-MIRC) or a Michael-Michael-aldol-ring closure annulation sequences to assemble acrylates and/or aldehydes together to form substituted 9-, 10-, and 11-membered macrolide structures. Besides synthesis of complex ring structures, multiple Michael/aldol reaction can also be used for rapid production of complex compound libraries.
Aldolases have been used to mediate multiple aldol reactions. Chi-Huey Wong and co-workers had shown that 2-deoxyribose-5-phosphate aldolase and fructose-1, 6-diphosphate aldolase could be used together in a one-pot reaction to connect two aldehydes and one ketone together through sequential aldol reactions. This reaction could be used to generate a variety of carbohydrate derivatives.
See also
Robinson annulation, a classic reaction involving a Michael addition followed by an aldol condensation
References
Organic reactions | Multiple Michael/aldol reaction | [
"Chemistry"
] | 299 | [
"Organic reactions"
] |
53,516,853 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyfuran | Polyfuran (PFu) is a polymer that consists of multiple furanylene rings. Such materials are of interest for their potential in molecular electronics, although much less studied than polythiophenes and polypyrroles. Polyfuran is distinct from furan resins, a class of non-conjugated polymers. Furan resins are of commercial interest, in contrast to polyfuran.
Polyfurans can be prepared by electrochemical approaches. The mechanism of polymerization is proposed to involve radical cation intermediates, i.e. species with the formula C4R4O+.
Polyfurans can also be produced using acid catalysts. Radical polymerization has also been explored, and oxidative cationic polymerization.
References
Organic polymers
Furans | Polyfuran | [
"Chemistry"
] | 162 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Organic polymers"
] |
53,516,916 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyring%20forming%20processes | Polycyclic natural products such as marine toxin gambierol and brevetoxin B (Fig. 1) are intriguing targets in organic synthesis. Polyring forming processes are applied to the total synthesis of these polycyclic molecules. Short sequences of reactions are used in an iterative fashion to build the successive ring structures.
Brevetoxin B synthesis
Brevetoxin B was first synthesized by K. C. Nicolaou and co-workers in 1995. Along the campaign towards completion of the total synthesis of brevetoxin B, polyring forming processes that consists of iterative epoxide ring-opening reactions was used to construct the ether linkages in one fragment of brevetoxin B (Fig. 2).
Polypyran synthesis
Mori and co-workers have developed a short iterative strategy for the synthesis of polypyran domains in natural products (Fig. 3). This strategy is also based on epoxide ring-opening reactions and consists totally 6 steps in each iterative cycle. The epoxide is installed using oxiranyl anions generated from reacting epoxide B with strong base such as n-butyllithium. Treating the product C with acid afforded the desired ring product which can be further converted to the next precursor D in four steps.
References
Polycyclic organic compounds | Polyring forming processes | [
"Chemistry"
] | 271 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Polycyclic organic compounds"
] |
53,517,587 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20Card | A White Card (also known as a General Construction Induction Card) is a mandatory work card required in Australia to order to work on a construction site.
The White Card
Who needs the White Card?
The White Card is a required document for everyone wishing to work on the premises of a construction site. Additionally, it is also required for those not directly involved in building, such as supervisors, site managers, and people who routinely enter construction sites.
Validity
White Cards become void if no construction work is carried out in two consecutive years or more.
Courses
The white card is gained by completing a face-to-face or online government mandated course through a (RTO) registered training organisation. The unit of competency required is CPCWHS1001 – Prepare to work safely in the construction industry.
The Card is, although it is issued by all the states by their own regulatory bodies, is valid across all Australia.
The White Card Online can be issued in Western Australia and Tasmania. In the other states, the course must be completed face-to-face. The face-to-face courses can be completed with 6 hours of face-to-face training. Regardless, this White Card is mutually recognised and accepted in all states of Australia.
Curriculum
Workplace safety, safe working practices, dealing with hazards and how to respond to an emergency.
Course Requirements
Unique Student Identifier (USI) number
Basic English language literacy
Basic Mathematical literacy
Course by State
History
This White Card Course replaces a range of state systems operating different coloured cards (Blue, Green, Red) and regulatory bodies. In the past the different states/regulatory bodies would have different coloured cards for their own state. Every State in Australia now operate with the Nationally Recognised White Card.
The white card online used to be offered in Queensland prior to 2019, however they changed to face-to-face only due to concerns of the mutual recognition by other states of the Queensland white card being at risk This was because allegedly the online courses offered for the Queensland white card were not up to standard.
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
ACT government website explaining the White Card
Identity documents of Australia
Construction law
Employment in Australia | White Card | [
"Engineering"
] | 431 | [
"Construction",
"Construction law"
] |
53,517,673 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcriptional%20amplification | In genetics, transcriptional amplification is the process in which the total amount of messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules from expressed genes is increased during disease, development, or in response to stimuli.
In eukaryotic cells, the transcribing activity of RNA Polymerase II results in mRNA production. Transcriptional amplification is specifically defined as the increase in per-cell abundance of this set of expressed mRNAs. Transcriptional amplification is caused by changes in the amount or activity of transcription-regulating proteins.
Mechanisms of transcriptional amplification
Gene expression is regulated by numerous types of proteins that directly or indirectly influence transcription by RNA Polymerase II. As opposed to transcriptional activators or repressors that selectively activate or repress specific genes, amplifiers of transcription act globally on expressed genes.
Several known regulators of transcriptional amplification have been characterized including the oncogene Myc, the Rett syndrome protein MECP2, and the BET bromodomain protein BRD4. In particular, the Myc protein amplifies transcription by binding to promoters and enhancers of active genes where it directly recruits the transcription elongation factor P-TEFb. Furthermore, the BRD4 protein is a regulator of Myc activity.
Identifying and measuring transcriptional amplification
Commonly used gene expression experiments interrogate the expression of one gene (qPCR) or many genes (microarray, RNA-Seq). These techniques generally measure relative mRNA levels and employ normalization methods that assume only a small number of genes show altered expression. In contrast, single cell or cell-count normalized absolute measurements of mRNA abundance are required to reveal transcriptional amplification. Additionally, global measurements of mRNA or total mRNA per cell can also uncover evidence for transcriptional amplification.
Cells in which transcription has been amplified have additional hallmarks suggesting that amplification has occurred. Cells with increased mRNA levels may be larger, consistent with an increased abundance of gene products. This increase in the amount of gene products may result in a decreased doubling time.
Role in disease
Transcriptional amplification has been implicated in cancer, Rett syndrome, heart disease, Down syndrome, and cellular aging. In cancer, Myc-driven transcriptional amplification is posited to help tumor cells overcome rate-limiting constraints in growth and proliferation. Drugs that target the transcription or mRNA processing machinery are known to be particularly effective against Myc-driven tumor models, suggesting that dampening of transcriptional amplification can have anti-tumor effects. Similarly, small molecules targeting the BET bromodomain protein BRD4, which is up-regulated during heart failure, can block cardiac hypertrophy in mouse models. In Rett syndrome, which is caused by loss of function of the transcriptional regulator MeCP2, MeCP2 was shown to specifically amplify transcription in neurons and not neuronal precursors. Restoration of MeCP2 reverses disease symptoms associated with Rett syndrome
References
Genetics | Transcriptional amplification | [
"Biology"
] | 615 | [
"Genetics"
] |
53,518,515 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theta%20nigrum | The theta nigrum () or theta infelix () is a symbol of death in Greek and Latin epigraphy. Isidore of Seville notes the letter was appended after the name of a deceased soldier and finds of papyri containing military records have confirmed this use. Additionally it can be seen in the Gladiator Mosaic.
The term theta nigrum was coined by Theodor Mommsen. It consists of a circle with a diagonal line. The theta signified Thanatos, the Greek deity of death.
See also
References
External links
Cultural aspects of death
Symbols
Epigraphy
Greek letters | Theta nigrum | [
"Mathematics"
] | 125 | [
"Symbols"
] |
53,520,103 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marilyn%20Fogel | Marilyn L. Fogel (September 19, 1952 – May 11, 2022) was an American geo-ecologist and Professor of Geo-ecology at UC Riverside in Riverside, California. She is known for her research using stable isotope mass spectrometry to study a variety of subjects including ancient climates, biogeochemical cycles, animal behavior, ecology, and astrobiology. Fogel served in many leadership roles, including Program Director at the National Science Foundation in geobiology and low-temperature geochemistry.
She was the second female staff scientist at the Carnegie Institution for Science's Geophysical Laboratory and the first female recipient of the Alfred Treibs Medal from the Geochemical Society for her achievements in the field of organic geochemistry.
Early life
Fogel was born on September 19, 1952, in Moorestown, New Jersey.
In 1970 she enrolled at Pennsylvania State University, where she majored in biology, graduating in 1973 with a BS in biology with honors. Her undergraduate research mentor, Dr. Peter Given, helped her apply to UT-Austin for graduate school. She took a gap year before beginning grad school where she traveled in Europe and developed a small jewelry business making pins from eyeglass lenses.
Academic career
At the University of Texas, Austin, Fogel worked with Chase Van Baalen, Patrick Parker, and F. Robert Tabita on her dissertation, titled “Carbon isotope fractionation by ribulose 1,5-biphosphate carboxylase from various organisms”. She graduated in 1977 with a PhD in Botany and Marine Sciences, and immediately accepted a position as a postdoctoral fellow (1977-1979) at the Geophysical Lab at the Carnegie Institution for Science under the mentorship of Thomas C. Hoering. While in graduate school, she also owned an ice cream truck to help cover her expenses.
Following her postdoc position, Fogel was hired in 1979 as a Staff Member at the Geophysical Lab, working in biogeochemistry, where she remained until 2012. At that time she was the second female staff member (scientist) in the history of the Geophysical Lab, which was established in 1905. While there, Fogel was also a visiting scientist at Carnegie's Department of Plant Biology (1985–1986), a visiting professor at the Department of Earth Sciences at Dartmouth College (1995), a visiting professor at the department of geology at the University of Maryland (2003–2005), and a Smithsonian Environmental Research Center Fellow (2003–2009).
In 2012, she moved from Washington DC to the University of California, Merced where she accepted a position as a full professor in the School of Natural Sciences and soon became the chair of the Life and Environmental Sciences Unit. There, she taught courses on the fundamentals of ecology, biogeochemistry, stable isotope ecology, field ecology, and the anthropocene.
In 2016, she relocated to UC Riverside in Riverside, California, where she assumed several leadership roles: inaugural holder of the Wilbur Mayhew Endowed Chair in Geo-Ecology (2017), first director of the new EDGE Institute (Environmental Dynamics & Geo-Ecology), and professor of Geo-ecology in the Earth and Environmental Sciences Department. Her research there focused on geo-ecology, astrobiology, paleontology, and anthropology. She also supervised two PhD students and served on the committees of other graduate students.
Research
Stable isotope ratios vary as a result of many biological and abiotic processes in the environment, changing over time, location, organism, and environment. The field of isotope geochemistry largely relies upon these natural variations, and can be incorporated into biological, ecological, chemical, and geological studies. Using isotope ratios, often 2H/1H, 𝛿13C, the 15N/14N ratio, and 18O/16O, Fogel has studied modern and ancient ecosystems, and has begun to apply the same techniques to study extraterrestrial material in martian meteorites, helping to advance the field of astrobiology.
Paleo-ecology and climate change
Fogel used isotope ratios in ancient sediments and fossils to trace climate, diet, and species presence over time.
In one study, she and collaborators used eggshell fragments from Genyornis newtoni (a large, extinct flightless bird) in Australia that ranged in age from 100,000 to 50,000 years to show that the bird's extinction 50,000 years ago was likely due to human impact rather than climate changes. 40,000 years ago, Australia went through a dry period, as recorded in Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) egg shells, but the extinction of Genyornis 50,000 years ago rather than 40,000 suggests that their extinction was likely unrelated to the drying. Using stable carbon isotopes, her group determined that Genyornis consumed nearly exclusively C3 plants, and that their cranial morphology indicated a browser reliant upon shrubland. Because it seems that the Genyornis diet is fairly restrictive, it is likely that the arrival of humans around 55,000 years ago and their burning of land may have caused some megafauna extinction as it changed the vegetation. She has used similar techniques to study amino acids in the elephant birds of Madagascar and measure the isotope ratios in modern ostrich eggshells as a calibration tool for paleoenvironmental studies of Africa.
Isotope ratios can also indicate species and diet characteristics in fossilized specimens. A Paleozoic fossil of Prototaxites has attracted attention dating back to 1859 due to its odd tree-like trunk measuring up to 8m long. Because the Paleozoic Era was one of drastic organismal shift, and the origin of vascular plants, it was previously unclear if Prototaxites were vascular plants or fungal species. However, a team of researchers, including Fogel, found the 𝛿13C of the species to be as much as 13‰ different from contemporaneous vascular plants, suggesting that Prototaxites are in fact heterotrophs, and more likely a fungus.
Using carbon isotope ratios in prehistoric human bone collagen, Fogel was able to study the diet of ancient humans. North American humans were either primarily maize eaters, which is a C4 plant, or primarily hunter-gatherers, which contains more C3 plants. Using this knowledge, Fogel measured the 𝛿13C values of essential amino acids to indicate whether the ancient human populations consumed primarily maize or were hunter-gatherers. Similarly, she was able to measure the marine nitrogen presence in human skeletons on Easter Island to establish that they consumed large amounts of marine food, and used the 15N enrichment in infants to determine the length of nursing in prehistoric populations.
Modern ecosystems
Isotopic ratios are often used to trace the flow of certain elements through environmental systems. "Tagging" a molecule with an unusual isotope can allow a researcher to study a specific molecule and follow it in ecosystems, a technique known as using environmental tracers. Beyond human tagged compounds, natural isotope abnormalities occur as a result of various biotic and abiotic processes, and can often be found to vary across regions and species. Fogel has used these variations as natural ways to track animal movements, diets, and environmental shifts, and has also investigated the specific mechanisms that lead to environmental isotope fractionation.
As an example of a biotic fractionation event, respiration has led to an enrichment of 18O in the atmosphere relative to 16O. The isotopic ratio of 18O/16O is +23.5‰ relative to V-SMOW, and this ratio should also be observed in oxygen's consumption ratios. In one of the first major studies of plant oxygen consumption and fractionation, Guy, Fogel, and Berry defined the oxygen fractionation effects of various plant functions. They found that plants do not fraction oxygen isotopes in the photolysis of water in spinach thylakoids, but that they did discriminate against 18O during oxygen uptake by 21.3‰ during the oxygenation of Rubisco in spinach and by 22.7‰ during the photorespiration of phosphoglycate by glycate oxidase. The fractionation during oxygen uptake in these two processes contribute strongly to the 18O/16O of the atmosphere, which is about 1.0235 times that of seawater.
When it comes to tracing isotopes through the ecosystems, carbon-13 is often used. However, because plants contain such a large portion of the biomass, this tracer relies upon the assumption that the various components of plant tissues all contain the same isotopic ratios. Benner, Fogel, and Hodson proved that this isn't the case. Lignin, the main structural polymer in plants, was found to be depleted in 13C by 2-6‰ relative to the whole plant, and by 4-7‰ relative to the cellulose in saltwater cordgrass. This discovery suggests that, when using isotope tracers in the environment, it's important to compare similar types of molecules.
Animal migration patterns can be traced as the isotope ratios fluctuate depending on their location to match their intake. Fogel has used carbon, nitrogen, and strontium isotope ratios to study African elephant diet and habitat use in the Amboseli Park in Kenya. Carbon isotope ratios vary by plant type, and so a change in carbon ratio of an elephant can indicate a shift in diet from trees to grasses. Strontium isotope ratios are reflected in the geologic age of bedrock, and so can be used as a tracer of the concentration of elephants within the park. In Great Gray Owls, migration is thought to cause a large amount of nutritional stress. Tracing the 15N/14N and 𝛿13C ratios in the birds' muscle tissues along with the contents of the birds' stomachs showed that nutritionally stressed owls were too weak to hunt, and at the brink of irreversible starvation as a result of their migration. Stable isotope ratios can also reveal diet specialization and shifts as specific carbon and nitrogen ratios are often indicative of groups of organisms. Using these ratios, Fogel has worked on diet studies on California sea otters, butterflies, blue crabs, killer whales, San Joaquin kit foxes, and bald eagles.
These same techniques of isotope fractionation investigations have also been used to study human environmental impacts. Because organic sewage outflow is enriched in 15N, she and her collaborators have been able to study the impacts of human sewage on coral reef systems by drawing a correlation between the 15N/14N ratio and the percentage of diseased coral species, as well as the impacts of chicken houses on nearby ecosystems.
Astrobiology
As a Team Member of the NASA Astrobiology Institute from 1998 to 2010, Fogel worked on the Arctic Mars Analog Svalbard Expedition team in addition to her own collaborative research. One such project focused upon organic matter in carbonaceous chondrite meteorites where they measured the amino acid presence in three meteorites. First, to make sure that the amino acids were extraterrestrial in origin, they measured the 𝛿13C values of the amino acids in the meteorites, which turned out to be significantly higher than the 𝛿13C value of amino acids on Earth, confirming that they were not contamination from Earth (+31.6‰ to +50.5‰ in the meteorites relative to −70‰ to 11.25‰ present on Earth). The team of researchers also found that two of the meteorites had the highest ever detected amino acid abundances, which may be because carbonaceous chondrites are the most primitive and least altered meteorites. Two of the meteorites also had a similar carbon isotope value to a meteorite measured previously, which may indicate a reservoir of the amino acids in the interstellar medium.
In 2012, Steele et al. announced that ten out of the eleven measured martian meteorites contained abiotic macromolecular organic carbon in high-temperature forming minerals (igneous rocks). Organic carbon presence inside of high-temperature forming minerals indicates that the martian magmas precipitated reduced carbon species during crystallization. These results supported an idea initially postulated by Hirshmann and Withers that the martian atmosphere was formed from a reduced mantle. The reducing conditions indicated by the meterotic carbon content tentatively supports abiotic production of methane on Mars.
Academic service and honors
In 2012, Marilyn Fogel was elected as a Fellow to the American Association for the Advancement of Science and given the Sigma Xi Distinguished Scientist Award from the UC Merced Chapter. Also in 2013, she was awarded the Alfred Treibs Medal in the Organic Geochemistry Division from the Geochemical Society, which recognizes major achievements over a career in organic geochemistry. She was the first woman to win this prize. From 2015 to 2016, Fogel served as the President to the Biogeosciences Section of the American Geophysical Union, and became the Wilbur W. Mayhew Endowed Professor of Geo-Ecology at UC Riverside in 2017.
Fogel served on numerous committees, including the Scientific Advisory Committee for the Jug Bay Wetlands Sanctuary from 1992 to 2005, the Committee on Origin and Evolution of Life for the Space Studies Board, National Research Council 2000–2002, the Advisory Committee for the Carnegie Institution Department of Global Ecology from 2003 to 2005, and the AGU Biogeosciences Fellows Selection Committee in 2013 and 2014. In 2003, she was elected a Fellow of the Geochemical Society and European Association of Geochemistry. She was a Fulbright Scholar to Norway in 2006, and awarded the Jubilee Medal of the Geological Society of South Africa in 2006. She served as the National Science Foundation Director of Geobiology and Low Temperature Geochemistry from 2009 to 2010. She has also received numerous fellowships including a Loeb Fellowship from 1999 to 2001, and a Mellon Fellowship from 2001 to 2003 from the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center. In 2018, Fogel was named a fellow of the American Geophysical Union.
As a member of the NASA Astrobiology Institute from 1998 to 2010, she served on the Management Team (2004 to 2008) and then as chief scientist (2008) of the Arctic Mars Analog Svalbard Expedition (AMASE).
Legacy
Marilyn Fogel and her husband, Christopher Swarth, created several endowments to support high school and undergraduate college students. The Marilyn Fogel Endowment Fund for Internships, which is geared towards providing support for young scientists to experience research for the first time, allows high school and undergraduate students to conduct mentored internships at Carnegie's Geophysical Lab, and at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism in Washington DC. They also endowed scholarships for undergrads at Penn State University and at the University of California, Merced.
References
1952 births
2022 deaths
People from Moorestown, New Jersey
American geochemists
University of California, Riverside faculty
Eberly College of Science alumni
University of Texas at Austin College of Natural Sciences alumni
Biogeochemists | Marilyn Fogel | [
"Chemistry"
] | 3,048 | [
"Geochemists",
"Biogeochemistry",
"Biogeochemists",
"American geochemists"
] |
53,523,022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20424 | NGC 424 is a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Sculptor. It was discovered on November 30, 1837 by John Herschel.
Gallery
References
External links
0424
Sculptor (constellation)
Spiral galaxies
Astronomical objects discovered in 1837
004274 | NGC 424 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 49 | [
"Constellations",
"Sculptor (constellation)"
] |
53,523,718 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MafB%20toxins | MafB toxins are exotoxins secreted by pathogenic Neisseria species (including meningococcus and gonococcus).
MafB toxins belong to the category of polymorphic toxins. The N-terminal region of MafB proteins harbors a domain of unknown function named DUF1020 while the C-terminal region is variable and harbors a toxic domain. MafB toxins are involved in interbacterial competition.
References
External links
http://pfam.xfam.org/family/PF06255
Toxins | MafB toxins | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 123 | [
"Toxins",
"Toxicology",
"Toxicology stubs"
] |
77,738,608 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20S.%20Dogin | Henry Stanley Dogin is an American lawyer and law enforcement administrator, and has been involved in many organizations in the United States Department of Justice (DOJ) and the Federal government of the United States.
Early life
In 1956, Dogin graduated from Cornell University with a bachelor's degree. In 1961, he obtained an LL. B. from the Columbia School of Law.
Dogin served in the U.S. Navy from 1956 to 1958.
Career in the federal government
From 1961 to 1967, Dogin was Assistant District Attorney for New York County.
From 1967 to 1971, he was assistant counsel to the Waterfront Commission of New York Harbor.
From 1971 to 1973, he served as Deputy Regional Administrator of the New York Regional Office of the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA).
From 1973 to 1975, Dogin was Deputy Assistant Attorney General for the Criminal Division. While in this position, Dogin oversaw the United States Organized Crime Strike Force.
On May 30, 1975, Dogin was appointed Acting Administrator of the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), where he worked in a transitionary period for the DEA. The first Administrator of the Drug Enforcement Administration, John R. Bartels Jr., had resigned amid scandal after being forced out of the administration by Attorney General Edward H. Levi. Dogin remained at DEA for only 6 months, leaving the agency on January 23, 1975. Peter B. Bensinger became the 2nd Administrator of the DEA shortly afterward.
From 1976 to 1978, he was deputy commissioner of the New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services (DCJS).
From 1978 to 1979, he was Deputy Administrator of LEAA for Policy Development and served as Acting Administrator. In 1979, Dogin was confirmed by the Senate as Administrator of the LEAA. While serving in this position, LEAA published a document addressing police brutality in the United States. Dogin wrote:
"LEAA will continue to assist police administrators, lawmakers, and city administrators as they strive to formulate clear direction and guidance to our Nation's law enforcement officers charged with the awesome responsibility of determining the need and degree of force and ultimately the use of deadly force in violent situations. Intensive and continuous training, appropriate guidelines, practices and controls must be addressed in order to reduce and restrict the use of force and deadly force by police without risking and jeopardizing their lives."
In 1980, LEAA was merged into the Office of Justice Assistance, Research, and Statistics (JARS). On February 8, 1980, President Jimmy Carter nominated Henry S. Dogin as Director of JARS.
Dogin was in the 1990s and 2000s an immigration judge in the Newark Immigration Office of the United States Department of Justice Executive Office for Immigration Review.
References
1934 births
20th-century American judges
Drug control law
History of drug control in the United States
New York (state) lawyers
Cornell University alumni
Living people | Henry S. Dogin | [
"Chemistry"
] | 580 | [
"Drug control law",
"Regulation of chemicals"
] |
77,739,301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cipher%20device | A cipher device was a term used by the US military in the first half of the 20th century to describe a manually operated cipher equipment that converted the plaintext into ciphertext or vice versa. A similar term, cipher machine, was used to describe the cipher equipment that required external power for operation. Cipher box or crypto box is a physical cryptographic device used to encrypt and decrypt messages between plaintext (unencrypted) and ciphertext (encrypted or secret) forms. The ciphertext is suitable for transmission over a channel, such as radio, that might be observed by an adversary the communicating parties wish to conceal the plaintext from.
See also
Cryptography
References
Sources
Cryptography | Cipher device | [
"Mathematics",
"Engineering"
] | 148 | [
"Applied mathematics",
"Cryptography",
"Cybersecurity engineering"
] |
77,739,325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium%20hexafluorogermanate | Ammonium hexafluorogermanate is an inorganic chemical compound with the chemical formula .
Physical properties
Ammonium hexafluorogermanate forms white crystals, soluble in water. Crystals are of cubic system, space group Fm3m. It is insoluble in alcohol.
References
Fluoro complexes
Germanates
Ammonium compounds
Fluorometallates
Hexafluorides | Ammonium hexafluorogermanate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 83 | [
"Ammonium compounds",
"Salts"
] |
77,739,515 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering%20failures%20in%20the%20U.S. | Engineering failures in the United States can be costly, disruptive, and deadly, with the largest incidents prompting changes to engineering practice.
Examples
Infrastructure
Francis Scott Key bridge collapse (2024)
The Francis Scott Key Bridge (informally, Key Bridge or Beltway Bridge) collapsed on March 26, 2024 at 1:28 a.m., after a container ship struck one of its piers. Six members of a maintenance crew were killed.
Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome collapse (2010)
Five times in the stadium's history, heavy snows or other weather conditions have significantly damaged the roof. At about 5 a.m. Sunday morning, the roof of Minneapolis's Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome tore under the weight of 17 inches of snow. The Metrodome has a roof of fiberglass fabric that's inflated by the stadium's air pressure, but a weekend blizzard was the trigger to cause the roof to sag and tear, dumping a large volume of snow all over the field. No one was injured.
I-35W Mississippi River bridge collapse (2007)
On August 1, 2007, at 6:05 p.m., the central span of the bridge gave way, sending the occupants of 111 vehicles to the river or its banks killing 13 and injuring 145. The NTSB cited a design flaw as the likely cause of the collapse, noting that an excessively thin gusset plate ripped along a line of rivets.
Levee failures in New Orleans (2005)
Levees and floodwalls protecting New Orleans, Louisiana, and its suburbs failed in 50 locations on August 29, 2005, following the passage of Hurricane Katrina, killing 1,392 people. Four major investigations all concurred that the primary cause of the flooding was inadequate design and construction by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Cypress Freeway collapse (1989)
During the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake in Oakland, California, the collapse of the upper tier of the Oakland, CA highway onto the lower tier caused 42 of the 63 total fatalities. The design was unable to survive the earthquake because the upper portions of the exterior columns were not tied by reinforcing to the lower columns, and the concrete columns were not sufficiently reinforced with steel ties to prevent bursting.
Hyatt Regency Hotel walkway collapse (1981)
On July 17, 1981, two overhead walkways loaded with partygoers at the Hyatt Regency Hotel in Kansas City, Missouri, collapsed. The concrete and glass platforms fell onto a tea dance in the lobby, killing 114 and injuring 216. Investigations concluded the walkway would have failed under one-third the weight it held that night because of an inadequate support connection derived from a revised detail.
Sunshine Skyway Bridge collapse (1980)
On the morning of May 9, 1980, the freighter MV Summit Venture collided with a support pier near the center of the bridge during a sudden storm, resulting in the catastrophic failure of the southbound roadway and the deaths of 35 people when several vehicles, including a Greyhound bus, plunged into Tampa Bay.
Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse (1940)
The first Tacoma Narrows Bridge was a suspension bridge in Washington that spanned the Tacoma Narrows strait of Puget Sound. It dramatically collapsed on November 7, 1940. The proximate cause was moderate winds which produced aeroelastic flutter that was self-exciting and unbounded. For any constant sustained wind speed above about 35 mph, the amplitude of the (torsional) flutter oscillation would continuously increase.
New London School natural gas explosion (1937)
The New London School explosion occurred on March 18, 1937, when a natural gas leak caused an explosion and destroyed the London School in New London, Texas, United States killing more than 300 students and teachers. Experts from the United States Bureau of Mines concluded that the connection to the cheap 'residue gas' line was faulty and allowed odorless and colorless gas to leak into the school, and because there was no odor, the leak was unnoticed for quite some time.
St. Francis Dam collapse (1928)
The St. Francis Dam was a concrete gravity dam located in San Francisquito Canyon in Los Angeles County, California, built from 1924 to 1926 to serve Los Angeles's growing water needs. It failed in 1928 due to a defective foundation design, triggering a flood that claimed the lives of at least 431 people.
Knickerbocker Theatre roof collapse (1922)
The theater's roof collapsed on January 28, 1922, under the weight of snow from a two-day blizzard that was later dubbed the Knickerbocker storm and killed 98 patrons and injured 133. The investigations concluded that the collapse was most likely the result of poor design, blaming the failure on the support for one of the arch girders that supported the roof, which had shifted, allowing the girder to slip off of one of the support pillars.
South Fork Dam rupture (1889)
The Johnstown Flood occurred on May 31, 1889, when the South Fork Dam located on the Little Conemaugh River upstream of the town of Johnstown, Pennsylvania, failed after days of heavy rainfall killing at least 2,209 people. A 2016 hydraulic analysis confirmed that changes made to the dam severely reduced its ability to withstand major storms.
Ashtabula River Bridge collapse (1876)
The Ashtabula River railroad disaster occurred December 29, 1876 when a bridge over the Ashtabula River near Ashtabula, Ohio failed as a Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway train passed over it killing at least 92 people. Modern analyses blame failure of an angle block lug, thrust stress and low temperatures.
Pemberton Mill building collapse (1860)
On January 10, 1860, at around 4:30 PM, a section of the Pemberton Mill textiles factory building suddenly collapsed, trapping several hundred workers underneath the rubble and killing up to 145 workers. Investigators attributed the disaster to substandard construction that was then drastically overloaded with second-floor equipment.
Aeronautics
Space Shuttle Columbia explosion (2003)
The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster occurred on February 1, 2003, during the final leg of the 113th flight of the Space Shuttle program. While reentering Earth's atmosphere over Louisiana and Texas the shuttle unexpectedly disintegrated, resulting in the deaths of all seven astronauts on board. The cause was damage to thermal shielding tiles from impact with a falling piece of foam insulation from an external tank during the January 16 launch.
Space Shuttle Challenger explosion (1986)
The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster occurred on January 28, 1986, when the NASA Space Shuttle orbiter Challenger broke apart 73 seconds into its flight, leading to the deaths of its seven crew members. Disintegration of the vehicle began after an O-ring seal in its right solid rocket booster (SRB) failed at liftoff.
Apollo 13 (1970)
Apollo 13 was the seventh crewed mission in the Apollo space program and the third meant to land on the Moon. The craft was launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 11, 1970, but the lunar landing was aborted after an oxygen tank in the service module (SM) ruptured two days into the mission, disabling its electrical and life-support system. The crew, supported by backup systems on the lunar module (LM), instead looped around the Moon in a circumlunar trajectory and returned safely to Earth on April 17.
See also
Engineering disasters
Industrial disasters
List of maritime disasters
List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents
List of building and structure collapses
Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents
Structural integrity and failure
References
US
Man-made disasters in the United States | Engineering failures in the U.S. | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 1,534 | [
"Systems engineering",
"Reliability engineering",
"Technological failures",
"Engineering failures",
"Civil engineering"
] |
77,739,537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaplygin%27s%20theorem | In mathematical theory of differential equations the Chaplygin's theorem (Chaplygin's method) states about existence and uniqueness of the solution to an initial value problem for the first order explicit ordinary differential equation. This theorem was stated by Sergey Chaplygin. It is one of many comparison theorems.
Important definitions
Consider an initial value problem: differential equation
in ,
with an initial condition
.
For the initial value problem described above the upper boundary solution and the lower boundary solution are the functions and respectively, both of which are smooth in and continuous in , such as the following inequalities are true:
;
and for .
Statement
Source:
Given the aforementioned initial value problem and respective upper boundary solution and lower boundary solution for . If the right part
is continuous in , ;
satisfies the Lipschitz condition over variable between functions and : there exists constant such as for every , , the inequality
holds,
then in there exists one and only one solution for the given initial value problem and moreover for all
.
Remarks
Source:
Weakning inequalities
Inside inequalities within both of definitions of the upper boundary solution and the lower boundary solution signs of inequalities (all at once) can be altered to unstrict. As a result, inequalities sings at Chaplygin's theorem concusion would change to unstrict by and respectively. In particular, any of , could be chosen.
Proving inequality only
If is already known to be an existent solution for the initial value problem in , the Lipschitz condition requirement can be omitted entirely for proving the resulting inequality. There exists applications for this method while researching whether the solution is stable or not ( pp. 7–9). This is often called "Differential inequality method" in literature and, for example, Grönwall's inequality can be proven using this technique.
Continuation of the solution towards positive infinity
Chaplygin's theorem answers the question about existence and uniqueness of the solution in and the constant from the Lipschitz condition is, generally speaking, dependent on : . If for both functions and retain their smoothness and for a set is bounded, the theorem holds for all .
References
Further reading
Theorems in analysis
Ordinary differential equations
Uniqueness theorems | Chaplygin's theorem | [
"Mathematics"
] | 459 | [
"Theorems in mathematical analysis",
"Mathematical analysis",
"Mathematical problems",
"Mathematical theorems",
"Uniqueness theorems"
] |
77,740,368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20Chmielewski | Jean Chmielewski is an American chemist who is the Alice Watson Kramer Distinguished Professor at Purdue University. Her research considers drug discovery, nanobiotechnology and the cellular delivery of therapeutic agents. She was awarded the 2025 American Chemical Society Francis P. Garvan–John M. Olin Medal.
Education
Chmielewski received her Bachelor of Science degree at Saint Joseph's University in 1983. Her undergraduate research developed prostaglandin oligomerization. She moved to Columbia University for her graduate studies, where she developed biomimetic chemistry with Ronald Breslow. She completed her National Institutes of Health (NIH) Postdoctoral Fellowship in 1990 at Rockefeller University and the University of California, Berkeley. At Rockefeller, Chmielewski was awarded an NIH postdoctoral fellowship, and worked with Emil T. Kaiser on peptide fragment coupling. At the University of California, Berkeley, Chmielewski developed covalent methods to stabilize peptide conformations.
Career
Chmielewski began her tenure as a professor at Purdue University. Her early work looked to transform enzyme inhibitors for HIV/AIDS. She looks to create antibiotics that target intracellular pathogenic bacteria and agents that modulate drug efflux transporters.
Achievements and awards
2001 Agnes Fay Morgan Research Award
2008 Elected Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
2011 Edward Leete Award in Organic Chemistry
2015 Vincent du Vigneaud Award
2017 Purdue University Herbert Newby McCoy Award
2017 Stanley C. Israel Regional Award for Advancing Diversity in the Chemical Sciences
2022 American Peptide Society Murray Goodman Award
2025 American Chemical Society Francis P. Garvan–John M. Olin Medal
References
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American biotechnologists
Women biotechnologists
American nanotechnologists
Women materials scientists and engineers
20th-century American chemists
Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Saint Joseph's University alumni
Columbia University alumni
Purdue University faculty | Jean Chmielewski | [
"Materials_science",
"Technology",
"Biology"
] | 392 | [
"Women materials scientists and engineers",
"Women biotechnologists",
"Materials scientists and engineers",
"Biotechnologists",
"Women in science and technology"
] |
77,740,832 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desglymidodrine | Desglymidodrine (developmental code name ST-1059) is the active metabolite of the prodrug antihypotensive agent midodrine. It acts as a selective α1-adrenergic receptor agonist. Desglymidodrine is formed from midodrine via deglycination.
Chemistry
Desglymidodrine, also known as 3,6-dimethoxy-β-hydroxy-2-phenylethylamine, is a substituted phenethylamine derivative.
Midodrine's experimental log P is -0.5 and its predicted log P ranges from -0.49 to -0.95. The predicted log P of desglymidodrine ranges from -0.01 to 0.15.
An analogue of desglymidodrine is dimetofrine (3,5-dimethoxy-4,β-dihydroxy-N-methylphenethylamine).
References
Alpha-1 adrenergic receptor agonists
Antihypotensive agents
Cardiac stimulants
Human drug metabolites
Methoxy compounds
Peripherally selective drugs
Phenol ethers
Phenylethanolamines
Sympathomimetics
Vasoconstrictors | Desglymidodrine | [
"Chemistry"
] | 271 | [
"Chemicals in medicine",
"Human drug metabolites"
] |
77,741,060 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Ramularia%20species | This is a list of species in the plant pathogen fungus genus Ramularia . Species Fungorum accepts nearly 900 species in the genus Ramularia.
A
Ramularia abscondita (Fautrey & Lambotte) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia absinthii Laubert (1920)
Ramularia acervulata Golovin (1950)
Ramularia achilleae-millefolii U. Braun & Rogerson (1993)
Ramularia achyrophori-uniflori Baudyš & Picb. (1926)
Ramularia aconiti (Petr.) Penz. (1927)
Ramularia acris Lindr. (1902)
Ramularia acroptili Bremer (1948)
Ramularia actaeae Ellis & Holw. (1885)
Ramularia actaeina U. Braun (1993)
Ramularia actinidiae Ablak. (1960)
Ramularia acutae P. Karst. (1884)
Ramularia acutata (Bonord.) Lind (1913)
Ramularia adenophorae Moesz (1938)
Ramularia adesmiae (Henn.) Wollenw. (1916)
Ramularia adoxae P. Karst. (1884)
Ramularia aegopodii Savinceva (1972)
Ramularia aequivoca (Ces.) Sacc. (1881)
Ramularia agastaches Sawada (1958)
Ramularia agerati Sawada (1959)
Ramularia agoseridis Ellis & Everh. (1900)
Ramularia agrestis Sacc. (1882)
Ramularia agrimoniae Sacc. (1896)
Ramularia agropyri Schulzer (1874)
Ramularia aguirrei Speg. (1882)
Ramularia ajugae (Niessl) Sacc. (1882)
Ramularia alangii Hasija (1962)
Ramularia alangiicola Videira, H.D. Shin & Crous (2016)
Ramularia alaterni Thüm. (1881)
Ramularia albomaculans Sawada (1958)
Ramularia albomaculata Peck (1880)
Ramularia alborosella (Desm.) Gjaerum (1968)
Ramularia albowiana Siemaszko (1919)
Ramularia alchemillae Voglino (1913)
Ramularia alismatis Fautrey (1890)
Ramularia alkannae Osipian (1975)
Ramularia allii Byzova (1964)
Ramularia alnicola Cooke (1885)
Ramularia alpina (C. Massal.) Nannf. (1950)
Ramularia alternantherae Z.Y. Zhang & Ying Xing Wang (2002)
Ramularia amorphae Ying X. Wang & Z.Y. Zhang (1996)
Ramularia anagallidis Lindr. (1902)
Ramularia anaphalidicola U. Braun & Rogerson (1994)
Ramularia anaphalidis (Golovin) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia anatolica Bremer & Petr. (1947)
Ramularia anchusae C. Massal. (1894)
Ramularia anchusae-officinalis A.G. Eliasson (1897)
Ramularia andromedae Ellis & G. Martin (1884)
Ramularia andropogonis Cooke ex Wollenw. (1916)
Ramularia angelicae Höhn. (1903)
Ramularia angustata Peck (1887)
Ramularia angustissima Sacc. (1882)
Ramularia anomala Peck (1913)
Ramularia anserina Allesch. (1896)
Ramularia antennariicola U. Braun (1994)
Ramularia anthemidis Hollós (1907)
Ramularia anthrisci Höhn. (1903)
Ramularia aplospora Speg. (1880)
Ramularia arabidicola Annal. (1981)
Ramularia arachidis Bond.-Mont. (1934)
Ramularia archangelicae Lindr. (1902)
Ramularia aremoniae Bubák (1915)
Ramularia arenariae A.L. Sm. & Ramsb. (1914)
Ramularia argentinensis Deighton (1972)
Ramularia ari Fautrey (1892)
Ramularia arisaematis Ellis & Dearn. (1897)
Ramularia aristolochiae U. Braun (1994)
Ramularia armoraciae Fuckel (1870)
Ramularia arnicalis Ellis & Everh. (1891)
Ramularia arnicalis-montanae U. Braun (1994)
Ramularia aromatica (Sacc.) Höhn. (1905)
Ramularia aronici (Sacc.) Arx (1950)
Ramularia artemisiae Davis (1926)
Ramularia arvensis Sacc. (1882)
Ramularia asparagi Z.Y. Zhang & W.Q. Chen (2003)
Ramularia asperifolii Sacc. (1876)
Ramularia asplenii Jaap (1915)
Ramularia astaci H. Mann & Pieplow (1938)
Ramularia astericola (Sacc.) Cif. (1962)
Ramularia asteris (W. Phillips & Plowr.) Bubák (1908)
Ramularia asteris-tripolii Jaap (1908)
Ramularia atraphaxis (Golovin) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia atropae Allesch. (1892)
Ramularia aucubae C. Massal. (1900)
Ramularia australis Sacc. (1911)
B
Ramularia babajaniae (Osipian) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia baccharidis (Ellis & Everh.) U. Braun (1990)
Ramularia baeumieriana Moesz (1926)
Ramularia baeumleriana Moesz (1926)
Ramularia balcanica Bubák & Ranoj. (1910)
Ramularia ballotae C. Massal. (1890)
Ramularia banksiana (Pass.) Sacc. (1886)
Ramularia barbareae Peck (1887)
Ramularia bartsiae Johanson (1884)
Ramularia basarabica Săvul. & Sandu (1933)
Ramularia batatas Racib. (1900)
Ramularia bataticola Khokhr. & Dyur. (1934)
Ramularia beccabungae Fautrey (1892)
Ramularia beckeropsidis (Hansf.) Deighton (1973)
Ramularia bellidis Sacc. (1882)
Ramularia bellunensis Speg. (1879)
Ramularia berberidis (Cooke) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia bergeniae Vasyag. (1973)
Ramularia betae Rostr. (1899)
Ramularia beticola Fautrey & Lambotte (1897)
Ramularia betonicae Khokhr. (1951)
Ramularia biflorae Magnus (1905)
Ramularia biscutellae Vanev & Negrean (1993)
Ramularia bistortae Fuckel (1870)
Ramularia bonaerensis Speg. (1882)
Ramularia borghettiana C. Massal. (1912)
Ramularia bornmuelleriana (Magnus) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia bosniaca Bubák (1903)
Ramularia botrychii Lindr. (1902)
Ramularia branchialis Sordi (1958)
Ramularia brassicae Vasyag. (1973)
Ramularia bresadolae U. Braun (1991)
Ramularia brevipes Ellis & Everh. (1900)
Ramularia brunnea Peck (1878)
Ramularia brunneopunctata U. Braun (1993)
Ramularia bryoniae Fautrey & Roum. (1891)
Ramularia bubakiana Picb. (1937)
Ramularia bulgarica Bubák & Picb. (1937)
Ramularia bullata (Ellis & Everh.) U. Braun (1992)
Ramularia buniadis Vestergr. (1897)
Ramularia buphthalmi Allesch. (1897)
Ramularia butomi Lind (1905)
Ramularia buxi Fuckel (1870)
C
Ramularia cacaliae Murashk. (1926)
Ramularia caduca (W. Voss) U. Braun (1992)
Ramularia calaminthae U. Braun, Chevassut & Pellic. (1998)
Ramularia calcea (Desm.) Ces. (1852)
Ramularia callistephi Vimba (1968)
Ramularia calthae Gonz. Frag. (1916)
Ramularia calthicola Gonz. Frag. (1927)
Ramularia camelinae Osipian (1975)
Ramularia campanulae-barbatae Jaap & Lindau (1907)
Ramularia campanulae-latifoliae Allesch. (1895)
Ramularia campanulae-persicifoliae A.G. Eliasson (1915)
Ramularia campanulae-rotundifoliae Lindr. (1904)
Ramularia campanulae-sarmaticae Lobik (1928)
Ramularia campanulae-trachelii Sacc. ex Mussat (1901)
Ramularia campanularum Karak. (1937)
Ramularia caprifoliacearum U. Braun (1993)
Ramularia cardamines Syd. & P. Syd. (1903)
Ramularia cardui P. Karst. ex Sacc. (1892)
Ramularia cardui-personatae Höhn. (1902)
Ramularia caricis U. Braun (1994)
Ramularia carletonii (Ellis & Kellerm.) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia carneola (Sacc.) Nannf. (1950)
Ramularia carniformis Ellis & Tracy ex Sherb. (1928)
Ramularia carthami Zaprom. (1926)
Ramularia carthamicola Darpoux (1946)
Ramularia caruaniana Sacc. (1913)
Ramularia cassiae T. Zhang & Z.Y. Zhang (2002)
Ramularia castaneae (Sawada) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia castillejae Ellis & Everh. (1894)
Ramularia catappae Racib. (1900)
Ramularia celastri Ellis & G. Martin (1882)
Ramularia centaureae Lindr. (1902)
Ramularia centaureae-atropurpureae Bubák (1907)
Ramularia centaureae-jaceae U. Braun (1993)
Ramularia centaureae-scabiosae U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia centranthi Brunaud (1887)
Ramularia cerasorum Marchal & É.J. Marchal (1921)
Ramularia cerastii I.E. Brezhnev (1939)
Ramularia cerastiicola (Crous) Videira & Crous (2016)
Ramularia ceratocarpi Golovin (1950)
Ramularia cercidis H. Zhang & Z.Y. Zhang (2003)
Ramularia cercosporelloides U. Braun & Crous (1998)
Ramularia cercosporoides Ellis & Everh. (1895)
Ramularia cerinthes Hollós (1909)
Ramularia cervina Speg. (1879)
Ramularia chaerophylli Ferraris (1902)
Ramularia chalcedonica Allesch. (1894)
Ramularia chamaedryos (Lindr.) Gunnerb. (1967)
Ramularia chamaepeucis Ranoj. (1914)
Ramularia chamerionis Rostr. (1885)
Ramularia chelidonii (Jacz.) Karak. (1937)
Ramularia chesneyae (W.P. Golovina) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia chimaphilae H.C. Greene (1949)
Ramularia chlorina Bres. (1900)
Ramularia chorisiae Viégas (1946)
Ramularia chorisporae Lobik (1928)
Ramularia chrysopsidis Dearn. (1929)
Ramularia cichorii Dearn. & House (1916)
Ramularia cicutae P. Karst. (1884)
Ramularia cilinodis Davis (1922)
Ramularia circumfusa Ellis & Everh. (1895)
Ramularia cirsii Allesch. (1892)
Ramularia cirsii-eriophori U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia cissampeloides N. Srivast. & Kamal (1995)
Ramularia citri Penz. (1882)
Ramularia citricola Crous & Guarnaccia (2016)
Ramularia claytoniae W.B. Cooke (1950)
Ramularia clematidis Dearn. & Barthol. (1917)
Ramularia clerodendri Sawada (1944)
Ramularia coccinea (Fuckel) Vestergr. (1900)
Ramularia cochleariae Cooke (1883)
Ramularia codonocephali Annal. (1978)
Ramularia codonopsidis (Golovin) U. Braun (1998)
Ramularia coicis S.K. Singh, P.N. Singh & Waing. (2005)
Ramularia coleosporii Sacc. (1880)
Ramularia coleosporium Sacc. (1886)
Ramularia collo-cygni B. Sutton & J.M. Waller (1988)
Ramularia compacta (Ellis & Everh.) U. Braun (1990)
Ramularia concomitans Ellis & Holw. (1888)
Ramularia conferta (Syd. & P. Syd.) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia conspicua Syd. & P. Syd. (1903)
Ramularia constricta (Penz.) Wollenw. (1935)
Ramularia contexta Ellis & Everh. (1894)
Ramularia convolvuli Zaprom. (1928)
Ramularia coprosmae U. Braun & C.F. Hill (2003)
Ramularia corcontica Bubák & Kabát (1903)
Ramularia coriandri Moesz & Smarods (1930)
Ramularia coronillae Bres. (1900)
Ramularia corthusae Săvul. & Sandu (1933)
Ramularia cortusae Petr. (1925)
Ramularia corydalina U. Braun, Chevassut & Pellic. (1998)
Ramularia corydalis Osipian (1975)
Ramularia coryli Chevassut (1998)
Ramularia cousiniae Vasyag. (1973)
Ramularia crambicola Annal. (1978)
Ramularia craspediicola U. Braun & Priest (2005)
Ramularia crassiuscula (Unger) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia crepidis Ellis & Everh. (1888)
Ramularia crupinae Dianese, Hasan & Sobhian (1996)
Ramularia crypta Cooke (1883)
Ramularia cryptostegiae Pim (1881)
Ramularia cucurbitae (Sacc.) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia cupulariae Pass. (1876)
Ramularia curvula Fautrey (1895)
Ramularia cyclaminicola Trel. (1916)
Ramularia cylindriopsis Peck (1898)
Ramularia cylindroides Sacc. (1882)
Ramularia cylindrosporoides J.A. Stev. (1918)
Ramularia cynarae Sacc. (1879)
Ramularia cynoglossi Lindr. (1902)
D
Ramularia dacica Săvul. & Hulea (1940)
Ramularia daniloi Bubák (1906)
Ramularia davisiana U. Braun (1994)
Ramularia decipiens Ellis & Everh. (1885)
Ramularia delphinii Jaap (1913)
Ramularia delphiniicola U. Braun (1991)
Ramularia dentariae Poetsch & Schied. (1894)
Ramularia desmodii Cooke (1878)
Ramularia despermae Arch. Singh, Sh. Kumar, Raghv. Singh & D.K. Agarwal (2008)
Ramularia destruens Peck (1891)
Ramularia deusta (Fuckel) Karak. (1937)
Ramularia dianthi Lindau (1906)
Ramularia dichosciadii Petr. (1955)
Ramularia didyma Unger (1832)
Ramularia didymarioides Briard & Har. (1891)
Ramularia diervillae Peck (1885)
Ramularia digitalis (Fuckel) U. Braun (2020)
Ramularia digitalis-ambiguae Arx (1949)
Ramularia dioscoreae Ellis & Everh. (1891)
Ramularia dipsaci Allesch. (1887)
Ramularia dispar Davis (1919)
Ramularia dispersa Davis (1929)
Ramularia doliariae Viégas (1946)
Ramularia dolomitica Kabát & Bubák (1904)
Ramularia doronicella Ferraris (1910)
Ramularia doronici Pass. & Thüm. (1881)
Ramularia dracocephali Vasyag. (1973)
Ramularia dryopteridacearum U. Braun (1998)
E
Ramularia eamesii Dearn. & House (1921)
Ramularia echii Bondartsev (1921)
Ramularia effusa Peck (1880)
Ramularia enecans Magnus (1895)
Ramularia epilobiana (Sacc. & Fautrey) B. Sutton & Piroz. (1963)
Ramularia epilobii (Schnabl) W.G. Schneid. ex Trail (1889)
Ramularia epilobii-palustris Allesch. (1893)
Ramularia epilobii-parviflori Lindr. (1902)
Ramularia epilobii-rosei Lindau (1906)
Ramularia epipactidis U. Braun & Rogerson (1993)
Ramularia episphaeria (Desm.) Gunnerb. (1967)
Ramularia epistroma Moesz & Smarods (1938)
Ramularia equinosa Unger (1832)
Ramularia eremostachydis Zaprom. (1928)
Ramularia erigerontis Gonz. Frag. (1917)
Ramularia erigerontis-annui Sawada (1958)
Ramularia eriodendri Racib. (1900)
Ramularia eriogoni U. Braun (1994)
Ramularia eriophylli U. Braun (1994)
Ramularia erodii Bres. (1897)
Ramularia eryngii Jacz. (1917)
Ramularia eucalypti Crous (2007)
Ramularia eudidyma Wollenw. (1913)
Ramularia euonymi Ellis & Kellerm. (1885)
Ramularia euonymicola Videira, H.D. Shin, U. Braun & Crous (2016)
Ramularia euphorbiacearum Arch. Singh, Sh. Kumar, Raghv. Singh & D.K. Agarwal (2008)
Ramularia eurotiae Kalymb. (1962)
Ramularia evanida (J.G. Kühn) Sacc. (1886)
Ramularia exilis Syd. & P. Syd. (1905)
Ramularia eximia Bubák (1903)
F
Ramularia fagarae Sawada (1944)
Ramularia fagopyri Abramov ex U. Braun (1991)
Ramularia falcariae Savinceva (1972)
Ramularia farinosa (Bonord.) Sacc. (1886)
Ramularia filaris Fresen. (1863)
Ramularia filarszkyana Moesz (1924)
Ramularia flammulae Roiv. (1953)
Ramularia foeniculi Sibilia (1932)
Ramularia formosana Sawada (1943)
Ramularia fragariae Peck (1880)
Ramularia fraxinea Davis (1915)
Ramularia frutescens Kabát & Bubák (1905)
Ramularia fumariae Speg. (1910)
Ramularia fuscosora Muhr & Tønsberg (1989)
G
Ramularia galegae Sacc. (1882)
Ramularia galeopsidis Bubák (1913)
Ramularia galii Chevassut (1992)
Ramularia gardeniae C. Massal. (1909)
Ramularia gaultheriae Videira & Crous (2016)
Ramularia gei (Fuckel) Lindau (1910)
Ramularia gei-aleppici Săvul. & Sandu (1933)
Ramularia geranii Fuckel (1870)
Ramularia geraniicola Videira & Crous (2016)
Ramularia geranii-sanguinei C. Massal. (1900)
Ramularia geranii-silvatici Vestergr. (1900)
Ramularia giliae R. Sprague (1937)
Ramularia glauca Ellis & Everh. (1903)
Ramularia glechomatis U. Braun (1993)
Ramularia glehniae Savile (1965)
Ramularia glennii Videira & Crous (2014)
Ramularia glycinicola U. Braun & Bagyan. (1998)
Ramularia glycyrrhizae Vasyag. (1957)
Ramularia gnaphalii (P. Syd.) Karak. (1937)
Ramularia golovinii U. Braun (1998)
Ramularia gossypii (Speg.) Cif. (1962)
Ramularia gracilipes Davis (1926)
Ramularia gracilispora U. Braun (1993)
Ramularia grantii Dearn. (1929)
Ramularia gratiolae U. Braun & Scheuer (2008)
Ramularia grevilleana (Tul. & C. Tul. ex Oudem.) Jørst. (1945)
Ramularia grewiae Lacy & Thirum. (1951)
Ramularia grewiae-occidentalis Crous & U. Braun (1995)
Ramularia grindeliae Ellis & Kellerm. (1884)
Ramularia gunnerae (Speg.) U. Braun (1994)
Ramularia gymnematis T.S. Ramakr. & Sundaram (1954)
H
Ramularia hamamelidis Peck (1884)
Ramularia hamburgensis Lindau (1906)
Ramularia harae Henn. (1905)
Ramularia haroldporteri Videira & Crous (2014)
Ramularia hayachinensis (Togashi & Onuma) U. Braun (1998)
Ramularia heimerliana Magnus (1909)
Ramularia helianthi Ellis & Everh. (1897)
Ramularia hellebori Fuckel (1870)
Ramularia helminthiae Bremer & Petr. (1947)
Ramularia helvetica Jaap & Lindau (1907)
Ramularia heraclei (Oudem.) Sacc. (1886)
Ramularia hesperidis Săvul. & Sandu (1940)
Ramularia heteropappi Annal. (1981)
Ramularia heucherae (Dearn.) U. Braun (1993)
Ramularia hieracii Ranoj. (1918)
Ramularia hieracii-umbellati A.G. Eliasson (1915)
Ramularia holci-lanati (Cavara) Deighton (1972)
Ramularia hornemannii Lindr. (1902)
Ramularia hughesiana (Sacc.) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia hydrangeae Y.L. Guo & U. Braun (1998)
Ramularia hydrangeae-macrophyllae U. Braun & C.F. Hill (2008)
Ramularia hydrangeicola J.H. Park & H.D. Shin (2016)
Ramularia hylomeconis Naumov (1914)
Ramularia hyperici U. Braun & Scheuer (1995)
Ramularia hypericicola U. Braun (1998)
Ramularia hypochaeridis Magnus (1896)
I
Ramularia impatientis Peck (1883)
Ramularia imperatoriae Lindau (1907)
Ramularia inae Vanev & Negrean (1992)
Ramularia inaequalis (Preuss) U. Braun (1998)
Ramularia incarvilleae Golovin (1950)
Ramularia indica K.L. Kothari, M.K. Bhatn. & N.S. Bhatt (1967)
Ramularia interstitialis (Berk. & Broome) Gunnerb. & Constant. (1991)
Ramularia inulae (Sacc.) Höhn. (1906)
Ramularia ionophila Davis (1915)
Ramularia ipomoeae F. Stevens (1925)
Ramularia iranica Petr. (1949)
Ramularia iridis (Ellis & Halst.) U. Braun (1994)
Ramularia isarioides (Sacc.) Ellis & Everh. (1885)
Ramularia islandica Jørst. (1963)
Ramularia ivae Dearn. (1929)
Ramularia iwateyamensis Togashi (1936)
J
Ramularia jaapii Trotter (1931)
Ramularia jacobeae Ranoj. (1918)
Ramularia jaczevskii (Negru & Vlad) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia jordanovii Vanev & Bakalova (1983)
Ramularia jubatskana (Sacc.) U. Braun (1993)
Ramularia jurineae Hollós (1907)
K
Ramularia kabatiana Bubák (1902)
Ramularia karakulinii N.P. Golovina (1964)
Ramularia karelii (Petr.) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia karstenii Sacc. (1895)
Ramularia keithii Massee (1893)
Ramularia khandalensis Patw. & A.K. Pande (1970)
Ramularia kiggelariae Sacc. (1881)
L
Ramularia lactea (Desm.) Sacc. (1882)
Ramularia lactucae Jaap (1905)
Ramularia lactucosa Lambotte & Fautrey (1898)
Ramularia lamii Fuckel (1870)
Ramularia lamiicola C. Massal. (1890)
Ramularia lamiigena M. Bakhshi, Zare & Jafary (2021)
Ramularia lanceolata Dearn. & House (1918)
Ramularia lanosa (Jacz.) U. Braun (1998)
Ramularia lapponica Lindr. (1902)
Ramularia lappulae (Davis) Davis (1926)
Ramularia lapsanae (Desm.) Sacc. (1881)
Ramularia lata Sacc. (1879)
Ramularia lathyri W.B. Cooke & C.G. Shaw (1952)
Ramularia leeae S.K. Singh, P.N. Singh & Waing. (2005)
Ramularia leontodontis Moesz (1926)
Ramularia leonuri Sorokīn (1872)
Ramularia leptospora Speg. (1910)
Ramularia lethalis Ellis & Everh. (1891)
Ramularia levistici Oudem. (1886)
Ramularia libanotidis Bubák (1907)
Ramularia ligusticicola U. Braun (1994)
Ramularia ligustrina Maubl. (1906)
Ramularia liliicola Alé-Agha, U. Braun & Feige (2005)
Ramularia linariae Baudyš & Picb. (1924)
Ramularia lineola Peck (1880)
Ramularia lini Lebedeva (1921)
Ramularia liriodendri Ellis & Everh. (1888)
Ramularia lithospermi Lebedeva (1921)
Ramularia lobeliae Sawada ex X.X. Zeng & Z.Y. Zhang (2006)
Ramularia lolii (Volkart) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia lomatiicola U. Braun (1994)
Ramularia lonicerae Voglino (1904)
Ramularia lophanthi Ellis & Everh. (1897)
Ramularia loticola C. Massal. (1906)
Ramularia ludoviciana Minter, B.L. Brady & R.A. Hall (1983)
Ramularia lupinicola (Pollack) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia lychnidicola Cooke (1885)
Ramularia lycopodis Hollós (1907)
Ramularia lysimachiae Thüm. (1874)
Ramularia lysimachiarum Lindr. (1902)
M
Ramularia maclurae (Ellis & Langl.) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia macrospora Fresen. (1863)
Ramularia macularis (J. Schröt.) Sacc. & P. Syd. (1899)
Ramularia maculicola U. Braun & Rogerson (1993)
Ramularia maculiformis Unger (1832)
Ramularia magnusiana (Sacc.) Lindau (1906)
Ramularia major (Unger) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia malachii Ying X. Wang & Xue Y. Wang (1997)
Ramularia mali Videira & Crous (2014)
Ramularia malicola Videira & Crous (2016)
Ramularia malvae Fuckel (1870)
Ramularia marrubii C. Massal.( 1889)
Ramularia martianoffiana Thüm. (1878)
Ramularia matricariae Antok. ex Vassiljevsky & Karak. (1937)
Ramularia matronalis Sacc. (1880)
Ramularia medicaginis Bondartsev & Lebedeva (1914)
Ramularia melampyri Ellis & Dearn. (1893)
Ramularia melampyrina C. Massal. (1900)
Ramularia meliloti Ellis & Everh. (1894)
Ramularia melittis (Unamuno) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia menthae Thüm. (1880)
Ramularia menthicola Sacc. (1886)
Ramularia menyanthis Magnus ex Sacc. (1913)
Ramularia mercurialis-perennis Roum. (1891)
Ramularia miae Crous (2006)
Ramularia michauxioidis Magnus (1903)
Ramularia microlepiae F. Stevens (1925)
Ramularia microlepis F. Stevens (1925)
Ramularia micromeriae Gonz. Frag. (1927)
Ramularia microspora Thüm. (1877)
Ramularia millettiae Z.Y. Zhang & Yong H. He (2003)
Ramularia mimuli Ellis & Kellerm. (1883)
Ramularia minax Davis (1922)
Ramularia minutissima (P. Syd.) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia mirim Viégas (1946)
Ramularia modesta Sacc. (1882)
Ramularia moehringiae Lindr. (1902)
Ramularia momordicae Heald & F.A. Wolf (1911)
Ramularia monachorum Bubák (1915)
Ramularia monilioides (Ellis & G. Martin) Ellis & Everh. (1885)
Ramularia montenegrina Bubák (1906)
Ramularia monticola Speg. (1881)
Ramularia muehlenbeckiae U. Braun & Priest (2005)
Ramularia mulgedii (Bubák) Bubák (1916)
Ramularia multiplex Peck (1885)
Ramularia myosotidis Vassiljevsky (1937)
Ramularia myxophaga Javoron. (1914)
N
Ramularia nagornyi Karak. (1937)
Ramularia nambuana Henn. (1904)
Ramularia narcissi Chittend. (1906)
Ramularia narkandensis Deighton (1973)
Ramularia nasturtii (Pospelov) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia necator Massee (1907)
Ramularia nemopanthi Clinton & Peck (1878)
Ramularia neodeusta Videira & Crous (2016)
Ramularia nephrolepidis F. Stevens (1925)
Ramularia nerii-indici T. Zhang & Gui (2003)
Ramularia nevodovskii Vasyag. (1973)
Ramularia nicolai Bubák (1903)
Ramularia nigricans (C. Massal.) Ferraris (1921)
Ramularia nigromaculans Shear (1931)
Ramularia nikitinii Annal. (1981))
Ramularia nivea Kabát & Bubák (1904)
Ramularia nivosa (Ellis & Everh.) W.B. Cooke & C.G. Shaw (1952)
Ramularia nodosa Tho (1972)
Ramularia noneae Lobik (1928)
Ramularia norvegicae Peck (1880)
Ramularia nymphaeae Bres. (1894)
Ramularia nymphaearum (Allesch.) Ramsb. (1931)
Ramularia nyssicola (Cooke) Videira & Crous (2014)
O
Ramularia obducens Thüm. (1881)
Ramularia obliqua (Cooke) Oudem. (1873)
Ramularia oblongispora Casp. (1907)
Ramularia occidentalis Ellis & Kellerm. (1887)
Ramularia occulta (Sacc.) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia ochracea (Fuckel) U. Braun (1991)
Ramularia onobrychidis Allesch. (1892)
Ramularia onopordi C. Massal. (1899)
Ramularia onosmatis Byzova (1973)
Ramularia ontariensis Sacc. (1914)
Ramularia oplopanacis U. Braun & Crous (2003)
Ramularia oreophila Sacc. (1881)
Ramularia organi N.P. Golovina (1960)
Ramularia origani N.P. Golovina (1960)
Ramularia origanicola Chevassut (1992)
Ramularia orontii Ellis & G. Martin (1884)
Ramularia osmorhizae U. Braun (1994)
Ramularia osterici Videira, H.D. Shin & Crous (2016)
Ramularia ovata Fuckel (1870)
Ramularia ovularioides H.C. Greene (1947)
Ramularia oxalidis Farl. (1884)
Ramularia oxyriae-digynae Gjaerum (1971)
P
Ramularia pachysandrae U. Braun (1993)
Ramularia paeoniae Voglino (1905)
Ramularia pakistanica S.A. Khan & M. Kamal (1969)
Ramularia paludosa Fr. (1849)
Ramularia panacicola Zinssm. (1918)
Ramularia pararhabdospora Crous (2021)
Ramularia parietariae Pass. (1876)
Ramularia paspali (Deighton) U. Braun (1990)
Ramularia pastinacae-sativae U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia paulula Davis (1909)
Ramularia peckii Sacc. & P. Syd. (1899)
Ramularia penstemonis W.B. Cooke & C.G. Shaw (1950)
Ramularia periplocae Vanev (1992)
Ramularia persicariicola U. Braun & C.F. Hill (2004)
Ramularia petasitis (Bäumler) Jaap (1916)
Ramularia petasitis-tomentosae Săvul. & Sandu (1933)
Ramularia petrakiana Moesz (1926)
Ramularia petuniae Cooke (1891)
Ramularia peucedani Hollós (1909)
Ramularia phacae-frigidae (E. Müll. & Wehm.) Videira & Crous (2016)
Ramularia phaceliae Bonar (1946)
Ramularia phaseoli Klotzsch (1882)
Ramularia phaseolina Petr. (1950)
Ramularia phellodendri Y.X. Wang (1996)
Ramularia philadelphi Sacc. (1877)
Ramularia phlogis U. Braun (1994)
Ramularia phlomidicola Lobik (1928)
Ramularia phlomidis Bondartsev & Lebedeva (1914)
Ramularia phormii Cockayne (1921)
Ramularia phyllostictae-michauxoidis Magnus (1903)
Ramularia phyteumatis Sacc. & G. Winter (1882)
Ramularia picridicola Lindr. (1902)
Ramularia picridis Fautrey & Roum. (1892)
Ramularia pimpinellae Jaap (1908)
Ramularia pistaciae Crous (2019)
Ramularia pistiae R.C. Fern. & R.W. Barreto (2005)
Ramularia pivensis Bubák (1915)
Ramularia pleuropteri U. Braun (1991)
Ramularia plurivora Videira & Crous (2014)
Ramularia poagena U. Braun (1994)
Ramularia polemonii W.B. Cooke & C.G. Shaw (1952)
Ramularia polygalae (J. Schröt.) Sacc. & P. Syd. (1899)
Ramularia polygoni Pandotra & Ganguly (1964)
Ramularia pratensis Sacc. (1882)
Ramularia prenanthis Jaap (1906)
Ramularia primulae Thüm. (1878)
Ramularia primulana (P. Karst.) P. Karst. (1884)
Ramularia prini Peck (1885)
Ramularia prismatocarpi Oudem. (1877)
Ramularia proteae Crous & Summerell (2000)
Ramularia pruinosa Speg. (1879)
Ramularia prunellae Ellis & Everh. (1889)
Ramularia pseudococcinea Lindr. (1902)
Ramularia pseudodecipiens U. Braun (1992)
Ramularia pseudogeranii U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia pseudoglobosa U. Braun (1990)
Ramularia pseudolotophaga U. Braun (1990)
Ramularia pseudomaculiformis (Desm.) Rossman & W.C. Allen (2016)
Ramularia pseudorubella U. Braun (1994)
Ramularia psoraleae Ellis & Everh. (1894)
Ramularia pteridicola Petr. (1927)
Ramularia puccinioides Sorokīn (1871)
Ramularia puerariae Sawada (1943)
Ramularia pulchella Ces. (1853)
Ramularia punctiformis Sacc. (1904)
Ramularia purpurascens G. Winter (1884)
Ramularia pusilla Unger (1832)
R
Ramularia rabdosiae Z.Y. Zhang & W.Q. Chen (2003)
Ramularia ramosa Golovin (1952)
Ramularia ranoievichii Karak. (1937)
Ramularia ranunculi-carpa Săvul. & Sandu (1931)
Ramularia ranunculi-carpatici Săvul. & Sandu (1931)
Ramularia ranunculicola Pirnia & U. Braun (2018)
Ramularia ranunculi-lyallii Dearn. & Barthol. (1917)
Ramularia ranunculi-montani (C. Massal.) U. Braun (1993)
Ramularia ranunculi-muricati Jørst. (1962)
Ramularia ranunculi-oxyspermi Lobik (1928)
Ramularia rapunculoides Nannf. (1950)
Ramularia recognita C. Massal. (1894)
Ramularia repens Ellis & Everh. (1891)
Ramularia repentis Oudem. (1902)
Ramularia reticulata Ellis & Everh. (1894)
Ramularia rhabdospora (Berk. & Broome) Nannf. (1950)
Ramularia rhaetica (Sacc. & G. Winter) Jaap (1917)
Ramularia rhamnigena (Ellis & Everh.) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia rhei Allesch. (1896)
Ramularia rhombica Matsush. (1975)
Ramularia rhopalostylidis U. Braun (2013)
Ramularia richardiae Kalchbr. & Cooke (1880)
Ramularia rigidula (Delacr.) Nannf. (1950)
Ramularia robiciana (W. Voss) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia rollandii Fautrey (1897)
Ramularia rosea Sacc. (1882)
Ramularia rubella (Bonord.) Nannf. (1950)
Ramularia rubicola Ershad (2000)
Ramularia rubicunda Bres. (1896)
Ramularia rudbeckiae Peck (1883)
Ramularia rufibasis (Berk. & Broome) Gunnerb. & Constant. (1991)
Ramularia rufomaculans Peck (1883)
Ramularia rumicicola Videira, H.D. Shin & Crous (2016)
Ramularia rumicis Kalchbr. & Cooke (1880)
Ramularia rumicis-crispi Sawada (1943)
Ramularia rumicis-scutati Allesch. (1900)
Ramularia rutae-murariae Trotter (1931)
S
Ramularia sabaudica F. Mangenot (1958)
Ramularia salviae Bondartsev (1921)
Ramularia salviae-pratensis Pellic. & U. Braun (1998)
Ramularia salviicola Tharp (1917)
Ramularia sambucina Sacc. (1882)
Ramularia sanguisorbicola U. Braun (1994)
Ramularia saniculae Linh. (1883)
Ramularia saprophytica Bubák (1906)
Ramularia saxifragae (J. Schröt.) Sacc. & P. Syd. (1899)
Ramularia saximontanensis Solheim (1943)
Ramularia scabiosae Lind (1913)
Ramularia scelerata Cooke (1885)
Ramularia schisandrae Ablak. & Koval (1961)
Ramularia schroeteri J.G. Kühn (1881)
Ramularia schulzeri Bäumler (1888)
Ramularia schwarziana (Magnus) Gunnerb. (1967)
Ramularia scirpi Deeva (1973)
Ramularia scolopendrii Fautrey (1892)
Ramularia scopoliae W. Voss (1883)
Ramularia scorzonerae Jaap (1908)
Ramularia scrophulariae Fautrey & Roum. (1891)
Ramularia scutellariae Woron. (1927)
Ramularia senecionis (Berk. & Broome) Sacc. (1886)
Ramularia senecionis-platyphylli Siemaszko (1919)
Ramularia sennenii Gonz. Frag. (1916)
Ramularia sepium Dearn. & Bisby (1929)
Ramularia septata (Bonord.) Bubák (1916)
Ramularia serbica Ranoj. (1910)
Ramularia serotina Ellis & Everh. (1889)
Ramularia serratulae (Sacc.) Maia (1960)
Ramularia serratulina Chevassut (1992)
Ramularia sheldonii Trotter (1931)
Ramularia sidalceae Ellis & Everh. (1888)
Ramularia sideritidis Hollós (1907)
Ramularia silenes P. Karst. (1891)
Ramularia silenes-procumbentis Karak. (1915)
Ramularia silenicola C. Massal. (1889)
Ramularia simplex Pass. (1882)
Ramularia smilacinae Davis (1907)
Ramularia smyrnii-olusatri Unamuno (1942)
Ramularia solani Sherb. (1915)
Ramularia solenanthi N.P. Golovina (1960)
Ramularia solheimii U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia sonchi Dominik (1936)
Ramularia sorbi Karak. (1937)
Ramularia sorokinii Sacc. & P. Syd. (1899)
Ramularia sparganii Rostr. (1883)
Ramularia spegazzinii Sacc. (1886)
Ramularia sphaeroidea Sacc. (1878)
Ramularia spinaciae Nypels (1898)
Ramularia spiraeae Peck (1883)
Ramularia spiraeae-arunci Sacc. (1892)
Ramularia stachydis (Pass.) C. Massal. (1889)
Ramularia stachydis-alpinae Allesch. (1892)
Ramularia stachydis-germanicae Moesz (1940)
Ramularia stachydis-palustris Pospelov (1964)
Ramularia stachyopsidis Vasyag. (1973)
Ramularia statices Rostr. (1904)
Ramularia statices-latifoliae Săvul. & Sandu (1933)
Ramularia stellariae Rabenh. (1871)
Ramularia stellariicola (M.J. Park, J.H. Park & H.D. Shin) Videira, H.D. Shin & Crous (2016)
Ramularia stellenboschensis Crous (2011)
Ramularia stolonifer Ellis & Everh. (1891)
Ramularia stroganoviae Annal. (1972)
Ramularia subalpina Bubák (1903)
Ramularia submodesta Höhn. (1902)
Ramularia subtilis U. Braun & C.F. Hill (2006)
Ramularia succisae Sacc. (1882)
Ramularia sycina Sacc. & D. Sacc. (1902)
Ramularia sylvestris Sacc. (1880)
Ramularia symphoricarpi (Ellis & Everh.) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia symphyti-tuberosi (Allesch.) Jaap (1916)
Ramularia synthyridis W.B. Cooke & C.G. Shaw (1952)
Ramularia syringae H. Zhang & Z.Y. Zhang (2003)
T
Ramularia taleshina Bakhshi & Arzanlou (2017)
Ramularia tanaceti Lind (1905)
Ramularia taraxaci P. Karst. (1884)
Ramularia tecta U. Braun, Chevassut & Pellic. (1994)
Ramularia telekiae Bubák & Wróbl. (1916)
Ramularia tenella U. Braun & C.F. Hill (2006)
Ramularia tenuior Fautrey & Brunaud (1894)
Ramularia tenuis Davis (1924)
Ramularia tenuissima Fr. (1849)
Ramularia terrae-novae Savile (1965)
Ramularia terskei Domashova (1960)
Ramularia thalictri Hollós (1926)
Ramularia theicola Curzi (1926)
Ramularia thelypodii Clem. & E.S. Clem. (1908)
Ramularia thesii (J. Schröt.) P. Syd. ex Sacc. (1899)
Ramularia thrinciae Sacc. & Berl. (1885)
Ramularia tiliae Lobik (1928)
Ramularia tirolensis Maire (1910)
Ramularia torrendii (Bres.) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia torvi Ellis & Everh. (1898)
Ramularia tovarae Sawada ex U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia trachystemonis Siemaszko (1915)
Ramularia trautvetteriae C.G. Shaw & R. Sprague (1954)
Ramularia triboutiana (Sacc. & Letendre) Nannf. (1950)
Ramularia tricherae Lindr. (1902)
Ramularia trifolii Jaap (1910)
Ramularia trifoliicola U. Braun (1993)
Ramularia trigonotidis Videira, H.D. Shin & Crous (2016)
Ramularia triumfettae N. Srivast. & Kamal (1995)
Ramularia trollii Iwanoff (1900)
Ramularia trotteriana Sacc. (1902)
Ramularia tuberculiniformis (Höhn.) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia tumescens (Fuckel) Sacc. (1886)
U
Ramularia ucrainica Petr. (1921)
Ramularia ufensis Karak. (1915)
Ramularia ulmariae Cooke (1876)
Ramularia umbrina Davis (1919)
Ramularia umbrosa A.L. Sm. & Ramsb. (1918)
Ramularia undulata C. Bernard (1907)
Ramularia uniseptata (Höhn.) Wollenw. (1924)
Ramularia unterseheri Videira & Crous (2015)
Ramularia uredinearum Hulea (1939)
Ramularia uredinicola Khodap. & U. Braun (2005)
Ramularia uredinis (W. Voss) Sacc. (1886)
Ramularia urticae Ces. (1863)
Ramularia ussuriensis Koval (1963)
V
Ramularia vaccarii Ferraris (1902)
Ramularia vaccinii Peck (1884)
Ramularia vacciniicola Crous & Thangavel (2017)
Ramularia vagnerae Barthol. (1909)
Ramularia valerianae (Speg.) Sacc. (1882)
Ramularia vallisumbrosae Cavara (1899)
Ramularia vancouveriae (Ellis & Everh.) R. Sprague (1937)
Ramularia variabilis Fuckel (1870)
Ramularia variata Davis (1919)
Ramularia variegata Ellis & Holw. (1886)
Ramularia variispora Golovin & Gapon. (1971)
Ramularia verbasci Fuckel (1874)
Ramularia veronicae Fuckel (1870)
Ramularia veronicae-cymbalariae Kill. (1928)
Ramularia veronicae-peduncularis Lobik (1928)
Ramularia veronicicola Videira & Crous (2016)
Ramularia vestergreniana Allesch. (1902)
Ramularia viciae A.B. Frank (1881)
Ramularia vincae Sacc. (1882)
Ramularia vincetoxici Bres. (1920)
Ramularia violae Fuckel (1870)
Ramularia violae-brevistipulatae Togashi (1936)
Ramularia violae-tricoloris Thüm. (1874)
Ramularia viridis (Golovin) Pellic. & Guy García (2001)
Ramularia viscariae Kabát & Bubák (1910)
Ramularia vitis (Richon) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia vizellae Crous (2011)
Ramularia vogeliana (Sacc., Syd. & P. Syd.) U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia vossiana Thüm. (1879)
W-Z
Ramularia waldsteiniae Ellis & Davis (1903)
Ramularia weberiana Videira & Crous (2016)
Ramularia winteri Thüm. (1881)
Ramularia wisconsina H.C. Greene (1951)
Ramularia woronichinii G. Arnaud (1954)
Ramularia xanthii Lobik (1928)
Ramularia zeretelliana U. Braun (1988)
Ramularia zinniae Crous & U. Braun (1995)
Ramularia ziziphorae Panf. & Gapon. (1963)
References
Ramularia | List of Ramularia species | [
"Biology"
] | 11,827 | [
"Fungi",
"Lists of fungi"
] |
77,741,822 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C13H16N2O4 | {{DISPLAYTITLE:C13H16N2O4}}
The molecular formula C13H16N2O4 may refer to:
N1-Acetyl-N2-formyl-5-methoxykynuramine
Phenylacetylglutamine | C13H16N2O4 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 64 | [
"Isomerism",
"Set index articles on molecular formulas"
] |
77,743,223 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AniWave | AniWave (also Aniwave, formerly, 9anime) was an anime-focused file streaming website that hosted links and embedded videos, allowing users to stream or download movies and TV shows illegally for free.
The website was related to a chain of similar websites known as FMovies and had connections to individuals or operations in Vietnam.
History
The website was initially known as 9anime. It was founded in 2016 and in 2023 rebranded itself to AniWave. (Some fake clones using the same name have been reported to appear in the aftermath of this). It had several domains, most recently it used a .to domain associated with the Kingdom of Tonga.
The site has been targeted by copyright enforcement organizations such as Alliance for Creativity and Entertainment several times, including in 2022 and in 2023.
On the 27th of August 2024, the service was shut down, together with several related websites. Most of the sites features, such as searching, streaming, and downloading were unavailable, but users were still able to export bookmarks for a brief period of time, before the site fully went offline. The website, along with many related television/movie piracy websites related to it, shortly had a goodbye message displayed, with the music video of Wiz Khalifa and Charlie Puth's "See You Again" located at the bottom of it. It reflected on the history of the website, and encouraged users to switch to legal services to support creators. On 29 August 2024, Alliance for Creativity and Entertainment confirmed that they had assisted the Vietnamese police in shutting down the site and many other connected sites including FMovies.
Significance
The website was widely popular. In October 2020 TorrentFreak called it "a major player in anime piracy" with over 39 million visits per month. In May 2023 TorrentFreak described it as a "piracy behemoth" with 214 million visits a month and "huge, successful, and a prime target" for copyright enforcement. In August that year it described the website as "one of the world's largest piracy sites" and "one of... anime piracy juggernauts" although quoting a smaller number of monthly visits (110 million). In 2023 its .to domain was ranked #164 globally, with over 30% of that traffic coming from the United States. A year later, it reported that "it serviced a mind-blowing 170 million visits a month".
The Tech Report referred to the site as "one of the world's most visited movie streaming websites" and praised the website for being free (including ad-free), its width of coverage, as well as various useful features (such as a list of favorites and watchlists), noting that it however lacks options to download content and a dedicated mobile app. Dataconomy called it "a significant player in the anime streaming space". The Escapist noted that it was "important to the anime community", particularly as legal services are not available to everyone. Distractify noted that the site's closure "has left [anime] fans reeling", as legal services suffer from "increasing prices and somewhat limited range of [content]".
See also
References
Anime and manga websites
Defunct websites
File sharing communities
Internet properties established in 2016
Internet properties disestablished in 2024
Internet services shut down by a legal challenge
Vietnamese websites | AniWave | [
"Technology"
] | 684 | [
"File sharing communities",
"Computing websites"
] |
77,743,774 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean%20radius%20%28astronomy%29 | The mean radius in astronomy is a measure for the size of planets and small Solar System bodies. Alternatively, the closely related mean diameter (), which is twice the mean radius, is also used. For a non-spherical object, the mean radius (denoted or ) is defined as the radius of the sphere that would enclose the same volume as the object. In the case of a sphere, the mean radius is equal to the radius.
For any irregularly shaped rigid body, there is a unique ellipsoid with the same volume and moments of inertia. In astronomy, the dimensions of an object are defined as the principal axes of that special ellipsoid.
Calculation
The dimensions of a minor planet can be uni-, bi- or tri-axial, depending on what kind of ellipsoid is used to model it. Given the dimensions of an irregularly shaped object, one can calculate its mean radius:
An oblate spheroid, bi-axial, or rotational ellipsoid with axes and has a mean radius of .
A tri-axial ellipsoid with axes , and has mean radius . The formula for a rotational ellipsoid is the special case where .
For a sphere, which is uni-axial (), this simplifies to .
Planets and dwarf planets are nearly spherical if they are not rotating. A rotating object that is massive enough to be in hydrostatic equilibrium will be close in shape to an ellipsoid, with the details depending on the rate of the rotation. At moderate rates, it will assume the form of either a bi-axial (Maclaurin) or tri-axial (Jacobi) ellipsoid. At faster rotations, non-ellipsoidal shapes can be expected, but these are not stable.
Examples
For planet Earth, which can be approximated as an oblate spheroid with radii and , the mean radius is . The equatorial and polar radii of a planet are often denoted and , respectively.
The asteroid 511 Davida, which is close in shape to a tri-axial ellipsoid with dimensions , has a mean diameter of .
Assuming it is in hydrostatic equilibrium, the dwarf planet Haumea has dimensions 2,100 × 1,680 × 1,074 km, resulting in a mean diameter of . The rotational physics of deformable bodies predicts that over as little as a hundred days, a body rotating as rapidly as Haumea will have been distorted into the equilibrium form of a tri-axial ellipsoid.
See also
Earth ellipsoid
Geoid
Geometric mean
Planetary radius
References
Radii
Units of measurement in astronomy | Mean radius (astronomy) | [
"Astronomy",
"Mathematics"
] | 553 | [
"Quantity",
"Units of measurement in astronomy",
"Units of measurement"
] |
77,743,891 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SolaX%20Power | SolaX Power (), also known as SolaX Power Network Technology, whose full name is SolaX Power Network Technology (Zhejiang) Co., Ltd., often referred to simply as SolaX, is a Chinese solar inverter maker founded in 2012. The company went public on the Shanghai Stock Exchange on January 3, 2024. It supplies solar storage batteries to Project Solar. It also purchases batteries manufactured by LG, as well as Rept Battero.
SolaX mainly produces PV energy storage inverters, and energy storage batteries. Headquartered in Hangzhou, the company also established operations in overseas markets, such as Australia, and the US. It participated in the development of virtual power plants in Australia. In 2022, its revenues in Europe amounted to more than CNY 4.3 billion. In January 2024, it released the X1-IES and X3-IES series.
History
SolaX was established in 2012. In 2013, it introduced the SK series of energy storage inverters. In 2014, the company entered the UK. In 2015, it formed a partnership with LG Chem.
In 2021, SolaX launched its first commercial string inverter series. In January 2024, the firm was listed on the STAR Market. In its IPO, the company raised more than 2.2 billion yuan.
References
2012 establishments
Photovoltaic inverter manufacturers
Manufacturing companies established in 2012
Companies listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange
2024 initial public offerings | SolaX Power | [
"Engineering"
] | 305 | [
"Photovoltaic inverter manufacturers",
"Engineering companies"
] |
77,744,693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium%20hexafluorotantalate | Ammonium hexafluorotantalate is an inorganic chemical compound with the chemical formula .
Physical properties
Ammonium hexafluorotantalate forms white crystals of the hexagonal system, space group Rm. Unit cell parameters are a=7.70 and c=7.95, with 3 formulas per unit cell.
References
Fluoro complexes
Tantalates
Ammonium compounds
Fluorometallates
Hexafluorides | Ammonium hexafluorotantalate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 90 | [
"Tantalates",
"Ammonium compounds",
"Salts"
] |
77,746,656 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project%20Bergamot | Project Bergamot is a joint project between several European universities and Mozilla for the development of machine translation software based on artificial neural networks, which is intended for local execution on end-user devices.
The software library that was created and the associated language models were made available to the general public as Free Software. Execution requires a x86 CPU with SSE4.1 instruction set extensions. In 2022, Devin Coldewey of TechCrunch judged the translation quality to be "more than adequate", but considered Firefox Translations to be not yet fully mature.
Usage
Mozilla used the Bergamot Translator to expand its web browser Firefox with a feature for translating web pages, which was previously considered an important gap in Firefox' feature set. It is often compared to the much older corresponding feature in Google Chrome, which utilizes a cloud-based background service. In contrast, Firefox Translations does not require any data to leave the user's computer, resulting in advantages in terms of data protection, availability and possibly response times. There is just the installation of a new language model that needs to take place the first time a new language is encountered. Greater independence from large technology companies and their interests is also mentioned as an important advantage. Mozilla thus strengthened its position as an alternative software vendor with a particular focus on data protection and security. Mozilla followed up with the similar feature of speech recognition for spoken user input, based on whisperfile.
On the other hand, slow translation times have been observed, especially on older devices. Also, Firefox Translations initially supported far fewer language pairs than other major translation services and is only gradually adding new models. On that matter, the training pipeline is also made available to interested parties to enable the creation of missing language models.
TranslateLocally is a Firefox-independent translation software based on the Bergamot Translator. It is also available as an (Electron-based) standalone application or as an extension for Chromium-based web browsers.
History
Mozilla had already tried to get a (cloud-based) web content translation feature into Firefox a few years before Project Bergamot, but had failed because of the financial challenge. Microsoft had already delivered offline capabilities for its translation software in 2018. Google soon followed suit, Apple two years later. The software is based on the free translation framework Marian, which the University of Edinburgh had previously developed in cooperation with Microsoft, and is itself based on the Nematus toolkit that was presented in 2017. Under the leadership of the University of Edinburgh, a development consortium was formed with the Mozilla Corporation and the additional European universities of Prague, Sheffield and Tartu. In 2018, it was able to get 3 million euros of funding from the EU's Horizon 2020 programme. Firefox Translations was initially provided as an add-on. A first functional demonstration prototype was presented in October 2019. Beta version 117 had the feature integrated directly into the browser, the official release was in version 118 from September 2023. Both the add-on module and as part of Firefox, the code and the models are subject to the version 2 of the Mozilla Public License. Since 2022, the EU-funded HPLT project creates new language models. It involves additional partners, including the universities of Helsinki, Turku, Oslo and other partners from Spain, Norway and the Czech Republic.
References
Notes
External links
Project website
Machine translation | Project Bergamot | [
"Technology"
] | 710 | [
"Machine translation",
"Natural language and computing"
] |
77,746,826 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caloglossa | Caloglossa is a genus of algae in the Delesseriaceae.
Description
Caloglossa has thalli that resemble branching leaves. This "exogenous primary branching" differentiates the genus from other members of the Delesseriaceae, other than the closely related genus Taenioma.
Species of Caloglossa are red to brown in color. Each thalli has a conspicuous midrib which is formed by a row of elongated cells. In fresh water, populations spread vegetatively. In brackish water, the plants may reproduce sexually.
Distribution
Caloglossa is a common genus worldwide, and is distributed in littoral zones from tropical to temperate waters. They can grow in habitats of varying salinity, and may be found growing on stones on marine coasts, in brackish estuaries, epiphytically in saltmarsh and mangrove habitat, and in total freshwater areas.
Use
The genus sees use in aquascaping and may be found in the aquarium trade. One species in particular, Caloglossa cf. beccarii, is popular as it exhibits a variety of colors and is easy to cultivate.
Caloglossa beccarii has also been investigated as a potential food item in Thailand. It was found to have insignificant toxicity while providing a potentially rich nutritional benefit.
Taxonomy
Some authors have considered the taxon authority to be Jacob Georg Agardh instead of Georg Matthias von Martens. King & Puttock (1994) argued that Martens did not formally elevate Caloglossa to genus rank in his 1869 publication, preferring to follow Agardh's 1876 treatment instead. The diversity of species within Caloglossa has been heavily studied and subject to much revision. A mix of morphological and DNA analysis has informed researchers on the phylogeny of the genus.
As of 2024, are 22 species recognized by AlgaeBase.
Caloglossa adhaerens
Caloglossa apicula
Caloglossa apomeiotica
Caloglossa beccarii
Caloglossa bengalensis
Caloglossa confusa
Caloglossa continua
Caloglossa fluviatilis
Caloglossa fonticola
Caloglossa intermedia
Caloglossa kamiyana
Caloglossa leprieurii
Caloglossa manaticola
Caloglossa monosticha
Caloglossa ogasawaraensis
Caloglossa postiae
Caloglossa rotundata
Caloglossa ruetzleri
Caloglossa saigonensis
Caloglossa stipitata
Caloglossa triclada
Caloglossa vieillardii
References
Delesseriaceae
Edible algae
Red algae genera
Aquarium plants
Taxa described in 1869 | Caloglossa | [
"Biology"
] | 563 | [
"Edible algae",
"Algae"
] |
77,747,463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%26G%20London%20Plant | The P&G London Plant is a large chemicals plant on the side of the Thames Estuary, in West Thurrock.
History
The factory started production in the late 1930s.
Construction
At a Thurrock Urban District meeting on Tuesday 6 July 1937, plans for a new factory at Thurrock were approved. In April 1938 the foundations were being built to 20 feet in depth. The site was 15 acres, with buildings up to 129 feet in height.
Detergent industry
P&G introduced Tide onto the UK market in 1950; Tide now has around 15% of the world market. Tide was introduced in 1950 to compete with Unilever's leading products. To compete, Unilever introduced Surf in 1952, followed by Omo in 1954.
In May 1963, the UK household detergent market was investigated by the government, reporting on 10 August 1966. It was found that 23% of the retail price, for both Unilever and P&G, was taken up by selling and promotion expenses, and the retailer's margin, for both, was 16%. Factory costs were 43%, of retail cost, for P&G, and slightly more for Unilever. The 1966 report found that Unilever and P&G had 96% of the UK market for laundry detergent powder products.
The industry was investigated by the National Board for Prices and Incomes in 1965.
Incidents
36 year old Kevin Scott-Dean, of Southend-on-Sea, was decapitated on a washing powder process line. P&G UK was fined £18,000 by local magistrates on 28 February 1996 for breaching the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974. The plant manager was Dexter Mueller.
Structure
The site has its own fire service unit.
The east-west London, Tilbury and Southend line, the Tilbury Loop Line, runs directly to the north of the site. There is a Co-op distribution centre nearby to the west, and a large National Grid substation to the south-west.
Production
It makes well-known laundry detergents.
See also
List of cleaning products
The former Unilever Warrington, which closed in October 2020
References
External links
P&G
1939 establishments in England
Buildings and structures in Thurrock
Buildings and structures on the River Thames
Chemical industry in London
Chemical plants of the United Kingdom
Detergents
Economy of Essex
Industrial buildings completed in 1939
Manufacturing plants in England
Procter & Gamble
Thames Estuary | P&G London Plant | [
"Chemistry",
"Technology"
] | 493 | [] |
77,749,442 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caloglossa%20beccarii | Caloglossa beccarii, known as red moss, is a species of algae that may live in freshwater or brackish environments. It is found in the aquarium trade.
Description and distribution
Caloglossa beccarii is most closely related to C. stipitata and C. fluviatilis. The species has leafy branches that range in color from dark brown to violet. It may grow to be between 2–5 inches (5–10 cm) in length, and forms rhizoids which anchor the plant to surfaces.
Caloglossa beccarii is typically found on stones in coastal streams of Southeast Asia, the western Pacific, and northern Australia. Specifically, it may be found in Malaysia, Indonesia, Burma, Thailand, and Singapore. It grows in association with mangrove trees.
The specific epithet honors Italian botanist Odoardo Beccari.
Uses
Aquascaping
Caloglossa beccarii is one of the few species of algae that is used in freshwater aquascaping. Although it has been known to European aquarists since the 1990s, it wasn't identified until a 2004 assessment by Maike Lorenz, professor at the University of Goettingen. In the trade, it is often referred to as Caloglossa cf. beccarii as certain identification is difficult. A 2020 DNA barcoding study isolated C. beccarii from Taiwanese aquarium stores.
As an ornamental, the species is sought after for its coloration and for its habit of attaching itself to aquarium furniture. It is easy to cultivate, and if unchecked, may become weedy. It is known to aquarists as "red moss".
Culinary
It has been proposed that Caloglossa beccarii has culinary potential. It is a source of trace minerals such as calcium, potassium, iron, magnesium, and manganese, as well as amino acids such as arginine, leucine, and glutamine. It is high in ascorbic acid and antioxidants.
See also
Marimo, another species of algae used in freshwater aquascaping
Freshwater aquarium algae
References
Delesseriaceae
Algae species
Edible algae
Aquarium plants
Flora of Southeast Asia
Flora of Australia | Caloglossa beccarii | [
"Biology"
] | 454 | [
"Edible algae",
"Algae"
] |
77,749,448 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparent%20decryption | Transparent decryption is a method of decrypting data which unavoidably produces evidence that the decryption operation has taken place. The idea is to prevent the covert decryption of data. In particular, transparent decryption protocols allow a user Alice to share with Bob the right to access data, in such a way that Bob may decrypt at a time of his choosing, but only while simultaneously leaving evidence for Alice of the fact that decryption occurred. Transparent decryption supports privacy, because this evidence alerts data subjects to the fact that information about them has been decrypted and disincentivises data misuse.
Applications
Transparent decryption has been proposed for several systems where there is a need to simultaneously achieve accountability and secrecy. For example:
In lawful interception, law enforcement agencies can access private messages and emails. Transparent decryption can make such accesses accountable, giving citizens guarantees about how their private information is accessed.
Data arising from vehicles and IoT devices may contain personal information about the vehicle or device owners and their activities. Nevertheless, the data is typically processed in order to provide user functionality and also to investigate and fight crime. Transparent decryption can be used to help users monitor when and how data about them is being accessed and used.
Implementation
In transparent decryption, the decryption key is distributed among a set of agents (called trustees); they use their key share only if the required transparency conditions have been satisfied. Typically, the transparency condition can be formulated as the presence of the decryption request in a distributed ledger.
Alternative solutions
Besides transparent decryption, some other techniques have been proposed for achieving law enforcement while preserving privacy.
Solutions that allow competing parties to unify their data access policies. Attribute-based encryption with oblivious attribute translation (OTABE) is an extension of attribute-based encryption that allows translation between proprietary attributes belonging to different organisations, and it has been applied to the problem of law-enforcement access to phone call metadata.
Solutions that rely on sophisticated cryptography, such as zero-knowledge proofs that the actions of law enforcement is consistent with judge rulings and the actions of companies, and multi-party computation to compute results.
References
Cryptography
Data protection
Information privacy | Transparent decryption | [
"Mathematics",
"Engineering"
] | 460 | [
"Applied mathematics",
"Cryptography",
"Cybersecurity engineering",
"Information privacy"
] |
77,749,655 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophylline/ephedrine | Theophylline ephedrine (), or theophylline/ephedrine, sold under the brand name Franol among others, is a fixed-dose combination formulation of theophylline, an adenosine receptor antagonist, and ephedrine, a norepinephrine releasing agent and indirectly acting sympathomimetic agent, which has been used as a bronchodilator in the treatment of asthma and as a nasal decongestant. It was first studied and used to treat asthma in the 1930s or 1940s and combinations of the two drugs subsequently became widely used. A ratio of 5:1 theophylline to ephedrine is usually used in combinations of the drugs. Later research found that the combination was no more effective for asthma than theophylline alone but produced more side effects.
Combinations of theophylline, ephedrine, and phenobarbital (brand name Tedral among others) have also been widely used to treat asthma. Many such combinations have been marketed with numerous brand names. Theophylline has also been marketed in combination with other ephedrine-like sympathomimetics like racephedrine and pseudoephedrine and with other barbiturates such as amobarbital and butabarbital, among other drugs. A combination of theophylline, ephedrine, and hydroxyzine has been marketed under the brand name Marax among others as well. Combinations of theophylline, ephedrine, and a barbiturate were later phased out in favor of combinations of theophylline and ephedrine alone (e.g., brand name Franol). Fixed-dose combinations of theophylline and ephedrine were abandoned after the 1970s as they did not allow for dose titration in asthma therapy owing to the toxicity of ephedrine.
The effects of theophylline/ephedrine as a performance-enhancing drug in exercise and sports have been studied. Use of theophylline/ephedrine combinations has led to disqualification of elite athletes due to ephedrine being banned in competitive sports.
See also
Cafedrine
Fenethylline
Theodrenaline
References
Abandoned drugs
Adenosine receptor antagonists
Beta-Hydroxyamphetamines
Bronchodilators
Cardiac stimulants
Combination drugs
Drugs in sport
Ergogenic aids
Norepinephrine releasing agents
Sympathomimetics
Xanthines | Theophylline/ephedrine | [
"Chemistry"
] | 512 | [
"Alkaloids by chemical classification",
"Xanthines",
"Drug safety",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
77,750,344 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezik%20and%20Tsygan | Dezik () and Tsygan (, ) were the first two Soviet space dogs and, during their suborbital flight on July 22, 1951, the first dogs to fly into space. Dezik became the first two-time space traveler during a suborbital flight in September 1951, but was killed when the parachute failed to deploy.
Spaceflight
Sergei Korolev, the lead Soviet rocket engineer and spacecraft designer during the Space Race in the 1950s, chose to use dogs to send into space because he believed that the emotional attachments made by scientists with dogs would ensure their obedience, and that free-ranging dogs from the streets of Moscow were already adapted to survival. The dogs used in the spaceflight were chosen to fit specific criteria: they had to be female to allow them to urinate properly in their space suits, they had to be between to accommodate the rocket's weight limit, and they had to have light-colored fur so that they could appear easily on the camera aboard the rocket.
Dezik and Tsygan were launched into sub-orbital spaceflight on a Soviet R-1 missile from Kapustin Yar on July 22, 1951. They reached a height of and experienced weightlessness for four minutes before falling back to Earth with a parachute. The trip lasted for 15 minutes in total. They both survived the trip, making them the first mammals to survive spaceflight. Korolev was greatly excited by their survival, and when they landed, he grabbed them and ran around with them before giving them water, sausages, and sugar.
Later life
In September 1951, Dezik went to space once again, this time with a dog named Lisa (, ). Dezik and Lisa were killed when their rocket's parachute failed to deploy. Korolev was emotionally devastated by their deaths.
Following the death of Dezik, Tsygan was retired and was adopted as a pet by Anatoly Blagonravov, an engineer in the Soviet space program, who said: "Let the hero come and live with me." Tsygan later had two litters of puppies.
See also
Animals in space
Laika – Soviet space dog, first animal to orbit Earth
List of individual dogs
References
Dogs in the Soviet Union
1951 in the Soviet Union
Animal testing in the Soviet Union
Individual dogs
1951 in spaceflight
Dog duos
Soviet cosmonauts
Animals in space | Dezik and Tsygan | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 495 | [
"Animal testing",
"Space-flown life",
"Animals in space"
] |
77,750,389 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TTM%20Technologies | TTM Technologies, Inc. is an American printed circuit board (PCB) manufacturer headquartered in Santa Ana, California. Founded in 1998, the company is one of the top five PCB manufacturers in the world and the largest in North America, and the largest supplier of PCBs to the U.S. military. TTM serves customers in industries including aerospace and defense, medical, industrial, automotive, computing, and networking.
History
TTM Technologies, Inc. was founded in 1998 by Kent Alder in Redmond, Washington, via an acquisition of Pacific Circuits, Inc., and moved to Santa Ana, California, in 1999, after acquiring Power Circuits, Inc. Alder was previously the president of Lundahl Astro Circuits, Inc. in Logan, Utah, from 1987, and president and CEO of its successor ElectroStar, Inc. from 1994. After ElectroStar was acquired by the Tyco Printed Circuit Group in 1996, Alder served as that company's vice president before departing to found TTM.
TTM's original business was manufacturing printed circuit boards (PCBs) used in routers, switches, servers and memory modules, and its customers included General Electric, Motorola, and Solectron. In 2000, the company made its initial public offering (IPO) on the Nasdaq stock exchange. In 2002, TTM acquired Honeywell Advanced Circuits, Inc. for US$2 million, gaining a factory in Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin (the largest PCB manufacturing facility in the country) and adding customers including Cisco, Sun Microsystems, and IBM. In 2006, TTM acquired the Tyco Printed Circuit Group for $226 million, expanding its business to specialized PCBs geared to the aerospace and defense sectors.
In 2010, TTM acquired the Hong Kong–headquartered Meadville Printed Circuit Group for $521 million, which expanded the company's footprint in Asia and extended its business to PCBs used in smartphones and tablets. In 2013, Tom Edman succeeded Alder as president of TTM, and in 2014 also succeeded him as CEO on Alder's retirement. In 2015, the company acquired Viasystems Group, Inc. for $950 million, marking its entry into the automotive industry and further expanding its presence in aerospace and defense. In 2018, TTM acquired Anaren, Inc. for $775 million, expanding to high-frequency radio and microwave microelectronics used in the space, defense, and telecommunications industries.
In 2019, TTM acquired intellectual property assets from i3 Electronics, Inc., citing a particular interest in i3's technology enabling very fine printed lines and spacing down to 25 microns. In 2020, TTM sold its mobile device business unit, comprising four facilities in China, to AKM Meadville Electronics (Xiamen) Co., Ltd., for $550 million. Also in 2020, TTM closed down its commercial assembly business unit, comprising three facilities in China. In 2022, TTM acquired Telephonics Corporation from Griffon Corporation for $330 million, further expanding its operations in aerospace and defense.
Operations
TTM Technologies manufactures PCBs and radio-frequency and specialty (RF&S) components for industries including aerospace and defense (45% of revenue in 2023); medical and industrial (17%); automotive (16%); data center computing (14%); and networking (8%). The company is one of the world's top five PCB manufacturers by revenue ($2.23 billion in 2023), and the largest PCB manufacturer in North America. As of 2017, TTM was also the largest supplier of PCBs to the U.S. military, primarily as a subcontractor. In 2020, TTM had about 1,600 customers, and its five largest original equipment manufacturer customers (not in order) were Huawei, Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, Raytheon, and Bosch. In 2015, the company's five largest customers were Apple, Cisco, Huawei, Juniper Networks, and Bosch, and in 2010 they were Apple, Cisco, Ericsson, Huawei, and IBM.
As of 2023, the company employs about 15,800 people and operates 24 manufacturing facilities across North America and Asia. Its PCB facilities in the United States are located in Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin; Elizabeth City, North Carolina; Farmingdale, New York; Forest Grove, Oregon; Huntington, New York; Littleton, Colorado; Logan, Utah; North Jackson, Ohio; Salem, New Hampshire; San Diego, California; San Jose, California; Santa Ana, California; Stafford, Connecticut; Stafford Springs, Connecticut; Sterling, Virginia; and Syracuse, New York, and its foreign facilities are in Toronto, Canada; Penang, Malaysia; and Dongguan, Guangzhou, Huiyang, and Zhongshan, China. It operates two RF&S facilities in Syracuse, New York, and Suzhou, China.
References
External links
1998 establishments in Washington (state)
Companies based in Santa Ana, California
Companies listed on the Nasdaq
Electronics companies established in 1998
Manufacturing companies based in Greater Los Angeles
Printed circuit board manufacturing
Electronics manufacturing companies | TTM Technologies | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,062 | [
"Electrical engineering",
"Electronic engineering",
"Printed circuit board manufacturing"
] |
77,750,654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Institute%20of%20Clean-and-Low-Carbon%20Energy | The National Institute of Clean-and-Low-Carbon Energy (NICE) is a leading clean and renewable energy research institute located in China and affiliated with the China Energy. Established in 2009 and headquartered in the Changping's Future Science Park near Beijing, NICE also has R&D centers in Germany and California. NICE aims to drive innovation and collaboration in clean energy research, contributing to a sustainable future. It is home to the State Key Laboratory of Water Resource Protection and Utilization in Coal Mining.
With a team of about 500 researchers, the institute focuses on a range of areas, including carbon emission reduction, carbon neutrality, clean energy, coal chemical industry, hydrogen energy, energy storage technology, energy network, water treatment, environmental protection, global carbon cycle, smart energy, and energy-related applications of artificial intelligence. The advisory board features internationally recognized scientists such as Norman N. Li, Robin John Batterham, Robert Grubbs, Ke-Chang Xie, Uma Chowdhry, and Alexis T. Bell.
NICE collaborates closely with partner universities and institutions, including Tsinghua University, Sichuan University, China University of Petroleum, Tianjin University, Zhejiang University, Tongji University, Dalian University of Technology, China University of Mining and Technology, Eindhoven University of Technology, University of Pittsburgh, GE, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, and Jacobs Consultancy, among others. Since its inception, NICE has undertaken 68 national-level research projects in China, published 67 national industry standards, and received 61 awards from national, provincial, and industry associations.
R&D Centres
Beijing R&D Centre
The Beijing R&D Centre, which also serves as NICE's headquarters, is located in Changping (30 kilometers to central Beijing), with a campus covering 35 acres on the northern shore of the Wenyu River (and 53 additional adjacent acres shared with the Shenhua Management School that is affiliated to the same China Energy group). This R&D centre specializes in research related to the global carbon cycle, carbon emissions reduction, carbon neutrality, climate change, hydrogen energy, environmental protection, new energy storage technologies, advanced materials, water treatment, coal catalysts, deep earth geology, and energy intelligence that encompasses applied artificial intelligence and data science.
European R&D Centre
The European R&D Centre, located in Berlin, Germany, concentrates on renewable energy, innovative electric power systems, new chemical materials, carbon reduction technologies, and environmental solutions.
American R&D Centre
The American R&D Centre is based in the Silicon Valley, California. This centre focuses on shale gas catalysts, energy networks, carbon management, hydrogen energy, and additional related fields.
Notable labs, centers, and programmes
Postdoctoral programme host, China National Postdoctoral Council
State Key Laboratory of Water Resource Protection and Utilization in Coal Mining
Industrial Company Quality Management Model
Technology Hub of National Energy Clean Coal Conversion and Utilization, China National Energy Administration
Beijing Nanostructured Thin Film Solar Cell Engineering Technology Research Center
Beijing Engineering Technology Research Center
Academic journal
The institute operates the open-access academic journal of Clean Energy.
References
Research institutes established in 2009
Research institutes in China
2009 establishments in China | National Institute of Clean-and-Low-Carbon Energy | [
"Engineering"
] | 630 | [
"Geoengineering",
"Carbon capture and storage"
] |
77,750,672 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20O-type%20stars | This is a list of O-type stars by their distance from Earth.
List
Milky Way galaxy
Magellanic Clouds
The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) is around 163 kly distant and the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) is around 204 kly distant
Andromeda Galaxy and Triangulum Galaxy
The Andromeda Galaxy (M31) is 2.5 Mly distant and the Triangulum Galaxy is around 3.2 Mly distant
Other Galaxies
See also
List of Wolf-Rayet stars
List of luminous blue variable stars
List of nearest stars by spectral type
References
Lists of stars
Star systems
Lists by distance | List of O-type stars | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 130 | [
"Lists by distance",
"Physical quantities",
"Distance",
"Astronomical objects",
"Star systems"
] |
77,750,678 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinix%20GT%2020%20Pro | Infinix GT 20 Pro is a midrange smartphone manufactured by Infinix Mobile that was unveiled in Riyadh on 28 April 2024. It is the successor to the Infinix GT 10 Pro.
The GT 20 Pro is an upgraded version of GT 10 Pro, coming with different features, including the OS, design and processor. The phones has received generally favorable reviews, with critics mostly noting the IP54 water/dust resistance, design and performance.
Specifications
Hardware
As with the predecessor, Infinix GT 20 Pro features an AMOLED display with 1080p support and a display size of 6.67-inches and equipped with MediaTek Dimensity 8200 Ultimate and dedicated gaming chip pixelwar.
It features LED light on the back alongside camera flash.
Software
The devices ship with Android 14 with XOS 14 For GT and will receive two major Android updates and three years of security updates.
Battery
The battery itself has a capacity of 5000 mAh with 45W Fast Charging and features Bypass Charging feature which is suitable for gamers, especially competitive players.
Camera
The camera itself consists of a 108MP wide camera with OIS, 2MP macro and depth camera, and 32MP selfie camera. Rear camera video recording supports up to 4k 60fps while the front camera only reaches 2k 30fps.
References
Infinix smartphones
Android (operating system) devices
Mobile phones introduced in 2024 | Infinix GT 20 Pro | [
"Technology"
] | 289 | [
"Mobile technology stubs",
"Mobile phone stubs"
] |
77,750,856 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathyceratias | Bathyceratias trilynchnus, the three-starred anglerfish, is a hypothetical species of anglerfish observed by William Beebe while in his bathysphere on 11 August 1934, at a depth of 2,470 feet (750 metres) off the coast of Bermuda.
Description
Beebe first witnessed the fish from a distance, with its light faintly reflecting on its back. Getting a clearer view once it swam into the beam of his bathysphere, it was described as similar to the ceratias and cryptopsaras, but with a flattened mouth and short, even teeth. It was ovoid, black in color, six inches in length, and possessed three illicium, each tipped with a pale yellow light organ.
Current status
As with the other four species described by Beebe during his bathysphere dives, the three-starred anglerfish has not been observed since.
See also
Abyssal rainbow gar
Bathyembryx
Bathysidus
Bathysphaera
References
Aquatic cryptids
Controversial fish taxa
Fish described in 1934 | Bathyceratias | [
"Biology"
] | 222 | [
"Biological hypotheses",
"Controversial fish taxa",
"Controversial taxa"
] |
67,604,923 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichotomocladium | Dichotomocladium is a genus of fungi belonging to the family Syncephalastraceae.
Species:
Dichotomocladium elegans
Dichotomocladium floridanum
Dichotomocladium hesseltinei
Dichotomocladium robustum
Dichotomocladium sphaerosporum
References
Fungi | Dichotomocladium | [
"Biology"
] | 73 | [
"Fungi"
] |
67,606,055 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott%20X.%20Mao | Scott X. Mao is the John Swanson Endowed Professor at the Swanson School of Engineering of the University of Pittsburgh. He is a specialist in the research on plasticity, deformation physics and fracture mechanics of materials, and atomic scale experimental mechanics. He is well-known for work with in-situ transmission electron microscope and is amongst the most cited in the field (over 16,500 citations, H-index=65).
He serves as Editor in Chief for International Journal of Metallurgy and Metal Physics, and Editor for Advances in Metallurgical and Material Engineering. He is an Elected Fellow of the Canadian Academy of Engineering, an elected American Physical Society fellow, Elected Fellow of IAAM (International Association of Advanced Materials) and ASME fellow.
Education
Post - Doc., Mechanical Behaviour of Materials, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1989
Ph.D, Mechanical Engineering, Tohoku University, 1988
B.Sc., Solid Mechanics, Beijing University of Aeronautics, 1982
References
Living people
University of Pittsburgh faculty
Fellows of the Canadian Academy of Engineering
Fellows of the American Physical Society
Year of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people)
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
Tohoku University alumni
Beihang University alumni
Mechanical engineers | Scott X. Mao | [
"Engineering"
] | 250 | [
"Mechanical engineers",
"Mechanical engineering"
] |
67,606,353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphamyces | Alphamyces is a genus of fungi belonging to the family Alphamycetaceae.
The species of this genus are found in Great Britain.
Species:
Alphamyces chaetifer (Sparrow) Letcher
References
Chytridiomycota
Chytridiomycota genera | Alphamyces | [
"Biology"
] | 60 | [
"Fungus stubs",
"Fungi"
] |
67,606,438 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal%20of%20Nanophotonics | Journal of Nanophotonics is a quartertly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by SPIE. It covers theoretical, computational and experimental aspects of nanophotonics and their applications. It began publication in 2007 with Akhlesh Lakhtakia of Pennsylvania State University as its editor-in-chief. In 2013, Ali Adibi of Georgia Institute of Technology became its second editor-in-chief.
According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2023 impact factor of 1.1.
References
External links
Optics journals
English-language journals
Quarterly journals
Academic journals established in 2007
Materials science journals
SPIE academic journals
Nanotechnology journals
Online-only journals | Journal of Nanophotonics | [
"Materials_science",
"Engineering"
] | 135 | [
"Nanotechnology journals",
"Materials science journals",
"Materials science"
] |
67,606,904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highly%20branched%20isoprenoid | Highly branched isoprenoids (HBIs) are long-chain alkenes produced by a small number of marine diatoms. There are a variety of highly branched isoprenoid structures, but C25 Highly branched isoprenoids containing one to three double bonds are the most common in the sedimentary record. Highly branched isoprenoids have been used as environmental proxies for sea ice conditions in the Arctic and Antarctic throughout the Holocene, and more recently, are being used to reconstruct more ancient ice records.
Background
Highly branched isoprenoids are a type of lipid produced by marine diatoms. Highly branched isoprenoids are biomarkers, and their presence or absence in sedimentary and ice records can be used as a direct proxy for the presence of sea ice. Generally, the highly branched isoprenoids that are used as sea ice proxies are 25-carbon molecules containing one to three double bonds. The longest carbon chains in the C25 highly branched isoprenoids used for sea ice reconstructions are 15 carbons, but these molecules are highly branched and have shorter carbon chains attached to the primary carbon chain. There are 3 C25 highly branched isoprenoids used as ice proxies: a C25 monoene (HBI I), a C25 diene (HBI II), and a C25 triene (HBI III). Highly branched isoprenoid I and II are unique in that they are primarily produced by sympagic diatoms. Sympagic diatoms live in channels at the base of sea ice, making them a highly accurate proxy for sea ice. During the spring, highly branched isoprenoids are produced by diatoms in the sea ice. In the summer, the ice melts, releasing the highly branched isoprenoids into the water column, where they sink and are then deposited in the sediments. Highly branched isoprenoids I and II are generally absent from regions which experience no sea ice cover, supporting their use as a proxy for seasonal sea ice. Highly branched isoprenoid III is produced by pelagic algae, or algae that thrives in the open ocean. Highly branched isoprenoid III can be used as a biomarker for seasonal sea ice in the open ocean.
Highly branched isoprenoids were first discovered in 1976 by Patrick Gearing in sediments in the Gulf of Mexico off the coast of Florida in a survey of hydrocarbons in shelf sediments. Following this initial identification, highly branched isoprenoids were identified in a variety of marine environments, such as in the Puget Sound, Antarctica, Spain, and Peru. C25 Highly branched isoprenoids were first identified in marine diatoms by John Volkman in 1994, when he isolated seven different C25 highly branched isoprenoids from the marine diatom Haslea ostrearia. This provided initial evidence that highly branched isoprenoids are produced by marine diatoms.
Currently, the precise biological functions of highly branched isoprenoids are not well-understood. Highly branched isoprenoids are a type of isoprenoid lipid, which have a variety of vital biological functions. Isoprenoids are important in regulating gene expression, making up cell membranes, and are important in electron transport and photosynthesis.
Highly branched isoprenoid I
Highly branched isoprenoid (HBI I), a C25 monoene, is also known as IP25 (ice proxy with 25 carbon atoms). IP25 serves as a biomarker for ice conditions in the Arctic. This highly branched isoprenoid is characterized by a single double bond and was first identified in marine diatoms by Thomas Brown in 2014. A variety of diatoms have been shown to produce IP25, with the majority of highly branched isoprenoids produced by the Arctic diatoms Haslea crucigeroides, Haslea spicula, Haslea kjellmanii, and Pleurosigma stuxbergii var. rhomboids. Despite the fact that these species do not comprise much of the sympagic diatom communities globally, they are common in the Arctic. To date, IP25 has been identified in over 500 Arctic samples.
Highly branched isoprenoid II
Highly branched isoprenoid II (HBI II), a C25 diene, is also known as IPSO25 (ice proxy for the Southern Ocean with 25 carbon atoms). IPSO25 is a biomarker proxy for paleo ice in the Southern Ocean. IPSO25 has also been found to co-occur with IP25 in the Arctic. HBI II contains two double bonds and was first identified in marine diatoms by Simon Belt in 2016. The primary source of IPSO25 the sympagic diatom Berkeleya adeliensis, which lives within platelet ice. The IPSO25 proxy is a less-developed biomarker than IP25, and its Arctic sources are unclear. IPSO25 has also been identified in the diatom Haslea ostrearia and in sediments in non-polar locations, indicating that more work is needed to fully understand and develop IPSO25 as a paleo ice proxy.
Highly branched isoprenoid III
Highly branched isoprenoid III (HBI III), a C25 triene, is a biomarker useful for the analysis of the marginal ice zone (MIZ), a zone between the open ocean and sea ice. Highly branched isoprenoid III is primarily produced by pelagic algae of the genus Rhizosolenia, particularly Rhizsolenia setigera, Rhizosolenia herbetata f. semispina, and Rhizosolenia polydactyla. Its source was determined by Simon Belt in 2017, who isolated highly branched isoprenoid III from phytoplankton samples from western Svalbard and the South Atlantic. The production of highly branched isoprenoid III appears to be enhanced in the MIZ, however why this occurs is currently not well-understood. The absence of highly branched isoprenoid III in sediments is typically attributed to sea ice cover in the region, given that ice cover would not allow for pelagic algae production.
Preservation
Many biomarkers possess functional groups or are unsaturated, causing them to undergo diagenesis when emplaced in sediments. Highly branched isoprenoids are observed to be well-preserved in the sedimentary record. Highly branched isoprenoids primarily form in the seasonal sea ice during the spring sympagic diatom blooms. When these ice sheets subsequently melt, the highly branched isoprenoids formed in the sea ice are released into the sea water. They then fall through the water column and are emplaced into the sediments, where they can be preserved. The sediment conditions impacts how well the highly branched isoprenoids are preserved. Generally, the stability of highly branched isoprenoids is dependent on their degree of unsaturation. C25 trienes are more likely to undergo degradation compared to C25 monenes and dienes, and degradation is enhanced by increasing temperature and exposure to light, which results in oxidation. The mono-unsaturated C25 IP25 is the least reactive highly branched isoprenoid, and thus is the most resistant to degradation and is best preserved in sediments.
Highly branched isoprenoids, particularly highly branched isoprenoid I, are hypothesized to have long-term stability. While most studies to date have focused on studying highly branched isoprenoids in sediments from the Holocene, highly branched isoprenoids have been detected, measured, and analyzed in 12 million year old sediments from the late Miocene. More work is necessary to determine whether highly branched isoprenoids can be preserved beyond 12 million years, but it is likely that their time to degradation is dependent on the local sediment conditions.
Measurement techniques
GC/MS
Highly branched isoprenoids and other organic materials can be extracted from sediments for analysis. Coupled gas chromatography and mass spectrometry can be utilized to analyze the organic materials present in the sediments. Peaks can be identified using a gas chromatograph and a mass spectrum, which provide information about the retention time and mass-to-charge ratio of the organic compounds present in the molecule. This allows for the identification of highly branched isoprenoids within a material. To identify highly branched isoprenoids in sediments, typically selective ion monitoring (SIM) is utilized. SIM gathers data at masses of interest within an expected retention time window, enabling the identification and quantification of compounds with high sensitivity. Highly branched isoprenoid I, highly branched isoprenoid II, and highly branched isoprenoid III are identified and quantified via SIM using the characteristic mass spectrum peaks at m/z = 350, 348, and 346, respectively.
Isotope ratios
Carbon isotopic measurements can be utilized to confirm the sea ice origin of highly branched isoprenoids. These carbon isotope measurements are obtained using an Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer. Highly branched isoprenoids with a sea ice origin are enriched in [[δ13C]] in both sea ice and in sediments. The measurement of δ13C values enables a diagnostic determination of whether the highly branched isoprenoid came from sea ice.
Highly branched isoprenoid I
Highly branched isoprenoid I has been observed to be enriched in 13C. δ13C values range from −16.9 to −22.7‰ in sea ice and −16.3 to −23.2‰ in sediments. This enrichment has been hypothesized to be in part a result of the fact that the marine diatoms that produce highly branched isoprenoid I live under CO2-limited conditions. Temperature and diatom growth rate may also play a role in observed isotopic composition of highly branched isoprenoid I, but more work is needed to fully understand the drivers of the observed δ13C values.
Highly branched isoprenoid II
Highly branched isoprenoid II has a characteristic carbon isotope composition, with measured δ13C values ranging from −5.7 to −8.5‰. This value is indicative of an enrichment in 13C. This enrichment has also been observed for highly branched isoprenoid II in sediments and in waters near melting sea ice. This enrichment likely results from the CO2-limited conditions under which the diatom producers of highly branched isoprenoid II grow. This distinctive isotopic composition provides strong evidence for the sea ice origin of highly branched isoprenoid II, making it a good proxy for sea ice around Antarctica.
Highly branched isoprenoid III
Highly branched isoprenoid III is depleted in δ13C, with values ranging from −35 to −40‰. Highly branched isoprenoid III is depleted in δ13C because it is not produced under CO2-limited conditions, so the depletion is a result of biological fractionation.
Case study: Use of IP25 to reconstruct ice records
Currently, more than 60 paleo sea ice records that have been constructed based on IP25 over the Holocene, the Mid-Pleistocene Transition, the Pliocene/Pleistocene boundary, and the late Miocene. The presence of IP25 in sediments is a direct proxy for the presence of seasonal sea ice cover. One study utilized the concentration of IP25 in sediments to reconstruct sea-ice records in the western North Pacific and Bering Sea over the past 18,000 years. Researchers from Germany obtained sediment samples from the North Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea during a Sonne cruise in 2009. IP25 was identified in the samples using GC/MS, and the sediments were dated using a chronostratigraphic approach, X-ray fluorescence, and radiocarbon dating of planktonic foraminifera. The researchers found that variations in the concentration of the sea-ice proxy IP25 were consistent with known temperature variations based on other evidence, such as δ18O values and biogenic opal data. Generally, during cold intervals, the concentration of IP25 in sediments was elevated, indicating more extensive sea ice cover. More specifically, between 18,000 and 15,000 years ago, IP25 concentrations were relatively high, but decreased between 14,700 and 12,900 years ago during the Bølling/Allerød warming period. At 12,500 years ago, a significant increase in IP25 concentration was detected in the sediments, consistent with the start of the Younger Dryas period, which marked a return to glacial conditions. IP25 concentrations decreased to approximately 0 11,500 years ago, marking the end of the Younger Dryas. For the entire Holocene, IP25 concentrations have remained low, which is accordant with the lack of extensive ice cover throughout this period. This reconstruction is consistent with other paleoclimate proxies and known climate variations, demonstrating the ability of the IP25 proxy to reconstruct paleo ice records.
References
Terpenes and terpenoids | Highly branched isoprenoid | [
"Chemistry"
] | 2,716 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Biomolecules by chemical classification",
"Terpenes and terpenoids",
"Natural products"
] |
67,608,781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bratus%20%28tree%29 | Bratus is the name of a tree Pliny the Elder described in his Naturalis Historia:
Book 12, chapt. 39 (Plin. Nat. 12.39)—THE TREE CALLED BRATUS.
Hence it is, that they import from the country of the Elymæi the wood of a tree called bratus, which is similar in appearance to a spreading cypress. Its branches are of a whitish colour, and the wood, while burning, emits a pleasant odour; it is highly spoken of by Claudius Cæsar, in his History, for its marvellous properties. He states that the Parthians sprinkle the leaves of it in their drink, that its smell closely resembles that of the cedar, and that the smoke of it is efficacious in counteracting the effects of smoke emitted by other wood. This tree grows in the countries that lie beyond the Pasitigris, in the territory of the city of Sittaca, upon Mount Zagrus.
Pliny's editors John Bostock and Henry Thomas Riley note regarding bratus:
Although the savin shrub, the Juniperus sabina of Carl Linnaeus, bears this name in Greek, it is evident, as Fée says, that Pliny does not allude to it, but to a coniferous tree, as it is that family which produces a resinous wood with a balsamic odour when ignited. Bauhin and others would make the tree meant to be the Thuja occidentalis of Carl Linnaeus; but, as Fée observes, that tree is in reality a native originally of Canada, while the Thuja orientalis is a native of Japan. He suggests, however, that the "Thuja articulata" of Mount Atlas (Tetraclinis articulata) may have possibly been the citrus of Pliny.
Editors' note is still unclear while Conifers are not family, Juniperus sabina is coniferous and has some ethereal oils in its issues too. In Bostock and Riley's last sentence, "citrus" meant "cedar". The Greek name κέδρος kédros gave the Latin word cedrus and was similarly applied to citron and the word citrus is derived from the same root. Name "citrus" was also used for both cedar and citron, particularly by Pliny. However, as a loan word in English, cedar had become fixed to its biblical sense of Cedrus by the time of its first recorded usage in AD 1000.).
See also
Thyine wood
References
Fumigants
Trees
Economy of ancient Rome
Plant common names | Bratus (tree) | [
"Biology"
] | 542 | [
"Plants",
"Plant common names",
"Common names of organisms"
] |
67,610,207 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilufar%20Mamadalieva | Nilufar Mamadalieva is a biochemist from Uzbekistan.
Biography
Mamadalieva completed a Master's in science at Fergana State University and a PhD at the Institute of the Chemistry of Plant Substances in Tashkent. She is a scientific researcher at the institute. Her work focuses on the phytochemical and biological investigation of active compounds in the local medicinal plants of Central Asia.
In 2011 Mamadalieva received the UNESCO-L’Oreal Award for Young Women in Life Sciences. In 2014 she received the Elsevier Foundation Award for Early Career Women Scientists in the Developing World.
References
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Uzbekistani scientists
Uzbekistani women scientists
Women biochemists | Nilufar Mamadalieva | [
"Chemistry"
] | 149 | [
"Biochemistry stubs",
"Biochemists",
"Biochemist stubs",
"Women biochemists"
] |
67,611,062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%205422 | NGC 5422 is a lenticular galaxy located in the constellation Ursa Major. It was discovered on April 14, 1789, by the astronomer William Herschel.
At a distance of about 100 million light-years (30 megaparsecs), NGC 5422 is located within the sparse NGC 5485 group, which is dominated by lenticular galaxies. It has only a single, thick, disk component. Like other galaxies in the group, it has no recent star formation, as its stellar disk is relatively old (about 10 billion years old). Its disk appears similar to the face-on galaxy NGC 6340, but appears edge-on.
References
External links
Ursa Major
5422
Unbarred lenticular galaxies | NGC 5422 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 147 | [
"Ursa Major",
"Constellations"
] |
67,614,159 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycopane | Lycopane (C40H82; 2,6,10,14,19,23,27,31-octamethyldotriacontane), a 40 carbon alkane isoprenoid, is a widely present biomarker that is often found in anoxic settings. It has been identified in anoxically deposited lacustrine sediments (such as the Messel formation and the Condor oil shale deposit). It has been found in sulfidic and anoxic hypersaline environments (such as the Sdom Formation). It has been widely identified in modern marine sediments, including the Peru upwelling zone, the Black Sea, and the Cariaco Trench. It has been found only rarely in crude oils.
Biological origins
The pathway for production of lycopane has not been conclusively identified. There are several theories for its origins/production.
Methanogenic archaea
Some of the earliest theories for the biosynthesis of lycopane center around it being anaerobically produced by methanogenic archaea. Lycopane has been observed in recent marine sediments in contexts where methanogenic activity is occurring. In older sediments, methanogenic activity is harder to conclusively determine, as methane can migrate from other layers and not necessarily be a product of that geological time. It is possible that isoprenoid alkanes such as lycopane serve as biomarkers for methanogenesis and methanogenic archaea.
Lycopane has not yet been directly isolated in any biological organism, so its linkage to methanogenic archaea is conjecture. However, the process has been identified in a different isoprenoid alkane: squalane. Squalane was not initially thought to be directly biologically synthesized, but was later determined to be present in archaea.
Some acyclic unsaturated tetraterpenoids (structurally similar to lycopane) have been detected in Thermococcus hydrothermalis, a deep-sea hydrothermal vent archaea. Lycopane has also been found alongside archaeal ethers in certain marine sediments. These findings provide support for a methanogenic origin of lycopane, but it is not conclusive. Furthermore, lycopane has been identified in water columns that contain sulfate, which is potentially an argument against lycopane having a methanogenic origin. Methanogens are generally not widespread in sulfate-rich environments.
Diagenesis of lycopene
Lycopane may be sourced from diagenesis of an unsaturated precursor such as lycopene, a carotenoid that is abundantly present in photosynthetic organisms. In cyanobacteria, lycopene can be an important intermediate in the biosynthesis of other carotenoids. Diagenesis, broadly referring to physical and chemical changes that occur while biological material is undergoing fossilization, may include hydrogenation and transformation of unsaturated precursors to alkane derivatives. Some diagenetic time-dependent reduction of double bonds in carotenoids has been observed in marine sediments.
A direct geochemical diagenetic process for the transformation of lycopene to lycopane during sedimentation has not been determined. However, this process has been identified in other carotenoids (e.g. carotene to carotane). Sulfur has been proposed as a general agent in the diagenesis of isoprenoid alkenes to alkanes. A sulfur polymer (with sulfur binding to unsaturated carbons) could eventually yield isoprenoid alkanes, as carbon-sulfur bonds are weaker than carbon-carbon bonds. Some experimental evidence in support of this theory has been gathered, but it has not been demonstrated in any sediment samples.
Marine photoautotrophs
It has also been theorized that lycopane is directly synthesized by marine photoautotrophs such as cyanobacteria or green algae. Lycopene is abundantly present in marine photosynthetic organisms; possibly it is the precursor in a lycopene-to-lycopane pathway. The detection of lycopa-14(E),18(E)-diene in the green alga Botryococcus braunii strengthens this theory, as the conversion of lycopadiene to lycopane would be simpler and more feasible than that of lycopene to lycopane.
Measurement techniques
GC/MS
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry is a common tool for detecting and analyzing biomarkers. Depending on the stationary phase used in the column, lycopane tends to co-elute with the n-C35 alkane. Its tail-to-tail linkage yields diagnostic mass fragments. The mass spectrum has a periodic fragmentation pattern.
Raman spectroscopy
Raman spectroscopy, a non-destructive analytical technique with no sample preparation, is a powerful tool for analyzing biomarkers. Lycopene, the unsaturated carotenoid that lycopane may be derived from, has a very characteristic Raman spectrum that is easily distinguishable. The spectrum of lycopane differs by a strong band at 1455 cm−1 (CH2 scissoring), a series of bands from 1390–1000 cm−1 (C-C stretching), and some bands from 1000–800 cm−1 (methyl in-plane rocking and C-H out-of-plane bending).
Stable isotope analysis
The amount of carbon-13 present in lycopane found in sediment can give indications of its producer, particularly differentiating between methanogenic and algal origin. Lower levels of 13C suggest that the compound originated in methanogens, while higher levels support an algal origin. The high level of 13C found in the Messel shale lycopane (-20.8‰) suggests an algal producer.
Use as a biomarker (case study: Arabian Sea/Peru Upwelling region)
Recent work has proposed elevated levels of lycopane as a proxy for anoxicity. When the C35/C31 n-alkane ratio was calculated both within and outside of the Oxygen Minimum Zone (OMZ) in the Arabian Sea, ratios inside of the OMZ were approximately two to three times higher than they were outside of this zone. This increased ratio was determined to be due to the presence of lycopane, which coelutes with C35 n-alkane. Thus, it was determined that the lycopane/C31 ratio is correlated with degree of anoxicity. Similar trends were observed in the Peru Upwelling region. This further solidifies the viability of lycopane abundance as an indicator of oxicity/anoxicity and provides additional support for a methanogenic origin of lycopane.
Astrobiological potential
One of the challenges involved in searching for life on other planets is the practical limitations of instrumentation. While GC/MS or NMR may give unequivocal evidence of the existence of biomarkers, it is not practical to include these instruments on highly optimized spacecraft. Raman spectroscopy has emerged as a leading technique due to its sensitivity, miniaturizability, and lack of sample preparation.
Carotenoids have long generated astrobiological interest given their diagnostic Raman spectra, their unlikelihood of being abiotically synthesized, and their high preservation potential. Recent work has indicated that the Raman spectrum of lycopane is sufficiently different from that of lycopene. The two molecules are distinguishable. While functionalized carotenoids in themselves are an attractive astrobiological biomarker, detecting their diagenetic products may be equally characteristic of extraterrestrial life. Detection of diagenetically reduced lycopane on other planetary bodies may be an unambiguous indication of life, as diagenesis occurs during biological fossilization.
References
Alkanes
Biomarkers | Lycopane | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 1,719 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Biomarkers",
"Alkanes"
] |
67,614,272 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald%20I.%20Siegel | Donald Ira Siegel (born October 24, 1947) is the emeritus Laura J. and L. Douglas Meredith Professor in the department of Earth Science at Syracuse University. He served as the president of the Geological Society of America from July 2019 until June 2020. Siegel is known for his work in wetland geochemistry and hydrogeology.
Education
Siegel earned his Bachelors in Geology at University of Rhode Island in 1969. He earned his MS at Penn State and PhD in Hydrogeology at University of Minnesota. His 1981 PhD thesis was titled "Hydrogeochemistry and kinetics of silicate weathering in a gabbroic watershed, Filson Creek, Northeastern Minnesota".
Career
Siegel began his career at Amerada Hess Corporation in 1971 as an exploration geologist, conducting geological studies to locate oil and gas in the Rocky Mountains and southwestern United States.
He moved to the United States Geological Survey in 1976 as a district hydrogeologist in the Minnesota District.
In 1982, he became an assistant professor at the College of Arts and Sciences at Syracuse University, becoming a full professor in 1992. Siegel was appointed department chair in 2013 and worked at Syracuse until his retirement in 2017. He was also the Jessie Page Heroy Professor and a Meredith Professor of Teaching Excellence (2009).
Research
While working as a USGS hydrologist, after making his early observations on deep groundwater deposits, Siegel discovered that groundwater flow regulates the diversity of habitats in the mires, world's largest wetlands. He also studied interaction of oil-spill organic matter with minerals in affected aquifers, interaction of this groundwater with wetlands, and the westernmost edge where acid rain was being deposited by coal-fired power plants.
After joining the faculty at Syracuse, Siegel studied of how groundwater and deep saline waters passed through the Marcellus Shale millions of years ago to the present. Siegel's wetland research evolved into an examination of how groundwater flow and water quality influences greenhouse gas emissions in vast peat lands in northern Canada, Siberia, and northern Minnesota. His early study of groundwater contamination resulted in the closure of Staten Island's Fresh Kills Landfill.
Siegel also investigated the use of similar forensic techniques to characterize fluids generated by hydraulic fracking and other unconventional gas and oil extraction in western China, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and New York State.
Siegel has said that hydrofracking benefits in New York state outweigh the environmental risks, calling it a safe process.
Chesapeake Energy Funding Controversy
In 2015, Siegel was involved in a conflict-of-interest controversy. In a peer reviewed paper, Siegel came to a conclusion that natural-gas production using fracking wells had not contaminated groundwater in Pennsylvania and that methane in drinking water was unrelated to fracking.
After media reports that Siegel did not disclose that Chesapeake Energy, a hydrocarbon exploration company, had paid him to analyze the data, the journal Environmental Science & Technology, which published the analysis, posted a correction.
While fracking proponents praised the study, many environmental groups ethical violations and cited smaller sample size that had produced conflicting results. Despite Siegel's admission of private funding, he received intense backlash. Critics demanded that he be fired or retire from Syracuse University, and that an ethics investigation be launched by both SU and the journal. The university later found that Siegel was in compliance with University's internal disclosure policies. In 2015, Siegel was called to testify before the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology in Washington, D.C.
Awards
The Hydrogeology Division of the Geological Society of America selected Siegel as the 1993 Birdsall Distinguished Lecturer in Hydrogeology. He was elected and served as the 1995 Chairman of the Hydrogeology Division of the GSA. He is a recipient of the Geological Society of American’s Distinguished Service Award.
In 2005, Siegel received the Meinzer Award for Research by the Hydrogeology Division of the Geological Society of America.
In 2010, Siegel was appointed chair of the Water Sciences & Technology Board for a three year term. In 2012, Siegel was elected member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science for "his distinguished service and pioneering contributions on the hydrogeology and biogeochemistry of wetlands and contaminant transport". He was elected a fellow of the American Geophysical Union in 2013.
Siegel served as the president of the Geological Society of America from July 2019 until June 2020.
In 2022, he was awarded the Marcus Milling Legendary Geoscientist Medal by the American Geosciences Institute.
Personal life
Siegel was born on October 24, 1947, into a Jewish family in New York City. He lives in Syracuse with his wife Bette Siegel.
In 2005, he wrote a cookbook titled "From Lokshen to Lo Mein: The Jewish Love Affair With Chinese Food" (Gefen, ).
References
External links
1947 births
21st-century American geologists
American hydrographers
American hydrologists
Environmental scientists
Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Fellows of the Geological Society of America
Fellows of the American Geophysical Union
Living people
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
Pennsylvania State University alumni
Presidents of the Geological Society of America
Syracuse University faculty
University of Minnesota alumni
University of Rhode Island alumni | Donald I. Siegel | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 1,042 | [
"American environmental scientists",
"Environmental scientists"
] |
67,614,375 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamaecydin | Chamaecydin is a chemical compound with the molecular formula C30H40O3. It is made up of three six-membered rings and two five-membered rings and has one polar hydroxyl functional group. It is well preserved in the rock record and is only found in a specific family of conifers, the swamp cypress subfamily. The presence and abundance of chamaecydin in the rock record can reveal environmental changes in ancient biomes.
Background
Notable properties
Chamaecydin is a hexacarboxylic triterpene with a highly conjugated core. Its melting point is 197–198 °C. Its crystal structure is orthorhombic. Chamaecydin shows significant antifeedant activity against the larvae of Spodoptera litura and has an antifeedant index (AFI) of +0.44
Preservation
Chamaecydin is a biomarker for certain species of Conifer trees. Once living organism die, the organic molecules they biosynthesized often undergo various chemical transformations in the soil and thus usually retain only basic structures of the molecules that were synthesized. These modified molecules are biomarkers but can often only be used as chemical tracers for a wide group of organisms. Chamaecydin is rare because it is a polar molecule that is found perfectly preserved millions of years later, and can therefore be used to trace specific species. Despite being a polar compound, chamaecydin is likely preserved because it is found trapped in resinous plant material, where it is prevented from bonding to kerogen. In the paleorecord, it is found in clayey sediments, which prevents further oxidation. Chamaecydin is found in concentrations ranging 3–8.7 mg/g of organic carbon.
Biological sources
It was first isolated from the seed of Chamaecyparis obtusa (Cupressaceae) and then from the leaves of Cryptomeria japonica D. Don. Chamaecydin has since been found to be unique to the swamp cypress subfamily (Taxodioideae), specifically, it has been most studied in these species: Cryptomeria japonica, Glyptostrobus pensilis, Taxodium distichum, and Taxodium mucronatum. The molecule is found in the leaflets, seed cones, and wood of the cypress trees and can be traced back to the Cretaceous period ( ). The other key biomarkers for this sub-family are ferruginol and 7α-p-cymenylferruginol. The synthesis methods of chamaecydin have not yet been studied.
Occurrence
Conifers, deduced by the presence of chamaecydin in the paleorecord, managed to flourish across a wide range of latitudes over Earth's history. Below are some well studied occurrences of conifers.
The paleoflora of the Maritza-East basin was a marine environment that developed limnic conditions due to a marine regression. The area then experienced alternating dry and wet periods from intense precipitation during the Oligocene to Pliocene epochs (33.9-2.58 Ma). We can infer that the forested flood plains were dominated by Taxodioideae because of the presence of chamaecydin. The biomarker is captured in 3 thick lignite beds that formed in the dry periods, with one bed reaching 30 m in thickness.
Chamaecydin also confirms that large deciduous conifer forests were present north of the Arctic Circle (78 N) during the mid Eocene (45 Ma) at Axel Heiberg island. This is a unique habitat, which required them to be dormant during 3 months of winter darkness. The Arctic Circle at this time was very different from today: it was ice free and warm (12-17 degrees warmer than today) with lots of precipitation. These deposits occur in fluvial and lacustrine settings.
The mid Eocene (45 Ma) resinites from brown coal pits in northern Germany contain chamaecydin and reveal a cypress semitropical swamp environment.
References
Triterpenes
Biomarkers
Tetracyclic compounds
Spiro compounds
Cyclopropanes
Isopropyl compounds | Chamaecydin | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 885 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Biomarkers",
"Spiro compounds"
] |
67,614,629 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turner%20angle | The Turner angle Tu, introduced by Ruddick(1983) and named after J. Stewart Turner, is a parameter used to describe the local stability of an inviscid water column as it undergoes double-diffusive convection. The temperature and salinity attributes, which generally determine the water density, both respond to the water vertical structure. By putting these two variables in orthogonal coordinates, the angle with the axis can indicate the importance of the two in stability. Turner angle is defined as:
where tan−1 is the four-quadrant arctangent; α is the coefficient of thermal expansion; β is the equivalent coefficient for the addition of salinity, sometimes referred to as the "coefficient of saline contraction"; θ is potential temperature; and S is salinity. The relation between Tu and stability is as shown
If −45° < Tu < 45°, the column is statically stable.
If −90° < Tu < −45°, the column is unstable to diffusive convection.
If 45° < Tu < 90°, the column is unstable to salt fingering.
If −90° > Tu or Tu > 90°, the column is statically unstable to Rayleigh–Taylor instability.
Relation to density ratio
Turner angle is related to the density ratio mathematically by:
Meanwhile, Turner angle has more advantages than density ratio in aspects of:
The infinite scale of is replaced by a finite one running from +π to -π;
The strong fingering () and weak fingering () regions occupy about the same space on the Tu scale;
The indeterminate value obtained when is well defined in terms of Tu;
The regimes and their corresponding angles are easy to remember, and symmetric in the sense that if Tu corresponds to Rρ, then -Tu corresponds to Rρ−1. This links roughly equal strengths of finger and diffusive sense convection.
Nevertheless, Turner angle is not as directly obvious as density ratio when assessing different attributions of thermal and haline stratification. Its strength mainly focuses on classification.
Physical description
Turner angle is usually discussed when researching ocean stratification and double diffusion.
Turner angle assesses the vertical stability, indicating the density of the water column changes with depth. The density is generally related to potential temperature and salinity profile: the cooler and saltier the water is, the denser it is. As the light water overlays on the dense water, the water column is stably stratified. The buoyancy force preserves stable stratification. The Brunt-Vaisala frequency (N) is a measure of stability. If N2>0, the fluid is stably stratified.
A stably-statified fluid may be doubly stable. For instance, in the ocean, if the temperature decreases with depth (∂θ/∂z>0) and salinity increases with depth (∂S/∂z<0), then that part of the ocean is stably stratified with respect to both θ and S. In this state, the Turner angle is between -45° and 45°.
However, the fluid column can maintain static stability even if two attributes have opposite effects on the stability; the effect of one just has to have the predominant effect, overwhelming the smaller effect. In this sort of stable stratification, double diffusion occurs. Both attributes diffuse in opposite directions, reducing stability and causing mixing and turbulence. If the slower-diffusing component is the one that is stably-stratified, then the vertical gradient will stay smooth. If the faster-diffusing component is the one providing stability, then the interface will develop long "fingers", as diffusion will create pockets of fluid with intermediate attributes, but not intermediate density.
In the ocean, heat diffuses faster than salt. If colder, fresher water overlies warmer, saltier water, the salinity structure is stable while the temperature structure is unstable (∂θ/∂z<0, ∂S/∂z<0). In these diffusive cases, the Turner angle is -45° to -90°. If warmer, saltier water overlies colder, fresher water (∂θ/∂z>0, ∂S/∂z>0), salt fingering can be expected. This is because patchy mixing will create pockets of cold, salty water and pockets of warm, fresh water. and these pockets will sink and rise. In these fingering cases, the Turner angle is 45° to 90°.
Since Turner angle can indicate the thermal and haline properties of the water column, it is used to discuss thermohaline water structures. For instance, it can be used to define the boundaries of the subarctic front.
Characteristics
The global meridional Turner angle distributions at the surface and 300-m depth in different seasons are investigated by Tippins, Duncan & Tomczak, Matthias (2003), which indicates the overall stability of the ocean over a long-time scale. It's worth noting that 300-m depth is deep enough to be beneath the mixed layer during all seasons over most of the subtropics, yet shallow enough to be located entirely in the permanent thermocline, even in the tropics.
At the surface, as the temperature and salinity increase from the Subpolar Front towards subtropics, the Turner angle is positive, while it becomes negative due to the meridional salinity gradient being reversed on the equatorial side of the subtropical surface salinity maximum. Tu becomes positive again in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans near the equator. A band of negative Tu in the South Pacific extends westward along 45°S, produced by the low salinities because of plenty of rainfall, off the southern coast of Chile.
In 300-m depth, it is dominated by positive Tu nearly everywhere except for only narrow bands of negative Turner angles. This reflects the shape of the permanent thermocline, which sinks to its greatest depth in the center of the oceanic gyres and then rises again towards the equator, and which also indicates a vertical structure in temperature and salinity where both decrease with depth.
Availability
The function of Turner angle is available:
For Python, published in the GSW Oceanographic Toolbox from the function gsw_Turner_Rsubrho.
For R, please reference this page Home/CRAN/gsw/gsw_Turner_Rsubrho: Turner Angle and Density Ratio.
For MATLAB, please reference this page GSW-Matlab/gsw_Turner_Rsubrho.m.
References
External links
The Gibbs SeaWater (GSW) Oceanographic Toolbox of TEOS-10
gsw_Turner_Rsubrho
Home/CRAN/gsw/gsw_Turner_Rsubrho: Turner Angle and Density Ratio.
GSW-Matlab/gsw_Turner_Rsubrho.m
Fluid dynamics
Oceanography | Turner angle | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Engineering",
"Environmental_science"
] | 1,436 | [
"Hydrology",
"Applied and interdisciplinary physics",
"Oceanography",
"Chemical engineering",
"Piping",
"Fluid dynamics"
] |
67,615,206 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxyarchaeol | Hydroxyarchaeol is a core lipid unique to archaea, similar to archaeol, with a hydroxide functional group at the carbon-3 position of one of its ether side chains. It is found exclusively in certain taxa of methanogenic archaea, and is a common biomarker for methanogenesis and methane-oxidation. Isotopic analysis of hydroxyarchaeol can be informative about the environment and substrates for methanogenesis.
Discovery
Hydroxyarchaeol was first identified by Dennis G. Sprott and colleagues in 1990 from Methanosaeta concilii by a combination of TLC, NMR and mass spectrometric analysis.
Structure and function
The lipid consists of a glycerol backbone with two C20 phytanyl ether chains attached, one of which has a hydroxyl (-OH) group attached at the C3 carbon. It is one of the major core lipids of methanogenic archaea alongside archaeol, forming the basis of their cell membrane. The two major forms are sn-2- and sn-3-hydroxyarchaeol, depending on if the hydroxyl group is on the sn-2 or sn-3 phytanyl chain of the glycerol backbone.
Methanogen biomarker
Use of hydroxyarchaeol as a biomarker was a primary way to identify methanogens in the environment, though it has become supplementary to metagenomic and 16S rRNA techniques for identifying phylogeny. While hydroxyarchaeol has only been identified in methanogenic archaea, not all methanogens count it among their core lipids. Other methanogens may contain different derivatives of archaeol, including cyclic archaeol and caldarchaeol based on taxonomic differences. Hydroxyarchaeol has been identified in many different taxa, including within the orders Methanococcales, Methanosarcinales, which contains the genus Methanosaeta, and a genus from the order Methanobacteriales. There is evidence that there is a taxonomic preference for the sn-2 vs sn-3 form based on phylogeny, as a mix of the two forms do not tend to appear in the same organism, but the reason for this difference is not well understood. Because of the hydroxyl group, which is prone to degradation over time, hydroxyarchaeol has not been observed in ancient samples, and thus is thought to indicate modern sources of methanogens .
Measurement techniques
Original measurements of hydroxyarchaeol were done using TLC and NMR, but have become dominated by gas-chromatograph/mass spectrometry. For most methods, extraction of the core lipid is typically done using variations of a Bligh-Dyer method, which makes use of the various polarities and miscibility of dichloromethane (DCM), methanol, and water. Acidic conditions using trichloroacetic acid (TCA) during extraction and additional cleanup of samples with polar solvents such as DCM is often needed to better isolate the lipids of interest.
GC-MS
Prior to GC-MS analysis, the intact hydroxyarchaeol lipid is typically hydrolyzed to the core lipid component and derivatized by adding trimethyl silyl (TMS) groups to the free hydroxyl functional groups. This allows for the lipid to volatilize in the GC and reach the MS analyzer. Because hydroxyarchaeol has multiple sites that can be modified after TMS derivatization, the observed mass spectra can be either the mono- or di-TMS derivative, and need to be compared to authentic standards to properly identify and quantify. For identification and quantification, the mass spectrometer typically utilizes a quadrupole mass analyzer, but isotopic analysis uses an isotope-ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS) that has higher mass resolution and sensitivity.
δ13C Isotope ratio analysis
The relative isotopic ratio of carbon (δ13C) found in hydroxyarchaeol is used to identify what the methane-associated organism is using as a carbon source. Carbon sources in the environment will have a measurable δ13C signature that can be matched with the biomarkers found in an organism, which will gain the isotopic signature of its food source. Since archaea that make hydroxyarchaeol can harness a number of carbon sources, including dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), methanol, trimethylamine, and methane, this is a useful way to determine which is the primary source of energy, or if there is a mixture of use in the environment.
Case Study
Hydroxyarchaeol has been found in peat bogs and methane seeps in the deep ocean as a marker of both methanogens and methanotrophs. The deep sea sediment hydroxyarchaeol had very depleted δ13C at methane seeps. Both the methane and DIC present also had depleted δ13C values, but not as a perfect match to the identified biomarker. By modeling the isotopic ratio of DIC and methane to the isotopic ratio of the biomarkers, the researchers could estimate the relative contribution to biosynthesis and metabolic pathways that each source had for the organism. The model could predict a relative contribution that matched well with actual measurements, indicating there was mixed metabolism occurring at these sites, with specific biosynthetic pathways using different proportions of carbon derived from each source. This method made use of hydroxyarchaeol in the bulk sample to target the metabolism of a specific group of microbes without need for exhaustive separations of different organisms, making it useful for environmental analysis.
References
Glycerol ethers
Lipids
Biomarkers | Hydroxyarchaeol | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 1,249 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Biomolecules by chemical classification",
"Biomarkers",
"Lipids"
] |
67,615,453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian%20Neutral%20Strip | Polish–Lithuanian Neutral Strip was a demilitarised zone between Lithuania and Republic of Central Lithuania, and later Poland, that was established on 17 December 1920, following the treaty of Kaunas and disestablished on 22 May 1923. It was established by the League of Nations, to stop countries from fighting, following the Central Lithuanian Offensive on Kaunas. The zone was located on the borders of the separated countries between towns of Pabradė and Valkininkai and was, on average, 6 km wide on each side of the border.
History
It was a demilitarised zone, with the presence of the military forces and installations forbidden within its area. The entrance to the zone had only police forces, that however failed to keep the order within it. The zone was dominated by Polish-speaking population. In the area was organised the propaganda operation targeted to Polish-speakers, as the League of Nations were preparing the plebiscite that would determine whether the population of Vilnius Region wanted to live in Lithuania and Poland. The plebiscite however had never happened. In the zone operated various Lithuanian and Polish militias. Lithuanian militias organized attacks on Polish-speaking inhabitants, including attacks on 24 April 1922 and 5 January 23. Following the attacks, Poland demanded the abolition of the zone.
On the southernmost Lithuanian part of the zone operated the self-proclaimed Warwiszki Government, a resistance movement operating in Varviškė and neighboring villages, formed on 20 February 1920 as self-defense forces of the local Polish-speaking inhabitants from attacks of Lithuanian militias. The body eventually started acting as a rebel state fighting against the Lithuanian rule of the region and aiming to the preservation of Polish governance in the region and possible reunification with Poland. During its existence, Lithuanian militias backed by the army and police attempted several times to dissolve the local government. The self-proclaimed state was eventually dissolved on 22 May 1923, after the Lithuanian army attacked and raided the villages of , and .
The fights in the neutral zone had affected vies of the local population on their national identity. While before that, a huge portion of local Polish-speakers identified themselves as Lithuanians, in the meaning of inhabitants of Lithuania, after the events, the population had shifted to identify themselves as either Poles or Lithuanians, as members of the ethnic groups.
See also
Lithuania–Poland border
Notes
References
Border barriers
Demilitarized zones
Lithuania–Poland border
1920 establishments in Poland
1920 establishments in Lithuania
1923 disestablishments in Poland
1923 disestablishments in Lithuania
Republic of Central Lithuania | Polish–Lithuanian Neutral Strip | [
"Engineering"
] | 514 | [
"Separation barriers",
"Border barriers"
] |
67,615,655 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%2098-59%20b | L 98-59 b is an exoplanet having a size between that of the Earth and Mars and a mass only half that of Venus. It orbits L 98-59, a red dwarf 35 light-years away in the constellation Volans. There are at least 3 (possibly 4) other planets in the system: L 98-59 c, d, e, and the unconfirmed L 98-59 f. Its discovery was announced on 27 June 2019 on the NASA website. It was the smallest planet discovered by TESS until the discovery of LHS 1678b, and was the lowest-mass planet whose mass has been measured using radial velocities until Proxima Centauri d was found in 2022.
Characteristics
L 98-59 b orbits in 2.25 days and stays so close to the star that it receives 22 times more energy than Earth receives from the Sun. There are 4 confirmed planets in the system but they are not in the habitable zone of the host star. The temperature of the planet detected by TESS is 330 °C. In 2022, transmission spectroscopy has indicated that the planet has either no atmosphere or opaque atmosphere with the high-altitude hazes.
References
Exoplanets discovered in 2019
Exoplanets discovered by TESS
Transiting exoplanets
Volans
Sub-Earth exoplanets | L 98-59 b | [
"Astronomy"
] | 275 | [
"Volans",
"Constellations"
] |
61,147,432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party%20of%20Shariy | Party of Shariy (; , PSh) is a banned political party in Ukraine founded by political blogger Anatoly Shariy. Its official proclaimed ideology is libertarianism.
On 22 March 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine decided to suspend the Party of Shariy because of alleged ties with Russia. An Administrative Court of Appeal banned the party on 16 June 2022. The party exercised its right to appeal to the Supreme Court of Ukraine. On 6 September 2022, the Supreme Court rejected this appeal and thus finally banned its activities in Ukraine.
History
In the beginning of June 2019, Anatoly Shariy - a Ukrainian blogger famous for his criticism of the Ukrainian media and government - recorded a video in which he announced the establishment of his own political party. Shortly thereafter, he published a video splash screen on his pages in social networks, in which he throws a red balloon towards the audience. Shariy did not explain what this means, but on his website there was a message that hinted about creating a party. Later on, the red balloon became a symbol of the party and its pre-election campaign.
The party was created by renaming of an existing political party United Ukraine. United Ukraine had been registered in February 2015. On 6 June 2019, Party of Shariy was officially registered in Ukraine. The party took part in the 2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election. The eponymous leader of the party, Shariy, was denied registration by the Central Election Commission of Ukraine as a candidate for the election. This was on the grounds that he did not meet the requirement of a term of five-year residence in the country immediately preceding the elections.
Previously, Shariy was most known for his investigations into police and other law enforcement corruption during the Yanukovych government. He subsequently sought asylum in the European Union in 2012 due to libel, defamation, and alleged politically motivated persecution by Ukrainian law enforcement bodies at the time. However, the party was officially registered by the Central Election Commission of Ukraine and entered into the election ballot under number 17, immediately following the Radical Party and preceding political party Holos on the list. On 2 July 2019, Anatoly Shariy was registered as a candidate for parliamentary election 2019 by the Central Election Commission of Ukraine. On the next day, 3 July 2019, the decision was reversed.
2019 parliamentary election performance
In the 2019 parliamentary election the party gained 327,152 votes (2.23% of total, position #10). As the party did not receive 5% of the vote, it did not win any parliamentary seats. The party also failed to win a constituency seat. It was most successful in the east and south of Ukraine (5.55% in Donetsk and 4.72% in Odesa regions). "The Party of Shariy" took fourth place in the electoral district abroad with 4.72% of the voters.
As the party won more than 2% of votes, it was originally entitled to funding from the budget for its support. However, on 2 October 2019, the Verkhovna Rada adopted the draft law No. 1029, which deprived parties of state funding that had won less than 5 per cent of the vote. After this law was adopted, Party of Shariy lost about 441,511 thousand euros in state funding.
After the elections in 2019
On 4 July 2019, Anatoly Shariy said in his video that his party was going into opposition to the pro-presidential party "Servant of the People" because Volodymyr Zelensky failed to meet expectations.
Regional elections 2020 in Ukraine
Together with the Opposition Bloc, the Party of Shariy was considered a competitor to the pro-Russian Opposition Platform — For Life in the 2020 Ukrainian local elections. However, the leader of the Opposition Platform — For Life, Viktor Medvedchuk declared that he does not view the Party of Shariy as a competitor, but as allies.
The party won 52 seats in local councils in east and south Ukraine.
2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine/banning of the party
On 15 February 2022, in the run-up to Russia's 2022 invasion of Ukraine, the local deputy of the Party of Shariy in Odesa spoke out against support for territorial self-defense units, calling them "bandits." She remarked that Russian military exercises had already ended.
On 22 March 2022, Party of Shariy was one of several political parties suspended by the National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, along with Derzhava, Left Opposition, Nashi, Opposition Bloc, Opposition Platform — For Life, Progressive Socialist Party of Ukraine, Socialist Party of Ukraine, Union of Left Forces, and the Volodymyr Saldo Bloc.
The party's faction in Kharkiv City Council was disbanded due to lack of members.
On 16 June 2022, the Eighth Administrative Court of Appeal banned the party. The property of the party and all its branches were transferred to the state. The decision was open to appeal at the Supreme Court of Ukraine. (Of all the parties suspended on 20 March 2022 only the Progressive Socialist Party of Ukraine and Opposition Platform — For Life actively opposed its banning.)
At its meeting of 6 September 2022 the Supreme Court rejected the appeal of Party of Shariy and thus banned its activities in Ukraine. The reasons given for banning the party were: destabilization of the social and political situation in Ukraine, spread of anti-Ukrainian propaganda regarding the change of the constitutional system by violent means, violation of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Ukraine, propaganda of war, violence in conditions of military aggression of the Russian Federation.
Party members
Apart from the leader of namesake party Anatoly Shariy, the top-10 of the Party list during the 2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election included:
Olha Shariy (Bondarenko) - Ukrainian journalist and blogger
Pavlo Ullakh - journalist and historian, Ph.D. in World History
Yevgeniy Yevtukhov (aka DJ Sender) - Ukrainian DJ, music producer, songwriter and singer; the owner of Send Records and its sublabels; the founder of the DJFM radio station
Ivan Mamchur - businessperson, expert in online-marketing and online education
Artur Talabira - journalist and reporter; theatre and movie actor
Mykola Gladenky - political science specialist
Dmytro Butenko - IT-entrepreneur
Roman Katerinchuk - IT-entrepreneur
Antonina Beloglazova was the third number in the party list until 2019. Antonina Beloglazova lost her position in the "Shariy Party" due to the scandal of 2015-2016. According to the media, she cooperated with Russia and the Russian National Liberation Movement, which is known for its presence at pro-Putin demonstrations. As soon as this information became available - Anatolij Shariy ended his cooperation with Antonina Beloglazova.
The party's political council consists of two people - it is headed by Olha Shariy and the other member is her first deputy Oleksandr Vyunyk. According to the Unified State Register, in June 2020 the party had 16 regional and 1 city (Kyiv) local branches.
Scandals
Relations with Russian ultra-nationalists and anti-government coups
Antonina Beloglazova, the second person in his party and editor of the Shariy website, collaborated in Russia in 2015–2016 with the National Liberation Movement (NCD), which aims to "restore Russia's sovereignty". This movement has been repeatedly observed at various pro-Putin events.
Konstantin Mamrosenko, Beloglazova's brother, who heads department "B" in the "Shariy Party", together with "Motorola" took part in the seizure of the Kharkiv Regional State Administration during the so-called "Russian Spring" in 2014.
Tarasy Plaksiy, the curator of the Shariy party in Khmelnytskyi, Chernivtsi and Ternopil regions, was at the Alabino military training ground in the Russian Federation in 2017, where Russian special forces are stationed, and took part in the patriotic event "Fight for Russia Day".
Threats and attacks
On supporters and party members
The supporters and members of the Party of Shariy were repeatedly attacked, using physical force, a mobile phone was also broken in one of these attacks, and soon one of the attackers was identified: a certain Konstiantyn Ustyuzhin, a citizen of Ukraine. In connection with this, a statement about the attack was written and then sent to the National Police of Ukraine for further investigation. After the " Mute President - Not My President" action, a wave of attacks on supporters of the "Party of Shariy" began.
Thus, on 24 June in Kharkiv, a supporter of the " Party of Shariy" - Nikita Rozhenko was beaten. Criminal proceedings on the attack on Nikita Rozhenko, coordinator of the "Party of Shariy" in Kharkiv, are being investigated as an attempt on murder committed by prior conspiracy of a group of people.
This has been followed by regular violent actions against supporters of the "Shariy Party". In Vinnytsia, Mykolaiv, Kharkiv, Kyiv, Zhytomyr, Cherkasy. Many of the supporters had broken ribs.
A "safari" in the Party members was openly announced by the National Corps.
"The mute president is not my president" protest
On 17 June 2020, by the initiative of the Leader of the political party "Sharij Party" Anatoliy Sharij, a peaceful demonstration was organized in Kyiv against the inactivity of President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelenskyy, the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine and the law enforcement system as a whole on the protection of constitutional rights and freedoms of citizens.
In total about 2 thousand people came out to the action. Participants of the action shouted out: "Don't be afraid of people, be afraid of the law", "Vova - come out", " Mute President is not my President", "Why did you go to the Presidents?". However, after the demonstration there was a fight between party supporters and nationalists.
About party opponents
According to the journalist Andriy Kachor () - he received threats from Sharij Party supporters after the publication on his site about the burning of Sharij Party agitation materials by unknown Vinnytsia people.
The police of Vinnytsia region identified the attacker on the chief editor of the local newspaper Andrey Kachor and found no connection between the attack and Kachor's conflict with video blogger Anatoliy Shariy.
"The police said they had found the man who had beaten Kachor. The attacker was a 27-year-old resident of Vinnytsia.
According to him, there was a verbal altercation between him and Kachor in the cafe, which turned into a fight. The man denies any relation with the video blogger Anatolia Shariy, and calls the conflict situational."
Controversies
The party is accused of russophilia. The leader, Anatoly Shariy, strongly denies the allegations.
References
External links
Official profile of Party of Shariy at VK
2019 establishments in Ukraine
Banned political parties in Ukraine
Direct democracy parties
E-democracy
Eurosceptic parties in Ukraine
Liberal parties in Ukraine
Libertarian parties
Political parties established in 2019
Political parties disestablished in 2022
Political parties in Ukraine
Russophilic parties in Ukraine | Party of Shariy | [
"Technology"
] | 2,398 | [
"E-democracy",
"Computing and society"
] |
61,147,574 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnette%E2%80%93Bos%C3%A1k%E2%80%93Lederberg%20graph | In the mathematical field of graph theory, the Barnette–Bosák–Lederberg graph is a cubic (that is, 3-regular) polyhedral graph with no Hamiltonian cycle, the smallest such graph possible. It was discovered in the mid-1960s by Joshua Lederberg, David Barnette, and Juraj Bosák, after whom it is named. It has 38 vertices and 57 edges.
Other larger non-Hamiltonian cubic polyhedral graphs include the 46-vertex Tutte graph and a 44-vertex graph found by Emanuels Grīnbergs using Grinberg's theorem.
The Barnette–Bosák–Lederberg graph has a similar construction to the Tutte graph but is composed of two Tutte fragments, connected through a pentagonal prism, instead of three connected through a tetrahedron.
Without the constraint of having exactly three edges at every vertex, much smaller non-Hamiltonian polyhedral graphs are possible, including the Goldner–Harary graph and the Herschel graph.
References
Individual graphs
Regular graphs
Planar graphs
Hamiltonian paths and cycles | Barnette–Bosák–Lederberg graph | [
"Mathematics"
] | 223 | [
"Planes (geometry)",
"Planar graphs"
] |
61,147,824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C22H24Br2N10O2 | {{DISPLAYTITLE:C22H24Br2N10O2}}
The molecular formula C22H24Br2N10O2 (molar mass: 620.310 g/mol) may refer to:
Ageliferin
Sceptrin
Molecular formulas | C22H24Br2N10O2 | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 58 | [
"Molecules",
"Set index articles on molecular formulas",
"Isomerism",
"Molecular formulas",
"Matter"
] |
61,148,222 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C10H13N3O | {{DISPLAYTITLE:C10H13N3O}}
The molecular formula C10H13N3O may refer to:
AL-34662
ODMA (drug) | C10H13N3O | [
"Chemistry"
] | 42 | [
"Isomerism",
"Set index articles on molecular formulas"
] |
61,148,504 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limiting%20absorption%20principle | In mathematics, the limiting absorption principle (LAP) is a concept from operator theory and scattering theory that consists of choosing the "correct" resolvent of a linear operator at the essential spectrum based on the behavior of the resolvent near the essential spectrum. The term is often used to indicate that the resolvent, when considered not in the original space (which is usually the space), but in certain weighted spaces (usually , see below), has a limit as the spectral parameter approaches the essential spectrum.
This concept developed from the idea of introducing complex parameter into the Helmholtz equation for selecting a particular solution. This idea is credited to Vladimir Ignatowski, who was considering the propagation and absorption of the electromagnetic waves in a wire.
It is closely related to the Sommerfeld radiation condition and the limiting amplitude principle (1948).
The terminology – both the limiting absorption principle and the limiting amplitude principle – was introduced by Aleksei Sveshnikov.
Formulation
To find which solution to the Helmholz equation with nonzero right-hand side
with some fixed , corresponds to the outgoing waves,
one considers the limit
The relation to absorption can be traced to the expression
for the electric field used by Ignatowsky: the absorption corresponds to nonzero imaginary part of , and the equation satisfied by is given by the Helmholtz equation (or reduced wave equation) , with
having negative imaginary part (and thus with no longer belonging to the spectrum of ).
Above, is magnetic permeability, is electric conductivity, is dielectric constant,
and is the speed of light in vacuum.
Example and relation to the limiting amplitude principle
One can consider the Laplace operator in one dimension, which is an unbounded operator acting in and defined on the domain , the Sobolev space. Let us describe its resolvent, . Given the equation
,
then, for the spectral parameter from the resolvent set , the solution is given by
where is the convolution of with the fundamental solution :
where the fundamental solution is given by
To obtain an operator bounded in , one needs to use the branch of the square root which has positive real part (which decays for large absolute value of ), so that the convolution of with makes sense.
One can also consider the limit of the fundamental solution as approaches the spectrum of , given by
.
Assume that approaches , with some .
Depending on whether approaches in the complex plane from above () or from below () of the real axis, there will be two different limiting expressions:
when approaches from above and
when approaches from below.
The resolvent (convolution with ) corresponds to outgoing waves of the inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation , while corresponds to incoming waves.
This is directly related to the limiting amplitude principle:
to find which solution corresponds to the outgoing waves,
one considers the inhomogeneous wave equation
with zero initial data . A particular solution to the inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation corresponding to outgoing waves is obtained as the limit of for large times.
Estimates in the weighted spaces
Let be a linear operator in a Banach space , defined on the domain .
For the values of the spectral parameter from the resolvent set of the operator, , the resolvent is bounded when considered as a linear operator acting from to itself, , but its bound depends on the spectral parameter and tends to infinity as approaches the spectrum of the operator, . More precisely, there is the relation
Many scientists refer to the "limiting absorption principle" when they want to say that the resolvent of a particular operator , when considered as acting in certain weighted spaces, has a limit (and/or remains uniformly bounded) as the spectral parameter approaches the essential spectrum, .
For instance, in the above example of the Laplace operator in one dimension, , defined on the domain , for , both operators with the integral kernels are not bounded in (that is, as operators from to itself), but will both be uniformly bounded when considered as operators
with fixed . The spaces are defined as spaces of locally integrable functions such that their -norm,
is finite.
See also
Sommerfeld radiation condition
Limiting amplitude principle
References
Linear operators
Operator theory
Scattering theory
Spectral theory | Limiting absorption principle | [
"Chemistry",
"Mathematics"
] | 852 | [
"Functions and mappings",
"Scattering theory",
"Mathematical objects",
"Linear operators",
"Scattering",
"Mathematical relations"
] |
61,148,736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue%20testing | Fatigue testing is a specialised form of mechanical testing that is performed by applying cyclic loading to a coupon or structure. These tests are used either to generate fatigue life and crack growth data, identify critical locations or demonstrate the safety of a structure that may be susceptible to fatigue. Fatigue tests are used on a range of components from coupons through to full size test articles such as automobiles and aircraft.
Fatigue tests on coupons are typically conducted using servo hydraulic test machines which are capable of applying large variable amplitude cyclic loads. Constant amplitude testing can also be applied by simpler oscillating machines. The fatigue life of a coupon is the number of cycles it takes to break the coupon. This data can be used for creating stress-life or strain-life curves. The rate of crack growth in a coupon can also be measured, either during the test or afterward using fractography. Testing of coupons can also be carried out inside environmental chambers where the temperature, humidity and environment that may affect the rate of crack growth can be controlled.
Because of the size and unique shape of full size test articles, special test rigs are built to apply loads through a series of hydraulic or electric actuators.
Actuators aim to reproduce the significant loads experienced by a structure, which in the case of aircraft, may consist of manoeuvre, gust, buffet and ground-air-ground (GAG) loading. A representative sample or block of loading is applied repeatedly until the safe life of the structure has been demonstrated or failures occur which need to be repaired. Instrumentation such as load cells, strain gauges and displacement gauges are installed on the structure to ensure the correct loading has been applied. Periodic inspections of the structure around critical stress concentrations such as holes and fittings are made to determine the time detectable cracks were found and to ensure any cracking that does occur, does not affect other areas of the test article. Because not all loads can be applied, any unbalanced structural loads are typically reacted out to the test floor through non-critical structure such as the undercarriage.
Airworthiness standards generally require a fatigue test to be carried out for large aircraft prior to certification to determine their safe life. Small aircraft may demonstrate safety through calculations, although typically larger scatter or safety factors are used because of the additional uncertainty involved.
Coupon tests
Fatigue tests are used to obtain material data such as the rate of growth of a fatigue crack that can be used with crack growth equations to predict the fatigue life. These tests usually determine the rate of crack growth per cycle versus the stress intensity factor range , where the minimum stress intensity factor corresponds to the minimum load for and is taken to be zero for , and is the stress ratio . Standardised tests have been developed to ensure repeatability and to allow the stress intensity factor to be easily determined but other shapes can be used providing the coupon is large enough to be mostly elastic.
Coupon shape
A variety of coupons can be used but some of the common ones are:
compact tension coupon (CT). The compact specimen uses the least amount of material for a specimen that is used to measure crack growth. Compact tension specimens typically use pins that are slightly smaller than the holes in the coupon to apply the loads. This method however prevents the accurate application of loads near zero and the coupon is therefore not recommended when negative loads need to be applied.
Centre Cracked Tension panel (CCT). The centre cracked tension or middle tension specimen is made from a flat sheet or bar containing two holes for attaching to grips .
Single Edge Notch Tension coupon (SENT). The single edge coupon is an elongated version of the compact tension coupon.
Instrumentation
The following instrumentation is commonly used for monitoring coupon tests:
Strain gauges are used to monitor the applied loading or stress fields around the crack tip. They may be placed beneath the path of the crack or on the back face of a compact tension coupon.
An extensometer or displacement gauge can be used to measure the crack tip opening displacement at the mouth of a crack. This value can be used to determine the stress intensity factor which will change with the length of the crack. Displacement gauges can also be used to measure the compliance of a coupon and the position during the loading cycle when contact between the opposite crack faces occurs in order to measure crack closure.
Applied test loads are usually monitored on the test machine with a load cell.
A travelling optical microscope can be use for measurement of the position of the crack tip.
Full scale fatigue tests
Full-scale tests may be used to:
Validate the proposed aircraft maintenance schedule.
Demonstrate the safety of a structure that may be susceptible to widespread fatigue damage.
Generate fatigue data
Validate expectations for crack initiation and growth pattern.
Identify critical locations
Validate software used to design and manufacture the aircraft.
Fatigue tests can also be used to determine the extent that widespread fatigue damage may be a problem.
Test article
Certification requires knowing and accounting for the complete load history that has been experienced by a test article.
Using test articles that have previously been used for static proof testing have caused problems where overloads have been applied and that can retard the rate of fatigue crack growth.
The test loads are typically recorded using a data acquisition system acquiring data from possibly thousands of inputs from instrumentation installed on the test article, including: strain gages, pressure gauges, load cells, LVDTs, etc.
Fatigue cracks typically initiate from high stress regions such as stress concentrations or material and manufacturing defects. It is important that the test article is representative of all of these features.
Cracks may initiate from the following sources:
Fretting, typically from high cycle count dynamic loads.
Mis-drilled holes or incorrectly sized holes for interference fit fasteners.
Material treatment and defects such as broken inclusions.
Stress concentrations such as holes and fillets.
Scratches, impact damage.
Loading sequence
A representative block of loading is applied repeatedly until the safe life of the structure has been demonstrated or failures occur which need to be repaired.
The size of the sequence is chosen so that the maximum loads which may cause retardation effects are applied sufficiently often, typically at least ten times throughout the test, so that there are no sequence effects.
The loading sequence is generally filtered to eliminate applying small non-fatigue damaging cycles that would take too long to apply. Two types of filtering are typically
used:
deadband filtering eliminates small cycles that completely fall within a certain range such as +/-3g.
rise-fall filtering eliminates small cycles that are less than a certain range such as 1g.
The testing rate of large structures is typically limited to a few Hz and needs to avoid the resonance frequency of the structure.
Test rig
All components that are not part of the test article or instrumentation are termed the test rig. The following components are typically found in full scale fatigue tests:
Whiffletrees. In order to apply the correct loads to various parts of the structure, a mechanism known as a whiffletree is used to distribute the loads from a loading actuator to the test article. Loads applied to a central point are distributed through a series of pin jointed connected beams to produce known loads at the end connections. Each end connection is typically attached to a pad which is bonded onto the structure such as an aircraft wing. Hundreds of pads are usually applied to reproduce the aerodynamic and inertial loads seen on wing. Because the whiffletree consists of tension linkages, they are unable to apply compressive loads and therefore, independent whiffletrees are typically used on the upper and lower sides of wing fatigue tests.
Hydraulic, electromagnetic or pneumatic actuators are used to apply loads to the structure, either directly or through the use of a whiffletree to distribute the loads. A load cell is placed inline with the actuator and is used by the load controller to control the loads into the actuator. When many actuators are used on a flexible test structure, there may be cross-interaction between the different actuators. The load controller must ensure that spurious loading cycles are not applied to the structure as a result of this interaction.
Reaction restraints. Many of the loads such as aerodynamic and internal forces are re-acted by internal forces which are not present during a fatigue test. Hence, the loads are reacted out of the structure at non-critical points such as the undercarriage or through restraints on the fuselage.
Linear variable differential transformer can be used to measure the displacement of critical locations on the structure. Limits on these displacements can be used to signal when a structure has failed and to automatically shut down the test.
Non-representative structure. Some test structure may be expensive or unavailable and are typically replaced on the test structure with an equivalent structure. Structure that is close to actuator attachment points may see an unrealistic load that makes these areas non-representative.
Instrumentation
The following instrumentation is typically used on a fatigue test:
strain gauges
accelerometers
displacement gauges
load cells
crack sensor
structural health monitoring sensors
It is important to install any strain gauges on the test article that are also used for monitoring fleet aircraft. This allows the same damage calculations to be performed on the test article that are used to track the fatigue life of fleet aircraft. This is the primary way of ensuring fleet aircraft do not exceed the safe-life determined from the fatigue test.
Inspections
Inspections form a component of a fatigue test. It is important to know when a detectable crack occurs in order to determine the certified life of each component in addition to minimising the damage to surrounding structure and to develop repairs that have minimal impact on the certification of the adjacent structure. Non-destructive inspections may be carried out during testing and destructive tests may be used at the end of testing to ensure the structure retains its load carrying capacity.
Certification
Test interpretation and certification involves using the results from the fatigue test to justify the safe life and operation of an item. The purpose of certification is to ensure the probability of failure in service is acceptably small. The following factors may need to be considered:
number of tests
symmetry of the test structure and the applied loading
installation and certification of repairs
scatter factors
material and manufacturing process variability
environment
criticality
Airworthy standards typically require that an aircraft remains safe even with the structure in a degraded state due to the presence of fatigue cracking.
Notable fatigue tests
Cold proof loading tests of the F-111. These tests involved applying static limit loads to aircraft which had been chilled to reduce the critical fracture size. Passing the test meant that there were no large fatigue cracks present. When cracks were present, the wings failed catastrophically.
The International Follow-On Structural Fatigue Test Program (IFOSTP) was a joint venture between Australia, Canada and the U.S. to fatigue test the F/A-18 Hornet. The Australian test involved the use of electrodynamic shakers and pneumatic airbags to simulate high angle of attack buffet loads over the empennage.
de Havilland Comet suffered a series of catastrophic failures that ultimately proved to be fatigue despite being fatigue tested.
Fatigue tests on 110 Mustang wing sets were carried out to determine the scatter in fatigue life.
The novel No Highway and movie No Highway in the Sky were about the fictional fatigue test of the fuselage of a passenger aircraft.
Fatigue tests have also been used to grow fatigue cracks that are too small to be detected.
References
Further reading
Survival analysis
External links
Aerospace engineering
Fracture mechanics
Materials degradation
Mechanical failure modes
Materials testing
Tests | Fatigue testing | [
"Materials_science",
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 2,328 | [
"Structural engineering",
"Mechanical failure modes",
"Fracture mechanics",
"Technological failures",
"Materials science",
"Materials testing",
"Aerospace engineering",
"Materials degradation",
"Mechanical failure"
] |
61,149,297 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LacED | LacED, also known as The Lactamase Engineering Database, is a database that identifies and corrects inconsistencies in already existing databases, namely Beta-lactamases. It integrates such information as mutations, sequence alignments, and structures in order to accomplish the task. As of the publication of the primary literature, LacED provides 2399 sequences entries and 37 structure entries. Example of this database in action is shown when 89 proteins from the microbial organisms and 35 proteins from cloning or expression vectors had new mutation profiles. Additionally, 55 proteins had inconsistent annotations in their TEM assignments or mutation profiles.
See also
Antimicrobial resistance databases
References
Antimicrobial resistance organizations
Biological databases | LacED | [
"Biology"
] | 144 | [
"Bioinformatics",
"Biological databases"
] |
61,149,311 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20approaches%20to%20redefining%20the%20kilogram | The scientific community examined several approaches to redefining the kilogram before deciding on a revision of the SI in November 2018. Each approach had advantages and disadvantages.
Prior to the redefinition, the kilogram and several other SI units based on the kilogram were defined by an artificial metal object called the international prototype of the kilogram (IPK). There was broad agreement that the older definition of the kilogram should be replaced.
The International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) approved a redefinition of the SI base units in November 2018 that defines the kilogram by defining the Planck constant to be exactly . This approach effectively defines the kilogram in terms of the second and the metre, and took effect on 20 May 2019.
In 1960, the metre, previously similarly having been defined with reference to a single platinum-iridium bar with two marks on it, was redefined in terms of an invariant physical constant (the wavelength of a particular emission of light emitted by krypton, and later the speed of light) so that the standard can be independently reproduced in different laboratories by following a written specification.
At the 94th Meeting of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) in 2005, it was recommended that the same be done with the kilogram.
In October 2010, the CIPM voted to submit a resolution for consideration at the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM), to "take note of an intention" that the kilogram be defined in terms of the Planck constant, (which has dimensions of energy times time) together with other physical constants. This resolution was accepted by the 24th conference of the CGPM in October 2011 and further discussed at the 25th conference in 2014. Although the Committee recognised that significant progress had been made, they concluded that the data did not yet appear sufficiently robust to adopt the revised definition, and that work should continue to enable the adoption at the 26th meeting, scheduled for 2018. Such a definition would theoretically permit any apparatus that was capable of delineating the kilogram in terms of the Planck constant to be used as long as it possessed sufficient precision, accuracy and stability. The Kibble balance is one way do this.
As part of this project, a variety of very different technologies and approaches were considered and explored over many years. Some of these approaches were based on equipment and procedures that would have enabled the reproducible production of new, kilogram-mass prototypes on demand using measurement techniques and material properties that are ultimately based on, or traceable to, physical constants. Others were based on devices that measured either the acceleration or weight of hand-tuned kilogram test masses and which expressed their magnitudes in electrical terms via special components that permit traceability to physical constants. Such approaches depend on converting a weight measurement to a mass, and therefore require the precise measurement of the strength of gravity in laboratories. All approaches would have precisely fixed one or more constants of nature at a defined value.
Kibble balance
The Kibble balance (known as a "watt balance" before 2016) is essentially a single-pan weighing scale that measures the electric power necessary to oppose the weight of a kilogram test mass as it is pulled by Earth's gravity. It is a variation of an ampere balance, with an extra calibration step that eliminates the effect of geometry. The electric potential in the Kibble balance is delineated by a Josephson voltage standard, which allows voltage to be linked to an invariant constant of nature with extremely high precision and stability. Its circuit resistance is calibrated against a quantum Hall effect resistance standard.
The Kibble balance requires extremely precise measurement of the local gravitational acceleration g in the laboratory, using a gravimeter. For instance when the elevation of the centre of the gravimeter differs from that of the nearby test mass in the Kibble balance, the NIST compensates for Earth's gravity gradient of , which affects the weight of a one-kilogram test mass by about .
In April 2007, the NIST's implementation of the Kibble balance demonstrated a combined relative standard uncertainty (CRSU) of 36μg. The UK's National Physical Laboratory's Kibble balance demonstrated a CRSU of 70.3μg in 2007. That Kibble balance was disassembled and shipped in 2009 to Canada's Institute for National Measurement Standards (part of the National Research Council), where research and development with the device could continue.
The virtue of electronic realisations like the Kibble balance is that the definition and dissemination of the kilogram no longer depends upon the stability of kilogram prototypes, which must be very carefully handled and stored. It frees physicists from the need to rely on assumptions about the stability of those prototypes. Instead, hand-tuned, close-approximation mass standards can simply be weighed and documented as being equal to one kilogram plus an offset value. With the Kibble balance, while the kilogram is delineated in electrical and gravity terms, all of which are traceable to invariants of nature; it is defined in a manner that is directly traceable to three fundamental constants of nature. The Planck constant defines the kilogram in terms of the second and the metre. By fixing the Planck constant, the definition of the kilogram depends in addition only on the definitions of the second and the metre. The definition of the second depends on a single defined physical constant: the ground state hyperfine splitting frequency of the caesium-133 atom . The metre depends on the second and on an additional defined physical constant: the speed of light . With the kilogram redefined in this manner, physical objects such as the IPK are no longer part of the definition, but instead become transfer standards.
Scales like the Kibble balance also permit more flexibility in choosing materials with especially desirable properties for mass standards. For instance, Pt10Ir could continue to be used so that the specific gravity of newly produced mass standards would be the same as existing national primary and check standards (≈21.55g/ml). This would reduce the relative uncertainty when making mass comparisons in air. Alternatively, entirely different materials and constructions could be explored with the objective of producing mass standards with greater stability. For instance, osmium-iridium alloys could be investigated if platinum's propensity to absorb hydrogen (due to catalysis of VOCs and hydrocarbon-based cleaning solvents) and atmospheric mercury proved to be sources of instability. Also, vapor-deposited, protective ceramic coatings like nitrides could be investigated for their suitability for chemically isolating these new alloys.
The challenge with Kibble balances is not only in reducing their uncertainty, but also in making them truly practical realisations of the kilogram. Nearly every aspect of Kibble balances and their support equipment requires such extraordinarily precise and accurate, state-of-the-art technology that—unlike a device like an atomic clock—few countries would currently choose to fund their operation. For instance, the NIST's Kibble balance used four resistance standards in 2007, each of which was rotated through the Kibble balance every two to six weeks after being calibrated in a different part of NIST headquarters facility in Gaithersburg, Maryland. It was found that simply moving the resistance standards down the hall to the Kibble balance after calibration altered their values 10ppb (equivalent to 10μg) or more. Present-day technology is insufficient to permit stable operation of Kibble balances between even biannual calibrations. When the new definition takes effect, it is likely there will only be a few—at most—Kibble balances initially operating in the world.
Other approaches
Several alternative approaches to redefining the kilogram that were fundamentally different from the Kibble balance were explored to varying degrees, with some abandoned. The Avogadro project, in particular, was important for the 2018 redefinition decision because it provided an accurate measurement of the Planck constant that was consistent with and independent of the Kibble balance method. The alternative approaches included:
Atom-counting approaches
Avogadro project
One Avogadro constant-based approach, known as the International Avogadro Coordination's Avogadro project, would define and delineate the kilogram as a 93.6mm diameter sphere of silicon atoms. Silicon was chosen because a commercial infrastructure with mature technology for creating defect-free, ultra-pure monocrystalline silicon already exists, the Czochralski process, to service the semiconductor industry.
To make a practical realisation of the kilogram, a silicon boule (a rod-like, single-crystal ingot) would be produced. Its isotopic composition would be measured with a mass spectrometer to determine its average relative atomic mass. The boule would be cut, ground, and polished into spheres. The size of a select sphere would be measured using optical interferometry to an uncertainty of about 0.3nm on the radius—roughly a single atomic layer. The precise lattice spacing between the atoms in its crystal structure (≈192pm) would be measured using a scanning X-ray interferometer. This permits its atomic spacing to be determined with an uncertainty of only three parts per billion. With the size of the sphere, its average atomic mass, and its atomic spacing known, the required sphere diameter can be calculated with sufficient precision and low uncertainty to enable it to be finish-polished to a target mass of one kilogram.
Experiments are being performed on the Avogadro Project's silicon spheres to determine whether their masses are most stable when stored in a vacuum, a partial vacuum, or ambient pressure. However, no technical means currently exist to prove a long-term stability any better than that of the IPK's, because the most sensitive and accurate measurements of mass are made with dual-pan balances like the BIPM's FB2 flexure-strip balance (see , below). Balances can only compare the mass of a silicon sphere to that of a reference mass. Given the latest understanding of the lack of long-term mass stability with the IPK and its replicas, there is no known, perfectly stable mass artefact to compare against. Single-pan scales, which measure weight relative to an invariant of nature, are not precise to the necessary long-term uncertainty of 10–20 parts per billion. Another issue to be overcome is that silicon oxidises and forms a thin layer (equivalent to silicon atoms deep) of silicon dioxide (quartz) and silicon monoxide. This layer slightly increases the mass of the sphere, an effect that must be accounted for when polishing the sphere to its finished size. Oxidation is not an issue with platinum and iridium, both of which are noble metals that are roughly as cathodic as oxygen and therefore don't oxidise unless coaxed to do so in the laboratory. The presence of the thin oxide layer on a silicon-sphere mass prototype places additional restrictions on the procedures that might be suitable to clean it to avoid changing the layer's thickness or oxide stoichiometry.
All silicon-based approaches would fix the Avogadro constant but vary in the details of the definition of the kilogram. One approach would use silicon with all three of its natural isotopes present. About 7.78% of silicon comprises the two heavier isotopes: 29Si and 30Si. As described in below, this method would define the magnitude of the kilogram in terms of a certain number of 12C atoms by fixing the Avogadro constant; the silicon sphere would be the practical realisation. This approach could accurately delineate the magnitude of the kilogram because the masses of the three silicon nuclides relative to 12C are known with great precision (relative uncertainties of 1ppb or better). An alternative method for creating a silicon sphere-based kilogram proposes to use isotopic separation techniques to enrich the silicon until it is nearly pure 28Si, which has a relative atomic mass of . With this approach, the Avogadro constant would not only be fixed, but so too would the atomic mass of 28Si. As such, the definition of the kilogram would be decoupled from 12C and the kilogram would instead be defined as atoms of 28Si (≈ fixed moles of 28Si atoms). Physicists could elect to define the kilogram in terms of 28Si even when kilogram prototypes are made of natural silicon (all three isotopes present). Even with a kilogram definition based on theoretically pure 28Si, a silicon-sphere prototype made of only nearly pure 28Si would necessarily deviate slightly from the defined number of moles of silicon to compensate for various chemical and isotopic impurities as well as the effect of surface oxides.
Carbon-12
Though not offering a practical realisation, this definition would precisely define the magnitude of the kilogram in terms of a certain number of carbon12 atoms. Carbon12 (12C) is an isotope of carbon. The mole is currently defined as "the quantity of entities (elementary particles like atoms or molecules) equal to the number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon12". Thus, the current definition of the mole requires that moles ( mol) of 12C has a mass of precisely one kilogram. The number of atoms in a mole, a quantity known as the Avogadro constant, is experimentally determined, and the current best estimate of its value is This new definition of the kilogram proposed to fix the Avogadro constant at precisely with the kilogram being defined as "the mass equal to that of atoms of 12C".
The accuracy of the measured value of the Avogadro constant is currently limited by the uncertainty in the value of the Planck constant. That relative standard uncertainty has been 50parts per billion (ppb) since 2006. By fixing the Avogadro constant, the practical effect of this proposal would be that the uncertainty in the mass of a 12C atom—and the magnitude of the kilogram—could be no better than the current 50ppb uncertainty in the Planck constant. Under this proposal, the magnitude of the kilogram would be subject to future refinement as improved measurements of the value of the Planck constant become available; electronic realisations of the kilogram would be recalibrated as required. Conversely, an electronic definition of the kilogram (see , below), which would precisely fix the Planck constant, would continue to allow moles of 12C to have a mass of precisely one kilogram but the number of atoms comprising a mole (the Avogadro constant) would continue to be subject to future refinement.
A variation on a 12C-based definition proposes to define the Avogadro constant as being precisely 3 (≈) atoms. An imaginary realisation of a 12-gram mass prototype would be a cube of 12C atoms measuring precisely atoms across on a side. With this proposal, the kilogram would be defined as "the mass equal to 3× atoms of 12C."
Ion accumulation
Another Avogadro-based approach, ion accumulation, since abandoned, would have defined and delineated the kilogram by precisely creating new metal prototypes on demand. It would have done so by accumulating gold or bismuth ions (atoms stripped of an electron) and counting them by measuring the electric current required to neutralise the ions. Gold (197Au) and bismuth (209Bi) were chosen because they can be safely handled and have the two highest atomic masses among the mononuclidic elements that are stable (gold) or effectively so (bismuth). See also Table of nuclides.
With a gold-based definition of the kilogram for instance, the relative atomic mass of gold could have been fixed as precisely , from the current value of . As with a definition based upon carbon12, the Avogadro constant would also have been fixed. The kilogram would then have been defined as "the mass equal to that of precisely atoms of gold" (precisely atoms of gold or about fixed moles).
In 2003, German experiments with gold at a current of only demonstrated a relative uncertainty of 1.5%. Follow-on experiments using bismuth ions and a current of 30mA were expected to accumulate a mass of 30g in six days and to have a relative uncertainty of better than 1 ppm. Ultimately, ionaccumulation approaches proved to be unsuitable. Measurements required months and the data proved too erratic for the technique to be considered a viable future replacement to the IPK.
Among the many technical challenges of the ion-deposition apparatus was obtaining a sufficiently high ion current (mass deposition rate) while simultaneously decelerating the ions so they could all deposit onto a target electrode embedded in a balance pan. Experiments with gold showed the ions had to be decelerated to very low energies to avoid sputtering effects—a phenomenon whereby ions that had already been counted ricochet off the target electrode or even dislodged atoms that had already been deposited. The deposited mass fraction in the 2003 German experiments only approached very close to 100% at ion energies of less than around (<1km/s for gold).
If the kilogram had been defined as a precise quantity of gold or bismuth atoms deposited with an electric current, not only would the Avogadro constant and the atomic mass of gold or bismuth have to have been precisely fixed, but also the value of the elementary charge (e), likely to (from the currently recommended value of ). Doing so would have effectively defined the ampere as a flow of electrons per second past a fixed point in an electric circuit. The SI unit of mass would have been fully defined by having precisely fixed the values of the Avogadro constant and elementary charge, and by exploiting the fact that the atomic masses of bismuth and gold atoms are invariant, universal constants of nature.
Beyond the slowness of making a new mass standard and the poor reproducibility, there were other intrinsic shortcomings to the ionaccumulation approach that proved to be formidable obstacles to ion-accumulation-based techniques becoming a practical realisation. The apparatus necessarily required that the deposition chamber have an integral balance system to enable the convenient calibration of a reasonable quantity of transfer standards relative to any single internal ion-deposited prototype. Furthermore, the mass prototypes produced by ion deposition techniques would have been nothing like the freestanding platinum-iridium prototypes currently in use; they would have been deposited onto—and become part of—an electrode imbedded into one pan of a special balance integrated into the device. Moreover, the ion-deposited mass wouldn't have had a hard, highly polished surface that can be vigorously cleaned like those of current prototypes. Gold, while dense and a noble metal (resistant to oxidation and the formation of other compounds), is extremely soft so an internal gold prototype would have to be kept well isolated and scrupulously clean to avoid contamination and the potential of wear from having to remove the contamination. Bismuth, which is an inexpensive metal used in low-temperature solders, slowly oxidises when exposed to room-temperature air and forms other chemical compounds and so would not have produced stable reference masses unless it was continually maintained in a vacuum or inert atmosphere.
Ampere-based force
This approach would define the kilogram as "the mass which would be accelerated at precisely when subjected to the per-metre force between two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, placed one metre apart in vacuum, through which flow a constant current of elementary charges per second".
Effectively, this would define the kilogram as a derivative of the ampere rather than the present relationship, which defines the ampere as a derivative of the kilogram. This redefinition of the kilogram would specify elementary charge (e) as precisely coulomb rather than the current recommended value of It would necessarily follow that the ampere (one coulomb per second) would also become an electric current of this precise quantity of elementary charges per second passing a given point in an electric circuit.
The virtue of a practical realisation based upon this definition is that unlike the Kibble balance and other scale-based methods, all of which require the careful characterisation of gravity in the laboratory, this method delineates the magnitude of the kilogram directly in the very terms that define the nature of mass: acceleration due to an applied force. Unfortunately, it is extremely difficult to develop a practical realisation based upon accelerating masses. Experiments over a period of years in Japan with a superconducting, 30g mass supported by diamagnetic levitation never achieved an uncertainty better than ten parts per million. Magnetic hysteresis was one of the limiting issues. Other groups performed similar research that used different techniques to levitate the mass.
Notes
References
SI base units
Units of mass | Alternative approaches to redefining the kilogram | [
"Physics",
"Mathematics"
] | 4,296 | [
"Matter",
"Quantity",
"Units of mass",
"Mass",
"Units of measurement"
] |
61,149,626 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VFDB | VFDB also known as Virulence Factor Database is a database that provides scientist quick access to virulence factors in bacterial pathogens. It can be navigated and browsed using genus or words. A BLAST tool is provided for search against known virulence factors. VFDB contains a collection of 16 important bacterial pathogens. Perl scripts were used to extract positions and sequences of VF from GenBank. Clusters of Orthologous Groups (COG) was used to update incomplete annotations. More information was obtained by NCBI. VFDB was built on Windows operation systems on DELL PowerEdge 1600SC servers.
See also
Antimicrobial resistance databases
References
Antimicrobial resistance organizations
Biological databases
Pathogen genomics | VFDB | [
"Biology"
] | 154 | [
"Bioinformatics",
"Molecular genetics",
"DNA sequencing",
"Biological databases",
"Pathogen genomics"
] |
61,150,437 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RETALT | RETALT (RETro Propulsion Assisted Landing Technologies) is a project for aiming to investigate in key technologies for retropropulsion reusable launch systems established in March 2019 with funds from the European Union's Horizon 2020 program. It aims to "advance the research and development of key technologies for European vertical-landing launch vehicles."
The reference configurations for the development of the targeted technologies are two types of vertical launch and landing rockets a two-stage-to-orbit and a single-stage to orbit . The partner organisations are DLR, CFS Engineering (Switzerland), Elecnor Deimos (Spain), MT Aerospace (Germany), Almatech (Switzerland) and Amorim Cork Composites (Portugal).
See also
Adeline (rocket stage)
Comparison of orbital launchers families
Liquid fly-back booster, a cancelled DLR project to develop reusable boosters for Ariane 5
Reusable launch system
Winged Reusable Sounding rocket (WIRES)
References
Rocket stages
Proposed reusable launch systems
Space launch vehicles of Germany
Space launch vehicles of Europe
Spaceflight
European Commission projects
European Union and science and technology | RETALT | [
"Astronomy"
] | 230 | [
"Rocketry stubs",
"Spaceflight",
"Outer space",
"Astronomy stubs"
] |
61,151,966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARDB | ARDB also known as Antibiotic Resistance Genes Database is a database that tracks antibiotic resistance genes with information such as mechanism of action, resistance profile, ontology, Clusters of Orthologous Genes (COG) and Conserved Domain Database (CDD) annotations. It also contains links to external databases. The database is also for the identification of new resistance genes. During the creation of ARDB in 2009, there was no comprehensive annotation system available. Thus, ontology terms for resistance profiles and mechanisms of actions were created for ARDB. Other things classified by ontology include drug target modification, drug enzymatic destruction and drug transport. Drug transporters are further subclassified by MFS Efflux pumps, SMR Efflux pumps, ABC Efflux pumps, RND Efflux pumps following conventions outlined in this paper. Currently, ARDB contains resistance information for 13,293 genes, 377 types, 257 antibiotics, 632 genomes, 933 species and 124 genera.
ARDB is no longer maintained. All ARDB data are in CARD, which the developers now recommend instead.
See also
Antimicrobial Resistance databases
References
Antimicrobial resistance organizations
Biological databases | ARDB | [
"Biology"
] | 249 | [
"Bioinformatics",
"Biological databases"
] |
61,152,464 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMC%20Molecular%20and%20Cell%20Biology | BMC Molecular and Cell Biology is a peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal that covers the fields of molecular and cell biology, focusing on areas such as signal transduction, gene expression, and cellular processes.
Abstracting and indexing
The journal is abstracted and indexed, for example, in:
According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal had an impact factor of 2.4 in 2023.
References
External links
English-language journals
BioMed Central academic journals
Molecular and cellular biology journals
Academic journals established in 2019
Continuous journals | BMC Molecular and Cell Biology | [
"Chemistry"
] | 107 | [
"Molecular and cellular biology journals",
"Molecular biology"
] |
61,152,852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirnov%20oscillations | Mirnov oscillations (a.k.a. magnetic oscillations) are amplitude perturbations of the magnetic field in a plasma. It is named after Sergei V. Mirnov who designed a probe to measure these oscillations in 1965. The probe name is Mirnov coil.
Mirnov oscillations have been extensively studied in tokamaks as they provide information about the plasma instabilities that occur within the system. The instabilities create local fluctuations in the current which induce a varying magnetic flux density, and are picked up by the coils due to Faraday's law of induction.
References
Plasma phenomena | Mirnov oscillations | [
"Physics"
] | 135 | [
"Plasma phenomena",
"Physical phenomena",
"Plasma physics stubs",
"Plasma physics"
] |
61,154,877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonhomogeneous%20Gaussian%20regression | Non-homogeneous Gaussian regression (NGR) is a type of statistical regression analysis used in the atmospheric sciences as a way to convert ensemble forecasts into probabilistic forecasts. Relative to simple linear regression, NGR uses the ensemble spread as an additional predictor, which is used to improve the prediction of uncertainty and allows the predicted uncertainty to vary from case to case. The prediction of uncertainty in NGR is derived from both past forecast errors statistics and the ensemble spread. NGR was originally developed for site-specific medium range temperature forecasting, but has since also been applied to site-specific medium-range wind forecasting and to seasonal forecasts, and has been adapted for precipitation forecasting.
The introduction of NGR was the first demonstration that probabilistic forecasts that take account of the varying ensemble spread could achieve better skill scores than forecasts based on standard model output statistics approaches applied to the ensemble mean.
Intuition
Weather forecasts generated by computer simulations of the atmosphere and ocean typically consist of an ensemble of individual forecasts. Ensembles are used as a way to attempt to capture and quantify the uncertainties in the weather forecasting process, such as uncertainty in the initial conditions and uncertainty in the parameterisations in the model. For point forecasts of normally distributed variables, one can summarize an ensemble forecast with the mean and the standard deviation of the ensemble. The ensemble mean is often a better forecast than any of the individual forecasts, and the ensemble standard deviation may give an indication of the uncertainty in the forecast.
However, direct output from computer simulations of the atmosphere needs calibration before it can be meaningfully compared with observations of weather variables. This calibration process is often known as model output statistics (MOS). The simplest form of such calibration is to correct biases, using a bias correction calculated from past forecast errors. Bias correction can be applied to both individual ensemble members and the ensemble mean. A more complex form of calibration is to use past forecasts and past observations to train a simple linear regression model that maps the ensemble mean onto the observations. In such a model the uncertainty in the prediction is derived purely from the statistical properties of the past forecast errors. However, ensemble forecasts are constructed with the hope that the ensemble spread may contain additional information about the uncertainty, above and beyond the information that can be derived from analysing past performance of the forecast. In particular since the ensemble spread is typically different for each successive forecast, it has been suggested that the ensemble spread may give a basis for predicting different levels of uncertainty in different forecasts, which is difficult to do from past performance-based estimates of uncertainty. Whether the ensemble spread actually contains information about forecast uncertainty, and how much information it contains, depends on many factors such as the forecast system, the forecast variable, the resolution and the lead time of the forecast.
NGR is a way to include information from the ensemble spread in the calibration of a forecast, by predicting future uncertainty as a weighted combination of the uncertainty estimated using past forecast errors, as in MOS, and the uncertainty estimated using the ensemble spread. The weights on the two sources of uncertainty information are calibrated using past forecasts and past observations in an attempt to derive optimal weighting.
Overview
Consider a series of past weather observations over a period of days (or other time interval):
and a corresponding series of past ensemble forecasts, characterized by the sample mean and standard deviation of the ensemble:
.
Also consider a new ensemble forecast from the same system with ensemble mean and ensemble standard deviation , intended as a forecast for an unknown future weather observation .
A straightforward way to calibrate the new ensemble forecast output parameters and produce a calibrated forecast for is to use a simple linear regression model based on the ensemble mean , trained using the past weather observations and past forecasts:
This model has the effect of bias correcting the ensemble mean and adjusting the level of variability of the forecast.
It can be applied to the new ensemble forecast to generate a point forecast for using
or to obtain a probabilistic forecast for the distribution of possible values for based on the normal distribution with mean and variance :
The use of regression to calibrate weather forecasts in this way is an example of model output statistics.
However, this simple linear regression model does not use the ensemble standard deviation , and hence misses any information that the ensemble standard deviation may contain about the forecast uncertainty. The NGR model was introduced as a way to potentially improve the prediction of uncertainty in the forecast of by including information extracted from the ensemble standard deviation. It achieves this by generalising the simple linear regression model to either:
or
this can then be used to calibrate the new ensemble forecast parameters using either
or
respectively. The prediction uncertainty is now given by two terms: the term is constant in time, while the term varies as the ensemble spread varies.
Parameter estimation
In the scientific literature the four parameters of NGR have been estimated either by maximum likelihood or by maximum continuous ranked probability score (CRPS).
The pros and cons of these two approaches have also been discussed.
History
NGR was originally developed in the private sector by scientists at Risk Management Solutions Ltd for the purpose of using information in the ensemble spread for the valuation of weather derivatives.
Terminology
NGR was originally referred to as ‘spread regression’ rather than NGR. Subsequent authors, however, introduced first the alternative names Ensemble Model Output Statistics (EMOS)
and then NGR. The original name ‘spread regression’ has now fallen from use, EMOS is used to refer generally to any method used for the calibration of ensembles, and NGR is typically used to refer to the method described in this article.
References
Regression analysis
Climate and weather statistics | Nonhomogeneous Gaussian regression | [
"Physics"
] | 1,171 | [
"Weather",
"Physical phenomena",
"Climate and weather statistics"
] |
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