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61,309,152 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteolipid | A proteolipid is a protein covalently linked to lipid molecules, which can be fatty acids, isoprenoids or sterols. The process of such a linkage is known as protein lipidation, and falls into the wider category of acylation and post-translational modification. Proteolipids are abundant in brain tissue, and are also present in many other animal and plant tissues. They include ghrelin, a peptide hormone associated with feeding. Many proteolipids have bound fatty acid chains, which often provide an interface for interacting with biological membranes and act as lipidons that direct proteins to specific zones.
Proteolipids were discovered serendipitously in 1951 by Jordi Folch Pi and Marjorie Lees while extracting sulfatides from brain lipids.
They are not to be confused with lipoproteins, a kind of spherical assembly made up of many molecules of lipids and some apolipoproteins.
Structure
Depending on the type of fatty acid attached to the protein, a proteolipid can often contain myristoyl, palmitoyl, or prenyl groups. These groups each serve different functions and have different preferences as to which amino acid residue they attach to. The processes are respectively named myristoylation (usually at N-terminal Gly), palmitoylation (to cysteine), and prenylation (also to cysteine). Despite the seemingly specific names, N-myristoylation and S-palmitoylation can also involve some other fatty acids, most commonly in plants and viral proteolipids. The article on lipid-anchored proteins has more information on these canonical classes.
Lipidated peptides are a type of peptide amphiphile that incorporate one or more alkyl/lipid chains, attached to a peptide head group. As with peptide amphiphiles, they self-assemble depending on the hydrophilic/hydrophobic balance, as well interactions between the peptide units, which is dependent on the charge of the amino acid residues. Lipidated peptides combine the structural features of amphiphilic surfactants with the functions of bioactive peptides, and they are known to assemble into a variety of nanostructures.
Function and application
Due to the desirable properties of peptides such as high receptor affinity and bioactivity, and low toxicity, the use of peptides in therapeutics (i. e. as peptide therapeutics) has great potential; shown by a fast growing market with over 100 approved peptide-based drugs. The disadvantages are that peptides have low oral bioavailability and stability. Lipidation as a chemical modification tool in the development of therapeutic agents has proven to be useful in overcoming these issues, with four lipidized peptide drugs currently approved for use in humans, and various others in clinical trials. Two of the approved drugs are long-acting anti-diabetic GLP-1 analogues liraglutide (Victoza®), and insulin detemir (Levemir®). The other two are the antibiotics daptomycin and polymyxin B.
Lipidated peptides also have applications in other areas, such as use in the cosmetic industry. A commercially available lipidated peptide, Matrixyl, is used in anti-wrinkle creams. Matrixyl is a pentapeptide and has the sequence KTTKS, with an attached palmitoyl lipid chain, that is able to stimulate collagen and fibronectin production in fibroblasts. Several studies have shown promising results of palmitoyl-KTTKS, and topical formulations have been found to significantly reduce fine lines and wrinkles, helping to delay the aging process in the skin. The Hamley group have also carried out investigations of palmitoyl-KTTKS, and found it so self-assemble into nano tapes in the pH range 3-7, in addition to stimulating human dermal and corneal fibroblasts in a concentration dependant manner, suggesting that stimulation occurs above the critical aggregation concentration.
There exist some rarer forms of protein acylation that may not have a membrane-related function. They include serine O-octanoylation in ghrelin, serine O-palmitoleoylation in Wnt proteins, and O-palmitoylation in histone H4 with LPCAT1. Hedgehog proteins are double-modified by (N-)palmitate and cholesterol. Some skin ceramides are proteolipids. The amino group on lysine can also be myristoylation via a poorly-understood mechanism.
In bacteria
All bacteria use proteolipids, sometimes confusingly referred to as bacterial lipoproteins, in their cell membrane. A common modification consists of N-acyl- and S‑diacylglycerol attached to an N-terminal cystine residue. Braun's lipoprotein, found in gram-negative bacteria, is a representative of this group. In addition, Mycobacterium O-mycolate proteins destined for the outer membrane. The plant chloroplast is capable of many of the same modifications that bacteria perform to proteolipids. One database for such N-Acyl Diacyl Glycerylated cell wall proteolipids is DOLOP.
Pathogenic spirochetes, including B. burgdorferi and T. pallidum, use their proteolipid adhesins to stick to victim cells. These proteins are also potent antigens, and are in fact the main immunogens of these two species.
Proteolipids include bacterial antibiotics that aren't synthesised in the ribosome. Products of nonribosomal peptide synthase may also involve a peptide structure linked to lipids. These are usually referred to as "lipopeptides". Bacterial "lipoproteins" and "lipopeptides" (LP) are potent inducers of sepsis, second only to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in its ability to cause an inflammation response. While LPS is detected by the toll-like receptor TLR4, LPs are detected by TLR2.
Bacillus
Many proteolipids are produced by the Bacillus subtilis family, and are composed of a cyclic structure made up of 7-10 amino acids, and a β-hydroxy fatty acid chain of varying length ranging from 13-19 carbon atoms. These can be divided into three families depending on the structure of the cyclic peptide sequence: surfactins, iturins, and fengycins. Lipidated peptides produced by Bacillus strains have many useful bio-activities such as anti-bacterial, anti- viral, anti-fungal, and anti-tumour properties, making them very attractive for use in a wide range of industries.
Surfactins
As the name implies, surfactins are potent biosurfactants (surfactants produced by bacteria, yeast, or fungi), and they have been shown to reduce the surface tension of water from 72 to 27 mN/m at very low concentrations. Furthermore, surfactins are also able to permeabilize lipid membranes, allowing them to have specific antimicrobial and antiviral activities. Since surfactins are biosurfactants, they have diverse functional properties. These include low toxicity, biodegradability and a higher tolerance towards variation of temperature and pH, making them very interesting for use in a wide range of applications.
Iturins
Iturins are pore‐forming lipopeptides with antifungal activity, and this is dependent on the interaction with the cytoplasmic membrane of the target cells. Mycosubtilin is an iturin isoform that can interact with membranes via its sterol alcohol group, to target ergosterol (a compound found in fungi) to give it antifungal properties.
Fengycins
Fengycins are another class of biosurfactant produced by Bacillus subtilis, with antifungal activity against filamentous fungi. There are two classes of Fengycins, Fengycin A and Fengycin B, with the two only differing by one amino acid at position 6 in the peptide sequence, with the former having an alanine residue, and the latter having valine.
Streptomyces
Daptomycin is another naturally occurring lipidated peptide, produced by the Gram positive bacterium Streptomyces roseoporous. The structure of Daptomycin consists of a decanoyl lipid chain attached to a partially cyclised peptide head group. It has very potent antimicrobial properties and is used as an antibiotic to treat life-threatening conditions caused by Gram positive bacteria including MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) and vancomycin resistant Enterococci. As with the Bacillus subtilis lipidated peptides, the permeation of the cell membrane is what gives it its properties, and the mechanism of action with daptomycin is thought to involve the insertion of the decanoyl chain into the bacterial membrane to cause disruption. This then causes a serious depolarization resulting in the inhibition of various synthesis processes including those of DNA, protein and RNA, leading to apoptosis.
See also
Myelin proteolipid protein
References
External links
GO:0006497: gene ontology term for protein lipidation
Lipids
Proteins
Physiology | Proteolipid | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 2,015 | [
"Biomolecules by chemical classification",
"Physiology",
"Organic compounds",
"Molecular biology",
"Proteins",
"Lipids"
] |
61,309,845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cefoperazone/sulbactam | Cefoperazone/sulbactam is a combination drug used as an antibiotic. It is effective for the treatment of urinary tract infections. It contains cefoperazone, a β-lactam antibiotic, and sulbactam, a β-lactamase inhibitor, which helps prevent bacteria from breaking down cefoperazone.
References
Drugs developed by Pfizer
Combination antibiotics
Antibiotics | Cefoperazone/sulbactam | [
"Biology"
] | 88 | [
"Antibiotics",
"Biocides",
"Biotechnology products"
] |
61,309,969 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple%20micronutrient%20powder | Multiple micronutrient powder (MNP) is a combination of at least iron, zinc, and vitamin A. It is used to prevent malnutrition in children and during health emergencies. The target age group is generally those 6 month to 5 years of age. It is used by combining with food once a day for one or more months.
While no side effects have been documented, abdominal discomfort may potentially occur. Some versions of the product contain additional micronutrients such as vitamin C and folic acid.
In 2019, it was added to the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. , more than 24 million courses of treatment were distributed via UNICEF.
Medical use
Multiple micronutrient powder is used to prevent malnutrition in children and during health emergencies. Its use has been found to decrease the risk of anemia.
References
World Health Organization essential medicines
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Powders | Multiple micronutrient powder | [
"Physics"
] | 188 | [
"Materials",
"Powders",
"Matter"
] |
61,310,341 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totient%20summatory%20function | In number theory, the totient summatory function is a summatory function of Euler's totient function defined by:
It is the number of coprime integer pairs .
The first few values are 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 10, 12, 18, 22, 28, 32 . Values for powers of 10 at .
Properties
Using Möbius inversion to the totient function, we obtain
has the asymptotic expansion
where is the Riemann zeta function for the value 2, which is
¶.
is the number of coprime integer pairs .
The summatory of reciprocal totient function
The summatory of reciprocal totient function is defined as
Edmund Landau showed in 1900 that this function has the asymptotic behavior
where is the Euler–Mascheroni constant,
and
The constant is sometimes known as Landau's totient constant. The sum is convergent and equal to:
In this case, the product over the primes in the right side is a constant known as totient summatory constant, and its value is:
See also
Arithmetic function
References
External links
OEIS Totient summatory function
Decimal expansion of totient constant product(1 + 1/(p^2*(p-1))), p prime >= 2)
Arithmetic functions | Totient summatory function | [
"Mathematics"
] | 279 | [
"Arithmetic functions",
"Number theory"
] |
61,310,609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nguyen%20TK%20Thanh | Nguyễn Thị Kim Thanh is a professor of Nanomaterials at University College London. She was awarded the 2019 Royal Society Rosalind Franklin Award for her research and efforts toward gender equality.
Early life and education
Thanh grew up in Vietnam. She studied chemistry at the Vietnam National University, Hanoi, which she graduated in 1992. She was selected for the Netherlands organisation for international cooperation in higher education (NUFFIC) scheme and moved to the University of Amsterdam to begin a Master's program in chemistry. Thanh completed her master's degree in 1994, before being selected for a PhD program in biochemistry at the University of East London. During her PhD she developed new techniques to study the renal toxicity of N-Phenylanthranilic acid. To do this, she studied various types of lipids in rat kidneys and demonstrated that lipids are a viable non-invasive method to study renal papillary necrosis.
Research and career
After her PhD, Thanh was a postdoctoral researcher at Aston University, where she worked on medicinal chemistry. She developed a technique that could be used to synthesise cell membrane permeable fluorescent versions of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP).
Thanh moved to the University of New Orleans in 2001, where she began to work with nanotechnology. Here she developed nanoparticle sensors for biological assays. In particular, Thanh used gold nanoparticles combined with fluorescent sensors. She moved to the University of Liverpool in 2003, where she worked in the Centre for Nanoscience. Here she worked with glycosaminoglycan and tissue engineering. She was awarded a Royal Society University Research Fellowship and appointed a lecturer in 2005. She took part in the Royal Society parliamentary pairing scheme in 2007, and was paired with Andrew Miller, then Chair of the Science and Technology Select Committee.
In 2009 Thanh joined University College London as an associate professor of nanotechnology, where she is based in the Davy Faraday Laboratory. She studies nanomaterials and their applications in biomedicine, and has continued to investigate colloidal gold. She is particularly interested in magnetic nanoparticles and how they can be used to treat cancer.
Awards and honours
In 2010 she presented her work in nanoscience at the Royal Society Summer Exhibition. The project was selected by the New Scientist as one of the highlights of the show. Thanh is involved with the London Centre for Nanotechnology and was a co-founding member of the Global Young Academy. She has presented at the World Economic Forum, the Vietnam Young Academy and the European Commission. She was awarded the 2019 Rosalind Franklin Award from the Royal Society.
She is a Fellow of the Institute of Physics (FInstP), the Royal Society of Chemistry (FRSC), the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB) and the Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining (FIMMM).
Selected publications
Her publications include:
Magnetic Nanoparticles: From Fabrication to Clinical Applications
Clinical Applications of Magnetic Nanoparticles: From Fabrication to Clinical Applications
Determination of Size and Concentration of Gold Nanoparticles from UV−Vis Spectra
Progress in applications of magnetic nanoparticles in biomedicine
References
21st-century Vietnamese scientists
University of Amsterdam alumni
Alumni of the University of East London
Academics of University College London
Fellows of the Institute of Physics
University of New Orleans faculty
Nanotechnologists
Academics of the University of Liverpool
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Fellows of the Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining | Nguyen TK Thanh | [
"Materials_science"
] | 734 | [
"Nanotechnology",
"Nanotechnologists"
] |
61,310,784 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20Party | The Digital Party () is a Uruguayan political party.
Founded in 2013 and registered in 2018, they advocate for political transparency and direct engagement of the citizens via social networks and other e-democracy tools. Other than this, the party has no consistent other ideology, as official policy positions are voted on by party members online.
They took part in the 2019 Uruguayan general election, with their leader Daniel Goldman running as their presidential candidate.
Electoral history
Presidential elections
Chamber of Deputies and Senate elections
References
Political parties in Uruguay
E-democracy
Internet in Uruguay | Digital Party | [
"Technology"
] | 108 | [
"E-democracy",
"Computing and society"
] |
61,311,836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein-truncating%20variants | Protein-truncating variants (PTVs) are genetic variants predicted to shorten the coding sequence of genes, through ways like a stop-gain mutation. PTV is sometime categorized under the umbrella term frameshift or truncating variants (FTVs), which includes both PTVs and DNA variants caused by frameshift mutation.
Implication in diseases/disorders
It was believed that protein-truncating variants are not associated with human diseases. Recent studies have implied the involvement of PTVs in autism spectrum disorder.
References
Mutation | Protein-truncating variants | [
"Chemistry"
] | 109 | [
"Molecular biology stubs",
"Molecular biology"
] |
61,314,096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobbitt%20reaction | The Bobbitt reaction is a name reaction in organic chemistry. It is named after the American chemist James M. Bobbitt. The reaction allows the synthesis of 1-, 4-, and N-substituted 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolines and also 1-, and 4-substituted isoquinolines.
General Reaction Scheme
The reaction scheme below shows the synthesis of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline from benzaldehyde and 2,2-diethylethylamine.
Reaction Mechanism
A possible mechanism is depicted below:
First the benzaliminoacetal 3 is built by the condensation of benzaldehyde 1 and 2,2-diethylethylamine 2. After the condensation the C=N-double bond in 3 is hydrogenated to form 4. Subsequently, an ethanol is removed. Next, the compound 5 is built including the cyclization step. After that the C=C-double bond in 5 is hydrogenated . Thus, 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline 6 is formed.
Applications
The Bobbitt reaction has found application in the preparation of some alkaloids such as carnegine, lophocerine, salsolidine, and salsoline.
See also
Pomeranz–Fritsch reaction
References
Nitrogen heterocycle forming reactions
Heterocycle forming reactions
Name reactions
Isoquinolines | Bobbitt reaction | [
"Chemistry"
] | 308 | [
"Name reactions",
"Ring forming reactions",
"Heterocycle forming reactions",
"Organic reactions"
] |
61,314,883 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre%20for%20Digital%20Built%20Britain | The Centre for Digital Built Britain (CDBB) was a partnership between the University of Cambridge and UK's Department for Business, Energy and Industry Strategy. The CDBB was established in 2017 to support the transformation of the UK built environment using digital technologies to better design, build, maintain and integrate assets. Prior to its closure in March 2022, it was the home of the UK BIM programme, begun by the UK BIM Task Group (2011-2017), and the National Digital Twin programme.
History
In May 2011, UK Government Chief Construction Adviser Paul Morrell called for adoption of Building Information Modelling (BIM) on UK government construction projects. The UK BIM Task Group was a UK Government-funded group, managed through the Cabinet Office, and created in 2011. Chaired by Mark Bew, it was founded to "drive adoption of BIM across government" in support of the Government Construction Strategy. It led the government's BIM programme and requirements, including a free-to-use set of UK standards and tools that defined 'level 2 BIM'. The BIM Task Group later took responsibility for delivering the Digital Built Britain strategy, published in February 2015.
The work of the BIM Task Group continued under the stewardship of the Cambridge-based Centre for Digital Built Britain, announced by the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills in December 2017 and formally launched in early 2018. Its role was to support the transformation of the UK's construction sector using digital technologies to better plan, build, maintain and use infrastructure.
In October 2019, the CDBB, the UK BIM Alliance (renamed 'nima' in 2022) and the BSI Group launched the UK BIM Framework. Superseding the BIM levels approach, the framework describes an overarching approach to implementing BIM in the UK, integrating the international ISO 19650 series of standards into UK processes and practice.
In March 2022, the CDBB completed its mission, passing the Digital Twin Hub, International Programme, and Climate Resilience Demonstrator to the Connected Places Catapult. The final research projects within the Construction Innovation Hub Programme will complete by September 2022.
Structure and work
The CDBB was led by Professor Andy Neely, building on the work of the Cambridge Centre for Smart Infrastructure and Construction (CSIC), Cambridge Big Data, the Distributed Information and Automation Lab, the Cambridge Service Alliance and the Institute for Manufacturing. The CDBB was based in the CSIC's facility, the Maxwell Centre, in West Cambridge.
The CDBB was a member of the Construction Innovation Hub, alongside the Building Research Establishment and the Manufacturing Technology Centre, and collaborated with other partners in the Transforming Construction Sector Deal.
The Digital Built Britain strategy expanded the remit beyond BIM to include other digital processes and technologies, including new contractual frameworks, open data standards, data analytics and big data. For example, in November 2018, the CDBB published The Gemini Principles, a framework to guide the development of the National Digital Twin - an ecosystem of connected digital twins. The National Digital Twin was first recommended in the National Infrastructure Commission's December 2017 Data for the Public Good report. Mott MacDonald CTO Mark Enzer, Head of the National Digital Twin programme, was awarded OBE in October 2020.
External links
CDBB website
Digital Twin Hub - The National Digital Twin programme online community.
References
Construction industry of the United Kingdom
Building information modeling
2017 establishments in England | Centre for Digital Built Britain | [
"Engineering"
] | 699 | [
"Building engineering",
"Building information modeling"
] |
61,315,332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabetic%20numeral%20system | An alphabetic numeral system is a type of numeral system. Developed in classical antiquity, it flourished during the early Middle Ages. In alphabetic numeral systems, numbers are written using the characters of an alphabet, syllabary, or another writing system. Unlike acrophonic numeral systems, where a numeral is represented by the first letter of the lexical name of the numeral, alphabetic numeral systems can arbitrarily assign letters to numerical values. Some systems, including the Arabic, Georgian and Hebrew systems, use an already established alphabetical order. Alphabetic numeral systems originated with Greek numerals around 600 BC and became largely extinct by the 16th century. After the development of positional numeral systems like Hindu–Arabic numerals, the use of alphabetic numeral systems dwindled to predominantly ordered lists, pagination, religious functions, and divinatory magic.
History
The first attested alphabetic numeral system is the Greek alphabetic system (named the Ionic or Milesian system due to its origin in west Asia Minor). The system's structure follows the structure of the Egyptian demotic numerals; Greek letters replaced Egyptian signs. The first examples of the Greek system date back to the 6th century BC, written with the letters of the archaic Greek script used in Ionia.
Other cultures in contact with Greece adopted this numerical notation, replacing the Greek letters with their own script; these included the Hebrews in the late 2nd century BC. The Gothic alphabet adopted their own alphabetic numerals along with the Greek-influenced script. In North Africa, the Coptic system was developed in the 4th century AD, and the Ge'ez system in Ethiopia was developed around 350 AD. Both were developed from the Greek model.
The Arabs developed their own alphabetic numeral system, the abjad numerals, in the 7th century AD, and used it for mathematical and astrological purposes even as late as the 13th century far after the introduction of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. After the adoption of Christianity, Armenians and Georgians developed their alphabetical numeral system in the 4th or early 5th century, while in the Byzantine Empire Cyrillic numerals and Glagolitic were introduced in the 9th century. Alphabetic numeral systems were known and used as far north as England, Germany, and Russia, as far south as Ethiopia, as far east as Persia, and in North Africa from Morocco to Central Asia.
By the 16th century AD, most alphabetic numeral systems had died out or were in little use, displaced by Arabic positional and Western numerals as the ordinary numerals of commerce and administration throughout Europe and the Middle East.
The newest alphabetic numeral systems in use, all of them positional, are part of tactile writing systems for visually impaired. Even though 1829 braille had a simple ciphered-positional system copied from Western numerals with a separate symbol for each digit, early experience with students forced its designer Louis Braille to simplify the system, bringing the number of available patterns (symbols) from 125 down to 63, so he had to repurpose a supplementary symbol to mark letters a–j as numerals. Besides this traditional system, another one was developed in France in the 20th century, and yet another one in the US.
Systems
An alphabetic numeral system employs the letters of a script in the specific order of the alphabet in order to express numerals.
In Greek, letters are assigned to respective numbers in the following sets: 1 through 9, 10 through 90, 100 through 900, and so on. Decimal places are represented by a single symbol. As the alphabet ends, higher numbers are represented with various multiplicative methods. However, since writing systems have a differing number of letters, other systems of writing do not necessarily group numbers in this way. The Greek alphabet has 24 letters; three additional letters had to be incorporated in order to reach 900. Unlike the Greek, the Hebrew alphabet's 22 letters allowed for numerical expression up to 400. The Arabic abjad's 28 consonant signs could represent numbers up to 1000. Ancient Aramaic alphabets had enough letters to reach up to 9000. In mathematical and astronomical manuscripts, other methods were used to represent larger numbers. Roman numerals and Attic numerals, both of which were also alphabetic numeral systems, became more concise over time, but required their users to be familiar with many more signs. Acrophonic numerals do not belong to this group of systems because their letter-numerals do not follow the order of an alphabet.
These various systems do not have a single unifying trait or feature. The most common structure is ciphered-additive with a decimal base, with or without the use of multiplicative-additive structuring for the higher numbers. Exceptions include the Armenian notation of Shirakatsi, which is multiplicative-additive and sometimes uses a base 1,000, and the Greek and Arabic astronomical notation systems.
Numeral signs
The tables below show the alphabetic numeral configurations of various writing systems.
Greek alphabetic numerals – "Ionian" or "Milesian numerals" – (minuscule letters)
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-class="hintergrundfarbe5"
! units || α || β || γ || δ || ε || ϛ || ζ || η || θ
|-
||| 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9
|-class="hintergrundfarbe5"
! tens|| ι || κ || λ || μ || ν || ξ || ο || π || ϟ
|-
||| 10 || 20 || 30 || 40 || 50 || 60 || 70 || 80 || 90
|-class="hintergrundfarbe5"
! hundreds||ρ || σ || τ || υ || φ || χ || ψ || ω || ϡ
|-
||| 100 || 200 || 300 || 400 || 500 || 600 || 700 || 800 || 900
|-class="hintergrundfarbe5"
! thousands|| ͵α || ͵β || ͵γ || ͵δ || ͵ε || ͵ϛ || ͵ζ || ͵η || ͵θ
|-
||| 1000 || 2000 || 3000 || 4000 || 5000 || 6000 || 7000 || 8000 || 9000
|}
Some numbers represented with Greek alphabetic numerals:
= (3000 + 900 + 40 + 2) = 3942
= (600 + 60 + 7) = 667
Hebrew alphabetic numerals:
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-class="hintergrundfarbe5"
! units||א|| ב || ג || |ד || ה ||ו || ז || |ח || |ט
|-
||| 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9
|-class="hintergrundfarbe5"
! tens ||י|| כ || ל || מ || נ || ס || ע || פ || צ
|-
||| 10 || 20 || 30 || 40 || 50 || 60 || 70 || 80 || 90
|-class="hintergrundfarbe5"
! hundreds||ק || ר || ש || ת || || || || ||
|-
||| 100 || 200 || 300 || 400 || || || || ||
|-class="hintergrundfarbe5"
|-
! thousands||'א|| 'ב|||'ג ||'ד ||'ה || 'ו||'ז ||'ח ||'ט
|-
||| 1000 || 2000 || 3000 || 4000 || 5000 || 6000 || 7000 || 8000 || 9000
|}
The Hebrew writing system has only twenty-two consonant signs, so numbers can be expressed with single individual signs only up to 400. Higher hundreds – 500, 600, 700, 800, and 900 – can be written only with various cumulative-additive combinations of the lower hundreds (direction of writing is right to left):
תק = (400+100) 500
תר = (400+200) 600
תש = (400+300) 700
תת = (400+400) 800
תררק = 400+200+200+100 = 900
Armenian numeral signs (minuscule letters):
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-class="hintergrundfarbe5"
|-
! units || ա|| բ || գ || դ || ե|| զ || է || ը || թ
|-
| || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9
|-
|-class="hintergrundfarbe5"
! tens|| ժ || ի || լ ||խ || ծ || կ || հ || ձ || ղ
|-
| || 10 || 20 || 30 || 40 || 50 || 60 || 70 || 80 || 90
|-
|-class="hintergrundfarbe5"
! hundreds||ճ|| մ || յ || ն || շ || ո || չ || պ || ջ
|-
| || 100 || 200 || 300 || 400 || 500 || 600 || 700 || 800 || 900
|-
|-class="hintergrundfarbe5"
! thousands|| ռ || ս || վ || տ || ր || ց|| ւ || փ || ք
|-
| || 1000 || 2000 || 3000 || 4000 || 5000 || 6000 || 7000 || 8000 || 9000
|-
|-class="hintergrundfarbe5"
! ten-thousands||օ ||ֆ ||
|-
| || 10000 || 20000
|-
| 346 = յխզ
|}
Unlike many alphabetic numeral systems, the Armenian system does not use multiplication by 1,000 or 10,000 in order to express higher values. Instead, higher values were written out in full using lexical numerals.
Higher numbers
As the alphabet ended, various multiplicative methods were used for the expression of higher numbers in the different systems. In the Greek alphabetic system, for multiples of 1,000, the hasta sign was placed to the left below a numeral-sign to indicate that it should be multiplied by 1,000.
β = 2
͵β = 2,000
͵κ = 20,000
With a second level of multiplicative method – multiplication by 10,000 – the numeral set could be expanded. The most common method, used by Aristarchus, involved placing a numeral-phrase above a large M character (M = myriads = 10,000) to indicate multiplication by 10,000. This method could express numbers up to 100,000,000 (108).
could be represented as:
{| border="0" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! style="vertical-align:bottom; padding-bottom: 8px"|
! style="vertical-align:bottom; padding-bottom: 5px"| ψδ
! style="vertical-align:bottom; padding-bottom: 4px"| = 20,704
|}
According to Pappus of Alexandria's report, Apollonius of Perga used another method. In it, the numerals above M = myriads = 10,000 represented the exponent of 10,000. The number to be multiplied by M was written after the M character. This method could express 5,462,360,064,000,000 as:
{| border="0"
|-
! style="vertical-align:bottom; padding-bottom:3px; text-align:right;" |
! style="vertical-align:bottom; padding-bottom:0px; text-align:left;" | ͵EYZB
! style="vertical-align:bottom; padding-bottom:0px; text-align:center;"|
! style="vertical-align:bottom; padding-bottom:4px; text-align:right;" |
! style="vertical-align:bottom; padding-bottom:0px; text-align:left;" | ͵ΓX
! style="vertical-align:bottom; padding-bottom:0px; text-align:center;"|
! style="vertical-align:bottom; padding-bottom:3px; text-align:right;" |
! style="vertical-align:bottom; padding-bottom:0px; text-align:left;" | ͵FY
|-
| style="vertical-align:bottom;" colspan="2"| 100003 × 5462
| style="vertical-align:bottom;" | +
| style="vertical-align:bottom;" colspan="2"| 100002 × 3600
| style="vertical-align:bottom;" | +
| style="vertical-align:bottom;" colspan="2"| 100001 × 6400
|}
Distinguishing numeral-phrases from text
Alphabetic numerals were distinguished from the words with special signs, most commonly a horizontal stroke above the numeral-phrase, but occasionally with dots placed to either side of it. The latter was manifested in the Greek alphabet with the hasta sign.
= 285
In Ethiopic numerals, known as Geʽez, the signs have marks both above and below them to indicate that their value is numerical. The Ethiopic numerals are the exception, where numeral signs are not letters of their script. This practice became universal from the 15th century onwards.
Numeral signs of Ethiopic numerals with marks both above and below the letters:
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! !!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!7!!8!!9
|-style="font-size:2em;line-height:1.3"
!style="font-size:0.5em;text-align:right"|× 1
|፩||፪||፫||፬||፭||፮||፯||፰||፱
|-style="font-size:2em;line-height:1.2"
!style="font-size:0.5em;text-align:right"|× 10
|፲||፳||፴||፵||፶||፷||፸||፹||፺
|-style="font-size:2em;line-height:1.3"
!style="font-size:0.5em;text-align:right"|× 100
|፻||colspan="8" rowspan="2" style="background:#cccccc"|
|-style="font-size:2em;line-height:1.3"
!style="font-size:0.5em;text-align:right"|× 10,000
|፼
|}
The direction of numerals follows the writing system's direction. Writing is from left to right in Greek, Coptic, Ethiopic, Gothic, Armenian, Georgian, Glagolitic, and Cyrillic alphabetic numerals along with Shirakatsi's notation. Right-to-left writing is found in Hebrew and Syriac alphabetic numerals, Arabic abjad numerals, and Fez numerals.
Fractions
Unit fractions
Unit fractions were a method to express fractions. In Greek alphabetic notation, unit fractions were indicated with the denominator – alphabetic numeral sign – followed by small accents or strokes placed to the right of a numeral, known as a keraia (ʹ). Therefore, γʹ indicated one third, δʹ one fourth, and so on. These fractions were additive and were also known as Egyptian fractions.
For example: .
A mixed number could be written as such:
Astronomical fractions
In many astronomical texts, a distinct set of alphabetic numeral systems blend their ordinary alphabetical numerals with a base of 60, such as Babylonian sexagesimal systems. In the 2nd century BC, a hybrid of Babylonian notation and Greek alphabetic numerals emerged and was used to express fractions. Unlike the Babylonian system, the Greek base of 60 was not used for expressing integers.
With this sexagesimal positional system – with a subbase of 10 – for expressing fractions, fourteen of the alphabetic numerals were used (the units from 1 to 9 and the decades from 10 to 50) in order to write any number from 1 through 59. These could be a numerator of a fraction. The positional principle was used for the denominator of a fraction, which was written with an exponent of 60 (60, 3,600, 216,000, etc.). Sexagesimal fractions could be used to express any fractional value, with the successive positions representing 1/60, 1/602, 1/603, and so on. The first major text in which this blended system appeared was Ptolemy's Almagest, written in the 2nd century AD.
Astronomical fractions (with Greek alphabetic signs):
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-class="hintergrundfarbe5"
! units || α || β || γ || δ || ε || ϛ || ζ || η || θ
|-
||| 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9
|-class="hintergrundfarbe5"
! tens|| ι || κ || λ || μ || ν
|-
||| 10 || 20 || 30 || 40 || 50
|}
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| = 1515 + (20 x 1/60) + (15 x 1/3600) = 1515.3375
|}
This blended system did not use a radix point, but the astronomical fractions had a special sign to indicate zero as a placeholder. Some late Babylonian texts used a similar placeholder. The Greeks adopted this technique using their own sign, whose form and character changed over time from early manuscripts (1st century AD) to an alphabetic notation.
This sexagesimal notation was especially useful in astronomy and mathematics because of the division of the circle into 360 degrees (with subdivisions of 60 minutes per degree and 60 seconds per minute). In Theon of Alexandria's (4th century AD) commentary on the Almagest, the numeral-phrase expresses 1515 () degrees, 20 () minutes, and 15 () seconds. The degree's value is in the ordinary decimal alphabetic numerals, including the use of the multiplicative hasta for 1000, while the latter two positions are written in sexagesimal fractions.
Arabs adopted astronomical fractions directly from the Greeks, and similarly Hebrew astronomers used sexagesimal fractions, but Greek numeral signs were replaced by their own alphabetic numeral signs to express both integers and fractions.
Alphabetic numeral systems
See also
Gematria
Isopsephy
Alphasyllabic numeral system
References
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Bender, Marvin L., Sydney W. Head, and Roger Cowley. 1976. The Ethiopian writing system. In Language in Ethiopia, M.L. Bender, J.D. Bowen, R.L. Cooper, and CA. Ferguson, eds., pp. 120–129. London: Oxford University Press.
Braune, Wilhelm and Ernst Ebbinghaus. 1966. Gotische Grammatik. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag.
Colin, G.S. 1960. Abdjad. In Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. 1, pp. 97–98. Leiden: Brill.
Colin, G.S. 1971. Hisab al-djummal. In Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. 3, p. 468. Leiden: Brill.
Cubberley, Paul. 1996. The Slavic alphabets. In The World's Writing Systems, Peter T. Daniels and William Bright, eds., pp. 346–355. New York: Oxford University Press.
Gandz, Solomon. 1933. Hebrew numerals. Proceedings of the American Academy of Jewish Research 4: pp. 53–112.
Millard, A. 1995. Strangers from Egypt and Greece – the signs for numbers in early Hebrew. In Immigration and Emigration within the Ancient Near East, K. van Lerberghe and A. Schoors, eds., pp. 189–194. Leuven: Peeters.
Messiha, Heshmat. 1994. Les chiffres coptes. Le Monde Copte 24: 25–28.
Pankhurst, Richard K. P., ed. 1985. Letters from Ethiopian Rulers (Early and Mid-Nineteenth Century), translated by David L. Appleyard and A.K. Irvine. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Schanzlin, G.L. 1934. The abjad notation. The Moslem World 24: 257–261.
Shaw, Allen A. 1938–9. An overlooked numeral system of antiquity. National Mathematics Magazine 13: 368–372.
Smith, David E. and L. C Karpinski. 1911. The Hindu-Arabic Numerals. Boston: Ginn
Numeral systems | Alphabetic numeral system | [
"Mathematics"
] | 4,759 | [
"Numeral systems",
"Mathematical objects",
"Numbers"
] |
61,315,982 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony%20R.%20West | Anthony Roy West FRSE, FRSC, FInstP, FIMMM (born 21 January 1947) is a British chemist and materials scientist, and Professor of Electroceramics and Solid State Chemistry at the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at the University of Sheffield.
Education
West was educated at The Harvey Grammar School and then University College Swansea where he gained a Bachelor of Science in chemistry in 1968. He then moved to the University of Aberdeen where he completed a PhD in 1971 under the supervision of Fredrik P. Glasser.
He was appointed lecturer at the University of Aberdeen in 1971 and gained his Doctor of Science (DSc) from the university in 1984. He became professor in chemistry in 1989. He then moved to the University of Sheffield in 1999 to become Head of the Department of Engineering Materials.
Research
West's research has covered the synthesis of new oxide materials, crystal structure determination and structure-property relations with particular focus on ionic, electronic and mixed ionic-electronic conduction. This includes lithium ion conductors, oxygen ion conductor and superconductors.
His research on these new materials has covered a broad range of conducting materials, including - solid solutions with high lithium ion conductivity at room temperature, the oxide ion conductor and much research on barium titanate, such as that on the La-doped high permittivity dielectric. He discovered the first 5-volt cathode material for lithium battery applications, .
One of his specialties has been development of the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (see dielectric spectroscopy) technique for materials characterisation and electrical property measurements.
He developed the impedance and modulus spectroscopy technique of data analysis with his colleague at Aberdeen, Malcolm Ingram and the Almond-West method for ac conductivity data analysis.
Promotion of solid state and materials chemistry
West's book Solid State Chemistry and its applications and its condensed version "Basic Solid State Chemistry" are well-regarded texts in the field and a recent updated version of the former as a student edition was published in 2014.
West was the founder of the RSC journal Journal of Materials Chemistry in 1991 and of the "Materials Chemistry" conference series in the UK, organising the first in Aberdeen in 1991.
Awards and honours
West was awarded the John B. Goodenough Award of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 2013 for "his outstanding contributions to our understanding of structure-composition-property relationships in oxide-based materials, and their application in solid state devices, and for his preeminent role in promoting materials chemistry."
West is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry, Fellow of the Institute of Physics, Fellow of the Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Awards:
2013 John B. Goodenough Award in Materials Chemistry, Royal Society of Chemistry
2009 Griffiths Medal and Prize, Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining
2008 Epsilon de Oro Award, Spanish Society of Ceramics and Glass
2007 Chemical Record Lectureship, Chemical Societies of Japan
2008/09 Catedra de Excelencia, Universidad Carlos III, Leganés, Spain
1996 Industrial Award in Solid State Chemistry, RSC
1988/89 Research Support Fellowship, Royal Society of Edinburgh
Honorary member of Materials Research Society of India
References
Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Fellows of the Institute of Physics
Academics of the University of Sheffield
Living people
1947 births
20th-century British chemists
Fellows of the Royal Society of Chemistry
People educated at The Harvey Grammar School
Alumni of the University of Aberdeen
Alumni of Swansea University
21st-century British chemists
British academic journal editors
Solid state chemists
Fellows of the Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining | Anthony R. West | [
"Chemistry"
] | 725 | [
"Solid state chemists"
] |
61,316,957 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Max%20original%20programming | Max (formerly HBO Max) is an over-the-top subscription service owned and operated by Warner Bros. Discovery and run by Warner Bros. Entertainment. It distributes a number of original shows, including original series, specials, miniseries, and documentaries and films. The movies and television shows produced for Max are dubbed "Max Originals", and had this name prior to the rebranding of HBO Max to Max on May 23, 2023. HBO Max was an expanded library of programming compared to the former HBO Now, which only carried HBO programming. Max Originals are specifically made for audiences outside of the traditional baseline HBO brand.
Original programming
Drama
Comedy
Kids & family
Animation
Adult animation
Kids & family
Non-English language scripted
Unscripted
Docuseries
Reality
Variety
Co-productions
These are productions that Max co-produced and aired shortly after the show's initial premiere on its parent network.
Continuations
These shows have been picked up by Max for additional seasons after having aired previous seasons on another network.
Specials
These programs are one-time original events or supplementary content related to television shows.
Regional original programming
These shows are originals because HBO Max commissioned or acquired them and had their premiere on the service, but they are not available worldwide.
Original podcasts
Scripted
Unscripted
Upcoming original programming
These shows have had their original production or additional seasons commissioned by Max.
Drama
Animation
Kids & family
Non-English language scripted
Unscripted
Docuseries
Reality
Continuations
These shows have been picked up by Max for additional seasons after having aired previous seasons on another network.
In development
Notes
References
Internet-related lists
Lists of television series by streaming service
Warner Bros. Discovery-related lists | List of Max original programming | [
"Technology"
] | 333 | [
"Computing-related lists",
"Internet-related lists"
] |
61,317,256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Space%20Program | The National Space Program was a set of policies and organisations under the Hawke and Keating governments created with the goals of developing a national space industry in Australia. When the Howard government came to power in 1996 the program was abolished following the advice of the Bureau of Industry Economics. The National Space Program was generally considered a failure by most media after its demise. During its existence it was crippled by a lack of budget, and multiple white elephant projects. The Federal Government disbanded the project in 1996 and had covered up most traces of it by 1998.
Background
Although Australia has had space interests dating back to the Apollo program, prior to the establishment of the NSP Australia had had no unified space policy. At the time of the implementation of the program, Australia had separate space related programs under the Department of Defence, CSIRO, the Department of Transport and Communications, multiple other departments, as well as multiple private and university programs. In response to the disorganised state of the industry, the Hawke government commissioned the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences for a report into the state of Australia's space industry. The report, nicknamed the "Madigan Report", was completed in June 1985 and recommended the establishment of a space office, and focusing Australia's space industry towards ground-sensing capabilities. The report also recommended that A$100 million be budgeted over five years for Australian space programs.
Structure
The National Space Program was primarily made up of the Australian Space Office and the Australian Space Board/Council. The Australian Space Board (replaced with the Australian Space Council in 1994) was formed to advise the Minister for Industry, Technology, and Commerce and government on national space policy, particularly in relation to commercial space programs. The ASO was established shortly afterwards to act as secretariat and to manage the day-to-day running of the policies created by the ASB. The National Space Program also encompassed to a lesser degree the CSIRO Office of Space Science and Applications, the Defence Science and Technology Office space projects, and various committees and offices dedicated to certain uses of space technology.
The ASO itself was made up of 20 people.
Funding
The National Space Program was budgeted as part of the government's Science and Technology budget. Of the A$90 – 120 million dollars dedicated to "Industry and Space" grants each year, the National Space Program received between A$3 million and A$6 million. At the time of the program's demise, over A$500 million was spent annually on satellite programs, mostly internationally.
From the inception of the program to its abolition the government spent a total of A$106 million on the program. The table below describes how the funding was allocated for the majority of its lifetime:
Objectives
The objectives of the National Space Program varied over the years it existed, however in 1987 the objectives were stated as:
[To promote] commercially viable industries, and industry activities which are export oriented and internationally competitive, based on space technologies
[to provide] an environment supportive of innovation through greater involvement of local industry in space research and development activities, and
[to provide] support for NASA and other international space programs as required under international agreements
These objectives were updated in 1992 to the following:
Identification and implementation of the policies and programs required for the development of efficient internationally competitive industries based on space-related technologies;
development of a policy framework for access to space goods and services of a national importance, and the identification and implementation of appropriate action by the Commonwealth, States and private sectors, and
provision of support for NASA and other international space programs as required under international agreements.
History
The foundations of the NSP were set up within the Department of Industry, Technology and Commerce in July 1985 in anticipation of the Madigan report.
That year the Department of Industry, Technology and Commerce gave a A$500,000 grant to the Australian National University to fund the development of an existing ultraviolet spectroscopy telescope project. The grant was the first of a total A$2.6 million invested into the project.
The next year the NSP began in earnest with the creation of the Australian Space Board, which reported to the Minister for Industry, Technology and Commerce on matters to do with space program funding, particularly pertaining to commercial and private industry space interests. Although the Madigan report had recommended the establishment of a dedicated space agency, this would not happen until the next year with the creation of the Australian Space Office. That year the government also announced the formation of the NSP, specifying the major goal was "To encourage greater involvement by Australian industry in space research and development activities to promote development of commercially viable industries based on space technologies". Additionally funding for the program was increased from A$3.2 million to A$5.4 million, of which A$4 million went to the ASO. For the rest of the life of the program funding remained around A$6 million annually.
In 1992, the telescope developed under the program, Endeavour, was launched.
In 1994, the ASB was replaced with the Australian Space Council (ASC) and a new five-year plan was introduced. Additionally a Remote Sensing Board was established to provide a broader perspective on remote sensing policy matters. In its year of existence it published a study detailing an Australian Earth Observation Network.
From the years 1994 to 1996 a total of A$750,000 was contributed towards a collaborative program with Japan to develop hypersonic technologies.
Defunct
In 1996, the Australian Government formally rendered the project as Defunct. Funding was removed from Federal white papers and the Australian Space Council was liquidated. By 1998, the Australian Government had covered up all remaining traces of the project.
Projects
Communications
AUSSAT
In the mid eighties the Hughes Aircraft Company was awarded a contract to build a new generation of AUSSAT communications satellites. Although this was not a program funded by the NSP, the ASO signed an offsets agreement with Hughes to provide a program of work for Australian industry in the development of AUSSAT's satellites. ASO hoped the offset obligations would help develop the space manufacturing industry in Australia.
As part of the project Australian companies were given contracts by Hughes to supply A$22 million of equipment, of which A$7.85 million was invested into new facilities and increasing their workforce.
Satellite Communications Working Party (SCWP)
In 1988, the ASB created the SCWP to provide specialist advice on the future development of a commercial satellite communications industry. The aim of the SCWP was to formulate a national strategy for the satellite communications industry.
L-Band Mobile Satellite Systems (LMSS) Office
The LMSS Office was formed by recommendation of the SCWP to assist Australian industry to better understand the nature of commercial opportunities with L-Band mobile satellite systems. The office was established in November 1989, and with the entry of Telecom as a partner of AUSSAT it was seen as a guarantee that LMSS would be commercially viable. However, shortly after a review, Telecom withdrew from the partnership, delaying efforts. The LMSS Office was shut down afterwards.
Space Industry Development Centres
In 1991, the program started a Space Industry Development Centres (SIDCs) initiative directed at the development of an Australian commercial space industry. The program aimed to convince private industry to divert R&D resources into space related ventures in collaboration with University research centres. The SIDCs program was especially interested in increasing the space communications industry. The government hoped the initiative would create Australian products and services capable of competing in international markets. By 1996, SIDCs had been established in Griffith University, Queensland University of Technology, and the University of South Australia.
Launch services
Cape York spaceport
The Cape York spaceport project was by far the most famous of the NSP's initiatives. Both spaceport projects were primarily considered because of the geographic advantages of launching space craft inside Australia, however commercial viability was uncertain. By 1992, the Cape York project was scrapped. By the end of the program the NSP had allocated over A$2 million of funds towards the project with uncertainty that the project would ever proceed.
Woomera spaceport
The Woomera spaceport was the second spaceport proposal, designed to take advantage of the emerging market for placing lightsats (<1000 kg satellites) into Low Earth orbit. The location of a lightsat in Australia was attractive due to its geographical location and general stability. The Woomera program never got out of planning before the downfall of the program.
Remote sensing
The remote sensing projects of the NSP were the most successful of the NSP initiatives, with many of the programs living on today under different departments or its decedents. It also received the most funding of all the areas, totaling 48.2% of awarded funds.
The remote sensing developments funded under the program were vital to a range of public goods and services including meteorology, resource management, mapping, and research conducted by the CSIRO. The mining industry was the largest user of remote sensing techniques, making up half of the entire market capital.
Endeavour satellite
The Endeavour project was the first and largest of the successful NSP programs. Receiving over A$10 million in funding over the lifetime of the program, the satellite telescope was built primarily to test the Australian developed low light detector array. The satellite was developed by the CSIRO and built by Canberra based company, Auspace Ltd.
On 23 January 1992, the telescope was launched on the Space Shuttle Discovery as part of flight STS-42, however the test failed due to various technical difficulties experienced in the third stage of flight.
By the end of the satellite program the Endeavour had flown twice.
Along Track Scanning Radiometer
The Along Track Scanning Radiometer (ATSR) was a joint venture between Auspace and British Aerospace Australia to build and use remote sensing equipment for use on the European ERS-2 spacecraft in 1995. The project evolved into the Advanced ATSR (AATSR) program in 1999, which was in use until 2012.
See also
Australian Space Agency
Australian Space Research Institute
Australian Space Office
Australian Space Council
Australian Space Board
References
Space programme of Australia
Engineering projects
Public policy in Australia
1986 establishments in Australia
1996 disestablishments in Australia | National Space Program | [
"Engineering"
] | 2,037 | [
"nan"
] |
72,184,559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW%20P65%20engine | The P65 is a special purpose-built naturally aspirated DOHC V8 engine, designed, developed and produced by BMW, for sports car racing, between 2009 and 2016. It is based on the BMW S65 engine, used in the BMW M3 (E92) road car.
P65B44
The P65 engine is used for motor racing.
Applications:
2008 BMW M3 ALMS
2009 BMW M3 GT2 racing car
2010-2015 BMW Z4 GT3 racing car
2013-2016 BMW Z4 GTE racing car
References
P65
V8 engines
Gasoline engines by model
Engines by model | BMW P65 engine | [
"Technology"
] | 121 | [
"Engines",
"Engines by model"
] |
72,185,156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuch%C5%AB-Yamanouchi%20Tile%20Kiln%20ruins | is an archaeological site consisting of the remains of a Nara period kiln located in what is now the Fuchu neighborhood of the city of Sakaide and the Kokubunji neighborhood of the city of Takamatsu, Kagawa Prefecture on the island of Shikoku, Japan. It has been protected by the central government as a National Historic Site since 1922.
Overview
The use of tiled roofs, which was a symbol of continental culture and the advanced state of the central administration, spread during the Asuka and Nara period to Buddhist temples and regional administrative centers. The Fuchū-Yamanouchi kiln is located about one kilometer southwest of the Sanuki Kokubun-ji and is on the border between Sakaide and Takamatsu cities. This anagama kiln is located on a slope and has a total length of over three meters. In the vicinity of the kiln, eaves tiles with the same pattern as roof tiles unearthed from the ruins of Sanuki Kokubun-ji and the Sanuki Kokubun-niji have been unearthed, so it is clear that the tiles of both temples were fired at this kiln.There were once around 14 kiln sites in the area, but today only this one remains in almost complete shape. Based on excavated roof tiles, it is believed to have been built in the Nara period. The site is about 15 minutes on foot from Kokubu Station on the JR Shikoku Yosan Line Takase Station.
See also
List of Historic Sites of Japan (Kagawa)
References
External links
Takamatsu City official site
Kagawa Prefecture homepage
Takamatsu, Kagawa
Sakaide, Kagawa
Japanese pottery kiln sites
History of Kagawa Prefecture
Historic Sites of Japan
Sanuki Province | Fuchū-Yamanouchi Tile Kiln ruins | [
"Chemistry",
"Engineering"
] | 363 | [
"Kilns",
"Japanese pottery kiln sites"
] |
72,185,255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonid%20Leibenson | Leonid Samuilovich Leibenson or Leybenzon (; 26 June, 1879 – 15 March, 1951) was a Russian and Soviet physicist who worked on fluid dynamics. The Leibenson equation named after him describes the flow of liquids through porous media. He helped establish research on petrochemical fluid research, developed the first Soviet wind tunnel and worked on mathematical approaches to study boundary layers in fluid dynamics.
Biography
Leybenzon was born in Kharkiv where his father Samuil Lvovich was a physician. Educated at the Tula classical gymnasium he went to Moscow to study at the technical school. His teacher Nikolay Zhukovsky suggested that he studied aerodynamics and he graduated in 1906. In 1908 he became an associate professor in applied mathematics at the Moscow University. In 1911 he protested the policy of Lev Kasso and quit university to work on oil storage and piping with Vladimir Shukhov. Using seismic evidence he suggested that the Earth's interior was fluid in 1911. He then taught at Tiflis from 1913 and at Dorpat (Tartu) from 1915. He received a doctorate and became a professor at the University of Tartu. After the Russian Revolution he became a professor at the Georgian University at Tbilisi and in 1921 became dean of at the Baku Polytechnic. He returned to Moscow in 1922 and from 1932 he was associated with the Aerohydrodynamic Institute working on aerodynamics working on the stability of elastic shells. In 1936 he was arrested on political charges by the NKVD and was exiled to Kazakhstan along with his wife. Living in Akhtubinsk, he moved later to Temir, and taught at a school, while also working on mathematical methods to examine airflow. His release was sought by Sergey Chaplygin and he was acquitted in 1939. He returned to Moscow and joined the Institute of Geophysics. Here he examined tidal forces, and the elasticity of the Earth's crust. In 1945 he became head of the department of hydrodynamics.
References
External links
Arrest record with photograph (in Russian)
1879 births
1951 deaths
Scientists from Kharkiv
Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute employees
Full Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Academic staff of Moscow State University
Recipients of the Stalin Prize
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Fluid dynamicists
Soviet Jews
Soviet physicists
Burials at Novodevichy Cemetery | Leonid Leibenson | [
"Chemistry"
] | 487 | [
"Fluid dynamicists",
"Fluid dynamics"
] |
72,187,101 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter%20%28social%20media%29 | Filters are digital image effects often used on social media. They initially simulated the effects of camera filters, and they have since developed with facial recognition technology and computer-generated augmented reality. Social media filters—especially beauty filters—are often used to alter the appearance of selfies taken on smartphones or other similar devices. While filters are commonly associated with beauty enhancement and feature alterations, there is a wide range of filters that have different functions. From adjusting photo tones to using face animations and interactive elements, users have access to a range of tools. These filters allow users to enhance photos and allow room for creative expression and fun interactions with digital content.
History
In 2010, Apple introduced the iPhone 4—the first iPhone model with a front camera. It gave rise to a dramatic increase in selfies, which could be touched up with more flattering lighting effects with applications such as Instagram. The American photographer Cole Rise was involved in the creation of the original filters for Instagram around 2010, designing several of them himself, including Sierra, Mayfair, Sutro, Amaro, and Willow. However, the technology for virtual lens filters was invented and patented by Patrick Levy-Rosenthal in 2007. The patent received 100 citations, including Facebook, Nvidia, Microsoft, Samsung, and Snap. In September, 2011, the Instagram 2.0 update for the application introduced "live filters," which allowed the user to preview the effect of the filter while shooting with the application's camera. #NoFilter, a hashtag label to describe an image that had not been filtered, became popular around 2013.
An update in 2014 allowed users to adjust the intensity of the filters as well as fine-tune other aspects of the image, features that had been available for years on applications such as VSCO and Litely.
In 2014, Snapchat started releasing sponsored filters to monetize the participatory use of the application. In September 2015, Snapchat acquired Looksery and released a feature called "lenses," animated filters using facial recognition technology. Some of the early lenses available on Snapchat at the time were Heart Eyes, Terminator, Puke Rainbows, Old, Scary, Rage Face, Heart Avalanche. The Coachella filter released April 2016 was a popular early augmented reality filter.
In April 2017, Facebook released the Camera Effects Platform, which is the first augmented reality platform that allows developers to create their own filters and effects on Facebook's Camera. In December 2017, Snapchat also launched their Lens Studio augmented reality developer tool that allows users and advertisers to do the same on the Snapchat application. In April 2022,TikTok joined the two, and launched their own augmented reality developer platform called Effect house. In February 2023, Effect House gave opened up the access to generative AI tools that allowed creators to change facial features in real time. In November 2023, TikTok released a feature where users no longer needed Effect House to create their own filters, as they are now able to create their own effects on the TikTok application.
In August 2024, Meta announced that it would be removing third-party filter effects from its family of apps by January 14, 2025. The AR development software Meta Spark AR will also be retired at the same time; it was at one point the "world’s largest mobile AR platform". Brand and creator effects represent the vast majority of filters available on Meta platforms, with over 2 million third-party filters available as of 2021.
Beauty filter
A beauty filter is a filter applied to still photographs, or to video in real time, to enhance the physical attractiveness of the subject. Typical effects of such filters include smoothing skin texture and modifying the proportions of facial features, for example enlarging the eyes or narrowing the nose.
Filters may be included as a built-in feature of social media apps such as Instagram or Snapchat, or implemented through standalone applications such as Facetune.
In 2020, the "Perfect Skin" filter for Snapchat and Instagram which was created by Brazilian augmented reality developer Brenno Faustino gained more than 36 million impressions in the first 24 hours of its release.
In 2021, TikTok users pointed out how the default front-facing camera on the platform automatically applied the retouch and other feature-altering filters. Users noted that these filters slimmed down faces, smoothed skin, whitened teeth, and altered facial features such as nose and eye size, without the option to disable this feature through settings.
In March 2023, the "Bold Glamour" filter was released on TikTok and instantly went viral with over 18 million videos created within its first week. This filter subtly enhances the user's facial features seamlessly, giving the illusion of fuller eyebrows, taller cheekbones, enhanced eye make up, a smaller nose, plumper lips, and clearer skin, giving off a natural yet distinct effect. As of May 2024, the filter has been used in over 220 million videos and has become a pivotal moment for beauty filters on digital platforms.
Critics have raised concerns that the widespread use of such filters on social media may lead to negative body image, particularly among girls. Though Meta's intention of removing third-party filters will likely see all beauty filters removed, academics feel that the damage of beautifying filters is already done.
Background
The manipulation of photos to enhance attractiveness has long been possible using software such as Adobe Photoshop and, before that, analogue techniques such as airbrushing. However, such tools required considerable technical and artistic skill, and so their use was mostly limited to professional contexts, such as magazines or advertisements.
By contrast, filters work in an automated fashion through the use of complex algorithms, requiring little or no input from the user. This ease of use, in combination with the increase in processing power of smartphones, and the rise of social media and selfie culture, have led to photographic manipulation occurring on a much wider scale than ever before.
One of the earliest examples of a content-aware digital photographic filter is red-eye reduction.
Effects
Typical changes applied by beauty filters include:
Smoothing skin texture; minimizing fine lines and blemishes
Erasing under-eye bags
Erasing naso-labial lines ("laugh lines")
Application of virtual makeup, such as lipstick or eyeshadow
Slimming the face; erasing double chins
Enlarging the eyes
Whitening teeth
Narrowing the nose
Increasing fullness of the lips
Beauty filters most frequently target the face, though in some cases they may affect other body parts. For example, the app "Retouch Me" was reported to have a feature which allows users to superimpose visible abdominal muscles (a "six pack") onto photos featuring the subject's bare stomach.
Reception and psychological effects
Some commentators have expressed concern that beauty filters may create unrealistic beauty standards, particularly among girls, and contribute to rates of body dysmorphic disorder. A correlation has been established between negative body image and the use of beautifying filters, though the direction of causation is unknown.
The inability to discern whether a particular image has been filtered is thought to exacerbate their negative psychological effects. Policymakers have advocated for social networks to disclose the use of filters; TikTok, Instagram, and Snapchat all label filtered photos and videos with the name of the filter applied.
It has also been noted that beauty filters on social media tend to highlight Eurocentric features, like lighter eyes, a smaller nose, and flushed cheeks. These filters have been documented as contributing to social media users' feelings of body image insecurity, sometimes called "filter dysmorphia." This trend has led some to seek plastic surgery to make themselves look how they appear in social media filters.
Cosmetic procedures
Filters have been implicated in greater demand for cosmetic surgery and injections. The term "Snapchat dysmorphia" was coined by cosmetic doctor Tijion Esho to describe patients who presented to plastic surgeons seeking procedures to mimic the effects of filters, such as a narrowed nose, enlarged eyes, fuller lips, and smoothed skin.
Instagram previously hosted a number of third-party filters which explicitly simulated the effects of cosmetic procedures, as well as a filter, "FixMe", which allowed users to annotate their face with areas for surgical improvement, as a plastic surgeon might do with a marker. After public controversy around these filters, Facebook banned them in October 2019, along with all "distortion" filters, which altered the proportions of the face. In August 2020, Facebook re-allowed distortion filters, but continued to ban filters which "directly promote cosmetic surgery". Facial distortion filters are also unlisted in the app's "Effects Gallery", which shows the most popular filters at the time.
Other filters
Animated filters
Animated filters gained popularity from 2015 to 2016, when Snapchat introduced animated lenses such as the dog filter, Coachella filter, Puke Rainbows, Scary, Heart Eyes.
Brand filters
Filters have also been used as a marketing tool by many brands with the help of augmented reality. Brands leverage the features on platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, and Snapchat to provide an interactive experience for customers and increase brand awareness on the digital landscape. Some examples of these augmented reality filters include Fenty Beauty's shade match filter, NBA and Beats by Dre's basketball game filter, Google Pixel Watch's Try-Before-You-Buy Snapchat lens, and many more.
Apps
Many applications allow users to enhance their photos with filters and adjust aspects such as exposure, white balance, contrast, and saturation of photos to their personal preferences. Applications such as VSCO, Snapseed, and Adobe Lightroom provide extensive editing tools and filters that allow users to experiment with different filters and create custom presets. Users are also able to explore and purchase filters or presets made by other creators.
Beauty filters are available as a built-in feature of many social media apps, most notably Instagram, Snapchat, and TikTok. In the case of Instagram and Snapchat, most filters are created by third-party developers rather than the app developers themselves. The video-conferencing app Zoom includes a "Touch-up My Appearance" filter which smooths blemishes and under-eye bags.
Beautifying effects may be bundled as part of other, more whimsical augmented reality filters, such as Instagram and Snapchat filters which give the user puppy ears or a flower crown.
Beauty filters may also be applied using standalone "beauty apps". One of the most popular such apps is Facetune. In 2017, Facetune was the most popular paid app on the Apple App Store. As of 2019, the paid app, and the free counterpart, Facetune2, had more than 55 million users between them. FaceApp is another image editing app which uses deep learning algorithms. Extreme use of the app's beauty filters was the subject of the "Yassification" Internet meme, in which photos are filtered to hyper-glamorour extremes to humorous effect.
Filters are most commonly applied to self-taken portraits ("selfies"). The close distance from which such photos are taken may create undesirable distortions, such as increasing the perceived size of the nose.
Studies
A study from Yahoo! Labs (now Yahoo! Research) and the Georgia Institute of Technology found that filtered photos outperform unfiltered photos in terms of engagement on social media, with a 21% higher chance of being viewed and a 45% higher chance of generating a comment.
In 2019, a study found that the use of social media applications (YouTube, Tinder, Snapchat), along with Snapchat, Instagram, and VSCO filters were positively correlated with consideration and acceptance of cosmetic surgery. In contrast, the use of WhatsApp and Facebook was found to have lower acceptance of cosmetic surgery or no difference compared to nonusers, respectively . These results indicates that WhatsApp and Facebook are primarily user to connect with close friends and family, while applications such as YouTube, Tinder, and Snapchat are used on a larger social scope and are dependent on self-appearance.
In 2020, it was reported that 600 million people monthly were using augmented reality filters on Instagram or Facebook, while 76% of Snapchat users were using them daily.
See also
Instagram face
Body dysmorphic disorder
References
Social media
Digital photography
Selfies
Augmented reality
Facial recognition software
Popular culture
Internet culture | Filter (social media) | [
"Technology"
] | 2,581 | [
"Computing and society",
"Social media"
] |
72,187,766 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column%20of%20the%20Temple%20of%20Poseidon%20at%20Chatsworth | The column of the Temple of Poseidon is one of the surviving features in the Chatsworth House garden from the period of the sixth Duke of Devonshire . Surmounted by an over life-sized bronze bust of the sixth Duke, the classical Greek column of four Doric marble drums was erected in 1840s. It is located at the south termination of the Serpentine Hedge, by the midpoint of a footpath linking between the Maze and the south end of the Broadwalk. The object has been Grade II listed since 1987.
Origin and History
The origin of these drums refers to the site of the Temple of Poseidon, Sounion, dated c. 480 BC. However, as can be seen from the object's pedestal poem inscription whereby its provenance was mistakenly referred to Minerva, the name of the Temple of Poseidon was misunderstood in 19th century until 1897, when Valerios Stais’ excavation of this site rediscovered the temple's name and its worshiped deity, Poseidon, God of the Sea. Further research suggests that the four drums are presumably from a single collapsed Poseidon Temple column whose the bottom, 3rd, 4th and the 6th drum were stacked in sequence and formed this object. The probable seventh one is currently preserved in the British Museum.
Some point before 1845 the publication of his handbook, possibly in 1825 when his half brother returned from the Mediterranean voyage, the sixth Duke of Devonshire was gifted these column drums from his half brother Augustus Clifford, who at the time was the captain of HMS Euryalus and collected several antiquities in Greece between 1821 and 1825 during his military deployment in Mediterranean.
The bronze bust atop is a work of Thomas Campbell commissioned by the sixth Duke during 1822–1823 in his trip to Rome.
Pedestal Inscriptions
The column's 19th-century sandstone pedestal is three-face inscribed:
West
Such was e’en then their look of calm repose,
As wafted round them came the sound of fight,
When the glad shout of conquering Athens rose,
O’er the long track of Persians broken flight.
North
These fragments stood on Sunium's airy steep,
They reared aloft Minerva's guardian's shrine,
Beneath them rolled the blue Aegean deep,
And the Greek pilot hailed them as divine.
South
Tho clasped by prostrate worshippers no more,
They yet shall breathe a thrilling lesson here,
Tho distant from their own immortal shore,
The spot they grace is still to freedom dear.
Reference List
Ancient Greek buildings and structures
Columns in England
Architectural elements
Grade II listed buildings in Derbyshire | Column of the Temple of Poseidon at Chatsworth | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 513 | [
"Building engineering",
"Architectural elements",
"Components",
"Architecture"
] |
72,188,498 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompidou%20Group | The Council of Europe International Cooperation Group on Drugs and Addiction, also known as Pompidou Group (French: Groupe Pompidou; and formerly Cooperation Group to Combat Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking in Drugs) is the co-operation platform of the Council of Europe on matters of drug policy currently composed of 42 countries. It was established as an ad'hoc inter-governmental platform in 1971 until its incorporation into the Council of Europe in 1980. Its headquarters are in Strasbourg, France.
History
During the 1960s, the "French Connection", a large-scale drug smuggling scheme allowing the import of heroin into the United States via Turkey and France, raised international concerns. On 6 August 1971, former French President Georges Pompidou sent a letter to his counterparts of Germany, Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom expressing his concerns and proposing a joint effort "to better understand and tackle the growing drug problems in Europe." It has been suggested the initiative was pressed by a letter addressed to Pompidou by U.S. President Rixhard Nixon in 1969.
The Group was officially launched at the first ministerial meeting held in Paris on 4 November 1971. According to its website:"Until 1979, the group operated without a formal status supported by the countries holding its presidency: France from 1971 to 1977 and Sweden from 1977 to 1979. The group developed as a sui generis entity throughout the 1970s, and three other countries (Denmark, Ireland and Sweden) joined it during that decade."After the death of Pompidou in 1974, the group started to informally adopt the name "Pompidou Group."
On 27 March 1980, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe adopted Resolution (80)2, integrating the Pompidou Group into the institutional framework of the Council as an inter-governmental body, after which numerous countries joined it.
As the European integration process and expansion of Schengen Area took over many drug-related areas of competences of European countries, the Pompidou Group reoriented its action towards monitoring. It publishes on a number of topics such as review of seizures carried out at borders, guidelines for custom officers, drug markets, and epidemiology. Since 1989, the Group started working on human rights, health, prevention (including the role of police in drug use prevention), and more recently on harm reduction and HIV/AIDS. Since 2004, the Group now awards every two years a "European Drug Prevention Prize" to drug prevention projects involving young people. More recently, the group has started involving on topics such as addiction to the internet, trade in precursors, on-line drug sales, gender-related issues, prison policies, etc.
In 1999 and 2010, the group signed Memoranda of Understanding with the EU's European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction.
On 16 June 2021, marking the fiftieth anniversary of the initiative, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe adopted Resolution CM/Res(2021)4 making important changes to the status and mandate of the group. It also officially changed its name to "Council of Europe International Cooperation Group on Drugs and Addiction."
Structure
The Presidency is the main political body of the Pompidou Group. It takes primary responsibility for supervising the work of the group. The Ministerial Conference elects the countries holding the Presidency and Vice-Presidency for a four years term.
The Ministerial Conference is the policy-making body and high-level political forum. It is composed of Ministers responsible for drug policies in their countries, who meet every four years. The Ministerial Conference establishes the Group's strategy and priorities.
The Permanent Correspondents is the main decision-making body. It is composed by officials representing their government in-between Ministerial Conferences. Permanent Correspondents meet twice a year.
Membership
Although the group was launched among seven European countries, its membership has expanded in number and in nature along the years.
Member states
As of 2022, the Pompidou Group consists of 41 member states. As an "Enlarged Partial Agreement", membership of the Pompidou Group is also open to countries not members of the Council of Europe, including states outside Europe. Observer status is also possible for states. In addition, the US and the Holy See "at their request and after deliberation by the Permanent Correspondents, have been associated with the work of the Pompidou Group on an ad hoc technical basis."
Intergovernmental and non-governmental observers
Beyond countries' governments, as of 2022, the European Commission, the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, the Conference of INGOs of the Council of Europe, the Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission (CICAD/OAS), the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), and the World Health Organisation enjoy observer status.
On its turn, the Pompidou Group enjoys observer or similar status in a number of EU and UN fora.
Criticism
Some governments have criticized the overlap of discussions held at the Pompidou Group with those taking place in fora like the European Union (Horizontal Drugs Group) or the United Nations (Commission on Narcotic Drugs). Countries have also lamented the membership fees.
Civil society stakeholders have criticized the Pompidou Group for leaving little room for the direct participation and involvement of non-governmental organizations in its work and discussions.
In 2022, while announcing the withdrawal of his country from the Pompidou Group, Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Oleg Syromolotov nonetheless declared that "the expert dialogue with the EU on combatting drugs has until recently been one of the few that has not been subject to political conjuncture." The consensus of the Pompidou Group around stringent drug policies, compatible with the zero-tolerance approach of the Russian Federation on drugs, and in particular with strong positions opposing decriminalization and legalization of drugs, has long been criticized by observers. In 2021, the Executive Secretary of the Pompidou Group Denis Huber declared:"The Pompidou Group, with the diversity of its members, has no official stance on the issue of decriminalisation, but it will continue to play its role of a platform of cooperation and dialogue for discussing both health and criminal related problems associated with drug use and abuse."
References
External links
1971 establishments in France
Council of Europe
Drug control law
Drug control treaties
Drug policy
Drug policy organizations
International organizations based in Europe
International organizations based in France
Organizations based in Strasbourg
Organizations established in 1971
Politics of Europe
Georges Pompidou | Pompidou Group | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,340 | [
"Drug control law",
"Regulation of chemicals"
] |
72,188,703 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM-11245 | AM-11245 is a drug which is a cannabinoid agonist from the classical cannabinoid family. It has high affinity and efficacy at both the CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors, with a Ki of 0.4nM at both CB1 and CB2, and an EC50 of ~0.06nM at CB1 and 0.2nM at CB2, making it one of the most potent cannabinoid agonists identified to date.
See also
HU-243
O-774
List of AM cannabinoids
References
Benzochromenes
Hydroxyarenes
AM cannabinoids
Nitriles | AM-11245 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 139 | [
"Nitriles",
"Functional groups"
] |
72,189,075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibson%20GL458%20engine | The Gibson GL458 engine is a 4.5-litre, normally-aspirated, DOHC, V8 racing engine, developed and produced by Gibson for sports car racing, since 2018.
References
Engines by model
Gasoline engines by model
Zytek engines
V8 engines | Gibson GL458 engine | [
"Technology"
] | 57 | [
"Engines",
"Engines by model"
] |
72,189,185 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibson%20GJ458%20engine | The Zytek GJ458 engine is a 4.5-litre normally-aspiratedDOHC V8 engine. It has been developed and produced by Gibson for sports car racing since 2009.
Applications
Zytek 09S
References
Engines by model
Gasoline engines by model
Zytek engines
V8 engines | Gibson GJ458 engine | [
"Technology"
] | 63 | [
"Engines",
"Engines by model"
] |
72,189,412 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibson%20GK428%20engine | The Zytek GK428 engine is a 4.2-litre normally-aspirated DOHC V8 engine. It has been developed and produced by Gibson for sports car racing since 2017.
Applications
Oreca 07
References
Engines by model
Gasoline engines by model
Zytek engines
V8 engines | Gibson GK428 engine | [
"Technology"
] | 61 | [
"Engines",
"Engines by model"
] |
72,189,673 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zytek%202ZG408%20engine | The Zytek 2ZG408 engine is a 4.0-litre, normally-aspirated, DOHC, V8 racing engine which was developed and produced by Zytek for sports car racing between 2006 and 2007.
Applications
Zytek 06S
Zytek 07S
References
Engines by model
Gasoline engines by model
Zytek engines
V8 engines | Zytek 2ZG408 engine | [
"Technology"
] | 75 | [
"Engines",
"Engines by model"
] |
72,196,653 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adustochaete | Adustochaete is a genus of fungi in the family Auriculariaceae. Species produce effused basidiocarps (fruit bodies) on wood, typically covered in small sterile spines or pegs. The genus was created as a result of molecular research, based on cladistic analysis of DNA sequences, to accommodate two species from Brazil and Mexico that are not closely related to the older and superficially similar genus Heterochaete. Two additional species, from Brazil and China, have since been described.
References
External links
Auriculariales
Agaricomycetes genera | Adustochaete | [
"Biology"
] | 121 | [
"Fungus stubs",
"Fungi"
] |
62,578,813 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neumorphism | Neumorphism is a design style used in graphical user interfaces. It is commonly identified by a soft and light look (for which it is sometimes referred to as soft UI) with elements that appear to protrude from or dent into the background rather than float on top of it. It is sometimes considered a medium between skeuomorphism and flat design.
History
The term neumorphism was coined by Jason Kelly in 2019 as a portmanteau of neo and skeuomorphism, emphasizing its role as a semi-revival of skeuomorphism. Many neumorphic design concepts can be traced to Alexander Plyuto, who created a mockup for a banking app showing various elements of neumorphic design. He posted it to the website Dribbble, where it quickly blew up to 3,000 views.
On November 12, 2020, Apple released macOS Big Sur. The update included graphical designs that featured neumorphism prominently, such as the app icons and use of translucency.
Characteristics and purpose
Neumorphism is a form of minimalism characterized by a soft and light look, often using pastel colors with low contrast. Elements are usually the same color as the background, and are only distinguished by shadows and highlights surrounding the element. This gives the elements the appearance that they are "protruding" from the background, or that they are dented into it.
Designers may like the look and feel of neumorphism because it provides a middle ground between skeuomorphism and flat design. Specifically, it aims to look plausibly realistic, while still looking clean and adhering to minimalism.
Criticism
Neumorphism has received a lot of criticism, notably for its lack of accessibility, difficulty in implementation, low contrast, and incompatibility with certain brands.
References
Design
Graphical user interfaces
2019 neologisms | Neumorphism | [
"Engineering"
] | 392 | [
"Design"
] |
62,578,872 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey%20R.%20Long | Jeffrey Robert Long is a professor of chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley known for his work in metal−organic frameworks and molecular magnetism. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2019 and is the 2019 F. Albert Cotton Award recipient. His research interests include: the synthesis of inorganic clusters and porous materials, investigating the electronic and magnetic properties of inorganic materials; metal-organic frameworks, and gas storage/capture.
Early life and education
Jeffrey Long was born in Rolla, Missouri on May 15, 1969. He is the son of Gary J. Long, Prof. Emeritus of Chemistry at the Missouri University of Science and Technology, an expert in Mössbauer spectroscopy. He received his Bachelors of Arts from Cornell University in Chemistry (summa cum laude) and Mathematics (cum laude) in 1991. While an undergraduate student, he worked alongside Prof. Roald Hoffmann on the application of molecular orbital theory in determining solid-state band structure of metal carbides. He went on to do graduate studies with Prof. Richard H. Holm at Harvard University where he studied the structure and electronic properties of transition metal chalcogenide clusters, earning his PhD in 1995. After continuing with Richard Holm as a postdoctoral fellow, in 1996 he then went on to do post-doctoral studies with Prof. Paul Alivisatos at the University of California, Berkeley.
Independent career
Long began his independent career at the University of California, Berkeley in 1997, where he expanded his work to include studies on Prussian blue analogs and metal cyanide coordination clusters with an emphasis on their magnetic properties. He has contributed significantly to the field of molecular magnetism, most notably in the synthesis and characterization of a linear cobalt(II) complex exhibiting a non-Aufbau ground state, the characterization of radical-bridged lanthanide single-molecule magnets (SMMs), and the isolation of atomically defined 2-D metal-halide sheets within a porous material. In the mid 2000s the focus of his research shifted towards the emergent field of Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs). His initial studies were focused on hydrogen storage in open-metal site manganese MOFs. His other notable works in this field include the synthesis and characterization of novel frameworks for hydrocarbon separations, the discovery of a novel cooperative mechanism for carbon dioxide capture, as well as the discovery of materials for other industrially relevant chemical separations.,
References
Living people
American chemists
University of California, Berkeley faculty
Cornell University alumni
Harvard University alumni
American inorganic chemists
UC Berkeley College of Chemistry faculty
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1969 births
Solid state chemists | Jeffrey R. Long | [
"Chemistry"
] | 544 | [
"American inorganic chemists",
"Solid state chemists",
"Inorganic chemists"
] |
62,578,977 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European%20Accessibility%20Act | The European Accessibility Act (EAA) is a directive of the European Union (EU) which took effect in April 2019. This directive aims to improve the trade between members of the EU for accessible products and services, by removing country specific rules. Businesses benefit from having a common set of rules within the EU, which should facilitate easier cross-border trade. It should also allow a greater market for companies providing accessible products and services. Persons with disabilities and elderly people will benefit from having more accessible products and services in the market. An increased market size should produce more competitive prices. There should be fewer barriers within the EU and more job opportunities as well.
Originally proposed in 2011, this act was built to complement the EU's Web Accessibility Directive which targets the public sector and became law in 2016. It also reflects the obligations of the UN's Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. It includes a wide range of systems including personal devices such as computers, smartphones, e-books, and TVs, as well as public services like television broadcast, automated teller machine (ATMs), ticketing machines, public transport services, banking services and e-commerce sites.
The laws, regulations and administrative provisions necessary to comply with this Directive have to be adopted and published by the member states by 28 June 2022. Three years later, in 2025, the requirements of the European Accessibility Act must have been implemented. The requirements and obligations of this Directive do not apply to microenterprises providing services within the scope of this Directive – whereby ‘microenterprise’ means an enterprise which employs fewer than 10 persons and which has an annual turnover not exceeding €2 million or an annual balance sheet total not exceeding €2 million.
The European policy of applying "Design for all" principles on digital technology led to the creation of the European Harmonized Accessibility Standards EN 301 549 which defines "Accessibility requirements suitable for public procurement of ICT products and services in Europe".
See also
Web Accessibility Directive for the public sector.
Accessible Canada Act (2019) for the corresponding Canadian federal legislation.
Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) for the corresponding American federal legislation.
Disability Discrimination Act (1995) and Equality Act (2010) for the corresponding UK legislation.
External links
European Accessibility Act: A Big Step On A Long Journey
EU Web Accessibility Compliance and Legislation
ACCESSIBILITY REQUIREMENTS FOR PRODUCTS AND SERVICES / 2015-12
All set for design for all! An update on the European Accessibility Act
Video by the European Commission explaining the benefits and background of the EAA
Lainey Feingold's Global Law and Policy: Europe
Digital Accessibility Centre's - The European Accessibility Act: Understanding Digital Accessibility
References
2019 in Europe
2019 in law
Disability legislation
Accessibility
European Union directives
Accessible procurement | European Accessibility Act | [
"Engineering"
] | 551 | [
"Accessibility",
"Design"
] |
62,579,382 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H4K8ac | H4K8ac, representing an epigenetic modification to the DNA packaging protein histone H4, is a mark indicating the acetylation at the 8th lysine residue of the histone H4 protein. It has been implicated in the prevalence of malaria.
Nomenclature
H4K8ac indicates acetylation of lysine 8 on histone H4 protein subunit:
Histone modifications
The genomic DNA of eukaryotic cells is wrapped around special protein molecules known as histones. The complexes formed by the looping of the DNA are known as chromatin. The basic structural unit of chromatin is the nucleosome: this consists of the core octamer of histones (H2A, H2B, H3 and H4) as well as a linker histone and about 180 base pairs of DNA. These core histones are rich in lysine and arginine residues. The carboxyl (C) terminal end of these histones contribute to histone-histone interactions, as well as histone-DNA interactions. The amino (N) terminal charged tails are the site of the post-translational modifications, such as the one seen in H3K36me3.
H4 histone
H4 modifications are not as well known as H3's and H4 have fewer variations which might explain their important function.
H4K8ac
H4K8ac is part of 17 modifications of a group of active promoters. H4K8ac is found more often in active promoters and transcribed regions than other marks. H4K8ac is modified by a different group of enzymes than other H4 lysines.
Lysine acetylation and deacetylation
Proteins are typically acetylated on lysine residues and this reaction relies on acetyl-coenzyme A as the acetyl group donor. In histone acetylation and deacetylation, histone proteins are acetylated and deacetylated on lysine residues in the N-terminal tail as part of gene regulation. Typically, these reactions are catalyzed by enzymes with histone acetyltransferase (HAT) or histone deacetylase (HDAC) activity, although HATs and HDACs can modify the acetylation status of non-histone proteins as well.
The regulation of transcription factors, effector proteins, molecular chaperones, and cytoskeletal proteins by acetylation and deacetylation is a significant post-translational regulatory mechanism These regulatory mechanisms are analogous to phosphorylation and dephosphorylation by the action of kinases and phosphatases. Not only can the acetylation state of a protein modify its activity, but this post-translational modification may also crosstalk with phosphorylation, methylation, ubiquitination, sumoylation, and others for dynamic control of cellular signaling.
Epigenetic implications
The post-translational modification of histone tails by either histone modifying complexes or chromatin remodeling complexes are interpreted by the cell and lead to complex, combinatorial transcriptional output. It is thought that a histone code dictates the expression of genes by a complex interaction between the histones in a particular region. The current understanding and interpretation of histones comes from two large scale projects: ENCODE and the Epigenomic roadmap. The purpose of the epigenomic study was to investigate epigenetic changes across the entire genome. This led to chromatin states which define genomic regions by grouping the interactions of different proteins and/or histone modifications together.
Chromatin states were investigated in Drosophila cells by looking at the binding location of proteins in the genome. Use of ChIP-sequencing revealed regions in the genome characterised by different banding. Different developmental stages were profiled in Drosophila as well, an emphasis was placed on histone modification relevance. A look in to the data obtained led to the definition of chromatin states based on histone modifications.
The human genome was annotated with chromatin states. These annotated states can be used as new ways to annotate a genome independently of the underlying genome sequence. This independence from the DNA sequence enforces the epigenetic nature of histone modifications. Chromatin states are also useful in identifying regulatory elements that have no defined sequence, such as enhancers. This additional level of annotation allows for a deeper understanding of cell specific gene regulation.
Methods
The histone mark acetylation can be detected in a variety of ways:
1. Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Sequencing (ChIP-sequencing) measures the amount of DNA enrichment once bound to a targeted protein and immunoprecipitated. It results in good optimization and is used in vivo to reveal DNA-protein binding occurring in cells. ChIP-Seq can be used to identify and quantify various DNA fragments for different histone modifications along a genomic region.
2. Micrococcal Nuclease sequencing (MNase-seq) is used to investigate regions that are bound by well positioned nucleosomes. Use of the micrococcal nuclease enzyme is employed to identify nucleosome positioning. Well positioned nucleosomes are seen to have enrichment of sequences.
3. Assay for transposase accessible chromatin sequencing (ATAC-seq) is used to look in to regions that are nucleosome free (open chromatin). It uses hyperactive Tn5 transposon to highlight nucleosome localisation.
Clinical significance
This mark has been implicated in the prevalence of malaria.
See also
Histone acetylation
References
Epigenetics
Post-translational modification | H4K8ac | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,203 | [
"Post-translational modification",
"Gene expression",
"Biochemical reactions"
] |
62,580,833 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novak%E2%80%93Tyson%20model | The Novak–Tyson Model is a non-linear dynamics framework developed in the context of cell-cycle control by Bela Novak and John J. Tyson. It is a prevalent theoretical model that describes a hysteretic, bistable bifurcation of which many biological systems have been shown to express.
Historical background
Bela Novak and John Tyson came from the Department of Biology at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in Blacksburg, Virginia, when this model was first published in the Journal of Cell Science in 1993.
In 1990, two key papers were published that identified and characterized important dynamic relationships between cyclin and MPF in interphase-arrested frog egg extracts. The first was Solomon's 1990 Cell paper, titled "Cyclin activation of p34cdc2" and the second was Felix's 1990 Nature paper, titled "Triggering of cyclin degradation in interphase extracts of amphibian eggs of cdc2 kinase". Solomon's paper showed a distinct cyclin concentration threshold for the activation of MPF. Felix's paper looked at cyclin B degradation in these extracts and found that MPF degrades cyclin B in a concentration dependent and time-delayed manner.
In response to these observations, three competing models were published in the next year, 1991, by Norel and Agur, Goldbeter, and Tyson. These competing theories all attempted to model the experimental observations seen in the 1990 papers regarding the cyclin-MPF network.
The Norel and Agur model
Norel and Agur's model proposes a mechanism where cyclin catalytically drives the production of MPF, which in turn autocatalyzes. This model assumes that MPF activates cyclin degradation via APC activation, and it decouples cyclin degradation from MPF destruction. However, this model is unable to recreate the observed cyclin dependent MPF activity relationship seen in Solomon's 1990 paper, as it shows no upper steady-state level of MPF activity.
Goldbeter model
Goldbeter proposed a model where cyclin also catalytically activates MPF, but without an autocatalytic, positive feedback loop. The model describes a two-step process, where MPF first activates the APC, and then the APC drives cyclin degradation. When graphing the MPF activity with respect to cyclin concentration, the model shows a sigmoidal shape, with a hypersensitive, threshold region similar to what was observed by Solomon. However, this model depicts an effectively asymptotic plateau behavior at cyclin concentrations above the threshold, whereas the observed curve shows a steady increase in MPF activity at cyclin concentrations above the threshold.
Tyson model
In Tyson's 1991 model, cyclin is a stoichiometric activator of Cdc2, as cyclin binds with phosphorylated Cdc2 to form preMPF, which is activated by Cdc25 to generate MPF. Because Cdc25 itself is also activated by MPF, the conversion of preMPF to active MPF is a self-amplifying process in this model. Tyson neglected the role of MPF in activating the APC, assuming that only a phosphorylated form of cyclin was rapidly degraded. Tyson's model predicts an S-shaped curve, which is phenotypically consistent with Solomon's experimental results. However, this model generates additional lower turning point behavior on the S-curve that implies hysteresis when interpreted as a threshold.
The Novak–Tyson model, first published in the paper titled "Numerical analysis of a comprehensive model of M-phase control in Xenopus oocyte extracts and intact embryos", builds on the Goldbeter and Tyson 1991 models in order to generate a unifying theory, encapsulating the observed dynamics of the cyclin-MPF relationship.
Model
The model proposes a complex set of feedback relationships that are mathematically defined by a series of rate constants and ordinary differential equations. It employs concepts seen in the previous models such as stoichiometric binding of Cdc2 and cyclin B, positive feedback loops through Cdc25 and Wee1, and delayed activation by MPF of the APC, but includes additional reactions such as that of Wee1 and Cdc25. The result is a non-linear dynamic system with a similar S-shaped curve from Tyson's 1991 model. In the process, this model makes four key predictions.
Discontinuous bistable hysteresis
According to the Novak–Tyson model, rather than describing Solomon's observations as a sigmoidal switch as seen in the Goldbeter model, the threshold behavior of cyclin concentration dependent MPF activity is instead, a discontinuity of a bistable system. Moreover, due to the S-shape dynamics, the Novak–Tyson model additionally predicts that the cyclin concentration threshold for activation is higher than the cyclin concentration threshold for inactivation; that is, this model predicts a dynamically hysteretic behavior.
Critical slowing down
Since the Novak–Tyson model predicts that the observed threshold is actually a discontinuity in the system dynamics, it additionally predicts a critical slowing down behavior near the threshold, which is a characteristic behavior of discontinuous bistable systems.
Biochemical regulation
Since the model predicts that MPF activation at the interphase-to-mitosis transition is governed by the turning point of an S-shaped curve, Novak and Tyson suggest that transition-delaying checkpoint signals biochemically move the turning point to larger values of cyclin B concentration.
Phosphatase regulation
Novak and Tyson predict that unreplicated DNA interferes with M-phase initiation by activating the phosphatases that oppose MPF in the positive feedback loops. This prediction suggests a possible role for regulated serine/threonine protein phosphatases in cell cycle control.
Model validation
At the time of publishing, the predictions from the paper were all experimentally untested and were based only off the signal pathways and mathematical modeling proposed by Novak and Tyson. However, since then, two papers have experimentally validated three of the four predictions listed above, namely the discontinuous bistable hysteresis, critical slowing down, and biochemical regulation predictions.
Weaknesses
According to the Novak and Tyson, this model, as with any biologically detailed, mathematically driven model, is heavily reliant on parameter estimation, especially given the mathematical complexity for this particular model. Ultimately these parameters are fit to experimental data, which is inherently susceptible to the compounded reliability of various experiments measuring various parameters.
References
Cell cycle
Biology theories | Novak–Tyson model | [
"Biology"
] | 1,391 | [
"Cell cycle",
"Cellular processes",
"Biology theories"
] |
62,580,941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20585 | NGC 585 is a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Cetus, which is about 245 million light-years from the Milky Way's center. The object was discovered on December 20, 1827, by the British astronomer John Frederick William Herschel.
See also
List of NGC objects (1–1000)
References
External links
Spiral galaxies
585
Cetus
005688 | NGC 585 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 76 | [
"Cetus",
"Constellations"
] |
62,580,959 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20540 | NGC 540 is a barred lenticular galaxy in the constellation Cetus. It is estimated to be 451 million light years from the Milky Way and has a diameter of approximately 120,000 light years. The object was discovered on October 15, 1885, by the American astronomer Francis Preserved Leavenworth.
See also
List of NGC objects (1–1000)
References
External links
540
Barred lenticular galaxies
Cetus
005410 | NGC 540 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 85 | [
"Cetus",
"Constellations"
] |
62,581,213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycopodielloideae | Lycopodielloideae is a subfamily in the family Lycopodiaceae in the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I). It is equivalent to a broad circumscription of the genus Lycopodiella in other classifications. Like all lycophytes, members of the Lycopodielloideae are vascular plants that reproduce by spores.
Description
The sporophytes of Lycopodielloideae species are relatively short herbaceous plants. They have stems with pseudomonopodial branching in which unequal binary branching produces the appearance of a main stem with secondary side branches. The main stems are indeterminate and of various forms, including rhizomatous, creeping and upright. The branches are usually determinate (i.e. of limited growth and extension). Sporangia are borne at the bases or in the axils of special spore-bearing leaves (sporophylls), which are notably different from the normal leaves, and are grouped into compact terminal structures (strobili). The strobili may be either upright or drooping.
Taxonomy
The family Lycopodiaceae was first established in 1802. Although other genera now placed within the family (in particular Huperzia, published in 1801) had been described, until the mid-1900s, Lycopodium was often the only genus recognized. Work by Josef Holub and Benjamin Øllgaard in the 1980s established three clear divisions within the family. This has since been supported by molecular phylogenetic studies. Several different ways of representing this situation taxonomically have been used, and are still in use , including three subfamilies with multiple genera, and three genera with multiple subgeneric divisions. Three subfamilies, including Lycopodielloideae, were first suggested by Warren Wagner Jr. and Joseph Beitel in 1992, but were not validly published under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature as it was then. The names were validated by Benjamin Øllgaard in 2015. The entire subfamily Lycopodielloideae in the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I) corresponds to the single genus Lycopodiella in other classifications.
Phylogeny
Within the family Lycopodiaceae, there is support for three subgroups. In 2016, Field et al. proposed that the primary division is between Lycopodielloideae plus Lycopodioideae (which comprised their Lycopodioideae) and Huperzioideae (subfamilies sensu PPG I).
Field et al. (2016) included eight species of Lycopodielloideae in their analysis, which suggested the relationships among the genera shown in the following cladogram, where the number of species included in the study is shown in parentheses:
Genera
In the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I), the Lycopodielloideae comprises the following genera:
Lateristachys Holub
Lycopodiella Holub
Palhinhaea Franco & Vasc.
Pseudolycopodiella Holub
All of these genera are submerged into a single genus Lycopodiella sensu lato in other systems of classification.
References
Lycopodiaceae
Plant subfamilies | Lycopodielloideae | [
"Biology"
] | 718 | [
"Plant subfamilies",
"Plants"
] |
62,581,707 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weber%20Manuscript |
The Weber Manuscript, also called Weber Manuscripts, is a collection of nine, possibly eleven, incomplete ancient Indian treatises written mostly in classical Sanskrit that were found buried within a Buddhist monument in northwestern China in late 19th-century. It is named after the Moravian missionary F. Weber who acquired the set from an Afghani merchant in Ladakh, and then forwarded it to the German Indologist and philologist Rudolf Hoernlé in Calcutta. The manuscripts consist of 76 page-leaves, written in Northwestern Gupta and Central Asian Nagari (Turkestanic Brahmi, slanting Gupta) scripts. They were copied before the end of 7th-century, likely in the 5th-century or the 6th–century. The original texts that were copied to produce these manuscripts were likely considerably older Indian texts, at least one between 3rd-century BCE and pre-2nd-century CE. The Weber Manuscript is notable for having been written on two types of paper – Central Asian and Nepalese, attesting to the spread of paper technology outside of interior China and its use for Indian religious texts by the 5th– or 6th-century.
The Weber Manuscripts include fragments of:
a manuscript of a Sanskrit dictionary (kosha),
an astronomical treatise based on the movement of the moon with Vedic terms and 28 nakshatras (lunar zodiacs),
a goddess Parvati stotra with Rudra and Shiva–related Hindu mythology treatise in the style of Puranas,
an eulogistic text on Vedic rishi Angirasa but with some Buddhistic terms,
a Buddhist dharani and sorcery treatise in a "barbarous mixture of Pali and Sanskrit" according to Hoernle,
a Buddhist treatise on snake charm (dharani) that praises the Buddha and claims the charm was taught by the Buddha to Mahayaksha Manibhadra, includes a list of names of some Nagas (snakes)
another Buddhist treatise on snake charm (dharani) quite similar to the previous treatise in content, also includes a list of names of some Nagas
a treatise for treating some disease by fasting, penance, then preparing and taking a prescription, includes medical charms
an unclear text in a different language but with Sanskrit words, possibly a Buddhist tantric work
The scribes were likely Buddhist because the Weber Manuscript was discovered in the ruins of a Buddhist monastery, the treatises include verses that praise the Buddha though the predominant language isn't Pali, is either mostly accurate classical Sanskrit or occasionally a crude mix of Pali and Sanskrit. Even the Sanskrit dictionary includes a phrase ksatriyair Buddha-nirjitaih, or "Kshatriyas conquered by Buddha", which suggests that the author was probably Buddhist.
The Weber Manuscripts are currently preserved in the collections of the Bodleian Library in Oxford.
Discovery
Hoernle received the Weber Manuscript from Leh-based F. Weber in 1893. At that time, based on what he was told, he reported that the manuscript was discovered 60 miles south of Yarkand. However, interviews and surveys conducted between 1893 and 1900, persuaded Hoernle that the Weber Manuscript came from Kucha, the same location as the Bower Manuscript. These were found by the same Muslim treasure hunters who were digging up Kucha area Buddhist ruins in late 19th-century. These manuscript bundles were likely opened by the treasure hunters, carelessly examined, got jumbled as they put them back into separate parts to sell. They sought different buyers for each part. Two of the parts were bought in India and another by a buyer from Russia. The India-based buyers forwarded them to Rudolf Hoernle, and these came to be called the Weber Manuscript and McCartney Manuscript. The Russian portion came to be called the Petrovski Manuscript and became a part of the Sanskrit manuscripts collection in Saint Petersburg. Some of the folio leaves of these various manuscripts are of the same treatise. The Petrovski Manuscript – also referred to as Petrovsky Manuscript, St Petersburg Asiatic Museum catalog number SI P/33 – was studied by the Indologist Sergey Oldenburg in the 1890s and thereafter. He identified some parts as portions of some sutra and the start of the appendix. These were established by Fukita Takamichi in 1989 as parts of Nidanasutra and Nagaropomasutra (dharani).
References
Paper
Paper
Buddhist manuscripts
Sanskrit literature
Indian religious texts
Indian manuscripts
Bodleian Library collection | Weber Manuscript | [
"Technology"
] | 898 | [
"Science and technology studies",
"History of science and technology",
"History of technology"
] |
62,582,142 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H4K12ac | H4K12ac is an epigenetic modification to the DNA packaging protein histone H4. It is a mark that indicates the acetylation at the 12th lysine residue of the histone H4 protein. H4K12ac is involved in learning and memory. It is possible that restoring this modification could reduce age-related decline in memory.
Nomenclature
H4K12ac indicates acetylation of lysine 12 on histone H4 protein subunit:
Histone modifications
The genomic DNA of eukaryotic cells is wrapped around special protein molecules known as histones. The complexes formed by the looping of the DNA are known as chromatin. The basic structural unit of chromatin is the nucleosome: this consists of the core octamer of histones (H2A, H2B, H3 and H4) as well as a linker histone and about 180 base pairs of DNA. These core histones are rich in lysine and arginine residues. The carboxyl (C) terminal end of these histones contribute to histone-histone interactions, as well as histone-DNA interactions. The amino (N) terminal charged tails are the site of the post-translational modifications, such as the one seen in H3K36me3.
H4 histone
H4 modifications are not as well known as H3's and H4 have fewer variations which might explain their important function.
H4K12ac
Acetylation of histone H4K5 and H4K12 is enriched at centromeres. H4K8ac and H4K12ac are associated with active promoters to form a backbone. H4 localizes more to gene bodies promoters than other acetylations so H4K8ac facilitates transcriptional elongation.
H4K12ac is involved in learning and memory so it could help with reducing age-related decline in memory. It has also been implicated in enabling developmental plasticity. High levels early in development are thought to provide transcriptional flexibility, while lower levels are thought to contribute to repressed transcription. In this way, H4K12 acetylation and deacetylation could open and close "critical windows" of environmental sensitivity.
Lysine acetylation and deacetylation
Proteins are typically acetylated on lysine residues and this reaction relies on acetyl-coenzyme A as the acetyl group donor. In histone acetylation and deacetylation, histone proteins are acetylated and deacetylated on lysine residues in the N-terminal tail as part of gene regulation. Typically, these reactions are catalyzed by enzymes with histone acetyltransferase (HAT) or histone deacetylase (HDAC) activity, although HATs and HDACs can modify the acetylation status of non-histone proteins as well.
The regulation of transcription factors, effector proteins, molecular chaperones, and cytoskeletal proteins by acetylation and deacetylation is a significant post-translational regulatory mechanism These regulatory mechanisms are analogous to phosphorylation and dephosphorylation by the action of kinases and phosphatases. Not only can the acetylation state of a protein modify its activity, but this post-translational modification may also crosstalk with phosphorylation, methylation, ubiquitination, sumoylation, and others for dynamic control of cellular signaling.
Epigenetic implications
The post-translational modification of histone tails by either histone modifying complexes or chromatin remodeling complexes are interpreted by the cell and lead to complex, combinatorial transcriptional output. It is thought that a histone code dictates the expression of genes by a complex interaction between the histones in a particular region. The current understanding and interpretation of histones comes from two large scale projects: ENCODE and the Epigenomic roadmap. The purpose of the epigenomic study was to investigate epigenetic changes across the entire genome. This led to chromatin states which define genomic regions by grouping the interactions of different proteins and/or histone modifications together.
Chromatin states were investigated in Drosophila cells by looking at the binding location of proteins in the genome. Use of ChIP-sequencing revealed regions in the genome characterised by different banding. Different developmental stages were profiled in Drosophila as well, an emphasis was placed on histone modification relevance. A look in to the data obtained led to the definition of chromatin states based on histone modifications.
The human genome was annotated with chromatin states. These annotated states can be used as new ways to annotate a genome independently of the underlying genome sequence. This independence from the DNA sequence enforces the epigenetic nature of histone modifications. Chromatin states are also useful in identifying regulatory elements that have no defined sequence, such as enhancers. This additional level of annotation allows for a deeper understanding of cell specific gene regulation.
Methods
The histone mark acetylation can be detected in a variety of ways:
1. Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Sequencing (ChIP-sequencing) measures the amount of DNA enrichment once bound to a targeted protein and immunoprecipitated. It results in good optimization and is used in vivo to reveal DNA-protein binding occurring in cells. ChIP-Seq can be used to identify and quantify various DNA fragments for different histone modifications along a genomic region.
2. Micrococcal Nuclease sequencing (MNase-seq) is used to investigate regions that are bound by well positioned nucleosomes. Use of the micrococcal nuclease enzyme is employed to identify nucleosome positioning. Well positioned nucleosomes are seen to have enrichment of sequences.
3. Assay for transposase accessible chromatin sequencing (ATAC-seq) is used to look in to regions that are nucleosome free (open chromatin). It uses hyperactive Tn5 transposon to highlight nucleosome localisation.
See also
Histone acetylation
References
Epigenetics
Post-translational modification | H4K12ac | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,311 | [
"Post-translational modification",
"Gene expression",
"Biochemical reactions"
] |
62,582,674 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%2060803 | HD 60803 is a binary star system in the equatorial constellation of Canis Minor, located less than a degree to the northwest of the prominent star Procyon. It has a yellow hue and is visible to the naked eye as a dim point of light with a combined apparent visual magnitude of 5.904. The distance to this system is 135 light years as determined using parallax measurements, and is drifting further away with a radial velocity of +4.6 km/s.
The binary nature of this star system was first noted by O. C. Wilson and A. Skumanich in 1964. It is a double-lined spectroscopic binary with an orbital period of 26.2 days and an eccentricity of 0.22. Both components are similar, G-type main-sequence stars; the primary has a stellar classification of G0V while the secondary has a class of G1V. The masses are similar to each other, and are 28–31% greater than the mass of the Sun. They have low rotation rates which may be quasi-synchronized with their orbital period.
References
G-type main-sequence stars
Spectroscopic binaries
Canis Minor
Durchmusterung objects
060803
037031 | HD 60803 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 255 | [
"Canis Minor",
"Constellations"
] |
62,583,111 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puccinia%20umbilici | Puccinia umbilici is a fungal plant pathogen which causes rust on navelwort (Umbilicus rupestris).
It was originally found on the leaves of Umbilicus pendulinus in France.
It is found in Europe, Japan, Russia and the United States.
References
External links
Puccinia umbilici on Aphotofungi
umbilici
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Fungi described in 1830
Fungi of Europe
Fungi of Japan
Fungi of the United States
Galls
Fungi without expected TNC conservation status
Fungus species | Puccinia umbilici | [
"Biology"
] | 113 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
62,583,606 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vcpkg | vcpkg is a cross-platform open source package manager by Microsoft.
Overview
vcpkg provides access to C and C++ libraries to its supported platforms. The command-line utility is currently available on Windows, macOS and Linux.
vcpkg was first announced at CppCon 2016.
The vcpkg source code is licensed under MIT License and hosted on GitHub.
vcpkg supports Visual Studio 2015 Update 3 and above.
See also
List of software package management systems
References
External links
2016 software
Command-line software
Free and open-source software
Free package management systems
Free software programmed in C++
Linux package management-related software
Microsoft free software
Software using the MIT license
Utilities for Linux
Utilities for macOS
Utilities for Windows | Vcpkg | [
"Technology"
] | 156 | [
"Command-line software",
"Computing commands"
] |
62,584,569 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20Insulin%20Project | The Open Insulin Project is a community of researchers and advocates working to develop an open-source protocol for producing insulin that is affordable, has transparent pricing, and is community-owned.
History
The Open Insulin Project was started in 2015 by Anthony Di Franco, himself a type 1 diabetic. He started the project in response to the unreasonably high prices of insulin in the US. The project has been housed in Counter Culture Labs, a community laboratory and makerspace in the Bay Area. Other collaborators include ReaGent, BioCurious and BioFoundry.
Goals
The project aims to develop both the methodology and hardware to allow communities and individuals to produce medical-grade insulin for the treatment of diabetes. These methods will be low-cost in order to combat the high price of insulin in places like the US. There is also potential for small-scale distributed production that may allow for improved insulin access in places with poor availability infrastructure. Access to insulin remains so insufficient around the globe that "half of all people who need insulin lack the financial or logistical means to obtain adequate supplies".
Motivation
Researcher Frederick Banting famously refused to put his name on the patent after discovering insulin in 1923. The original patent for insulin was later sold by his collaborators for just $1 to the University of Toronto in an effort to make it as available as possible. Despite this, for various reasons, there remains no generic version of insulin available in the US. Insulin remains controlled by a small number of large pharmaceutical companies and sold at prices unaffordable to many who rely on it to live, particularly those without insurance. This lack of availability has led to fatalities, such as Alec Smith, who died in 2017 due to lack of insulin. The Open Insulin Project is motivated by the urgent need to protect the health of those with diabetes regardless of their economic or employment status by developing low-cost methods for insulin production available for anyone to use.
Progress and status
The project has genetically engineered microorganisms to produce long-acting (glargine) and short-acting (lispro) insulin analogs using standard techniques in biotechnology and according to their December 2018 release the "first major milestone ― the production of insulin at lab scale ― is almost complete".
The cost to produce insulin via Open Insulin methods is estimated by the project to be such that "roughly $10,000 should be enough to get a group started with the equipment needed to produce enough insulin for 10,000 people".
A more recent estimate (May 2020) by the Open Insulin Foundation states that it will cost $200,000 (one-time price, per patient of $7-$20) for used equipment and up to $1,000,000 (one-time price, per patient of $73) for new equipment. The average price per vial was estimated to be $7 with each patient needing two vials per month.
See also
OpenAPS, a project to create open source artificial pancreas system technology
Nightscout
External links
Official website
References
Diabetes-related supplies and medical equipment
Citizen science
Biotechnology
2015 establishments
Organizations based in California | Open Insulin Project | [
"Biology"
] | 630 | [
"nan",
"Biotechnology"
] |
62,585,440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony%20Czarnik | Anthony William Czarnik (born 1957) is an American chemist and inventor. He is best known for pioneering studies in the field of fluorescent chemosensors and co-founding Illumina, Inc., a biotechnology company in San Diego. Czarnik was also the founding editor of ACS Combinatorial Science. He currently serves as an adjunct visiting professor at the University of Nevada, Reno.
Education
Anthony Czarnik attended the University of Wisconsin and received his B.S. in Biochemistry in 1977. He then studied with Nelson J. Leonard at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign and earned an M.S. in biochemistry in 1980 and a Ph.D. in chemistry in 1981 with a thesis, "Chemical studies on nucleic acid analogues." He then studied with Ronald Breslow at Columbia University (1981–1983) as an NIH Postdoctoral Fellow.
Career
Czarnik joined the Chemistry Department at the Ohio State University as assistant professor in 1983. He later was promoted to associate professor. Czarnik worked at Ohio State University until 1993, when he was offered a position as Director of the Bio-Organic Chemistry group at Parke-Davis Research Laboratory in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Czarnik was the founding editor of ACS Combinatorial Science (formerly Journal of Combinatorial Chemistry), an academic journal published by the American Chemical Society.
In April 1998, Czarnik co-founded Illumina, Inc., a biotechnology company now traded on NASDAQ and specializing in sequencing, genotyping and gene expression, with David Walt, John Stuelpnagel, Larry Bock, and Mark Chee. Czarnik served as Illumina's chief scientific officer (CSO) until 2000. He was terminated from his position of CSO and later filed a wrongful termination lawsuit. The Court ruled in Czarnik's favor, but the company appealed. The appeal court sustained the lower court verdict but in 2005 reduced the punitive damage ordered by the jury. Czarnik later filed a patent law case in the United States District Court for the District of Delaware, alleging four counts against his former employer, including reputational harm for correction of named inventor under 35 U.S.C. § 256.
In 2001, Czarnik was recruited by Sensors for Medicine and Science, Inc., where he served as chief scientific officer. Since 2003, Czarnik has co-founded a number of biotechnology companies including Deuteria Pharmaceuticals LLC and Protia LLC.
Czarnik is a founder of RenoCares, a charity that provides support to alcohol and drug addicts convicted of misdemeanors in the form of financial aid for rehabilitation treatment, counseling, and psychological services. The organization is managed by the Community Foundation of Western Nevada. Since 2016, annual Czarnik Awards are given for exceptional work in the area of chemosensors at the International Conference on Molecular Sensors and Molecular Logic Gates (MSMLG). In 2007, Czarnik took part as an executive producer of Electric Heart: Don Ellis, a documentary about Don Ellis, an American jazz musician.
Research
Combinatorial Chemistry
While at Parke-Davis Pharmaceutical Research, a division of Warner-Lambert Company, Czarnik directed research and reported the first use of automation for the synthesis of compound “libraries”—large, organized collections of compounds. He became founding editor of the American Chemical Society’s Journal of Combinatorial Chemistry and led research into the use of Rf ID tags for directed sorting for use in compound library synthesis.
Fluorescent Chemosensors for Ion and Molecule Recognition
The concept of the fluorescent chemosensors-molecular structures' ability to detect analytes was substantially developed in the book Fluorescent Chemosensors for Ion and Molecule Recognition edited by Czarnik and co-authored with other scientists. The book's study is mostly focused on the analysis of the fluorescent chemosensors' chemical structures and their applications and technical uses in different fields of science. Czarnik coined the term chemosensor to refer to synthetic compounds that bind and “signal” the presence of analytes in reversible manner. He authored a review article in 1994, which led to more research being done worldwide, including a review of the field 23 years later.
Eventually, chemosensors found applications in chemistry, biochemistry, immunology, physiology, medicine and in the military for landmine detection. The book laid foundation to other publications on chemosensors and gained recognition and critical attention of the scientific community with some of the scientists defining Czarnik's contributions "significant" and "pioneering in the field of fluorescent chemosensors" "with a positive consequence on the creative pursuit of libraries of new molecules for a range of analyte targets". There is also a conference called International Conference on Molecular Sensors and Molecular Logic Gates which is held twice a year and presents Czarnik awards to investors. In 2003, Czarnik gave an outline of a practical method for monitoring how chemosensors can be used to track glucose levels for diabetic patients. His work, as well as that of many others, led to the first implantable FDA-approved continuous glucose monitor.
Hexaazatriphenylene Hexanitrile and its Derivatives
Czarnik reported the first synthesis of Hexaazatriphenylene Hexanitrile, a hydrogen-free polyfunctional heterocycle with D3h symmetry, in 1986. Because of the properties of this compound, it has found application in the preparation of OLEDs for TV screens and is being investigated for use in improving lithium-ion batteries.
RNA-targeting small molecule drugs
In 1998, Dr. Czarnik’s group at Parke-Davis reported the first successful drug discovery effort in which RNA was the target. His group also conducted the first successful effort to discover small molecule drugs that work by binding to RNA. This has led to the creation of a new field of drug discovery, notably the focus of startup companies and scientific conferences.
DNA Sequencing Using Self-Assembled Microarrays
The DNA analyzers developed at Illumina, which was co-founded by Czarnik in 1998, use the patented technology of multiplex decoding of array sensors with microspheres to read genetic codes. As a result, the analyzers have reduced the cost of sequencing a human genome.
Improving Commercial Chemicals by Deuterium Enrichment
In 2009, Czarnik submitted 240 patent applications covering the use of deuterium-substitution in drug discovery.. He has also invented drugs such as (R)-d1-lenalidomide and (R)-d1-pioglitazone, for clinical studies.
Selected publications
Czarnik; A.W. Alcoholic compositions having a lowered risk of acetaldehydemia. U.S. Patent 9,044,423, June 2, 2015.
Jacques, V.; Czarnik, A.W.; Judge, T.M.; Van der Ploeg, L.H.T.; DeWitt, S.H. “Differentiation of antiinflammatory and antitumorigenic properties of stabilized enantiomers of thalidomide analogs” PNAS 2015, 112, E1471-E1479
Chee, M.S.; Stuelpnagel, J.R.; Czarnik, A.W. Method of making and decoding of array sensors with microspheres. U.S. Patent 7,060,431, June 13, 2006.
Mei, H.-Y.; Cui, M.; Heldsinger, A.; Lemrow, S. M.; Loo, J. A.; Sannes-Lowery, K. A.; Sharmeen, L.; Czarnik, A. W. "Inhibitors of Protein-RNA Complexation That Target the RNA: Specific Recognition of HIV-1 TAR RNA by Small Organic Molecules", Biochemistry 1998, 37, 14204-14212
Czarnik, A. W. “Guest Editorial on Combinatorial Chemistry”, Acc. Chem. Res., 1996, 29, 112
Czarnik, A. W. “Desperately Seeking Sensors”, Chemistry & Biology 1995, 2, 423
Czarnik, A. W. "Chemical Communication in Water Using Fluorescent Chemosensors", Accts. Chem. Res. 1994, 27, 302
Books
Integrated Drug Discovery Technologies. Mei, H.-Y., Czarnik, A.W., Eds.; Marcel Dekker: New York, NY, 2002.
Optimization of Solid-Phase Combinatorial Synthesis. Yan, B., Czarnik, A.W., Eds.; Wiley: New York, NY, 2002.
Solid-Phase Organic Syntheses. Volume 1. Czarnik, A.W., Ed.; Wiley: New York, NY, 2001.
A Practical Guide to Combinatorial Chemistry. DeWitt, S.H., Czarnik, A.W., Eds.; ACS Books: Washington, DC, 1997.
Combinatorial Chemistry: Synthesis and Application. Wilson, S.H., Czarnik, A.W., Eds.; Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, 1997.
Chemosensors of Ion and Molecular Recognition. Desvergne, J.-P., Czarnik, A.W., Eds.; NATO ASI Series, Series C: Vol. 492; Kluwer Academic Press: Dordrecht, 1997.
Fluorescent Chemosensors for Ion and Molecule Recognition. Czarnik, A.W., Ed.; Vol. 538, ACS Books: Washington, DC, 1993
See also
Czarnik v. Illumina Inc.
List of people from Appleton, Wisconsin
List of Wikipedia people
References
External links
"Google Scholar"
"Academic tree
1957 births
Living people
20th-century American biochemists
21st-century American scientists
21st-century American inventors
University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Letters and Science alumni
Solid state chemists
University of Illinois College of Liberal Arts and Sciences alumni | Anthony Czarnik | [
"Chemistry"
] | 2,109 | [
"Solid state chemists"
] |
62,585,632 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon%20C108 | SpaceX Dragon C108 is a Cargo Dragon space capsule built by SpaceX. It is the first Dragon capsule to be flown three times, having its third launch in 2019. C108 was first used on CRS-6, and then used again for the CRS-13 and CRS-18 missions. It was the first capsule to be used a third flight, marking a milestone in SpaceX's drive to reduce space launch costs through reusing hardware.
History
C108 was built as the eighth production Dragon capsule. This new Dragon was launched on the CRS-6 mission to the International Space Station (ISS). It splashed down on May 21, 2015 and was successfully retrieved. To prepare for its second flight, it had its heatshield replaced while the hull, avionics, and Draco thrusters were refurbished. The refurbished Dragon was relaunched in December 15, 2017 for the CRS-13 mission. Following an almost month-long stay, C108 landed on January 13, 2018. After undergoing another refurbishment, C108 was launched again in July 2019 for the CRS-18 mission. It landed for the final time on August 27, 2019 and was retired.
Flights
References
External links
Individual space vehicles
SpaceX Dragon | Dragon C108 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 258 | [
"Rocketry stubs",
"Astronomy stubs"
] |
62,585,682 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telomeres%20in%20the%20cell%20cycle | Telomeres, the caps on the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes, play critical roles in cellular aging and cancer. An important facet to how telomeres function in these roles is their involvement in cell cycle regulation.
Eukaryotic cells
Because eukaryotic chromosomes are linear and because DNA replication by DNA polymerase requires the presence of an RNA primer that is later degraded, eukaryotic cells face the end-replication problem. This problem makes eukaryotic cells unable to copy the last few bases on the 3' end of the template DNA strand, leading to chromosome—and, therefore, telomere—shortening every S phase. Measurements of telomere lengths across cell types at various ages suggest that this gradual chromosome shortening results in a gradual reduction in telomere length at a rate of approximately 25 nucleotides per year.
Cell cycle enablers and regulators
The telomere-shelterin complexes that cap all eukaryotic chromosomes ensure that healthy cells can progress through the cell cycle by preventing the cellular DNA damage response from identifying chromosome ends as double-stranded breaks (DSBs). Without a protective cap, chromosome ends would appear identical to intrachromosomal DSBs. These DSBs activate a DNA damage response pathway that halts the cell cycle until the breaks are repaired. This checkpoint pathway is initiated in S. cerevisiae by recruitment of protein kinases Mec1 and Tel1 and in mammals by recruitment of protein kinases ATR and ATM. Regarding DSB repair, eukaryotes generally use two strategies: non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), which involves rapid reattachment of the broken ends; and homologous recombination (HR), which involves the use of a homologous DNA sequence to repair the break. Because HR requires a homologous sequence, its use is restricted to S/G2 phase. (Interestingly, as with many other aspects of the cell cycle, cyclin-dependent kinases are responsible for downregulating NHEJ during S/G2 phase to ensure use of the more accurate HR.) As shown in Figure 1A, telomere-shelterin complexes contain motifs that inhibit the DNA damage checkpoint, NHEJ, and HR.
Initial work on the role of telomere-bound protein complexes in S. cerevisiae elucidated the mechanism by which these complexes prevent checkpoint activation and DSB repair of chromosome ends. The two major protein complexes that bind to telomeric DNA in S. cerevisiae are:
the Cdc13-Stn1-Ten1 (CST) complex, which binds the single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) of the 3' G-rich overhang at the end of the telomere, and
the Rif1-Rif2-Rap1 complex, which binds the double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) preceding the 3' overhang.
The CST complex and Rif1 prevent Mec1 recruitment, thereby preventing checkpoint activation. Meanwhile, Rif2 and Rap1 inhibit NHEJ: knocking out Rif2 or Rap1 results in longer telomeres as measured by PCR, indicating that NHEJ occurred. These knockout strains (unlike strains lacking functional CST or Rif1) continue to cycle, further suggesting that Rif2 and Rap1 are not involved in inhibiting checkpoint activation.
Analogously, proteins that bind to human telomeres as part of the shelterin complex enable cell cycle progress and prevent erroneous DSB repair. POT1 protein binds to ssDNA, prevents checkpoint activation through inhibiting ATR recruitment, and prevents HR; RAP1, a GTPase, binds to dsDNA and prevents HR; and TRF2 protein (also known as TERF2) binds to dsDNA, prevents checkpoint activation through inhibiting ATM recruitment, and prevents NHEJ. TRF2 is unique among these proteins in its role in the formation and maintenance of T-loops: lariat structures formed by the folding of the ssDNA overhang back onto the dsDNA. T-loops may further inhibit the binding of checkpoint activation proteins.
As telomeres shorten as a natural consequence of repeated cell division or due to other factors, such as oxidative stress, shelterin proteins lose the ability to bind to telomeric DNA. When telomeres reach a critically short length, sufficient shelterin proteins to inhibit checkpoint activation are not available, although NHEJ and HR generally remain inhibited at this point. This loss of inhibition is one reason why telomere shortening causes senescence (Figure 1B).
Telomeres and cell cycle deregulation
Almost all cancer cells have shortened telomeres. This may seem counter-intuitive, as short telomeres should activate the ATR/ATM DNA damage checkpoint and thereby prevent division. Resolving the question of why cancer cells have short telomeres led to the development of a two-stage model for how cancer cells subvert telomeric regulation of the cell cycle. First, the DNA damage checkpoint must be inactivated to allow cells to continue dividing even when telomeres pass the critical length threshold. This requirement follows not only from the discussion above but also from in vivo evidence showing the function of this checkpoint in precancerous lesions and its dysfunction in late-stage tumors. Second, to survive after disabling the DNA damage checkpoint, precancerous cells must activate mechanisms to extend their telomeres. As a result of the continued division past the point of normal senescence, the telomeres of these cells become too short to prevent NHEJ(Non Homologous End Joining) and HR(Homologous Recombination) of chromosome ends, causing a state known as crisis. The application of these DSB (double strand breaks)repair mechanisms to chromosome ends leads to genetic instability, and while this instability can promote carcinogenesis, it induces apoptosis if experienced for too long. To survive and replicate, precancerous cells must stabilize their telomere lengths. This occurs through telomerase activation or the activation of a telomere-recombination pathway (i.e., the ALT pathway). Thus, cancer cells have short telomeres because they progress through an intermediate stage of telomere shortening—caused by division after DNA damage checkpoint inactivation—before enabling mechanisms for maintaining telomere length.
Since the late 1990s, researchers have proposed using telomerase inhibitors as cancer treatments. While such inhibitors have been seriously considered for cancer therapy since the late 2000s, they are not commonly used. Two concerns with applying telomerase inhibitors in cancer treatment are that effective treatment requires continuous, long-term drug application and that off-target effects are common. For example, the telomerase inhibitor imetelstat, first proposed in 2003, has been held up in clinical trials due to hematological toxicity. Despite these concerns, the development of telomerase-based cancer treatments remains an active research area.
Cell cycle timing of telomere elongation
Although telomerase activation does not occur during the cell cycle of normal somatic human cells, the association between telomere elongation (especially elongation by telomerase) and tumor development emphasizes the importance of understanding when such elongation can occur during the cell cycle. Work with S. cerevisiae has identified telomerase activity as restricted to late S phase. Researchers generated S. cerevisiae strains with galactose-inducible shortened telomeres. They then used α factor to block cells with induced short telomeres in late G1 phase and measured the change in telomere length when the cells were released under a variety of conditions. They found that when the cells were released and concurrently treated with nocodazole, a G2/M phase cell cycle inhibitor, telomere length increased for the first few hours and then remained constant. In comparison, when cells were released and allowed to cycle, telomere length increased linearly with time. These data suggest that telomere elongation occurs only in S phase. Additional experiments with greater time resolution support this hypothesis and narrow the timeframe to late S phase. Researchers tied telomere elongation in these experiments to telomerase activity by observing that in an S. cerevisiae strain with a dysfunctional ALT pathway telomere elongation still occurs.
References
External links
Telomeres
Programmed cell death
Cellular senescence | Telomeres in the cell cycle | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 1,750 | [
"Signal transduction",
"Senescence",
"Cellular senescence",
"Cellular processes",
"Telomeres",
"Programmed cell death"
] |
69,201,981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz%20M23%20engine | The Mercedes-Benz M23 engine is a naturally-aspirated, 1.3-liter, inline-4 gasoline engine, designed, developed and produced by Mercedes-Benz; between 1933 and 1936.
Development and prototype engines (W17/W25D)
At the beginning of the 1930s, there were attempts to move car engines from the forward compartment to the rear of the car. Such a move allows a reduction in the volume of the front compartment. At the same time, the voluminous rear provides a lot of space above and behind the rear axle. Moreover, when engines are rear-mounted, the drive shaft is eliminated.
In 1930, Daimler-Benz entrusted Hans Nibel with the development of a small rear-engined car, starting from the same principles. In 1931, working with Max Wagner, the type W17 or 120(H) was created, a two-door, equipped with a four-cylinder boxer engine in the rear with a displacement of 1200 cc and a power of 25 hp (18.4 kW). There were also attempts with transverse four-cylinder inline engines. In 1932/1933 Mercedes built a prototype with a front similar to the later VW Beetle, and a longer tail.
Mercedes-Benz 130 (W23) engine
Created in 1931 by Nibel, it had the 1.3 liter sidevalve four-cylinder engine mounted at the back, hence the "H", from German heck (rear), With the fan between the rear coil springs, it drove a transmission with three forward speeds, plus a semi-automatic overdrive which did not require the use of a clutch.
Mercedes-Benz 150 (W30) engine
It was derived in 1935 from the 130, and a more powerful engine. Displacing 1498 cc and a power of 55 PS (40 kW). The engine powered the car to a top speed of 125 km/h.
Created in 1934 by Nibel and chassis engineer Max Wagner. the 150H was a two-seat sports roadster. It featured transverse leaf spring front and coil-sprung swing axle rear suspension. A water-cooled OHC four-cylinder engine, producing , was mounted in back, hence the "H", from German heck (rear). The radiator was behind that, above the transaxle, with a squirrel-cage blower (reminiscent of the VW Type 1) feeding both radiator and carburetor.
The gas tank, which in the case of the Mercedes-Benz 130 was installed over the engine, was transferred to the front compartment.
Mercedes-Benz 170 H (W28) engine
In 1936, in parallel to the classical front-engine Mercedes-Benz 170 V, Daimler-Benz AG introduced the Mercedes-Benz 170 H which had the same engine as the 170 V, with an architecture derived from the one of the 130, its predecessor. The 170 H was powered by a four-cylinder 1697 cc engine with a power of 38 PS (28 kW). The "H" stood for "Heckmotor", or rear engine.
Applications
Mercedes-Benz 130
Mercedes-Benz 150
Mercedes-Benz 170 H
References
Mercedes-Benz engines
Straight-four engines
Engines by model
Gasoline engines by model | Mercedes-Benz M23 engine | [
"Technology"
] | 662 | [
"Engines",
"Engines by model"
] |
69,202,375 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz%20M30%20engine | The Mercedes-Benz M30 engine is a naturally-aspirated, 1.5-liter, inline-4 gasoline engine, designed, developed and produced by Mercedes-Benz; between 1934 and 1939.
Applications
Mercedes-Benz 150 (W30)
References
Mercedes-Benz engines
Straight-four engines
Engines by model
Gasoline engines by model | Mercedes-Benz M30 engine | [
"Technology"
] | 69 | [
"Engines",
"Engines by model"
] |
69,203,324 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz%20Indy%20V8%20engine | The Mercedes-Benz Indy V8 engine, known as the Ilmor 265-D (1994), and later the Mercedes-Benz IC108 (1995-2000), is a powerful, turbocharged, 2.65-liter, Indy car racing V-8 engine, specially designed, developed, and built by Ilmor, in partnership and collaboration with Mercedes-Benz, to compete in the CART series; between 1994 and 2000.
Background
The 265-D engine was introduced for the 1994 season, which replaced the 265-C, although some of the smaller teams still ran the "C" throughout 1994. Without badging support, the engines were referred to simply as the "Ilmor-C" and the "Ilmor-D". This engine was said to produce about more than the Ford-Cosworth XB used at the time.
In 1995, Mercedes-Benz became the badging manufacturer for the Ilmor Indy car engines. The engine continued to be a strong contender on the CART circuit. In 1996, the open-wheel "split" began between CART and the IRL. Ilmor primarily was a provider for CART-based teams, and did not provide engines for any full-time IRL teams. At the 1996 Indy 500, the Ilmor Mercedes-Benz D was used by Galles Racing, and finished second, the powerplant's one and only start in an IRL-sanctioned race. When the IRL switched to normally-aspirated engines for 1997, the 265s were no longer permitted in the IRL and the Indy 500, and from that point on raced in the CART series exclusively.
Applications
Penske PC-22
Penske PC-23
Penske PC-24
Penske PC-25
Penske PC-26
Penske PC-27
Reynard 94I
Reynard 95I
Reynard 96I
Reynard 97I
Reynard 98I
Reynard 99I
Reynard 2KI
Lola T94/00
Lola T95/00
Lola T96/00
Lola B99/00
Lola B2K/00
References
External links
Which Mercedes Model Is Most Reliable?
Engines by model
Mercedes-Benz engines
IndyCar Series
Champ Car
V8 engines
Mercedes-Benz in motorsport | Mercedes-Benz Indy V8 engine | [
"Technology"
] | 458 | [
"Engines",
"Engines by model"
] |
69,203,926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalind%20Kornfeld | Rosalind Hauk Kornfeld (1935–2007) was a scientist at Washington University in St. Louis known for her research determining the structure and formation of oligosaccharides. The Society of Glycobiology annually awards a lifetime achievement award in her honor.
Education and career
Rosalind Kornfeld Hauk was born in Dallas, Texas and then grew up in Chevy Chase, Maryland. She earned a bachelor of science degree from George Washington University in 1957. She went on to receive her Ph.D. degree in 1961 working on enzymes in rabbit muscles. For a brief period she stayed at George Washington University as a postdoctoral investigator before moving to the National Institutes of Health as a fellow working with Victor Ginsburg. She moved back to St. Louis in 1965 when she accepted a position at Washington University in St. Louis. She started as a research instructor, was promoted to research assistant professor in 1971, and then research associate professor in 1978. In 1981 she was named a professor of medicine and professor of biochemistry and molecular biophysics. Kornfeld retired in 2001.
Kornfeld founded the Academic Women's Network at Washington University and then served as its first president. She also served as president of the Society of Glycobiology in 1993.
Research
Kornfeld's research laid the groundwork for the field of glycobiology with her investigations into nucleotide sugar biosynthesis and glycan ligands for lectins. Korneld's notable accomplishments include defining the structure and function of N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphodiester alpha-N-acetylglucosaminidase, commonly known as the 'uncovering enzyme' or UCE. She then worked to place that enzyme within the trans Golgi network. Kornfeld wrote two influential reviews on oligosaccharides, the second of which has been cited over 6000 times as of 2021.
Selected publications
Awards and honors
Starting in 2007, the Academic Women's Network at Washington University has awarded the Rosalind Kornfeld Lecture for Distinguished Women in Science. Since 2008, the Society for Glycobiology has awarded the Rosalind Kornfeld Lifetime Achievement Award to honor accomplishments in research within the field. The second edition of Essentials in Glycobiology is dedicated to Rosalind Kornfeld and Roger W. Jeanloz, who are noted as "pioneers in the elucidation of glycan structure and function".
Personal life
Her husband was Stuart Kornfeld whom she met when she was a first year graduate student in biochemistry in 1958. They married in 1959 and worked together for 48 years; during his speech accepting the 2010 George M. Kober medal he acknowledged the key role she played in their joint accomplishments, a situation that has been noted by others. Her son, Kerry Kornfeld, is also a scientist and while he was in high school, they jointly published a paper on lectins.
References
Washington University in St. Louis faculty
George Washington University alumni
1935 births
2007 deaths
Women biochemists | Rosalind Kornfeld | [
"Chemistry"
] | 631 | [
"Biochemists",
"Women biochemists"
] |
69,204,646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band-e%20Amir%20%28dam%29 | Band-e Amir ("Dam of the Amir") or Band-e Azodi, is a dam 20 km northeast of the city of Shiraz in Iran, built by the Buyid ruler Adud al-Dawla () in 975. It remains in use to this day.
References
Sources
Dams in Fars Province
Weirs
Buyid dynasty
Buildings and structures in Fars province | Band-e Amir (dam) | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 83 | [
"Hydrology",
"Weirs"
] |
69,205,802 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trust%20Domain%20Extensions | Intel Trust Domain Extensions (TDX) is a CPU-level technology proposed by Intel in May 2021 for implementing a trusted execution environment in which virtual machines (called "Trust Domains", or TDs) are hardware-isolated from the host's Virtual Machine Monitor (VMM), hypervisor, and other software on the host. This hardware isolation is intended to prevent threat actors with administrative access or physical access to the virtual machine host from compromising aspects of the TD virtual machine's confidentiality and integrity. TDX also supports a remote attestation feature which allows users to determine that a remote system has TDX protections enabled prior to sending it sensitive data.
Intel TDX is of particular use for cloud providers, as it increases isolation of customer virtual machines and provides a higher level of assurance that the cloud provider cannot access the customer's data.
Intel TDX was described in and is pending US patent number 20210141658A1.
Architecture overview
TDX consists of multiple components including Virtual Machine Extensions (VMX) instruction set architecture (ISA) extensions, a technology for memory encryption, and a new CPU operation mode called SEAM ("Secure Arbitration Mode"), which hosts the TDX module.
Memory protections
TDX defines two classes of memory: shared memory and private memory. Shared memory is intended to be used for communicating with the TD host and may receive some TDX protections. Private memory received full TDX confidentiality and integrity protections.
TDX implements memory protection by encrypting the TD's memory with a per-TD AES-XTS 128-bit key. To avoid leaking ciphertext, memory access is limited to being from the SEAM mode and direct memory access is unavailable. If memory integrity protections are enabled, a MAC using SHA-3-256 is generated for the private memory and if the MAC validation fails, the TD VM is terminated. TD VM registers are also kept confidential by storing them in a per-TD save state and scrubbing them when the TD returns control to the TD VM.
Guest-hypervisor communication
TDX provides hardware isolation of TD VMs by brokering all VMM to TD communication through the TDX module and preventing the VMM from accessing the TD's data. The VMM communicates to the TDX module using new SEAMCALL and SEAMRET CPU instructions. SEAMCALL is used by the VMM to invoke the TDX module to create, delete, or execute a TD. SEAMRET is used by the TDX module to return execution back to the VMM.
Remote attestation
TDX's remote attestation feature builds on the SGX technology to allow someone to determine that a remote TD has TDX protections enabled prior to sending it sensitive data. The remote attestation report can be generated by the TDX module calling the SEAMREPORT instruction. The SEAMREPORT instruction generates a MAC-signed "Report" structure which includes information such as the version numbers of the TDX's components. The VMM would then use SGX enclaves to convert that "Report" structure into a remotely verifiable "Quote", which it would send to the system requesting attestation.
Hardware and operating system support
TDX is available for 5th generation Intel Xeon processors (codename Emerald Rapids) and Edge Enhanced Compute variants of 4th generation Xeon processors (codename Sapphire Rapids).
First patches to support TDX technology in the Linux kernel were posted in the Linux kernel mailing list around June 2021, were merged on May 24, 2022, and were included in the mainline Linux Kernel version 5.19.
Microsoft Azure has announced that as of April 24, 2023 their new DCesv5-series and ECesv5-series virtual machines would support Intel TDX. They have also published information how to use Intel TDX as part of Microsoft Azure Attestation.
Comparisons to SGX
TDX is somewhat similar to SGX, as in that both are implementations of trusted execution environments. However, they are significantly different in the scope of the protections and that SGX requires that applications be rewritten to support SGX, while TDX only requires support at the hardware and operating system levels. On the VMM host, TDX involves the use of SGX enclaves to enable support for remote attestation. Additionally, even an operating system which does not support running as a TD VM can be protected by being launched as a nested VM within a TD VM.
References
Computer-related introductions in 2021
X86 instructions
Intel
Cybersecurity engineering | Trust Domain Extensions | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 940 | [
"Cybersecurity engineering",
"Computer networks engineering",
"Computer engineering"
] |
69,209,212 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forouhi%E2%80%93Bloomer%20model | The Forouhi–Bloomer model is a mathematical formula for the frequency dependence of the complex-valued refractive index. The model can be used to fit the refractive index of amorphous and crystalline semiconductor and dielectric materials at energies near and greater than their optical band gap. The dispersion relation bears the names of Rahim Forouhi and Iris Bloomer, who created the model and interpreted the physical significance of its parameters. The model is aphysical due to its incorrect asymptotic behavior and non-Hermitian character. These shortcomings inspired modified versions of the model as well as development of the Tauc–Lorentz model.
Mathematical formulation
The complex refractive index is given by
where
is the real component of the complex refractive index, commonly called the refractive index,
is the imaginary component of the complex refractive index, commonly called the extinction coefficient,
is the photon energy (related to the angular frequency by ).
The real and imaginary components of the refractive index are related to one another through the Kramers-Kronig relations. Forouhi and Bloomer derived a formula for for amorphous materials. The formula and complementary Kramers–Kronig integral are given by
where
is the bandgap of the material,
, , , and are fitting parameters,
denotes the Cauchy principal value,
.
, , and are subject to the constraints , , , and . Evaluating the Kramers-Kronig integral,
where
,
,
.
The Forouhi–Bloomer model for crystalline materials is similar to that of amorphous materials. The formulas for and are given by
.
.
where all variables are defined similarly to the amorphous case, but with unique values for each value of the summation index . Thus, the model for amorphous materials is a special case of the model for crystalline materials when the sum is over a single term only.
References
See also
Cauchy equation
Sellmeier equation
Lorentz oscillator model
Tauc–Lorentz model
Brendel–Bormann oscillator model
Condensed matter physics
Electric and magnetic fields in matter
Optics | Forouhi–Bloomer model | [
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"Phases of matter",
"Electric and magnetic fields in matter",
"Materials science",
"Condensed matter physics",
" molecular",
"Atomic",
"Matter",
" and optical physics"
] |
69,209,653 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal%20allergy | Metal allergies inflame the skin after it has been in contact with metal. They are a form of allergic contact dermatitis. They are becoming more common, , except in areas with regulatory countermeasures.
People may become sensitized to certain metals by skin contact, usually by wearing or holding consumer products (including non-metal products, like textiles and leather treated with metals), or sometimes after exposure at work. Contact with damaged skin makes sensitization more likely. Medical implants may also cause allergic reactions. Diagnosis is by patch test, a method which does not work as well for metals as it does for some other allergens.
Prevention and treatment consists of avoiding the metal allergen; there is no other treatment, . It can be difficult to identify and avoid the allergen, because many metals are common in the environment, and some are biologically necessary to humans. Regulations have successfully reduced the rates of some metal allergies in Europe, but are not widespread. The social and economic costs of metal allergies are high.
Metal allergies are type IV allergies; the metals are haptens. The toxicity of some allergenic metals may contribute to the development of allergies.
Metals
Nickel allergy and allergies to mercury and chromium have long been recognised; gold, palladium, and cobalt have gotten attention more recently. There is often cross-sensitization, where a person allergic to one metal may become allergic to another, but monosensitization, reacting to just one metal, is also possible. For instance, many people allergic to nickel are often also allergic to cobalt (a similar element often found in the same places as nickel) and palladium. But it is also possible to only be allergic to one of these metals.
Nickel is one of the most common contact allergens.
Exposure routes
Most cases of metal allergy are caused by consumer products containing metal; exposure at work can also cause metal allergies. The largest human exposure to metals is ingestion; while food or drink containing metals can cause an allergic reaction in people who already have an allergy, it's not clear if it can cause a new allergy, . Some metal allergens are nutritionally necessary to humans. Airborne metals have been linked to higher rates of sensitization.
It can be difficult to figure out what allergen a person with contact dermatitis is reacting to, especially if the allergic reaction is systemic, rather than just occurring where the allergen entered the body.
Consumer products that have induced allergies include jewellery (both cheap and expensive, brand-name jewellery may release metal allergens), buttons, clothing fasteners (such as zippers, buckles, and hooks), dental restorations, mobile phones, and leather (from the tanning process). Metal hair fasteners may also leach allergens. The increase in consumer products, including consumer electronics, that use metal nanomaterials, mainly silicon, titanium, zinc and aluminum, increases exposure.
Tattoo inks contaminated with metal allergens have been known to cause severe reactions, sometimes years later, when the original ink is not available for testing.
Implants and prosthetics, including dental repairs, are also an exposure; dental work is the main way in which the general population is sensitized to palladium, and dental workers may get occupational palladium allergies, though cross-sensitization may also be a common way in which people develop an allergy to this fairly rare metal. Medications containing metals could also potentially cause sensitization.
Skin
Exposure on damaged skin, such as chapped hands or a piercing, increases the risk of sensitization from a low-level exposure to the allergen.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is by patch testing, a method first used in 1895. Patches containing potential allergens are stuck on the skin, and the skin is monitored for inflammation. For metal allergens, patch test reproducibility is low, and the extent to which they predict implant failures is debated. If the person being tested has a rash already, it may be difficult to do a patch test. Patch testing may also worsen the allergy. it is also difficult to distinguish co-sensitivity from cross-sensitivity using a patch test.
In-vitro tests, where a blood sample is examined for metal-sensitive T cells, are in development, but not widely used, partly due to cost. Many non-allergic people also have metal-specific T cells, and in some cases they seem to have more than some allergic individuals, which makes the test less useful.
Epidemiology
Metal allergies are rapidly becoming more common. Nickel is the most common contact allergen worldwide (of people with contact dermatitis, 11.4% in Europe, 8.8–25.7% in China, and 17.5% in North America are allergic to nickel).
Nickel allergy, and contact allergies more generally, can develop when people are any age, but they are most likely to develop in early adulthood. This may be due to patterns in exposure or changes in the immune system with age, or both.
Prevention and care
Preventing and treating contact allergies largely involves avoiding the allergen, which may be difficult when it is a common metal. There are no other treatments for metal allergies, .
Environmental regulation
In the Netherlands, regulations that limit the release of nickel from consumer products, introduced in the 1990s, worked. Dutch women are now significantly less likely to develop nickel allergies. Sweden followed in 1994, and later regulations were made Europe-wide. These limits cover objects inserted into piercings (0.2 μg/cm²/week) and those in direct or prolonged contact with the skin (0.5 μg/cm2). They also set target values for nickel in ambient air; (20 ng/mg3) increases in nickel concentrations in ambient air, even when absolute levels are quite low, have been linked to increased rates of sensitization in human populations. Nickel allergy rates in Europe have decreased, though it is still the most common contact allergy. Regulation is generally inadequate, given the amount of the social and economic harm caused by metal allergies.
Regulation encouraged use of metals other than nickel, and that caused more cases of allergies to other metals. Nickel remains the most common, but cobalt is the second most common allergy, and in 2020 the EU introduced a temporary generic concentration limit (GCL) of 0.1% on cobalt. Limits on nickel and cobalt in textiles (130mg/kg nickel, 110 mg/kg cobalt) and leather (70mg/kg nickel, 60 mg/kg cobalt), were proposed in 2020 by France and Sweden. There is no allergen regulation of pallidium in Europe .
See also
Nickel allergy
Contact dermatitis
Alloy (mixtures of metals)
Fast fashion
References
Contact dermatitis
Allergology
Immunology
Dermatology | Metal allergy | [
"Biology"
] | 1,451 | [
"Immunology"
] |
69,209,977 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanishka%20Biswas | Kanishka Biswas is an Associate Professor in the New Chemistry Unit at Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bangalore with research interests focused on renewable energy and clean environment. The areas in which he has worked include solid state inorganic chemistry of metal chalcogenides, thermoelectric materials, 2D layered materials, topological insulators.
Early life and education
Kanishk Biswas was born on 25 October 1982. Biswas obtained his MS degree in chemical science from Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore in 2006 and PhD degree from the same institute in 2009 both under the supervision of C. N. R. Rao. He had spent three years (June 2006 - May 2009) as Postdoctoral Fellow under the supervision of Mercouri Kanatzidis at Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
Honours and awards
The honours and awards conferred on Kanishka Biswas include:
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology for Chemical Sciences, 2021
National Prize for Research in Inorganic and Physical Chemistry – CNR Rao Education Foundation, (2021)
ICSC Materials Science Annual Prize, Materials Research Society, India (MRSI) (2020)
Swarnajayanti Fellowship, Department of Science & Technology (DST) (2019)
Chemical Research Society of India (CRSI) Bronze Medal (2019).
Young Scientists Medal, Indian National Science Academy (INSA), New Delhi (2016).
Associate of Indian Academy of Sciences (IASc), Bangalore (2014-2017).
Ramanujan Fellowship, Department of Science & Technology (DST) (2012-2017).
References
External links
ORCID
Living people
Recipients of the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Award in Chemical Science
Year of birth missing (living people)
Solid state chemists
Indian Institute of Science alumni
Northwestern University fellows | Kanishka Biswas | [
"Chemistry"
] | 374 | [
"Solid state chemists"
] |
69,212,521 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agents%20of%20deterioration | The 'ten agents of deterioration' are a conceptual framework developed by the Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI) used to categorise the major causes of change, loss or damage to cultural heritage objects (such as collections held by galleries, libraries, archives and museums). Also referred to as the 'agents of change', the framework was first developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The defined agents reflect and systematise the main chemical and physical deterioration pathways to which most physical material is subject. They are a major influence on the applied practice of conservation, restoration, and collection management, finding particular use in risk management for cultural heritage collections.
CCI defines ten 'agents': dissociation, fire, incorrect relative humidity, incorrect temperature, light and ultraviolet light, pests, pollutants (or contaminants), physical forces, thieves and vandals (at times referred to as 'criminals'), and water. The number of primary agents has remained the same since the 1994 with the addition of 'custodial neglect' (now termed dissociation), though the scope and names of some categories have been updated over time to reflect new research or thinking.
Each category may be further subcategorised as rare and/or catastrophic (Type 1), sporadic (Type 2), or constant/ongoing (Type 3), particularly when applied to risk assessments. For example, within the category of physical forces, an earthquake may be designated a Type 1 event; a handling accident where an object is dropped as Type 2, and ongoing physical wear from daily handling as Type 3.
Dissociation
Dissociation refers to the loss of information associated with an object, such as provenance or location information, without which the object loses significance or is lost. In earlier versions of the framework this was referred to as 'custodial neglect'. Dissociation can cover loss of identification labels, misplacement of parts of an object, lack of descriptive information for example. Neglecting a collection is also part of dissociation. By not doing the proper research and not making sure everything stays together, institutions can lose information and cause their collections to lose value.
Dissociation can also be caused because of a natural disaster.
Having a good documentation plan and a good backup for the electronic system can help mitigate the damages done by events we cannot control.
Rigorous information management protocols are necessary, such as regular collection audits and administrative reviews. A good documentation practice and making sure the labels are following their respective object is essential to help prevent dissociation.
Fire
Fire directly consumes cultural heritage through burning or by the deposition of smoke and soot on surfaces. Fire suppression systems can also cause damage - e.g. water damage from sprinklers. For example, about 18 million objects were destroyed in the 2018 fire at the National Museum of Brazil.
Preventive maintenance is critical to prevent and minimize the risk of fire. Strategies include banning smoking and other sources of flame and heat, routine maintenance of fire extinguishers, maintaining a regular schedule for the maintenance and testing of smoke detectors, and protecting the building and contents with [Sprinkler Systems|sprinkler systems].
Materials can be classified based on their level of vulnerability to heat and combustion. Jean Tetrault identified five levels of sensitivity—from very low for non-combustible materials to very high for self-igniting, easily combustible materials. Inorganic materials, such as ceramics, stone, glass, and metal, have lower relative sensitivity to fire, as compared to organic materials, such as wood, paper, or textile, that are highly reactive to fire. Certain materials are known for their extremely high relative sensitivity to fire, such as organic solvents with a flash point below 32oC that makes them flammable and most dangerous if it goes below 21oC.
An object’s susceptibility to fire is a salient factor that affects the rate at which fire can spread within space. Considering that fire is an exothermic chain reaction that produces energy in the form of light and heat, it is important to note that for the chain reaction to persist, the fuel must be in a suitable condition and quantity. If the material is wet, the heat produced will react first with water to remove moisture instead of directly causing the fuel to break down and cause the chain reaction to continue should there be enough fuel source to feed on.
Incorrect relative humidity
Relative humidity (RH) may result in change or damage to cultural heritage when the RH is too high, too low or when it fluctuates. High RH can cause mould growth, salt efflorescence, increased pest activity, swelling of wood, rapid metal corrosion and accelerated hydrolysis reactions in paper and other substrates. Low RH can result in cracking and shrinkage of wooden objects, and desiccation and embrittlement of paper and organic textiles. Fluctuations in RH compound these effects and cause physical damage where organic materials contract and expand, particularly in mixed-media objects where materials expand and contract at different rates (e.g. panel paintings). For this reason, museum environments often have humidity control as part their heating, ventilation and cooling (HVAC) system, to keep RH stable and within defined limits.
Relative humidity is the amount of water held in the air expressed as a percentage of the total amount of water that could be held in fully saturated air at a given temperature. The capacity of air to hold moisture is directly related to temperature, as warm air can hold more water than cold air.
Some changes undergone by objects are reversible by adjusting the RH, but damage like cracks may be irreversible. Keeping the RH within an appropriate range for the type of material and as consistent as possible will prevent most RH-based damage. Keeping storage and display spaces between 40-60% RH will avoid most damaging effects, but maintaining a stable RH is often considered more important than adhering to absolute ranges. Guidelines for museum environments have been developed by professional conservation organisations such as the International Institute for Conservation (IIC), the International Council of Museums (ICOM-CC), the American Institute for Conservation (AIC) and the Australian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Materials (AICCM).
The RH of spaces can be measured by a number of tools, including humidity indicator cards, thermo-hygrographs, hygrometers, psychrometers and data loggers. RH data is monitored and analysed to determine if adjustments are needed. Adjustments may be possible via humidifiers, dehumidifiers, adjustments to existing heating and air conditioning systems, and passive control measures.
Some objects have different needs in RH than the other ones in their exhibition or their storage room. For those objects, special cases or storage contains needs to be created to accommodate their needs. In them, the Rh and the temperature can be different than the ones present of the rooms. Some special crates and containers can also be done to ensure the safe travel of the objects.
Incorrect temperature
Two primary chemical deterioration mechanisms affecting cultural heritage include hydrolysis and oxidation, which can result in chain scission or cross linking. These occur at ambient temperatures to varying degrees (depending on the material); the rate of chemical reactions increases with temperature. Consequently, cool storage (e.g. storage at 10 °C, 4 °C or below freezing) is often used to slow the deterioration of vulnerable materials such as cellulose nitrate and cellulose acetate film.
Higher temperatures may also cause softening or melting of material with low melting points, such as waxes and some plastics. Some materials become brittle with lower temperatures, increasing the chance of physical damage on handling. On freezing, ice crystals can physically disrupt delicate surfaces such as photographic emulsions.
Light, ultraviolet and infrared
Light, as it relates to collections maintenance, is primarily concerned with the visual and ultraviolet light (UV) ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum. Visible light exposure will fade many colourants. Higher energy ultraviolet light wavelengths can also cause bleaching, yellowing, discolouration and physical weakening of substrates, rendering some material brittle and prone to breakage. Light radiation provides energy to induce chemical changes within the molecular structure of materials. Damage from light, including loss of color and strength, is cumulative and irreversible.
Controlling light damage is a process of compromise, as light is also necessary for people working with or viewing cultural heritage objects. Light exposure can be reduced by limiting either the amount of time sensitive objects are put on display, or the strength at which they are illuminated. Dimmers, timer switches, and motion sensors may be used to limit exposure times. Cultural organisations often develop schedules for exhibition changeovers, in order to control the rate at which light-induced damage occurs. Light levels for light sensitive objects such as textiles, works on paper, and dyed leather are generally kept at lower levels where possible (e.g at 50 lux), with 200 lux a more common guidelines for more light resistant materials, such as oil paintings, bone, and natural leather. Some material types, such as stone, metal, and glass, are not negatively impacted by visible light.
Ultraviolet light is not normally needed for vision (unless UV-induced fluorescence is an important part of the viewing experience) so cultural organisations tend to remove or shield sources of natural light from storage or display spaces. Curtains, shades and UV-absorbing filters are also useful control strategies.
Light and UV levels can be measured with a light meter so that adjustments can be made.
Pests
Many insect species feed on organic cultural heritage material - for example, carpet beetles and clothes moths are attracted to protein-based fibres such as wool and silk; silverfish graze on the surface of books and photographs; various species of borers can infest wooden furniture or frames. Insects can be attracted by accumulation of dust and debris on objects to feed on it. Insects, birds and rodents may use cultural heritage objects as nesting material, or soil them with excrement, or damage them by scratching or piercing. Bird poo can etch the surface of metal outdoor sculpture and birds' feet can scratch their surface.
Damage from insects and other museum pests typically occurs because these pests are drawn to collections objects which they view as a food source. Certain material types, such as wood, organic textiles, furs, and paper are more vulnerable to insect damage than others.
Integrated pest management or IPM has become a key strategy in monitoring and controlling pests in museum environments. IPM focusses on prevention, through housekeeping and maintenance, and monitoring pest populations by using a system of glue traps. This allows museum or repository staff to identify vulnerable locations, catch new infestations and identify the type of insects present, and then act to eliminate the infestation.
A range of possible treatments are available to address insect infestations. Chemical treatments are no longer a preferred treatment method for cultural objects due to human safety risks and often undesirable effects on the objects themselves. Instead, non-chemical methods are preferred, and include freezing, controlled heating, radiation, and anoxic treatments. Even options as simple as regulating the temperature and relative humidity of a space can be effective at curtailing an infestation, depending on the pest. Each option has benefits and drawbacks, and the choice of treatment used should be undertaken in consultation with a qualified professional.
Pollutants
Atmospheric pollutants such as ozone, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen dioxide cause corrosion, acidification and discolouration of a variety of materials. Indoor pollutants such as formaldehyde and other volatile organic acids cause similar problems, and may be present in carpets, paints and varnishes or in the materials used to construct display cases or storage furniture (wood, plastics, fabrics, resins). Pollutants may also be generated internally by objects - for example, the deterioration of cellulose acetate film results in the generation of acetic acid, which can damage other objects nearby.
Atmospheric pollutants can tarnish or corrode metal objects. Silver objects are vulnerable to sulphurous gasses which cause them to tarnish, and lead and pewter objects will corrode when exposed to volatile organic acids. Damage can be minimised by storing vulnerable silver objects in enclosures with activated charcoal or in silvercloth, which adsorb sulphur. Silver objects can also be coated, or lacquered, with a clear barrier material such as Paraloid B-72 to prevent tarnishing, but these coatings require periodic reapplication. One potential source of volatile organic acids is wooden shelves or wooden storage and display furniture.
Dust is also categorised as an outdoor and indoor pollutant in this context, as it can cause damage to the surface by abrasion when removed, or by staining it when absorbing humidity. Dust can contain skin, mold and inorganic fragments like silica or sulfur. Dust can become bound to a surface over time, making it significantly more difficult to remove. Dust is also hygroscopic, meaning it is able to attract and hold water molecules creating an ideal climate for mold spores to grow and cause biological damage. Dust's hygroscopic nature can also prompt chemical reactions on a surface, especially upon metals. Inorganic dust particles may have tough sharp edges which can tear fibers and abrade softer surfaces if not properly removed.
Dust accumulation can be prevented by storing and displaying collection objects in closed cabinets or cases, or by using dust covers. Dust minimisation strategies also include the use of air filters in heating and air conditioning systems, using vacuum cleaners equipped with HEPA filters and housekeeping strategies using soft cloths.
Physical forces
This category includes sources of mechanical damage, where objects may be bent, broken, distorted, abraded, worn etc. The change occurs by some applied force, which may be as varied as seismic movement from earthquakes, vibration from roads, electrical equipment or amplified music, or from simple storage accidents such as shocks and rubbing or handling accidents where objects are bumped or knocked.
Handling training and guidelines help to prevent accidental damage due to physical forces when moving and working with museum objects. Handling guidelines may contain advice to carefully inspect objects before picking them up, clearing paths of obstacles and trip hazards, lining trolleys and carts for transport with polyethylene foam padding, and planning all steps of a procedure in advance". In storage, objects are housed in a manner to make them easily accessible, and fragile objects may have custom supports or mounts and padded storage boxes.
Thieves and vandals
At times referred to as 'criminals', this category includes deliberate theft or damage to cultural heritage. Many famous examples exist, such as the 1990 theft of paintings from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, or the 2012 attack on the Rothko painting at the Tate Gallery, though it is possible many thefts go unreported or even unnoticed in large institutions, or when inventory checks are not frequent.
Control strategies include limiting access to collections based on their value, rarity, portability and/or accessibility, both to staff and potential visitors. Storage and display furniture may be locked and alarmed. Cultural organisations may install security cameras, motion sensors and alarms and employ security guards and patrols.
Water
Water damage usually occurs through leaks in building fabric or through flooding associated with weather events or the failure of water-carrying infrastructure (plumbing, wet pipe sprinkler systems, air conditioning). Condensation may occur where the temperature of the air drops suddenly, as when warm indoor air hits a cooler external wall or window. Water may soften or solubilise applied media (paints, adhesives, coatings), cause staining and leave tidelines after evaporation, cause physical damage through impact, weaken substrates and foster microorganism growth, and swell, shrink or distort organic materials. Water can also carry pollutants and contaminants, such as mud and sewage, which leaves stains. The 1966 Florence flood was a formative moment in the development of the conservation-restoration profession and particularly preventive conservation.
Other frameworks
This is not the only framework used to categorise the deterioration of materials in cultural heritage professions. For example, deterioration may also be categorised according to source: biological, chemical, physical.
Sustainability
The ten agents of deterioration are often used to frame discussions about sustainability in the cultural heritage sector, when the cost of controlling or minimising deterioration is compared to the perceived benefits. Costs may be financial (e.g. the cost of running air conditioning), environmental (e.g. the use of plastics as storage and packing material, or the use of solvents for conservation treatment, or the use of energy to run air conditioning systems) or even the labour required to sustain an activity. The repercussions of established conservation-restoration practice on the environment and on climate change are increasingly debated, particularly the profession's emphasis on tight control of temperature and humidity.
Recent environmental guidelines for cultural heritage collections, such as those developed by the Australian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Materials (AICCM), emphasise sustainability and resilience as a guiding principle and directly reference climate change as a reason for frequent review. These guidelines highlight the need to consider the local climate and allow variations of relative humidty and temperature values accordingly.
See also
Conservation and restoration of cultural property
Disaster preparedness
References
Michalski. S., ‘An overall framework for preventive conservation and remedial conservation’ in ICOM Committee for Conservation 9th Triennial Meeting, Dresden (1990) 589-591.
Waller, Robert. 1994. ‘Conservation risk assessment: A strategy for managing resources for preventive conservation. Preprints of the Contributions to the Ottawa Congress, 12 ‑ 16 September 1994, Preventive Conservation: Practice, Theory and Research. London: IIC. A. Roy and P. Smith (Eds.). Available at or
Agents of deterioration
Materials degradation | Agents of deterioration | [
"Materials_science",
"Engineering"
] | 3,698 | [
"Materials degradation",
"Materials science"
] |
69,214,902 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivetti%20M28 | The Olivetti M28 personal computer, introduced in 1986, was the successor to the Olivetti M24.
It had an Intel 80286 CPU running at 8 MHz and 512 KB (expandable to 1024 KB on the motherboard) of RAM, featuring a 5.25" floppy drive and a 20 MB hard drive. The operating systems were MS-DOS 3.2 and XENIX.
The computer had room to install three disk units, as opposed to only two on the M24. It was possible to install a 70 MB hard drive, a 80287 math coprocessor and an enhanced CGA compatible graphic card capable of displaying pixels with 16 colors.
The Olivetti M28 was rebranded as the AT&T PC 6310 by AT&T in 1987 and sold on the US market.
It was available in France as the Persona 1800, sold by LogAbax.
See also
Olivetti M24
External links
Brochure (in Italian)
References
Olivetti personal computers
Computer-related introductions in 1986 | Olivetti M28 | [
"Technology"
] | 209 | [
"Computing stubs",
"Computer hardware stubs"
] |
69,215,037 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coinage%20metal%20N-heterocyclic%20carbene%20complexes | Coinage metal N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) complexes refer to transition metal complexes incorporating at least one coinage metal center (M = Cu, Ag, Au) ligated by at least one NHC-type persistent carbene. A variety of such complexes have been synthesized through deprotonation of the appropriate imidazolium precursor and metalation by the appropriate metal source, producing MI, MII, or MIII NHC complexes. While the general form can be represented as (R2N)2C:–M (R = various alkyl or aryl groups), the exact nature of the bond between NHC and M has been investigated extensively through computational modeling and experimental probes. These results indicate that the M-NHC bond consists mostly of electrostatic attractive interactions, with some covalent bond character arising from NHC to M σ donation and minor M to NHC π back-donation. Coinage metal NHC complexes show effective activity as catalysts for various organic transformations functionalizing C-H and C-C bonds, and as antimicrobial and anticancer agents in medicinal chemistry.
Synthesis and structures
There are four typical methods to synthesize coinage metal NHC complexes:
Preparation of the free isolated carbene, followed by separate metalation with an M source.
In situ deprotonation and metalation of the imidazolium salt precursor with a basic M oxide.
Reaction of the imidazolium salt precursor with an M salt using basic phase transfer conditions.
Preparation of the AgI NHC complex through another method, followed by transmetalation to the corresponding CuI or AuI complex.
These complexes can be neutral or cationic, with variety in M nuclearity, NHC ligand multiplicity and denticity, and supporting ligands.
Copper NHC complexes
CuI and CuII NHC complexes can be prepared by the methods described above, using either CuI or CuII sources. The first to be reported was a [CuI(NHC)2]+ synthesized through method 1 by Arduengo et al. in 1993. CuI NHC complexes feature the most common oxidation state by far, and the majority of such complexes are synthesized through method 1 or occasionally through method 4. Of the over 650 Cu NHC complexes structurally characterized as of 2019, around half feature 2-coordinate Cu with a linear geometry, another quarter feature 3-coordinate Cu, and the rest mainly feature 4-coordinate Cu. Multinuclear Cu NHC complexes make up less than 10% of those reported. Beyond these general features, the compositional and structural diversity of known Cu NHC complexes is extensive. The most common motif appears to be the [CuI(NHC)(halide)], which can be very stable, especially with bulky ligand substituents. There are also a handful of reported N-heterocyclic silylene and other NHC-type Cu complexes. Of the three coinage metals discussed, the library of Cu NHC complexes has been historically the least developed, due to comparatively lower stabilities.
Silver NHC complexes
AgI NHC complexes can be prepared by the methods described above, using AgI sources. The first to be reported was a [AgI(NHC)2]+ synthesized through method 1 by Arduengo et al. in 1993. The vast majority of these complexes are synthesized through method 2, due to the ease of using Ag2O with air stable imidazolium salts. Linear, trigonal, and tetrahedral coordination geometries are the most commonly reported, although a wide variety of more complex configurations have also been characterized. Due to the short Ag-Ag distances achievable within NHC complexes, down to 2.7 to 2.8 Å, supramolecular assemblies of complexes can be obtained. Many chiral complexes have also been synthesized using chiral NHC ligands. Similar to the Cu NHC complexes, the most common motif appears to be the [AgI(NHC)(halide)]. Of the three coinage metals discussed, Ag NHC complexes are the most well-developed and studied, due to the ease of synthesis and the possible routes to other NHC complexes.
Gold NHC complexes
AuI NHC complexes can be prepared by methods 1, 3, or 4 described above, using AuI sources; method 4 is by far the most common. The other common synthetic route is through the cleavage of electron-rich olefins, such as imidazolidinylidene, with an AuI salt. The first to be reported were a [AuI(NHC)2]+ and a [AuIIII2(NHC)2]+ by Minghetti and Bonati in 1973. AuIII NHC complexes, although rarer, are accessible through AuIII-coordinated isocyanide ligand cyclization, halogen oxidative addition to AuI NHC complexes, or NHC transfer from group 6 complexes such as (NHC)W(CO)5. As with the other coinage metals, the vast majority of the reported Au NHC complexes have a linear coordination geometry, although a higher coordination number of 4 has been observed for AuIII. Multinuclear complexes are also accessible, and have been synthesized to study Au-Au interactions during supramolecular aggregation. Many chiral complexes have also been synthesized using chiral NHC ligands. As with the other coinage metal NHC complexes, the most common supporting ligands are halides or pseudo-halides. Interest in expanding the scope of Au NHC complexes has grown rapidly following the discovery of catalytic applications and the ease of synthesis through AgI NHC transmetalation.
Bonding
NHCs as ligands are known for their strong σ donation and high structural tunability. More in-depth computational analyses also highlight the role of M to NHC π back-donation, with respect to a description of an M-NHC bond.
In an initial analysis of coinage metal NHC bonding from 1998, Boehme and Frenking performed quantum mechanical ab initio calculations for the three MICl(imidazol-2-ylidene) complexes, as well as with the corresponding silylene and germylene NHC-type ligands. High metal-ligand bond dissociation energies of 67.4 kcal/mol for M=Cu, 56.5 kcal/mol for M=Ag, and 82.8 kcal/mol for M=Au were calculated. The same trend emerges with the other NHC-type ligands, with Au having a rather strong bond to the NHC, and Ag having the relatively weakest. This suggests an origin for the efficacy of NHC transfer chemistry from Ag NHC complexes, with weaker M-NHC bonds in addition to the straightforward synthetic route described previously. Further charge-decomposition analysis of the three model complexes suggests that the- major contribution to covalent bonding arises from the NHC to M σ donation, with minor M to NHC π back-donation. The backdonation is particularly low when M=Ag, and higher when M=Au, likely due to relativistic effects causing s and p orbital contraction and d and f orbital diffuseness. These computational results are corroborated in Density Functional Theory analyses of other coinage metal NHC complexes. The relative amount of M to NHC π back-donation can increase up to a calculated 15-20% of the total orbital interaction energies, based on the specific electronic and steric profiles of the M NHC complexes. Additionally, comparative studies of Ag and Au monomeric complexes and the corresponding macrometallacyclic complexes indicate that the NHC lone pair interacts with the lowest empty M p orbital in the monomeric cases, but with the lowest empty M s orbital in the cyclic cases.
A Natural Bond Orbital analysis provides calculated charge distributions, which indicate increased NHC carbene p(π) orbital population relative to the free NHC; this can be attributed to increased NHC aromaticity when coordinated to a metal center. Topological analysis of the electron density also shows that all three M-NHC bonds have meaningful ionic character in addition to some covalent character. The Ag-NHC bond shows the most ionic character, while the Au-NHC bond shows the most covalent character. For a series of M(NHC)(halide) and M(NHC)2 complexes studied by Nemcsok et al., Energy Decomposition Analysis assigns 68-78% of the attractive interactions to classical electrostatic attraction. Again, the Ag complexes have the lowest calculated M-NHC bond dissociation energies with the highest calculated M-NHC ionic character percentages, while the Au complexes have the highest calculated M-NHC bond dissociation energies with the lowest calculated M-NHC ionic character percentages; the Cu values are intermediate. (Note that electrostatic contributions are just one part of the overall bond dissociation energy calculations; while the Ag-NHC bonds have the greatest percentage of electrostatic contributions into the overall bond dissociation energies, the Au-NHC bonds have the greatest bond dissociation energies in magnitude). Of the remaining covalent character, the majority is calculated to emerge from σ donation; the Cu complexes have the highest calculated percentages of π back-donation contribution. These trends generally match the observations for coinage metal bond strengths where Au > Cu > Ag bonds. Experimental bond length analyses corroborate the computational results, especially with regard to the relative levels of NHC aromaticity and the relative levels of back-donation.
Applications
Copper NHC complexes
CuI NHC complexes, and to a lesser extent CuII NHC complexes, find use mostly as catalysts for organic transformations, as generally more robust analogues to the well-known Cu phosphine complexes. For example, CuI NHC complexes are effective catalysts for various carboxylation or C-C coupling reactions, oftentimes including utilization of CO2 as a C1 source. Chiral Cu NHC complexes can also accomplish asymmetric catalysis for reactions such as allylic substitutions or conjugate additions. These applications feature the ability of Cu NHC complexes to activate and functionalize C-H and C-C bonds selectively and efficiently, enabled by tuning the NHC ligand steric and electronic characteristics. CuI NHC complexes have also shown promising pharmacological applications, with notable antitumor activity attributed to low biotoxicity, sufficient stability to reach sites of interest, and the ability to react with intracellular dioxygen to produce reactive oxygen species which attack DNA.
Silver NHC complexes
AgI NHC complexes find the most use as NHC transfer agents, due to the facile synthesis through Ag2O, the relatively labile Ag-NHC bond, and the favorable precipitation of Ag halide salts during transmetalation. This strategy provides access not only to other coinage metal NHC complexes, but also to PdII, RhI, IrI, RuIV, and other NHC complexes, as well as organic NHC compounds. Ag NHC complexes also show some catalytic applications, the most successful being in situ chiral NHC transfer to Cu during catalysis, which provides different product yields and enantioselectivities than in situ direct generation of a chiral Cu NHC complex. Ag NHC complexes find great use in medicinal chemistry as antimicrobial and anticancer agents, as the NHC ligands can stabilize AgI ions long enough to penetrate targeted cell walls before slow release to destroy the cells internally. Ag NHC complexes have also been investigated for liquid crystal properties and polymeric nanomaterials.
Gold NHC complexes
AuI and AuIII NHC complexes find use as catalysts, since the NHC ligands can stabilize the gold ions and disfavor the unproductive precipitation of metallic gold. As alkyne and alkene activations are often achieved by these complexes, commonly catalyzed organic transformations are heteroatom additions, cyclizations, and some cross-couplings. Chiral AuI NHC complexes have been applied in asymmetric catalysis with only a few instances of high enantioselectivity. AuI and AuIII NHC complexes also find use in pharmacological applications, as with many other gold complexes, showing notable antimicrobial and anticancer activities due to the relative stability of the Au-NHC bond in vivo, the high electron density at the AuI center improving its bactericidal capabilities, and the ability of AuI to bind thiol groups and thus inhibit various enzymes overexpressed in cancer cells.
See also
Persistent carbene
N-heterocyclic silylene
Transmetalation
Ab initio quantum chemistry methods
Density functional theory
Natural bond orbital
References
Nitrogen heterocycles
Coinage metals and alloys
Carbenes
Transition metal compounds | Coinage metal N-heterocyclic carbene complexes | [
"Chemistry"
] | 2,688 | [
"Inorganic compounds",
"Coinage metals and alloys",
"Organic compounds",
"Alloys",
"Carbenes"
] |
59,896,435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C/2018%20Y1%20%28Iwamoto%29 | C/2018 Y1 (Iwamoto) is a long period comet with a retrograde orbit discovered on 18 December 2018, by Japanese amateur astronomer Masayuki Iwamoto. Its period is estimated to be 1,733 years. It passed closest to Earth on 13 February 2019. It was expected to reach a magnitude of between 6.5 and 7.5, visible in binoculars or a small telescope and was reported to reach a magnitude of 5.5 by Juan Jose Gonzalez on February 13, before fading to 7.6 two weeks later.
The comet was observed by iSHELL spectrograph at the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility (IRTF). Overall, the measured spatial distributions for polar molecules (in particular, H2O and CH3OH) were broader, exhibiting more complex structure compared with nonpolar or weakly polar species (, , and CO). Compositionally, compared to their respective mean abundances among comets from the Oort cloud, and were enriched, and HCN were near normal, and all other species were depleted. The abundance ratio / was higher by 45% ± 8% on January 13 versus February 5, whereas was unchanged within the uncertainty, suggesting nonhomogeneous composition among regions of the nucleus dominating activity on these dates.
Gallery
See also
C/2018 V1 (Machholz–Fujikawa–Iwamoto)
References
External links
Non-periodic comets
Near-Earth comets
Astronomical objects discovered in 2018
Comets in 2018
Comets in 2019 | C/2018 Y1 (Iwamoto) | [
"Astronomy"
] | 299 | [
"Astronomy stubs",
"Comet stubs"
] |
59,896,530 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map%20projection%20of%20the%20triaxial%20ellipsoid | In geodesy, a map projection of the triaxial ellipsoid maps Earth or some other astronomical body modeled as a triaxial ellipsoid to the plane. Such a model is called the reference ellipsoid. In most cases, reference ellipsoids are spheroids, and sometimes spheres. Massive objects have sufficient gravity to overcome their own rigidity and usually have an oblate ellipsoid shape. However, minor moons or small solar system bodies are not under hydrostatic equilibrium. Usually such bodies have irregular shapes. Furthermore, some of gravitationally rounded objects may have a tri-axial ellipsoid shape due to rapid rotation (such as Haumea) or unidirectional strong tidal forces (such as Io).
Examples
A triaxial equivalent of the Mercator projection was developed by John P. Snyder.
Equidistant map projections of a triaxial ellipsoid were developed by Paweł Pędzich.
Conic Projections of a triaxial ellipsoid were developed by Maxim Nyrtsov.
Equal-area cylindrical and azimuthal projections of the triaxial ellipsoid were developed by Maxim Nyrtsov.
Jacobi conformal projections were described by Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi.
See also
Geodesics on a triaxial ellipsoid
Map projection
Reference ellipsoid
Jacobi ellipsoid
Latitude
Ellipsoidal coordinates
Planetary coordinate system
References
Map projections | Map projection of the triaxial ellipsoid | [
"Mathematics"
] | 308 | [
"Map projections",
"Coordinate systems"
] |
59,896,735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ding%20Kuiling | Ding Kuiling (; born March 1966) is a Chinese organic chemist. He has been Executive Vice President of Shanghai Jiao Tong University since October 2018, and formerly served as President of the Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry. He is an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Biography
Ding was born in March 1966 in Yongcheng, Henan, China. He earned his bachelor's degree from Zhengzhou University in 1985 and his Ph.D. from the Department of Chemistry of Nanjing University in 1990. His doctoral advisor was Wu Yangjie.
Ding became a faculty member of Zhengzhou University in 1990. He conducted postdoctoral research at Ryukoku University in Japan from 1993 to 1994, and was promoted to full professor of Zhengzhou University in 1995. From 1997 to 1998, he was a UNESCO fellow at Tokyo Institute of Technology.
In December 1998, he became a research professor at the Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry. He served as President of the institute from 2009 to 2018. In October 2018, he was appointed Executive Vice President of Shanghai Jiao Tong University.
Ding's research interests are asymmetric catalysis and organometallics. He developed multiple chiral phosphine ligands that have been produced by chemical companies. He has received many awards, including the State Natural Science Award (Second Class), the Eli Lilly Scientific Excellence Award, the Yoshida Prize, and the Humboldt Prize. He serves as an editor of more than ten international chemistry journals. He was elected an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2013.
References
1966 births
Living people
Chemists from Henan
Chinese expatriates in Japan
Educators from Henan
Humboldt Research Award recipients
Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences
Nanjing University alumni
Chinese organic chemists
People from Shangqiu
Academic staff of Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Zhengzhou University alumni
Academic staff of Zhengzhou University | Ding Kuiling | [
"Chemistry"
] | 374 | [
"Organic chemists",
"Chinese organic chemists"
] |
59,897,030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shepard%20tables | Shepard tables (also known as the Shepard tabletop illusion) are an optical illusion first published in 1990 as "Turning the Tables," by Stanford psychologist Roger N. Shepard in his book Mind Sights, a collection of illusions that he had created. It is one of the most powerful optical illusions, typically creating length miscalculations of 20–25%.
To quote A Dictionary of Psychology, the Shepard table illusion makes "a pair of identical parallelograms representing the tops of two tables appear radically different" because our eyes decode them according to rules for three-dimensional objects.
This illusion is based on a drawing of two parallelograms, identical aside from a rotation of 90 degrees. When the parallelograms are presented as tabletops, however, we see them as objects in three-dimensional space. One "table" seems long and narrow, with its longer dimension receding into the distance. The other "table" looks almost square, because we interpret its shorter dimension as foreshortening. The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences explains the illusion as an effect of "size and shape constancy [which] subjectively expand[s] the near-far dimension along the line of sight." It classifies Shepard tables as an example of a geometrical illusion, in the category of an "illusion of size."
According to Shepard, "any knowledge or understanding of the illusion we may gain at the intellectual level remains virtually powerless to diminish the magnitude of the illusion." Children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder are less susceptible to the Shepard table illusion than typically developing children but are equally susceptible to the Ebbinghaus illusion.
Shepard had described an earlier, less-powerful version of the illusion in 1981 as the "parallelogram illusion" (Perceptual Organization, pp. 297–9). The illusion can also be constructed using identical trapezoids rather than identical parallelograms.
A variant of the Shepard tabletop illusion was named "Best Illusion of the Year" for 2009.
Christopher W. Tyler, among others, has done scholarly research on the illusion.
References
External links
Animation of the illusion. Opticalillusion.net.
More optical illusions by Roger Shepard
Optical illusions | Shepard tables | [
"Physics"
] | 451 | [
"Optical phenomena",
"Physical phenomena",
"Optical illusions"
] |
59,897,436 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pranala | In Hindu temple architecture, a pranala (IAST: praṇāla) is a discharge outlet attached to the wall of the sanctum. It discharges the lustral water or other liquids poured over the idols.
History
The earliest evidence of the pranalas can be dated back to 1st century BCE to 2nd century CE in Kankali Tila archeological site in northern India. The pranalas continued to be used in the subsequent years, including the Gupta period. However, the elaborately sculptured pranalas first appear only in the 8th century CE. The pranalas were common in several parts of India; they were less common in the Hindu architecture of Southeast Asia, except in Java.
The pranala is also known as praṇāli, nāla, nāli, gomukha, or nirgama. Some 20th century French archaeologists have used the term "soma-sūtra" to describe the pranala, but Indian texts clearly distinguish between these two terms: a soma-sūtra is a line along which the pranala is placed.
Designs
Pranalas are used to drain out the abhisheka-teertham water, milk, ghee, etc. poured over the temple idols.
The most common type of pranala in historical temples is the makara-pranala, which is similar to the European gargoyle. It depicts the mythical sea-creature makara (also called graha). The popularity of the makara-pranala probably results from the creature's association with water. The 11th century text Samarangana Sutradhara recommends making a pranali (that is, pranala) drain all around the sanctum, with an outlet in the shape of a graha (or makara). Vishvakarma's Vastushastra, a late 11th century compendium on the Māru-Gurjara architecture, also mentions the pranala. Aparajita-prchchha, dated late 12th to early 13th century, refers to the makara-pranala used to clear the water out of the temple's jagati (platform).
The next most common type of pranala is the grasa-pranala, which depicts the grasa (also known as kirtimukha) mythical creature. The gorgon of the early Greek temples inspired the Indian grasa-pranala, which in turn, inspired the similar motifs in South-East Asia, particularly Java. The grasa-pranala is common in the historical temples of south India; a few examples have also been discovered in Madhya Pradesh, in central India.
The simha-pranala, which depicts a lion, is similar to the grasa-pranala. It is probably inspired by the lion-head spouts that were common in Classical Greek, Hellenistic, and Roman temples. A variation of this form is the simha-nala, which features a tube coming out of a lion's mouth: the tip of the tube may depict another lion's mouth (this type is called simha-mukha-nala), or another object, such as a lotus bud.
Other forms include:
Bhuta-pranala: depicts a bhuta or jambhaka, a goblin-like creature.
Ghata-pranala: depicts a ghata or spherical plot, often held by a human figure.
Marala-pali: depicts the peripheral wall of a house (marala) and a pot (pali) stationed for collecting the drainage water.
Snapana-griha or Chandesha-griha: A special shrine for a Chandesha (IAST: Caṇḍeśa, a deity); the water from the temple's sanctum is received into this shrine.
Undecorated nala: These are inornate water spouts; common in temples of Tamil Nadu (especially those from the Chola period).
Pranalas with unique designs also exist: for example, the Koteshwara Temple in Srikakulam has a pranala in which the water spouts out of the bust of a Nandi figure.
Examples
Some notable examples of the pranala are:
References
Bibliography
Drainage
Architectural elements
Hindu temple architecture | Pranala | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 888 | [
"Building engineering",
"Architectural elements",
"Components",
"Architecture"
] |
59,898,837 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu%20Yangjie | Wu Yangjie (; born 1 January 1928) is a Chinese organic chemist and a professor at Zhengzhou University. He is an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Biography
Wu was born 1 January 1928 in Jinan, Shandong, Republic of China. He graduated from the Department of Chemistry of Fudan University in 1951, and was hired as a faculty member by the university. In September 1954, he began his graduate studies in the Department of Chemistry of the Moscow State University, and earned his associate doctor degree (Ph.D. equivalent) in June 1958.
After returning to China, Wu was assigned to the newly founded Zhengzhou University to help establish its chemistry department, where he worked for the rest of his career. He later served as chairman of the department and a doctoral advisor.
Wu published more than 160 research articles. He won a National Science Congress Award in 1978, and the Henan Science and Technology Progress Award (First Class) in 2001. He was elected an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2003.
References
1928 births
Living people
Chemists from Shandong
Chinese expatriates in the Soviet Union
Educators from Shandong
Fudan University alumni
Academic staff of Fudan University
Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences
Moscow State University alumni
Chinese organic chemists
People from Jinan
Academic staff of Zhengzhou University | Wu Yangjie | [
"Chemistry"
] | 266 | [
"Organic chemists",
"Chinese organic chemists"
] |
59,900,992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manbang | Manbang () is a series of state-owned digital media players issued by North Korea's Korean Central Broadcasting Committee, providing over-the-top content in the form of channels. It was created in response to streaming platforms like Netflix and Roku in the west, and the popularity of Chinese-made Notel players in North Korea.
Manbang, which translates to "everywhere", is only available to citizens in Pyongyang, Sinuiju and Sariwon. Due to North Korea's isolationism, users connect to the service not by the internet, but via the state-controlled intranet using the IPTV protocol. It's hard to tell if the technology at play is IPTV or VOD, but according to the description it is a mixture of both.
The device is an Internet Protocol Television that works through a separate box. The system comes as a set-top box, which first has to be connected to a modem, and after that to a phone line. The box can be connected to a television through an HDMI cable.
History
The exact release date of Manbang system is unclear. One of the first set-top box appears to be manufactured in 2015. An intranet site listing in 2015 included a site named “Manbang”, with the operator being the Korean Central Television.
On 16 August 2016, Manbang appeared for the first time on a report “망 TV다매체열람기‘만방'” by the Korean Central Television. It has been reported that the implementation of the “Intranet” Protocol Television (IPTV), which runs on North Korea’s Kwangmyong intranet, has begun. It also showcased a set-top box, which was developed by the Manbang IT company, on which Manbang is based. KCTV also stated that the new service already has "several hundred users", and is "making the lives of citizens and children flourish".
On 25 August 2016, Netflix took a light-hearted jab at Manbang by changing its Twitter bio description to read: "Manbang knock-off."
During the following years, it appeared that the North Korean government is working towards making the service widely accessible. Reports stated that the demand is rising in Sinuiju with hundreds of people using the service.
In 2017, additional TV stations were added with a wider selection of movies, sports, and documentaries.
The state-owned company Myohyang IT announced the Ryonghung iPad, which can support an app for Manbang.
In November 2019, during the Exhibition of IT Successes, the Manbang IT company showcased a version of Manbang working on a tablet PC.
As of 2020, according to Asia Press (Rimjingang), the price of a set-top box bought with monthly installments is 6,000 North Korean won ($7) per year. A box can be purchased outright for around 22,000 North Korean won ($24). The boxes can also be leased on a subscription.
In 2020, it was reported that the North Korean authorities were pressuring overseas North Korean residents in China to purchase IPTV set-top box as to monitor users activities and strengthen ideological education. The North Korean embassy in China is selling the set-top boxes at a price of RMB 2,000 [USD 282] per box. These set-top boxes appear to be connected to the Internet.
In 2023, it was revealed that in order to pay in Manbang, people need to have their electronic certificate and copy certificate connected to a storage device, and connect it to the app in order to run Ullim in Manbang.
Content
In addition to video on demand, Manbang is reported to offer live streams of at least 5 channels:
Users may also find political information regarding the Supreme Leader and the Juche ideology. Users are also able to read news articles from the Rodong Sinmun, as well as the Korean Central News Agency (KCNA).
Users can access an entire week's state television broadcasts, as well as older programs and propaganda films.
It appears to be useful for students, as academic materials from various institutions as well as textbooks for primary and middle school can be browsed. It also claims to allow viewers to learn English and Russian languages.
Worker education services for North Korean enterprises are also available via the Manbang service. On 20 January 2019, a report showed workers at the “Rangrim Forest Management Office” (랑림림산사업소) receiving science and technology lessons.
The government could spread its propaganda deeper into the country via Manbang, and get greater insight into the habits of the nation.
References
Telecommunications-related introductions in 2016
Television in North Korea
Streaming television
Internet radio
Digital media players | Manbang | [
"Technology"
] | 990 | [
"Multimedia",
"Internet radio",
"Streaming television"
] |
59,901,942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%205201 | NGC 5201 is a spiral galaxy located in the constellation Ursa Major. It was discovered on April 14, 1789 by German-born British astronomer William Herschel. It is about 384 million light years away.
References
External links
Ursa Major
Spiral galaxies
Discoveries by William Herschel
Astronomical objects discovered in 1789
5201 | NGC 5201 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 65 | [
"Ursa Major",
"Constellations"
] |
59,902,799 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%204074 | NGC 4074 is a peculiar lenticular galaxy located 310 million light-years away in the constellation Coma Berenices. It was discovered by astronomer William Herschel on April 27, 1785 and is a member of the NGC 4065 Group.
NGC 4074 is classified as a type 2 Seyfert galaxy. It was first identified as a Seyfert in 1978.
Supermassive black hole
NGC 4074 has a supermassive black hole with an estimated mass of ( M☉).
See also
List of NGC objects (4001–5000)
References
External links
4074
038207
Coma Berenices
Astronomical objects discovered in 1785
Lenticular galaxies
NGC 4065 Group
Peculiar galaxies
Seyfert galaxies
Discoveries by William Herschel | NGC 4074 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 152 | [
"Coma Berenices",
"Constellations"
] |
59,902,954 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine%20Mulligan | Catherine Mulligan is a professor of Building, Civil, and Environmental Engineering and the Research Chair in Geo-environmental Sustainability at Concordia University. She is also the founding director of the Concordia Institute for Water, Energy and Sustainable Systems. Mulligan's work focused on the decontamination of water and sediments.
Biography
Mulligan credits a conversation with her mother for triggering her interest in engineering. Mulligan completed a Bachelor of Engineering in Chemical Engineering and a Master of Engineering from McGill University. She then pursued a PhD in Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering also at McGill University.
Mulligan has been a professor at Concordia University since 1999. Her research focuses on developing and characterizing novel processes for sustainably purifying soil, sediment, and water that have been contaminated by metals, hydrocarbons, or other pollutants.
She served as director of the CREATE program at Concordia from 2012 until the program's end in 2018, leading the project's interdisciplinary investigations into solutions for environmental sustainability. Mulligan was the vice president of communications for the Canadian Geotechnical Society from 2013 to 2014.
In 2017, Mulligan was featured in a book by the Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum titled Women of Innovation: The Impact of Leading Engineers in Canada.
In 2020, Mulligan became the third woman to be president of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering.
As of January 2021, Mulligan has authored or contributed to over 175 publications.
In September 2022, The Royal Society of Canada recognised Mulligan's academic achievements and inducted her as Fellow of the Royal Society. This recognition came from her three decades of work in researching ways to decontaminate the environment.
Awards and recognition
2020 Fellow, Canadian Academy of Engineering
2019 Provost's Circle of Distinction, Concordia University
2018 John B. Stirling Medal, Engineering Institute of Canada
2017 Fellow, Engineering Institute of Canada
2017 feature in Women of Innovation book, Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum
2004 Young Innovator Award, Petro-Canada
2002 Young Innovator Award, Petro-Canada
References
Living people
Academic staff of Concordia University
McGill University alumni
Year of birth missing (living people)
Canadian women engineers
Canadian chemical engineers
Fellows of the Engineering Institute of Canada
Fellows of the Canadian Academy of Engineering
Environmental engineers
Women chemical engineers | Catherine Mulligan | [
"Chemistry",
"Engineering"
] | 474 | [
"Women chemical engineers",
"Chemical engineers",
"Environmental engineers",
"Environmental engineering"
] |
59,903,213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audiomack | Audiomack (often stylized as audiomack) is a music streaming and audio discovery platform that allows artists to upload music and fans to stream and download songs. It is especially popular among emerging artists, offering a space to share their music . The platform supports genres such as Hip-hop, R&B, Afrobeats, and Latin music, with a focus on providing a free, user-friendly streaming experience. Audiomack is available as a web-based service and as an app on macOS, Android devices and Windows.
History
Audiomack was co-founded in 2012 by Dave Macli, David Ponte, Thomas Klinger, Ty Wangsness, and Brian Zisook. The platform originally allowed artists to freely share their mixtapes, songs, and albums. In April 2013, J. Cole (Yours Truly 2) and Chance the Rapper (Acid Rap) released new projects exclusively on the platform. In September 2018, Eminem released "Killshot", a diss track about Machine Gun Kelly, exclusively on Audiomack, earning 8.6 million plays in four months. In February, 2019, Nicki Minaj released three songs exclusively on the platform, including a remix of Blueface's "Thotiana."
In November 2020, Audiomack signed a music licensing agreement with Warner Music Group, covering the United States, Canada, Jamaica, and five "key African territories," including Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, and Tanzania.
In December 2020, Audiomack launched its monetization program, AMP, to all eligible creators based in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. In July 2021, Audiomack expanded the program to creators worldwide and introduced a partnership with Ziiki Media to help promote artists across Africa.
In February 2021, Variety reported Audiomack has music licensing agreements in the United States with Universal Music Group and Sony Music Entertainment. Audiomack also receives music through licensing deals with labels and distributors such as EMPIRE, among others. Also in February 2021, Billboard announced Audiomack streaming data would begin informing some of its flagship charts, including the Hot 100, the Billboard 200, and the Global 200.
In March 2021, Fast Company magazine named Audiomack one of the 10 most innovative companies in music.
In April 2021, Audiomack partnered with telecommunications company MTN Nigeria to offer its 76 million users cheaper data to stream music in its app.
In December 2021, Audiomack launched Supporters, a "feature that will enable loyal fans to tip their favorite artist's music." Fans fund artists or rights holders directly by purchasing 'support badges' for individual song and album releases. Warner Music Group, which was Audiomack's first major label partner, signed on as the first major label participant in "Supporters." Other participating partners include Amuse, AudioSalad Direct, DistroKid, EMPIRE, FUGA, Stem, and Vydia.
In February 2023, Audiomack announced a partnership deal with MTV Base to improve listeners' access to quality music material while raising awareness of African musicians throughout Africa.
In July 2023, Audiomack announced a partnership with Love Renaissance (LVRN), an American record label and management company, to identify emerging musicians.
In April 2024, Audiomack and Merlin announced a "strategic, indie-centric partnership." Through the partnership, Merlin's membership gained access to Audiomack's global audience of engaged listeners.
As of November 2024, Audiomack is reporting 10 million daily active users and 36 million monthly active users globally. This news was reported alongside a partnership announcement with Indian music label Saregama.
Features
Offline playback is free to all users and not blocked by a paywall. Users and artists can upload their music to the service through its website. Audiomack uses a combination of audio fingerprinting, DMCA takedown requests, and manual curation to police unauthorized uploads. Audiomack does not limit or charge creators for storing content on its service.
In February 2022, Audiomack launched Creator App, giving its users the ability to "upload new music, analyze data, and connect with fans all in one app." The Creator App surpassed 1 million downloads in spring of 2023.
In May 2023, Audiomack updated its Creator App, adding Promote, "a new tab that provides creators with downloadable assets for marketing and promoting their work." In July 2023, the company announced Connect, a "free, first-of-its-kind feature" that allows creators to message their followers on the service.
Audiomack introduced Audiomod, "a new set of tools that allow users to fiddle with tracks by changing the tempo, modifying the pitch, or swaddling them in reverb," in late 2023. The user-facing feature is the first of its kind in the music streaming space.
Features
Music Library Audiomack allows artists to upload their music directly to the platform, making it accessible to listeners for free streaming and downloads. It offers a catalog of millions of songs, ranging from popular tracks by mainstream artists to independent releases. The platform is known for hosting exclusive mixtapes, singles, and albums, especially in hip-hop and Afrobeats genres.
Free and Premium Streaming Audiomack offers a free, ad-supported streaming model, allowing users to stream and download tracks at no cost. The platform also includes a premium subscription, Audiomack Premium, which provides an ad-free experience, higher-quality audio, and the ability to download music for offline listening.
Trending and Charts Audiomack features a trending section that highlights the most popular songs, albums, and playlists based on user engagement and activity. The platform also includes curated playlists and editorial content, helping users discover new music. It offers genre-specific charts, including the Top Songs, Top Albums, and Top Trending tracks across various regions, providing a snapshot of trending music worldwide.
Artist Monetization and Support Audiomack allows artists to earn revenue through its Audiomack Monetization Program (AMP), which is available to select creators. Through AMP, artists can monetize their streams on the platform, offering them a way to generate income from their music without a major label backing. Audiomack also provides promotional tools and analytics to help artists understand their audience and grow their fan base.
Accounts and subscriptions
As of October 2024, the two Audiomack subscription tiers are:
Content
Audiomack produces several original video content series, including Trap Symphony, with past episodes including Migos, Chief Keef, and Rich the Kid, among others. Other series include Bless The Booth and Fine Tuned, which featuring YNW Melly, among other acts.
In March 2021, Audiomack officially launched Audiomack World, the editorial arm of the company. Users can read articles in the Audiomack app on Android and iOS, as well as their desktop site.
In February 2024, Audiomack introduced You Need To Hear, a global rising artist program. The first artist selected for the series was FOURFIVE, a rapper from New York City.
In 2022, Audiomack launched Keep the Beat Going, an annual campaign aimed at amplifying emerging artists' profiles and introducing them to global markets through billboards in major cities, curated playlists, digital ads, and creator workshops. The campaign has highlighted 72 artists between 2022 and 2024 from countries such as Ghana, Tanzania, Nigeria, South Africa, and Kenya, including notable names like Ayra Starr, Burna Boy, Rema, and Uncle Waffles.
See also
Music Streaming Services
SoundCloud
Spotify
Apple Music
YouTube Music
References
External links
Audiomack on Instagram
Streaming media systems
2012 establishments
Digital audio distributors
Internet properties established in 2012
American music websites
Music streaming services | Audiomack | [
"Technology"
] | 1,579 | [
"Streaming media systems",
"Telecommunications systems",
"Computer systems"
] |
59,904,030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachinger%20correction | In X-ray diffraction, the Rachinger correction is a method for accounting for the effect of an undesired K-alpha 2 peak in the energy spectrum. Ideally, diffraction measurements are made with X-rays of a single wavelength. Practically, the x-rays for a measurement are usually generated in an X-ray tube from a metal's K-alpha line. This generation creates x-rays at a variety of wavelengths, but most of the non K-alpha X-rays can be blocked from reaching the sample by filters. However, the K-alpha line is actually two x-ray lines close together: the stronger K-alpha 1 peak, and the weaker K-alpha 2 peak. Compared to other radiation such as the Bremsstrahlung, the K-alpha two peak is more difficult to filter mechanically. The Rachinger correction is a recursive method suggested by William Albert Rachinger (1927) to eliminate the disturbing peak.
Cause of the double peak
For diffraction experiments with X-rays radiation is usually used with the Wavelength of the anode material . However, this is a doublet, so in reality two slightly different wavelengths. According to the diffraction conditions of the Laue or Bragg equation, both wavelengths each generate an intensity maximum. These maxima are very close to each other, with their distance depending on the diffraction angle . For larger angles, the distance of the intensity maxima is greater.
Procedure
Basics
The wavelengths of and radiation are also known to increase their energy through the relationship:
From this, the angular distance can be determined for each diffraction angle determine the two Kα peaks.
Furthermore, it is known how the intensities of and behave in the diffraction pattern. This ratio is determined quantum mechanically and is for all anode materials:
Calculation
The total intensity is:
,
where is the intensity of the pure peak and the intensity of the pure peak.
The intensity of peak can be expressed as:
,
so the overall intensity is:
Practical Implementation
To practically perform the Rachinger correction, one starts on a rising edge of a peak. For a certain angle becomes the intensity of the diffraction image take and with scales with , at the same time the angle difference becomes te calculated . At the point can the true intensity (which, if there is no peak) would be calculated by:
.
Since the measured values of X-ray diffraction experiments are usually available as ASCII tables, this procedure can be repeated step by step until the entire diffraction pattern has been run through.
Today this method is hardly used anymore. Due to the power of the computers, the peak can be fit simultaneously.
Restrictions
From the way the corrected diffraction image is calculated, it follows that no correction is made for the small diffraction angles. Furthermore, the assumption Rachinger that it is Peak just a scaled variant of the peaks are not correct, as the lines generally have different widths. Therefore, in reality there is a deviation in form and intensity. Also, the correction loses its validity for a non-negligible background, since this itself causes an unwanted correction.
Literature
References
X-ray crystallography | Rachinger correction | [
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science"
] | 659 | [
"X-ray crystallography",
"Crystallography"
] |
59,904,504 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunguska%3A%20Legend%20of%20Faith | Tunguska: Legend of Faith (Russian: Тунгусский синдром) is an action-adventure video game by German-based studio Exortus GmbH, released on PC (Windows 9x) and later PlayStation. It received largely negative reviews from critics.
Plot and gameplay
The game is set in a fantasy world that incorporates elements of medieval culture. After having been executed by electric chair, the player character, Jack Riley, unexpectedly wakes up in a castle in Tunguska, the site of a mysterious meteor impact rumored to have otherworldly causes. Riley decides to explore the castle, fighting various monsters and investigating the area's mysteries.
Players move from screen to screen while the camera changes accordingly. The game's combat is inspired by arcade video games; players fight using a combination of the arrow keys, shift, and control.
Production
The title's music was recorded at B & T Records studio. The game was previewed at E3 1999.
The Windows version was released in the United States in 1998 by Project Two Interactive, while a Russian version was localised and released by Amber Company in 1999 (alongside Liath: WorldSpiral). It was released in Poland by LK Avalon on October 12, 1998. The PlayStation version was released in France on December 20, 1999 by Take-Two Interactive, and in Germany by the same publisher in 2000.
Critical reception
Game Reactor harshly criticized the game as obsolete and lacking in innovation. Przygodoskop described the title as "master-shit". IGN noted the game's action is very hard and that players should take time to navigate its controls and techniques in order to achieve competency and progress. Meristation felt that it wasn't particularly impressive but that it my be appealing to fans of the genre. PC World Poland felt that negative aspects included the dynamism of the camera and the lack of handling with the player character. Absolute Games thought it was a shame that Amber Company was wasting their time localising "cheap-cheap" games like this one. VR Games panned the "boring and monotonous gameplay" and "unbalanced and rather inconvenient controls". Game Sector, noting that by 2001 Tunguska was in the bargain bin, said the game illustrated the phrase 'you get what you paid for'. Gamer.no examined the game as part of a 2004 article entitled 'Is cheap good?', and noted the pleasure gained from now bad certain aspects were. Computer Inform did appreciate the full Russiafication of the game. Fatal Game deemed it an amateur title. Game.exe thought the game was an unpleasant mix of Myst-like games and Virtua Fighter-like games. Gambler Magazine deemed the quality as "a little bit over average". SuperJuegos lamented that the game had few opportunities to interact with the environment, and that there no characters with which to share engage in a dialogue.
In a rare positive review, PC Action compared the game to Alone in the Dark and complimented its "sophisticated, yet logical puzzles". Planet PLaystation noted in a preview that in opposition to Resident Evil, the game's camera the will scroll in the player's direction quickly and smoothly, without "detaching". PC Joker described it as a "playful mix of Resident Evil and Virtua Fighter.
See also
Tunguska event in fiction
References
External links
PC Joker review
Video Games review
Exortus Main Page
Amber Main page
1998 video games
Action-adventure games
Amber Company games
Exortus games
Fantasy video games
LK Avalon games
PlayStation (console) games
Project Two Interactive games
Video games developed in Germany
Windows games
Windows-only games
Tunguska event | Tunguska: Legend of Faith | [
"Physics"
] | 762 | [
"Unsolved problems in physics",
"Tunguska event"
] |
59,904,675 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%204076 | NGC 4076 is a spiral galaxy located 290 million light-years away in the constellation Coma Berenices. The galaxy was discovered by astronomer William Herschel on April 27, 1785 and is a member of the NGC 4065 Group.
NGC 4076 is classified as a LINER galaxy.
NGC 4076 has been host to two type Ia supernovae. The first, SN 2007M was first observed on December 24, 2006. However, it was discovered on January 14, 2007. The second, SN 2011bc was discovered on April 1, 2011.
References
External links
4076
038209
Coma Berenices
Astronomical objects discovered in 1785
Spiral galaxies
NGC 4065 Group
LINER galaxies
07061
Discoveries by William Herschel | NGC 4076 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 150 | [
"Coma Berenices",
"Constellations"
] |
59,907,040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OfflineTV | OfflineTV is an online social entertainment group of content creators based in Los Angeles, California. They produce a wide range of content, from prank videos to vlogs to the housemates playing games together. The group maintains a large following on their social media platforms.
History
OfflineTV was founded in 2017 by William "Scarra" Li, his manager at the time, Chris Chan, and Imane "Pokimane" Anys. After previously attempting and failing at creating a successful content house, Li then went on to found OfflineTV. Its first four members were Scarra, Chris Chan, Based Yoona, and Pokimane.
"Seasons" of the OfflineTV are more or less distinguished for every house the group has moved into throughout the years. Initially, the group had initially released a video as a sort of update, with the start of seasons 1 and 2. After living together for four years, the group left the content house and began living separately following the expiration of their lease in December 2021, citing that they wanted to try new things while remaining as part of OfflineTV. As of December 16, 2022, most of the OfflineTV members have moved in together again, with the exception of Pokimane, Michael Reeves and Yvonne.
In 2023, OfflineTV officially announced the departure of co-founder Pokimane through a "graduation," although she continues to remain part of their circle, OfflineTV and Friends, and has been present in some later videos.
Current members
Scarra
William Li (born November 25, 1989), better known by his alias Scarra, is an American Twitch streamer and former pro League of Legends player. He is most well known for being the mid laner for Team Dignitas. Scarra is a co-founder of OfflineTV, along with his then-manager Chris Chan.
LilyPichu
Lily Ki (born November 20, 1991), also known as LilyPichu, is an American Twitch streamer, musician, and YouTube personality. Lily gained popularity in 2011 when she released her song "I'll Quit LoL," amassing over 8 million views on YouTube. Her YouTube channel consists of animations, vlogs, songs, art, and piano covers while her Twitch stream consists of League of Legends, IRL content, art, and music.
In September 2018, Riot Games launched a new series of ads on YouTube for League of Legends including one featuring Lily and former OfflineTV member sleightlymusical. It was titled "LilyPichu & sleightlymusical: Duo".
On February 20, 2020, she confirmed that she was in a relationship with fellow OfflineTV member Michael Reeves.
Disguised Toast
Jeremy Wang (born November 25, 1991), better known by his alias Disguised Toast, is a Taiwanese-Canadian Twitch and Facebook streamer who rose to fame playing Hearthstone. He got his alias from a Hearthstone card named SI:7 Agent, one of whose voice lines is "This guy's toast," which is commonly misheard in the community as "disguised toast". Wang began his activity in the Hearthstone community by making infographics and YouTube videos of unusual card interactions that he shared on Reddit. Wang covered his face with a toast-shaped cardboard mask with sunglasses when he began streaming until he revealed his face by mistake in October 2016. In October 2017, Wang joined OfflineTV.
In November 2019, Wang announced his departure from Twitch and had moved to streaming on Facebook Gaming. In November 2021, Wang announced his return to Twitch.
Yvonnie
Yvonne Ng (born October 8, 1990), also known as Yvonnie, is a Canadian Twitch streamer. Yvonne joined the group in 2018 as the house manager, having been acquainted with co-founder and former-OfflineTV member Pokimane for several years. While initially considered as part of support staff, she would later be included as part of the OTV Roster in their video descriptions.
Michael Reeves
Michael Reeves (born November 20, 1997) is a Filipino-American Twitch streamer and YouTube personality known for his comedic engineering videos and eccentric on-camera persona. Michael previously worked as a software developer in Hawaii. His first video, "The Robot That Shines a Laser in Your Eye" posted in April 2017, went viral. He made his debut into Twitch streaming in June 2020, where he streams both video games and technology work.
After much speculation, he was officially announced as a member of OfflineTV in December 2019. In February 2020, fellow OfflineTV member LilyPichu confirmed that she and Reeves were in a relationship.
Sydeon
Sydney Parker (born June 11, 1997), also known as Sydeon, and previously as Neytiri before rebranding in November 2020, is an American Twitch streamer and cosplayer. She started streaming in January 2019 and acquired a degree in nursing before pursuing streaming full-time. She joined OfflineTV in November 2021.
Masayoshi
John Cable (born June 18, 1997), also known as Masayoshi, is an American Twitch streamer. He acquired his Twitch partnership in late 2019 and is well-known for his League of Legends and Valorant streams. He joined OfflineTV in November 2021 with his partner and fellow OfflineTV member QuarterJade.
QuarterJade
Jodi Lee (born August 25, 1997), also known as QuarterJade, is an American streamer, streaming on Twitch since October 2017. She joined OfflineTV in November 2021. She is in a relationship with fellow OfflineTV member Masayoshi.
Brodin Plett
Brodin Plett (born March 18, 1994), also known as Brofain, is an American director, producer, who has been streaming on Twitch since November 2016. Plett previously worked as a cinematographer and editor for Yahoo! Esports. He joined OfflineTV in 2020 and would later be credited the role as the "Creative Director" of the group.
Former members
Fedmyster
Federico Michael Gaytan, more often known as Fedmyster, is an American Twitch streamer and YouTube personality, who is known for his IRL streams. Prior to becoming a streamer, Gaytan was a video editor and was invited to join the group as an editor in June 2017. On July 8, 2017, Gaytan published his first YouTube video with OfflineTV, where he was formally introduced as the group's editor. Afterward, Gaytan went on to make many videos with OfflineTV, garnering millions of views for the channel. Gaytan grew popular among the OfflineTV fanbase and In January 2018 started streaming and was soon officially named as part of OfflineTV talent.
On June 27, 2020, fellow OfflineTV members Yvonne "Yvonnie" Ng and Lily "LilyPichu" Ki came forward with sexual misconduct allegations involving Gaytan. Ng stated that on two separate instances, Gaytan would enter her room intoxicated and uninvited, lay down on her bed, and begin inappropriately touching her. Ki also stated that he would enter her room uninvited and make inappropriate advances on her. Gaytan was removed from the group following the allegations, and in the week following his removal, over six members of the OfflineTV friend circle came out with their own stories of his inappropriate or manipulative behavior.
On November 24, 2020, a 25-page statement by Gaytan titled "my truth" was leaked, which alleged that much of the situation was exaggerated to form a false narrative against him. Anys addressed the leaked document on stream the next day, conveying the situation from her point of view, but stressing that neither had ill will for the other. Gaytan later responded to the leak by stating that the statement was made months ago and that although they disagreed on some aspects, they eventually decided to keep it hidden and move on. He also noted that the statement being leaked was unintentional and undesired for both of them.
In June 2021, Gaytan uploaded a video to his YouTube channel announcing his return to content creation. Since his announcement and return, Gaytan has periodically streamed on his Twitch channel and uploaded three additional YouTube videos.
Albert Chang
Albert Chang (born November 15, 1991), known as sleightlymusical, is a Twitch streamer, YouTuber, musician, and magician Chang's streams included instrumental music covers, magic tricks, IRL streams, and where he played League of Legends
On November 3, 2017, Chang performed violin live at the opening ceremony of the 2017 League of Legends World Championship finals.
During his time with OfflineTV, Chang worked both in production and as an active personality. Chang also became romantically connected to fellow OfflineTV member LilyPichu while they were both in Offline TV.
In November 2019, while on a trip to Japan multiple OfflineTV members began tweeting cryptic messages that went viral on the subreddit LiveStreamFails. It was later revealed that Chang had been unfaithful to LilyPichu with another streamer Sarah Lee (avocadopeeled), keeping their communications secret using Google Docs.
Following the incident, multiple OfflineTV members apologized for their social media statements, and Chang made a statement on his Twitter saying: "I’ll be taking an indefinite hiatus from content creation to reflect and spend some time alone. I'm sorry for the people I've hurt in all of our communities, I'm sorry for the friends I let down at Offline.TV, and most of all I'm sorry for hurting you, Lily."
On October 5, 2020, Chang uploaded a video to his social media accounts announcing his return to content creation. On May 17, 2022, Chang announced an indefinite break from streaming on Twitch citing finances and mental health. In October, 2022, Chang joined E-Learning Provider Tonic, as a Brand Strategy Consultant.
TheeMarkZ
Mark Zimmerman (born June 29, 1991), better known by his alias MarkZ, is the current LCS Commissioner, a former American League of Legends e-sports commentator, best known as an analyst for the North American League of Legends Championship Series, and former head analyst and assistant coach for Team Liquid. He was announced as a member of the OfflineTV production team in July 2017. In early 2018, Zimmerman temporarily left the group, citing differences with management. He later returned in July 2018, working in both production and management until late 2019.
EdisonParkLive
Edison Park (born November 22, 1988), also known as edisonparklive, is an American Twitch streamer and former manager of OfflineTV. He took over the managerial position in July 2018 after the departure of Chris Chan. Prior to joining OfflineTV, Park previously worked at Microsoft. From March 8, 2019, until April 7, 2019, Park completed the world record for the most hours streamed on Twitch in a 30-day period, streaming an average of 17 hours a day, which would accumulate up to a total of 541 hours. The previous record holder, Zizaran, streamed 506.5 hours in a 30-day period. At the end of his attempt, Park proposed to his then girlfriend, Fuslie, live on stream.
On April 23, 2019, Park announced via Twitter that he would be stepping down from the OfflineTV managerial position to focus on his streaming career.
In April 2020, Park announced that he was joining the Y Combinator-backed startup Zelos as the Head of Product. In November 2020, Park joined start-up PlayVS as a product manager. In September 2021, Park joined talent management agency RTS, a company co-founded by former OfflineTV member Pokimane. On April 1, 2022, Park announced that he would be returning to full-time streaming and on April 11, 2022, Park officially returned to live streaming on Twitch.
Pokimane
Imane Anys (born May 14, 1996), better known by her alias Pokimane, is a Moroccan Canadian Twitch streamer, YouTube personality, and gamer. Anys is best known for her live streams on Twitch, where she showcases her gaming experiences—most notably with League of Legends and Fortnite. In addition to streaming on Twitch, Anys has four YouTube channels: Pokimane, Pokimane Too, Imane, and the now-defunct Poki ASMR. In an interview with The Rift Herald regarding OfflineTV, Anys said, "…it's not fun being a streamer and living alone, so we decided to come together in a way so we not only keep each other company but we can also collab and actually do good work and content for everyone else." Anys was one of the first four members of OfflineTV.
Anys lived in the OfflineTV house until June 2020 and subsequently moved out to go live with fellow female streamers, including Valkyrae. While she initially announced that the move was a result of having trouble balancing work and life, Anys later revealed that growing issues with former OfflineTV member Federico "Fedmyster" Gaytan were a major contribution. Anys stated that she had lost trust in Gaytan after finding out he had lied to others about her.
On May 19, 2023, OfflineTV announced that Anys would be graduating from OfflineTV, however she still continues to have a presence in the group, having been featured in videos as a guest.
Awards and nominations
References
American YouTube groups
American gaming YouTubers
Internet broadcasting
Online media collectives
Social media
American Twitch (service) streamers
Streamer Award winners | OfflineTV | [
"Technology"
] | 2,808 | [
"Computing and society",
"Social media"
] |
59,907,537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann%20McDermott | Ann E. McDermott is an American biophysicist who uses nuclear magnetic resonance to study the structure, function, and dynamics of proteins in native-like environments. She is currently the Esther Breslow Professor of Biological Chemistry and Chair of the Educational Policy and Planning Committee of the Arts and Sciences at Columbia University. She has also previously served as Columbia's Associate Vice President for Academic Advising and Science Initiatives in the Arts and Sciences. She is an elected member of both the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences.
Education
McDermott obtained her Bachelor of Science in Chemistry from Harvey Mudd College in Claremont, CA in 1981. In 1988, she obtained her doctoral degree at U.C. Berkeley in the Department of Chemistry with Kenneth Sauer and Melvin Klein.
Career
As a post-doctoral researcher she worked with Robert G Griffin at The Massachusetts Institute of Technology. She joined Columbia University in 1991.
McDermott is a member of the board of trustees for Harvey Mudd College. She is also a member of the Board of the New York Structural Biology Center.
Research interests
McDermott's research exploits Nuclear Magnetic Resonance to study the functions, structures, and dynamics of proteins including enzymes, viral proteins, membrane proteins and amyloid proteins. In particular, her group uses and develops solid state methodology including high-resolution magic angle spinning.
Awards and honors
McDermott has won several awards and fellowships throughout her career including the DuPont Young Investigator Award (1992), the Cottrell Scholars Award (1994), the Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellowship (1995), the American Chemical Society's Award in Pure Chemistry (1996), the Eastern Analytic Symposium Award for Achievement in Magnetic Resonance (2005), and the Royal Society of Chemistry's Bourke Award (2014). In 2000, she was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 2006, she was elected as a member of the National Academy of Sciences.
References
American women biologists
Harvey Mudd College alumni
Columbia University faculty
Nuclear magnetic resonance
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
21st-century American biologists
American biophysicists
Women biophysicists
Date of birth missing (living people)
University of California, Berkeley alumni
American women academics
21st-century American women scientists | Ann McDermott | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 458 | [
"Nuclear magnetic resonance",
"Nuclear physics"
] |
59,908,228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abnormal%20urine%20color | Normally, human urine color is straw-yellow. Urine color other than straw-yellow sometimes reflects an abnormality—an underlying pathological condition—in human beings.
Signs and symptoms
The signs and symptoms of abnormal urine color are shown as follows:
Unexplained urine color other than straw-yellow has continued for a long time.
Once observe blood in urine.
Clear, dark-brown urine.
Risk factors of clinical abnormal urine color include elderly age, strenuous exercise, and family history of related diagnosis.
Cause
Infection, disease, medicines, or food can all affect urine color temporarily. For instance, cloudy or milky urine usually accompanied by bad smell possibly indicates urinary tract infection, excessive discharge of crystals, fat, white blood cells, red blood cells, or mucus.
Dark urine that looks brown but clear might be a warning sign of a serious liver disease like hepatitis or cirrhosis. In which, an excess of bilirubin being discharged through urine.
In case the urine looks in pink, red, or lighter brown is generally caused by beets, blackberries, certain food colorings, hemolytic anemia, renal impairment, urinary tract infection, medication, porphyria, intra-abdominal bleeding, vaginal bleeding, neoplasm located in either bladder or kidneys pathways.
If urine looks dark yellow or similar to orange color, the causative factors might be recent uses of a riboflavin-containing dietary supplement, carotene, phenazopyridine, rifampin, warfarin or laxative.
The causation or contributing factors of the urine color changing to green or blue are those artificial colors seen in foods and drugs, the presence of bilirubin, medicines such as methylene blue, and urinary tract infections.
Diagnosis
Doctor may prescribe some tests to help get the full picture of the situation, such as blood tests, liver function tests, ultrasound for kidneys and bladder, urinalysis, urine culture for infection, and cystoscopy.
Doctor may also ask for the medical history to collect information before making a diagnosis.
See also
Urine § color
References
Urine | Abnormal urine color | [
"Biology"
] | 444 | [
"Urine",
"Excretion",
"Animal waste products"
] |
59,908,274 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish%20Agency%20of%20Medicines%20and%20Medical%20Devices | The Spanish Agency of Medicines and Medical Devices (; AEMPS) is a regulatory and autonomous agency of the Government of Spain that acts as the highest sanitary authority in the country in terms of medical safety on medicines, health products, cosmetics and personal care products.
The agency is responsible for the regulation and authorization of clinical trials and the commercialization of sanitary products for human use, the planification and evaluation of those products along with the European Medicines Agency (EMA); the authorization of clinical laboratories, develop the specific rules to ensure the quality of the medical products and inspect all sanitary products of the central government competence. Since 1998, the agency has powers over the control, evaluation and authorization of animal health products.
The agency was created under the name of Agencia Española del Medicamento by the Fiscal, Administrative and Social Order Measures Act of 1997 and its powers were extended (to fields such as veterinary drugs) by another law of the same name from 1998 and by the Cohesion and Quality of the National Health System Act of 2003. The statute of the agency was approved in 1999. It was renamed as Agencia Española de Medicamentos y Productos Sanitarios in August 2003. It depends directly from the Ministry of Health.
The agency is chaired by a President and a Vice President. Both officials are Under Secretaries of the Ministry of Health and Agriculture. The real chief executive of the agency is the Director.
Organization chart
The agency is divided in six type of bodies: Governing bodies, executive bodies, control committees, administrative bodies, supporting bodies and complementary bodies.
Governing bodies:
President. It's the Secretary-General for Health, with the rank of Under Secretary.
Vice President. It's the Secretary-General for Agriculture and Food, with the rank of Under Secretary.
Governing Board.
Control Committee.
Executive Body.
Director.
Support body to the executive body.
Administrative bodies.
General Secretariat.
Department for Drug Inspection and Control
Department for Medicinal Products for Human Use
Department for Health Products
Department for Veterinary Drugs
Complementary bodies. It is a series of organs made up of experts in specific subjects.
Medicinal Products for Human Use Committee
Safety of Medicinal Products for Human Use Committee
Veterinary Medicines Committee
Veterinary Medicines Safety Committee
Technical Committee of the Spanish Pharmacovigilance System for Medicinal Products for Human Use
Post-authorization Studies Coordination Committee
Technical Committee of the Spanish Pharmacovigilance System for Veterinary Drugs
Veterinary Medicines Availability Committee
Pharmacopoeia Committee and the National Formulary
Technical Inspection Committee
Coordination Committee of Peripheral Pharmaceutical Services
Health Products Committee
Expert Network Committee.
See also
Health care in Spain
Spanish National Health System
Pharmacoepidemiology
References
Citations
Bibliography
Government agencies of Spain
Government agencies established in 1997
National agencies for drug regulation
1997 establishments in Spain | Spanish Agency of Medicines and Medical Devices | [
"Chemistry"
] | 555 | [
"National agencies for drug regulation",
"Drug safety"
] |
59,909,328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20Rakowski%20DuBois | Mary Rakowski DuBois is an inorganic chemist, now retired from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL). She made multiple contributions to inorganic and organometallic chemistry, focusing on synthetic and mechanistic studies. In recognition of her scientific contributions, she received several awards.
Education and career
Rakowski DuBois conducted her undergraduate training at Creighton University, receiving her B.S. in 1970. She earned her Ph.D. in 1974 under the mentorship of Daryle H. Busch at Ohio State University, and then was a postdoctoral fellow with Earl Muetterties at Cornell University.
She joined the faculty of the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1976, and was a professor there until 2007, where she moved to Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL). She retired from PNNL in 2011.
Research
Together with her husband Daniel L. DuBois, Rakowski DuBois led a team that elucidated the reactivity of nickel complexes of P2N2 ligands, which were popularized at PNNL. The behavior of these complexes highlighted the strong influence of the second coordination sphere on the rates of activation of H2 by 16-electron nickel complexes.
Early in her independent career, while on the faculty at the University of Colorado, she discovered that organomolybdenum sulfides activated hydrogen. This work provided a mechanistic connection between the Mo-S catalysts used in hydrodesulfurization and molecular organometallic chemistry.
Awards
Rakowski DuBois has been honored with fellowships from Alfred P. Sloan (1981), Dreyfus (1981), and Guggenheim Foundations (1984).
References
American inorganic chemists
20th-century American chemists
21st-century American chemists
American women chemists
Creighton University alumni
Ohio State University alumni
University of Colorado Boulder faculty
20th-century American women scientists
21st-century American women scientists
Living people
American women academics
1946 births | Mary Rakowski DuBois | [
"Chemistry"
] | 387 | [
"American inorganic chemists",
"Inorganic chemists"
] |
63,487,204 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veronica%20bucket | The Veronica bucket is a mechanism for hand washing originating in Ghana which consists of a bucket of water with a tap fixed at the bottom, mounted at hand height, and a bowl underneath to collect waste water. The Veronica bucket was developed by Veronica Bekoe. The Veronica bucket serves as a simple way to encourage proper hand washing using flowing water. Bekoe in an interview stated that the bucket was originally made to help her and her colleagues wash their hands under running water after each lab session. She said, "We are used to washing hands in a bowl with others washing in the same water, which will do more harm than good." These colleagues were contaminating their hands rather than decontaminating them. In addition to the COVID benefit of hand washing, the Veronica bucket is also essential for areas where potable water is not readily available.
Uses
The bucket is also used in other African countries. It is common in places such as schools, hospitals, churches and areas with no running taps. It has become very popular in Ghana following the outbreak of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) as citizens engage in frequent hand washing to stem its spread. In Ekiti State, Nigeria, the governor Kayode Fayemi directed all public places to provide running tap water or Veronica buckets "to encourage frequent handwashing" as part of the measures to contain COVID-19.
Before the COVID-19 outbreak, the invention was used in some schools and hospitals but now it is in high demand due to its role in curbing the outbreak. Now, the setup could be spotted in places like malls, hospitals, corporate institutions and government offices. It was invented by a Ghanaian, Veronica Bekoe, whom the invention was named after. She claimed the bucket was named after her in 1993 by Joan Hetrick. Bekoe is a biologist who has worked at the Public Health and Reference Laboratory of the Ghana Health Service from 1972 to 2008.
Production
The invention was initially produced by local artisans with aluminium utensils used in selling Hausa koko attached with a tap which was a prototype, popularly known as Akorlaa gyae su and is currently made of plastic with a tap attached to it which has an area for holding soap and towels. Variations available today come in all colours.
In February 2021, Veronica Bekoe launched an updated version of the bucket to reduce physical contact with the unit and further help halt the spread of COVID-19.
See also
WASH (water, sanitation, hygiene)
References
External links
Veronica Bekoe demonstrates how to wash your hands using the Veronica Bucket.
Health in Ghana
Medical technology
Sanitation | Veronica bucket | [
"Biology"
] | 536 | [
"Medical technology"
] |
63,487,960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan%20Semiconductor%20Research%20Institute | The Taiwan Semiconductor Research Institute () (TSRI) is a research institute in Taiwan which was created in 2019 through the merger of the National Nano Device Laboratories and National Chip Implementation Center. It is part of the National Applied Research Laboratories under the Ministry of Science.
Overview
According to the China Times the Taiwan Semiconductor Research Institute is the "world’s only national science and technology research and development center which integrates integrated circuit design, chip offline manufacturing, and semiconductor component manufacturing process research."
History
The Taiwan Semiconductor Research Institute was created in 2019 through the merger of the National Nano Device Laboratories and National Chip Implementation Center under the National Applied Research Laboratories. TSRI was inaugurated on Jan. 30 2019 at Hsinchu Science Park.
National Chip Implementation Center
The Chip Implementation Center Establishment Project was initiated in 1992 with the National Chip Implementation Center (NCIC) being inaugurated in 1997. In 2003 it was incorporated into NARLabs. In 2007 the CIC had 106 employees with 66 being full-time researchers.
National Nano Device Laboratories
The National Nano Device Laboratories (NDL) was implemented under the National Submicron Device Laboratories Establishment Project in 1988. They began operating their first level-10 clean room in 1992. In 1993 they were renamed the National Millimicron Device Laboratories and in 2002 they were renamed the National Nano Device Laboratories. They were incorporated into NARLabs in 2003.
See also
Industrial Technology Research Institute
National Center for High-Performance Computing
References
2019 establishments in Taiwan
Research institutes established in 2019
Research institutes in Taiwan
Computer science institutes
Semiconductors | Taiwan Semiconductor Research Institute | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science",
"Engineering"
] | 312 | [
"Electrical resistance and conductance",
"Physical quantities",
"Semiconductors",
"Materials",
"Electronic engineering",
"Condensed matter physics",
"Solid state engineering",
"Matter"
] |
63,488,346 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan%20Typhoon%20and%20Flood%20Research%20Institute | The Taiwan Typhoon and Flood Research Institute (TTFRI) was a research institute which is part of the National Applied Research Laboratories of Taiwan. It was merged into the National Science and Technology Center for Disaster Reduction in 2018.
History
The Taiwan Typhoon and Flood Research Institute was inaugurated in 2011 in the city of Taichung. Lee Cheng-shang was the inaugural Director.
TTFRI is a coordinator of research into quantitative precipitation forecasting.
TTFRI has worked with the Central Weather Bureau to develop a radar assimilation system which has increased the accuracy of the six hour rainfall forecast by twenty percent.
In 2018 TTFRI began a project to improve the flood management of Cayo District in Belize in partnership with the Belizean Government which is one of Taiwan's few remaining official diplomatic allies.
Equipment
In 2015 TTFRI acquired a set of UAVs from Australia for use their typhoon research program. Early attempts to acquire UAVs in 2005 were scrapped due to stricter air traffic controls imposed as a result of global terrorism.
References
2011 establishments in Taiwan
Research institutes in Taiwan
Environmental research institutes
Stormwater management
Environmental engineering
2018 disestablishments in Taiwan | Taiwan Typhoon and Flood Research Institute | [
"Chemistry",
"Engineering",
"Environmental_science"
] | 231 | [
"Environmental research institutes",
"Water treatment",
"Stormwater management",
"Chemical engineering",
"Water pollution",
"Civil engineering",
"Environmental engineering",
"Environmental research"
] |
63,488,567 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ID2020 | ID2020 is an American 501(c)(3) nongovernmental organization which advocates for digital ID for the billion undocumented people worldwide and under-served groups like refugees. Clive Smith succeeded founder Dakota Gruener as executive director in 2022. The NGO was relatively unknown before being publicized because of misinformation related to the COVID-19 pandemic by conspiracy theorists.
History
ID2020 was founded by John Edge on June 27, 2014, after being inspired by a screening of Meena.
On August 10, 2015, Dr. Alicia Carmona published a blog post on LinkedIn seeking input from her colleagues with examples where "identification/identity is at the core of a community problem." She noted that a new non-profit organization called Identification 2020 was soon to be formally launched.
On May 20, 2016, at the United Nations Headquarters in New York, the inaugural ID2020 summit brought together over 400 people to discuss how to provide digital identity to all, a defined Sustainable Development Goal including to 1.5 billion people living without any form of recognized identification. Experts in blockchain and other cryptographic technology joined with representatives of technical standards bodies to identify how technology and other private sector expertise could achieve the goal.
The 2018 summit was held in September 2018, and focused on defining what constitutes a "good" digital ID. Sponsors for the event included the United Nations Office of Information Communications Technology (OICT), United Nations Refugee Agency, International Telecommunication Union and the Consulate General of Denmark in New York.
In 2019, ID2020 started a new digital identity program in collaboration with the government of Bangladesh and Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization.
Mission
ID2020 is a public-private consortium in service of the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goal of providing legal identity for all people, including the world's most vulnerable populations.
ID2020 has published a ten-point mission statement, which includes: "We believe that individuals must have control over their own digital identities, including how personal data is collected, used, and shared."
Participants
Organizations currently or formerly participating in the ID2020 initiative include:
COVID-19 conspiracy theory
Conspiracy theorists falsely alleged that ID2020 and Bill Gates made plans for mandatory COVID-19 vaccination and the implantation of microchips into patients' bodies. As a result of these conspiracy theories, the staff at ID2020 received death threats.
References
External links
World Health Organization: Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public: Myth busters
Coronavirus at Politifact
Non-profit organizations based in New York City
Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic
Conspiracy theories
Conspiracy theories in the United States
Fake news
Health-related conspiracy theories
Misinformation
Pseudohistory
Pseudoscience
2016 establishments in the United States | ID2020 | [
"Technology"
] | 577 | [
"Health-related conspiracy theories",
"Science and technology-related conspiracy theories"
] |
63,488,647 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenol%20sulfur%20transferase%20deficiency | Phenol sulfur transferase deficiency, in short PST deficiency, is the lack or the reduced activity of the functional enzyme phenol sulfur transferase, which is crucial in the detoxification of mainly phenolic compounds by catalysing the sulfate conjugation of the hydroxyl groups in the toxic phenolic compounds to result in more hydrophilic forms for more efficient excretion. This metabolic disorder was first discovered in the late 1990s by Dr. Rosemary Waring during her researches with autistic children, which also made this deficiency commonly associated to the topics of autism. Mutations in the PST genes account for the genetic causes of the deficiency, of which single nucleotide polymorphism and methylation of promoters are two examples of mutations that respectively cause conformational abnormalities and diminished expressions to the enzyme, resulting in the reduced detoxification of phenolic compounds and regulation of phenolic neurotransmitter. The deficiency may cause symptoms like flushing, tachycardia, and depression, and be a risk factor for disorders like autism, migraine, and cancer, while it also limits the use of phenolic drugs in PST deficient patients. There is currently no drug available for treating PST deficiency. However, some people suffering from PST deficiency have found taking a digestive enzyme supplement containing Xylanase 10 minutes before eating to greatly reduce symptoms.
Phenol sulfur transferase
Phenol sulfur transferase, in short PST or SULT1, is a subfamily of the enzyme cytosolic sulfotransferases (SULTs) consisting of at least 8 isoforms in humans that catalyze the transfer of sulfuryl group from 3′-phosphoadenosine 5′-phosphosulfate (PAPS) to phenolic compounds, resulting in more hydrophilic products that can be more easily expelled from tissues for excretion. At high concentration, PST could also catalyze the sulfate conjugation of amino groups. This enzyme subfamily, which exists in nearly all human tissues, is important for the detoxification of phenol-containing xenobiotics or endogenous compounds, including the biotransformation of neurotransmitters and drugs. Its expression is controlled by the PST genes located on chromosomes 2, 4, and 16 depending on the isoform, for example the genes for the predominant isoform throughout the body of human adults, SULT1A1, which is highly heritable and variable between individuals, and the most important one in the nervous system, SULT1A3, are located on chromosome 16 at the position of 16p11.2 to 16p12.1.
Discovery
PST deficiency was first discovered in the late 1990s by Dr. Rosemary Waring through a series of tests during her researches on the mechanisms and characteristics of sulfation in autistic children. From the result of the test administering individuals with paracetamol, it was found that the level of sulfate conjugate in urine was significantly lower in the autistic individuals as compared to the non-autistic controls, which was caused by the decreased ability in the formation of sulfated metabolites. The level of sulfate in plasma was also found to be significantly lower in autistic children, leading to a reduced activity of PST. Therefore, she concluded that there was possibly a deficiency of PST in autistic children due to the reduction of sulfate in plasma as a substrate of PST.
Pathophysiology
Causes
PST deficiency can be caused by inherited mutations in the PST genes, for example the SULT1A1*2 polymorphism, which is a single nucleotide polymorphism at the 638th base of the SULT1A1 gene from guanine to adenosine that causes the change of the 213th amino acid residue of the resultant SULT1A1 from arginine to histidine. This mutation causes a conformational change in the enzyme, reducing the size of the binding site and altering the thermochemical properties, which halves the substrate binding affinity and enzyme thermostability, and results in diminished enzymatic activity.
The methylation at the distal and proximal promoters of the PST gens is another mutation that accounts for the deficiency, which causes a reduction in PST expression rather than conformational abnormalities. This prevents the binding of RNA polymerase, which therefore inhibits the mRNA expression of the gene for the production of PST, and finally results in PST deficiency.
Disease-causing mechanisms
PST deficiency can directly cause diseases by the resulted phenol sulfoconjugation defect which reduces the removal of toxic phenolic compounds.
In the liver, where PST serves as one of the important enzymes involved in detoxification, the reduced transcriptional and translational levels of the PST genes would lead to the accumulation of phenolic xenobiotics and cause liver diseases like hepatic steatosis and cirrhosis, or even liver cancers like hepatocellular carcinoma when phenolic carcinogens are accumulated to trigger their developments.
In clinical neurochemistry, PST, in particular the SULT1A3 isoform, is responsible for the degradation of phenolic neurotransmitters such as dopamine and norepinephrine, and therefore is important in the regulation of neurotransmitters which would greatly affect neurological functions. Deficiency or down-regulation of SULT1A3 would cause the retention of neurotransmitter in synapses which affects brain functions including cognitive flexibility and associative learning.
Clinical impact
Related disorders
Symptoms of PST deficiency are mainly resulted from the disruptions in multiple metabolic processes due to the accumulation of phenols in the body. Common symptoms include polydipsia, flushing, tachycardia, night sweats, and gastrointestinal problems such as diarrhoea. Neurological and psychiatric disorders such as depression may also occur when regulation of phenolic neurotransmitters is disrupted. PST deficiency is also a risk factor for various diseases including autism, migraine, and cancers.
Autism
It is suspected that mutations, including both microdeletion and microduplication, of the PST genes are the risk factors of autism spectrum disorder, especially the mutation causing decreased SULT1A activity which is usually reported in autistic individuals. Some studies have found that sulfotransferases like PST are involved in glycosylation, and therefore PST deficiency may cause impaired glycosylation, leading to dystroglycanopathies where severe abnormalities of the central nervous system including neuronal migration and cortical defects would occur, and finally result in autistic behaviours. However, it is still unclear on whether PST deficiency is a cause of autism, or just a biomarker for the disorder. Although recent researches have associated autism with the mutations in the position 16p11.2 on chromosome 16, where the gene of the predominant PST isoform in the nervous system SULT1A3 exists, due to the large number of gene in this region, PST deficiency resulted from the mutation there may not be a cause of autism but just a condition that is associated with the mutation of another gene which is causing autism.
Migraine
PST deficiency in platelets is a risk factor of migraine. It is believed that the reduced PST levels and activity raise the amount of unconjugated amines in the bloodstream and the central nervous system, resulting in a rise of catecholamine level which contributes to the occurrence of recurring headache in migraine. It is also found that dietary intake of foods that are rich in amines may further lower the activity of PST and trigger more serious migraine symptoms.
Cancers
It is controversial for whether PST deficiency increases or decreases the risk of cancers. Although one major function of PST is to inactivate phenolic carcinogens, and therefore a deficiency of PST would reduce inactivation of carcinogens and result in a higher risk of cancer, some studies have also found that PST, specifically SULT1A1, is responsible for the toxification of dietary and environmental mutagens which would increase the risk of cancer, and therefore a decreased risk may be associated with the deficient state of SULT1A1.
Pharmacological impacts
Drug metabolism of phenolic drugs, such as paracetamol and salicylamide, is greatly dependent on the phenol sulfoconjugation by PST, and therefore careful controls on the dosage forms, routes, rates, and duration of administration of those drugs are important for PST deficient patients to prevent accumulation of drugs in the body and depletion of PST for the sulfoconjugation of other xenobiotics and endogenous substances. High dosage of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as aspirin, would also cause a short term inhibition to the activity of PST, and should be administered to PST deficient patients with caution to prevent further reduction in PST activity and accumulation of phenolic compounds which would result in adverse impacts.
References
Detoxification
Causes of autism
Chemistry
Metabolic disorders | Phenol sulfur transferase deficiency | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,928 | [
"Metabolic disorders",
"Metabolism"
] |
63,488,665 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium%20selenide | Potassium selenide (K2Se) is an inorganic compound formed from selenium and potassium.
Production
It can be produced by the reaction of selenium and potassium. If the two are combined in liquid ammonia, the purity is higher.
Crystal structure
Potassium selenide has a cubic, antifluorite crystal structure.
References
Potassium compounds
Selenides
Fluorite crystal structure | Potassium selenide | [
"Chemistry"
] | 80 | [
"Inorganic compounds",
"Inorganic compound stubs"
] |
63,488,749 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogenous%20vaccines | Autogenous vaccines, also called autologous vaccines, autovaccines, “self” or custom vaccines, are vaccines that are prepared by isolation and destruction of microorganisms in infected individuals and used to provide immunity to the same individual.
Autogenous vaccines were introduced in the early twentieth century with growing evidence of its efficacy against certain infections. These vaccines rely on the activation of the individual's immune system to produce immunity against the infectious pathogen. They are usually produced when an individual or small group is presented with a disease and can be applied to various bacterial and viral infections. Autogenous vaccines are quite similar to conventional vaccines in terms of their use, however, they are dissimilar and arguably preferred over conventional vaccines in certain areas. Currently, several autogenous vaccines are available for veterinary use in several countries. Human use of this type of vaccine is limited and has not been widely approved due to lack of scientific evidence and research.
History
Autogenous vaccines have been researched since as early as the 1900s. This type of vaccine was first introduced by Sir Almroth Edward Wright in 1903 and in the following years, several case reports were published regarding the preparation and indications of autogenous vaccines.
Autogenous vaccines were used in adults, children, and infants to treat various chronic infections, including skin infections, respiratory tract infections, colon infections and urinary tract infections. Autogenous vaccines were also used in cases of bronchial asthma, sepsis, gonorrhea, candidiasis, and osteomyelitis among others.
The efficacy of autogenous vaccines for human use has shown varying results. Patient responses range from no relapses for years to no effects at all, to being presented with local and systemic adverse reactions, especially with high doses. The concern of potential adverse effects led to the introduction of intracutaneous skin tests by I. Chandler Walker in 1917. Investigators later concluded that autogenous vaccines provide hyposensitisation in patients with chronic and recurrent infections who may induce allergic reactions.
Autogenous vaccines soon became less popular as a therapeutic agent against bacterial infection due to the discovery of antibiotics. However, antibiotics proved to be less than satisfactory in their efficacy for prolonged consumption and caused unwanted complications, eventually leading to the resumption of autogenous vaccines.
Autogenous vaccines are now less used in humans than in animals. Human use is mostly restricted to eastern Europe to treat chronic and recurrent diseases, for example chronic staphylococcal infections. For animals, conventional mass-produced vaccines are less effective as they rarely take strain variations into account due to high costs of research and development. Autogenous vaccines provide an alternative way to induce immunity in animals without paying expensive fees for unnecessary vaccine strains.
Mechanism of action
The mechanism of action of autogenous vaccine is not fully understood, however, it is suggested that it involves activation of the innate immune system to produce a nonspecific immune response and activation of the adaptive immune system to produce a specific immune response. Following the injection, the innate immune system is activated and sends large amounts of phagocytes to the injection site which kills the microorganisms. Phagocytes will then present the antigens to T helper cells to activate the adaptive immune system. T helper cells activate macrophages and neutrophils to aid in killing the pathogenic microorganisms. T helper cells also aid plasma cells to produce antibodies, thus allowing the immune system to “remember” the vaccine agents. As the surface antigens in the vaccine are the same as those of the disease, the immune system can recognise the pathogenic agents and produce an immune response to kill them when the pathogen is encountered.
Preparation
In human beings, samples of pathogens are isolated from a site of infection in the sick individual, for instance pus or abscess, sputum, urine and vaginal discharge. The identified pathogenic agents will then be cultured and inactivated, either by chemicals or by heat. The inactivation process involves the destruction of the antigen activity while preserving the protein composition of it, as the state of the protein can affect the effectiveness of immune response in the patient. Tests will then be conducted to ensure the sterility, safety and quality. The whole manufacturing process can take up to 3 to 4 weeks depending on the manufacturer.
In animals, the preparation is similar. An example of this is when an infectious disorder is discovered in a farm herd. This discovery prompts the veterinarian to take samples from infected animals. These samples will then be delivered to a laboratory for culture and isolation of the pathogenic agents. Once the pathogenic agents are identified, they can be used to manufacture vaccines. This is followed by a series of steps to formulate the desired product and ensure its quality and safety. The formulated vaccine is then delivered back to the veterinarian where the vaccine will be administered to the herd.
Applications
In humans
Before the formulated vaccine is administered to the patient, the patient receives an intradermal skin test to ensure the patient does not have any hypersensitivity reactions to the vaccine. Once the test is conducted and proven negative, treatment can begin.
The autogenous vaccine is applied subcutaneously in intervals over weeks or months. The application process usually involves a gradual increase in doses and intervals. Another administration method is by oral therapy, especially in bronchial asthma. In light of possible adverse effects, the patient should be observed for an hour after the administration.
In animals
Autogenous vaccines are used to treat various animal infections, including but not limited to dermatitis, sinusitis, otitis externa, pharyngitis, laryngitis and mastitis that may be induced by Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacteria, dermatophytes and yeasts.
Generally, indications of autogenous vaccines include resistance of pathogenic microorganisms to antibiotic treatment, ineffective therapy or immune response and lack of commercial vaccines.
Autogenous vaccines can be made for single individuals (dogs, cats, rabbits or horses) when treatments fail to provide desired results or large groups (fish, cows, pigs, goats, horses or poultry) when spread of a disease needs to be controlled.
For dogs, autogenous vaccines are typically prepared for dogs with pyoderma and inflammation of the middle and outer ear, especially when previous treatment of antibiotics failed to show desirable results. Autogenous vaccines are also useful for rabbits suffering from subcutaneous abscesses, cats with purulent lesions and horses with inflammation of the noses and sinuses, which are all caused by staphylococci infections. For pigs, autogenous vaccines can be used for skin infections; while for cows, they can be used for mastitis.
Before the formulated vaccine is administered to the animal, an immunostimulant containing bacteria will be given once subcutaneously several days early. The immunostimulation will activate macrophages such that bacteria from the autogenous vaccine can be more effectively destroyed.
The vaccine itself can be administered differently depending on the species. The route of administration for most animals is subcutaneous injection, while injections are administered intramuscularly to pigs and in the wing membrane to birds. The dose can also vary depending on the animal and disease. The usual method is either three doses of the same volume but increasing density, three doses of the same density with the last two as booster doses, or one dose only. Sometimes treatment is combined with antibiotics to generate a more effective result.
Comparison with conventional vaccines
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
There are several advantages of autogenous vaccines:
One of the major advantages is its effect in prevention of disease. This is the function of every vaccine, to limit the disease occurrence and spread, and to treat diseases associated with antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Autogenous vaccines can also reduce the costs of production. The costs of research and development for a conventional vaccine is high compared to the cost needed to produce autogenous vaccines. In some cases, conventional vaccines fail to provide total immunity to a disease and thus is not economically profitable.
Also, this type of vaccine limits the number of vaccine interventions by combining several valencies such that the number of injections required is low.
Another advantage is to ensure food safety. Autogenous vaccines allow cattle and poultry to be healthy and suitable for human consumption, by inducing immunity in animals, reducing the excretion of microbial toxins that can cause infections and limiting the use of excessive therapeutic agents. Autogenous vaccines are also a good and quick alternative when there are no vaccines for a novel emerging disease or a relatively uncommon disease or a relatively uncommon species. This type of vaccine can also be used when there is antigenic variability within the same bacterial species such that conventional vaccines cannot provide specific immunity.
Disadvantages
However, there are downsides to autogenous vaccines. One of the major disadvantages is the pathogenic antigen cannot always be identified correctly and accurately due to limitations in knowledge and technology. Another disadvantage is adjuvants used in vaccines to ensure its safety is limited in autogenous vaccines as they require extensive testing. Also, the cost of producing autogenous vaccines tailor-made for each individual or group can be greater than that of conventional vaccines in the long run.
Adverse effects
Autogenous vaccines are generally considered safe. However, adverse effects may occur at the site of injection, such as mild redness and swelling, as well as rare systemic reactions such as fever, sore throat, headache and malaise.
Regulation
Autogenous vaccines are regulated in areas such as the United States, Europe and the United Kingdom. Use of autogenous vaccines in the United States are regulated under the 1995 Virus-Serum-Toxin Act. Europe mainly focuses on veterinary use regulations while the Veterinary Medicines Directorate is the authority responsible for overseeing the use and quality of veterinary medical products, including autogenous vaccines.
See also
Vaccine
Therapeutic vaccines
Immune system
Immunotherapy
References
Vaccines
Virology | Autogenous vaccines | [
"Biology"
] | 2,050 | [
"Vaccination",
"Vaccines"
] |
63,489,308 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siuslaw%20jetties | The Siuslaw jetties ( ) at Florence, Oregon, in the United States, are parallel rubble-mound structures at the entrance of the Siuslaw River, bounding the north and south banks and protecting the navigation channel. The jetties extend into the Pacific Ocean, with spur jetties designed to reduce breakers and shoaling across the sand bar.
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) completed the jetties in 1917, and completed reconstruction and lengthening projects in 1962. USACE lengthened the jetties again in 1985, and spur jetties were added at that time to reduce the need for annual dredging.
Description
The Siuslaw River enters the Pacific Ocean about 250 km (155 miles) south of the Columbia River. The jetties and spurs at the entrance are randomly-placed rubble-mound structures of armor stone weighing from 10,885-to 17,235-kg (12- to 19-tons). The jetties border the river channel on the north and south, and were built originally between 1910–1917, with the north jetty originally 2,957 m (9,700 ft) long, and the south jetty 1,980 m (6,500 ft) in length.
A 1963 study described the jetty and channel system:
By 1969, the north jetty had been rehabilitated and extended seaward 600 feet.
A later U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) inspection report said, "In 1985, the jetties at the mouth of the Siuslaw River were again extended seaward. The north jetty extension was 580 m (1,900 ft) long, and the south jetty extension was 670 m (2,200 ft)." Spurs were also added to the end of each jetty during the 1985 construction.
The report described the 1985 construction of spurs:
History
Prior to 1880, the Siuslaw River Valley was inhabited by the Siuslaw people, who used the river for transportation upstream by canoe for salmon runs or to reach hunting areas. The Coast Indian Reservation, including some Siuslaw lands, had been established in 1855, but from 1860 to 1875 the Siuslaw population declined from 129 to 45. Under the 1887 Dawes Act, land allotments were given in trust to the Siuslaws, but few were able to pay the property taxes. The decline in Siuslaw presence in the watershed brought the start of white settlement, and the expectation the river would be used by larger commercial craft to transport resources and goods.
1879 to 1910
The United States General Land Office Survey in 1879 (Florence area) rated the quality of the land along the coast as above average, and evaluated the resources available. Under the "Act to Improve Rivers and Harbors" of June 14, 1880, the USACE furnished reports on navigability of U.S. rivers. The 1880 report described Florence as "the name of the postoffice on the Siuslaw — a small settlement of five houses and about a dozen inhabitants". It said, "The river enters the ocean in a westerly direction, through an entrance 600 feet wide and 24 feet depth at low-water, between sandy shores. It has no headland on either side, and shifts from year to year north or south. Two years ago the mouth of the river was at least 1 mile north of its present position." It also reported one channel across the bar which was about a quarter mile from the entrance, with reported depth of "8 feet at low water". The report concluded, "The people living on the river... think that no improvement is required; all they ask is that an accurate survey be made and the depth on the bar be officially declared. When this is done and the entrance buoyed, it is thought small steamers and schooners can be induced to run into the river, and reasonable insurance can be obtained on their cargoes."
The second survey, in 1887, reported a Florence population of about 250, and said,
In 1891, the USACE began work on the Siuslaw north jetty. By 1892, ships were crossing the bar to carry freight in and out of the harbor at Florence, Oregon. A local newspaper reported that the steamer Chance was carrying a load of railroad iron down the Siuslaw, "probably for the U.S. government to be used in the Siuslaw jetty work." At that time, there were two channels crossing the bar at the mouth of the river, with the south channel the deeper at 12 feet.
The USACE began constructing a tramway in late 1892, spending approximately $70,000 in the first two years to transport rock that had been brought down river by barge from a quarry in Mapleton. In 1894, Daniel Kern of Portland was contracted to build 1000 feet of jetty for $11,250.50 According to The World, "The fight to gain funds went on and although the jetties were unfinished and the bar crossing perilous, large boats still crossed the bar. During this period several boats were swamped on the bar or beached near the entrance." Rep. Binger Hermann secured funds in 1896 for "continuation of the work on the Siuslaw harbor".
By 1900, the jetties were still under construction, slowed by inadequate funding and the inherent difficulties of building underwater with active river and ocean currents. $20,000 had been spent in 1894, followed by $27,000 in 1896. The construction process involved setting pilings for the railway to support the tram, which was used to transport rock to the site of the jetty. A contractor commented to a reporter in 1900, while giving a tour of the building site via the tram, "...here is our trouble in a nutshell: we are dumping this rock into fifty feet of water; you can fancy how long it takes this filling to appear above the surface, and in the meantime the tide or rough water plays havoc with our piling. A few weeks ago we lost $1000 in timber and iron in a single night."
As of about 1903, pending acquisition of additional funding, jetty work was abandoned, with approximately 3,000 feet of the north jetty completed.
In 1909 I. B. Cushman of Cushman, Oregon, helped form the Port Commission and gained congressional approval of their bylaws. When the 1910 Rivers and Harbors Act required local interests to pay half the costs of federal construction projects, the Port Commission sold $324,000 in retirement bonds.
1912 to 1929
By the beginning of 1912, a total of $100,000 had been spent constructing the south jetty and approximately 3,000 feet of the jetty on the north bank. However, the part of north jetty already built had deteriorated and needed to be rehabilitated. Assistant U.S. Engineer W.G.Carroll was appointed to take charge of the reconstruction and building an additional 3,000 feet of the north jetty, and also to supervise work on the south jetty to be completed by contractors Johnson, Anderson & Co. The federal government and the Port Commission of Siuslaw shared costs.
When the jetty work withstood a large storm in 1915, the Oregon Daily Journal said, "The fact that they stood up under the terrific pounding that they have been given for the past two weeks show that the work is of the most stable kind."
The jetties were completed in 1917, and further inner harbor improvements in 1929, at a total cost for the project of more than $1,00,000.
1957 to 1969
By 1957, Sen. Richard L. Neuberger and Rep. Charles O. Porter of Eugene supported a Florence jetty reconstruction project. After Lane County built up the Coast Guard Road next to the north jetty, rehabilitation and additional dredging projects in 1958 and 1962 added 600 feet to the north jetty, deepened the entrance channel to 18 feet and the channel to Florence to 16 feet, and widened and deepened a 12-foot channel from Florence to Mapleton. The Eugene Guard reported, "extension of the jetty will be about 100 feet less than originally planned", due to the expense of additional quarried rock at the end of the jetties, in deeper water than had been anticipated. These projects were completed in 1969.
1982 to 1988
In December 1982, Congress approved $4 million to finance the first stage of a proposed $34-million extension of both jetties at the mouth of the Siuslaw River.
In 1983 the USACE contracted with Kiewit Pacific Company of Vancouver, Washington to lengthen the jetties "to keep sand from drifting into the estuary and clogging the port's boat channel". The $25 million project was to triple the length of the jetties, in an effort to eliminate 75 percent of the need for yearly dredging. Rock for the extensions was to be quarried near Mapleton.
Kiewit Pacific received a permit to use rock quarried on Siuslaw National Forest land near Mapleton, as well as use of the South Jetty Road in the Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area, as the access road for rock hauled to the south jetty. In use for a little more than a year, the quarry was closed in February 1985. In 1985, the project was completed, lengthening the jetties and adding the spurs.
Studies
Following the 1962 reconstruction and extension of the north jetty, the USACE developed a scale model to investigate design criteria for rehabilitation of the south jetty. According to the report, "Three designs for the trunk section and two for the head section were tested under various stillwater depths for both high and low tide, and for a range of wave heights and periods with the waves attacking the jetty sections at angles of 90 and 0 deg." The report made specific design recommendations on the number of layers, shapes of armor stones, and placement of the rock to repair and construct different areas of the jetty's trunk and head section.
The question of how the jetties affect sand drift and beach erosion was studied in 1975. J.R. Lizarraga Arciniega found "a seasonal reversal in the sand drift, but with a zero or near zero net drift over a several years time span".
Lizarraga Arciniega described the drift:
Between 1981 and 1991 the Coastal Engineering Research Center of the USACE conducted studies on "the impact of the jetty design on the entire area, including sediment shoaling in the channel and beach erosion or build-up". The World of Coos Bay described the study:
The USACE's 1995 study of the effectiveness of the spur jetties collected bathymetric data on currents around the jetties using "helicopter-borne near-shore survey system". The study concluded, "...the 1985 jetty improvements are a success... Navigability has been improved, construction cost of the spur system was estimated to be approximately $5 million less than the original design cost estimate for jetty extension... and annual maintenance dredging requirements have been reduced to approximately 100,000 cu yd".
See also
Breakwater (structure)
Causeway
Coastal engineering
Groyne
Mole (architecture)
Notes
References
External links
Siuslaw River Bar Hazards
Rivers of Oregon
Rivers of Lane County, Oregon
Breakwaters
Coastal engineering
Coastal construction
Oregon placenames of Native American origin
1917 establishments in Oregon | Siuslaw jetties | [
"Engineering"
] | 2,341 | [
"Construction",
"Coastal engineering",
"Coastal construction",
"Civil engineering"
] |
63,489,902 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20706 | NGC 706 is a spiral galaxy located in the Pisces constellation about 230 million light years from the Milky Way. It was discovered by the German–British astronomer William Herschel in 1786.
One supernova has been observed in NGC 706: SN 2001ed (type Ia, mag. 14.9).
See also
List of NGC objects (1–1000)
References
External links
706
Spiral galaxies
Pisces (constellation)
006897 | NGC 706 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 96 | [
"Pisces (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
63,490,326 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kac%27s%20lemma | In ergodic theory, Kac's lemma, demonstrated by mathematician Mark Kac in 1947, is a lemma stating that in a measure space the orbit of almost all the points contained in a set of such space, whose measure is , return to within an average time inversely proportional to .
The lemma extends what is stated by Poincaré recurrence theorem, in which it is shown that the points return in infinite times.
Application
In physics, a dynamical system evolving in time may be described in a phase space, that is by the evolution in time of some variables. If this variables are bounded, that is having a minimum and a maximum, for a theorem due to Liouville, a measure can be defined in the space, having a measure space where the lemma applies. As a consequence, given a configuration of the system (a point in the phase space) the average return period close to this configuration (in the neighbourhood of the point) is inversely proportional to the considered size of volume surrounding the configuration.
Normalizing the measure space to 1, it becomes a probability space and the measure of its set represents the probability of finding the system in the states represented by the points of that set. In this case the lemma implies that the smaller is the probability to be in a certain state (or close to it), the longer is the time of return near that state.
In formulas, if is the region close to the starting point and is the return period, its average value is:
Where is a characteristic time of the system in question.
Note that since the volume of , therefore , depends exponentially on the variables in the system (, with infinitesimal side, therefore less than 1, of the volume in dimensions), decreases very rapidly as the variables of the system increase and consequently the return period increases exponentially.
In practice, as the variables needed to describe the system increase, the return period increases rapidly.
References
Further reading
Ergodic theory
Lemmas | Kac's lemma | [
"Mathematics"
] | 408 | [
"Ergodic theory",
"Mathematical problems",
"Mathematical theorems",
"Lemmas",
"Dynamical systems"
] |
63,490,763 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterospora%20nucleophila | Enterospora nucleophila is a microsporidian infecting the gilt-head bream (Sparus aurata). It develops primarily within the nuclei of rodlet cells and enterocytes, at the intestinal epithelium. It can also be found in cytoplasmic position within other cell types, including phagocytes, at subepithelial layers. It is the causative agent of emaciative microsporidiosis of gilthead sea bream, a chronic condition manifested as a severe growth arrestment, normally accompanied by trickling mortality.
Taxonomy
E. nucleophila is a microsporidian, a group of intracellular parasites related to fungi. This species is rooted within the family Enterocytozoonidae. According to SSUrDNA-based phylogenetic inference, it clusters with Enterocytozoon hepatopenaei, Enterospora canceri and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in a well-supported clade. The Enterocytozoonidae branches within the class Terresporidia in molecular-based classification of microsporidians but taxonomical classification above the family level is currently not entirely settled in this phylum.
Life cycle
Only the development within gilthead sea bream is currently known. Since some of the closest relatives of E. nucleophila infect crustaceans (e.g., Enterospora canceri or E. hepatopenaei), and some of them have heteroxenous cycles alternating between crustacean and fish hosts (e.g., Desmozoon lepeophtheri [3]), a similar alternating cycle could occur for E. nucleophila.
Pathology and clinical signs
Infections by E. nucleophila are associated with stunted growth of gilthead sea bream stocks, which can be accompanied by low-level but sustained trickling mortality (0.1-0.3% daily, up to 1% at peaks per sea cage). Affected fish normally appear lethargic and cachectic, with other nonspecific signs like discolouration and occasional scale loss. Upon necropsy, gross pathological alterations include thinned and transparent wall in the intestines, which frequently accumulate clear or greenish fluid and white faeces in the terminal portion. The condition seems to appear in gilthead sea bream during their first winter in sea cages. As a result of the arrested growth of infected animals, these can average half the weight of the unaffected stock.
Impact
The disease was first noticed in the early 2000s. However, the difficulties in the diagnosis of the parasite probably delayed acknowledgement of its presence and impact. Indeed, the parasite and its association with gilthead sea bream emaciative microsporidiosis were not described until recently, but retrospective studies identified it in samples taken in 1993. The main clinical signs are only noticed in severe infections and can be largely masked by other infectious diseases of gilthead sea bream. Therefore, the approaches to understand the true impact of the disease can only be formed after the development of appropriate diagnostic methods to conduct specific epidemiological and risk-assessment studies. Besides the mortality, the main economic impact of the parasite is related to the segregation of sizes caused by the infection within affected sea cages, as it results in inefficient feeding, serious biomass and quality losses at the harvest.
Diagnosis
Presumptive diagnosis can be made based on clinical signs and histopathological examination of the intestinal epithelium. The most common observation in heavy infections is the presence of numerous hypertrophied cell nuclei and a remarkable hypercellularity. When present, tiny microsporidian spores (1.67 x 1.05 μm) can be identified. Like in other microsporidioses, the detection of spores can be facilitated with calcofluor-white M2R or luna stains. More reliable confirmatory diagnosis of E. nucleophila is possible with molecular-based methods, in situ hybridization and RT-PCR tests.
Treatments
There are currently no approved therapies for E. nucleophila. Microsporidian infections relevant for human and animal medicine are normally treated with Albendazole, Metronidazole or Fumagillin, but the use of these drugs in aquaculture settings is not regulated and their effectivity for treating gilthead sea bream microsporidiosis is unknown.
Research
As an emerging disease of gilthead sea bream, understanding E. nucleophila infection and exploring ways to mitigate its impact in aquaculture facilities has just started. The EU funded Horizon 2020 Project has tackled several objectives related to this infection, like the development and validation of diagnostic methods and their use in epidemiological studies to evaluate the impact and risks factors associated to the disease. Ongoing research framed within the project has also focused on developing means for the transmission and maintenance of the infection in the laboratory, as well as its in vitro cultivation. More ambitious goals, such as the genome sequencing and the identification of therapeutic and diagnostic targets have also been attempted but are currently struggling with difficulties in reproducing the disease in the laboratory and generating appropriate material.
References
Microsporidia
Fungus species | Enterospora nucleophila | [
"Biology"
] | 1,105 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
63,491,308 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arginine%20finger | In molecular biology, an arginine finger is an amino acid residue of some enzymes. Arginine fingers are often found in the protein superfamily of AAA+ ATPases, GTPases, and dUTPases, where they assist in the catalysis of the gamma phosphate or gamma and beta phosphates from ATP or GTP, which creates a release of energy which can be used to perform cellular work. They are also found in GTPase-activating proteins (GAP). Thus, they are essential for many forms of life, and are highly conserved. Arginine fingers function through non-covalent interactions. They may also assist in dimerization, and while they are found in a wide variety of enzymes, they are not ubiquitous.
Role in catalytic mechanisms
Generally, the role of the arginine finger in catalysis is to function in transition state stabilization to allow water to perform a nucleophilic attack to cleave off a number of phosphate groups. However, there are exceptions, and arginine fingers can assist in other roles. Additionally, arginine fingers may be attached to different subunits or other proteins in a multiprotein complex. Arginine fingers sometimes interact with guanidinium during their role in catalysis.
dUTPases
Arginine fingers often work with other features in their assistance of catalysis. For example, in some trimeric dUTPases, such as those of M. tuberculosis, arginine fingers at the 64th and 140th residue can work with magnesium to cleave dUTP into dUMP and a pyrophosphate. The underlying mechanism of action for this is a nucleophilic attack; the positively charged magnesium ion () pulls on an oxygen of the beta and gamma phosphates to allow water to hydrolyze the bond between the beta and alpha phosphates. The arginine fingers help stabilize the transition state. Arginine fingers often interact with other motifs such as the Walker motifs and to perform catalysis more efficiently.
Ras GTPases
Arginine fingers are also present in Ras GTPases, where they help cleave GTP to turn Ras off. Ras is a GTPase which functions in signal transduction to regulate cell growth and division. In addition to being positively charged, which helps arginine fingers function as a catalyst, the arginine finger in Ras displaces solvent molecules and creates an optional charge distribution. Like those of dUPTases, the arginine fingers of Ras GTPases are assisted by a magnesium ion. Furthermore, multiple arginine finger residues can all point towards the same point, thus focusing their effect. Mutations affecting the arginine fingers of Ras lead to trouble catalyzing GTP by factors of around two to five orders of magnitude. Thus, as Ras is an oncogene and is activated and deactivated by the hydrolysis of GTP, mutations in Ras's arginine finger residues can lead to cancer. Glutamate also plays a role near arginine fingers and is stabilized by the arginines' backbone chain carboxyl groups, which are known as knuckles.
Heterotrimeric G proteins
In heterotrimeric G proteins, catalysis of GTP can be assisted by aluminum tetrafluoride () and RGS4. Heterotrimeric G proteins are larger three-part proteins serve in signal transduction of many pathways. The catalytic mechanism for GTP hydrolysis in heterotrimeric G proteins consists of an active state where catalysis is likely to occur and an inactive state where catalysis is unlikely. In the active state, stabilizes the transition state and points the arginine finger residue towards GTP. This causes increased charge density on the beta phosphate of GTP and planarization of the gamma phosphate, which creates an opening and reduces steric hindrance for water to hydrolyze the phosphoanhydride beta-gamma bond. This is because the gamma phosphate's bond to the beta phosphate bends, exposing its connection and allowing the subsequent nucleophilic substitution reaction initiated by water. The complex formed with RGS4 assists in this process by creating strain on the bond between the gamma and beta phosphates and assisting in distributing more charge onto the beta phosphate.
ATP synthase
ATP synthase consists of a F1 and F0 subunit. The F1 subunit contains alpha and beta subunits of its own which can assist in the formation of ATP, or hydrolyze it to serve as a proton pump. Though most catalytic actions happen on the beta subunits, the alpha subunits each contain an arginine finger. The role of the arginine finger in ATP synthase is akin to the function of the arginine finger residues of G proteins; to help split ATP. For example, if the arginine of the arginine finger is substituted by lysine, possibly due to a missense mutation, the αR364K mutant results. In the αR364K mutant, the ability of ATP synthase to hydrolyze ATP is decreased around a thousandfold compared to the wild type.
RecQ helicase
A RecQ helicase is one of a family of helicases that helps reduce sister chromatid exchange during meiosis to lower mutation rates. RecQ helicases are found in many organisms, ranging from E. coli to humans. One of these helicases, the Bloom syndrome protein, contains an arginine finger which assists in its hydrolysis of ATP. In humans, the arginine finger of the Bloom syndrome protein is Arg982. The RecQ helicase, along with most proteins containing arginine fingers, is inhibited by sodium orthovanadate, which interferes with the arginine finger residue.
References
Molecular biology
Protein structural motifs | Arginine finger | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 1,215 | [
"Biochemistry",
"Protein structural motifs",
"Protein classification",
"Molecular biology"
] |
63,491,591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State%20of%20emergency%20in%20Russia | State of emergency in Russia () is a special legal regime that is introduced in the country or its regions to protect against an internal threat. The state of emergency involves restricting the rights and freedoms of citizens and legal entities, as well as imposing additional duties on them. In this case, the state of emergency, which is introduced in the case of violent unrest or clash, coup attempt, natural disaster, or man-made disaster, should be distinguished from the martial law regime that is introduced in the event of external aggression.
The procedure for introducing and lifting a state of emergency in Russia is regulated by the federal constitutional law "On the State of Emergency" (2001), which replaced the 1991 law of the same name. Earlier, the State Duma made several attempts to prepare and adopt a law, especially during the state of emergency on parts of the territory of North Ossetia and Ingushetia (1992–1995), but none of these attempts were successful.
History
In Russia, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, a state of emergency was not introduced at the federal level.
On November 9, 1991, President Boris Yeltsin introduced a state of emergency in Chechen-Ingushetia Republic, where Dzhokhar Dudayev signed a decree on declaration of independence of the Chechnya. However, the Supreme Council of the RSFSR refused to approve this decree, and already on November 11, the state of emergency was terminated.
On November 2, 1992, Yeltsin introduced a state of emergency in Ingushetia and North Ossetia, where an ethnic conflict erupted. A year earlier in Chechnya, a special management procedure was introduced here, and an interim administration was appointed. The head of the interim administration was Federal Deputy Prime Minister Georgy Khizh, his deputy the head of the State Committee for Emergency Situations Sergey Shoigu.
On March 31, 1993, the state of emergency in North Ossetia and Ingushetia was canceled. Instead, the president introduced a state of emergency in parts of the Prigorodny district of North Ossetia and the Nazran district of Ingushetia and in the surrounding areas, which was then extended several times. However, in early 1995, the Federation Council refused to authorize the next extension of this regime, and it was canceled until February 15, 1995.
From October 3 to 4, 1993, Yeltsin introduced a state of emergency in Moscow to suppress protesters against the dispersal of the Supreme Soviet.
Introduction and сancellation
The state of emergency in Russia is introduced by the president under the circumstances stipulated by the law "On the state of emergency", with immediate notification of this to the Federation Council and the State Duma.
The law "On the state of emergency" introduces the concept of goals and circumstances of the state of emergency. A state of emergency is introduced to "eliminate the circumstances that served as the basis for the introduction of a state of emergency, to ensure the protection of the rights and freedoms of man and citizen, and to protect the constitutional order of the Russian Federation".
A state of emergency is introduced only if circumstances constitute "an immediate threat to the life and security of citizens or the constitutional system of the Russian Federation", including:
attempts to violently change the constitutional system of the Russian Federation, armed rebellion, regional conflicts, etc.
natural and man-made emergencies, natural disasters, etc. A state of emergency is introduced by presidential decree throughout Russia for not more than 30 days or in certain areas for not more than 60 days with the right to extend them by a new presidential decree. When the objectives of the state of emergency are achieved, it is canceled in whole or in part.
The presidential decree on introducing a state of emergency does not require prior coordination with the leadership of the constituent entities of the Federation. Still, it must be approved by the Federation Council "as soon as possible" within 72 hours from the decree's promulgation date. A decree automatically loses force if not approved by the Federation Council after three days. A presidential decree to extend a state of emergency requires the same approval by the Federation Council.
Moreover, the decree is subject to immediate official publication and immediate publication by radio and television.
The state of emergency is ensured mainly by the internal affairs bodies, the penal system, federal security agencies, the national guard, and rescuers. In exceptional cases, the military may be used to restrict entry, protect critical infrastructure, separate the warring parties, suppress the activities of illegal armed groups, eliminate emergencies, and save people. At the same time, all troops in the emergency zone are transferred to operational subordination to a single federal agency.
Permissible limitations
A presidential decree on the imposition of a state of emergency should contain "an exhaustive list of temporary restrictions on the rights and freedoms of citizens of the Russian Federation, foreign citizens and stateless persons, the rights of organizations and public associations".
The State of Emergency Act provides three groups of time limits the president may impose.
General restrictions:
Suspension of powers of regional and local authorities and the operation of regional and local laws contrary to the state of emergency decree;
Restriction of freedom of movement, entry and exit, traffic, inspection of vehicles;
Strengthening the protection of public order and critical infrastructure, stopping hazardous industries;
Restriction of economic and financial activities, a special procedure for the turnover of food and necessities;
Prohibition of mass events and strikes;
Evacuation of valuables if there is a real threat of their abduction or damage.
Restrictions in the event of a riot or coup attempt:
Curfew, expulsion of nonresident violators of the regime;
Censorship;
Checking documents, personal items, vehicles and housing;
Restriction of the sale of weapons, dangerous substances, drugs, drugs and alcohol, their temporary withdrawal from citizens;
Extension of arrest for suspects of severe crimes – for the entire duration of the state of emergency.
Limitations in the event of natural or man-made disasters:
Temporary relocation to safe areas;
Quarantine;
Mobilization of any organizations and their reorientation for emergency needs;
Removal of heads of state organizations incapable of providing a state of emergency;
Mobilization of residents and their vehicles for rescue operations, which at the same time are supposed to pay the labor of mobilized residents, compensation for the used property.
The creation of extraordinary courts or expedited proceedings is prohibited; the judicial system and the prosecutor's office operate in the same form. Expanding the use of physical force, special means, and weapons is forbidden.
Order management
The State of Emergency Act provides for three options for managing emergencies. The first, basic, involves the creation of a commandant's office. The second and third are called "special management" and are introduced in challenging conditions.
Conventional management and commandant's office
When a state of emergency is introduced, elections and referendums are not held, and the powers of elected authorities, local authorities, and officials in the area of emergency are automatically extended. If the regime is introduced throughout the country, the Federation Council and the State Duma will continue to work throughout its operation.
The President appoints a commandant in the state of emergency zone who manages law enforcement officers and the military. The commandant provides the state of emergency, determines the procedure for applying the restrictions, invites the president to introduce additional ones, and participates in the work of any state or local authorities on his territory. The commandant can create a joint operational headquarters to coordinate the actions of various forces and means.
The law allows for introducing "special management" of the territory in which the state of emergency is declared after a corresponding warning addressed by the president to the population and officials of state authorities of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation and local authorities operating in such territory.
Temporary special management
The temporary special territorial authority takes over the powers of regional and local authorities, in whole or in part. The president appoints the head of this body, and the commandant becomes his first deputy.
Federal office
The federal governing body replaces the temporary special body if it has failed in its tasks. The president appoints its head, and the commandant becomes his first deputy. At the same time, the federal body fully assumes the powers of regional and local authorities.
See also
Martial law in Russia
Russian System of Disaster Management
Emergency medical services in Russia
Main Directorate of Special Programs of the President of the Russian Federation
Federal Agency for State Reserves (Russia)
Freedom of assembly in Russia
References
Emergency laws in Russia
Government of Russia
Inclement weather management | State of emergency in Russia | [
"Physics"
] | 1,718 | [
"Weather",
"Inclement weather management",
"Physical phenomena"
] |
63,491,844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad-spectrum%20antiviral%20drug | Broad-spectrum antivirals (BSAs) are a class of molecules or compounds, which inhibit the infection of multiple viruses from the same (intra-family BSAs) or different (inter-family BSAs) virus families. BSAs could be divided into experimental and investigational agents, and approved drugs. BSAs work by inhibiting viral proteins (such as polymerases and proteases) or by targeting host cell factors and processes exploited by different viruses during infection. As of 2021, there are 150 known BSAs in varying stages of development, effective against 78 human viruses. BSAs are potential candidates for treatment of emerging and re-emerging viruses, such as ebola, marburg, and SARS-CoV-2. Many BSAs show antiviral activity against other viruses than originally investigated (such as remdesivir and interferon alfa). Efforts in drug repurposing for SARS-CoV-2 is currently underway. A database of BSAs and viruses they inhibit could be found here (https://drugvirus.info/).
See also
Broad-spectrum antibiotic
Broad-spectrum therapeutic
References
Antiviral drugs
Viruses | Broad-spectrum antiviral drug | [
"Biology"
] | 243 | [
"Viruses",
"Antiviral drugs",
"Tree of life (biology)",
"Biocides",
"Microorganisms"
] |
63,492,924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renee%20Reijo%20Pera | Renee Reijo Pera is a stem cell biologist and the President of the McLaughlin Research Institute in Great Falls, MT. She previously served as Vice President of Research and Economic Development, for more than 8 years at the California Polytechnic State University and at Montana State University. Reijo Pera's research focuses on human development and disease, in particular, on the development and differentiation of somatic and germ cell lineages and neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease and also infertility in men and women.
Education and early career
Reijo Pera grew up in Iron River, Wisconsin as the youngest of six children. She initially enrolled in University of Wisconsin–Superior as a business major, but switched her interests during her junior year after taking a class on human genetics for non-majors. She changed her major to biology and received her bachelor's degree in 1983, becoming the first in her family to finish a four-year degree.
She then attended Kansas State University to work as a research technician, and ultimately received her master's degree in entomology. She next attended Cornell University, where she received her doctorate in biochemistry in 1993, working in the laboratory of Tim Huffaker. There, her research centered on studying mitotic and meiotic mutants in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
In 1993, Reijo Pera became a postdoctoral researcher at the Whitehead Institute, which is affiliated with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. There, she worked in the laboratory of David C. Page, where she worked to map genes linked to male infertility on the Y chromosome, including those that result in a total loss of sperm.
Research career
Career trajectory and leadership
In 1997, Reijo Pera became an assistant professor at the University of California, San Francisco and in 2003 became the co-director of the UCSF Human Development Center after receiving a promotion to Associate Professor. In 2007, she moved her laboratory to Stanford University, where she was a Professor. She later became the director of Stanford's Center for Human Stem Cell Research and Education, as well as the Center for Reproductive and Stem Cell Biology and served as the George D. Smith endowed Professor.
In 2014, she became the Vice President of Research and Economic Development at Montana State University, seeking to have a larger impact on science education in the public university arena. During her tenure, she helped to grow the university's total research expenditures to a record of $131 million and increased the number of funded student projects by over 20 percent. In 2019, she moved again to California Polytechnic State University to serve as the Vice President of Research and Economic Development.
Research interests
Reijo Pera has cited her experience of developing a rare kind of ovarian cancer, called a granulosa cell tumour, early in her career as a motivating factor for her decision to study human development and fertility. The cancer resulted in her own loss of fertility.
In men, her research team and collaborators have investigated mechanisms of male infertility. In a study published in 2000, she found that some infertile men have mutations in the genes required for DNA repair, which in turn may lead to defects in meiotic cell division—also known as meiotic arrest—and inviable sperm. Her research group has also worked on developing alternative solutions for men experiencing infertility through an understanding of how immature sperm cells form. Her research has documented how immature sperm cells can be differentiated from stem cells derived from skin cells (fibroblasts) with the hope of ultimately using the knowledge obtained to assist infertile men with maturation of endogenous cells. Her team extracted skin cells from infertile men and induced them to become induced pluripotent stem cells, which can subsequently be used to study many different cell types of the body and many different diseases. Although studies such as these can stir up some controversy, leading to discussions around misuse of such a technology, the studies are primarily basic science studies and are intended to generate knowledge that can be used to help infertile men produce viable sperm cells of their own.
Reijo Pera has also worked to develop methods to improve the chances of pregnancy during in vitro fertilization by being able to identify and select healthy embryos for implantation. To do so, she and her team of collaborators essentially devised a method to film the embryos in the clinic using a microscope as it divides for the first time and then measure the differences between that process across embryos to score which are the most viable. Specifically, they score embryos based on the time it takes to complete the first three cell divisions (i.e. from one cell to 8). Her team was able to predict with 93% accuracy which embryos had the greatest chance of resulting in a successful pregnancy. This work was named a Top 10 Biomedical Breakthrough by Time in 2010.
More broadly, Reijo Pera has also worked to understand human disease, especially Parkinson's disease and how pluripotent embryonic stem cells are ultimately able to mature into their specialized adult forms. She and her collaborators decided to focus their attention on identifying certain developmental milestones that occur in an embryo one week after fertilization, measuring gene expression in individual cells. They identified genes that were derived from the human endogenous retrovirus K, which activate key genes during early development and confer the embryo with immunity against other viruses. They later found that the human endogenous retrovirus-H produced key RNA molecules that could either activate or silence genes, acting as "switches" for gene expression. Her team found that these switches could help maintain pluripotency.
Entrepreneurship
Reijo Pera has worked to bring her research from "bench to bedside", founding startups geared towards addressing infertility. In 2008, she was a cofounder of Auxogyn, Inc; in 2015, Auxogyn and Fertility Authorities merged to form Progyny, a start-up offering plans to large companies that would help their female employees cover the cost of fertility treatments; in 2018, the company was named a "Disruptor 50" by CNBC. Progyny went public on the NASDAQ in October 2019 with a market cap of $3.5–4B in 2022.
Awards and honors
Top 10 Biomedical Breakthroughs, Time, 2010
Honorary Doctorate of Human Letters, University of Wisconsin–Superior, 2009
Twenty Influential Women Leaders in the US, Newsweek, 2006
Searle Scholars Program, 1998
References
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
People from Bayfield County, Wisconsin
Educators from Wisconsin
Cornell University alumni
University of Wisconsin–Superior alumni
University of California, San Francisco faculty
Stanford University faculty
Stem cell researchers
Montana State University faculty
California Polytechnic State University faculty
American women scientists
American women academics
21st-century American women | Renee Reijo Pera | [
"Biology"
] | 1,378 | [
"Stem cell researchers",
"Stem cell research"
] |
63,494,981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer%27s%20conjecture | In the mathematical field of spectral graph theory, Brouwer's conjecture is a conjecture by Andries Brouwer on upper bounds for the intermediate sums of the eigenvalues of the Laplacian of a graph in term of its number of edges.
The conjecture states that if G is a simple undirected graph and L(G) its Laplacian matrix, then its eigenvalues λn(L(G)) ≤ λn−1(L(G)) ≤ ... ≤ λ1(L(G)) satisfy
where m(G) is the number of edges of G.
State of the art
Brouwer has confirmed by computation that the conjecture is valid for all graphs with at most 10 vertices. It is also known that the conjecture is valid for any number of vertices if t = 1, 2, n − 1, and n.
For certain types of graphs, Brouwer's conjecture is known to be valid for all t and for any number of vertices. In particular, it is known that is valid for trees, and for unicyclic and bicyclic graphs. It was also proved that Brouwer’s conjecture holds for two large families of graphs; the first family of graphs is obtained from a clique by identifying each of its vertices to a vertex of an arbitrary c-cyclic graph, and the second family is composed of the graphs in which the removal of the edges of the maximal complete bipartite subgraph gives a graph each of whose non-trivial components is a c-cyclic graph.
For certain sequences of random graphs, Brouwer's conjecture holds true with probability tending to one as the number of vertices tends to infinity.
References
Algebraic graph theory
Matrices
Conjectures
Unsolved problems in graph theory | Brouwer's conjecture | [
"Mathematics"
] | 368 | [
"Unsolved problems in mathematics",
"Mathematical objects",
"Graph theory",
"Matrices (mathematics)",
"Conjectures",
"Unsolved problems in graph theory",
"Mathematical relations",
"Mathematical problems",
"Algebra",
"Algebraic graph theory"
] |
63,495,042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%203005 | NGC 3005 is an edge-on spiral galaxy in the constellation of Ursa Major, discovered by Bindon Stoney on January 25, 1851. It is a member of the NGC 2998 group, which also includes NGC 2998, NGC 3002, NGC 3006, NGC 3008, and a few others.
References
External links
Intermediate spiral galaxies
Galaxies discovered in 1851
Ursa Major
3005
028232 | NGC 3005 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 86 | [
"Ursa Major",
"Constellations"
] |
63,498,079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axion%20%28brand%29 | Axion is an American brand of dishwashing liquid product marketed by Colgate-Palmolive. It is available in Asia and Latin America.
History
Originally, Colgate's Axion brand was the name of an enzyme pre-soak, to be used before laundering clothes. It was introduced on March 18, 1968.
See also
Palmolive - a similar dishwashing liquid produced by C-P for the U.S., Canada and other markets.
Axion - a hypothetical fundamental particle whose name was inspired by the detergent.
References
Colgate-Palmolive brands
Cleaning products | Axion (brand) | [
"Chemistry"
] | 124 | [
"Cleaning products",
"Products of chemical industry"
] |
58,247,646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C19H22FN3O3 | {{DISPLAYTITLE:C19H22FN3O3}}
The molecular formula C19H22FN3O3 (molar mass: 359.39 g/mol, exact mass: 359.1645 u) may refer to:
Enrofloxacin (ENR)
Grepafloxacin | C19H22FN3O3 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 74 | [
"Isomerism",
"Set index articles on molecular formulas"
] |
58,248,385 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walsh%E2%80%93Lebesgue%20theorem | The Walsh–Lebesgue theorem is a famous result from harmonic analysis proved by the American mathematician Joseph L. Walsh in 1929, using results proved by Lebesgue in 1907. The theorem states the following:
Let be a compact subset of the Euclidean plane such the relative complement of with respect to is connected. Then, every real-valued continuous function on (i.e. the boundary of ) can be approximated uniformly on by (real-valued) harmonic polynomials in the real variables and .
Generalizations
The Walsh–Lebesgue theorem has been generalized to Riemann surfaces and to .
In 1974 Anthony G. O'Farrell gave a generalization of the Walsh–Lebesgue theorem by means of the 1964 Browder–Wermer theorem with related techniques.
References
Theorems in harmonic analysis
Theorems in approximation theory | Walsh–Lebesgue theorem | [
"Mathematics"
] | 168 | [
"Theorems in approximation theory",
"Theorems in mathematical analysis",
"Theorems in harmonic analysis"
] |
58,252,879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T2%2A-weighted%20imaging | T2*-weighted imaging is an MRI sequence to quantify observable or effective T2 (T2* or "T2-star"). In this sequence, hemorrhages and hemosiderin deposits become hypointense.
Physics
T2*-weighted imaging is built from the basic physics of magnetic resonance imaging where there is spin–spin relaxation, that is, the transverse component of the magnetization vector exponentially decays towards its equilibrium value. It is characterized by the spin–spin relaxation time, known as 2. In an idealized system, all nuclei in a given chemical environment, in a magnetic field, relax with the same frequency. However, in real systems, there are minor differences in chemical environment which can lead to a distribution of resonance frequencies around the ideal. Over time, this distribution can lead to a dispersion of the tight distribution of magnetic spin vectors, and loss of signal (free induction decay). In fact, for most magnetic resonance experiments, this "relaxation" dominates. This results in dephasing.
However, decoherence because of magnetic field inhomogeneity is not a true "relaxation" process; it is not random, but dependent on the location of the molecule in the magnet. For molecules that aren't moving, the deviation from ideal relaxation is consistent over time, and the signal can be recovered by performing a spin echo experiment.
The corresponding transverse relaxation time constant is thus T2*, which is usually much smaller than T2. The relation between them is:
where γ represents gyromagnetic ratio, and ΔB0 the difference in strength of the locally varying field.
Unlike T2, T2* is influenced by magnetic field gradient irregularities. The T2* relaxation time is always shorter than the T2 relaxation time and is typically milliseconds for water samples in imaging magnets.
T2*-weighted imaging can be created as a postexcitation refocused gradient echo (GRE) sequence with small flip angle. The sequence of gradient echo T2*-weighted imaging (GRE T2*WI) requires a high uniformity of the magnetic field.
Clinical applications
T2*-weighted sequences are used to detect deoxygenated hemoglobin, methemoglobin, or hemosiderin in lesions and tissues. Diseases with such patterns include intracranial hemorrhage, arteriovenous malformation, cavernoma, hemorrhage in a tumor, punctate hemorrhages in diffuse axonal injury, superficial siderosis, thrombosed aneurysm, phleboliths in vascular lesions, and some forms of calcification. T2*-weighted GRE sequences can detect microhemorrhages as seen in most vestibular schwannomas, thereby differentiating them from meningiomas.
The T2*-weighted GRE sequence can detect a "middle cerebral artery susceptibility sign", which is a dark linear filling defect that is wider than the corresponding artery on the contralateral side. This sign is 83% sensitive and 100% specific for thrombotic occlusion of the internal carotid artery.
It can detect hemosiderin deposition in joints as seen in arthropathy by hemophilia, as well as pigmented villonodular synovitis . T2*-weighted sequences are very useful for evaluation of articular cartilages and ligaments because a relatively long T2* makes the articular cartilage becomes more hyperintense, while bone becomes hypointense.
T2*-weighted sequences can be used with MRI contrast, mainly ferucarbotran or superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO), to depict liver lesions.
See also
MRI sequence
References
Magnetic resonance imaging | T2*-weighted imaging | [
"Chemistry"
] | 794 | [
"Nuclear magnetic resonance",
"Magnetic resonance imaging"
] |
58,255,600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAIR%20data | FAIR data is data which meets the FAIR principles of findability, accessibility, interoperability, and reusability (FAIR). The acronym and principles were defined in a March 2016 paper in the journal Scientific Data by a consortium of scientists and organizations.
The FAIR principles emphasize machine-actionability (i.e., the capacity of computational systems to find, access, interoperate, and reuse data with none or minimal human intervention) because humans increasingly rely on computational support to deal with data as a result of the increase in the volume, complexity, and rate of production of data.
The abbreviation is sometimes used to indicate that the dataset or database in question complies with the FAIR principles and also carries an explicit data‑capable open license.
FAIR principles published by GO FAIR
Acceptance and implementation
Before FAIR a 2007 paper was the earliest paper discussing similar ideas related to data accessibility.
At the 2016 G20 Hangzhou summit, the G20 leaders issued a statement endorsing the application of FAIR principles to research. Also in 2016, a group of Australian organisations developed a Statement on FAIR Access to Australia's Research Outputs, which aimed to extend the principles to research outputs more generally. In 2017, Germany, Netherlands and France agreed to establish an international office to support the FAIR initiative, the GO FAIR International Support and Coordination Office.
Other international organisations active in the research data ecosystem, such as CODATA or Research Data Alliance (RDA) also support FAIR implementations by their communities. FAIR principles implementation assessment is being explored by FAIR Data Maturity Model Working Group of RDA, CODATA's strategic Decadal Programme "Data for Planet: Making data work for cross-domain challenges" mentions FAIR data principles as a fundamental enabler of data driven science. The Association of European Research Libraries recommends the use of FAIR principles.
A 2017 paper by advocates of FAIR data reported that awareness of the FAIR concept was increasing among various researchers and institutes, but also, understanding of the concept was becoming confused as different people apply their own differing perspectives to it.
Guides on implementing FAIR data practices state that the cost of a data management plan in compliance with FAIR data practices should be 5% of the total research budget.
In 2019 the Global Indigenous Data Alliance (GIDA) released the CARE Principles for Indigenous Data Governance as a complementary guide. The CARE principles extend principles outlined in FAIR data to include Collective benefit, Authority to control, Responsibility, and Ethics to ensure data guidelines address historical contexts and power differentials. The CARE Principles for Indigenous Data Governance were drafted at the International Data Week and Research Data Alliance Plenary co-hosted event, "Indigenous Data Sovereignty Principles for the Governance of Indigenous Data Workshop", held 8 November 2018, in Gaborone, Botswana.
The lack of information on how to implement the guidelines have led to inconsistent interpretations of them.
In January 2020, representatives of nine groups of universities around the world produced the Sorbonne declaration on research data rights, which included a commitment to FAIR data, and called on governments to provide support to enable it. In 2021, researchers identified the FAIR principles as a conceptual component of data catalog software tools, with the other components being metadata management, business context and data responsibility roles. In April 2022, Matthias Scheffler and colleagues argued in Nature that FAIR principles are "a must" so that data mining and artificial intelligence can extract useful scientific information from the data.
However, making data (and research outcomes) FAIR is a challenging task, and it is challenging to assess the FAIRness.
See also
Data management
Open access
Open data – datasets and databases carrying an explicit data‑capable open license
Open science
Remix culture
References
External links
FAIR Data and Semantic Publishing, a statement from the lab of the first author of the original paper
Guide to FAIR Data from Dutch Techcentre for Life Sciences
GO FAIR initiative website
FAIR Principles with detailed description of each of the guiding principles by the GO FAIR initiative
A FAIRy tale explaining the FAIR principles, published by the FAIR project
Political statements
Open content
Data management
Open data
Open science | FAIR data | [
"Technology"
] | 811 | [
"Data management",
"Data"
] |
58,255,782 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faouzia | Faouzia Ouihya (, ; born 5 July 2000), known mononymously as Faouzia, is a Moroccan-Canadian singer-songwriter and musician. Born in Morocco, she moved with her family to Canada at a young age. During that time she learned how to play various instruments, and began composing her first songs. She released several singles and collaborated with many musicians on vocals and songwriting prior to releasing her debut extended play (EP), Stripped, in August 2020. In 2023, she was nominated and was one of the recipients of the Top 25 Canadian Immigrant Awards.
Life and career
2000–2014: Early life
Faouzia Ouihya was born in Casablanca, Morocco to Mohammed Ouihya and Bouchra Alaoui. She moved with her family at the age of one to Notre-Dame-de-Lourdes, Manitoba in Canada, before settling in the rural town of Carman, Manitoba. She has two sisters: Samia (one of her managers) and Kenza (her photographer). She was raised Muslim and often traveled to her native country. Faouzia said she feels "very connected to the country and the region [North Africa]. Even though I grew up in Canada, I grew up eating Moroccan food, [and] wearing Moroccan attire." In an interview she revealed she felt excluded as a child, saying "maybe not just fitting in is the biggest thing I've had to overcome". Her first composition was inspired by this feeling of exclusion, in which she embraced people's differences. Her passion for music began at the age of four when she watched her sister Samia playing the piano, wishing she could learn how to play it. Faouzia began writing songs and poems when she was five years old and playing piano at the age of six. She later studied how to play guitar and violin. She speaks fluent English, French, and Arabic; the latter being the one she mostly used with her family.
2015–2019: Career beginnings
At the age of fifteen, she won Song of the Year, the Audience Award, and Grand Prix at the 2015 La Chicane Électrique. She began posting her songs and other covers on YouTube which led to a contract with Paradigm Talent Agency. Thanks to her early success, she released her debut single "Knock on My Door" on 1 November through various platforms.
In 2016, she won second place in the Canada's Walk of Fame Emerging Artist Mentorship Program. In 2017, she was the recipient of the Grand Prize at the Nashville Unsigned Only music competition. The same year, she collaborated with fellow Manitoban artist Matt Epp on their single "The Sound", and won the International Songwriting Competition, the largest songwriting competition in the world. The two are the first Canadians in competition's 16-year history to win the top prize, beating 16,000 other entries from 137 countries. She performed with the Winnipeg Symphony Orchestra at The Forks, Winnipeg celebrating the 150th anniversary of Canada.
Faouzia is featured in the song "Battle" on David Guetta's studio album 7, announced on 24 August 2018. In a French language interview with Le Matin, Guetta noted Faouzia's "great voice, powerful vibrato, and unique style" for why he chose her for his album. Faouzia recalled she "was still in high school when I heard the news that there was a possibility of me working with him", and affirmed it was "one of my proudest career moments, so far." At that time, she enrolled in the University of Manitoba, majoring in computer engineering. She also featured in the song "Money" on French rapper Ninho's studio album Destin and the song got certified gold on 9 July 2019.
2020–present: Stripped and Citizens
In early 2020, Faouzia was invited by Kelly Clarkson to translate her song "I Dare You" to Moroccan Arabic, which was released on 16 April. About a month later, the Swedish EDM duo Galantis invited her to feature in their song "I Fly" for the soundtrack of the film Scoob! (2020). On 6 August, Faouzia released her first extended play, Stripped. It features 6 stripped songs, 5 of which were previously released, and one of which, "100 Bandaids", is a new track. To promote the EP, she performed the tracks live in a concert at the Burton Cummings Theatre on 20 August. On 5 November 2020, Faouzia released the single "Minefields" alongside American singer-songwriter John Legend.
On 21 March 2021, Faouzia released "Don't Tell Me I'm Pretty" on YouTube. On 29 June, she released "Hero" accompanied by its video-game-themed music video. In July, Faouzia revealed that she has been working on her debut studio album for a few years. On 28 October, she released "Puppet".
On 30 March 2022, announced her second EP, Citizens, and released "RIP, Love" as a single from the project. Citizens was released on 19 May and features her previously released singles "Minefields", "Don't Tell Me I'm Pretty", and "Puppet". On 7 October, she released "Habibi (My Love)".
On 14 April 2023, Faouzia released "I'm Blue", which was previously released on YouTube on 30 August 2019. As part of a project titled Doll Summer, she released the singles "Don't Call Me" and "Plastic Therapy" on 9 June, followed by "La La La" on 4 August and "IL0V3Y0U" on 8 September. On 23 June, Faouzia and French DJ Martin Solveig released "Now or Never", which serves as a single from Solveig's upcoming sixth studio album.
She wrote on the track "Beg Forgiveness" from ¥$ (Kanye West and Ty Dolla Sign) album Vultures 1, released on 10 February 2024.
In 2024, she joined the ninth season of the Chinese singing competition Singer 2024, in which she was a fourth-place winner overall.
Artistry
Musical style and themes
Faouzia is a pop, R&B, synth-pop, and acoustic pop artist. She has described her music as "emotional" and "intense". Her early songwriting was heavily inspired by people she was close to. However, her later songs were more personal since she "really wanted my heart in my story." Gloria Morey noted that her music has "the musical elements of upbeat pop songs which often contain quite shallow lyrics, but Faouzia’s lyrics are very meaningful and, well, the opposite of shallow.” Faouzia possesses a potential coloratura mezzo-soprano vocal range that spans from C♯ 3 to G5 in mixed voice and A6 in whistle tones. Faouzia sings mostly in English language, featuring Arabic tonalities in her vocals. She has also performed in Arabic and in French language.
Influences
Faouzia cites her parents and sisters as her biggest influence in pursuing a music career. She grew up listening to pop musicians Rihanna, Lady Gaga, Ariana Grande, Beyoncé, Sia, Adele, Kelly Clarkson, and John Legend. About Rihanna, she said "has always been an inspiration of mine growing up and still to this day." Faouzia added that she, Beyoncé, Lady Gaga, and Sia are her major influences as a songwriter. She told that "Say Something" by A Great Big World featuring Christina Aguilera and "Hello" by Adele are some of her favourite songs. At a young age she listened alongside her parents to Arab music acts such as Umm Kulthum and Fairuz. Faouzia declared they "are two of my all-time favourite artists." She also listened to Assala Nasri and Khaled. When she was learning music she listened to composers Chopin, Bach, and Mozart. Pop rock bands Fall Out Boy and Imagine Dragons have also served as influences for her, and she attended one of the latter's concerts.
Discography
Extended plays
Singles
As lead artist
Notes
As featured artist
Other charted songs
Guest appearances
Videography
References
External links
Canadian women singer-songwriters
2000 births
21st-century Canadian women singers
21st-century Moroccan women singers
Franco-Manitoban people
Living people
Moroccan emigrants to Canada
Singers from Manitoba
Musicians from Casablanca
21st-century Canadian singer-songwriters
Cancer (constellation) | Faouzia | [
"Astronomy"
] | 1,741 | [
"Cancer (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
58,255,786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviour%20Research%20and%20Therapy | Behaviour Research and Therapy is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering behavior therapy. It was established by Hans Eysenck in 1963 as the world's first journal dedicated to behavior therapy. It is published by Elsevier and the editor-in-chief is Michelle Craske (University of California at Los Angeles). According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2017 impact factor of 4.134.
References
External links
Behavior therapy
Psychotherapy journals
Academic journals established in 1963
Monthly journals
Elsevier academic journals
English-language journals | Behaviour Research and Therapy | [
"Biology"
] | 110 | [
"Behavior",
"Behavior therapy",
"Behaviorism"
] |
58,258,709 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS/7 | OS/7 is a discontinued operating system from Sperry Univac for its 90/60 and 90/70 computer systems. The system was first announced in November 1971 for Univac's 9700 system and was originally scheduled for delivery in March 1973. However, the delivery slipped by nearly a year, which impacted the 9700 marketing effort. It was first demonstrated by Univac on the new 90/60 system in October 1973. The official release was then planned for January 1974. OS/7 was abruptly discontinued in 1975 in favor of VS/9, Univac's name for RCA's VMOS operating system.
"OS/7 is a multi-tasking, multi-programming system that utilizes a roll-in, roll-out capability to keep the CPU optimally busy."
References
Discontinued operating systems
UNIVAC mainframe computers | OS/7 | [
"Technology"
] | 177 | [
"Computing stubs"
] |
58,261,012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eotomistoma | Eotomistoma is a dubious genus of crocodyliform from the Lower Cretaceous of China.
History
Eotomistoma was named by Chung-Chien Young in 1964 based on two pieces of the snout. Young assigned it to the Tomistominae. However, other researchers, such as Eric Buffetaut, were skeptical of Young's interpretation, and in 1981 Denise Sigogneau-Russell re-studied it and determined the specimen was a chimera of a crocodylian and a choristodere. Sigogneau-Russell named the choristodere fossil Ikechosaurus. The remaining snout fragment, still the holotype of Eotomistoma, is now considered to be an indeterminate crocodyliform.
Paleoecology
Eotomistoma is known from the Lower Cretaceous Luohandong Formation. It was a contemporary of the choristodere Ikechosaurus and the crocodyliforms Theriosuchus and Shantungosuchus.
References
Cretaceous crocodylomorphs
Nomina dubia | Eotomistoma | [
"Biology"
] | 222 | [
"Biological hypotheses",
"Nomina dubia",
"Controversial taxa"
] |
58,262,103 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%206047 | NGC 6047 is an elliptical galaxy located about 430 million light-years away in the constellation Hercules. It was discovered by astronomer Lewis Swift on June 27, 1886. NGC 6047 is a member of the Hercules Cluster.
NGC 6047 has a peculiar morphology which suggests it has undergone a recent merger. It may be interacting with NGC 6045 which lies around ~ away. NGC 6047 has two radio jets and is classified as a FR I radio galaxy. The jets appear to have a Z-shaped structure.
See also
NGC 1128
References
External links
Elliptical galaxies
Peculiar galaxies
Radio galaxies
Hercules Cluster
Hercules (constellation)
6047
57033
+3-41-87
+17.66
Astronomical objects discovered in 1886 | NGC 6047 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 143 | [
"Hercules (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
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