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63,551,786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyric%20setting | Lyric setting is the process in songwriting of placing textual content (lyrics) in the context of musical rhythm, in which the lyrical meter and musical rhythm are in proper alignment as to preserve the natural shape of the language and promote prosody.
Prosody is defined as "an appropriate relationship between elements." According to Pat Pattison, author of Writing Better Lyrics, prosody is created when all musical and lyrical elements work together to support the central message of a song. To achieve prosody, the rhythmic placement of a lyric in music must support its natural rhythm, meaning, and emotion.
Proper lyric setting involves the identification of stressed and unstressed syllables. These syllables are distinguished by their suprasegmentals, or their qualities of intonation, duration, and dynamics. The numerous parts of speech hold different levels of meaning and are assigned different levels of importance. Stress is not only determined by natural rhythmic meter, but also by a word's level of meaning.
Stressed and unstressed syllables form into rhythmic patterns, similar to musical beats. All musical time signatures are made up of strong and weak beats. The stressed and unstressed syllabic patterns of lyrical content are aligned with strong and weak beats of music in order to ensure lyrics are easily recognized, correctly understood, and fulfill their ultimate meaning and emotion. The purpose of proper lyric setting in a song is to establish lyrical content in its most authentic form to promote relatability.
Suprasegmentals
All languages are made up of segments called vowels and consonants. Vowels may stand on their own or join with consonants to create syllables. Words are made up of one or more syllables. Superimposed on syllables are other speech features such as stress or tone called suprasegmentals, also known as prosodic features. These sounds are present over syllables, words, and phrases. Suprasegmentals can be considered the "musical" aspects of speech. The common prosodic features are intonation, duration, and dynamics. It is of importance to identify these suprasegmentals in language, as it is the combination of these variables that defines the stressed and unstressed syllables of words. The factors of intonation, duration, and dynamics contribute greatly to the process of identifying and executing proper lyric setting.
Intonation
In the English language, intonation, or pitch, is a suprasegmental that incorporates three variables:
The division of speech into units
The highlighting of particular words and syllables
The choice of pitch movement
Intonation acoustically corresponds to fundamental frequency. It is one feature that defines the division of speech into units through the various pitches that syllables are naturally assigned. In this way, pitch plays an important role in differentiating stressed and unstressed syllables through lower and higher pitches, and in creating rhythm in language. Intonation is additionally used in speech for special effect, highlighting words to create emphasis or to support a specific emotion. However, this choice is made subconsciously. It's important to note that the application of pitch in the English language is not an artificial process, and native speakers utilize pitch fluctuations in words, sentences, and exclamations inherently. Recognizing lower and higher pitches in language during the process of lyric setting increases the probability of preserving the natural shape of the language.
Duration
In speech, duration, or length of sounds, is a suprasegmental measured in time units such as milliseconds or seconds. In music, however, duration is measured in note value regarding beats and their subdivisions. Syllables in the English language are naturally expressed with various durations. In partnership with pitch, the duration of a syllable can indicate the prominence of a syllable, or whether it is stressed or unstressed. The length of sounds contributes greatly to the rhythm of language, and the composition of poetry and lyrics. Recognition of the duration of syllables during lyric setting increases the probability of properly setting words, and, in addition, promoting prosody through length of musical time.
Dynamics
Dynamics in speech are distinctions between levels of volume, varying between soft and loud. Acoustically, dynamics correspond to intensity, also known as sound pressure level, which is measured in decibels. Syllables in the English language are expressed through different dynamics depending on their natural prominence, or stress. Dynamics are also used outside of normal speech patterns to emphasize certain words or to express particular emotions. Recognizing dynamics in speech during the process of lyric setting can increase the probability of preserving the natural emotion that is responsible for the dynamics and promote prosody in music.
Stress
The English language consists of sentences, which are made up of phrases, which are made up of words, which are made up of syllables. There are two types of syllables: stressed and unstressed, also referred to as strong and weak. A stress is the accentuation or emphasis in a word.
Intonation, duration, and dynamics are all suprasegmentals that contribute to determining the prominence, or stress, of a syllable in relationship to other syllables.
Pitch is considered the strongest variable that determines syllable prominence, with duration and dynamics following in that order.
Before defining a stressed syllable, it is important to define an unstressed syllable. Every human voice has its natural resting pitch, which varies from person to person. In musical terms, this pitch would be recognized as the voice’s tonic, tonal center, or resolution tone. This is the pitch that all unstressed syllables rest on.
A stressed syllable is one that is emphasized, or has prominence. In contrast to an unstressed syllable, a stressed syllable has a higher pitch. In musical terms, this pitch is commonly a perfect fourth, perfect fifth, or even minor third, above the voice’s tonic. A stressed syllable tends to have a longer duration and louder volume. This contrasts with unstressed syllables to indicate superior meaning.
Organized patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables create rhythms and meter in poetry and lyric writing. They are often marked with different symbols when being analyzed. Stressed syllables are indicated with a forward slash (/) and unstressed syllables are indicated with a lowercase "u."
Parts of speech
Stressed vs. unstressed syllables are not only identifiable in regards to the natural shape of the language, but also in regards to function. Different parts of speech carry different levels of meaning, and, therefore, are stressed differently.
Words that serve the meaning function, also called the semantic or cognitive function, are:
nouns
verbs
adjectives
adverbs
These words are always stressed, because they hold meaning. Words that serve the grammatical function, also called syntactic function, are:
articles - the, a, an
conjunctions - and, but, yet, if, or
prepositions - in, on, at, to, into, before, after
personal pronouns - I, you, she, it, they, us, them
Grammatical functions do not hold meaning. Therefore, these words are unstressed. The grammatical function’s purpose is to support words that serve the meaning function.
There are exceptions, however, to these guidelines. This is particularly true when dealing with a contrast. The following sentences give examples of these contrasts and when it is appropriate to stress grammatical functions:
I said I loved you, not him.
Run to him, not past him.
The pancakes were mine, not yours.
It is correct to stress these grammatical functions because this preserves the rhythm of natural speech.
Multisyllabic words
Words that have one syllable will be stressed determined by whether their function is cognitive or grammatical. Words that have more than one syllable are called multisyllabic words. Two-syllable words typically have one stressed and one unstressed syllable. However, many words in the English language have three or more syllables. In these cases, words often have more than one stress.
A primary stress in a word is the strongest syllable with the highest pitch, longest duration, and loudest volume. A secondary stress is the weaker of the two, with its prosodic features falling between an unstressed and stressed syllable. Its pitch is higher than the tonic, but lower than the primary stress. The volume and duration of the secondary stress is similar to the primary stress, but not as prominent. Words with three or more syllables usually have an arrangement of primary, secondary, and unstressed syllables.
Musical rhythm
Music and language are alike in that they both utilize rhythm to organize and convey ideas. Time signatures in music contain patterns of strong and weak beats. In every time signature, the first beat, or the downbeat, is the strongest. 4/4, 3/4, and 6/8 time are the most common time signatures in popular styles.
In 4/4 time, four beats are present in one measure. The first beat is the strongest, with the third beat the second-strongest. The second beat is weak, with the fourth beat the weakest. In 3/4 time, three beats are present in one measure. The first beat is the strongest, and the second and third beats are weak. In 6/8 time, six beats are present in one measure. The first beat is the strongest, the fourth beat is second-strongest, and beats two, three, five, and six are weak.
When setting lyrics, it is important to note that these levels of strength are applied to the entire duration of the beat. However, within the subdivisions of a beat, the same patterns of strength are present, but in a lower degree. A quarter note can be divided into two eighth notes The first eighth note is strong, the second is weak. A quarter note can be divided into four sixteenth notes. The first sixteenth note is the strongest, followed by the third, with the second sixteenth weak and the fourth the weakest. The same concept applies to eighth-note triplets. The first eighth note is the strongest, while the second and third eighth notes are weak. Recognizing strong and weak rhythmic patterns is essential during the process of proper lyric setting.
The suprasegmentals earlier discussed regarding speech can also be applied to strong and weak beats of a measure. The strength of a beat is identifiable through its prominence, or force. The strong beats always have the most prominence, and can match the strength of a stressed syllable’s suprasegmentals. These features can be enhanced by percussion instruments through the dynamics (volume), tone, timbre, or duration.
Proper lyric setting
Lyric setting is the process of properly aligning lyrical content in the context of musical rhythm. Proper lyric setting preserves the natural shape of the language and promotes prosody. This involves a melody to which the lyrics are paired, so that it is sung as one unit. A melody is defined as a "succession of tones mode, rhythm, and pitches so arranged as to achieve musical shape, being perceived as a unity by the mind."
Each syllable of a lyrical phrase is joined to one musical note to create the melody. Stressed and unstressed syllables within a phrase create a rhythmic pattern that is then matched to the strong and weak beats of musical rhythm. When setting lyrics, the natural accents of everyday speech are taken into consideration. Imposing an unsuited rhythm onto the lyrics for the sake of matching it to a melody does not preserve the natural shape of the language and is improper lyric setting.
Meter-beat relationship
Within a lyrical phrase, stressed syllables occur in strong positions of the measure because they hold the most meaning. For instance, in 4/4 time, stressed syllables are placed on the first and third beat of the measure, or any subdivision of a beat that is considered strong. The reason why this proper placement of lyric-to-beat creates prosody is because the accents of strong beats support, mirror, and enhance the suprasegmentals of stressed syllables, which have a higher intensity, force, and prominence that only strong beats can match. These two elements working together simultaneously helps the lyrical content sound as natural as possible.
Unstressed syllables occur in the weak positions of the bar. They are placed in weak positions because they do not hold meaning. For instance, in 4/4 time, these syllables are placed in the second and fourth beats of the bar, or any subdivision of a beat that is considered weak. Unstressed syllables are placed on the second eighth note of any quarter-note beat. The suprasegmentals of unstressed syllables and weak beats fit together because both have a lack of intensity, force, and prominence. If unstressed syllables are set on strong beats, the lyrical content sounds unnatural and suffers a loss of meaning. The unstressed syllables are placed on weak beats in order to embrace the most authentic meaning of the lyric.
The Secondary stresses are placed on strong beats, but must maintain a secondary position relative to the primary stresses. The primary stress lands on a stronger beat than the secondary stress. It is important to note, in addition, that lyric setting is all proportionate to whatever subdivisions have already been established within a measure.
Such is the case in 3/4 time, in which the downbeat is the only strong beat. Although the second and third beats are considered weak, they are actually eligible for stressed syllables if the beats are subdivided into eighth notes. In this instance, there is a contrast established between the strong and weak eighth notes. The unstressed syllables fall on the second eighth note of a quarter-note beat. The accent of the downbeat is always strongest, so it's crucial not to ignore its importance.
In 6/8 time, the stressed syllables are placed on the first and fourth beats. The unstressed syllables are placed on the second, third, fifth, or sixth beats. When using duple meter in 6/8 time, the stressed syllables are placed on the first and fourth beats. Unstressed syllables are placed on the second, third, fifth, or sixth beats. Note that triplet time signatures can accommodate both duple and triple meter lyrical content.
Natural contour
Recognizing suprasegmentals in a lyric gives an extra representation of the natural contour of language in the song.
For instance, because a stressed syllable reaches a higher pitch, some might decide to represent this idea musically by assigning it to a higher pitch in the melody. This is not an essential factor for proper lyric setting, but it has the potential to preserve the natural contour of the language.
This could be especially true for the lyric setting of questions. In this type of sentence, the last syllable typically rises at the end to indicate that it is a question. Some syllables, that would otherwise maintain a tonic pitch, may naturally reach to the pitch of a stressed syllable in the context of a question. Taking this into account, a songwriter may decide to preserve the contour of the question in the pitch of the lyric.
One also might consider the duration of stressed vs. unstressed syllables and apply this concept to musical rhythm, assigning a longer note value to a stressed syllable and a shorter note value to an unstressed syllable within the melody. It is not essential, however, to use duration to create a proper lyric setting. The natural contour of the language could potentially be represented in the music more prominently if the duration were taken into account.
Dynamics are typically up to interpretation by the vocalist of the song. The songwriter may choose to emphasize stressed syllables with louder dynamics and unstressed syllables with softer dynamics. However, this is not an essential factor in lyric setting either.
These suprasegmentals are utilized solely for special effect to enhance meaning on a specific word, phrase, or section, instead of to enhance the technical qualities of stressed and unstressed syllables. Using suprasegmentals in this way is another aspect of setting lyrics to create prosody and to preserve the natural emotion of the lyrical content.
Effects
The ultimate goal in songwriting is to create an emotional connection with the listener. Proper lyric setting is an essential tool in achieving that goal. When all stressed and unstressed syllables take their rightful places, the song takes its most natural form. Although emotions may appear as though a mere happenstance, it is the technical tools such as proper lyric setting that are working behind the scenes to maintain some of the basic building blocks a song needs in order to achieve prosody.
The effects of proper lyric setting are:
Words are easily recognized
Words are correctly understood
Words satisfy and embody their ultimate meaning
Words fulfill their full emotional potential
By satisfying these conditions, lyrical content achieves its highest state of relatability.
When a lyric is properly set, with its natural rhythms present in music, words are familiar and easily recognized by the listener. The goal is to avoid causing the audience to work overtime to identify words. The brain will automatically interpret a correctly set phrase as though it were spoken in a conversation. This is done quickly, immediately, and without much thought. Following the identification of a word comes the understanding of meaning, and which meaning the word is intending in the context of the song. If a lyric is not properly set, a word might be mistaken for a different word, or be completely unidentified. Songs are constantly moving forward, so there is little time for the listener to decipher words. By the time the listener identifies an improperly set lyric, the song has already moved onto new words and melodies. The mis-stressed word loses the opportunity to live up to its full meaning in context.
When words are easily recognized and understood in a song, the chance of establishing an emotional connection to the listener is increased because it subconsciously creates a level of trust and expectation. Recognizability and understanding are two important factors that promote relatability.
A lyric’s meaning lives up to its full potential when the lyric stays true to its natural rhythm. Stressed syllables hold more meaning than unstressed syllables, and, therefore, are more important to the song’s message. Placing more important words on stronger, more prominent beats of a measure puts spotlights on their meanings, more effectively enhancing and communicating what the song is trying to say. This not only keeps the listener’s attention, but also ultimately activates lyrical tools such as metaphor and imagery. Nouns, verbs, adverbs, and adjectives, or words that serve the meaning or cognitive function, have the potential to access the listener’s personal memories through the senses. In this way, placing these words on strong beats of a measure not only encourages them to be noticed, but also increases the chances that the listener’s personal memories will be accessed, promoting relatability. When the listener notices likeness between their memories and lyrical content, an emotional connection is established, because of their ability to find representation for their own experiences.
Through these means, proper lyric setting ensures that the message of a song will achieve its full emotional potential, which in turn achieves its highest state of relatability. In addition, there are other lyric setting tools that can alter the placement of lyrics to amplify different emotions and attitudes, while still preserving the natural shape of the language. These tools can be applied only after stressed and unstressed syllables have been identified and the emotional intentions for a lyric are decided.
Mis-stressed lyrics
While proper lyric setting has positive effects, improper lyric setting has negative effects. A mis-stressed lyric is a word with one or more stressed and/or unstressed syllables that do not properly align with the strong and weak beats of a measure, and, therefore, neither preserve the natural shape of the language nor promote prosody.
Mis-stressed lyrics in a song create:
Distraction
Confusion
Misunderstanding
Loss of meaning
Loss of emotion
This leads to loss of relatability.
A mis-stressed lyric distracts the listener because it sounds out-of-place, illegitimate, and unnatural. It has the potential to cause confusion and misunderstanding in regards to both identifying words and recognizing their meanings. While proper lyric setting creates trust within the listener, the unfamiliarity of a mis-stressed word lessens the listener’s potential to gain trust. That is because mis-stressed lyrics lack conversational qualities. As mentioned previously, stressing a word incorrectly may cause it to be mistaken for a different word, or cause it to be completely unidentified. Musical time constantly moves forward, but the distraction and misunderstanding that mis-stressed lyrics cause slow down the listener’s thought process. By the time the listener can identify a mis-stressed word, the song has already moved onto new words and melodies, and the word can no longer live up to its full meaning in context. Most times, the listener’s focus will move forward with the song, latching onto new words and ideas that are easier to identify and recognize, leaving the mis-stressed word behind. Whether the lyric is identified by the listener or not, its meaning is lost due to the fact that it does not stay true to its original conversational rhythm.
Not only are words occasionally mis-stressed due to improper rhythmic placement, but also due to meaning, or lack thereof. The most of these situations takes place when setting grammatical functions. These parts of speech are generally considered unstressed. Placing grammatical functions in strong positions of the bar takes away from the attention that should be on words with meaning functions. By placing both stressed and unstressed syllables on strong positions of the bar, the rhythm is suggesting that the meanings of both are equally important. This is simply not true, however. The lyrics do not convey their ultimate meaning and emotion because the nouns, verbs, adverbs, and adjectives will have to share the spotlight with less important words. This lessens the listener’s ability to access personal memories through the senses, which in turn lessens the lyric’s emotional impact and relatability. To get the most out of lyrical content, the words with the most meaning are placed on the strongest beats. This also helps the listener subconsciously stay focused on what is most important about the song’s message.
References
Vocal music
Lyrics
Musical composition
Rhythm and meter | Lyric setting | [
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63,552,742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20644 | NGC 644 is a barred spiral galaxy in the constellation Phoenix in the southern sky. It is estimated to be 270 million light-years from the Milky Way and has a diameter of approximately 130,000 light-years. Together with NGC 641, it probably forms a gravitationally bound pair of galaxies. The object was discovered on September 5, 1834 by John Herschel.
Two supernovae have been observed in NGC 644: SN 2011gm (type Ia, mag. 15.8), and SN 2018cmj (type II, mag. 17.1).
See also
List of NGC objects (1–1000)
References
External links
Barred spiral galaxies
Phoenix (constellation)
0644
006097 | NGC 644 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 148 | [
"Phoenix (constellation)",
"Constellations"
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63,552,766 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20645 | NGC 645 is a barred spiral galaxy in the constellation Pisces. It is estimated to be 112 million light-years from the Milky Way and has a diameter of approximately 115,000 light years. The object was discovered on October 27, 1864 by astronomer Albert Marth.
See also
List of NGC objects (1–1000)
References
External links
0645
Barred spiral galaxies
Pisces (constellation)
006172 | NGC 645 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 87 | [
"Pisces (constellation)",
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63,552,879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valopicitabine | Valopicitabine (NM-283) is an antiviral drug which was developed as a treatment for hepatitis C, though only progressed as far as Phase III clinical trials. It acts as an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase inhibitor. It is a prodrug which is converted inside the body to the active form, 2'-C-methylcytidine triphosphate.
References
Anti–RNA virus drugs
Antiviral drugs | Valopicitabine | [
"Biology"
] | 91 | [
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63,553,560 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannon%E2%80%93Thurston%20map | In mathematics, a Cannon–Thurston map is any of a number of continuous group-equivariant maps between the boundaries of two hyperbolic metric spaces extending a discrete isometric actions of the group on those spaces.
The notion originated from a seminal 1980s preprint of James Cannon and William Thurston "Group-invariant Peano curves" (eventually published in 2007) about fibered hyperbolic 3-manifolds.
Cannon–Thurston maps provide many natural geometric examples of space-filling curves.
History
The Cannon–Thurston map first appeared in a mid-1980s preprint of James W. Cannon and William Thurston called "Group-invariant Peano curves". The preprint remained unpublished until 2007, but in the meantime had generated numerous follow-up works by other researchers.
In their paper Cannon and Thurston considered the following situation. Let M be a closed hyperbolic 3-manifold that fibers over the circle with fiber S. Then S itself is a closed hyperbolic surface, and its universal cover can be identified with the hyperbolic plane . Similarly, the universal cover of M can be identified with the hyperbolic 3-space . The inclusion lifts to a -invariant inclusion . This inclusion is highly distorted because the action of on
is not geometrically finite.
Nevertheless, Cannon and Thurston proved that this distorted inclusion extends to a continuous -equivariant map
,
where and . Moreover, in this case the map j is surjective, so that it provides a continuous onto function from the circle onto the 2-sphere, that is, a space-filling curve.
Cannon and Thurston also explicitly described the map , via collapsing stable and unstable laminations of the monodromy pseudo-Anosov homeomorphism of S for this fibration of M. In particular, this description implies that the map j is uniformly finite-to-one, with the pre-image of every point of having cardinality at most 2g, where g is the genus of S.
After the paper of Cannon and Thurston generated a large amount of follow-up work, with other researchers analyzing the existence or non-existence of analogs of the map j in various other set-ups motivated by the Cannon–Thurston result.
Cannon–Thurston maps and Kleinian groups
Kleinian representations of surface groups
The original example of Cannon and Thurston can be thought of in terms of Kleinian representations of the surface group . As a subgroup of , the group H acts on by isometries, and this action is properly discontinuous. Thus one gets a discrete representation .
The group also acts by isometries, properly discontinuously and co-compactly, on the universal cover , with the limit set being equal to . The Cannon–Thurston result can be interpreted as saying that these actions of H on and induce a continuous H-equivariant map .
One can ask, given a hyperbolic surface S and a discrete representation , if there exists an induced continuous map .
For Kleinian representations of surface groups, the most general result in this direction is due to Mahan Mj (2014).
Let S be a complete connected finite volume hyperbolic surface. Thus S is a surface without boundary, with a finite (possibly empty) set of cusps. Then one still has and (even if S has some cusps). In this setting Mj proved the following theorem:
Let S be a complete connected finite volume hyperbolic surface and let . Let be a discrete faithful representation without accidental parabolics. Then induces a continuous H-equivariant map .
Here the "without accidental parabolics" assumption means that for , the element is a parabolic isometry of if and only if is a parabolic isometry of . One of important applications of this result is that in the above situation the limit set is locally connected.
This result of Mj was preceded by numerous other results in the same direction, such as Minsky (1994), Alperin, Dicks and Porti (1999), McMullen (2001), Bowditch (2007) and (2013), Miyachi (2002), Souto (2006), Mj (2009), (2011), and others.
In particular, Bowditch's 2013 paper introduced the notion of a "stack" of Gromov-hyperbolic metric spaces and developed an alternative framework to that of Mj for proving various results about Cannon–Thurston maps.
General Kleinian groups
In a 2017 paper Mj proved the existence of the Cannon–Thurston map in the following setting:
Let be a discrete faithful representation where G is a word-hyperbolic group, and where contains no parabolic isometries of . Then induces a continuous G-equivariant map , where is the Gromov boundary of G, and where the image of j is the limit set of G in .
Here "induces" means that the map is continuous, where and (for some basepoint ). In the same paper Mj obtains a more general version of this result, allowing G to contain parabolics, under some extra technical assumptions on G. He also provided a description of the fibers of j in terms of ending laminations of .
Cannon–Thurston maps and word-hyperbolic groups
Existence and non-existence results
Let G be a word-hyperbolic group and let H ≤ G be a subgroup such that H is also word-hyperbolic. If the inclusion i:H → G extends to a continuous map ∂i: ∂H → ∂G between their hyperbolic boundaries, the map ∂i is called a Cannon–Thurston map. Here "extends" means that the map between hyperbolic compactifications , given by , is continuous. In this setting, if the map ∂i exists, it is unique and H-equivariant, and the image ∂i(∂H) is equal to the limit set .
If H ≤ G is quasi-isometrically embedded (i.e. quasiconvex) subgroup, then the Cannon–Thurston map ∂i: ∂H → ∂G exists and is a topological embedding.
However, it turns out that the Cannon–Thurston map exists in many other situations as well.
Mitra proved that if G is word-hyperbolic and H ≤ G is a normal word-hyperbolic subgroup, then the Cannon–Thurston map exists. (In this case if H and Q = G/H are infinite then H is not quasiconvex in G.) The original Cannon–Thurston theorem about fibered hyperbolic 3-manifolds is a special case of this result.
If H ≤ G are two word-hyperbolic groups and H is normal in G then, by a result of Mosher, the quotient group Q = G/H is also word-hyperbolic. In this setting Mitra also described the fibers of the map ∂i: ∂H → ∂G in terms of "algebraic ending laminations" on H, parameterized by the boundary points z ∈ ∂Q.
In another paper Mitra considered the case where a word-hyperbolic group G splits as the fundamental group of a graph of groups, where all vertex and edge groups are word-hyperbolic, and the edge-monomorphisms are quasi-isometric embeddings. In this setting Mitra proved that for every vertex group , for the inclusion map the Cannon–Thurston map does exist.
By combining and iterating these constructions, Mitra produced examples of hyperbolic subgroups of hyperbolic groups H ≤ G where the subgroup distortion of H in G is an arbitrarily high tower of exponentials, and the Cannon–Thurston map exists. Later Barker and Riley showed that one can arrange for H to have arbitrarily high primitive recursive distortion in G.
In a 2013 paper, Baker and Riley constructed the first example of a word-hyperbolic group G and a word-hyperbolic (in fact free) subgroup H ≤ G such that the Cannon–Thurston map does not exist.
Later Matsuda and Oguni generalized the Baker–Riley approach and showed that every non-elementary word-hyperbolic group H can be embedded in some word-hyperbolic group G in such a way that the Cannon–Thurston map does not exist.
Multiplicity of the Cannon–Thurston map
As noted above, if H is a quasi-isometrically embedded subgroup of a word-hyperbolic group G, then H is word-hyperbolic, and the Cannon–Thurston map exists and is injective. Moreover, it is known that the converse is also true: If H is a word-hyperbolic subgroup of a word-hyperbolic group G such that the Cannon–Thurston map exists and is injective, then H is uasi-isometrically embedded in G.
It is known, for more general convergence groups reasons, that if H is a word-hyperbolic subgroup of a word-hyperbolic group G such that the Cannon–Thurston map exists then for every conical limit point for H in has exactly one pre-image under . However, the converse fails: If exists and is non-injective, then there always exists a non-conical limit point of H in ∂G with exactly one preimage under ∂i.
It the context of the original Cannon–Thurston paper, and for many generalizations for the Kleinin representations the Cannon–Thurston map is known to be uniformly finite-to-one. That means that for every point , the full pre-image is a finite set with cardinality bounded by a constant depending only on S.
In general, it is known, as a consequence of the JSJ-decomposition theory for word-hyperbolic groups, that if is a short exact sequence of three infinite torsion-free word-hyperbolic groups, then H is isomorphic to a free product of some closed surface groups and of a free group.
If is the fundamental group of a closed hyperbolic surface S, such hyperbolic extensions of H are described by the theory of "convex cocompact" subgroups of the mapping class group Mod(S). Every subgroup Γ ≤ Mod(S) determines, via the Birman short exact sequence, an extension
Moreover, the group is word-hyperbolic if and only if Γ ≤ Mod(S) is convex-cocompact.
In this case, by Mitra's general result, the Cannon–Thurston map ∂i:∂H → ∂EΓ does exist. The fibers of the map ∂i are described by a collection of ending laminations on S determined by Γ. This description implies that map ∂i is uniformly finite-to-one.
If is a convex-cocompact purely atoroidal subgroup of (where ) then for the corresponding extension the group is word-hyperbolic. In this setting Dowdall, Kapovich and Taylor proved that the Cannon–Thurston map is uniformly finite-to-one, with point preimages having cardinality . This result was first proved by Kapovich and Lustig under the extra assumption that is infinite cyclic, that is, that is generated by an atoroidal fully irreducible element of .
Ghosh proved that for an arbitrary atoroidal (without requiring to be convex cocompact) the Cannon–Thurston map is uniformly finite-to-one, with a bound on the cardinality of point preimages depending only on n. (However, Ghosh's result does not provide an explicit bound in terms of n, and it is still unknown if the 2n bound always holds in this case.)
It remains unknown, whenever H is a word-hyperbolic subgroup of a word-hyperbolic group G such that the Cannon–Thurston map exists, if the map is finite-to-one.
However, it is known that in this setting for every such that p is a conical limit point, the set has cardinality 1.
Generalizations, applications and related results
As an application of the result about the existence of Cannon–Thurston maps for Kleinian surface group representations, Mj proved that if is a finitely generated Kleinian group such that the limit set is connected, then is locally connected.
Leininger, Mj and Schleimer, given a closed hyperbolic surface S, constructed a 'universal' Cannon–Thurston map from a subset of to the boundary of the curve complex of S with one puncture, such that this map, in a precise sense, encodes all the Cannon–Thurston maps corresponding to arbitrary ending laminations on S. As an application, they prove that is path-connected and locally path-connected.
Leininger, Long and Reid used Cannon–Thurston maps to show that any finitely generated torsion-free nonfree Kleinian group with limit set equal to , which is not a lattice and contains no parabolic elements, has discrete commensurator in .
Jeon and Ohshika used Cannon–Thurston maps to establish measurable rigidity for Kleinian groups.
Inclusions of relatively hyperbolic groups as subgroups of other relatively hyperbolic groups in many instances also induce equivariant continuous maps between their Bowditch boundaries; such maps are also referred to as Cannon–Thurston maps.
More generally, if G is a group acting as a discrete convergence group on two metrizable compacta M and Z, a continuous G-equivariant map M → Z (if such a map exists) is also referred to as a Cannon–Thurston map. Of particular interest in this setting is the case where G is word-hyperbolic and M = ∂G is the hyperbolic boundary of G, or where G is relatively hyperbolic and M = ∂G is the Bowditch boundary of G.
Mj and Pal obtained a generalization of Mitra's earlier result for graphs of groups to the relatively hyperbolic context.
Pal obtained a generalization of Mitra's earlier result, about the existence of the Cannon–Thurston map for short exact sequences of word-hyperbolic groups, to relatively hyperbolic contex.
Mj and Rafi used the Cannon–Thurston map to study which subgroups are quasiconvex in extensions of free groups and surface groups by convex cocompact subgroups of and of mapping class groups.
References
Further reading
Group theory
Dynamical systems
Geometric topology
Geometric group theory | Cannon–Thurston map | [
"Physics",
"Mathematics"
] | 3,033 | [
"Geometric group theory",
"Group actions",
"Geometric topology",
"Group theory",
"Fields of abstract algebra",
"Topology",
"Mechanics",
"Symmetry",
"Dynamical systems"
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63,553,875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20unproven%20methods%20against%20COVID-19 | There are many fake or unproven medical products and methods that claim to diagnose, prevent or cure COVID-19. Fake medicines sold for COVID-19 may not contain the ingredients they claim to contain, and may even contain harmful ingredients. In March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) released a statement recommending against taking any medicines in an attempt to treat or cure COVID-19, although research on potential treatment was underway, including the Solidarity trial spearheaded by WHO. The WHO requested member countries to immediately notify them if any fake medicines or other falsified products were discovered. There are also many claims that existing products help against COVID-19, which are spread through rumors online rather than conventional advertising.
Anxiety about COVID-19 makes people more willing to "try anything" that might give them a sense of control of the situation, making them easy targets for scams. Many false claims about measures against COVID-19 have circulated widely on social media, but some have been circulated by text, on YouTube, and even in some mainstream media. Officials advised that before forwarding information, people should think carefully and look it up. Misinformation messages may use scare tactics or other high-pressure rhetoric, claim to have all the facts while others do not, and jump to unusual conclusions. The public was advised to check the information source's source, looking on official websites; some messages have falsely claimed to be from official bodies like UNICEF and government agencies. Arthur Caplan, head of medical ethics at New York University's medical school, had simpler advice for COVID-19 products: "Anything online, ignore it".
Products which claim to prevent COVID-19 risk giving dangerous false confidence and increasing infection rates. Going out to buy such products may encourage people to break stay-at-home orders, reducing social distancing. Some of the pretend treatments are also poisonous; hundreds of people have died from using fake COVID-19 treatments.
Diagnosis
Medically-approved tests detect either the virus or the antibodies the body makes to fight it off. Government health departments and healthcare providers provide tests to the public. There have been fraudsters offering fake tests; some have offered tests in exchange for money, but others have said the test is free in order to collect information that could later be used for identity theft or medical insurance fraud. Some fraudsters have claimed to be local government health authorities. People have been advised to contact their doctor or genuine local government health authorities for information about getting tested. Fake tests have been offered on social media platforms, by e-mail, and by phone.
Counterfeit testing kits, which were originally used for testing HIV and monitoring glucose levels, were touted as for coronavirus diagnosis.
Holding one's breath for 10 seconds was claimed to be an effective self-test for the coronavirus. The WHO stated that this test did not work and should not be used.
Manufacturer Bodysphere briefly sold what it claimed were coronavirus antibody tests. It falsely marketed them as having received FDA Emergency Use Authorization. It also falsely claimed they were made in the United States.
Prevention and cure claims
Widely circulated rumours have made many unfounded claims about methods of preventing and curing infection with SARS-CoV-2. Among others:
Disinfection-related methods
Hand cleaning methods
Hand sanitizer is not more effective than washing in plain soap and water. Washing in soap and water for at least 20 seconds is recommended by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as the best way to clean hands in most situations. However, if soap and water are not available, a hand sanitizer that is at least 60% alcohol can be used instead, unless hands are visibly dirty or greasy.
Soap is effective at removing coronaviruses, but antibacterial soap is not better than plain soap.
Red soap is not more germicidal than soaps of other colors, contrary to claims in a popular Facebook post, said Ashan Pathirana, the registrar of Sri Lanka's Health Promotion Bureau (HPB); he suggested that it might be a reference to carbolic soap.
Hand sanitizer prepared at home by mixing rum, bleach and fabric softener has been widely promoted as effective at preventing COVID-19 in YouTube videos in the Philippines. The Integrated Chemists of the Philippines (ICP) released statements saying that alcoholic drinks contain only about 40% alcohol, less than the 70% needed in effective hand sanitizers, and that mixing bleach and alcohol creates chloroform. The manufacturers of the brands of rum and bleach used in the videos have both publicly issued statements calling the recipe dangerous and urging people not to use it.
Vodka was alleged to be an effective homemade hand sanitizer, or an ingredient in one. The company whose brand was alleged to be protective responded to the rumours by citing the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention statement that hand sanitizers needed to be at least 60% alcohol to be effective, and stating that their product was only 40% alcohol.
Claims that vinegar was more effective than hand sanitizer against the coronavirus were made in a video that was shared in Brazil. That was disproved, as "there is no evidence that acetic acid is effective against the virus" and, even if there was, "its concentration in common household vinegar is low".
Gargling, nasal rinses, and inhalation
Inhaling bleach or other disinfectants is dangerous and will not protect against COVID-19. They can cause irritation and damage to tissues, including the eyes. They are poisonous and WHO has warned not to take it internally and to keep it out of the reach of children. They are safe and effective when used to disinfect surfaces such as countertops, but are not safe for human consumption.
Controversial alternative medicine proponents Joseph Mercola and Thomas Levy claimed that inhaling 0.5–3% hydrogen peroxide solution using a nebulizer could prevent or cure COVID-19. They cite research using hydrogen peroxide to sterilize surfaces, incorrectly asserting that it can therefore be used to clean human airways. A tweet from Mercola advertising this method was removed from Twitter on April 15, 2020, for violating the platform rules. Inhalation of hydrogen peroxide can cause upper airway irritation, hoarseness, inflammation of the nose, and burning sensations in the chest. At high concentrations, inhaling hydrogen peroxide can cause permanent neurological damage or death. Though hydrogen peroxide use as an alternative and complementary form of medicine is advocated for use in multiple disease processes, including COPD, asthma, pneumonia and bronchitis, there seems to be no trials regarding its use. It was reported a case of possible side effect related to chronic (during 5 years) and subacute hydrogen peroxide inhalation use which lead to interstitial lung disease in the form of acute pneumonitis.
Gargling with saltwater was said to kill the coronavirus in claims on Weibo, Twitter and Facebook. These claims were falsely attributed to respiratory expert Zhong Nanshan, Wuhan Union Hospital, and a number of other people and institutions, sometimes with the attribution changed and the actual advice copied verbatim. Zhong Nanshan's medical team published a refutation, pointing out that the virus settles in the respiratory tract, which cannot be cleaned by rinsing the mouth. The WHO also said it had no convincing evidence that this method would provide any protection against COVID-19.
Saltwater sprays were given at the door of the River of Grace Community Church in South Korea in the false belief that this would protect people from the virus; the same unsterilized spray bottle was used on everyone, and may have increased the risk. Subsequently, 46 devotees were infected with the virus.
"Corona-Cure Coronavirus Infection Prevention Nasal Spray" was fraudulently marketed online.
There is no evidence that saline nasal rinses help prevent COVID-19.
Temperature
Cold weather and snow do not kill the COVID-19 virus. The virus lives in humans, not in the outdoors, though it can survive on surfaces. Even in cold weather, the body will stay at 36.5–37 degrees Celsius inside, and the COVID-19 virus will not be killed.
Hot and humid conditions do not prevent COVID-19 from spreading, either. There have been many COVID-19 cases in countries with hot and humid climates.
Drinking warm water or hot baths/heating to will not cure people of COVID-19. It has been claimed that these statements were made by UNICEF in coronavirus prevention guidelines, but UNICEF officials refuted this.
High temperatures cannot be used on humans to kill the COVID-19 virus. Taking very hot baths can cause burns, but the body will stay at 36.5–37 degrees Celsius inside, and the COVID-19 virus will not be killed.
Hot saunas and hand or hair dryers do not prevent or treat COVID-19.
Steam inhalation was suggested on Facebook as a cure for coronavirus infection. Inhaling steam will not treat or cure COVID-19.
Radiation
Exposing people to sunlight will not prevent or cure COVID-19. It has been falsely claimed that UNICEF said so, in coronavirus prevention guidelines; UNICEF officials refuted this. The virus can spread in even the sunniest of weather.
UV-C light cannot be used on humans to kill the COVID-19 virus. Attempting to use UV to sterilize people can cause skin irritation and damage the eyes.
Other disinfection-related methods
White color does not have a 'harmful effect' on coronavirus, as claimed in a widely shared Facebook post; nor does the colour of a handkerchief have an effect on the virus, according to Ashan Pathirana, the registrar of Sri Lanka's Health Promotion Bureau (HPB). Using handkerchiefs or tissues of other colours to sneeze or cough into will be just as effective.
Posts on social media claimed that volcanic ash from the eruption of the Taal Volcano on January 12, 2020, in the Philippines was the cause of low infection rates in the country, falsely stating that it could kill the virus and had "anti-viral" and "disinfectant qualities".
Drinking bleach is extremely dangerous and will not protect against COVID-19. Bleach is poisonous and damages internal organs. Drinking it can cause disability and death. The WHO has warned not to drink the substance.
Protective equipment
USB flash drives were being sold for $370 as a "5G Bioshield", purportedly offering protection from the non-existent threat of infection transmitted via 5G mobile telephone radio waves.
Over 34,000 counterfeit surgical masks—which may have been touted as providing coronavirus prevention—were seized by Europol in March 2020.
Making masks out of wet-wipes has not been officially recommended as an alternative to surgical masks, contrary to some claims. Some public health authorities have issued directions for making and using homemade cloth face masks. See face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Aerosol Boxes—acrylic boxes placed over patient's heads during aerosol generating such as intubation—can potentially increase dispersal of COVID-containing aerosol particles if a patient coughs.
Drugs of abuse
A mix containing amphetamines, cocaine, and nicotine, on sale on the dark web for US$300, was fraudulently presented as a vaccine against COVID-19.
Cocaine does not protect against COVID-19. Several viral tweets purporting that snorting cocaine would sterilize one's nostrils of the coronavirus spread around Europe and Africa. In response, the French Ministry of Health released a public service announcement debunking this claim, saying "No, cocaine does NOT protect against COVID-19. It is an addictive drug that causes serious side effects and is harmful to people’s health." The World Health Organization also debunked the claim. Facebook flagged the rumour as misinformation.
A claim that cannabis could protect against the coronavirus appeared on YouTube, along with a petition to legalize cannabis in Sri Lanka. Sri Lankan Health authorities pointed out that there was no evidence that cannabis protected against COVID-19. A fake webpage purporting to be a Fox News article also claimed that CBD oil was a potential cure.
The chloroform- and ether-based drug loló was said to cure the disease in messages spread in Brazil.
Boiled betel leaves will not cure COVID-19.
Industrial methanol was claimed to cure the coronavirus. Drinking alcohol is ethanol, while methanol is acutely poisonous. The WHO has warned not to drink ethanol or methanol in an effort to kill the virus. Iranian media were reporting nearly 300 dead and 1000 hospitalized (or 600 dead and 3,000 hospitalized, according to an unidentified doctor in the Health Ministry) as of April 8, 2020. Alcoholic beverages are illegal in Iran, resulting in a black market in liquor made illegally.
Contrary to some reports, drinking ethyl alcohol also does not protect against COVID-19, and can increase health risks (short term and long term).
Commercial products
There are many fraudulent and unproven products that are claimed to treat or protect against COVID-19.
"Virus Shut Out Protection" pendants, supposedly from Japan, worn around one's neck, have been sold with claims that they prevent infection. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency said that no evidence had been presented that they work, and took legal action against importers.
A Twitter post claimed that scientists from the "Australian Medical University" had developed a vaccine for the coronavirus. It accepted 0.1 Bitcoin as payment for a "vaccination kit" and promised shipping in 5–10 days. The linked website was later removed.
Homeopathic 'Influenza complex' has been marketed as a preventive measure for COVID-19 by a man in New Zealand, who claimed to have identified and imbued his product with the "frequency" of COVID-19 using a "radionics machine". Homeopathic remedies such as this one have no active ingredients and cannot protect against flu, colds, or COVID-19, said University of Auckland associate professor and microbiologist Dr Siouxsie Wiles. The NZ Ministry of Health said that COVID-19 was not a strain of flu, and criticized products which claim to prevent COVID-19 as giving dangerous false confidence.
Homeopathic treatment with Arsenicum album is claimed as an "add on" to prevent COVID-19.
A person living in California marketed pills for curing coronavirus, although the contents of the pill were not made public. He was arrested for attempted fraud, which carries up to 20 years of prison.
Claims that colloidal silver solution can kill over 650 pathogens including coronavirus prompted antifraud actions. The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health warned on their website against taking colloidal silver as dietary supplement. Seven warning letters were filed to companies for selling fraudulent products. Preacher Jim Bakker had been claiming that the colloid silver he sold (and only his) could be used to treat COVID-19. Colloidal silver is not an effective treatment for anything, and may interfere with other medications or cause permanent argyria (blue-gray skin discoloration).
Toothpastes, dietary supplements and creams were being sold illegally in the US, with claims that they could cure coronavirus infection. Alex Jones was directed by the USFDA to cease promoting these products as a cure.
Celebrity chef Pete Evans claimed that a device called the BioCharger NG Subtle Energy Platform, costing US$14,990, could cure the coronavirus. He faced backlash, taking down his advertisement after the Australian Medical Association dismissed the product as a "fancy light machine". The Australian distributors, Hydrogen Technologies Pty Ltd, stated the device would help "open the airways of Coronavirus victims by reducing the inflammation it causes in the lungs" as well as other unproven therapeutic claims. Evans was fined AU$25,200 by the Therapeutic Goods Administration for his false claims and the company was fined AU$50,400 for false advertising.
"Miracle Mineral Solution" (MMS) is a mixture of sodium chlorite (with table salt and some other trace minerals) and an acid, which reacts with the sodium chlorite to produces a solution of unstable chlorous acid, which becomes chlorite, chlorate, and chlorine dioxide, an industrial bleach. The FDA has warned against using it, saying there is no evidence that it cures, prevents, or treats COVID-19, and that it is seriously hazardous to health. The "Genesis II Church" calls its mail-order MMS a "sacrament", and when warned by the FDA that their claims that it could cure COVID-19 were fraudulent, vehemently refused to stop making them, saying the FDA had no authority over them, and they would never stop. Their status as a religious organization was disputed in a successful filing for a temporary restraining order on grounds of public safety, by the U.S. Attorney's Office in South Florida.
Shuanghuanglian, a mixture of plants invented in the 1960s as part of official state-sponsored TCM (traditional Chinese medicine), was advertised by the Xinhua News Agency as being able to treat the coronavirus. Posts on Weibo claimed that many people violated social distancing rules while queuing to buy it. Some attributed the news stories to stock market manipulation.
Jennings Ryan Staley, a licensed physician and owner of Skinny Beach Med Spa, was accused of selling mail-order "COVID-19 treatment packs", claiming they would protect against COVID-19 for six weeks and cure it "100%", causing the disease to disappear in hours. He has been arrested and is being "vigorously investigated" by the FBI; if convicted, he may face 20 years in prison.
A hand cream sold by the right-wing populist party leader of the party Greek Solution, Kyriakos Velopoulos, via his TV shop, is claimed to completely kill COVID-19, although it is not approved by medical authorities.
An "anti-coronavirus" mattress was advertised as being anti-fungal, anti-allergic, dustproof and waterproof and able to fight the coronavirus.
Mohanan Vaidyar, a self-proclaimed naturopath, was arrested in Kerala for claiming that he can cure COVID-19 and treating people.
Methylene chloride, commonly used as a paint stripper, was being marketed on eBay as a coronavirus disinfectant. It had been previously banned by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency due to the risk of asphyxiation during use.
Chlorine dioxide tablets and sanitizers were marketed on Amazon.
A purportedly anti-virus lanyard called Shut Out resulted in the criminal conviction of a Georgia woman for violating the U.S. Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act.
Australian company Lorna Jane claimed that its "anti-virus activewear" prevents and protects against infectious diseases including COVID-19 before being fined by the Therapeutic Goods Administration $40,000 for false advertising.
Traditional Chinese Medicine
China officially promotes the use of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) to treat COVID-19. Many academic papers, such as Shi et al., have been published trying to establish the effectiveness of various decoctions such as Qingfei Paidu Decoction. Most of the western media hold a skeptical attitude about its effectiveness, despite many positive accounts. There is much ongoing research trying to identify the effective ingredients for treating COVID-19 from inspirations from the TCM methods.
Traditional Persian Medicine
Various studies have been conducted and reported on the effect of traditional persian medicine formulas on the SARS-CoV-2. These treatments have been studied in various clinical trials in Iran.
Botanical claims
The poisonous fruit of the datura plant was falsely promoted as a preventive measure for COVID-19, which resulted in eleven people being hospitalized in India. They ate the fruit, following the instructions from a TikTok video that propagated the misinformation. The fruit was claimed to be effective on the grounds that it resembles the coronavirus virion.
A complex Sri Lankan herbal drink was said to remedy all virus infections which can affect humans, including COVID-19, with reposts circulating widely on Facebook. The drink might reduce fever symptoms, but this might lead to the infected person infecting other people, and the mixture could have long-term health complications, according to L. P. A. Karunathilake, a senior lecturer at the Colombo University Institute of Indigenous Medicine.
Andrographis paniculata was claimed to boost the immune systems and relieve symptoms of coronavirus by a Thai media website. Pakakrong Kwankao, Head of the Empirical Evidence Centre at Chao Phraya Abhaibhubehjr Hospital, and Richard Brown, Programme Manager of Health Emergencies and Antimicrobial Resistance at the World Health Organization (WHO) in Thailand, said that there was no evidence to back these claims.
Sap from Tinospora crispa (makabuhay) plants was claimed to serve as an antibiotic against the coronavirus when used as an eye drop; it was also claimed that the coronavirus is from the skin and crawls to the eyes. These rumours circulated in the Philippines. Jaime Purificacion from the University of the Philippines’ Institute of Herbal Medicine said that while there was evidence for makabuhay as a treatment for scabies, there was no evidence that it was useful for treating coronavirus, and no evidence that putting the sap in your eyes was safe. He strongly advised against putting plant sap in the eyes, saying it could be dangerous. The WHO has stated that antibiotics do not kill the coronavirus, as they kill bacteria, not viruses.
A recipe consisting of ingredients often purported to prevent and cure colds, including lemon grass, elder, ginger, black pepper, lemon and honey, was promoted by María Alejandra Díaz, a member of the Venezuelan Constituent Assembly as a cure for COVID-19. Díaz also described the virus as a bioterrorism weapon.
The President of Madagascar, Andry Rajoelina launched and promoted Covid-Organics in April 2020: a herbal drink based on an artemisia plant as a cure that can treat and prevent COVID-19.
United States President Donald Trump and Mike Lindell participated in a July meeting at the White House regarding the use of oleandrin as a treatment for coronavirus. Lindell soon acquired a financial stake in Phoenix Biotechnology Inc, a company trying to find a profitable use for oleandrin. Oleandrin is toxic and potentially lethal to humans.
Religious and magical methods
During the pandemic the alternative anthroposophic medicine promoted at Steiner hospitals in Germany became notorious amongst legitimate medics for forcing quack remedies on sedated hospital patients, some of whom were critically ill. Remedies used included ginger poultices and homeopathic pellets claimed to contain the dust of shooting stars. Stefan Kluge, director of intensive care medicine at Hamburg's University Medical Centre said the claims of anthroposophic doctors during the pandemic were "highly unprofessional" and that they "risk[ed] causing uncertainty among patients".
Indian politician Swami Chakrapani claimed that drinking cow urine and applying cow dung on the body could cure COVID-19. He also stated that only Indian cows must be used. MP Suman Haripriya also promoted cow dung and urine . In March 2020, the All India Hindu Union hosted a "cow urine drinking party" in New Delhi, attended by 200 people. There exists no scientific evidence in favour of cow urine. Dr. Shailendra Saxena of the Indian Virological Society stated that there is no evidence that cow urine has any anti-viral effect, and eating cow dung might transmit diseases to humans zoonotically. For example, giardiasis, E. coli, salmonellosis and tuberculosis can all be transmitted via bovine fecal matter.
Drinking camel urine has been advocated in the Middle East. The WHO stated that camel urine should not be drunk, in order to avoid contracting Middle East Respiratory Syndrome–related coronavirus (MERS-CoV), a more deadly, SARS-CoV-2-like species of betacoronavirus.
Televangelist Kenneth Copeland urged followers to touch their televisions as a means of vaccination by proxy, and also attempted to exorcise COVID-19 on at least three occasions by summoning "the wind of God", stating that this had destroyed the virus (either in the US or worldwide). Earlier, he had urged followers to ignore public health advisories and come to his churches, saying they could be healed there by the laying on of hands if they fell ill.
"Happy Science", a secretive pay-to-progress religious group, sells "spiritual vaccines" to prevent and cure COVID-19, advertises virus-related blessings at rates from US$100 to over US$400, and sells coronavirus-themed DVDs and CDs of Ryuho Okawa (the former stockbroker whom the group believes to be the current incarnation of the supreme deity) lecturing, which are claimed to boost immunity, . After initially defying social-distancing measures, it later closed its New York temple, and administered spiritual vaccines remotely.
A suggestion that COVID-19 could be prevented by applying a cotton ball soaked in violet oil to the anus has brought Abbas Tabrizian renewed widespread ridicule in Iran. The IRNA news agency reported that Abbas Tabrizian, who has often promoted his remedies as Prophetic medicine in opposition to standard medicine, has also claimed that COVID-19 is God's revenge against those who had bothered him. An arrest warrant has been issued for Morteza Kohansal, a follower of Abbas Tabrizian, who visited the coronavirus section of a hospital in Iran without wearing protective gear, and applied what he described as the "Prophet's perfume" to affected patients. Using Prophetic medicine has caused some Iranian clerics to delay getting standard medical treatment. Ayatollah Hashem Bathaie Golpayegani announced that he had cured himself of COVID-19 three weeks before being hospitalized. He died two days later.
Some religious hardliners in Iran have advocated that people visit shrines to be healed, and opposed government closures of pilgrimage sites.
Parliamentarian Ramesh Bidhuri of the Bharatiya Janata Party claimed that experts say using Namaste as a greeting prevents transmission of COVID-19, but using Arabic greetings such as Adab and As-salamu alaykum does not prevent it as they direct air into the mouth.
Religious and scientific misconceptions related to the coronavirus have been found to be widespread in Pakistan. According to a survey research conducted by Ipsos, 82% of people in Pakistan believed that performing wudu/ablution five times a day will keep them protected from contracting COVID-19. Meanwhile, 67% polled believed that jamaat (congregation prayer) cannot become a source of infection and 48% people believed that shaking hands cannot infect anyone since it is Sunnah.
Food and drink
Fruit
Drinking lemon in warm water has been claimed to prevent both COVID-19 and cancer by increasing vitamin C levels. This claim circulated on Facebook in English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese. There is no evidence that vitamin C was effective against coronaviruses, nor are lemons the fruit with the most vitamin C content, said Henry Chenal, director of the Integrated Bioclinical Research Centre (CIRBA) in Abidjan, Ivory Coast. The WHO said that there was no evidence that lemons would protect against COVID-19, though they recommended consuming fresh fruit and vegetables in a healthy diet.
Bananas were claimed to be able to strengthen the immune system and prevent and cure COVID-19. The claim was based on a composited video that falsely attributed the statements to researchers at the University of Queensland. The University stated that the video was faked and urged people not to share it.
Eating mango or durian will not cure COVID-19.
Onions were rumoured to be a preventive measure against COVID-19 on Facebook.
Herbs and spices
Garlic was said to prevent COVID-19 on Facebook. There is no evidence that garlic protects against COVID-19.
Hot peppers cannot prevent or cure COVID-19.
Consuming large amounts of boiled ginger after fasting for a day was rumoured to prevent or cure coronavirus on Facebook. There is no evidence that this prevents or cures any coronavirus infection, Mark Kristoffer Pasayan, a fellow at the Philippine Society for Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, said.
Juice of bittergourd, a vegetable used in traditional medicine, was suggested as a cure for COVID-19 on social media.
Consuming turmeric has been claimed to help prevent COVID-19, but the WHO says there is no evidence that it does.
Neem leaves (Azadirachta indica) were claimed to be remedies for COVID-19 in rumours that circulated in India.
Various retailers have marketed herbal products and essential oils fraudulently claimed to cure or prevent COVID-19.
Drinks and frozen foods
Drinking alcohol will not prevent or cure COVID-19, contrary to some claims. Drinking alcohol may cause subclinical immunosuppression (see "Addictive drugs" section above).
Drinking water every 15 minutes was claimed to prevent coronavirus infection. Drinking large amounts of water will not prevent or cure COVID-19, though avoiding dehydration is healthy.
Tea was said to be effective against COVID-19 in claims circulating on social media, which said that since tea contained the stimulants methylxanthine, theobromine and theophylline, it was capable of warding off the virus. These claims were falsely attributed to Dr Li Wenliang.
Fennel tea (supposedly similar to the medicine Tamiflu—itself ineffective against coronaviruses—according to a false e-mail attributed to a hospital director) was claimed to be a cure in Brazil.
So-called cures in messages spreading in Brazil included avocado and mint tea, hot whiskey and honey, essential oils, and vitamins C and D.
Facebook claims that 'gargling salt water, drinking hot liquids like tea and avoiding ice cream can stop the transmission of COVID-19' have been criticized by health professionals.
Eating ice cream and frozen foods will neither cure nor cause COVID-19, as long as they are hygienically prepared. This claim was widely attributed to UNICEF, which put out a statement saying that they had made no such claim: "To the creators of such falsehoods, we offer a simple message: STOP. Sharing inaccurate information and attempting to imbue it with authority by misappropriating the names of those in a position of trust is dangerous and wrong".
Meat
Claims that vegetarians are immune to coronavirus spread online in India, causing "#NoMeat_NoCoronaVirus" to trend on Twitter. Eating meat does not have an effect on COVID-19 spread, except for people near where animals are slaughtered (see zoonosis), said Anand Krishnan, professor at the Centre for Community Medicine of the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS).
Eating chicken will not cause COVID-19, as long as it is hygienically prepared and well-cooked.
Dishes
There is no evidence that eating curry or rasam protects against COVID-19.
Exercises
Taking six deep breaths and then coughing while covering one's mouth was circulated as a treatment for COVID-19 infection in social media, including by celebrities such as J. K. Rowling.
Use of existing medications unproven against COVID-19
In March 2020, then US President Donald Trump promoted the use of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine, two related anti-malarial drugs, for treating COVID-19. The FDA later clarified that it has not approved any therapeutics or drugs to treat COVID-19, but that studies were underway to see if chloroquine could be effective in treatment of COVID-19. Following Trump's claim, panic buying of chloroquine was reported from many countries in Africa, Latin America and South Asia. Health officials across the world are issuing warnings over the use of antimalarial drugs after Trump’s comments about treating the coronavirus with them sparked panic-buying and overdoses. Ugandan Dr. Chris Kaganda said, "There is no known dosage for Covid-19 and whether it can actually cure it, it's safer to avoid chloroquine, but you know these are desperate times." Patients with lupus and rheumatoid arthritis, who take these medications regularly, have had trouble obtaining supplies. Taking these, or related products intended for aquarium use have caused serious side effects, illness and death.
Rumours circulated in Iraq that the Iraqi pharmaceutical company PiONEER Co. had discovered a treatment for coronavirus. These reports were loosely based on a statement by PiONEER, which mentioned hydroxychloroquine sulphate and azithromycin (brand nameand "Zitroneer"), a common antibiotic ) and said that it would try and make these drugs available free of charge. The statement did not say that these drugs can cure COVID-19. The company later clarified that they had not attempted to find a cure for COVID-19, and criticized the news media for spreading inaccurate reports and misinformation, running with the story without checking whether they had misunderstood the company's statement. Two days later, another false story was widely reported, saying that Samaraa, another Iraqi pharmaceutical company, had found a cure. Generally, antibiotics (like azithromycin) are not effective against viruses, only some bacteria. Azithromycin is sometimes given to patients hospitalized with COVID-19, but only to treat bacterial co-infection. Overuse of azithromycin causes antibiotic resistance, and rare side effects include heart arrhythmias and hearing loss.
There were also claims that a 30-year-old Indian textbook lists aspirin, anti-histamines and nasal spray as treatments for COVID-19. The textbook actually describes coronaviruses in general, as a family of viruses.
There were also claims in April 2020 that an anti-viral injection had been approved as a cure in the Philippines, and the lockdown would be lifted. The persons making these claims were issued with a cease-and-desist order by the Philippine FDA, which reiterated the need to test treatments to be sure they are safe. The FDA said that they had not even received an application to register the treatment with the FDA. The agency has prohibited the use of the untested drug, and the clinic illegally promoting it subsequently closed.
Ivermectin, a medication used to treat parasitic infections, was suggested as a possible COVID-19 treatment in an online preprint which utilized a flawed statistical methodology. Importantly, the concentration of the drug that was required to achieve the antiviral effects observed in cell culture was several times higher than what can be achieved in the bloodstream of patients. Clinical research subsequently determined ivermectin is not effective for treating COVID-19. The promotion of ivermectin as a COVID-19 treatment has led to increases in ivermectin-related poison control centre calls in the United States, as well as national shortages of the drug in Australia.
Anti-fraud efforts
Operation Pangea, launched by international police organisation Interpol, seized counterfeit facemasks, substandard hand sanitizers and unauthorized antiviral medication in over 90 countries, resulting in the arrest of 121 people.
References
Alternative medicine
Communication of falsehoods
COVID-19 pandemic-related lists
Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on journalism
Health-related conspiracy theories | List of unproven methods against COVID-19 | [
"Technology"
] | 7,529 | [
"Health-related conspiracy theories",
"Science and technology-related conspiracy theories"
] |
63,553,876 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%206863 | NGC 6863 is an asterism in the constellation Aquila. The celestial object was found on July 25, 1827, by the British astronomer John Herschel.
In 2009 an astronomical study by Bidin et al. concluded that whereas the small group of stars in Aquila had been classified as an OCR (Open Cluster Remnant i.e. the dispersed remains of a group of physically related stars) they were in fact an asterism, a group of unrelated stellar bodies.
See also
List of NGC-objects
External links
SIMBAD Astronomical Database
SEDS
References
Aquila (constellation)
Asterisms (astronomy)
6863
18270725 | NGC 6863 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 137 | [
"Astronomy stubs",
"Constellations",
"Aquila (constellation)",
"Sky regions",
"Asterisms (astronomy)"
] |
63,554,061 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysprosium%28III%29%20fluoride | Dysprosium(III) fluoride is an inorganic compound of dysprosium with a chemical formula DyF3.
Production
Dysprosium(III) fluoride can be produced by mixing dysprosium(III) chloride or dysprosium(III) carbonate into 40% hydrofluoric acid.
DyF3 can also be produced by hydrothermal reaction of dysprosium nitrate and sodium tetrafluoroborate at 200 °C.
DyF3 can also be produced when dysprosium oxide and ammonium bifluoride are mixed and heated to 300 °C until the oxide is porous, and continued to heat to 700 °C. When hydrogen fluoride is introduced, a reaction occurs:
Properties
Dysprosium(III) fluoride is a white, odorless solid that is insoluble in water. It has an orthorhombic crystal structure with the space group Pnma (space group no. 62).
References
Fluorides
Dysprosium compounds
Lanthanide halides | Dysprosium(III) fluoride | [
"Chemistry"
] | 232 | [
"Inorganic compounds",
"Fluorides",
"Inorganic compound stubs",
"Salts"
] |
63,554,295 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%205619 | NGC 5619 (also known as NGC 5619A) is an intermediate spiral galaxy in the constellation Virgo. The galaxy was found on April 10, 1828, by the British astronomer John Herschel. It is located about 390 million light-years (120 Mpc) away from the Sun.
NGC 5619 is a radio galaxy.
See also
List of NGC objects
References
External links
SEDS
Intermediate spiral galaxies
5619
Virgo (constellation) | NGC 5619 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 91 | [
"Virgo (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
63,554,517 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generic%20Network%20Virtualization%20Encapsulation | Generic Network Virtualization Encapsulation (Geneve) is a network encapsulation protocol created by the IETF in order to unify the efforts made by other initiatives like VXLAN and NVGRE, with the intent to eliminate the wild growth of encapsulation protocols.
Open vSwitch is an example of a software-based virtual network switch that supports Geneve overlay networks. It is also supported by AWS Gateway Load Balancers.
References
Telecommunications engineering
Network architecture
Telecommunications infrastructure | Generic Network Virtualization Encapsulation | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 104 | [
"Telecommunications engineering",
"Computer network stubs",
"Network architecture",
"Computer networks engineering",
"Computing stubs",
"Electrical engineering"
] |
63,554,560 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustavs%20Vanags | Gustavs Vanags (10 March 1891 — 8 May 1965) was a Soviet and Latvian organic chemist, full member of Latvian SSR Academy of Sciences. He was also one of the signers of the Memorandum of Latvian Central Council in 1944.
Biography
Gustavs Vanags was born in "Rungas" house of the Schnicken (Sniķeru) manor (now in Ukri Parish, Auce Municipality). He received primary education in the Mitau Classic Gymnasium, and in 1910 enrolled Riga Polytechnic Institute. During the First World War, he, among many, went in evacuation to the inner regions of Russian Empire; after returning from it in 1921, he completed his education in the new-founded University of Latvia and worked at the Faculty of Chemistry, raising to the position of the chair of the Department of organic chemistry. He received his habilitation in 1932.
After Riga Polytechnic Institute was reestablished in 1958, G. Vanags moved to it, serving in the same position as the department chair until 1965. Simultaneously he also worked in the State Institute of Organic Synthesis, where he carried out his research in the chemistry of cyclic β-diketones. He was founder of Riga scholl of organic chemists specializing on β-diketones, which continues up to day (2020). Gustavs Vanags, along with his students, designed and synthesized several compounds of notable application in medicine, agriculture and chemical analysis (omefin, bindon, nitroindandione, rhodenticide diphenadione or ratindan).
Gustavs Vanags died in a sudden death on May 8, 1965, in Riga. He was buried in the Forest Cemetery.
Commemoration
Latvian Academy of Sciences named a biannual prize for advances in chemistry in Gustavs Vanags' name.
A commemorative plaque with bas-relief of G. Vanags is installed in the hall of Riga Technical University Faculty of Chemistry. A commemorative stone is erected at the place where his native house of "Rungas" once stood.
References
External links
Article in Letonika encyclopedia
Exhibition "Gustavs Vanags and organic chemistry in Latvia
1891 births
1965 deaths
Organic chemists
20th-century chemists
People from Dobele Municipality
People from Kovno Governorate
People from Zemgale
Academicians of the Latvian SSR Academy of Sciences
Riga Technical University alumni
Academic staff of Riga Technical University
University of Latvia alumni
Academic staff of the University of Latvia
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Latvian chemists
20th-century Latvian inventors
Soviet chemists
Soviet inventors | Gustavs Vanags | [
"Chemistry"
] | 517 | [
"Organic chemists"
] |
63,554,631 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20532 | NGC 532 is a spiral galaxy in the constellation Pisces. The galaxy is approximately 100 million light-years (30 Megaparsecs) away from the Earth, and was discovered on September 21, 1786, by the German-British astronomer William Herschel.
See also
List of NGC objects
External links
SEDS
References
Spiral galaxies
0532
Pisces (constellation)
005264 | NGC 532 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 80 | [
"Pisces (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
63,556,051 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/METRNL | Meteorin-like/Meteorin-Beta (Metrnl)/IL-41, also known as subfatin and cometin, is a small (~27kDa) secreted cytokine, protein encoded by a gene called meteorin-like (METRNL).
Lower serum levels of Metrnl might be a risk factor for developing coronary artery disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus
References
Human proteins
Hormones
Cell signaling
Signal transduction
Cytokines | METRNL | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 99 | [
"Biochemistry",
"Cytokines",
"Neurochemistry",
"Signal transduction"
] |
63,556,060 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi%20mode%20interferometer | A multi-mode interferometer (MMI), also known as a multimode interference coupler, is a micro-scale structure in which light waves can travel, such that the optical power is split or combined in a predictable way. In an MMI, light is confined and guided, and thus the MMI is essentially a broad optical waveguide. For example, an ideal 1x2 MMI would be a 50-50 splitter, such that light enters along one path and exits along two paths, with half the power in each exit path. These entrance and exit paths are narrow waveguides, and the MMI itself is in the shape of a broad rectangular box. An ideal 50-50 splitter is nearly impossible in practice, due to the complex behavior of light. Optical loss will always occur as light travels through an MMI, which means that the total output power of a real MMI is less than the total input power. Additionally, the light propagates through the rectangular box in multiple modes, while also experiencing reflection and interference. This leads to mathematical models and equations that are too complex to solve by hand, and thus MMIs are typically designed through computer simulations.
MMIs are usually described by their coupling ratio, in which the output power of one port is compared to the total output power (summing over all output ports.) An ideal 1x2 MMI would have a 50% coupling ratio for each output port. For a real 1x2 MMI, values such as 48% and 52% may occur, due to imperfections in fabrication and manufacturing.
References
Interferometers
Photonics | Multi mode interferometer | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 335 | [
"Interferometers",
"Measuring instruments"
] |
76,616,559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis%20irradiation | Cannabis irradiation is a process used in the cannabis industry to remove or inactivate microbial contaminants (mold, fungus, etc.) from cannabis meant for human consumption, using various forms of radiation. The radiation applied may include gamma radiation, electron beam irradiation, and X-rays. Cold plasma has also been studied experimentally in Israel. As of 2021, the most common radiation used to decontaminate was gamma rays. In the regulated Canadian market, "irradiation is considered to be an effective way of meeting [microbial contaminants] standards", and it has been "standard practice" since at least 2016 in Canada and the Netherlands.
See also
Cannabis product testing
Food irradiation
References
Sources
Further reading
Cannabis industry
Radiation | Cannabis irradiation | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 158 | [
"Transport phenomena",
"Waves",
"Physical phenomena",
"Radiation"
] |
76,617,124 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient%20Near%20Eastern%20cosmology | Ancient Near Eastern (ANE) cosmology refers to the plurality of cosmological beliefs in the Ancient Near East, covering the period from the 4th millennium BC to the formation of the Macedonian Empire by Alexander the Great in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. These beliefs include the Mesopotamian cosmologies from Babylonia, Sumer, and Akkad; the Levantine or West Semitic cosmologies from Ugarit and ancient Israel and Judah (the biblical cosmology); the Egyptian cosmology from Ancient Egypt; and the Anatolian cosmologies from the Hittites. This system of cosmology went on to have a profound influence on views in early Greek cosmology, later Jewish cosmology, patristic cosmology, and Islamic cosmology (including Quranic cosmology). Until the modern era, variations of ancient near eastern cosmology survived with Hellenistic cosmology as the main competing system.
Summary
Ancient near eastern cosmology can be divided into its cosmography, the physical structure and features of the cosmos; and cosmogony, the creation myths that describe the origins of the cosmos in the texts and traditions of the ancient near eastern world. The cosmos and the gods were also related, as cosmic bodies like heaven, earth, the stars were believed to be and/or personified as gods, and the sizes of the gods were frequently described as being of cosmic proportions.
Cosmography
Ancient near eastern civilizations held to a fairly uniform conception of cosmography. This cosmography remained remarkably stable in the context of the expansiveness and longevity of the ancient near east, but changes were also to occur. Widely held components of ancient near eastern cosmography included:
a flat earth and a solid heaven (firmament), both of which are disk-shaped
a primordial cosmic ocean. When the firmament is created, it separates the cosmic ocean into two bodies of water:
the heavenly upper waters located on top of the firmament, which act as a source of rain
the lower waters that the earth is above and that the earth rests on; they act as the source of rivers, springs, and other earthly bodies of water
the region above the upper waters, namely the abode of the gods
the netherworld, the furthest region in the direction downwards, below the lower waters
Keyser, categorizing ancient near eastern cosmology as belonging to a larger and more cross-cultural set of cosmologies he describes as a "cradle cosmology," offers a longer list of shared features. Some cosmographical features have been misattributed to Mesopotamian cosmologies, including the idea that ziggurats represented cosmic objects reaching up to heaven or the idea of a dome- or vault-shaped (as opposed to a flat) firmament.
Another controversy concerns if the ancient near eastern cosmography was purely observational or phenomenological. However, a number of lines of evidence, including descriptions from the cosmological texts themselves, presumptions of this cosmography in non-cosmological texts (like incantations), anthropological studies of contemporary primitive cosmologies, and cognitive expectations that humans construct mental models to explain observation, support that the ancient near eastern cosmography was not phenomenological.
Cosmogony
Ancient near eastern cosmogony also included a number of common features that are present in most if not all creation myths from the ancient near east. Widespread features included:
Creatio ex materia from a primordial state of chaos; that is, the organization of the world from pre-existing, unordered and unformed (hence chaotic) elements, represented by a primordial body of water
the presence of a divine creator
the Chaoskampf motif: a cosmic battle between the protagonist and a primordial sea monster
the separation of undifferentiated elements (to create heaven and earth)
the creation of mankind
Lisman uses the broader category of "Beginnings" to encompass three separate though inter-related categories: the beginning of the cosmos (cosmogony), the beginning of the gods (theogony), and the beginning of humankind (anthropogeny).
There is evidence that Mesopotamian creation myths reached as far as Pre-Islamic Arabia.
Structure of the cosmos
Overview of the whole cosmos
The Mesopotamian cosmos can be imagined along a vertical axis, with parallel planes of existence layered above each other. The uppermost plane of existence was heaven, being the residence of the god of the sky Anu. Immediately below heaven was the atmosphere. The atmosphere extended from the bottom of heaven (or the lowermost firmament) to the ground. This region was inhabited by Enlil, who was also the king of the gods in Sumerian mythology. The cosmic ocean below the ground was the next plane of existence, and this was the domain of the sibling deities Enki and Ninhursag. The lowest plane of existence was the underworld. Other deities inhabited these planes of existence even if they did not reign over them, such as the sun and moon gods. In later Babylonian accounts, the god Marduk alone ascends to the top rank of the pantheon and rules over all domains of the cosmos. The three-tiered cosmos (sky-earth-underworld) is found in Egyptian artwork on coffin lids and burial chambers.
Descriptions
A variety of terms or phrases were used to refer to the cosmos as a whole, acting as rough equivalents to contemporary terms like "cosmos" or "universe". This included phrases like "heaven and earth" or "heaven and underworld". Terms like "all" or "totality" similarly connoted the entire universe. These motifs are found in temple hymns and royal inscriptions located in temples. The temples symbolized cosmic structures that reached heaven at their height and the underworld at their depths/foundations. Surviving evidence does not specify the exact physical bounds of the cosmos or what lies beyond the region described in the texts.
Three heavens and earths
In Mesopotamian cosmology, heaven and earth both had a tripartite structure: a Lower Heaven/Earth, a Middle Heaven/Earth, and an Upper Heaven/Earth. The Upper Earth was where humans existed. Middle Earth, corresponding to the Abzu (primeval underworldly ocean), was the residence of the god Enki. Lower Earth, the Mesopotamian underworld, was where the 600 Anunnaki gods lived, associated with the land of the dead ruled by Nergal. As for the heavens: the highest level was populated by 300 Igigi (great gods), the middle heaven belonged to the Igigi and also contained Marduk's throne, and the lower heaven was where the stars and constellations were inscribed into. The extent of the Babylonian universe therefore corresponded to a total of six layers spanning across heaven and Earth. Notions of the plurality of heaven and earth are no later than the 2nd millennium BC and may be elaborations of earlier and simpler cosmographies. One text (KAR 307) describes the cosmos in the following manner, with each of the three floors of heaven being made of a different type of stone:30 “The Upper Heavens are Luludānītu stone. They belong to Anu. He (i.e. Marduk) settled the 300 Igigū (gods) inside. 31 The Middle Heavens are Saggilmud stone. They belong to the Igīgū (gods). Bēl (i.e. Marduk) sat on the high throne within, 32 the lapis lazuli sanctuary. And made a lamp? of electrum shine inside (it). 33 The Lower Heavens are jasper. They belong to the stars. He drew the constellations of the gods on them. 34 In the … …. of the Upper Earth, he lay down the spirits of mankind. 35 [In the …] of the Middle earth, he settled Ea, his father. 36 […..] . He did not let the rebellion be forgotten. 37 [In the … of the Lowe]r earth, he shut inside 600 Anunnaki. 38 […….] … […. in]side jasper. Another text (AO 8196) offers a slightly different arrangement, with the Igigi in the upper heaven instead of the middle heaven, and with Bel placed in the middle heaven. Both agree on the placement of the stars in the lower heaven. Exodus 24:9–10 identifies the floor of heaven as being like sapphire, which may correspond to the blue lapis lazuli floor in KAR 307, chosen potentially for its correspondence to the visible color of the sky. One hypothesis holds that the belief that the firmament is made of stone (or a metal, such as iron in Egyptian texts) arises from the observation that meteorites, which are composed of this substance, fall from the firmament.
Seven heavens and earths
Some texts describe seven heavens and seven earths, but within the Mesopotamian context, this is likely to refer to a totality of the cosmos with some sort of magical or numerological significance, as opposed to a description of the structural number of heavens and Earth. Israelite texts do not mention the notion of seven heavens or earths.
Unity of the cosmos
Mythical bonds, akin to ropes or cables, played the role of cohesively holding the entire world and all its layers of heaven and Earth together. These are sometimes called the "bonds of heaven and earth". They can be referred to with terminology like durmāhu (typically referring to a strong rope made of reeds), markaṣu (referring to a rope or cable, of a boat, for example), or ṣerretu (lead-rope passed through an animals nose). A deity can hold these ropes as a symbol of their authority, such as the goddess Ishtar "who holds the connecting link of all heaven and earth (or netherworld)". This motif extended to descriptions of great cities like Babylon which was called the "bond of [all] the lands," or Nippur which was "bond of heaven and earth," and some temples as well.
Center of the cosmos
The idea of a center to the cosmos played a role in elevating the status of whichever place was chosen as the cosmic center and in reflecting beliefs of the finite and closed nature of the cosmos. Babylon was described as the center of the Babylonian cosmos. In parallel, Jerusalem became "the navel of the earth" (Ezekiel 38:12). The finite nature of the cosmos was also suggested to the ancients by the periodic and regular movements of the heavenly bodies in the visible vicinity of the Earth.
Firmament
The firmament was believed to be a solid boundary above the Earth, separating it from the upper or celestial waters. In the Book of Genesis, it is called the raqia. In ancient Egyptian texts, and from texts across the near east generally, the firmament was described as having special doors or gateways on the eastern and western horizons to allow for the passage of heavenly bodies during their daily journeys. These were known as the windows of heaven or the gates of heaven. Canaanite text describe Baal as exerting his control over the world by controlling the passage of rainwater through the heavenly windows in the firmament. In Egyptian texts particularly, these gates also served as conduits between the earthly and heavenly realms for which righteous people could ascend. The gateways could be blocked by gates to prevent entry by the deceased as well. As such, funerary texts included prayers enlisting the help of the gods to enable the safe ascent of the dead. Ascent to the celestial realm could also be done by a celestial ladder made by the gods. Multiple stories exist in Mesopotamian texts whereby certain figures ascend to the celestial realm and are given the secrets of the gods.
Four different Egyptian models of the firmament and/or the heavenly realm are known. One model was that it was the shape of a bird: the firmament above represented the underside of a flying falcon, with the sun and moon representing its eyes, and its flapping causing the wind that humans experience. The second was a cow, as per the Book of the Heavenly Cow. The cosmos is a giant celestial cow represented by the goddess Nut or Hathor. The cow consumed the sun in the evening and rebirthed it in the next morning. The third is a celestial woman, also represented by Nut. The heavenly bodies would travel across her body from east to west. The midriff of Nut was supported by Shu (the air god) and Geb (the earth god) lay outstretched between the arms and feet of Nut. Nut consumes the celestial bodies from the west and gives birth to them again in the following morning. The stars are inscribed across the belly of Nut and one needs to identify with one of them, or a constellation, in order to join them after death. The fourth model was a flat (or slightly convex) celestial plane which, depending on the text, was thought to be supported in various ways: by pillars, staves, scepters, or mountains at the extreme ends of the Earth. The four supports give rise to the motif of the "four corners of the world".
Earth
Topography of the earth
The ancient near eastern earth was a single-continent disk resting on a body of water sometimes compared to a raft. An aerial view of the cosmography of the earth is pictorially elucidated by the Babylonian Map of the World. Here, the city Babylon is near the Earth's center and it is on the Euphrates river. Other kingdoms and cities surround it. The north is covered by an enormous mountain range, akin to a wall. This mountain range was traversed in some hero myths, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh where Gilgamesh travels past it to an area only accessible by gods and other great heroes. The furthest and most remote parts of the earth were believed to be inhabited by fantastic creatures. In the Babylonian Map, the world continent is surrounded by a bitter salt-water Ocean (called marratu, or "salt-sea") akin to Oceanus described by the poetry of Homer and Hesiod in early Greek cosmology, as well as the statement in the Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk that Marduk created the first dry land surrounded by a cosmic sea. Egyptian cosmology appears to have also shared this view, as one of the words used for sea, shen-wer, means "great encircler". World-encircling oceans are also found in the Fara tablet VAT 12772 from the 3rd millennium BC and the Myth of Etana.
Four corners of the earth
A common honorific that many kings and rulers ascribed to themselves was that they were the rulers of the four quarters (or corners) of the Earth. For example, Hammurabi (ca. 1810–1750 BC) received the title of "King of Sumer and Akkad, King of the Four Quarters of the World". Monarchs of the Assyrian empire like Ashurbanipal also took on this title. (Although the title implies a square or rectangular shape, in this case it is taken to refer to the four quadrants of a circle which is joined at the world's center.) Likewise, the 'four corners' motif would also appear in some biblical texts, such as Isaiah 11:12.
Cosmic mountain
According to iconographic and literary evidence, the cosmic mountain, known as Mashu in the Epic of Gilgamesh, was thought to be located at or extend to both the westernmost and easternmost points of the earth, where the sun could rise and set respectively. As such, the model may be called a bi-polar model of diurnal solar movement. The gates for the rising and setting of the sun were also located at Mashu. Some accounts have Mashu as a tree growing at the center of the earth with roots descending into the underworld and a peak reaching to heaven. The cosmic mountain is also found in Egyptian cosmology, as Pyramid Text 1040c says that the mountain ranges on the eastern and western sides of the Nile act as the "two supports of the sky." In the Baal Cycle, two cosmic mountains exist at the horizon acting as the point through which the sun rises from and sets into the underworld (Mot). The tradition of the twin cosmic mountains may also lie behind Zechariah 6:1.
Heavenly bodies
Sun
The sun god (represented by the god Utu in Sumerian texts or Shamash in Akkadian texts) rises in the day and passes over the earth. Then, the sun god falls beneath the earth in the night and comes to a resting point. This resting point is sometimes localized to a designated structure, such as the chamber within a house in the Old Babylonian Prayer to the Gods of the Night. To complete the cycle, the sun comes out in the next morning. Likewise, the moon was thought to rest in the same facility when it was not visible. A similar system was maintained in Egyptian cosmology, where the sun travelled beneath the surface of the earth through the underworld (known among ancient Egyptians as Duat) to rise from the same eastern location each day. These images result from anthropomorphizing the sun and other astral bodies also conceived as gods. For the sun to exit beneath the earth, it had to cross the solid firmament: this was thought possible by the existence of opening ways or corridors in the firmament (variously illustrated as doors, windows or gates) that could temporarily open and close to allow astral bodies to pass across them. The firmament was conceived as a gateway, with the entry/exit point as the gates; other opening and closing mechanisms were also imagined in the firmament like bolts, bars, latches, and keys. During the sun's movement beneath the earth, into the netherworld, the sun would cease to flare. This enabled the netherworld to remain dark. But when it rose, it would flare up and again emit light. This model of the course of the sun had an inconsistency that later models evolved to address. The issue was to understand how, if the sun came to a resting point beneath the earth, could it also travel beneath the earth the same distance under it that it was observed to cross during the day above it such that it would rise periodically from the east. One solution that some texts arrived at was to reject the idea that the sun had a resting point. Instead, it remained unceasing in its course.
Overall, the sun god's activities in night according to Sumerian and Akkadian texts proceeds according to a regular and systematic series of events: (1) The western door of heaven opens (2) The sun passes through the door into the interior of heaven (3) Light falls below the western horizon (4) The sun engages in certain activities in the netherworld like judging the dead (5) The sun enters a house, called the White House (6) The sun god eats the evening meal (7) The sun god sleeps in the chamber agrun (8) The sun emerges from the chamber (9) The eastern door opens and the sun passes through as it rises. In many ancient near eastern cultures, the underworld had a prominent place in descriptions of the sun journey, where the sun would carry out various roles including judgement related to the dead.
In legend, many hero journeys followed the daily course of the sun god. These have been attributed to Gilgamesh, Odysseus, the Argonauts, Heracles and, in later periods, Alexander the Great. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh reaches the cosmic mountain Mashu, which is either two mountains or a single twin-peaked mountain. Mashu acts as the sun-gate, from where the sun sets in its path to and out from the netherworld. In some texts, the mountain is called the mountain of sunrise and sunset. According to the Epic:
The name of the mountain was Mashu. When [he] arrived at Mount Mashu, which daily guards the rising [of the sun,] – their tops [abut] the fabric of the heavens, their bases reach down to Hades – there were scorpion-men guarding its gate, whose terror was dread and glance was death, whose radiance was terrifying, enveloping the uplands – at both sunrise and sunset they guard the sun…
Another texts describing the relationship between the sun and the cosmic mountain reads:
O Shamash, when you come forth from the great mountain, When you come forth from the great mountain, the mountain of the deep, When you come forth from the holy hill where destinies are ordained, When you [come forth] from the back of heaven to the junction point of heaven and earth…A number of additional texts share descriptions like these.
Moon
Mesopotamians believed the moon to be a manifestation of the moon god, known as Nanna in Sumerian texts or Sîn in Akkadian texts, a high god of the pantheon, subject to cultic devotion, and father of the sun god Shamash and the Venus god Inanna. The path of the moon in the night sky and its lunar phases were also of interest. At first, Mesopotamia had no common calendar, but around 2000 BC, the semi-lunar calendar of the Sumerian center of Nippur became increasingly prevalent. Hence, the moon god was responsible for ordering perceivable time. The lunar calendar was divided into twelve months of thirty days each. New months were marked by the appearance of the moon after a phase of invisibility. The Enuma Elish creation myth describes Marduk as arranging the paths of the stars and then spends considerable space on Marduk's ordering of the moon:12 He made Nannaru (=the moon-god) appear (and) entrusted the night to him. 13 He assigned him as the jewel of the night to determine the days. 14 Month by month without cease, he marked (him) with a crown: 15 “At the beginning of the month, while rising over the land, 16 you shine with horns to reveal six days. 17 On the seventh day, (your) disc shall be halved. 18 On the fifteenth day, in the middle of each month, you shall stand in opposition. 19 As soon as Šamaš (= the sun-god) sees you on the horizon, 20 reach properly your full measure and form yourself back. 21 At the day of disappearance, approach the path of Šamaš. 22 [… 3]0. day you shall stand in conjunction. You shall be equal to Šamaš. The ideal course of the moon was thought to form one month every thirty days. However, the precise lunar month is 29.53 days, leading to variations that made the lunar month counted as 29 or 30 days in practice. The mismatch between the predictions and reality of the course of the moon gave rise to the idea that the moon could act according to its expected course as a good omen or deviate from it as a bad omen. In the 2nd millennium BC, Mesopotamian scholars composed the Enūma Anu Enlil, a collection of at least seventy tablets concerned with omens. The first fourteen (1–14) relate to the appearance of the moon, and the next eight (15–22) deal with lunar eclipses.
The moon was also assigned other functions, such as providing illumination during the night, and already in this period, had a known influence on the tides. During the day when the moon was not visible, it was thought that the moon descended beneath the flat disk of the earth and, like the sun, underwent a voyage through the underworld. The cosmic voyage and motion of the moon also allowed it to exert influence over the world; this belief naturally allowed for the practice of divination to arise.
Stars and planets
Mesopotamian cosmology would differ from the practice of astronomy in terms of terminology: for astronomers, the word "firmament" was not used but instead "sky" to describe the domain in which the heavenly affairs were visible. The stars were located on the firmament. The earliest texts attribute to Anu, Enlil, and Enki (Ea) the ordering of perceivable time by creating and ordering the courses of the stars. Later, according to the Enuma Elish, the stars were arranged by Marduk into constellations representing the images of the gods. The year was fixed by organizing the year into twelve months, and by assigning (the rising of) three stars to each of the twelve months. The moon and zenith were also created. Other phenomena introduced by Marduk included the lunar phases and lunar scheme, the precise paths that the stars would take as they rose and set, the stations of the planets, and more. Another account of the creation of the heavenly bodies is offered in the Babyloniaca of Berossus, where Bel (Marduk) creates stars, sun, moon, and the five (known) planets; the planets here do not help guide the calendar (a lack of concern for the planets also shared in the Book of the Courses of the Heavenly Luminaries, a subsection of 1 Enoch). Concern for the establishment of the calendar by the creation of heavenly bodies as visible signs is shared in at least seven other Mesopotamian texts. A Sumerian inscription of Kudur-Mabuk, for example, reads "The reliable god, who interchanges day and night, who establishes the month, and keeps the year intact." Another example is to be found in the Exaltation of Inanna.
The word "star" (mul in Sumerian; kakkabu in Akkadian) was inclusive to all celestial bodies, stars, constellations, and planets. A more specific term for planets existed however (udu.idim in Sumerian; bibbu in Akkadian, literally "wild sheep") to distinguish them from other stars (of which they were a subcategory): unlike the stars thought to be fixed into their location, the planets were observed to move. By the 3rd millennium BC, the planet Venus was identified as the astral form of the goddess Inanna (or Ishtar), and motifs such as the morning and evening star were applied to her. Jupiter became Marduk (hence the name "Marduk Star", also called Nibiru), Mercury was the "jumping one" (in reference to its comparatively fast motion and low visibility) associated with the gods Ninurta and Nabu, and Mars was the god of pestilence Nergal and thought to portend evil and death. Saturn was also sinister. The most obvious characteristic of the stars were their luminosity and their study for the purposes of divination, solving calendrical calculations, and predictions of the appearances of planets, led to the discovery of their periodic motion. From 600 BC onwards, the relative periodicity between them began to be studied.
Upper waters
Above the firmament was a large, cosmic body of water which may be referred to as the cosmic ocean or celestial waters. In the Tablet of Shamash, the throne of the sun god Shamash is depicted as resting above the cosmic ocean. The waters are above the solid firmament that covers the sky. In the Enuma Elish, the upper waters represented the waters of Tiamat, contained by Tiamat's stretched out skin. Canaanite mythology in the Baal Cycle describes the supreme god Baal as enthroned above the freshwater ocean. Egyptian texts depict the sun god sailing across these upper waters. Some also convey that this body of water is the heavenly equivalent of the Nile River.
Lower waters
Both Babylonian and Israelite texts describe one of the divisions of the cosmos as the underworldly ocean. In Babylonian texts, this is coincided with the region/god Abzu. In Sumerian mythology, this realm was created by Enki. It was also where Enki lived and ruled over. Due to the connection with Enki, the lower waters were associated with wisdom and incantational secret knowledge. In Egyptian mythology, the personification of this subterranean body of water was instead Nu. The notion of a cosmic body of water below the Earth was inferred from the realization that much water used for irrigation came from under the ground, from springs, and that springs were not limited to any one part of the world. Therefore, a cosmic body of water acting as a common source for the water coming out of all these springs was conceived.
Underworld
The Underworld/Netherworld (kur or erṣetu in Sumerian) is the lowest region in the direction downwards, below even Abzu (the primeval ocean/lower waters). It is geographically parallel with the plane of human existence, but was so low that both demons and gods could not descend to it. One of its names was "Earth of No Return". It was, however, inhabited by beings such as ghosts, demons, and local gods. The land was depicted as dark and distant: this is because it was the opposite of the human world and so did not have light, water, fields, and so forth. According to KAR 307, line 37, Bel cast 600 Annunaki into the underworld. They were locked away there, unable to escape, analogous to the enemies of Zeus who were confined to the underworld (Tartarus) after their rebellion during the Titanomachy. During and after the Kassite period, Annunaki were largely depicted as underworld deities; a hymn to Nergal praises him as the "Controller of the underworld, Supervisor of the 600".
In Canaanite religion, the underworld was personified as the god Mot. In Egyptian mythology, the underworld was known as Duat and was ruled by Osiris, the god of the afterlife. It was also the region where the sun (manifested by the god Ra) made its journey from west (where it sets) to the east (from where it would rise again the next morning).
Origins and development of the cosmos
Origins of the cosmos
The world was thought to be created ex materia. That is, out of pre-existing, and unformed, eternal matter. This is in contrast to the later notion of creation ex nihilo, which asserts that all the matter of the universe was created out of nothing. The primeval substance had always existed, was unformed, divine, and was envisioned as an immense, cosmic, chaotic mass of water or ocean (a representation that still existed in the time of Ovid). In the Mesopotamian theogonic process, the gods would be ultimately generated from this primeval matter, although a distinct process is found in the Hebrew Bible where God is initially distinct from the primeval matter. For the cosmos and the gods to ultimately emerge from this formless cosmic ocean, the idea emerged that it had to be separated into distinct parts and therefore be formed or organized. This event can be imagined of as the beginning of time. Furthermore, the process of the creation of the cosmos is coincident or equivalent to the beginning of the creation of new gods. In the 3rd millennium BC, the goddess Nammu was the one and singular representation of the original cosmic ocean in Mesopotamian cosmology. From the 2nd millennium BC onwards, this cosmic ocean came to be represented by two gods, Tiamat and Abzu who would be separated from each other to mark the cosmic beginning. The Ugaritic god Yam from the Baal Cycle may also represent the primeval ocean.
Sumerian and Akkadian sources understand the matter of the primordial universe out of which the cosmos emerges in different ways. Sumerian thought distinguished between the inanimate matter that the cosmos was made of and the animate and living matter that permeated the gods and went on to be transmitted to humans. In Akkadian sources, the cosmos is originally alive and animate, but the deaths of Abzu (male deity of the fresh waters) and Tiamat (female sea goddess) give rise to inanimate matter, and all inanimate matter is derived from the dead remains of these deities.
Origins of the gods
The core Mesopotamian myth to explain the gods' origins begins with the primeval ocean, personified by Nammu, containing Father Sky and Mother Earth within her. In the god-list TCL XV 10, Nammu is called 'the mother, who gave birth to heaven and earth'. The conception of Nammu as mother of Sky-Earth is first attested in the Ur III period (early 2nd millennium BC), though it may go back to an earlier Akkadian era. Earlier in the 3rd millennium BC, Sky and Earth were the starting point with little apparent question about their own origins.
The representation of Sky as male and Earth as female may come from the analogy between the generative power of the male sperm and the rain that comes from the sky, which respectively fertilize the female to give rise to newborn life or the Earth to give rise to vegetation. In the desert-dweller milieu, life depended on pastureland. Sky and Earth are in a union. Because they are the opposite sex, they inevitably reproduce and their offspring are successive pairs or generations of gods known as the Enki-Ninki deities. The name comes from Enki and Ninki ("Lord and Lady Earth") being the first pair in all versions of the story. The only other consistent feature is that Enlil and Ninlil are the last pair. In each pair, one member is male (indicated by the En- prefix) and the other is female (indicated by the Nin- prefix). The birth of Enlil results in the separation of heaven and earth as well as the division of the primordial ocean into the upper and lower waters. Sky, now Anu, can mate with other deities after being separated from Earth: he mates with his mother Nammu to give birth to Enki (different from the earlier Enki) who takes dominion over the lower waters. The siblings Enlil and Ninlil mate to give birth to Nanna (also known as Sin), the moon god, and Ninurta, the warrior god. Nanna fathers Utu (known as Shamash in Akkadian texts), the sun god, and Inanna (Venus). By this point, the main features of the cosmos had been created/born.
A variation of this myth existed in Egyptian cosmology. Here, the primordial ocean is given by the god Nu. The creation act neither takes its materials from Nu, unlike in Mesopotamian cosmology, nor is Nu eliminated by the creation act.
Separation of heaven and earth
3rd millennium BC texts speak of the cosmic marriage or union of Heaven and Earth. Only one towards the end of this era, the Song of the hoe, mentions their separation. By contrast, 2nd millennium texts entirely shift in focus to their separation. The tradition spread into Sumerian, Akkadian, Phoenician, Egyptian, and early Greek mythology. The cause of the separation involves either the agency of Enlil or takes place as a spontaneous act. One recovered Hittite text states that there was a time when they "severed the heaven from the earth with a cleaver", and an Egyptian text refers to "when the sky was separated from the earth" (Pyramid Text 1208c). OIP 99 113 ii and 136 iii says Enlil separated Earth from Sky and separated Sky from Earth. Enkig and Ninmah 1–2 also says Sky and Earth were separated in the beginning. The introduction of Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld says that heaven is carried off from the earth by the sky god Anu to become the possession of the wind god Enlil. Several other sources also present this idea.
There are two strands of Mesopotamian creation myths regarding the original separation of the heavens and earth. The first, older one, is evinced from texts in the Sumerian language from the 3rd millennium BC and the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. In these sources, the heavens and Earth are separated from an original solid mass. In the younger tradition from Akkadian texts, such as the Enuma Elish, the separation occurs from an original water mass. The former usually has the leading gods of the Sumerian pantheon, the King of Heaven Anu and the King of Earth Enlil, separating the mass over a time-frame of "long days and nights", similar to the total timeframe of the Genesis creation narrative (six days and nights). The Sumerian texts do not mention the creation of the cosmic waters but it may be surmised that water was one of the primordial elements.
Stretching out the heavens
The idiom of the heavens and earth being stretched out plays both a cultic and cosmic role in the Hebrew Bible where it appears repeatedly in the Book of Isaiah (40:22; 42:5; 44:24; 45:12; 48:13; 51:13, 16), with related expressions in the Book of Job (26:7) and the Psalms (104:2). One example reads "The one who stretched out the heavens like a curtain / And who spread them out like a tent to dwell in" (Is 40:22). The idiom is used in these texts to identify the creative element of Yahweh's activities and the expansion of the heavens signifies its vastness, acting as Yahweh's celestial shrine. In Psalmic tradition, the "stretching" of the heavens is analogous to the stretching out of a tent. The Hebrew verb for the "stretching" of the heavens is also the regular verb for "pitching" a tent. The heavens, in other words, may be depicted as a cosmic tent (a motif found in many ancient cultures). This finds architectural analogy in descriptions of the tabernacle, which is itself a heavenly archetype, over which a tent is supposed to have been spread. The phrase is frequently followed by an expression that God sits enthroned above and ruling the world, paralleling descriptions of God being seated in the Holy of Holies of the Tabernacle where he is stated to exercise rule over Israel. Biblical references to stretching the heavens typically occur in conjunction with statements that God made or laid the foundations of the earth.
Similar expressions may be found elsewhere in the ancient near east. A text from the 2nd millennium BC, the Ludlul Bēl Nēmeqi, says "Wherever the earth is laid, and the heavens are stretched out", though the text does not identify the creator of the cosmos. The Enuma Elish also describes the phenomena, in IV.137–140:137 He split her into two like a dried fish: 138 One half of her he set up and stretched out as the heavens. 139 He stretched the skin and appointed a watch. 140 With the instruction not to let her waters escape. In this text, Marduk takes the body of Tiamat, who he has killed, and stretches out Tiamat's skin to create the firmamental heavens which, in turn, comes to play the role of preventing the cosmic waters above the firmament from escaping and being unleashed onto the earth. Whereas the Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible states that Yahweh stretched heaven like a curtain in Psalm 104:2, the equivalent passage in the Septuagint instead uses the analogy of stretching out like "skin", which could represent a relic of Babylonian cosmology from the Enuma Elish. Nevertheless, the Hebrew Bible never identifies the material out of which the firmament was stretched. Numerous theories about what the firmament was made of sprung up across ancient cultures.
Origins of humanity
Many stories emerged to explain the creation of humanity and the birth of civilization. Earlier Sumerian language texts from the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC can be divided into two traditions: those from the cities of Nippur or Eridu. The Nippur tradition asserts that Heaven (An) and Earth (Ki) were coupled in a cosmic marriage. After they are separated by Enlil, Ki receives semen from An and gives rise to the gods, animals, and man. The Eridu tradition says that Enki, the offspring of An and Namma (in this tradition, the freshwater goddess) is the one who creates everything. Periodical relations between Enki and Ninhursaga (in this tradition, the personification of Earth) gives rise to vegetation. With the help of Namma, Enki creates man from clay. A famous work of the Eridu tradition is Eridu Genesis. A minority tradition in Sumerian texts, distinct from Nippur and Eridu traditions, is known from KAR 4, where the blood of a slaughtered deity is used to create humanity for the purpose of making them build temples for the gods.
Later Akkadian language tradition can be divided into various minor cosmogonies, cosmogonies of significant texts like Enuma Elish and Epic of Atrahasis, and finally the Dynasty of Dunnum placed in its own category. In the Atrahasis Epic, the Anunnaki gods force the Igigi gods to do their labor. However, the Igigi became fed up with this work and rebel. To solve the problem, Enlil and Mami create humanity by mixing the blood of gods with clay, who in the stead of the Igigi are assigned the gods' work. In the Enuma Elish, divine blood alone is used to make man.
Main texts
Overview and limitations
The Hebrew Bible, especially in the Genesis creation narrative, undergirds known beliefs about biblical cosmology in ancient Israel and Judah. From Mesopotamia, cosmological evidence has fragmentarily survived in cuneiform literature especially in the Sumerian and Akkadian languages, like the Enuma Elish. Cosmogonic information has been sourced from Enki-Ninki god lists. Cosmogonic prologues preface texts falling in the genre of the Sumerian and Akkadian disputation poems, as well as individual works like the Song of the hoe, Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld, and Lugalbanda I. Evidence is also available in Ugaritic (Ritual Theogony of the Gracious Gods) and Hittite (Song of Emergence) sources. Egyptian papyri and inscriptions, like the Memphite Theology, and later works such as the Babyloniaca of Berossus, offer additional evidence. A less abundant source are pictorial/iconographic representations, especially the Babylonian Map of the World.
Limitations of these types of texts (papyri, cuneiform, etc) is that the majority are administrative and economic in their nature, saying little about cosmology. Detailed descriptions are unknown before the first millennium BC. As such, reconstructions from that time depend on gleaning information from surviving creation myths and etiologies.
Enuma Elish
The Enuma Elish is the most famous Mesopotamian creation story and was widely known in among learned circles across Mesopotamia, influencing both art and ritual. It is also the only complete cosmogony, whereas others must be reconstructed from disparate sources. The story was, in many ways, an original work, and as such is not a general representative of ancient near eastern or even Babylonian cosmology as a whole, and its survival as the most complete creation account appears to be a product of it having been composed in the milieu of Babylonian literature that happened to survive and get discovered in the present day. On the other hand, recent evidence suggests that after its composition, it played an important role in Babylonian scribal education. The story is preserved foremost in seven clay tablets discovered from the Library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh. The creation myth seeks to describes how the god Marduk created the world from the body of the sea monster Tiamat after defeating her in battle, after which Marduk ascends to the top of the heavenly pantheon. The Enuma Elish is one of a broader set of near eastern traditions describing the cosmic battle between the storm and sea gods, but only Israelite cosmogonies share with it the act of creation that follows the storm gods victory.
The following is a synopsis of the account. The primordial universe is alive and animate, made of Abzu, commonly identified as a male deity of the fresh waters, and Tiamat, the female sea goddess of salt waters. The waters mingle to create the next generations of deities. However, the younger gods are noisy and this noise eventually incenses Abzu so much that he tries to kill them. In trying to do so, however, he is killed by Ea (Akkadian equivalent of the Sumerian Enki). This eventually leads to a battle between Tiamat and the son of Ea, Marduk. Marduk kills Tiamat and fashions the cosmos, including the heavens and Earth, from Tiamat's corpse. Tiamat's breasts are used to make the mountains and Tiamat's eyes are used to open the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Parts of the watery body were used to create parts of the world including its wind, rain, mist, and rivers. Marduk forms the heavenly bodies including the sun, moon, and stars to produce periodic astral activity that is the basis for the calendar, before finally setting up the cosmic capital at Babylon. Marduk attains universal kingship and the Tablet of Destinies. Tiamat's helper Kingu is also slain and his life force is used to animate the first human beings.
The Enuma Elish is in continuity with other texts like the Myth of Anzû, the Labbu Myth, and KAR 6. In both the Enuma Elish and the Myth of Anzu, a dragon (Anzu or Tiamat) steals the Tablet of Destinies from Enlil, the chief god and in response, the chief god looks for someone to slay the dragon. Then, in both stories, a champion among the gods is chosen to fight the dragon (Ninurta or Marduk) after two or three others before them reject the offer to fight. The champion wins, after which he is acclaimed and given many names. The Enuma Elish may have also drawn from the myth of the Ninurta and the dragon Kur. The dragon is formerly responsible for holding up the primordial waters. Upon being killed, the waters begin to rise; this problem is solved by Ninurta heaping stones upon them until the waters are held back. One of the most significant differences between the Enuma Elish and earlier creation myths is in its exaltation of Marduk as the highest god. In prior myths, Ea was the chief god and creator of mankind.
Genesis creation narrative
The Genesis creation narrative, composed perhaps in the 7th or 6th century BC, spans Gen 1:1–2:3 and covers a one-week (seven-day) period. In each of the first three days there is an act of division: day one divides the darkness from light, day two the "waters above" from the "waters below", and day three the sea from the land. In each of the next three days these divisions are populated: day four populates the darkness and light with "greater light" (Sun), "lesser light" (Moon) and stars; day five populates seas and skies with fish and fowl; and finally land-based creatures and mankind populate the land. According to Victor Hamilton, most scholars agree that the choice of "greater light" and "lesser light", rather than the more explicit "Sun" and "Moon", is anti-mythological rhetoric intended to contradict widespread contemporary beliefs that the Sun and the Moon were deities themselves.
In 1895, Hermann Gunkel related this narrative to the Enuma Elish via an etymological relationship between Tiamat and təhôm ("the deep" or "the abyss") and a sharing of the Chaoskampf motif. Today, another view rejects these connections and groups the Genesis creation narrative with other West Semitic cosmologies like those of Ugarit.
Other biblical creation narratives
Other prominent biblical cosmogonies include Psalm 74:12–17; Psalm 89:6–13; and Job 26:7–13, with a variety of additional briefer passages expounding on subsections of these lengthier passages (like Isaiah 51:9–10). Like traditions from Babylon, Egypt, Anatolia, and Canaan and the Levant, these cosmogonies describe a cosmic battle (on the part of Yahweh in the biblical versions) with a sea god (named Leviathan, Rahab) but only with Babylonian versions like the Enuma Elish is the victory against the sea god followed by an act of creation. The seemingly well-known cosmogony proceeded as follows: Yahweh fights and subdues the sea god while portrayed as holding a weapon and fighting with meteorological forces; the Sea that previously covered the earth is forced to make way for dry land and parts of it are confined behind the seashore, in the clouds, and into storehouses below the earth; Mount Zaphon is established and a temple for Yahweh is erected; finally, Yahweh is enthroned above all the gods.
An alternative cosmogony appears in the doxologies of Amos (4:13; 5:8; 9:5–6). Instead of the earth being already covered by a primal sea, the earth is originally in a dry state and only later is the sea stretched over it. No cosmic battle takes place. The winds and mountains, which elsewhere primordially exist, in this account are both created. Like some passages in Deutero-Isaiah, these doxologies appear to present a view of creation ex-nihilo.
These cosmogonies are relatively mythologized compared to the Genesis cosmogony. In addition, the Genesis cosmogony differs by describing the separation of the upper and lower waters by the creation of a firmament, whereas here, they are typically assembled into clouds. The closest cosmogony to Genesis is the one in Psalm 104.
Babyloniaca of Berossus
The first book of the Babyloniaca of the Babylonian priest Berossus, composed in the third century BC, offers a variant (or, perhaps, an interpretation) of the cosmogony of the Enuma Elish. This work is not extant but survives in later quotations and abridgements. Berossus' account begins with a primeval ocean. Unlike in the Enuma Elish, where sea monsters are generated for combat with other gods, in Berossus' account, they emerge by spontaneous generation and are described in a different manner to the 11 monsters of the Enuma Elish, as it expands beyond the purely mythical creatures of that account in a potential case of influence from Greek zoology. The fragments of Berossus by Syncellus and the Armenian of how he described his cosmogony are as follows:Syncellus: There was a time, he says, when everything was [darkness and] water and that in it fabulous beings with peculiar forms came to life. For men with two wings were born and some with four wings and two faces, having one body and two heads, male and female, and double genitalia, male and female ... [a list of monstrous beings follows]. Over all these a woman ruled named Omorka. This means in Chaldaean Thalatth, in Greek it is translated as ‘Sea’ (Thalassa) ... When everything was arranged in this way, Belos rose up and split the woman in two. Of one half of her he made earth, of the other half sky; and he destroyed all creatures in her ... For when everything was moist, and creatures had come into being in it, this god took off his own head and the other gods mixed the blood that flowed out with earth and formed men. For this reason they are intelligent and share in divine wisdom. Belos, whom they translate as Zeus, cut the darkness in half and separated earth and sky from each other and ordered the universe. The creatures could not endure the power of the light and were destroyed. When Belos saw the land empty and barren, he ordered one of the gods to cut off his own head and to mix the blood that flowed out with earth and to form men and wild animals that were capable of enduring the air. Belos also completed the stars and the sun and the moon and the five planets. Alexander Polyhistor says that Berossus asserts these things in his first book.
Syncellus: They say that in the beginning all was water, which was called Sea (Thalassa). Bel made this one by assigning a place to each, and he surrounded Babylon with a wall.
Armenian: All, he said, was from the start water, which was called Sea. And Bel placed limits on them (the waters) and assigned a place to each, allocated their lands, and fortified Babylon with an enclosing wall.The conclusion of the account states that Belus then created the stars, sun, moon, and five planets. The account of Berossus agrees largely with the Enuma Elish, such as its reference to the splitting of the woman whose halves are used to create heaven and earth, but also contain a number of differences, such as the statement about allegorical exegesis, the self-decapitation of Belus in order to create humans, and the statement that it is the divine blood which has made humans intelligent. Some debate has ensued about which elements of these may or may not go back to the original account of Berossus. Some of the information Berossus got for his account of the creation myth may have come from the Enuma Elish and the Babylonian Dynastic Chronicle.
Other
Additional minor texts also present varying cosmogonical details. The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk describes the construction of Earth as a raft over the cosmic waters by Marduk. An Akkadian text called The Worm describes a series of creation events: first Heaven creates Earth, Earth creates the Rivers, and eventually, the worm is created at the end of the series and it goes to live in the root of the tooth that is removed during surgery.
Influence
Survival
Copies from the Sippar Library indicate the Enuma Elish was copied into Seleucid times. One Hellenistic-era Babylonian priest, Berossus, wrote a Greek text about Mesopotamian traditions called the Babyloniaca (History of Babylon). The text survives mainly in fragments, especially by quotations in Eusebius in the fourth-century. The first book contains an account of Babylonian cosmology and, though concise, contains a number of echoes of the Enuma Elish. The creation account of Berossus is attributed to the divine messenger Oannes in the period after the global flood and is derivative of the Enuma Elish but also has significant variants to it. Babylonian cosmology also received treatments by the lost works of Alexander Polyhistor and Abydenus. The last known evidence for reception of the Enuma Elish is in the writings of Damascius (462–538), who had a well-informed source. As such, some learned circles in late antiquity continued to know the Enuma Elish. Echoes of Mesopotamian cosmology continue into the 11th century.
Early Greek cosmology
Early Greek cosmology was closely related to the broader domain of ancient near eastern cosmology, reflected 8th century BC works like the Theogony of Hesiod and the works of Homer, and prior to the emergence of an independent and systematic Hellenistic system of cosmology that was represented by figures such as Aristotle and the astronomer Ptolemy, starting with the Ionian School of philosophy at the city of Miletus from the 6th to 4th centuries BC. In early Greek cosmology, the Earth was conceived of as being flat, encircled by a cosmic ocean known as Oceanus, and that heaven was a solid firmament held above the Earth by pillars. Many believe that a Hurro-Hittite work from the 13th century BC, the Song of Emergence (CTH 344), was directly used by Hesiod on the basis of extensive similarities between their accounts.
The notion of heaven and earth originally being in unity followed by their separation continues to be attested in later Greek cosmological texts, such as in the descriptions of Orphic cosmology according to the Wise Melanippe of Euripides in the 5th century BC and the Argonautica by Apollonius of Rhodes in the 3rd century BC, as well as in other and still later Greek accounts, such as the writings of Diodorus Siculus in the 1st century BC.
Zoroastrian cosmology
The earliest Zoroastrian sources describe a tripartite sky, with an upper heaven where the sun exists, a middle heaven where the moon exists, and a lower heaven where the stars exist and are fixed. Significant work has been done on comparing this cosmography to ones present in Mesopotamian, Greek, and Indian parallels. In light of evidence which has emerged in recent decades, the present view is that this idea entered into Zoroastrian thought through Mesopotamian channels of influence. Another influence is that the name that one of the planets took on in Middle Persian literature, Kēwān (for Saturn), was derived from the Akkadian language.
Jewish cosmology
Mesopotamian cosmology, especially as it manifested in the biblical Genesis creation narrative, exerted continued substantial influence on Jewish cosmology, especially as it is described in the rabbinic literature. Not all influence appears to have been mediated through the Bible. The dome-shaped firmament was described in Hebrew as a kippah, which has been related to its Akkadian cognate kippatšamê, though the latter only refers to flat objects. The Jewish belief in seven heavens, as it is absent from the Hebrew Bible, has often been interpreted as being taken from early interactions with Mesopotamian cosmologies.
Christian cosmology
Christian texts were familiar with ancient near eastern cosmology insofar as it had shaped the Genesis creation narrative. A genre of literature emerged among Jews and Christians dedicated to the composition of texts commenting precisely on this narrative to understand the cosmos and its origins: these works are called Hexaemeron. The first extant example is the De opificio mundi ("On the Creation of the World") by the first-century Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria. Philo preferred an allegorical form of exegesis, in line with that of the School of Alexandria, and so was partial to a Hellenistic cosmology as opposed to an ancient near eastern one. In the late fourth century, the Hexaemeral genre was revived and popularized by the Hexaemeron of Basil of Caesarea, who composed his Hexaemeron in 378, which subsequently inspired numerous works including among Basil's own contemporaries. Basil was much more literal in his interpretation than Philo, closer instead to the exegesis of the School of Antioch. Christian authors would heavily dispute the correct degree of literal or allegorical exegesis in future writings. Among Syrian authors, Jacob of Serugh was the first to produce his own Hexaemeron in the early sixth century, and he was followed later by Jacob of Edessa's Hexaemeron in the first years of the eighth century. The most literal approach was that of the Christian Topography by Cosmas Indicopleustes, which presented a cosmography very similar to the traditional Mesopotamian one, but in turn, John Philoponus wrote a harsh rebuttal to Cosmas in his own De opificio mundi. Syrian Christian texts also shared topographical features like the cosmic ocean surrounding the earth.
Cosmographies were described in works other than those of the Hexaemeral genre. For example, in the genre of novels, the Alexander Romance would portray a mythologized picture of the journeys and conquests of Alexander the Great, ultimately inspired by the Epic of Gilgamesh. The influence is evident in the texts cosmography, as Alexander reaches an outer ocean circumscribing the Earth which cannot be passed. Both in the Alexander Romance, and in later texts like the Syriac Alexander Legend (Neshana), Alexander journeys to the ends of the Earth which is surrounded by an ocean. Unlike in the story of Gilgamesh, however, this ocean is an unpassable boundary that marks the extent to which Alexander can go. The Neshana also aligns with a Mesopotamian cosmography in its description of the path of the sun: as the sun sets in the west, it passes through a gateway in the firmament, cycles to the other side of the earth, and rises in the east in its passage through another celestial gateway. Alexander, like Gilgamesh, follows the path of the sun during his journey. These elements of Alexander's journey are also described as part of the journey of Dhu al-Qarnayn in the Quran. Gilgamesh's journey takes him to a great cosmic mountain Mashu; likewise, Alexander reaches a cosmic mountain known as Musas. The cosmography depicted in this text greatly resembles that outlined by the Babylonian Map of the World.
Quranic cosmology
The Quran conceives of the primary elements of the ancient near eastern cosmography, such as the division of the cosmos into the heavens and the Earth, a solid firmament, upper waters, a flat Earth, and seven heavens. As with rabbinic cosmology, however, these elements were not directly transmitted from ancient near eastern civilization. Instead, work in the field of Quranic studies has identified the primary historical context for the reception of these ideas to have been in the Christian and Jewish cosmologies of late antiquity. This conception of the cosmos was carried on into the traditionalist cosmologies that were held in the caliphate, though with a few nuances that appear to have emerged.
See also
Ancient Mesopotamian religion
Hexaemeron
Pre-Islamic Arabian inscriptions
King of the Universe
Mandaean cosmology
Panbabylonism
Quranic studies
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Assman, Jan. The Search for God in Ancient Egypt, Cornell University Press, 2001, pp. 53–82.
Clifford, Richard. Creation Accounts in the Ancient Near East and in the Bible, Wipf and Stock Publishers, 1994.
Dalley, Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others, Oxford University Press, 1998.
George, A. Babylonian Topographical Texts, Peeters, 1992.
Hetherington, Norriss S (ed.). Encyclopedia of Cosmology, Routledge, 2014.
Hunger, Hermann, and John Steele, The Babylonian Astronomical Compendium MUL.APIN, Routledge, 2018.
Jacobsen, Thorkild. "The Cosmos as a State" in The Intellectual Adventure of Ancient Man: An Essay of Speculative Thought in the Ancient Near East, University of Chicago Press, 1977.
Keel, Othmar & Silvia Shroer, Creation: Biblical Theologies in the Context of the Ancient Near East, Eisenbrauns, 2015.
Sjöberg, Å. "In the beginning" in Riches Hidden in Secret Places: Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Memory of Thorkild Jacobsen, Eisenbrauns, 2002, pp. 229–247.
Wiggermann, F. "Mythological foundations of nature" in Natural Phenomena: Their Meaning, Depiction and Description in the Ancient Near East, 1992.
Zago, Silvia. A Journey through the Beyond: The Development of the Concept of Duat and Related, Lockwood Press, 2022.
External links
Mesopotamian Creation Myths (Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Ancient Near East
Ancient astronomy
Biblical cosmology
Obsolete scientific theories
Religious cosmologies | Ancient Near Eastern cosmology | [
"Astronomy"
] | 13,251 | [
"Ancient astronomy",
"History of astronomy"
] |
76,617,852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J2345-0449 | J2345-0449 or 2MASX J23453268-0449256, is a spiral galaxy located 947 million light-years in the constellation of Aquarius. It contains an active galactic nucleus and is classified as a radio galaxy, containing relativistic jets that are projected out from its spiral host by ~1.6 Mpc, making these jets the largest and rarest known. It was discovered in 2014 by amateur astronomers, making it the third spiral DRAGN after ESO 0313-192 and Speca.
Physical Properties
Mentioned as a megaparsec-scale object at redshift 0.0757, J2345-0449 is one of the massive spiral galaxies found in the universe. It is also one of the largest radio sources discovered since the galaxy exhibits two sets of radio lobes found in near alignment and spanning a width of ∼387.2 kpc (∼452) and ∼1.63 Mpc (∼191). According to Very Large Array 6 cm imaging, the inner radio lobes are categorized either Fanaroff-Riley Class I or FR II morphology.
J2345-0449 contains a fast rotation speed of Vrot = 371/sin (i) = 429 ± 30 km s−1 that is r ≥ 10 kpc away from its galactic center. It has a mass of Mstellar = 4 × 1011 M⊙ and a surrounding ring of molecular gas measured 24 kpc wide in diameter. The galaxy has a star formation rate with a surface density measured to be ΣSFR = 1.8 × 10−3 M⊙ yr−1 kpc−2. However it has a low factor between 30 and 70 as expected according to the Kennicutt-Schmidt law.
Black hole mass of J2345-0449
The black hole mass estimation is challenging since J2345-0449 has no classic bulge structure. According to Bagchi, the black hole has a mass of 2.5 ± 0.5 × 108 M⊙. Further observations shows it has a mass of 1.4× 109 M⊙ when calculating the MBH–σ relation proposed by Gültekin. However, according to researchers obtaining the M–σ relation from McConnell & Ma, the actual mass of J2345-0449 is 5 × 109 M⊙.
References
Aquarius (constellation)
Spiral galaxies
Radio galaxies
2MASS objects
1052974
Astronomical objects discovered in 2014 | J2345-0449 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 494 | [
"Constellations",
"Aquarius (constellation)"
] |
76,617,981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%205896 | NGC 5896 is a small spiral galaxy located 953 million light-years away in the constellation of Boötes. The object was found on 23 May 1854 by R. J. Mitchell, an Irish astronomer and assistant to William Parsons. At a redshift of 0.065, NGC 5896 is one of the most distant objects in the NGC Catalogue.
According to sources, the neighboring galaxy NGC 5895 and NGC 5896 form an optical pair. But the latter is much further, and it is considered as a background galaxy.
References
Boötes
054367
5896
Astronomical objects discovered in 1854
Spiral galaxies
+07-31-044
054367
Discoveries by R. J. Mitchell (astronomer) | NGC 5896 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 152 | [
"Boötes",
"Constellations"
] |
76,619,581 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASP-20 | WASP-20, also known as CD-24 102, is a binary star system in the equatorial constellation Cetus, located at a distance of about from the Sun. The primary star is an F-type main sequence star and hosts one confirmed exoplanet, WASP-20b.
Stellar properties
WASP-20 is a star of spectral type F9, aged billion years. Its mass is 1.200 ± 0.041 solar masses for a radius of 1.392 ± 0.044 solar radii, or a density of 0.630 ± 0.046 grams per cubic centimeter.
Planetary system
WASP-20b is a transiting hot Jupiter discovered in 2014. WASP-20b orbits WASP-20 in less than five Earth days very close to its star (0.06 AU) in a circular (near-zero eccentricity) orbit. The orbit is inclined by 85.56 ± 0.22° relative to the plane of the sky and is thus edge-on, as necessary for a transit to be observed.
See also
Wide Angle Search for Planets
Lists of planets
References
Cetus
Binary stars
F-type main-sequence stars
Planetary systems with one confirmed planet
J00203853-2356086
CD-24 00102
211438925
194
20 | WASP-20 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 267 | [
"Astronomy organizations",
"Cetus",
"Constellations",
"Wide Angle Search for Planets"
] |
76,620,206 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paratrimastix%20pyriformis | Paratrimastix pyriformis is a species of free-living (non-parasitic) anaerobic freshwater bacteriovorous flagellated protists formerly known as Trimastix pyriformis and Tetramitus pyriformis.
History of knowledge
This species was first described by G. A. Klebs in 1892 as Tetramitus pyriformis. Under this name, it has been frequently discussed in the context of sewage, sewage treatment, and water quality during the 20th century. It was also observed on Elephant Island, South Shetland Islands. More than 100 years after its description, in 1999, it was transferred to the genus Trimastix based on its morphology. The first ultrastructural study using transmission electron microscopy was published the same year, which reported a discovery of hydrogenosome-like organelles in the species.
A molecular phylogenetic study based on small-subunit ribosomal RNA placed the genus Trimastix (then including P. pyriformis) as sister to the oxymonad Pyrsonympha in 2001 and a close relationship to oxymonads was further supported in another study in 2005. The clade uniting Trimastix and oxymonads was named Preaxostyla in 2003. A more detailed molecular phylogenetic analysis in 2015 placed this species in a new genus Paratrimastix, even more closely related to oxymonads than Trimastix. Preaxostyla (consisting of Trimastix, Paratrimastix, and oxymonads) is now considered one of the five major lineages of Metamonada.
The interest in P. pyriformis, and especially its reduced mitochondria, was largely driven by the possibility that oxymonads might be completely amitochondrial. This was supported by a genomic analysis of Monocercomonoides exilis published in 2016, which demonstrated that this oxymonad is the first known eukaryote that has completely lost its mitochondria.
A series of transcriptomic studies between the years 2006 and 2016 reported details of P. pyriformis glycolytic pathway and arginine deiminase pathway, as well as supported the mitochondrial ancestry of its hydrogenosome-like organelles and uncovered their role in amino acid metabolism. Preliminary results of a genomic project led to the characterization of the unusual preaxostylan type iron-sulfur cluster assembly machinery in P. pyriformis in 2018, the role of its reduced mitochondria in the methionine cycle (2022), and the experimental characterization of one of its mitochondrial carriers (2023). The complete genomic assembly of P. pyriformis was published in 2023 in a large-scale comparative genomic study focused on the reductive evolution of mitochondria in Preaxostyla, which also identified two additional oxymonad species with no traces of mitochondria.
Morphology and ultrastructure
Paratrimastix pyriformis has four flagella, one directed anteriorly, one posteriorly, and others laterally. The posterior flagellum has two vanes with thickened vane margins. Both vanes have a paracrystalline substructure. Ventral side of the cell is shaped in the form of a broad groove, a typical excavate feature, which is used as a feeding structure. The cells measure 9-17 μm in length and 5-13 μm in width. The single nucleus with a conspicuous central nucleolus is located in the anterior third of the cell.
Dense network of rough endoplasmic reticulum extends from the nucleus towards the posterior end of the cell. A single stacked Golgi apparatus is located posterior and to the left of the basal bodies. The kinetid consists of four basal bodies, four microtubular roots, and various microtubules and fibers associated with the basal bodies and roots. The arrangement of the basal bodies is asymmetrical. Rod-shaped mitochondrion-related organelles resembling hydrogenosomes are 0.5-1.0 μm in length and bounded by a double membrane. The mitochondrion-related organelles are dispersed throughout the cell.
Paratrimastix pyriformis may be distinguished from the marine Trimastix marina and the freshwater Paratrimastix eleionoma by the non-thickened and discretely subapically inserting anterior flagellum, from Trimastix inaequalis by the equal length of its lateral flagella, and from Trimastix convexa (most similar species) by its smaller size and ultrastructural details of the cytoskeleton.
Behaviour
Paratrimastix pyriformis swims with the anterior and lateral flagella beating and rotates occasionally. It can attach to the substrate by the tip of the posterior flagellum. Its cell contains food vacuoles with bacteria. A small contractile vacuole is located posteriorly. Bacteria are captured at the posterior end of the ventral groove. Flagella are retained throughout cell division. Some, but not all, strains of P. pyriformis produce cysts: rounded cells with thin walls and basal bodies and flagella preserved.
Metabolism
Glycolysis in P. pyriformis includes at least four alternative enzymes that have likely been gained by lateral gene transfer from Bacteria. P. pyriformis further produces additional ATP using the extended glycolysis pathway where pyruvate generated in glycolysis is metabolised into acetate, CO2, and H2. Alternatively, pyruvate can be produced by decarboxylation of malate through the activity of the malic enzyme (ME). Pyruvate is decarboxylated to acetyl coenzyme A by pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFO). The last part of the pathway, which yields ATP, acetate, and coenzyme A is catalyzed by a single enzyme: acetyl-CoA synthetase (ACS) like in the diplomonad Giardia intestinalis. Activities of both ME and PFO produce excess electrons which are then consumed in reduction of protons to molecular hydrogen through the activity of [FeFe] hydrogenases.
Based on an in-silico reconstructed amino acid metabolism, P. pyriformis is able to synthesize at least five protein-forming amino acids including selenocysteine. Unlike other Preaxostyla, P. pyriformis doesn't have a complete arginine deiminase pathway, and therefore is likely unable to produce ATP via arginine catabolism. However, other amino acids (cysteine, serine, tryptophan, and methionine) can hypothetically be utilized to produce ATP by their conversion of pyruvate and α-keto-butyrate, which can enter the extended glycolytic pathway.
References
Metamonads
Metamonad species
Anaerobes | Paratrimastix pyriformis | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 1,485 | [
"Microbial metabolism",
"Metabolism",
"Bacteria",
"Anaerobes"
] |
76,620,634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%203110 | NGC 3110, also known as NGC 3122 and NGC 3518, is an active spiral galaxy in the constellation Sextans. It contains extensive Hubble-type Sb star-forming regions, and is located south of the celestial equator. It is estimated to be 218 million light-years from the Milky Way and has a diameter of around 100,000 ly. Together with PGC 29184 it forms a gravitationally bound galaxy pair. Located in the same area of the sky is the galaxy IC 589.
Discovery
Multiple astronomers have documented NGC 3110 as different objects in the NGC catalogue. The object was first discovered by William Herschel on March 5, 1785, but this observation appears in the NGC catalogue under the designation NGC 3122. This galaxy was also observed by the French astronomer Édouard Stephan on February 17, 1884, and it is this observation which was entered in the NGC catalogue under the designation NGC 3110. Finally, the American astronomer Ormond Stone also observed this galaxy on December 31, 1885, and this observation was entered in the NGC catalogue under the designation NGC 3518.
Characteristics
NGC 3110 has a broad HI line and is a bright infrared galaxy (LIRG). It also contains regions of ionized hydrogen. To date, three non-redshift measurements give a distance of 54.300 ± 1.375 Mpc (~177 million ly), which is outside the Hubble distance values.
See also
List of NGC objects (3001–4000)
Galaxy formation and evolution
References
External links
NGC 3110 at SEDS.org
NGC 3110 at SIMBAD
Sextans
Spiral galaxies
3110
Astronomical objects discovered in 1785
Discoveries by William Herschel | NGC 3110 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 343 | [
"Sextans",
"Constellations"
] |
76,620,956 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20561 | NGC 561 is a barred spiral galaxy located in the constellation Andromeda. Its speed relative to the cosmic microwave background is 4,395 ± 20 km/s, which corresponds to a Hubble distance of 64.8 ± 4.6 Mpc (~211 million ly). NGC 561 was discovered by Prussian astronomer Heinrich d'Arrest in 1862.
The luminosity class of NGC 561 is I and it has a broad HI1 line.
NGC 561 is part of the NGC 507 group. This vast group includes at least 42 galaxies, 21 of which appear in the NGC catalog and 5 in the IC catalog. Four members of this group are also Markarian galaxies. The brightest of these galaxies is NGC 507 and the largest is NGC 536.
See also
List of NGC objects (1–1000)
New General Catalogue
References
External links
NGC 561 at SIMBAD
Andromeda (constellation)
Barred spiral galaxies
0561
Astronomical objects discovered in 1862
Discoveries by Heinrich Louis d'Arrest
01048
+06-04-029
005489 | NGC 561 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 221 | [
"Andromeda (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
76,621,426 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20646 | NGC 646 is a large barred spiral galaxy located in the constellation Hydrus. Its speed relative to the cosmic microwave background is 8,145 ± 19 km/s, which corresponds to a Hubble distance of 120.1 ± 8.4 Mpc (~392 million ly). NGC 646 was discovered by British astronomer John Herschel in 1834. It forms an interacting galaxy pair.
Luminosity
The luminosity class of NGC 646 is III. It has surface brightness equal to 14.69 mag/am2. NGC 646 is a low surface brightness galaxy (LSB). LSB galaxies are diffuse (D) galaxies with a surface brightness less than one magnitude lower than that of the ambient night sky.
Distance
The Hubble distance of PGC 6014, the galaxy to the east of NGC 646, is 106.4 ± 7.5 Mpc (~347 million ly). A distance of approximately 45 million light years therefore separates these two galaxies which appear to be neighbors in the image. Their gravitational interaction, if there is any interaction, should therefore be of short duration.
See also
List of NGC objects (1–1000)
Interacting galaxy
External links
NGC 646 at SIMBAD
References
Hydrus
Barred spiral galaxies
Interacting galaxies
0646
Astronomical objects discovered in 1834
Discoveries by John Herschel | NGC 646 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 274 | [
"Hydrus",
"Constellations"
] |
76,624,748 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20716 | NGC 716 is a large barred spiral galaxy located in the constellation Aries, about 200 million light-years away from the Milky Way. The luminosity class of NGC 716 is I and has a large HI line. It also contains regions of ionized hydrogen. Many non-redshift measurements provide a distance of 54,023±8,169 Mpc (~176 million light years), which is within the distances calculated using the redshift value.
History
NGC 716 was discovered in 1886 by American astronomer Lewis Swift using a 40.64 cm (16 inch) optical telescope that used a mirror as a light-gathering element. It was also observed by the French astronomer Guillaume Bigourdan on 1 January 1892 and was added to the Index Catalog with the code IC 1743.
References
See also
List of NGC objects (1–1000)
Lists of galaxies
External links
NGC 716 at SEDS.org
NGC 716 at Theskylive.com
Barred spiral galaxies
Aries (constellation)
716
IC objects
Galaxies discovered in 1886
Discoveries by Lewis Swift | NGC 716 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 219 | [
"Aries (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
76,627,116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C25H30N6O2 | {{DISPLAYTITLE:C25H30N6O2}}
The molecular formula C25H30N6O2 may refer to:
Dalpiciclib
Erdafitinib | C25H30N6O2 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 42 | [
"Isomerism",
"Set index articles on molecular formulas"
] |
76,627,127 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C21H16ClF3N4O3 | {{DISPLAYTITLE:C21H16ClF3N4O3}}
The molecular formula C21H16ClF3N4O3 may refer to:
Donafenib
Sorafenib | C21H16ClF3N4O3 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 46 | [
"Isomerism",
"Set index articles on molecular formulas"
] |
76,627,572 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDSS%20J114816.64%2B525150.3 | SDSS J114816.64+525150.3 (J1148+5251) was the most distant known quasar when it was discovered in 2003, at redshift Z=6.419. The quasar is powered by a 3x109 solar mass supermassive black hole.
Imaging with amateur-grade telescope
The Virtual Telescope Project imaged the quasar between March and April 2024, with a Celestron Schmidt–Cassegrain telescope, on a Software Bisque Paramount ME robotic mount. A total of 81, 300-second exposures were combined, for a total of almost 7 hours of exposure, recording sources as faint as about magnitude R=25. The team termed it "the most distant quasar observable at visible wavelengths".
See also
List of the most distant astronomical objects
References
Sources
External links
Astronomical objects discovered in 2003
Quasars
Ursa Major | SDSS J114816.64+525150.3 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 192 | [
"Galaxy stubs",
"Ursa Major",
"Astronomy stubs",
"Constellations"
] |
76,627,591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%205920 | NGC 5920 is a large lenticular galaxy located in the Serpens constellation. Discovered on March 30, 1887, by American astronomer Lewis Swift, NGC 5920 is 711 million light-years distant from planet Earth. It is a narrow-line radio galaxy and about 300,000 light-years in diameter.
Characteristics
NGC 5920 has an active galactic nucleus. It presents a radio jet. In addition, it hosts a radio source in its core called 3C 318.1, indicating emissions of strong radio waves. NGC 5920 was studied by Chandra-MUSE, in which X-ray and optical filament analysis in clusters were carried out. The main purpose for this was to find the excitation process responsible for increased filament emission. The research was further improved by following the cold gas phase and through study of intensive ratios in emission lines that caused the excitation. Researchers found that, there was a spatial connection between the filaments that are cold and having lower metal abundance levels.
Group Membership
NGC 5920 is the brightest cluster galaxy of a small galaxy cluster which is known as MKW 3. Apart from it, another radio galaxy NGC 5919, is also located there.
References
Lenticular galaxies
Radio galaxies
Serpens
318.1
5920
4C objects
09822
54839
54839
Astronomical objects discovered in 1887
Discoveries by Lewis Swift | NGC 5920 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 280 | [
"Constellations",
"Serpens"
] |
76,628,004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%205940 | NGC 5940 is a barred spiral galaxy located in the Serpens constellation. The galaxy was found on April 19, 1887, by Lewis Swift, an American astronomer. NGC 5940 is located 500 million light-years away from the Milky Way and it is approximately 140,000 light-years across in diameter.
NGC 5940 is a Seyfert type 1 galaxy and is considered a quasar according to the SIMBAD database. It is registered under the Markarian Catalogue as Markarian 1511 or MRK 9030. It has an bright active core, meaning there is a presence of an acceleration disc around its huge black hole. This in turn, emits strong radiation and ultraviolet rays that later get ejected into the depths of space.
References
Barred spiral galaxies
Seyfert galaxies
Serpens
5940
09876
Markarian galaxies
55295
55295
+01-39-025
Discoveries by Lewis Swift
Astronomical objects discovered in 1887 | NGC 5940 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 196 | [
"Constellations",
"Serpens"
] |
76,628,545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%203647 | NGC 3647 is a small elliptical galaxy in the Leo constellation. The galaxy was first discovered on March 22, 1865 by Albert Marth who was a German astronomer. It is approximately 747 million light-years away. Due to its close proximity to five other elliptical galaxies, there was a bit of confusion for Marth to identify which object is NGC 3647.
According to SIMBAD, it is identified as PGC 34816. But in HyperLeda and by NASA/IPAC databases, NGC 3647 is identified as PGC 34815. The correct designation for this article, according sources from wikidata is PGC 34816. There is no evidence whether this galaxy has an active nucleus or not.
References
Elliptical galaxies
Galaxies discovered in 1865
3647
Leo (constellation)
34816
J11213813+0254119
Astronomical objects discovered in 1865
Discoveries by Albert Marth | NGC 3647 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 185 | [
"Leo (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
76,628,805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium%20dichloride | Thorium dichloride is a binary inorganic compound of thorium metal and chloride with the chemical formula .
Synthesis
Th-metal is dissolved in alkali chloride. Thorium tetrachloride melts up to .
References
Thorium compounds
Nuclear materials
Chlorides
Actinide halides | Thorium dichloride | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 60 | [
"Chlorides",
"Inorganic compounds",
"Salts",
"Materials",
"Nuclear materials",
"Matter"
] |
76,628,961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IC%204271 | IC 4271 is a spiral galaxy located some 800 million light-years away in the Canes Venatici constellation. It is 130,000 light-years in diameter. IC 4271 was first located on July 10, 1896, by Stephane Javelle, a French astronomer. It hosts a Seyfert type 2 nucleus, containing an acceleration disc around its supermassive black hole which releases large amounts of radiation, hence its bright appearance. IC 4271 appears to be interacting with its smaller neighboring galaxy, PGC 3096774.
Both galaxies form Arp 40. In the Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies created by Halton Arp, they fall under spiral galaxies that have companions with low-surface-brightness.
References
Spiral galaxies
Interacting galaxies
Seyfert galaxies
Canes Venatici
4271
040
47334
+06-30-15 | IC 4271 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 181 | [
"Canes Venatici",
"Constellations"
] |
76,629,082 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsphaeropsis%20olivacea | Microsphaeropsis olivacea is a fungal species belonging to the family Didymosphaeriaceae. It is recognized for its diverse ecological roles, ranging from saprobic activities on dead organic matter to pathogenic interactions with various hosts, including plants and occasionally humans.
Etymology
The genus name Microsphaeropsis comes from the Greek 'micros', meaning small, and 'sphaera', meaning sphere. This naming reflects the small, spherical shape of the microscopic features that are characteristic of this genus. The species name olivacea comes from Latin, meaning olive-colored, which describes the typical appearance of the fungus. Additionally, this fungus has been associated with olive leaf die back, among many other endophytic ascomycetes whose earliest records have origin in the Mediterranean, where olive trees, Olea europaea, are abundant.
Taxonomy & history
Microsphaeropsis was first described by Höhnel in 1917, with M. olivacea (Bonord.) Höhn. designated as the type species. This genus is characterized by pycnidia that are either immersed or erumpent, subglobose in shape, and occur either singly or in clusters. These pycnidia have ostioles and are composed of a wall made of angular cells. The conidiogenous cells within are phialidic, hyaline, and shaped like ampullae, dolia, or slightly cylindrical structures. The conidia are thin-walled, smooth or finely roughened, and may possess zero to one septa. Hönel described this species in 1917 from the former, Coniothyrium olivaceum, described by Bonord in 1869. M. olivacea remains as the officially recognized name, with molecular studies confirming its phylogenetic placement.
Description
Microsphaeropsis olivacea produces small, dark-colored fruiting bodies known as pycnidia. These pycnidia harbor conidia—hyaline, asexual spores—that are instrumental in the dispersal of the fungus. These spores are primarily dispersed through water and air currents. M. olivacea is without notable diagnostic macro morphological features. Microsphaeropsis fungi are referred to as coniothyrium-like fungi, often being distinguished from other coelomycetes (a form-class of fungi), via their respective host symbionts. The type specimen of this species is held at the Kew Botanical Garden's Fungarium.
Distribution
Microsphaeropsis olivacea is a ubiquitous species with a wide variety of habitats and symbionts. The species has a worldwide distribution, with frequent occurrences in environmental samples.
Habitat and ecology
This species is adaptable to both terrestrial and aquatic environments. On land, it predominantly affects woody plants, causing diseases such as dieback and cankers, notably in agricultural settings. In aquatic environments, M. olivacea has been isolated from a marine sponge, an indication of its diversity of hosts, whether terrestrial or aquatic.
Pathogenicity
In terrestrial environments, M. olivacea poses a significant threat to agricultural productivity by infecting crops and causing woody plant diseases, leading to economic impacts. The species has also been identified as a pathogen in humans, causing skin infections. This ability to infect humans suggests potential for medical relevance, particularly in dermatology.
Research
Research on M. olivacea includes studies on its molecular identification and pathogenic mechanisms.Additionally, biochemical investigations have identified secondary metabolites such as cerebrosides, which may play roles in the fungus's survival and pathogenicity.
References
Further reading
Pleosporales
Fungal pathogens of humans
Fungus species
Fungi described in 1870
Taxa named by Hermann Friedrich Bonorden | Microsphaeropsis olivacea | [
"Biology"
] | 772 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
76,629,109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tj%C3%B8stheim%27s%20coefficient | Tjøstheim's coefficient is a measure of spatial association that attempts to quantify the degree to which two spatial data sets are related. Developed by Norwegian statistician Dag Tjøstheim. It is similar to rank correlation coefficients like Spearman's rank correlation coefficient and the Kendall rank correlation coefficient but also explicitly considers the spatial relationship between variables.
Consider two variables, and , observed at the same set of spatial locations with co-ordinates and . The Rank of at is
with a similar definition for . Here is a step function and this formula counts how many values are less than or equal to the value at the target point .
Now define
where is the Kronecker delta. This is the coordinate of the ranked value. The quantities and can be defined similarly.
Tjøstheim's coefficient is defined by
Under the assumptions that and are independent and identically distributed random variables and are independent of each other it can be shown that and
The maximum variance of occurs when all points are on a straight line and the minimum variance of occurs for a symmetric cross pattern where and .
Tjøstheim's coefficient is implemented as cor.spatial in the R package SpatialPack. Numerical simulations suggest that is an effective measure of correlation between variables but is sensitive to the degree of autocorrelation in and .
See also
Wartenberg's coefficient
References
Spatial analysis
Covariance and correlation | Tjøstheim's coefficient | [
"Physics"
] | 288 | [
"Spacetime",
"Space",
"Spatial analysis"
] |
76,629,734 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%205850 | NGC 5850 is a barred spiral galaxy in the constellation Virgo. Its speed relative to the cosmic microwave background is 2,735 ± 13 km/s, which corresponds to a Hubble distance of 40.3 ± 2.8 Mpc (~131 million ly). NGC 5850 was discovered by German-British astronomer William Herschel on 24 February 1786.
Characteristics
The luminosity class of NGC 5850 is II and it has a broad HI1 line. It is also classified a LINER galaxy; a galaxy whose nucleus presents an emission spectrum characterized by broad lines of weakly ionized atoms.
To date, seven non-redshift measurements yield a distance of 18.7 ± 1.75 Mpc (~61 million ly), which is far outside the Hubble distance values. Note that it is with the average value of independent measurements, when they exist, that the NASA/IPAC database calculates the diameter of a galaxy and that consequently the diameter of NGC 5850 could be approximately 58.7 kpc (~191,000 ly) if we used the Hubble distance to calculate it.
Morphology
NGC 5850 was used by Gérard de Vaucouleurs as a galaxy of morphological type SB(r)b in his galaxy atlas. It is classified as a prototype double-barred system early-type spiral galaxy by other studies as well.
In 2002, Eskridge, Frogel and Pogge published a paper, describing the morphology of 205 closely spaced spiral galaxies. The observations were carried out in the H band of infrared and in the B band (blue). According to Eskridge and his colleagues, NGC 5850 is a spiral galaxy of type SB(r)ab in the B band and type SB(r)0/a in the H band. The isophotes of the outer bulb are almost circular. The nucleus appears elliptical. The bulb is crossed by a very long bar with ansae at its end. The bar is inclined at 60 degrees to the interior bulb. A complete inner ring is formed at the end of the bar and beyond there is a faint spiral structure. The spiral arms appear to form an incomplete outern pseudo-ring. One of these spiral arms of NGC 5850 appears broken, likely caused by an interaction with a north-west object.
Possible galaxy pair?
NGC 5850 is close to its neighbor, NGC 5846. However, the distance between them is exactly 40 million light-years. Although they not a physical pair, it is possible that the two galaxies might have experienced a high-speed encounter around 200 million years ago.
Supernova
One supernova has been observed in NGC 5850: SN 1987B (typeII, mag. 15) was discovered by Robert Evans on 24 February 1987, shining 71" west and 145" south of the nucleus of the galaxy. Spectral analysis indicated that it was a non-conventional type II supernova.
See also
NGC 5846, thought to have caused creation of NGC 5850
List of NGC objects (5001–6000)
References
Further bibliography
External links
NGC 5850 at SIMBAD
Barred spiral galaxies
LINER galaxies
Virgo (constellation)
Discoveries by William Herschel
17860224
5850
09715
053979
+00-39-002
15045+0144 | NGC 5850 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 677 | [
"Virgo (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
76,630,343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%205777 | NGC 5777 is a large edge-on spiral galaxy located in the constellation Draco. Its speed relative to the cosmic microwave background is 2,210 ± 5 km/s, which corresponds to a Hubble distance of 32.6 ± 2.3 Mpc (~106 million ly). NGC 5777 was discovered by German-British astronomer William Herschel in 1789.
The luminosity class of NGC 5777 is II and it has a broad HI line. It is also an active galaxy with narrow optical emission lines. To date, nine non-redshift measurements yield a distance of 44.289 ± 8.577 Mpc (~144 million ly), which is just within the distance values of Hubble.
A spectrum obtained on July 10, 2001, by the Isaac Newton Telescope showed a type-IIp supernova at the center of NGC 5777. SN 2001dc was formed from a group of low-luminosity events, among with other supernovae in the region. They contain narrow spectral lines (indicating low expansion velocities) and low luminosities at every phase, which is untypical for a supernovae.
See also
NGC 4565, a similar galaxy
Sombrero Galaxy, another similar galaxy
External links
NGC 5777 at SIMBAD
NGC 5777 at NASA/IPAC
References
Spiral galaxies
Draco (constellation)
5777
Discoveries by William Herschel
Astronomical objects discovered in 1789
Active galaxies
9568
53043
53043 | NGC 5777 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 313 | [
"Constellations",
"Draco (constellation)"
] |
76,630,476 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%201009 | NGC 1009 is a large spiral galaxy in the constellation Cetus. Its speed relative to the cosmic microwave background is 5,594 ± 24 km/s, which corresponds to a Hubble distance of 82.5 ± 5.8 Mpc (~269 million ly). NGC 1009 was discovered by American astronomer Edward Swift in 1886. The luminosity class of NGC 1009 is II and it has a broad HI line. To date, five non-redshift measurements yield a distance of 91.940 ± 3.045 Mpc (~300 million ly), which is just outside the distance values of Hubble.
See also
List of NGC objects (1001–2000)
Lists of galaxies
New General Catalogue
References
External links
NGC 1009 at SIMBAD
Spiral galaxies
Cetus
1009
Discoveries by Edward Swift
Astronomical objects discovered in 1886
02129
009995 | NGC 1009 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 186 | [
"Cetus",
"Constellations"
] |
76,630,705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20945 | NGC 945 is a barred spiral galaxy in the constellation Cetus, located south of the celestial equator. It is estimated to be 200 million light-years from the Milky Way, and about 135,000 light-years in diameter. The object was discovered by astronomer William Herschel on November 28, 1785. It is within close proximity to NGC 948, with which it forms a gravitationally bound pair of galaxies. In the same area of the sky there are the galaxies NGC 942, NGC 943, NGC 950, and IC 230.
NGC 948
NGC 948 is a spiral galaxy located extremely close to NGC 945. Its speed relative to the cosmic microwave background is 4,259 ± 17 km/s, which corresponds to a Hubble distance of 62.8 ± 4.4 Mpc (~205 million ly). NGC 948 was discovered by American astronomer Lewis Swift in 1886. The luminosity class of NGC 948 is III and it has a broad HI line. With a surface brightness equal to 14.17 mag/am2, NGC 948 is classified as a low surface brightness galaxy (LSB).
Supernovae
Two supernovae have been observed in NGC 945:
SN1998dt (type Ib, mag. 17.7) was discovered by T. Shefler of the University of California at Berkeley on 1 September 1998, as part of the LOSS (Lick Observatory Supernova Search) program at the Lick observatory.
SN2020obd (typeII, mag. 17.3) was discovered by ATLAS on 6 July 2020.
NGC 945 group
NGC 945 is the brightest galaxy in a group of at least 7 members that bears its name. The other six galaxies in the NGC 945 group are NGC 948, NGC 950, NGC 977, MCG -2-7-20, MCG -2-7-32 and MCG -2-7-337.
See also
Interacting galaxy
List of NGC objects (1–1000)
Lists of galaxies
References
External links
NGC 945 at SIMBAD
NGC 948 at SIMBAD
Barred spiral galaxies
Cetus
945
Discoveries by William Herschel
Astronomical objects discovered in 1785 | NGC 945 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 450 | [
"Cetus",
"Constellations"
] |
76,632,501 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getis%E2%80%93Ord%20statistics | Getis–Ord statistics, also known as Gi*, are used in spatial analysis to measure the local and global spatial autocorrelation. Developed by statisticians Arthur Getis and J. Keith Ord they are commonly used for Hot Spot Analysis to identify where features with high or low values are spatially clustered in a statistically significant way. Getis-Ord statistics are available in a number of software libraries such as CrimeStat, GeoDa, ArcGIS, PySAL and R.
Local statistics
There are two different versions of the statistic, depending on whether the data point at the target location is included or not
Here is the value observed at the spatial site and is the spatial weight matrix which constrains which sites are connected to one another. For the denominator is constant across all observations.
A value larger (or smaller) than the mean suggests a hot (or cold) spot corresponding to a high-high (or low-low) cluster. Statistical significance can be estimated using analytical approximations as in the original work however in practice permutation testing is used to obtain more reliable estimates of significance for statistical inference.
Global statistics
The Getis-Ord statistics of overall spatial association are
The local and global statistics are related through the weighted average
The relationship of the and statistics is more complicated due to the dependence of the denominator of on .
Relation to Moran's I
Moran's I is another commonly used measure of spatial association defined by
where is the number of spatial sites and is the sum of the entries in the spatial weight matrix. Getis and Ord show that
Where , , and . They are equal if is constant, but not in general.
Ord and Getis also show that Moran's I can be written in terms of
where , is the standard deviation of and
is an estimate of the variance of .
See also
Spatial analysis
Indicators of spatial association
Tobler's first law of geography
Moran's I
Geary's C
Spatial analysis
Covariance and correlation
References | Getis–Ord statistics | [
"Physics"
] | 412 | [
"Spacetime",
"Space",
"Spatial analysis"
] |
76,633,054 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Californium%20dichloride | Californium dichloride is a binary inorganic compound of californium metal and chlorine with the chemical formula .
Synthesis
can be prepared by hydrogen reduction of at a high temperature (600 °C).
Physical properties
The compound forms moisture-sensitive amber solid.
References
Californium compounds
Nuclear materials
Chlorides
Actinide halides | Californium dichloride | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 73 | [
"Chlorides",
"Inorganic compounds",
"Salts",
"Materials",
"Nuclear materials",
"Matter"
] |
76,634,348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20747 | NGC 747 is a spiral galaxy located in the constellation Cetus. Its speed relative to the cosmic microwave background is 5,100 ± 19 km/s, which corresponds to a Hubble distance of 75.2 ± 5.3 Mpc (~245 million ly). NGC 747 was discovered by American astronomer Francis Leavenworth in 1886. The luminosity class of NGC 747 is II and it has a broad HI line. To date, four non-redshift measurements yield a distance of 83.900 ± 4.166 Mpc (~274 million ly), which is within the Hubble distance range. Note, however, that it is with the average value of independent measurements, when they exist, that the NASA/IPAC database calculates the diameter of a galaxy and that consequently the diameter of NGC 747 could be approximately 23 .9 kpc (~78,000 ly). In the same area of the sky there are, among other things: the galaxies NGC 713, NGC 731, NGC 755 and NGC 767.
See also
List of NGC objects (1–1000)
Lists of galaxies
Galaxy cluster
References
External links
NGC 747 at SEDS USA
NGC 747 at SIMBAD
0747
Cetus
Spiral galaxies
Astronomical objects discovered in 1886
Discoveries by Francis Leavenworth
007366
-02-06-007
2MASS objects
007366 | NGC 747 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 286 | [
"Cetus",
"Constellations"
] |
76,634,421 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callum%20A.S.%20Hill | Callum A.S. Hill (born in 1957) is a Scottish materials chemist and wood scientist, who worked at Bangor University and Edinburgh Napier University, and is an elected fellow of the International Academy of Wood Science.
Research career
Hill started his research in wood science and bio-composites at Bangor University in 1994. Transitioning to Edinburgh Napier University in 2007, he assumed the role of the Edinburgh Research Partnership Chair in renewable materials until 2013. Since 2010, he has served as the director at the JCH Industrial Ecology Ltd, a private consultancy specializing in sustainability.
His research contributions in chemical and thermal modification of wood, and lignocellulosic fibres have been well recorded.
He currently holds the position of senior consultant at the Norwegian Institute for Bioeconomy Research in Ås, Norway. His research contributions have gained international recognition especially his book entitled Wood Modification in 2007, having >2,700 international citations. In total, he has had almost 17,000 citations for his research works in Google Scholar, possessing an h-index of 58.
In October 2023, a meta-research carried out by John Ioannidis et al. at Stanford University, included Callum Hill in Elsevier Data 2022, where he was ranked at the top 2% of researchers in wood science (forestry – materials), having a composite index of 4.023, the highest one in this scientific area globally.
As of June 2024, the research work of Hill has received almost 12,000 citations at Scopus.
References
External links
Wood science videos
Scopus.com
1957 births
Living people
Wood scientists
Fellows of the International Academy of Wood Science
Alumni of Bangor University | Callum A.S. Hill | [
"Materials_science"
] | 336 | [
"Wood sciences",
"Wood scientists"
] |
76,634,757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wartenberg%27s%20coefficient | Wartenberg's coefficient is a measure of correlation developed by epidemiologist Daniel Wartenberg. This coefficient is a multivariate extension of spatial autocorrelation that aims to account for spatial dependence of data while studying their covariance. A modified version of this statistic is available in the R package adespatial.
For data measured at spatial sites Moran's I is a measure of the spatial autocorrelation of the data. By standardizing the observations by subtracting the mean and dividing by the variance as well as normalising the spatial weight matrix such that we can write Moran's I as
Wartenberg generalized this by letting be a vector of observations at and defining where:
is the spatial weight matrix
is the standardized data matrix
is the transpose of
is the spatial correlation matrix.
For two variables and the bivariate correlation is
For this reduces to Moran's . For larger values of the diagonals of are the Moran indices for each of the variables and the off-diagonals give the corresponding Wartenberg correlation coefficients. is an example of a Mantel statistic and so its significance can be evaluated using the Mantel test.
Criticisms
Lee points out some problems with this coefficient namely:
There is only one factor of in the numerator, so the comparison is between the raw data and the spatially averaged data.
for non-symmetric spatial weight matrices.
He suggests an alternative coefficient which has two factors of in the numerator and is symmetric for any weight matrix.
See also
Tjøstheim's Coefficient
References
Spatial analysis
Covariance and correlation | Wartenberg's coefficient | [
"Physics"
] | 324 | [
"Spacetime",
"Space",
"Spatial analysis"
] |
76,635,267 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isis%20%28journal%2C%201816%29 | Isis was an encyclopedic journal that focused on articles on natural science, medicine, technology, economics as well as art and history. It also published important articles on science policy and the organization of science. Edited by Lorenz Oken and published by Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus, Isis was the first interdisciplinary journal in the German-speaking world.
The 41 volumes of the journal named after the Egyptian goddess Isis were nominally published from 1817 to 1848. However, the first issue appeared on August 1, 1816, while the printing of the last issue was delayed until February 1850. Until 1832, Isis bore the title Encyclopädische Zeitung. After the focus of the articles published in it had changed, Oken changed the title to Encyclopädische Zeitschrift, vorzüglich für Naturgeschichte, vergleichende Anatomie und Physiologie in 1833. Initially printed in Jena, the journal was banned in the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach and from the summer of 1819 was produced in nearby Rudolstadt in the court printing works of the Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. The magazine's original print run of 1,500 copies fell rapidly in the first few years of its existence and amounted to around 200 copies in the last few years.
Originally conceived as a non-political journal, Oken was forced to vehemently defend the freedom of the press in the first years of Isis' existence. This resulted in numerous lawsuits against Oken, some of which overlapped in time, which led to temporary bans on Isis in the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. In the run-up to the Carlsbad Decrees, this led to Oken's dismissal as a professor at the University of Jena at the end of June 1819 under pressure from the states of the Holy Alliance.
From 2006 to 2013, a project funded by the German Research Foundation at the Friedrich Schiller University Jena studied the significance of Isis for scientific communication and the popularization of the natural sciences in the first half of the 19th century.
Origin
In a letter dated April 11, 1814, Lorenz Oken contacted the publisher Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus for the first time and offered him his publication Neue Bewaffnung, neues Frankreich, neues Theutschland for printing. Brockhaus did not print it, but Oken subsequently contributed to Brockhaus' Conversations-Lexikon and, from June 1815 at the latest, was a contributor to the Deutsche Blätter, which Brockhaus had been publishing since October 1813 following the Battle of Leipzig and which became the most important journal in central Germany in 1813/1814. Presumably at the end of June/beginning of July 1815, Oken took over the editorship of the Tagesgeschichte, a supplement to the Deutsche Blätter, which was dedicated to daily politics and for which he wrote and edited numbers 1 to 16. With the end of the Wars of Liberation, the focus of the Deutsche Blätter shifted from war reporting to general daily politics, which was associated with a considerable decline in circulation from an initial 4000 to 1100 copies. On February 22, 1816, Brockhaus announced that he would discontinue the Deutsche Blätter. Oken regretted this decision and repeatedly urged Brockhaus to continue the Deutsche Blätter in another form. He presented Brockhaus with his encyclopedic concept of a new journal, which would not focus on current politics, but on the natural sciences, critique, history and political science. Brockhaus was only to bear the printing and postage costs. The first publishing contract for the Encyclopädische Blätter was signed with Brockhaus on March 31, 1816. Oken presented his concept to readers in the last issue of Deutsche Blätter.
Conception
The design concept for Isis was delayed until July 1816, as Oken was still working on the zoological section of his textbook on natural history. Oken reached an agreement with Brockhaus that a copper plate should appear in each booklet, and he worked towards a low sales price. They were at odds over the arrangement of the information in the title head and the text and image design. Oken had a woodcut made for the title head, in the middle of which the goddess Isis is depicted on an ancient Egyptian throne. On the left, she is flanked by her husband Osiris, who carries a vulture's head and a staff. To her right is Anubis with a jackal's head, palm branch and snake sceptre. Oken commissioned the rector of the Academy of Fine Arts Leipzig, Veit Schnorr von Carolsfeld (1764–1841), to create the frontispiece and later copper plates. There were differences of opinion as to whether foreign-language contributions should be translated into German. Oken spoke out against it due to the difficulty of translating certain technical terms. Brockhaus was in favour of a translation for reasons of popularization.
The title Isis first appeared in correspondence between Oken and Brockhaus at the end of July, shortly before the first issue went to press. The two agreed on Encyclopädische Zeitung as the additional title, in line with the originally intended title of the journal. Oken sent the draft of the first edition, produced by the printer Johann Georg Schreiber in Jena, to Brockhaus' publishing house in Altenburg on July 13, 1816, with the remark that it was to be published in a new edition. Oken introduced this first issue of Isis, which appeared on August 1, 1816, with an excerpt from the Basic Law on the State Constitution of the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. In it, he presented the programmatic orientation of his new journal. Isis was to cover natural sciences, medicine, mathematics, technology, economics, art and history. Law and theology were expressly excluded. Oken wrote "That is why history is the mirror of this journal, nature its floor, art its pillar wall. We leave the sky open." Anyone could send articles to Isis for publication. Oken did not pay a fee for published articles.
Oken's fight for freedom of expression and the press
Legal dispute with Eichstädt
Even before Isis was published, the classical philologist Abraham Eichstädt from Jena learned of the planned new journal. Eichstädt, who published the Jenaische allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung, had held an exclusive right to publish reviews in Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach since 1803. As he feared for the financial security of his paper, Eichstädt turned to the President of the State Ministry in Weimar, Christian Gottlob Voigt, and obtained a renewal of this privilege on July 17, 1816. Oken saw this as a violation of the freedom of the press guaranteed in the Weimar Constitution of May 15, 1816 and sneered in the second issue of Isis: "Whether we really have freedom of the press, or whether it is to be mocked as a grimace through literary privileges and arbitrary interpretation and extension of the same, will be taught by the progress of Isis." Eichstädt filed a lawsuit against Oken and Isis on August 1, 1816. In a judgment dated August 23, Oken was ordered to refrain from publishing reviews and political articles. In the event of non-compliance, he was threatened with a fine of 50 thalers and a ban on Isis. Oken, who became aware of the verdict eight days later, protested against it to the Weimar government on September 2 and attached the first five issues of Isis to his letter in support of his position. In the course of September 1816, the verdict against Oken and Isis was finally withdrawn. Looking ahead, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe commented on the events in his diary on July 30, 1816, with the remark: "Isis as Hydra."
Goethe's recommendation for a ban
In order not to exacerbate the disputes with Eichstädt, Oken had filled the first four issues exclusively with scientific topics and suggested to Brockhaus that he initially refrain from including controversial political articles, as political newspapers in the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach were still subject to censorship. However, Brockhaus did not agree to this and delayed the delivery of the first four issues. As the dispute with Eichstädt progressed, Oken finally felt compelled to include political topics in Isis. In the sixth issue of Isis, he placed a prize issue in which he questioned the legitimacy of literary privileges. In the ninth issue and the two following issues, Oken criticized the Basic Law on the Landständische Verfassung des Großherzogthums Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach, which came into force on 5 May 1816. In the third issue of Isis, Oken also printed a letter dated December 5, 1811, from the Rostock professors Samuel Gottlieb Vogel, Wilhelm Josephi, Georg Heinrich Masius (1771–1823) and Karl Ernst Theodor Brandenburg (1772–1827), in which they rejected Oken's appointment to the vacant chair of natural history at the University of Rostock due to his pompous natural philosophy. Oken illustrated the print with a vignette depicting donkey heads.
On September 10, 1816, Christian Gottlob von Voigt drew up an indictment in response to these Isis editions. Oken was accused of insulting the highest royal dignity of the sovereign, insulting official dignity, attacking some German governments and their rulers, as well as insulting foreign official authorities and the Rostock professors. A week later, Grand Duke Karl August sent the indictment to the State Directorate for examination. The expert opinions written by Anton Ziegesar (1783–1843), the head of the administrative and police authority Karl Wilhelm von Fritsch, and the head of the school and church system Ernst Christian August von Gersdorff were collected together with the first eleven issues of Isis in a file entitled Acta Geheimer Staats-Canzley Den Unfug der Preßfrechheit besonders der Isis betr. 1816.
Grand Duke Carl August sent this file to Goethe at the end of September and asked him for his judgment. As can be seen from his diary notes, Goethe needed several days to consider the matter of Isis. In his reply of 5 October, Goethe recommended to the Grand Duke not to prosecute Oken personally, but to take action against the printer of Isis and thus enforce a ban on printing the journal. Carl August did not follow Goethe's advice, but instead discontinued the prosecution.
The Wartburgfest and the confiscated number 195 of Isis
Before the end of 1816, Isis was banned in Austria. Meanwhile, Oken continued to campaign for freedom of the press and, for example, published a report on the meeting of the Dutch estates under the title "Against the Restriction of Freedom of the Press". In June 1817, the Prussian Minister of Police, Wilhelm Ludwig Georg Fürst zu Wittgenstein, complained to Carl August about a derogatory criticism of a Prussian decree of 1811 that had appeared in the Oppositions-Blatt and a small note in Isis, in which Oken complained about Prussia's presumption in wanting to interfere even in insignificant matters such as those of the Vienna Agricultural Society. Six days later, a serious warning was issued to the editor of the opposition journal Friedrich Justin Bertuch and Oken, stating "that in the event of further disregard of the sovereign's or authorities' orders, the suppression of this journal will be pursued".
During the Wartburg Festival, which Oken and other professors from Jena attended, an auto-da-fé took place on the evening of October 18, 1817, during which parts of a Prussian Uhlan uniform, a Hessian soldier's braid and an Austrian corporal's baton, as well as several books by authors considered reactionary, including Karl Albert von Kamptz, Theodor Schmalz, Karl Ludwig von Haller and August von Kotzebue, were burned. Fourteen days later, Oken published a report on the meeting at Wartburg Castle, which also contained a list of the burned books and objects, along with mocking signs.
Kamptz, the head of the Ministry of Police in Berlin, whose Codex der Gensd'armerie was one of the burned books, railed in a letter dated November 9, 1817 to Grand Duke Carl August about the "bunch of feral professors and seduced students" and went on to write: "If true freedom of thought and freedom of the press really flourishes in Your Royal Highness's states, then censorship practiced by fire and pitchforks, by enthusiasts and minors, and terrorist proceedings against freedom of thought and freedom of the press in other states are certainly not compatible with this." The following day, a report by Weimar State Minister Karl Wilhelm von Fritsch exonerated Oken and the other professors, stating that they had not taken part in the burning. Nevertheless, on November 27, 1817, number 195 was confiscated and a temporary ban on the printing of Isis was issued, which was lifted on December 15. From December 2 onwards, a commission consisting of members of the Weimar state government investigated the Isis incidents. Oken was interrogated several times in Weimar. The commission submitted its report to the state government on December 20. The government was willing to return the confiscated copies of Isis if the disputed passages were removed. Oken did not agree to this deal. On January 24, 1818, Oken was sentenced to six weeks in prison for "offenses against the highest dignity of the sovereign, offenses against the official dignity of the upper state authorities and the academic senate in Jena, denigration of German rulers and governments and insulting foreign official authorities". Together with his statement published by the Bremer Zeitung at the end of March 1818, Oken had the sentence printed in full in Isis. Oken appealed against the sentence to the Jena High Court of Appeal and was acquitted on April 29, 1818.
The August von Kotzebue incident
Through an indiscretion, the history professor Heinrich Luden from Jena came into possession of one of the numerous bulletins written by the Russian consul general Kotzebue and intended for Tsar Alexander I in mid-December 1817. He wrote a biting commentary on it for the journal Nemesis, although Kotzebue was able to prevent its publication and dissemination by court order on January 15, 1818. Oken nevertheless published Luden's article in the first issue of Isis in 1818. After the issue was published, the remaining copies were confiscated. Isis was banned again on January 31, 1818, and was not published again until the end of April. Both Luden and Oken were sentenced to three months imprisonment and a fine of 60 thalers by the Königlich Sächsischen Schöppengericht in Leipzig. Oken chose the fine and again published the files relating to the trial in Isis. On March 23, 1819, Kotzebue was murdered in Mannheim by the Jena fraternity member and theology student Karl Ludwig Sand.
Oken's dismissal
The attacks against Oken's Isis from the states of the Holy Alliance continued relentlessly. On January 29, 1819, Karl August von Hardenberg submitted a complaint to Grand Duke Karl August because of a derisive remark about the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm III, which was printed in the twelfth issue of 1818, but this time without consequences for Oken and Isis.
At the Aachen Congress in the fall of 1818, the Russian Tsar Alexander I distributed an anonymously written memorandum by Alexander Scarlatovich Sturdsa (1791–1854) entitled Memoire sur l'état actuel de l'Allemagne, in which Sturdsa commented on the dangerous activities at German universities. Oken's replies again caused a sensation. Under pressure from the Russian envoy to the Saxon court, Vasily Vasilyevich Chanykov (1759–1829), the Weimar state treasurer Carl August Constantin Schnauss (1782–1832) was forced to file charges against Oken on April 20, 1819. On May 11, Grand Duke Carl August of Weimar and Duke August of Gotha instructed the Senate of the University of Jena to give Oken the choice of either discontinuing Isis or resigning his professorship. The Senate tried to give in, but had to present Oken with this choice eleven days later. After three days of deliberation, Oken responded evasively: "I have no answer to the request made to me. Perhaps they have come to a different conclusion that an answer is unnecessary." In its reply to the dukes, the Senate once again referred to Oken's outstanding reputation as a teacher and researcher, but to no avail. On June 1, 1819, Duke Carl Friedrich ordered Oken's dismissal and the withholding of his salary from June 15 onwards in the name and on behalf of his father. A similar order from the Duchy of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg followed six days later. On June 26, 1818, the printing of Isis was provisionally banned.
To avoid the ban, Oken moved the printing of Isis to nearby Rudolstadt in the Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. There, Carl Popo Fröbel (1786–1824), stepbrother of the educator Friedrich Fröbel and owner of the court printing works since 1815, took over the printing of Isis from August 1819. After Fröbel's death in 1824, the print shop was initially taken over by Fröbel's widow and finally continued by his son Günther Fröbel from 1832, who produced the last issues of Isis in 1850. A small part of Isis was produced in Eisenberg until 1824/25.
After the Carlsbad Decrees of September 1819, it became increasingly difficult to deal with political issues. Their share of articles in Isis fell sharply. After Brockhaus' death, Oken announced in the first issue of 1824 that Isis would no longer print political articles.
Content
In addition to Oken, many natural scientists and humanities scholars, writers and artists contributed to the content of Isis. Among the authors who published articles in the first volume of Isis were Alexander von Humboldt, Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland, Madame de Staël, August Wilhelm Schlegel, Georges Cuvier and Johannes Peter Müller. There were reviews of Goethe's Aus meinem Leben. Dichtung und Wahrheit, Luigi Valentino Brugnatelli's (1761–1818) Kreistafel der chemischen Aequivalente, Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck's System der Pilze und Schwämme, Leopoldo Cicognara's (1767–1834) Von den vier venetianischen Kunstpferden, Charles Robert Cockerell's Ueber die ursprüngliche Anwendung der Niobe und ihrer Kinder and Ludwig Wachler's Deutschlands Zukunft in der Gegenwart. Isis reported on the state of affairs at German universities, published their course catalogs and also regularly set prizes.
From the outset, Isis devoted considerable space to summaries and abstracts of publications published in foreign scientific and academic journals. Initially, the relevant journals came from the United Kingdom, France, Italy and Switzerland. These were later supplemented by journals from Scandinavia, Belgium, the Netherlands, Russia and the United States. Oken's approach to editing the articles varied greatly. Sometimes Oken's texts consisted of an abridged translation of the corresponding article, usually they summarized its main content in one paragraph. As a rule, the majority of the articles were only listed with their title - usually translated into German.
In 1821, Oken published the first call for an assembly of German naturalists in Isis, which led to the founding of the Society of German Natural Scientists and Physicians in September 1822. Detailed reports on the society's annual meetings were published regularly until the end.
From 1833, Isis bore the new title Encyclopädische Zeitschrift, vorzüglich für Naturgeschichte, vergleichende Anatomie und Physiologie. This change reflected the changing focus of the articles over time. The already small number of articles dealing with mathematics and physics decreased further.
In the last volume of 1848, Christian Ludwig Brehm published original articles in Isis with Ueber das allmählige Fortrücken der Vögel, Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Siedhofs (1803 - ca. 1867) with Naturgeschichtliches aus den Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerica, Johann Jakob Kaup with Uebersicht der Eulen (Strigidae) and Christian Gottfried Giebel with Das subhercynische Becken um Quedlinburg in geognostisch-paläontologischer Beziehung. Some of the publications discussed in this volume were Sebastian Egger's (1803–1866) Ueber die Pflichten gegen die Thiere, Franz von Kobell's Mineralogie, Christian Gottfried Giebel's Fauna der Vorwelt, Mauro Rusconi's (1776–1849) Riflessioni sopra il sistema linfatico dei rettili, Johann Malfatti's Neue Heilversuche, Karl Bernhard Stark's Kunst und Schule and Joseph Hippolyt Pultes (1805–1869) Organon der Weltgeschichte.
In the last edition, Oken ended Isis with the words: "This is the end of Isis."
Circulation
In the initial period from August 1816 to February 1817, the circulation of Isis, which cost eight thalers a year, was 1500 copies. On March 4, 1817, Brockhaus reduced the print run to 1100 copies due to a lack of sales and reduced it by a further 100 copies a week later. When the actual sales figures were known in June 1817, there was a further drastic reduction of 650 copies. In 1825/1826, only 400 copies were printed. This was followed by a slight increase to up to 500 copies for the next few years until 1830. After that, the circulation fell continuously and was around 200 copies in the last ten years of Isis' existence. This relatively low circulation was nothing unusual. For example, the circulation of the Jahrbücher für wissenschaftliche Kritik, one of the most important journals for scientific reviews, was around 500 copies in the years from 1827 to 1846 and that of the Medizinische Annalen, edited by Johann Friedrich Pierer, was 500 to 700 copies.
Research
In 2001, the German historian of science Dietrich von Engelhardt characterized Isis as "a first-rate scientific and cultural-historical document from that transitional epoch from idealism and romanticism to positivism and realism", the analysis of which was still pending. Since 2006, the Institute for the History of Medicine, Natural Science and Technology at the Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, headed by Olaf Breidbach, has been investigating the significance of Isis for scientific communication and the popularization of the natural sciences in the first half of the 19th century, as well as its economic structure, in a project funded by the German Research Foundation. In a three-year project that began in July 2006, Claudia Taszus initially focused on the company documents found in the Fröbel court printing works. This was followed in 2009 by a project aimed at cataloguing the correspondence between Oken and the Brockhaus publishing house. The activities funded by the German Research Foundation also include the project carried out by the Thuringian University and State Library and the Ereignis Weimar-Jena. Kultur um 1800 at the University of Jena, the digitization, indexing and online presentation of Isis.
References
Articles in Isis
Bibliography
External links
Volumes 1-5 (1817–1819), volumes 6-41 (1820–1848) of Isis in the Biodiversity Heritage Library
Multidisciplinary academic journals
History of science
Publisher censorship | Isis (journal, 1816) | [
"Technology"
] | 4,951 | [
"History of science",
"History of science and technology"
] |
76,635,832 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia%20BH3 | Gaia BH3 (Gaia DR3 4318465066420528000) is a binary system consisting of a metal-poor giant star with spectral type G and a stellar-mass black hole. Gaia BH3 is located 1926 light years away ( away) in the constellation of Aquila. Gaia BH3 is the first black hole discovered from preliminary Gaia DR4 astrometric data.
The black hole and star orbit the system barycentre every 11.6 years, with an orbital distance ranging from . The black hole's mass is , the heaviest known stellar black hole in the Milky Way.
The black hole Gaia BH3 is the second known stellar black hole more massive than about 10 (with the first being Cygnus X-1). The mass of Gaia BH3 is quite similar to the mass of merging binary black holes found via gravitational waves. These massive black holes were suspected to be formed by metal-poor stars and the fact that Gaia BH3 has a metal-poor companion strengthens this conclusion.
Gaia BH3 was found to be part of a disrupted star cluster of low mass and this star cluster is today a halo stellar stream, called ED-2. This stellar stream is very old, with an age comparable to the globular cluster Messier 92. This means that Gaia BH3 likely formed more than 13 billion years ago and the black hole might have formed via direct collapse of a massive star. Alternatively the black hole could have formed via binary interaction inside the star cluster. The ED-2 star cluster has a mass between 2,000 and 42,000 .
Discovery
Gaia BH3 was identified in astrometric observations with Gaia, during an analysis in preparation for Data Release 4. It was announced with the publication of a scientific paper in the journal Astronomy & Astrophysics on 16 April 2024.
See also
List of nearest known black holes
Gaia BH1
Gaia BH2
References
Aquila (constellation)
G-type main-sequence stars
Stellar black holes
Astrometric binaries
20240416 | Gaia BH3 | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 436 | [
"Black holes",
"Stellar black holes",
"Unsolved problems in physics",
"Constellations",
"Aquila (constellation)"
] |
76,636,218 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee%27s%20L | Lee's L is a bivariate spatial correlation coefficient which measures the association between two sets of observations made at the same spatial sites. Standard measures of association such as the Pearson correlation coefficient do not account for the spatial dimension of data, in particular they are vulnerable to inflation due to spatial autocorrelation. Lee's L is available in numerous spatial analysis software libraries including spdep and PySAL (where it is called Spatial_Pearson) and has been applied in diverse applications such as studying air pollution, viticulture
and housing rent.
Formula
For spatial data and measured at locations connected with the spatial weight matrix first define the spatially lagged vector
with a similar definition for . Then Lee's L is defined as
where are the mean values of . When the spatial weight matrix is row normalized, such that , the first factor is 1.
Alternate definition
Lee also defines the spatial smoothing scalar
to measure the spatial autocorrelation of a variable.
It is shown by Lee that the above definition is equivalent to
Where is the Pearson correlation coefficient
This means Lee's L is equivalent to the Pearson correlation of the spatially lagged data, multiplied by a measure of each data set's spatial autocorrelation.
References
Numerical analysis | Lee's L | [
"Mathematics"
] | 255 | [
"Computational mathematics",
"Mathematical relations",
"Approximations",
"Numerical analysis"
] |
76,637,590 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HAT-P-67 | HAT-P-67 is a binary star system, made up of a F-type subgiant and a red dwarf star, which is located about 1,200 light-years away in the constellation Hercules. There is a hot Saturn planet orbiting the primary star, which is named HAT-P-67b.
Stellar system
The stellar system consists of the F class primary star with a red dwarf companion separated by 9 arc-seconds or about 3400 astronomical units. According to measurements taken by the Gaia spacecraft the two stars have nearly identical parallax and proper motions confirming that they are a binary system.
The primary star is a rapidly rotating subgiant star with a radius 2.65 times that of the sun and a mass 1.64 times that of the sun.
Little is known of the secondary star other than it is a M-dwarf.
Planetary system
There is one known planet orbiting HAT-P-67A. HAT-P-67b is a gas giant planet transiting its parent star every 4.8 days, at an orbital distance of . It is one of the largest and lowest density planets known .
Discovery
Transits of HAT-P-67b were discovered by the Hungarian Automated Telescope Network (HATNet), using small, wide field telescopes, located at the Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory in Arizona and at the Mauna Kea Observatory in Hawaii. Observations were made in 2005 and 2008, analysis of the obtained data revealed the periodic transits of HAT-P-67b. Follow-up photometry of the transits were obtained using the 1.2 m telescope at the Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory. A full transit was observed on 2012 May 28, and five partial transits were observed in 2011, 2012 and 2013.
The high rotational velocity of the star made initial attempts to confirm the planet using radial velocity measurements difficult, with data from 2009 showing that the transiting object was less massive than a brown dwarf. Using measurements taken from 2009 to 2012 the Keck telescope was able to determine that the mass of the planet was less than 0.59 that of Jupiter. In 2016 Doppler tomography was used to confirm the planet.
Characteristics
With a radius of over double that of Jupiter's HAT-P-67 b is one of the largest exoplanets known to date. It also one of the least dense at approximately 0.05 grams per cubic centimeter, a density lower than that of marshmallows.
An analysis of a radial velocity time series obtained at the Galileo National Telescope detected the Rossiter–McLaughlin effect and determined the projected spin-orbit angle to be 2.2 ± 0.4°. The calculated value suggests an aligned planetary orbit, indicating that the planet likely migrated to its present orbit through tidal interactions with a protoplanetary gas disk.
Atmosphere
Gas giants with masses less than Jupiter's, and temperatures greater than 1800 K, like HAT-P-67 b, which has an equilibrium temperature of approximately 1900 K, are so inflated and puffed out that they are all on unstable evolutionary paths which eventually lead to roche lobe overflow and the evaporation and loss of the planet's atmosphere.
A team of astronomers led by Aaron Bello-Arufe used the CARMENES spectrograph at the Calar Alto Observatory to study the atmosphere of HAT-P-67b. Based on this data, the planet's atmosphere seems to be highly ionized and may be escaping at a rate of 10 million tons per second. The team detected sodium and ionized calcium in the atmosphere of HAT-P-67b. Ionized calcium is typically found in hotter planets; however, it was detected quite prominently in the spectrum of HAT-P-67b.
The data also revealed absorption in the hydrogen and helium lines, typically a sign that part of the atmosphere is escaping into space. In the case of HAT-P-67b, these signals were detected before and after the planet's transit, suggesting the possibility of a vast cloud of gas escaping far beyond the planet. A different team led by Michael Gully-Santiago performed a multiyear spectroscopic survey of HAT-P-67 b, using the Habitable Zone Planet Finder on the Hobby–Eberly Telescope. They observed a prominent leading tail and a significantly fainter trailing tail, which they interpreted as direct evidence of preferential mass loss on the dayside. A third team using an average of many spectra acquired after transits found a clear absorption signal. They estimated an effective planetary radius 6 times that of Jupiter, indicating that the planet's atmosphere is evaporating.
References
External links
The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia entry for Hat-P-67b
F-type main-sequence stars
Planetary systems with one confirmed planet
Planetary transit variables
Hercules (constellation)
Binary stars | HAT-P-67 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 981 | [
"Hercules (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
76,640,215 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet%20Tate | Janet Tate is a condensed-matter physicist and materials scientist whose research is centered on transparent semiconductors and their application in the design of electroluminescent devices, solar cells, and thin film electronics. Originally from South Africa, and educated in South Africa and the US, she has worked in Germany and the US, where she is University Distinguished Professor of Physics at Oregon State University.
Education and career
Tate studied physics and chemistry at the University of Natal in South Africa, earning a bachelor's degree in 1980 and honor degree in physics in 1981. She came to Stanford University in 1982 as a Fulbright Scholar, earned a master's degree in physics in 1984, and completed her Ph.D. in 1988 under the supervision of Blas Cabrera Navarro. Her doctoral research, initially intended as a calibration check for the Gravity Probe B experiment, discovered an anomalously large mass for Cooper pairs of electrons in a rotating superconductor, sparking subsequent interest in gravitoelectromagnetism.
Next, with the support of a Humboldt Fellowship, she became a postdoctoral researcher at the Technical University of Munich, working there with Helmut Kinder on high-temperature superconductivity. She joined Oregon State University as an assistant professor of physics in 1989, and was granted tenured as an associate professor in 1994. In 2002, she was promoted to full professor, and took a second courtesy appointment as a professor of chemistry. She was named a distinguished professor in 2018.
Textbook
Tate is the coauthor of the physics textbook Quantum Mechanics: A Paradigms Approach (Pearson, 2012, with David H. McIntyre and Corinne Manogue).
Recognition
Tate was named as a Fellow of the American Physical Society (APS) in 2015, after a nomination from the APS Division of Condensed Matter Physics, "for contributions to structural, transport, and optical properties of a wide variety of electronic and superconducting materials".
References
External links
Home page
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
South African physicists
South African women scientists
American physicists
American women physicists
American materials scientists
Women materials scientists and engineers
University of Natal alumni
Stanford University alumni
Fellows of the American Physical Society | Janet Tate | [
"Materials_science",
"Technology"
] | 445 | [
"Women materials scientists and engineers",
"Materials scientists and engineers",
"Women in science and technology"
] |
76,641,401 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%203908 | NGC 3908 is one of the furthest NGC objects. It is an elliptical galaxy located 1.2 billion light-years away in the Leo constellation with an estimated 280,000 thousand light-years across in diameter. It was discovered on April 10, 1885, by Lewis Swift, who found the object too faint for the naked eye to see. The identification of the celestial object observed by Swift is uncertain. The coordinates (RA 11 49 40.8, Dec +12 04 19) place it approximately 7.5 arcminutes south-southwest of a galaxy previously listed, potentially identifying it as PGC 36967. However, astronomers Corwin and Gottlieb argue that the object is much fainter than Swift's descriptions suggest, indicating it may have been too faint for him to observe. Although the right ascension aligns with another of Swift's discoveries on the same night (NGC 5304), the discrepancy in declination is notably larger. It remains unclear if PGC 36967 is NGC 3908, and it is equally probable that Swift's observed object is "lost," with any nearby galaxy merely coincidental to Swift's original position. Due to its relatively large size, NGC 3908 is considered a brightest cluster galaxy, a BCG.
See also
List of the most distant astronomical objects
NGC 5609
References
Galaxies
3908
Leo (constellation)
036967
Elliptical galaxies
Galaxies discovered in 1885
036967
J11495270+1211086
Astronomical objects discovered in 1885
Discoveries by Lewis Swift | NGC 3908 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 323 | [
"Leo (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
76,641,557 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%202603 | NGC 2603 is a small compact spiral galaxy located 787 million light-years away in the constellation of Ursa Major from the Solar System. It was discovered by George Johnstone Stoney, an Irish astronomer, on February 9th, 1850. NGC 2603 has an estimated diameter of 81,000 light-years. It contains a narrow-line active galactic nucleus. The Hyperleda database associates NGC 2603 and NGC 2606 as one single galaxy. NASA/IPAC database on the other hand, classifies NGC 2603 as galaxy PGC 3133653.
References
Spiral galaxies
2603
Ursa Major
Principal Galaxies Catalogue objects
Astronomical objects discovered in 1850 | NGC 2603 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 133 | [
"Ursa Major",
"Constellations"
] |
59,984,774 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrology%20in%20Practice | Hydrology in Practice is a hydrology textbook by British hydrologist Elizabeth M. Shaw. The book was originally published in 1983 by Van Nostrand Reinhold (UK) Co. Ltd. and the most recent fourth edition was published in July 2010 by CRC Press, a division of Taylor & Francis. The book has been described as both an introductory text and a resource for professionals.
Synopsis
The third edition of the book is separated into three parts which discuss hydrological measurements, hydrological analysis, and engineering applications.
Reception
Hydrology in Practice has been described by CRC Press as "likely to be the course text for every undergraduate/MSc hydrology course in the UK".
The book has been reviewed by the Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, the Journal of the American Water Resources Association, the Hydrological Sciences Journal, and the Journal of Hydrology, along with being cited in many scientific journals. In a review of the third edition, the Hydrological Sciences Journal described the book as "an excellent compendium of techniques and methods of hydrological measurement and data analysis". The book is also recommended reading at Dartmouth College, Utah State University, the University of Malta, the American Institute of Hydrology, and the Polytechnic University of Catalonia, among others.
Editions
Shaw, Elizabeth M., Hydrology in Practice, 1st Edition, 1983, Taylor & Francis or Van Nostrand Reinhold
Shaw, Elizabeth M., Hydrology in Practice, 2nd Edition, 1988, Taylor & Francis or imprints
Shaw, Elizabeth M., Hydrology in Practice, 3rd Edition, 1994, Taylor & Francis or Chapman & Hall
Shaw, Elizabeth, M., Keith J. Beven, Nick A. Chappell, Rob Lamb, 2010, Hydrology in Practice, 4th Edition, CRC Press.
References
Further reading
Obituary of Elizabeth M. Shaw from the British Hydrological Society (August 2013)
Hydrology
Textbooks
Science textbooks
Engineering textbooks
1983 non-fiction books
1988 non-fiction books
1994 non-fiction books
2010 non-fiction books | Hydrology in Practice | [
"Chemistry",
"Engineering",
"Environmental_science"
] | 413 | [
"Hydrology",
"Environmental engineering"
] |
59,987,820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbiting%20Carbon%20Observatory%203 | The Orbiting Carbon Observatory-3 (OCO-3) is a NASA-JPL instrument designed to measure carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere. The instrument is mounted on the Japanese Experiment Module-Exposed Facility on board the International Space Station (ISS). OCO-3 was scheduled to be transported to space by a SpaceX Dragon from a Falcon 9 rocket on 30 April 2019, but the launch was delayed to 3 May, due to problems with the space station's electrical power system. This launch was further delayed to 4 May due to electrical issues aboard Of Course I Still Love You (OCISLY), the barge used to recover the Falcon 9’s first stage. OCO-3 was launched as part of CRS-17 on 4 May 2019 at 06:48 UTC. The nominal mission lifetime is ten years.
OCO-3 was assembled using spare materials from the Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 satellite. Because the OCO-3 instrument is similar to the OCO-2 instrument, it is expected to have similar performance with its measurements used to quantify to 1 ppm precision or better at 3 Hz.
History and timeline
24 February 2009 - Orbiting Carbon Observatory was launched on a Taurus XL rocket but failed to achieve orbit when the fairing failed to separate from the satellite.
1 February 2010 - The 2010 President's budget included funding for development and re-flight of an OCO replacement.
October 2010 - The Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 project went into implementation phase.
2 July 2014 - OCO-2 was successfully launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base with a Delta II rocket.
2015 - Funding for the OCO-3 project cancelled.
22 December 2015 - OCO-3 project authorized to proceed. Funding was included in the 2016 spending bill.
16 March 2017 - OCO-3 was not included in the proposed FY2018 presidential budget.
23 March 2018 - Funding for the OCO-3 project was restored.
May 2018 - Instrument underwent TVAC testing.
4 May 2019 - Launched using a Falcon 9 rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. The delivery was part of SpaceX CRS-17, which also included delivery of STP-H6 and a cargo resupply.
After arrival - Robotic installation onto Exposed Facility Unit 3 (EFU 3) on the JEM-EF.
Instrument design
OCO-3 is constructed from spare equipment from the OCO-2 mission. Thus its physical characteristics are similar, but with some adaptations. A 2-axis pointing mirror was added, which will allow targeting of cities and other areas on order of for area mapping (also called "snapshot mode"). A resolution context camera was also added. An onboard cryocooler will maintain detector temperatures of around . Entrance optics were modified to maintain a similar ground footprint to OCO-2.
Similar to OCO and OCO-2, the main measurement will be of reflected near-IR sunlight. Grating spectrometers separate incoming light energy into different components of the electromagnetic spectrum (or wavelengths or "colors"). Because and molecular oxygen absorb light at specific wavelengths, the signal or absorption levels at different wavelengths provide information on the amount of gases. Three bands are used called Weak (around 1.6 μm), Strong (around 2.0 μm), and Oxygen-A (around 0.76 μm). There are 1,016 spectral elements per band, and measurements are made simultaneously at 8 side-by-side locations or "footprints" each about or smaller, 3 times per second.
Expected data use
Overall measurements from OCO-3 will help quantify sources and sinks of carbon dioxide from terrestrial ecosystems, the oceans, and from anthropogenic sources. Due to the ISS orbit, measurements will be made at latitudes less than 52°. Data from OCO-3 are expected to significantly improve understanding of global emissions from human activities, for example, using measurements over cities. Near simultaneous observations from other instruments onboard the International Space Station such as ECOSTRESS (measuring plant temperatures) and Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation lidar (measuring forest structure) may be combined with OCO-3 observations to help improve the understanding of the terrestrial ecosystem. Similar to OCO-2, OCO-3 will also measure Solar Induced Fluorescence which is a process that occurs during plant photosynthesis.
See also
Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite
Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide
Total Carbon Column Observing Network
References
Kibo (ISS module)
Satellite meteorology
SpaceX payloads contracted by NASA
Spacecraft instruments
Spectrometers
Spacecraft launched in 2019
Satellites monitoring GHG emissions | Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Environmental_science"
] | 941 | [
"Spectrum (physical sciences)",
"Environmental chemistry",
"Greenhouse gases",
"Spectrometers",
"Spectroscopy"
] |
59,987,872 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic%20microbial%20consortia | Synthetic microbial consortia or Synthetic microbial communities (commonly called SynComs) are multi-population systems that can contain a diverse range of microbial species, and are adjustable to serve a variety of industrial, ecological, and tautological interests. For synthetic biology, consortia take the ability to engineer novel cell behaviors to a population level.
Consortia are more common than not in nature, and generally prove to be more robust than monocultures. Just over 7,000 species of bacteria have been cultured and identified to date. Many of the estimated 1.2 million bacteria species that remain have yet to be cultured and identified, in part due to inabilities to be cultured axenically. Evidence for symbiosis between microbes strongly suggests it to have been a necessary precursor of the evolution of land plants and for their transition from algal communities in the sea to land. When designing synthetic consortia, or editing naturally occurring consortia, synthetic biologists keep track of pH, temperature, initial metabolic profiles, incubation times, growth rate, and other pertinent variables.
Biofuel
One of the more salient applications of engineering behaviors and interactions between microbes in a community is the ability to combine or even switch metabolisms. The combination of autotrophic and heterotrophic microbes allows the unique possibility of a self-sufficient community that may produce desired biofuels to be collected. Co-culture dyads of autotrophic Synechococcus elongatus and heterotrophic Escherichia coli were found to be able to grow synchronously when the strain of S. elongatus was transformed to include a gene for sucrose export. The commensal combination of the sucrose-producing cyanobacteria with the modified E. coli metabolism may allow for a diverse array of metabolic products such as various butanol biofuels, terpenoids, and fatty-acid derived fuels.
Including a heterotroph also provides a solution to the issues of contamination when producing carbohydrates, as competition may limit contaminant species viability. In isolated systems this can be a restriction to the feasibility of large-scale biofuel operations, like algae ponds, where contamination can significantly reduce the desired output.
Through interactions between Geobacter spp. and methanogens from the soil in a rice paddy field, it was discovered that the use of interspecies electron transfer stimulated the production of methane. Considering the abundance of conductive metals in soils and the use of methane (natural gas) as a fuel, this may lead to a bioenergy-producing process.
Bioremediation
Use of the extensive range of microbial metabolism offers opportunities to those interested in bioremediation. Through consortia, synthetic biologists have been able to design an enhanced efficiency in bacteria that can excrete bio-surfactants as well as degrade hydrocarbons for the interests of cleaning oil contamination in Assam, India. Their experiment took combinations of five native naturally occurring hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria, and analyzed the different cocktails to see which degraded poly-aromatic hydrocarbons the best. The combination of Bacillus pumilis KS2 and Bacillus cereus R2 was found to be the most effective, degrading 84.15% of the TPH after 5 weeks.
Further remediation efforts have turned to the issue of agricultural pesticide run-off. Pesticides vary in class and function, and in high concentration often lead to highly toxic environmental risks. Of the over-500 types of pesticides in current use, two serious issues are their general lack of biodegradability and unpredictability. In Kyrgyzstan, researchers assessed soil around a pesticide dump and discovered not only that the soil had poor microflora diversity, but that some of the species that were present used metabolic pathways to digest the pesticides. The two most-efficient species found were Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus polymyxa, with B. polymyxa degrading 48.2% of the pesticide Aldrin after 12 days. However, when the strains were combined with each other as well as some other less-efficient yet native bacteria, pesticide degradation increased to 54.0% in the same conditions. Doolatkeldieva et al. discussed their findings, saying "It is consequently possible that the degrading capacity of the bacteria could be increased only through co-cultivation, which shows that these bacteria naturally coexist and are dependent on each other for the utilization of environmental substances. In the oxidation and hydrolysis pathways of pesticide degradation, each bacterium can produce metabolites that will be utilized by the enzyme system of the next bacterium".
Bioplastic
As an answer to the increase in use of non-biodegradable, oil-based plastics and its subsequent accumulation as waste, scientists have developed biodegradable and compostable alternatives often called bioplastics. However, not all biologically created plastics are necessarily biodegradable, and this can be a source of confusion. Therefore it is important to distinguish between the types of bioplastics, biodegradable bioplastics which can be degraded by some microflora and simply bio-based plastics which are a renewable source of plastic but require more effort to dispose of.
One of the bioplastics of interest is Polyhydroxybutyrate, abbreviated to PHB. PHB is a biodegradable bioplastic that has applications for food packaging due to being non-toxic. Repurposed E. coli, as well as Halomonas boliviensis, have been shown to produce PHB. PHB production starting from carbon dioxide in a co-culture between S. elongatus and H. boliviensis has proven to be a stable continually-productive pair for 5 months without the aid of antibiotics.
See also
Microbial consortium
References
Synthetic biology
Microbiology
Consortia | Synthetic microbial consortia | [
"Chemistry",
"Engineering",
"Biology"
] | 1,235 | [
"Synthetic biology",
"Biological engineering",
"Microbiology",
"Bioinformatics",
"Molecular genetics",
"Microscopy"
] |
59,989,814 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI%20Phoenicis | AI Phoenicis is a variable star in the constellation of Phoenix. An Algol-type eclipsing binary, its apparent magnitude is constant at 8.58 for most of the time, sharply dropping to 9.35 during primary eclipse and to 8.89 during secondary eclipse. The system's variability was discovered by W. Strohmeier in 1972. From parallax measurements by the Gaia spacecraft, the system is located at a distance of from Earth, in agreement with earlier estimates based on its luminosity (173 ± 11 parsecs).
The primary star is a K-type subgiant with a spectral type of K0IV and an effective temperature of 5,000 K, while the secondary is an F-type main sequence star with a spectral type of F7V and a temperature of 6,300 K. The primary component, while visually fainter, is slightly more luminous than the secondary due to its higher infrared output. The primary is at the end of its main sequence life and is likely in the short contraction phase known as a hook, where core hydrogen fusion has ceased but shell burning has not yet started, before ascending towards the red giant branch. Photometric and spectroscopic observations have allowed the direct determination of the parameters of the stars with extreme precision, and this system is frequently used to test stellar evolution models. The masses of the stars, 1.247 for the primary and 1.197 for the secondary, are known to a precision of just 0.3%, while the radii of 2.91 and 1.84 have uncertainties of 0.8% and 0.5% respectively. Stellar evolution models show the stars have a common age of about 4.4 billion years.
The orbit of AI Phoenicis has a period of 24.59248 days and a moderate eccentricity of 0.1821 ± 0.0051. The observation of eclipses is allowed by its 88.5° inclination to the plane of the sky. Times of minimum light show the orbital period of the system is not constant, which can be caused by a third star in the system. An analysis of the alignment of the system by the Rossiter–McLaughlin effect suggests that the secondary star rotation axis is not aligned with the orbital axis, with an angle of 87 ± 17° between them, which also indicates interactions with a third star.
Investigations continue with the TESS observatory in 2020.
References
Algol variables
Phoenix (constellation)
K-type subgiants
F-type main-sequence stars
Durchmusterung objects
006980
005438
Phoenicis, AI | AI Phoenicis | [
"Astronomy"
] | 538 | [
"Phoenix (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
59,990,826 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRISPR%20gene%20editing | CRISPR gene editing (CRISPR, pronounced (crisper), refers to a clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats") is a genetic engineering technique in molecular biology by which the genomes of living organisms may be modified. It is based on a simplified version of the bacterial CRISPR-Cas9 antiviral defense system. By delivering the Cas9 nuclease complexed with a synthetic guide RNA (gRNA) into a cell, the cell's genome can be cut at a desired location, allowing existing genes to be removed or new ones added in vivo.
The technique is considered highly significant in biotechnology and medicine as it enables editing genomes in vivo and is precise, cost-effective, and efficient. It can be used in the creation of new medicines, agricultural products, and genetically modified organisms, or as a means of controlling pathogens and pests. It also offers potential in the treatment of inherited genetic diseases as well as diseases arising from somatic mutations such as cancer. However, its use in human germline genetic modification is highly controversial. The development of this technique earned Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2020. The third researcher group that shared the Kavli Prize for the same discovery, led by Virginijus Šikšnys, was not awarded the Nobel prize.
Working like genetic scissors, the Cas9 nuclease opens both strands of the targeted sequence of DNA to introduce the modification by one of two methods. Knock-in mutations, facilitated via homology directed repair (HDR), is the traditional pathway of targeted genomic editing approaches. This allows for the introduction of targeted DNA damage and repair. HDR employs the use of similar DNA sequences to drive the repair of the break via the incorporation of exogenous DNA to function as the repair template. This method relies on the periodic and isolated occurrence of DNA damage at the target site in order for the repair to commence. Knock-out mutations caused by CRISPR-Cas9 result from the repair of the double-stranded break by means of non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) or POLQ/polymerase theta-mediated end-joining (TMEJ). These end-joining pathways can often result in random deletions or insertions at the repair site, which may disrupt or alter gene functionality. Therefore, genomic engineering by CRISPR-Cas9 gives researchers the ability to generate targeted random gene disruption.
While genome editing in eukaryotic cells has been possible using various methods since the 1980s, the methods employed had proven to be inefficient and impractical to implement on a large scale. With the discovery of CRISPR and specifically the Cas9 nuclease molecule, efficient and highly selective editing became possible. Cas9 derived from the bacterial species Streptococcus pyogenes has facilitated targeted genomic modification in eukaryotic cells by allowing for a reliable method of creating a targeted break at a specific location as designated by the crRNA and tracrRNA guide strands. Researcher can insert Cas9 and template RNA with ease in order to silence or cause point mutations at specific loci. This has proven invaluable for quick and efficient mapping of genomic models and biological processes associated with various genes in a variety of eukaryotes. Newly engineered variants of the Cas9 nuclease that significantly reduce off-target activity have been developed.
CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing techniques have many potential applications. The use of the CRISPR-Cas9-gRNA complex for genome editing was the AAAS's choice for Breakthrough of the Year in 2015. Many bioethical concerns have been raised about the prospect of using CRISPR for germline editing, especially in human embryos. In 2023, the first drug making use of CRISPR gene editing, Casgevy, was approved for use in the United Kingdom, to cure sickle-cell disease and beta thalassemia. Casgevy was approved for use in the United States on December 8, 2023, by the Food and Drug Administration.
History
Other methods
In the early 2000s, German researchers began developing zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), synthetic proteins whose DNA-binding domains enable them to create double-stranded breaks in DNA at specific points. ZFNs have a higher precision and the advantage of being smaller than Cas9, but ZFNs are not as commonly used as CRISPR-based methods. In 2010, synthetic nucleases called transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) provided an easier way to target a double-stranded break to a specific location on the DNA strand. Both zinc finger nucleases and TALENs require the design and creation of a custom protein for each targeted DNA sequence, which is a much more difficult and time-consuming process than that of designing guide RNAs. CRISPRs are much easier to design because the process requires synthesizing only a short RNA sequence, a procedure that is already widely used for many other molecular biology techniques (e.g. creating oligonucleotide primers).
Whereas methods such as RNA interference (RNAi) do not fully suppress gene function, CRISPR, ZFNs, and TALENs provide full, irreversible gene knockout. CRISPR can also target several DNA sites simultaneously simply by introducing different gRNAs. In addition, the costs of employing CRISPR are relatively low.
Discovery
In 2005, Alexander Bolotin at the French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA) discovered a CRISPR locus that contained novel Cas genes, significantly one that encoded a large protein known as Cas9.
In 2006, Eugene Koonin at the US National Center for Biotechnology information, NIH, proposed an explanation as to how CRISPR cascades as a bacterial immune system.
In 2007, Philippe Horvath at Danisco France SAS displayed experimentally how CRISPR systems are an adaptive immune system, and integrate new phage DNA into the CRISPR array, which is how they fight off the next wave of attacking phage.
In 2012, the research team led by professor Jennifer Doudna (University of California, Berkeley) and professor Emmanuelle Charpentier (Umeå University) were the first people to identify, disclose, and file a patent application for the CRISPR-Cas9 system needed to edit DNA. They also published their finding that CRISPR-Cas9 could be programmed with RNA to edit genomic DNA, now considered one of the most significant discoveries in the history of biology.
Patents and commercialization
, SAGE Labs (part of Horizon Discovery group) had exclusive rights from one of those companies to produce and sell genetically engineered rats and non-exclusive rights for mouse and rabbit models. , Thermo Fisher Scientific had licensed intellectual property from ToolGen to develop CRISPR reagent kits.
, patent rights to CRISPR were contested. Several companies formed to develop related drugs and research tools. As companies ramped up financing, doubts as to whether CRISPR could be quickly monetized were raised. In 2014, Feng Zhang of the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard and nine others were awarded US patent number 8,697,359 over the use of CRISPR–Cas9 gene editing in eukaryotes. Although Charpentier and Doudna (referred to as CVC) were credited for the conception of CRISPR, the Broad Institute was the first to achieve a "reduction to practice" according to patent judges Sally Gardner Lane, James T. Moore and Deborah Katz.
The first set of patents was awarded to the Broad team in 2015, prompting attorneys for the CVC group to request the first interference proceeding. In February 2017, the US Patent Office ruled on a patent interference case brought by University of California with respect to patents issued to the Broad Institute, and found that the Broad patents, with claims covering the application of CRISPR-Cas9 in eukaryotic cells, were distinct from the inventions claimed by University of California.
Shortly after, University of California filed an appeal of this ruling. In 2019 the second interference dispute was opened. This was in response to patent applications made by CVC that required the appeals board to determine the original inventor of the technology. The USPTO ruled in March 2022 against UC, stating that the Broad Institute were first to file. The decision affected many of the licensing agreements for the CRISPR editing technology that was licensed from UC Berkeley. UC stated its intent to appeal the USPTO's ruling.
Recent events
In March 2017, the European Patent Office (EPO) announced its intention to allow claims for editing all types of cells to Max-Planck Institute in Berlin, University of California, and University of Vienna, and in August 2017, the EPO announced its intention to allow CRISPR claims in a patent application that MilliporeSigma had filed. the patent situation in Europe was complex, with MilliporeSigma, ToolGen, Vilnius University, and Harvard contending for claims, along with University of California and Broad.
In July 2018, the ECJ ruled that gene editing for plants was a sub-category of GMO foods and therefore that the CRISPR technique would henceforth be regulated in the European Union by their rules and regulations for GMOs.
In February 2020, a US trial showed safe CRISPR gene editing on three cancer patients.
In October 2020, researchers Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work in this field. They made history as the first two women to share this award without a male contributor.
In June 2021, the first, small clinical trial of intravenous CRISPR gene editing in humans concluded with promising results.
In September 2021, the first CRISPR-edited food went on public sale in Japan. Tomatoes were genetically modified for around five times the normal amount of possibly calming GABA. CRISPR was first applied in tomatoes in 2014.
In December 2021, it was reported that the first CRISPR-gene-edited marine animal/seafood and second set of CRISPR-edited food has gone on public sale in Japan: two fish of which one species grows to twice the size of natural specimens due to disruption of leptin, which controls appetite, and the other grows to 1.2 the natural average size with the same amount of food due to disabled myostatin, which inhibits muscle growth.
A 2022 study has found that knowing more about CRISPR tomatoes had a strong effect on the participants' preference. "Almost half of the 32 participants from Germany who are scientists demonstrated constant choices, while the majority showed increased willingness to buy CRISPR tomatoes, mostly non-scientists."
In May 2021, UC Berkeley announced their intent to auction non-fungible tokens of both the patent for CRISPR gene editing as well as cancer immunotherapy. However, the university would in this case retain ownership of the patents. 85 % of funds gathered through the sale of the collection named The Fourth Pillar were to be used to finance research. It sold in June 2022 for 22 Ether, which was around at the time.
In November 2023, the United Kingdom's Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) became the first in the world to approve the use of the first drug based on CRISPR gene editing, Casgevy, to treat sickle-cell anemia and beta thalassemia. Casgevy, or exagamglogene autotemcel, directly acts on the genes of the stem cells inside the patient's bones, having them produce healthy red blood cells. This treatment thus avoids the need for regular, costly blood transfusions.
In December 2023, the FDA approved the first gene therapy in the US to treat patients with Sickle Cell Disease (SCD). The FDA approved two milestone treatments, Casgevy and Lyfgenia, representing the first cell-based gene therapies for the treatment of SCD.
Genome engineering
CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing uses a Type II CRISPR system. This system includes a ribonucleoprotein (RNP), consisting of Cas9, crRNA, and tracrRNA, along with an optional DNA repair template.
Major components
CRISPR-Cas9 often employs plasmids that code for the RNP components to transfect the target cells, or the RNP is assembled before addition to the cells via nucleofection. The main components of this plasmid are displayed in the image and listed in the table. The crRNA is uniquely designed for each application, as this is the sequence that Cas9 uses to identify and directly bind to specific sequences within the host cell's DNA. The crRNA must bind only where editing is desired. The repair template is also uniquely designed for each application, as it must complement to some degree the DNA sequences on either side of the cut and also contain whatever sequence is desired for insertion into the host genome.
Multiple crRNAs and the tracrRNA can be packaged together to form a single-guide RNA (sgRNA). This sgRNA can be included alongside the gene that codes for the Cas9 protein and made into a plasmid in order to be transfected into cells. Many online tools are available to aid in designing effective sgRNA sequences.
Alternatives to Cas9
Alternative proteins to Cas9 include the following:
Structure
CRISPR-Cas9 offers a high degree of fidelity and relatively simple construction. It depends on two factors for its specificity: the target sequence and the protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) sequence. The target sequence is 20 bases long as part of each CRISPR locus in the crRNA array. A typical crRNA array has multiple unique target sequences. Cas9 proteins select the correct location on the host's genome by utilizing the sequence to bond with base pairs on the host DNA. The sequence is not part of the Cas9 protein and as a result is customizable and can be independently synthesized.
The PAM sequence on the host genome is recognized by Cas9. Cas9 cannot be easily modified to recognize a different PAM sequence. However, this is ultimately not too limiting, as it is typically a very short and nonspecific sequence that occurs frequently at many places throughout the genome (e.g. the SpCas9 PAM sequence is 5'-NGG-3' and in the human genome occurs roughly every 8 to 12 base pairs).
Once these sequences have been assembled into a plasmid and transfected into cells, the Cas9 protein with the help of the crRNA finds the correct sequence in the host cell's DNA and – depending on the Cas9 variant – creates a single- or double-stranded break at the appropriate location in the DNA.
Properly spaced single-stranded breaks in the host DNA can trigger homology directed repair, which is less error-prone than the non-homologous end joining that typically follows a double-stranded break. Providing a DNA repair template allows for the insertion of a specific DNA sequence at an exact location within the genome. The repair template should extend 40 to 90 base pairs beyond the Cas9-induced DNA break. The goal is for the cell's native HDR process to utilize the provided repair template and thereby incorporate the new sequence into the genome. Once incorporated, this new sequence is now part of the cell's genetic material and passes into its daughter cells. Combined transient inhibition of NHEJ and TMEJ by a small molecule and siRNAs can increase HDR efficiency to up to 93% and simultaneously prevent off-target editing.
Delivery
Delivery of Cas9, sgRNA, and associated complexes into cells can occur via viral and non-viral systems. Electroporation of DNA, RNA, or ribonucleocomplexes is a common technique, though it can result in harmful effects on the target cells. Chemical transfection techniques utilizing lipids and peptides have also been used to introduce sgRNAs in complex with Cas9 into cells. Nanoparticle-based delivery has also been used for transfection. Types of cells that are more difficult to transfect (e.g., stem cells, neurons, and hematopoietic cells) require more efficient delivery systems, such as those based on lentivirus (LVs), adenovirus (AdV), and adeno-associated virus (AAV).
Efficiency of CRISPR-Cas9 has been found to greatly increase when various components of the system including the entire CRISPR/Cas9 structure to Cas9-gRNA complexes delivered in assembled form rather than using transgenics. This has found particular value in genetically modified crops for mass commercialization. Since the host's replication machinery is not needed to produce these proteins, the chance of the recognizing sequence of the sgRNA is almost none, decreasing the chance of off-target effects.
Controlled genome editing
Further improvements and variants of the CRISPR-Cas9 system have focused on introducing more control into its use. Specifically, the research aimed at improving this system includes improving its specificity, its efficiency, and the granularity of its editing power. Techniques can further be divided and classified by the component of the system they modify. These include using different variants or novel creations of the Cas protein, using an altogether different effector protein, modifying the sgRNA, or using an algorithmic approach to identify existing optimal solutions.
Specificity is an important aspect to improve the CRISPR-Cas9 system because the off-target effects it generates have serious consequences for the genome of the cell and invokes caution for its use. Minimizing off-target effects is thus maximizing the safety of the system. Novel variations of Cas9 proteins that increase specificity include effector proteins with comparable efficiency and specificity to the original SpCas9 that are able to target the previously untargetable sequences and a variant that has virtually no off-target mutations. Research has also been conducted in engineering new Cas9 proteins, including some that partially replace RNA nucleotides in crRNA with DNA and a structure-guided Cas9 mutant generating procedure that all had reduced off-target effects. Iteratively truncated sgRNAs and highly stabilized gRNAs have been shown to also decrease off-target effects. Computational methods including machine learning have been used to predict the affinity of and create unique sequences for the system to maximize specificity for given targets.
Several variants of CRISPR-Cas9 allow gene activation or genome editing with an external trigger such as light or small molecules. These include photoactivatable CRISPR systems developed by fusing light-responsive protein partners with an activator domain and a dCas9 for gene activation, or by fusing similar light-responsive domains with two constructs of split-Cas9, or by incorporating caged unnatural amino acids into Cas9, or by modifying the guide RNAs with photocleavable complements for genome editing.
Methods to control genome editing with small molecules include an allosteric Cas9, with no detectable background editing, that will activate binding and cleavage upon the addition of 4-hydroxytamoxifen (4-HT), 4-HT responsive intein-linked Cas9, or a Cas9 that is 4-HT responsive when fused to four ERT2 domains. Intein-inducible split-Cas9 allows dimerization of Cas9 fragments and rapamycin-inducible split-Cas9 system developed by fusing two constructs of split-Cas9 with FRB and FKBP fragments. Other studies have been able to induce transcription of Cas9 with a small molecule, doxycycline. Small molecules can also be used to improve homology directed repair, often by inhibiting the non-homologous end joining pathway and/or the theta-mediated end-joining pathway. A system with the Cpf1 effector protein was created that is induced by small molecules VE-822 and AZD-7762. These systems allow conditional control of CRISPR activity for improved precision, efficiency, and spatiotemporal control. Spatiotemporal control is a form of removing off-target effects—only certain cells or parts of the organism may need to be modified, and thus light or small molecules can be used as a way to conduct this. Efficiency of the CRISPR-Cas9 system is also greatly increased by proper delivery of the DNA instructions for creating the proteins and necessary reagents.
CRISPR also utilizes single base-pair editing proteins to create specific edits at one or two bases in the target sequence. CRISPR/Cas9 was fused with specific enzymes that initially could only change C to T and G to A mutations and their reverse. This was accomplished eventually without requiring any DNA cleavage. With the fusion of another enzyme, the base editing CRISPR-Cas9 system can also edit C to G and its reverse.
CRISPR screening
The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 system is a gene-editing technology that can induce double-strand breaks (DSBs) anywhere guide ribonucleic acids (gRNA) can bind with the protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) sequence. Single-strand nicks can also be induced by Cas9 active-site mutants, also known as Cas9 nickases. By simply changing the sequence of gRNA, the Cas9-endonuclease can be delivered to a gene of interest and induce DSBs. The efficiency of Cas9-endonuclease and the ease by which genes can be targeted led to the development of CRISPR-knockout (KO) libraries both for mouse and human cells, which can cover either specific gene sets of interest or the whole-genome. CRISPR screening helps scientists to create a systematic and high-throughput genetic perturbation within live model organisms. This genetic perturbation is necessary for fully understanding gene function and epigenetic regulation. The advantage of pooled CRISPR libraries is that more genes can be targeted at once.
Knock-out libraries are created in a way to achieve equal representation and performance across all expressed gRNAs and carry an antibiotic or fluorescent selection marker that can be used to recover transduced cells. There are two plasmid systems in CRISPR/Cas9 libraries. First, is all in one plasmid, where sgRNA and Cas9 are produced simultaneously in a transfected cell. Second, is a two-vector system: sgRNA and Cas9 plasmids are delivered separately. It is important to deliver thousands of unique sgRNAs-containing vectors to a single vessel of cells by viral transduction at low multiplicity of infection (MOI, typically at 0.1–0.6), it prevents the probability that an individual cell clone will get more than one type of sgRNA otherwise it can lead to incorrect assignment of genotype to phenotype.
Once a pooled library is prepared it is necessary to carry out a deep sequencing (NGS, next generation sequencing) of PCR-amplified plasmid DNA in order to reveal abundance of sgRNAs. Cells of interest can be consequentially infected by the library and then selected according to the phenotype. There are 2 types of selection: negative and positive. By negative selection dead or slow growing cells are efficiently detected. It can identify survival-essential genes, which can further serve as candidates for molecularly targeted drugs. On the other hand, positive selection gives a collection of growth-advantage acquired populations by random mutagenesis. After selection genomic DNA is collected and sequenced by NGS. Depletion or enrichment of sgRNAs is detected and compared to the original sgRNA library, annotated with the target gene that sgRNA corresponds to. Statistical analysis then identifies genes that are significantly likely to be relevant to the phenotype of interest.
Apart from knock-out there are also knock-down (CRISPRi) and activation (CRISPRa) libraries, which use the ability of proteolytically deactivated Cas9-fusion proteins (dCas9) to bind target DNA, which means that a gene of interest is not cut but is over-expressed or repressed. It made CRISPR/Cas9 system even more interesting in gene editing. Inactive dCas9 protein modulate gene expression by targeting dCas9-repressors or activators toward promoter or transcriptional start sites of target genes. For repressing genes Cas9 can be fused to KRAB effector domain that makes complex with gRNA, whereas CRISPRa utilizes dCas9 fused to different transcriptional activation domains, which are further directed by gRNA to promoter regions to upregulate expression.
Applications
Disease models
Cas9 genomic modification has allowed for the quick and efficient generation of transgenic models within the field of genetics. Cas9 can be easily introduced into the target cells along with sgRNA via plasmid transfection in order to model the spread of diseases and the cell's response to and defense against infection. The ability of Cas9 to be introduced in vivo allows for the creation of more accurate models of gene function and mutation effects, all while avoiding the off-target mutations typically observed with older methods of genetic engineering.
The CRISPR and Cas9 revolution in genomic modeling does not extend only to mammals. Traditional genomic models such as Drosophila melanogaster, one of the first model organisms, have seen further refinement in their resolution with the use of Cas9. Cas9 uses cell-specific promoters allowing a controlled use of the Cas9. Cas9 is an accurate method of treating diseases due to the targeting of the Cas9 enzyme only affecting certain cell types. The cells undergoing the Cas9 therapy can also be removed and reintroduced to provide amplified effects of the therapy.
CRISPR-Cas9 can be used to edit the DNA of organisms in vivo and to eliminate individual genes or even entire chromosomes from an organism at any point in its development. Chromosomes that have been successfully deleted in vivo using CRISPR techniques include the Y chromosome and X chromosome of adult lab mice and human chromosomes 14 and 21, in embryonic stem cell lines and aneuploid mice respectively. This method might be useful for treating genetic disorders caused by abnormal numbers of chromosomes, such as Down syndrome and intersex disorders.
Successful in vivo genome editing using CRISPR-Cas9 has been shown in numerous model organisms, including Escherichia coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida albicans, Methanosarcina acetivorans, Caenorhabditis elegans, Arabidopsis spp., Danio rerio, and Mus musculus. Successes have been achieved in the study of basic biology, in the creation of disease models, and in the experimental treatment of disease models.
Concerns have been raised that off-target effects (editing of genes besides the ones intended) may confound the results of a CRISPR gene editing experiment (i.e. the observed phenotype change may not be due to modifying the target gene, but some other gene). Modifications to CRISPR have been made to minimize the possibility of off-target effects. Orthogonal CRISPR experiments are often recommended to confirm the results of a gene editing experiment.
CRISPR simplifies the creation of genetically modified organisms for research which mimic disease or show what happens when a gene is knocked down or mutated. CRISPR may be used at the germline level to create organisms in which the targeted gene is changed everywhere (i.e. in all cells/tissues/organs of a multicellular organism), or it may be used in non-germline cells to create local changes that only affect certain cell populations within the organism.
CRISPR can be utilized to create human cellular models of disease. For instance, when applied to human pluripotent stem cells, CRISPR has been used to introduce targeted mutations in genes relevant to polycystic kidney disease (PKD) and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS). These CRISPR-modified pluripotent stem cells were subsequently grown into human kidney organoids that exhibited disease-specific phenotypes. Kidney organoids from stem cells with PKD mutations formed large, translucent cyst structures from kidney tubules. The cysts were capable of reaching macroscopic dimensions, up to one centimeter in diameter. Kidney organoids with mutations in a gene linked to FSGS developed junctional defects between podocytes, the filtering cells affected in that disease. This was traced to the inability of podocytes to form microvilli between adjacent cells. Importantly, these disease phenotypes were absent in control organoids of identical genetic background, but lacking the CRISPR modifications.
A similar approach was taken to model long QT syndrome in cardiomyocytes derived from pluripotent stem cells. These CRISPR-generated cellular models, with isogenic controls, provide a new way to study human disease and test drugs.
Biomedicine
CRISPR-Cas technology has been proposed as a treatment for multiple human diseases, especially those with a genetic cause. Its ability to modify specific DNA sequences makes it a tool with potential to fix disease-causing mutations. Early research in animal models suggest that therapies based on CRISPR technology have potential to treat a wide range of diseases, including cancer, progeria, beta-thalassemia, sickle cell disease, hemophilia, cystic fibrosis, Duchenne's muscular dystrophy, Huntington's disease, transthyretin amyloidosis and heart disease. CRISPR has also been used to cure malaria in mosquitos, which could eliminate the vector and the disease in humans. CRISPR may also have applications in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, such as by creating human blood vessels that lack expression of MHC class II proteins, which often cause transplant rejection.
In addition, clinical trials to cure beta thalassemia and sickle cell disease in human patients using CRISPR-Cas9 technology have shown promising results. In December 2023, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first cell-based gene therapies for treating sickle cell disease, Casgevy and Lyfgenia. Casgevy is the first FDA approved gene therapy to use the CRISPR-Cas9 technology and works by modifying a patient's hematopoietic stem cells.
Nevertheless, there remains a few limitations of the technology's use in gene therapy: the relatively high frequency of off-target effect, the requirement for a PAM sequence near the target site, p53 mediated apoptosis by CRISPR-induced double-strand breaks and immunogenic toxicity due to the delivery system typically by virus.
Cancer
CRISPR has also found many applications in developing cell-based immunotherapies. The first clinical trial involving CRISPR started in 2016. It involved taking immune cells from people with lung cancer, using CRISPR to edit out the gene which expressed Programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1), then administering the altered cells back to the same person. 20 other trials were under way or nearly ready, mostly in China, .
In 2016, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a clinical trial in which CRISPR would be used to alter T cells extracted from people with different kinds of cancer and then administer those engineered T cells back to the same people.
In November 2020, in mouse animal models, CRISPR was used effectively to treat glioblastoma (fast-growing brain tumor) and metastatic ovarian cancer, as those are two cancers with some of the worst best-case prognosis and are typically diagnosed during their later stages. The treatments have resulted in inhibited tumor growth, and increased survival by 80% for metastatic ovarian cancer and tumor cell apoptosis, inhibited tumor growth by 50%, and improved survival by 30% for glioblastoma.
In October 2021, CRISPR Therapeutics announced results from their ongoing US-based Phase 1 trial for an allogeneic T cell therapy. These cells are sourced from healthy donors and are edited to attack cancer cells and avoid being seen as a threat by the recipient's immune system, and then multiplied into huge batches which can be given to large numbers of recipients.
In December 2022, a 13-year British girl that had been diagnosed with incurable T-Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia was cured by doctors at Great Ormond Street Hospital, in the first documented use of therapeutic gene editing for this purpose, after undergoing six months of an experimental treatment, where previous attempts of other treatments failed. The procedure included reprogramming a healthy T-Cell to destroy the cancerous T-Cells to first rid her of Leukaemia, and then rebuilding her immune system from scratch using healthy immune cells. The team used BASE editing and had previously treated a case of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in 2015 using TALENs.
Diabetes
Type 1 Diabetes is an endocrine disorder which results from a lack of pancreatic beta cells to produce insulin, a vital compound in transporting blood sugar to cells for producing energy. Researchers have been trying to transplant healthy beta cells. CRISPR is used to edit the cells in order to reduce the chance the patient's body will reject the transplant.
On November 17, 2021 CRISPR therapeutics and ViaCyte announced that the Canadian medical agency had approved their request for a clinical trial for VCTX210, a CRISPR-edited stem cell therapy designed to treat type 1 diabetes. This was significant because it was the first ever gene-edited therapy for diabetes that approached clinics. The same companies also developed a novel treatment for type 1 diabetes to produce insulin via a small medical implant that uses millions of pancreatic cells derived from CRISPR gene-edited stem cells.
In February 2022, a phase 1 trial was conducted in which one patient volunteer received treatment.
HIV/AIDS
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a virus that attacks the body's immune system. While effective treatments exist which can allow patients to live healthy lives, HIV is retroactive meaning that it embeds an inactive version of itself in the human genome. CRISPR can be used to selectively remove the virus from the genome by designing guide RNA to target the retroactive HIV genome. One issue with this approach is that it requires the removal of the HIV genome from almost all cells, which can be difficult to realistically achieve.
Initial results in the treatment and cure of HIV have been rather successful, in 2021 9 out of 23 humanized mice treated with a combination of anti-retrovirals and CRISPR/Cas-9 had the virus become undetectable, even after the usual rebound period. None of the two treatments alone had such an effect. Clinical trials in humans of a CRISPR–Cas9 based therapy, EBT-101 started in 2022. In October 2023 an early-stage study on 3 people of EBT-101 reported that the treatment appeared to be safe with no major side effects but no data on its effectiveness was disclosed. In March 2024 another CRISPR therapy from researchers of the university of Amsterdam reported the elimination of HIV in cell cultures.
Infection
CRISPR-Cas-based "RNA-guided nucleases" can be used to target virulence factors, genes encoding antibiotic resistance, and other medically relevant sequences of interest. This technology thus represents a novel form of antimicrobial therapy and a strategy by which to manipulate bacterial populations. Recent studies suggest a correlation between the interfering of the CRISPR-Cas locus and acquisition of antibiotic resistance. This system provides protection of bacteria against invading foreign DNA, such as transposons, bacteriophages, and plasmids. This system was shown to be a strong selective pressure for the acquisition of antibiotic resistance and virulence factor in bacterial pathogens.
Therapies based on CRISPR–Cas3 gene editing technology delivered by engineered bacteriophages could be used to destroy targeted DNA in pathogens. Cas3 is more destructive than the better known Cas9.
Research suggests that CRISPR is an effective way to limit replication of multiple herpesviruses. It was able to eradicate viral DNA in the case of Epstein–Barr virus (EBV). Anti-herpesvirus CRISPRs have promising applications such as removing cancer-causing EBV from tumor cells, helping rid donated organs for immunocompromised patients of viral invaders, or preventing cold sore outbreaks and recurrent eye infections by blocking HSV-1 reactivation. , these were awaiting testing.
CRISPR may revive the concept of transplanting animal organs into people. Retroviruses present in animal genomes could harm transplant recipients. In 2015, a team eliminated 62 copies of a particular retroviral DNA sequence from the pig genome in a kidney epithelial cell. Researchers recently demonstrated the ability to birth live pig specimens after removing these retroviruses from their genome using CRISPR for the first time.
Neurological disorders
CRISPR can be used to suppress gain of function mutations and to repair loss of function mutations in neurological disorders. The gene editing tool has become a foothold in vivo application for assimilation of molecular pathways.
CRISPR is unique to the development of solving neurological diseases for several reasons. For example, CRISPR allows researchers to quickly generate animal and human cell models, allowing them to study how genes function in a nervous system. By introducing mutations that pertain to various diseases within these cells, researchers can study the effects of the changes on nervous system development, function, and behavior. They can uncover the molecular mechanisms that contribute to these disorders, which is essential for developing effective treatments. This is particularly useful in modeling and treating complex neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and epilepsy among others.
Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease categorized by neuron loss and an accumulation of intracellular neurofibrillary tangles and extracellular amyloid plaques in the brain. Three pathogenic genes that cause early onset AD in humans have been identified, specifically amyloid precursor protein (APP), presenilin 1 (PSEN1), and presenilin 2 (PSEN2). Over 300 mutations have been detected in these genes, resulting in an increase in total β-amyloid (Aβ), Aβ42/40 ratio, and/or Aβ polymerization.
CRISPR has been used to correct for the dystrophin gene, which is responsible for Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and for the SCN1A mutation responsible for the epilepsy disorder Dravet syndrome. A challenge of using CRISPR for neurological treatment is transferring its components across the blood-brain barrier. However, recent advancements in nanoparticle delivery systems and viral vectors have shown promise in overcoming this hurdle. Looking to the future, the use of CRISPR in neuroscience is expected to increase as technology evolves.
Blindness
The most commonly occurring worldwide eye diseases are cataract and retinitis pigmentosa (RP). These are caused by a missense mutation in the alpha chain that leads to permanent blindness. A challenge to the use of CRISPR in eye disease is that retinal tissue in the eye is free from body immune response. Researchers' approach for using CRISPR is to bag the gene coding retinal protein and edit the genome.
Leber congenital amaurosis
The CRISPR treatment for LCA10 (the most common variant of Leber congenital amaurosis which is the leading cause of inherited childhood blindness) modifies the patient's defective photoreceptor gene.
In March 2020, the first patient volunteer in this US-based study, sponsored by Editas Medicine, was given a low-dose of the treatment to test for safety. In June 2021, enrollment began for a high-dose adult and pediatric cohort of 4 patient volunteers each. Dosing of the new cohorts was expected to be completed by July 2022. In November 2022, Editas reported that 20% of the patients treated had significant improvements, but also announced that the resulting target population was too small to support continued independent development.
Cardiovascular diseases
CRISPR technology has been shown to work efficiently in the treatment of heart disease. In the case of familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), cholesterol deposition in the walls of the artery causes blockage of blood flow. This is caused by mutation in low density lipoprotein cholesterol receptors (LDLC) which results in excessive release of cholesterol into the blood. This can be treated by deletion of a base pair in exon 4 of the LDLC receptor. This is a nonsense mutation.
β-Hemoglobinopathies
This disease comes under genetic disorders which are caused by mutation occurring in the structure of hemoglobin or due to substitution of different amino acids in globin chains. Due to this, the red blood cells (RBC) cause a string of obstacles such as heart failure, hindrance of blood vessels, defects in growth and optical problems. To rehabilitate β-hemoglobinopathies, the patient's multipotent cells are transferred in a mice model to study the rate of gene therapy in ex-vivo which results in expression of mRNA and the gene being rectified. Intriguingly RBC half-life was also increased.
Hemophilia
Hemophilia is a loss of function in blood where clotting factors do not work properly. By using CRISPR-Cas9, a vector is inserted into bacteria. The vector used is Adenoviral vector which helps in correction of genes.
Agriculture
The application of CRISPR in plants was successfully achieved in the year 2013. CRISPR Cas9 has become an influential appliance in editing genomes in crops. It made a mark in present breeding systems,
To increase yield of cereal crops, the balance of cytokinin is changed. Cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase (CKX) is an enzyme that inhibits outgrowth buds in rice, so the gene that codes for this enzyme was knocked out to increase yield.
Grains have a high amount of amylose polysaccharide. To decrease the amylose content CRISPR is used to alter the amino acids to reduce saccharide production. Moreover, wheat contains the protein gluten, to which some people are intolerant, causing celiac disease. The gene editing tool targets the gluten-coding genes which results in wheat with lower gluten production.
Resistance to disease
The biotic stress of plants can be reduced by using CRISPR. The bacterial infections on rice leads to activation of transcription of genes, the products of which are susceptible to disease. By using CRISPR, scientists were able to generate heritable resistance to powdery mildew.
Gene therapy
There are currently about 6000 known genetic disorders, most of which are currently untreatable. The role of CRISPR in gene therapy is to substitute exogenous DNA in place of defective genes. Gene therapy has made a huge impact and opened many new possibilities in medical biotechnology.
Base editing
They are two types of base editings:
Cytidine base editor is a novel therapy in which the cytidine (C) changes to thymidine (T).
Adenine base editor (ABE), in this there is a change in base complements from adenine (A) to Guanine (G).
The mutations were directly installed in cellular DNA so that the donor template is not required. The base editings can only edit point mutations. Moreover, they can only fix up to four-point mutations. To address this problem, the CRISPR system introduced a new technique known as Cas9 fusion to increase the scale of genes that can be edited.
Gene silencing and activating
Furthermore, the CRISPR Cas9 protein can modulate genes either by activating or silencing based on genes of interest. There is a nuclease called dCas9 (endonuclease) used to silence or activate the expression of genes.
Limitations
The researchers are facing many challenges in gene editing. The major hurdles coming in the clinical applications are ethical issues and the transport system to the target site. As the units of CRISPR system taken from bacteria, when they are transferred to host cells it produces an immune response against them. Physical, chemical, viral vectors are used as vehicles to deliver the complex into the host. Due to this many complications are arising such as cell damage that leads to cell death. In the case of viral vectors, the capacity of the virus is small and Cas9 protein is large. So, to overcome these new methods were developed in which smaller strains of Cas9 are taken from bacteria. Finally, a great extent of work is still needed to improve the system.
As a diagnostic tool
CRISPR associated nucleases have shown to be useful as a tool for molecular testing due to their ability to specifically target nucleic acid sequences in a high background of non-target sequences. In 2016, the Cas9 nuclease was used to deplete unwanted nucleotide sequences in next-generation sequencing libraries while requiring only 250 picograms of initial RNA input. Beginning in 2017, CRISPR associated nucleases were also used for direct diagnostic testing of nucleic acids, down to single molecule sensitivity. CRISPR diversity is used as an analysis target to discern phylogeny and diversity in bacteria, such as in xanthomonads by Martins et al., 2019. Early detections of plant pathogens by molecular typing of the pathogen's CRISPRs can be used in agriculture as demonstrated by Shen et al., 2020.
By coupling CRISPR-based diagnostics to additional enzymatic processes, the detection of molecules beyond nucleic acids is possible. One example of a coupled technology is SHERLOCK-based Profiling of IN vitro Transcription (SPRINT). SPRINT can be used to detect a variety of substances, such as metabolites in patient samples or contaminants in environmental samples, with high throughput or with portable point-of-care devices. CRISPR-Cas platforms are also being explored for detection and inactivation of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. Two different comprehensive diagnostic tests, AIOD-CRISPR and SHERLOCK test have been identified for SARS-CoV-2. The SHERLOCK test is based on a fluorescently labelled press reporter RNA which has the ability to identify 10 copies per microliter. The AIOD-CRISPR helps with robust and highly sensitive visual detection of the viral nucleic acid.
Genetic anthropology
CRISPR-Cas9 can be used in investigating and identifying the genetic differences of humans to other apes, especially of the brain. For example, by reintroducing archaic gene variants into brain organoids to show an impact on neurogenesis, metaphase length of apical progenitors of the developing neocortex, or by knockout of a gene in embryonic stem cells to identify a genetic regulator that via early cell shape transition drives evolutionary expansion of the human forebrain. One study described a major impact of an archaic gene variant on neurodevelopment which may be an artefact of a CRISPR side effect, as it could not be replicated in a subsequent study.
By technique
Knockdown/activation
Using "dead" versions of Cas9 (dCas9) eliminates CRISPR's DNA-cutting ability, while preserving its ability to target desirable sequences. Multiple groups added various regulatory factors to dCas9s, enabling them to turn almost any gene on or off or adjust its level of activity. Like RNAi, CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) turns off genes in a reversible fashion by targeting, but not cutting a site. The targeted site is methylated, epigenetically modifying the gene. This modification inhibits transcription. These precisely placed modifications may then be used to regulate the effects on gene expressions and DNA dynamics after the inhibition of certain genome sequences within DNA. Within the past few years, epigenetic marks in different human cells have been closely researched and certain patterns within the marks have been found to correlate with everything ranging from tumor growth to brain activity. Conversely, CRISPR-mediated activation (CRISPRa) promotes gene transcription. Cas9 is an effective way of targeting and silencing specific genes at the DNA level. In bacteria, the presence of Cas9 alone is enough to block transcription. For mammalian applications, a section of protein is added. Its guide RNA targets regulatory DNA sequences called promoters that immediately precede the target gene.
Cas9 was used to carry synthetic transcription factors that activated specific human genes. The technique achieved a strong effect by targeting multiple CRISPR constructs to slightly different locations on the gene's promoter.
RNA editing
In 2016, researchers demonstrated that CRISPR from an ordinary mouth bacterium could be used to edit RNA. The researchers searched databases containing hundreds of millions of genetic sequences for those that resembled CRISPR genes. They considered the fusobacterium Leptotrichia shahii. It had a group of genes that resembled CRISPR genes, but with important differences. When the researchers equipped other bacteria with these genes, which they called C2c2, they found that the organisms gained a novel defense. C2c2 has later been renamed to Cas13a to fit the standard nomenclature for Cas genes.
Many viruses encode their genetic information in RNA rather than DNA that they repurpose to make new viruses. HIV and poliovirus are such viruses. Bacteria with Cas13 make molecules that can dismember RNA, destroying the virus. Tailoring these genes opened any RNA molecule to editing.
CRISPR-Cas systems can also be employed for editing of micro-RNA and long-noncoding RNA genes in plants.
Therapeutic applications
Comparison to DNA editing
Gene drive
Gene drives may provide a powerful tool to restore balance of ecosystems by eliminating invasive species. Concerns regarding efficacy, unintended consequences in the target species as well as non-target species have been raised particularly in the potential for accidental release from laboratories into the wild. Scientists have proposed several safeguards for ensuring the containment of experimental gene drives including molecular, reproductive, and ecological. Many recommend that immunization and reversal drives be developed in tandem with gene drives in order to overwrite their effects if necessary. There remains consensus that long-term effects must be studied more thoroughly particularly in the potential for ecological disruption that cannot be corrected with reversal drives.
In vitro genetic depletion
Unenriched sequencing libraries often have abundant undesired sequences. Cas9 can specifically deplete the undesired sequences with double strand breakage with up to 99% efficiency and without significant off-target effects as seen with restriction enzymes. Treatment with Cas9 can deplete abundant rRNA while increasing pathogen sensitivity in RNA-seq libraries.
Epigenome editing
Applications
CRISPR-directed integrases
Combination of CRISPR-Cas9 with integrases enabled a technique for without problematic double-stranded breaks, as demonstrated with in 2022. The researchers reported it could be used to deliver genes as long as 36,000 DNA base pairs to several types of human cells and thereby potentially for treating diseases caused by a large number of mutations.
Prime editing
Prime editing (or base editing) is a CRISPR refinement to accurately insert or delete sections of DNA. The CRISPR edits are not always perfect and the cuts can end up in the wrong place. Both issues are a problem for using the technology in medicine. Prime editing does not cut the double-stranded DNA but instead uses the CRISPR targeting apparatus to shuttle an additional enzyme to a desired sequence, where it converts a single nucleotide into another. The new guide, called a pegRNA, contains an RNA template for a new DNA sequence to be added to the genome at the target location. That requires a second protein, attached to Cas9: a reverse transcriptase enzyme, which can make a new DNA strand from the RNA template and insert it at the nicked site. Those three independent pairing events each provide an opportunity to prevent off-target sequences, which significantly increases targeting flexibility and editing precision. Prime editing was developed by researchers at the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard in Massachusetts. More work is needed to optimize the methods.
Society and culture
Human germline modification
As of March 2015, multiple groups had announced ongoing research with the intention of laying the foundations for applying CRISPR to human embryos for human germline engineering, including labs in the US, China, and the UK, as well as US biotechnology company OvaScience. Scientists, including a CRISPR co-discoverer, urged a worldwide moratorium on applying CRISPR to the human germline, especially for clinical use. They said "scientists should avoid even attempting, in lax jurisdictions, germline genome modification for clinical application in humans" until the full implications "are discussed among scientific and governmental organizations". These scientists support further low-level research on CRISPR and do not see CRISPR as developed enough for any clinical use in making heritable changes to humans.
In April 2015, Chinese scientists reported results of an attempt to alter the DNA of non-viable human embryos using CRISPR to correct a mutation that causes beta thalassemia, a lethal heritable disorder. The study had previously been rejected by both Nature and Science in part because of ethical concerns. The experiments resulted in successfully changing only some of the intended genes, and had off-target effects on other genes. The researchers stated that CRISPR is not ready for clinical application in reproductive medicine. In April 2016, Chinese scientists were reported to have made a second unsuccessful attempt to alter the DNA of non-viable human embryos using CRISPR – this time to alter the CCR5 gene to make the embryo resistant to HIV infection.
In December 2015, an International Summit on Human Gene Editing took place in Washington under the guidance of David Baltimore. Members of national scientific academies of the US, UK, and China discussed the ethics of germline modification. They agreed to support basic and clinical research under certain legal and ethical guidelines. A specific distinction was made between somatic cells, where the effects of edits are limited to a single individual, and germline cells, where genome changes can be inherited by descendants. Heritable modifications could have unintended and far-reaching consequences for human evolution, genetically (e.g. gene–environment interactions) and culturally (e.g. social Darwinism). Altering of gametocytes and embryos to generate heritable changes in humans was defined to be irresponsible. The group agreed to initiate an international forum to address such concerns and harmonize regulations across countries.
In February 2017, the United States National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM) Committee on Human Gene Editing published a report reviewing ethical, legal, and scientific concerns of genomic engineering technology. The conclusion of the report stated that heritable genome editing is impermissible now but could be justified for certain medical conditions; however, they did not justify the usage of CRISPR for enhancement.
In November 2018, Jiankui He announced that he had edited two human embryos to attempt to disable the gene for CCR5, which codes for a receptor that HIV uses to enter cells. He said that twin girls, Lulu and Nana, had been born a few weeks earlier. He said that the girls still carried functional copies of CCR5 along with disabled CCR5 (mosaicism) and were still vulnerable to HIV. The work was widely condemned as unethical, dangerous, and premature. An international group of scientists called for a global moratorium on genetically editing human embryos.
Designer babies
The advent of CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing technology has led to the possibility of creating "designer babies." This technology has the possibility of eliminating certain genetic diseases, or improving health by enhancing certain genetic traits.
Policy barriers to genetic engineering
Policy regulations for the CRISPR-Cas9 system vary around the globe. In February 2016, British scientists were given permission by regulators to genetically modify human embryos by using CRISPR-Cas9 and related techniques. However, researchers were forbidden from implanting the embryos and the embryos were to be destroyed after seven days.
The US has an elaborate, interdepartmental regulatory system to evaluate new genetically modified foods and crops. For example, the Agriculture Risk Protection Act of 2000 gives the United States Department of Agriculture the authority to oversee the detection, control, eradication, suppression, prevention, or retardation of the spread of plant pests or noxious weeds to protect the agriculture, environment, and economy of the US. The act regulates any genetically modified organism that utilizes the genome of a predefined "plant pest" or any plant not previously categorized. In 2015, Yinong Yang successfully deactivated 16 specific genes in the white button mushroom to make them non-browning. Since he had not added any foreign-species (transgenic) DNA to his organism, the mushroom could not be regulated by the USDA under Section 340.2. Yang's white button mushroom was the first organism genetically modified with the CRISPR-Cas9 protein system to pass US regulation.
In 2016, the USDA sponsored a committee to consider future regulatory policy for upcoming genetic modification techniques. With the help of the US National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, special interests groups met on April 15 to contemplate the possible advancements in genetic engineering within the next five years and any new regulations that might be needed as a result. In 2017, the Food and Drug Administration proposed a rule that would classify genetic engineering modifications to animals as "animal drugs", subjecting them to strict regulation if offered for sale and reducing the ability for individuals and small businesses to make them profitable.
In China, where social conditions sharply contrast with those of the West, genetic diseases carry a heavy stigma. This leaves China with fewer policy barriers to the use of this technology.
Recognition
In 2012 and 2013, CRISPR was a runner-up in Science Magazine's Breakthrough of the Year award. In 2015, it was the winner of that award. CRISPR was named as one of MIT Technology Reviews 10 breakthrough technologies in 2014 and 2016. In 2016, Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier, along with Rudolph Barrangou, Philippe Horvath, and Feng Zhang won the Gairdner International award. In 2017, Doudna and Charpentier were awarded the Japan Prize in Tokyo, Japan for their revolutionary invention of CRISPR-Cas9. In 2016, Charpentier, Doudna, and Zhang won the Tang Prize in Biopharmaceutical Science. In 2020, Charpentier and Doudna were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, the first such prize for an all-female team, "for the development of a method for genome editing."
See also
CRISPR/Cas Tools
The CRISPR Journal
Eugenics
DRACO
Zinc finger
Gene knockout
Genetics
Glossary of genetics
Human Nature (2019 documentary film)
LEAPER gene editing
Make People Better (2022 documentary)
RNAi
SiRNA
Surveyor nuclease assay
Synthetic biology
References
Biotechnology
Genetic engineering
Genome editing | CRISPR gene editing | [
"Chemistry",
"Engineering",
"Biology"
] | 12,206 | [
"Genetics techniques",
"Biological engineering",
"Genome editing",
"Genetic engineering",
"Biotechnology",
"nan",
"Molecular biology"
] |
59,991,544 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-bonding%20electron | A non-bonding electron is an electron not involved in chemical bonding. This can refer to:
Lone pair, with the electron localized on one atom.
Non-bonding orbital, with the electron delocalized throughout the molecule.
Chemical bonding | Non-bonding electron | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science"
] | 49 | [
"Chemical bonding",
"Condensed matter physics",
"nan"
] |
59,992,844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexology%20%28magazine%29 | Sexology was a magazine about the practice of human sexuality, founded by polymath and publisher Hugo Gernsback. It was published in New York City between 1933 and 1983. The magazine had a circulation of up to 200,000 at its peak, and was also known under the titles Sexology Together and Sexology Today. At time of closure, the magazine was published by Medi-Media Publications.
Further reading
References
External links
A selection of covers from Magazineart.org (archived from the original)
Copyright information from The Online Books Page
Science and technology magazines published in the United States
Defunct magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1933
Magazines disestablished in 1983
Magazines published in New York City
Magazines published by Hugo Gernsback | Sexology (magazine) | [
"Biology"
] | 152 | [
"Behavior",
"Sexuality stubs",
"Sexuality"
] |
59,992,847 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20973 | NGC 973 is a giant spiral galaxy located in the constellation Triangulum. It is located at a distance of circa 200 million light-years from Earth, which, given its apparent dimensions, means that NGC 973 is about 230,000 light years across. It was discovered by Lewis Swift on October 30, 1885.
Characteristics
NGC 973 is seen edge-on, with an inclination of nearly 90°. Its bulge is shaped like a box or peanut. The subtraction of axisymmetric components from the profile of the galaxy showed that its bulge has an X-like morphology, which indicates the presence of a bar. A prominent dust lane runs across the galaxy.
The galaxy kinematics revealed that the northeast side is the approaching one and the southwest is receding. The disk appears flat, without warps. The total hydrogen mass of the galaxy is estimated to be about , and the total dust mass is estimated to be , with clumpy distribution. Faint emission from gas lying outside the plane of the galaxy was detected in H-alpha, correlated with the galactic disk and halo.
The nucleus of NGC 973 appears to be active based on its emission. It is categorised as a type 2 Seyfert galaxy. The most accepted theory for the energy source of active galactic nuclei is the presence of an accretion disk around a supermassive black hole.
Nearby galaxies
NGC 973 is the largest galaxy in a galaxy group known as the NGC 973 group. The NGC 973 group is one of the largest galaxy groups of the Perseus–Pisces Supercluster, with at least 39 galaxies identified as its members. Other members of the group include NGC 917, NGC 931, NGC 940, NGC 969, NGC 974, NGC 978, NGC 987, NGC 983, NGC 1060, NGC 1066, NGC 1067, and UGC 2105.
NGC 973 forms a pair with IC 1815, which lies 4.6 arcminutes to the south. A small satellite was discovered in HI imaging near the northeast edge of the disk of NGC 973, with no optical counterpart.
References
External links
NGC 973 on SIMBAD
Spiral galaxies
Seyfert galaxies
Triangulum
0973
02048
09795
Astronomical objects discovered in 1885
Discoveries by Lewis Swift | NGC 973 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 481 | [
"Triangulum",
"Constellations"
] |
59,992,932 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilting%20weir | A tilting weir or tilting gate is a moveable weir that is used for raising and lowering a head of water by controlling the flow of water to a lower catchment area or drainage basin. Typically the plate or paddle of the tilting weir moves up and down in a narrow duct by titling, pivoting or rotating on its bottom horizontal axis - which opens or closes the tilting weir thus controlling the flow of water out of the higher drainage basin. For example, a reservoir, lake, duct, channel, river, pond, dyke or ditch to a lower-lying area or catchment or drainage basin.
Construction
There are beamed tilting weirs and beamless tilting weirs. Beamed tilting weirs have a strut, bar or beam across the top of the tilting weir. Beamless tilting weirs are used where the watercourse could be subject to a significant volume of debris. Small boats and canoes are able to cross a beamless weir. Tilting weirs are manufactured from galvanized mild steel, painted mild steel, stainless steel, HDPE and set in channels which are likely to be reinforced with concrete.
The different technical problems that an engineer faces during the design of a moveable weir including load assessments dynamic water pressure, wind wave tide, snow, ice, etc. and strength assessment of steel and concrete structures and static and dynamic floating stability assessment.
Operation
In order to operate, the tilting weir needs to be manually or mechanically opened and closed. Small tilting weirs are operated with hand wheels and electric motors but other methods have been employed especially for larger structures. Tilting weirs are usually controlled by human intervention but a self-regulatory tilting weir that could be counterbalanced by floating weights was patented in 1994. At the time of construction the 2018 Leed's tilting weirs were unique for being raised and lower by deflating and inflating giant neoprene bladders.
Applications
Tilting weirs have been employed for flood control, environmental water management and water management in natural and industrial environments not excluding maintaining navigable depths on waterways.
Conservation areas for example marsh land where the water levels need to be controlled to encourage wading birds in Sites of Special Scientific Interest.
Swamp reclamation the 2007 Navira Swamp Restoration Initiative employed tilting weirs in Trinidad.
Land and river systems drainage and monitoring. The Louth Navigation canal and parts of the old River Lud perform land drainage and water level control with a number of locks and pumping stations. A tilting weir controls water levels in the Riverhead Basin and includes a gauging station which measures the flow along the canal.
Controlling the height of water within a chamber at water treatment works.
Flood alleviation. Tilting weirs were constructed to protect the city of Leeds UK against flooding from the rivers Aire and Hol Beck.
Power generation. The Lanark Hydro Electric Scheme in Scotland uses automatic tilting weirs at different heights to control the head and flow of water cascading through turbine generators.
History
The tilting weir has its origins in the 19th century drum weir which functions using the same principles as the 20th century design. The drum weir, was for a long time confined to the River Marne, where it was first introduced in 1857.
Early tilting weirs were constructed from wrought iron and wood.
The Lanark hydro-electric plant was built from 1924 to 1927. It has three pivoting counterbalanced gates or tilting weirs.
A mechanical tilting weir that moved the paddles on a central axis was patented by WGJ De Wit in 1988
Regulations
A tilting weir in the natural environment is likely to obstruct the natural movement of water species. Regulations exist to enforce minimizing the damage to the environment and often require fish ladders and or elver passes to be deployed with tilting weirs.
Fish pass regulations state providing free and unhindered fish passage is a major objective of the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) in achieving good ecological status. It is also important in the context of the EU Eel Regulations which gives the Environment Agency additional powers to require screening of abstraction intakes and outfalls.
Eel and elver pass regulations require notification to the Environment Agency about man-made structures likely to affect the movement of eels. Where any such structure exists, there is a requirement to construct and operate an eel pass to allow the passage of eels.
References | Tilting weir | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 872 | [
"Hydrology",
"Weirs"
] |
59,992,972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verna%20Natural%20Mineral%20Water | Verna Natural Mineral Water is a brand of bottled water from the Twellium Industrial Company, produced and marketed primarily in Ghana, and considered by reviewers to be among the top selling bottled water brands in Ghana.
Production and distribution
Verna Natural Mineral Water is produced from protected underground water and bottled by the Twellium Industrial Company headquartered in Medie Kotoku in the Eastern Region of Ghana. While marketing is focused on Ghana, Verna Natural Mineral Water is also sold in Burkina Faso and Togo.
Rebranding
Verna Natural Mineral Water appeared on the market in 2014. In 2017, Verna Natural Mineral Water underwent a rebranding exercise in line with market trends; focusing on its style and appeal to the younger generation. The plastic bottle containers now involved the display of blue and pink colors on its paper labeling, a pronounced logo for the product, and a yoghurt-pink colored cap. The rebranding of Verna Natural Mineral Water also reflected a logo of the "Changing Lives" social action project associated with the brand. In June 2019, Verna Natural Mineral Water won the product of the year award in at the third edition of Ghana Manufacturing Awards.
Changing lives
Verna Natural Mineral Water offers a poverty intervention program dubbed Changing Lives, as part of its corporate social responsibility to support the underprivileged and vulnerable members of society. Changing Lives is organised around a television series made up of different episodes, where each episode tells a different story of a successful intervention project the company has carried out. Beneficiaries of Changing Lives have included autistic patients who have received mentorship support from role models to enable them build a career.
In 2017, Changing Lives was extended to Kumasi in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. At its lunch, Otumfuo Osei Tutu II endorsed and extended his support for the initiative.
References
Mineral water
Bottled water brands
Ghanaian brands | Verna Natural Mineral Water | [
"Chemistry"
] | 384 | [
"Mineral water"
] |
59,993,212 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence%20problem | In theoretical computer science and formal language theory, the equivalence problem is the question of determining, given two representations of formal languages, whether they denote the same formal language.
The complexity and decidability of this decision problem depend upon the type of representation under consideration.
For instance, in the case of finite-state automata, equivalence is decidable, and the problem is PSPACE-complete.
Further, in the case of deterministic pushdown automata, equivalence is decidable, Géraud Sénizergues won the Gödel Prize for this result. Subsequently, the problem was shown to lie in TOWER, the least non-elementary complexity class.
It becomes an undecidable problem for pushdown automata or any machine that can decide context-free languages or more powerful languages.
References
Formal languages | Equivalence problem | [
"Mathematics",
"Technology"
] | 167 | [
"Formal languages",
"Mathematical logic",
"Computer science stubs",
"Computer science",
"Computing stubs"
] |
59,995,500 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crouzeix%27s%20conjecture | Crouzeix's conjecture is an unsolved problem in matrix analysis. It was proposed by Michel Crouzeix in 2004, and it can be stated as follows:
where the set is the field of values of a n×n (i.e. square) complex matrix and is a complex function that is analytic in the interior of and continuous up to the boundary of . Slightly reformulated, the conjecture can also be stated as follows: for all square complex matrices and all complex polynomials :
holds, where the norm on the left-hand side is the spectral operator 2-norm.
History
Crouzeix's theorem, proved in 2007, states that:
(the constant is independent of the matrix dimension, thus transferable to infinite-dimensional settings).
Michel Crouzeix and Cesar Palencia proved in 2017 that the result holds for , improving the original constant of . The not yet proved conjecture states that the constant can be refined to .
Special cases
While the general case is unknown, it is known that the conjecture holds for some special cases. For instance, it holds for all normal matrices, for tridiagonal 3×3 matrices with elliptic field of values centered at an eigenvalue and for general n×n matrices that are nearly Jordan blocks. Furthermore, Anne Greenbaum and Michael L. Overton provided numerical support for Crouzeix's conjecture.
Further reading
References
See also
Von Neumann's inequality
Conjectures
Matrix theory
Unsolved problems in mathematics | Crouzeix's conjecture | [
"Mathematics"
] | 304 | [
"Unsolved problems in mathematics",
"Mathematical problems",
"Conjectures"
] |
59,997,085 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20deadliest%20animals%20to%20humans | This is a list of the deadliest animals to humans worldwide, measured by the number of humans killed per year. Different lists have varying criteria and definitions, so lists from different sources disagree and can be contentious. This article contains a compilation of lists from several reliable sources.
List of the most deadly animals
See also
List of large carnivores known to prey on humans
Notes
References
Further reading
What Animals Kill The Most Humans Each Year?, World Atlas
Malaria, World Health Organization
Animal bites, World Health Organization
West Niles virus, World Health Organization
External links
The Deadliest Animal in the World, Gates Notes
These Are The Top 15 Deadliest Animals on Earth, Science Alert
Top 10 Deadliest Animals To Humans In The World, Toptenia
The 25 Most Dangerous Animals In The World, List 25
The Most Dangerous Animals in the World, Animal Danger
Top 10 Most Dangerous Animals In The World, Conservation Institute
Schistosomiasis: Still a Cause of Significant Morbidity and Mortality, National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine
Deadliest animals to humans
Animals
Animal-related accidents and incidents | List of deadliest animals to humans | [
"Biology"
] | 226 | [
"Behavior",
"Animals",
"Lists of biota",
"Lists of animals",
"Aggression",
"Animal attacks",
"Ethology"
] |
59,997,499 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%20of%20the%20Universe | King of the Universe (Sumerian: lugal ki-sár-ra or lugal kiš-ki, Akkadian: šarru kiššat māti, šar-kiššati or šar kiššatim), also interpreted as King of Everything, King of the Totality, King of All or King of the World, was a title of great prestige claiming domination of the universe used by powerful monarchs in ancient Mesopotamia. The title is sometimes applied to God in the Abrahamic tradition.
The etymology of the title derives from the ancient Sumerian city of Kish (Sumerian: kiš, Akkadian: kiššatu), the original meaning being King of Kish. Although the equation of šar kiššatim as literally meaning "King of the Universe" was made during the Akkadian period, the title of "King of Kish" is older and was already seen as particularly prestigious, as the city of Kish was seen as having primacy over all other Mesopotamian cities. In Sumerian legend, Kish was the location where the kingship was lowered to from heaven after the legendary Flood.
The first ruler to use the title of King of the Universe was the Akkadian Sargon of Akkad (reigned c. 2334–2284 BC) and it was used in a succession of later empires claiming symbolical descent from Sargon's Akkadian Empire. The title saw its final usage under the Seleucids, Antiochus I (reigned 281–261 BC) being the last known ruler to be referred to as "King of the Universe".
It is possible, at least among Assyrian rulers, that the title of King of the Universe was not inherited through normal means. As the title is not attested for all Neo-Assyrian kings and for some only attested several years into their reign it might have had to be earned by each king individually, possibly through completing seven successful military campaigns. The similar title of šar kibrāt erbetti ("King of the Four Corners of the World") may have required successful military campaigns in all four points of the compass. Some scholars believe that the titles of King of the Universe and King of the Four Corners of the World, with near identical meanings, differed in that King of the Universe referred to rule over the cosmological realm whereas King of the Four Corners of the World referred to dominion over the terrestrial. The verbatim translation of "King of the Universe" as a name exists in many languages; for example, in Hindi the translation would be Nikhil Shah and in Urdu, Shah Jahan.
History
Background (2900–2334 BC)
During the Early Dynastic Period in Mesopotamia (c. 2900–2350 BC), the rulers of the various city-states (the most prominent being Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Umma and Kish) in the region would often launch invasions into regions and cities far from their own, at most times with negligible consequences for themselves, in order to establish temporary and small empires to either gain or keep a superior position relative to the other city-states. This early empire-building was encouraged as the most powerful monarchs were often rewarded with the most prestigious titles, such as the title of lugal (literally "big man" but often interpreted as "king", probably with military connotations). Most of these early rulers had probably acquired these titles rather than inherited them.
Eventually this quest to be more prestigious and powerful than the other city-states resulted in a general ambition for universal rule. Since Mesopotamia was equated to correspond to the entire world and Sumerian cities had been built far and wide (cities the like of Susa, Mari and Assur were located near the perceived corners of the world) it seemed possible to reach the edges of the world (at this time thought to be the lower sea, the Persian gulf, and the upper sea, the Mediterranean).
Rulers attempting to reach a position of universal rule became more common during the Early Dynastic IIIb period (c. 2450–2350 BC) during which two prominent examples are attested. The first, Lugalannemundu, king of Adab, is claimed by the Sumerian King List (though this is a much later inscription, making the extensive rule of Lugalennemundu somewhat doubtful) to have created a great empire covering the entirety of Mesopotamia, reaching from modern Syria to Iran, saying that he "subjugated the Four Corners". The second, Lugalzaggesi, king of Uruk, conquered the entirety of Lower Mesopotamia and claimed (despite this not being the case) that his domain extended from the upper to the lower sea. Lugalzaggesi was originally titled as simply "King of Uruk" and adopted the title "King of the Land" (Sumerian: lugal-kalam-ma) to lay claim to universal rule. This title had also been employed by some earlier Sumerian kings claiming control over all of Sumer, such as Enshakushanna of Uruk.
Sargon of Akkad and his successors (2334–2154 BC)
The earliest days of Mesopotamian empire-building was most often a struggle between the kings of the most prominent cities. In these early days, the title of "King of Kish" was already recognized as one of particular prestige, with the city being seen as having a sort of primacy over the other cities. By the time of Sargon of Akkad, "King of Kish" meant a divinely authorized ruler with the right to rule over all of Sumer, and it might have already somewhat referred to a universal ruler in the Early Dynastic IIIb period. Use of the title, which was not limited to kings actually in possession of the city itself, implied that the ruler was a builder of cities, victorious in war and a righteous judge. According to the Sumerian King List, the city of Kish was where the kingship was lowered to from heaven after the Flood, its rulers being the embodiment of human kingship.
Sargon began his political career as a cupbearer of Ur-Zababa, the ruler of the city of Kish. After somehow escaping assassination, Sargon became the ruler of Kish himself, adopting the title of šar kiššatim and eventually in 2334 BC founding the first great Mesopotamian empire, the Akkadian Empire (named after Sargon's second capital, Akkad). Sargon primarily used the title King of Akkad (šar māt Akkadi).
The title of šar kiššatim was prominently used by the successors of Sargon, including his grandson Naram-Sin (r. 2254–2218 BC), who also introduced the similar title of "King of the Four Corners of the World". The transition from šar kiššatim meaning just "King of Kish" to it meaning "King of the Universe" happened already during the Old Akkadian period. It is important to note that Sargon and his successors did not rule the city of Kish directly and did thus not claim kingship over it. Until the time of Naram-Sin, Kish was ruled by a semi-independent ruler with the title ensik. "King of Kish" would have been rendered as lugal kiš in Sumerian, whilst the Akkadian kings rendered their new title as lugal ki-sár-ra or lugal kiš-ki in Sumerian.
It is possible that šar kiššatim referred to the authority to govern the cosmological realm whilst "King of the Four Corners" referred to the authority to govern the terrestrial. Eitherway, the implication of these titles was that the Mesopotamian king was the king of the entire world.
Assyrian and Babylonian Kings of the Universe (1809–627 BC)
The title šar kiššatim was perhaps most prominently used by the kings of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, more than a thousand years after the fall of the Akkadian Empire. The Assyrians took it, as the Akkadians had intended, to mean "King of the Universe" and adopted it to lay claim to continuity from the old empire of Sargon of Akkad. The title had been used sporadically by previous Assyrian kings, such as Shamshi-Adad I (r. 1809–1776 BC) of the Old Assyrian Empire and Ashur-uballit I (r. 1353–1318 BC) of the Middle Assyrian Empire. Shamshi-Adad I was the first Assyrian king to adopt the title of "King of the Universe" and other Akkadian titles, possibly to challenge the claims of sovereignty made by neighboring kingdoms. In particular, the kings of Eshnunna, a city-state in central Mesopotamia, had used similar titles since the fall of the Neo-Sumerian Empire. From the reign of Ipiq-Adad I (1800s BC), the Eshnunnans had referred to their kings with the title of "Mighty King" (šarum dannum). The Eshnunnan kings Ipiq-Adad II and Dadusha even adopted the title šar kiššatim for themselves, signifying a struggle over the title with the Assyrians. The title was also claimed by some kings of Babylon and Mari.
The Neo-Assyrian Sargon II (r. 722–705 BC), namesake of Sargon of Akkad over a thousand years prior, had the full titulature of Great King, Mighty King, King of the Universe, King of Assyria, King of Babylon, King of Sumer and Akkad. Since the title is not attested for all Neo-Assyrian kings and for some only attested several years into their reigns, it is possible that the title of "King of the Universe" had to be earned by each king individually, but the process by which a king could acquire the title is unknown. British historian Stephanie Dalley, specializing in the Ancient Near East proposed in 1998 that the title may have had to be earned through the king successfully completing seven (which would have been connected to totality in the eyes of the Assyrians) successful military campaigns. This is similar to the title of King of the Four Corners of the World, which might have required the king to successfully campaign in all four points of the compass. It thus would not have been possible for a king to claim to be "King of the Universe" before completing the required military campaigns. The title seems to have had similar requirements among Babylonian kings, the king Ayadaragalama (c. 1500 BC) was only able to claim the title late in his reign, his earliest campaigns that established control over cities such as Kish, Ur, Lagash and Akkad not being enough to justify its use. Both Ayadaragalama and the later Babylonian king Kurigalzu II only appear to have been able to claim to be King of the Universe after their realm extended as far as Bahrain.
Even in the Neo-Assyrian period when Assyria was the dominant kingdom in Mesopotamia, the Assyrian use of King of the Universe was challenged as the kings of Urartu from Sarduri I (r. 834–828 BC) onwards began using the title as well, claiming to be equal to the Assyrian kings and asserting wide territorial rights.
Later examples (626–261 BC)
The Neo-Assyrian Empire's domination over Mesopotamia ended with the establishment of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 626 BC. With the sole exceptions of the first ruler of this empire, Nabopolassar, and the last, Nabonidus, the rulers of the Neo-Babylonian Empire abandoned most of the old Assyrian titles in their inscriptions. Nabopolassar used "mighty king" (šarru dannu) and Nabonidus utilized several of the Neo-Assyrian titles including "mighty king", "great king" (šarru rabu) and King of the Universe. Though not using them in royal inscriptions (e.g. not officially), both Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar II used the title in economic documents.
The title was also among the many Mesopotamian titles assumed by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire after his conquest of Babylon in 539 BC. In the text of the Cyrus Cylinder, Cyrus assumes several traditional Mesopotamian titles including those of "King of Babylon", "King of Sumer and Akkad" and "King of the Four Corners of the World". The title of King of the Universe was not used after the reign of Cyrus but his successors did adopt similar titles. The popular regnal title "King of Kings", used by monarchs of Iran until the modern age, was originally a title introduced by the Assyrian Tukulti-Ninurta I in the 13th century BC (rendered šar šarrāni in Akkadian). The title of "King of Lands", also used by Assyrian monarchs since at least Shalmaneser III, was also adopted by Cyrus the Great and his successors.
The title was last used in the Hellenic Seleucid Empire, which controlled Babylon following the conquests of Alexander the Great and the resulting Wars of the Diadochi. The title appears on the Antiochus Cylinder of king Antiochus I (r. 281–261 BC), which describes how Antiochus rebuilt the Ezida Temple in the city of Borsippa. It is worth noting that the last known surviving example of an Akkadian-language royal inscription preceding the Antiochus cylinder is the Cyrus Cylinder created nearly 300 years prior, and as such it is possible that more Achaemenid and Seleucid rulers would have assumed the title when in Mesopotamia. The Antiochus Cylinder was likely inspired in its composition by earlier Mesopotamian royal inscriptions and bears many similarities with Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions. Titles such as "King of Kings" and "Great King" (šarru rabu), ancient titles with the connotation of holding supreme power in the lands surrounding Babylon (in a similar way as to how titles like Imperator were used in Western Europe following the fall of the Western Roman Empire to establish supremacy), would remain in use in Mesopotamia up until the Sassanid Empire in Persia of the 3rd to 7th centuries.
In religion
The title King of the Universe has sometimes been applied to deities since at least the Neo-Assyrian period, even though the title in those times was also used by contemporary monarchs. A 680 BC inscription by the Neo-Assyrian king Esarhaddon (who in the same inscription himself uses the title "King of the Universe," among other titles), in Babylon, refers to the goddess Sarpanit (Babylon's patron deity) as "Queen of the Universe."
In Judaism, the title King of the Universe came to be applied to God. To this day, Jewish liturgical blessings generally begin with the phrase "Barukh ata Adonai Eloheinu, melekh ha`olam..." (Blessed are you, Lord our God, King of the Universe...). Throughout scripture, it is made clear that the Abrahamic deity is not supposed to be the God simply of a small tribe in Israel, but the God of the entire world. In the Book of Psalms, God's universal kingship is repeatedly mentioned; for example, Psalms 47:2 refers to God as the "great King over all the earth."
In Christianity, the title is sometimes applied to Jesus. For example, Nikephoros I, Patriarch of Constantinople (c. 758–828), referred to Jesus' abandoning his terrestrial domain for a cosmic domain of infinite light and glory.
In Islam the equivalent term is "rabbil-'alamin" ("Lord of the Universe"), as found in the first chapter of the Quran.
Examples of rulers who used the title
Kings of the Universe in the Akkadian Empire:
Sargon (r. 2334–2279 BC) – not the first King of Kish, but the first ruler whose use of the title is identified with the connotation of King of the Universe.
Rimush (r. 2279–2270 BC)
Naram-Sin (r. 2254–2218 BC)
Kings of the Universe in Upper Mesopotamia:
Shamshi-Adad I (r. 1809–1776 BC)
Kings of the Universe in Eshnunna:
Dadusha (c. 1800–1779 BC)
Naram-Suen (c. 1800 BC)
Ipiq-Adad II (r. ~1700 BC)
Kings of the Universe in Mari:
Zimri-Lim (r. 1775–1761 BC)
Kings of the Universe in the Middle Assyrian Empire:
Ashur-uballit I (r. 1353–1318 BC)
Adad-nirari I (r. 1295–1264 BC)
Ashur-dan II (r. 934–912 BC)
Kings of the Universe in Babylonia:
Ayadaragalama (r. ~1500 BC)
Burna-Buriash II (r. 1359–1333 BC)
Kurigalzu II (r. 1332–1308 BC)
Nazi-Maruttash (r. 1307–1282 BC)
Ninurta-nadin-shumi (r. 1132–1126 BC)
Nebuchadnezzar I (r. 1126–1103 BC)
Enlil-nadin-apli (r. 1103–1099 BC)
Marduk-nadin-ahhe (r. 1099–1082 BC)
Marduk-shapik-zeri (r. 1082–1069 BC)
Adad-apla-iddina (r. 1069–1046 BC)
Nabu-shum-libur (r. 1033–1026 BC)
Eulmash-shakin-shumi (r. 1004–987 BC)
Mar-biti-apla-usur (r. 984–979 BC)
Kings of the Universe in the Neo-Assyrian Empire:
Adad-nirari II (r. 912–891 BC)
Tukulti-Ninurta II (r. 891–884 BC)
Adad-nirari III (r. 811–783 BC)
Tiglath-Pileser III (r. 745–727 BC)
Shalmaneser V (r. 727–722 BC)
Sargon II (r. 722–705 BC)
Sennacherib (r. 705–681 BC)
Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC)
Ashurbanipal (r. 669–631 BC)
Shamash-shum-ukin (Neo-Assyrian king of Babylon, r. 667–648 BC)
Ashur-etil-ilani (r. 631–627 BC)
Sinsharishkun (r. 627–612 BC)
Kings of the Universe in Urartu:
Sarduri I (r. 834–828 BC) and his successors.
Kings of the Universe of the Cimmerians:
Tugdamme (mid-7th century)
Kings of the Universe in the Neo-Babylonian Empire:
Nabopolassar (r. 626–605 BC) – in economic documents.
Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605–562 BC) – in economic documents.
Nabonidus (r. 556–539 BC) – only Neo-Babylonian king to call himself King of the Universe in his royal inscriptions.
Kings of the Universe in the Achaemenid Empire:
Cyrus the Great (r. 559–530 BC) – claimed the title from 539 BC.
Kings of the Universe in the Seleucid Empire:
Antiochus I (r. 281–261 BC)
See also
Mesopotamian cosmology
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Websites
24th-century BC establishments
3rd-century BC disestablishments
Ancient Mesopotamia
Sumer
Babylon
Akkadian Empire
Neo-Assyrian Empire
Royal titles
Space colonization
Outer space
Ancient astronomy | King of the Universe | [
"Astronomy"
] | 4,184 | [
"Ancient astronomy",
"Outer space",
"History of astronomy"
] |
69,258,573 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytobenthos | Phytobenthos () (from Greek (phyton, meaning "plants") and (benthos, meaning "depths") are autotrophic organisms found attached to bottom surfaces of aquatic environments, such as rocks, sediments, or even other organisms. This photosynthetic community includes single-celled or filamentous cyanobacteria, microalgae, and macrophytes. Phytobenthos are highly diverse, and can be found in freshwater and marine environments, as well as transitional water systems. However, their distribution and availability still depend on the factors and stressors that exist in the environment. Because phytobenthos are autotrophs, they need to be able to subsist where it is still possible to perform photosynthesis. Similar to phytoplankton, phytobenthos contribute to the aquatic food web for grazers and heterotrophic bacteria, and researchers have also been studying their health as an indicator for water quality and environmental integrity of aquatic ecosystems.
Overview
Phytobenthos are subcategorized into microphytobenthos and macrophytobenthos. Microphytobenthos such as diatoms can be as small as 0.2 μm in diameter, and macrophytobenthos such as kelps can be tens of meters long. To establish themselves on surfaces, phytobenthos usually stabilize themselves onto substrates through the use of various polysaccharides, glycoproteins, and even lipids that make up the extracellular polymeric substance, of which 40 - 90% of the carbons are derived from carbohydrates. Some species of phytobenthos such as Ostreobium and diatoms such as the Synedra acus Kütznig have been observed to live in a free-living state. Benthic diatoms have been found to be useful indicator species for determining the state of the aquatic environment as many study models have demonstrated association between the type of diatom communities that are present and the stability and the size of the sediments. Non-diatom phytobenthos such as the cyanobacteria Nostoc spp. and Phormidium spp. have also been used as biological indicators.
Diversity
Phytobenthos consist of both eukaryotic and prokaryotic communities, which can be identified by using microscopy or by performing gene sequencing with 16S rRNA (for prokaryotes) and 18S rRNA (for eukaryotes). The eukaryotic communities of phytobenthos include microalgae such as Chlorophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, Cryptophyceae, and Chrysophyceae. In the marine environment, some additional representative populations include Rhodophyta, which has been reportedly found in intertidal regions. The prokaryotic communities of phytobenthos are composed primarily of filamentous cyanobacteria, some of which have been identified to be capable of producing hepatotoxins.
Habitats
Depending on the type of substrates to which the phytobenthos is attached, they would be considered as epilithic (growing on rocks and other manmade, artificial substances), epipelic (growing on silt), episammic (growing on sand), epiphytic (growing on other plants), or epizoic (growing on animals). Epizoic phytobenthos such as Ostreobium and Symbiodinium have also been found to grow on skeletons or within corals to which they have established symbiotic relationships by exchanging nutrients.
The phytobenthos' habitats can range from freshwater systems such as rivers and lakes to coastal regions. In the marine environment, phytobenthos can be found as far back from the shore as the subtidal zones where they are consistently submerged in water. Their productivity does not extend beyond the outer boundary of the littoral zones, the region to which sunlight can still penetrate to the bottom.
With increasing depth, there is a decline in algal cover due in part to light availability. In addition to depth, turbidity can restrict the extent of light availability, which would also impact the extent of phytobenthic growth. However, phytobenthos such as Ostreobium have demonstrated capability to adapt to low-light conditions as grow in areas as deep as 200 meters. Some diatoms also demonstrated mobility and rise to the surface during the earlier part of the year.
Other physical and chemical conditions that also determine phytobenthos distributions include flow, acidity, nutrient, temperature, and the community's composition. Water flow can determine the types and distributions of phytobenthos, especially in the stream communities where the water is constantly moving. Rivers with more steady flow contribute to the stable environment that can promote the growth of phytobenthos communities.
Ecology
Phytobenthos form biofilm with other microbial populations, including heterotrophic bacteria, which can also produce extracellular polymeric substance to help establish biofilm. Within these diverse communities, phytobenthos sustains the heterotrophs and mixotrophs not only by serving as food themselves. Phytobenthos can fix organic matters as primary producers, and the extracellular polymeric substance they produced to attach themselves to surfaces can also be utilized by bacteria as another potential carbon source. The presence of consumers are not the only biotic factors driving changes to the phytobenthos composition in the community. Photosynthetic populations that demonstrate themselves to be competitive can also change the benthic community makeup. The diatom D. geminata can proliferate quickly and are readily adaptive to changes to the aquatic environment.
Researchers have assigned trophic values or indicators based on the Periphyton Index of Trophic status (PIT) to phytobenthos as another means to determine the ecological status of water bodies. Researchers have also taken into consideration of the water chemistry, richness of the community, and biomass in their studies. Depending on the site of study, researchers also account for the activities from the phytobenthos when calculating for primary productivity.
References
Wikipedia Student Program
Marine biology
Photosynthesis
Limnology | Phytobenthos | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 1,322 | [
"Biochemistry",
"Photosynthesis",
"Marine biology"
] |
69,258,575 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandora%20Mission | The Pandora Mission, Pandora SmallSat, or Pandora, is a small satellite mission known as SmallSat, one of three orbital missions approved by NASA to pass to the next development phase in NASA's Astrophysics Pioneers program. The budget for each mission was $20 million.
The mission is intended to determine atmospheric compositions by observing exoplanets and their host stars at the same time in both visible and infrared light over long periods of time.
The satellite will have sensitivity to identify exoplanets with hydrogen or water in present in their atmospheres, as well as what exoplanets are covered by clouds or hazes. Pandora will observe 20 stars and their 39 exoplanets with sizes that range from Earth-size to Jupiter-size, and host stars ranging from mid-K to late-M spectral types.
References
Satellites
Spaceflight | Pandora Mission | [
"Astronomy"
] | 173 | [
"Outer space",
"Spacecraft stubs",
"Astronomy stubs",
"Satellites",
"Spaceflight"
] |
69,258,633 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial%20voting | In political science and social choice theory, the spatial (sometimes ideological or ideal-point) model of voting, also known as the Hotelling–Downs model, is a mathematical model of voting behavior. It describes voters and candidates as varying along one or more axes (or dimensions), where each axis represents an attribute of the candidate that voters care about. Voters are modeled as having an ideal point in this space and preferring candidates closer to this point over those who are further away; these kinds of preferences are called single-peaked.
The most common example of a spatial model is a political spectrum or compass, such as the traditional left-right axis, but issue spaces can be more complex. For example, a study of German voters found at least four dimensions were required to adequately represent all political parties.
Besides ideology, a dimension can represent any attribute of the candidates, such as their views on one particular issue. It can also represent non-ideological properties of the candidates, such as their age, experience, or health.
Accuracy
A study of three-candidate elections analyzed 12 different models of voter behavior, including several variations of the impartial culture model, and found the spatial model to be the most accurate to real-world ranked-ballot election data. (Their real-world data was 883 three-candidate elections of 350 to 1,957 voters, extracted from 84 ranked-ballot elections of the Electoral Reform Society, and 913 elections derived from the 1970–2004 American National Election Studies thermometer scale surveys, with 759 to 2,521 "voters.") A previous study by the same authors had found similar results, comparing 6 different models to the ANES data.
A study of evaluative voting methods developed several models for generating rated ballots and recommended the spatial model as the most realistic. (Their empirical evaluation was based on two elections, the 2009 European Election Survey of 8 candidates by 972 voters, and the Voter Autrement poll of the 2017 French presidential election, including 26,633 voters and 5 candidates.)
History
The earliest roots of the model are the one-dimensional Hotelling's law of 1929 and Black's median voter theorem of 1948. Anthony Downs, in his 1957 book An Economic Theory of Democracy, further developed the model to explain the dynamics of party competition, which became the foundation for much follow-on research.
See also
Issue voting § Models of issue voting
Location model - a model that demonstrates consumer preference for particular brands of goods and their locations.
Budget-proposal aggregation - another problem in which agents vote by reporting their ideal outcome.
Further reading
– via TWL
References
Voting theory
Behavioral concepts | Spatial voting | [
"Biology"
] | 535 | [
"Behavior",
"Behavioral concepts",
"Behaviorism"
] |
69,259,218 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consoling%20touch | Consoling touch is a pro-social behavior involving physical contact between a distressed individual and a caregiver. The physical contact, most commonly recognized in the form of a hand hold or embrace, is intended to comfort one or more of the participating individuals. Consoling touch is intended to provide consolation - to alleviate or lessen emotional or physical pain. This type of social support has been observed across species and cultures. Studies have found little difference in the applications of consoling touch, with minor differences in frequency occurrence across cultures. These findings suggest a degree of universality. It remains unclear whether the relationship between social touch and interpersonal emotional bonds reflect biologically driven or culturally normative behavior. Evidence of consoling touch in non-human primates, who embrace one another following distressing events, suggest a biological basis. Numerous studies of consoling touch in humans and animals unveil a consistent physiological response. An embrace from a friend, relative, or even stranger can trigger the release of oxytocin, dopamine, and serotonin into the bloodstream. These neurotransmitters are associated with positive mood, numerous health benefits, and longevity. Cortisol, a stress hormone, also decreases. Studies have found that the degree of intimacy and quality of relationship between consoler and the consoled mediates physiological effects. In other words, while subjects experience reduced cortisol levels while holding the hand of a stranger, they exhibit a larger effect when receiving comfort from a trusted friend, and greater still, when holding the hand of a high quality romantic partner.
Contact and development
The importance of consoling touch was first explored by Harry Frederick Harlow (Oct 31, 1905 – Dec 6, 1981). From 1950 through 1970, Harlow conducted controversial research on rhesus monkeys observing maladaptation resulting from maternal-separation and social isolation. Infant monkeys were separated from their biological mothers and given two inanimate surrogate mothers. Cheekily referred to as ‘Iron Maidens’, the first of the two surrogates was constructed of wire and contained a feeding mechanism. The second contained no food and was constructed of rubber and soft terrycloth. In all variations of the paradigm the infants spent significantly more time clinging to the cloth mother. Only when the monkeys were hungry did they leave the terrycloth, only to return to it after eating. Monkeys accompanied by iron maidens behaved differently in novel environments than those in complete isolation. When chaperoned by a surrogate mother monkeys explored new environments, retreated to the surrogate when startled, only to continue exploring thereafter. Monkeys put in novel environments without an iron maiden cowered in the nearest corner, too fearful to explore. Those raised in complete isolation developed marked disturbed behavior such as pacing in cages, staring blankly, and self-mutilation. When introduced to other rhesus's, those raised in isolation did not socialize, kept separate from the group, and refused to eat. Harlow rehabilitated socially inept monkeys by enclosing them with a non-threatening, well socialized other. Harlow observed these social pair interactions, calling them "the isolate and the therapist'. Upon introduction, the isolate huddled in a corner. The therapist reacted by embracing the isolate. With consoling touch and modeling of social interaction, isolates were indistinguishable from therapists after one year. Harlow concluded that social rehabilitation is possible, however there may be a critical period, much like language development in humans. The need for close comforting physical contact became known as contact comfort. Contact comfort is believed to be the foundation of attachment and serves as the basis for consoling touch.
Extensive research has documented the importance of physical touch in human emotional and physical wellbeing. From a developmental perspective touch plays a vital role in infants' physical and cortical growth, stress relief, and secure attachment formation. Nurturing touch is positively associated with children's neuronal development thus determining the trajectory of their behavioral and cognitive growth. Though no laboratory studies exist due to ethical considerations, data emphasizing the necessity of consoling touch was taken from orphanages where the caretaker to child ratio was 1:25. Children deficient in consoling touch during critical developmental stages had between 20%-30% less brain mass than children of similar age who received sufficient socialization. In a 1997 study, Dawson et al. monitored the neural functioning of children born to depressed mothers. A key symptom of maternal depression is reduced social touch between mother and child. The electroencephalogram (EEG) results of children with depressed mothers had markedly reduced activity in the left frontal lobe. The abnormality remained consistent with the mother's condition throughout the duration of the three-year study. The children of mothers who managed to diminish depressive symptoms before their child's first year later developed a more normal brain pattern. The likelihood of full neural recovery lessens as a child ages due to sensitive periods for brain development, the first year and a half being the most critical.
Pain mitigation
Physical
From a therapeutic perspective consoling touch provides pain alleviation and facilitates healing. In a 1993 study of young adults undergoing chemotherapy, hand holding was rated to be a significantly effective coping strategy in ameliorating treatment-related pain. Overwhelmingly, patients preferred to hold the hand of a close relative or partner. Consoling touch functioned to reduce anxiety associated with impending treatments and served as a source of security. Patient's subjective experience of treatment-related pain was significantly reduced when they felt more secure, less tense, and had social support. Marshall Klaus's 1995 work demonstrated the power of social touch in labour and delivery. He found women receiving consoling touch during delivery had reduced labour duration, reported less anxiety and physical pain, and had reduced need for caesarean section.
Numerous studies have been conducted exploring pain mitigation and consoling touch between romantic partners. From electric shocks to temperatures too hot for touch, holding the hand of a loved one decreases physical pain perception. In 2018 couples were brought into a lab and administered mild heat pain while undergoing EEG. Not only were pain ratings significantly reduced in the hand holding condition, couples exhibited what is known as brain-to-brain coupling, or neural synchrony. This means neural firing, both topographically and temporally, matches that of another party. This mechanism is hypothesized to be an integral feature of empathy and shared experience. Neural synchrony is most easily detected in couples during shared experience, such as laughter. Importantly, social touch nor neural synchrony are analgesics. Consoling touch can reduce pain perception, but not eliminate it entirely.
Emotional
Recent research has shown that consoling touch modulates emotional responses as well as physical. In a 2019 study the neurobehavioral correlates of consoling touch were examined by showing participants photos of recently deceased relatives while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Participant brain activity was monitored in two conditions, either in solitude, or while holding the hand of a significant other. Activation varied in several brain areas. Reduced reactivity was reported in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and cerebellum in the hand-holding condition. The ACC has neural connections to both the limbic system, the emotional center, and the prefrontal cortex, known for higher cognitive function. The ACCs location, paired with numerous empirical studies, confirm its involvement in emotion and pain regulation. The cerebellum, located in the brainstem, is classically responsible for coordinating voluntary movements; however, recent work suggests it may play a role in emotional valence determination.
A similar fMRI experiment evaluated the neurological effects of viewing moderately disturbing images while holding the hand of a significant other. Connectivity between the anterior insula and the ACC decreased during partner touch. The anterior insula is known for emotional and olfactory appraisal with an observed focus on disgust. Decreased connectivity between these two regions in the hand holding condition suggest that consoling touch elicits a buffering effect.
Affective versus discriminative touch
Consoling touch has an emotional component that utilizes different neural networks and nerves than physical sensation processing alone. This distinction has been described by studies examining discriminative touch versus affective touch. Discriminative touch conveys information regarding pressure, vibration, or stretching of the skin. This kind of processing involves type A nerve fibers, which relay information very quickly to the brains sensory regions. Affective touch, however, involves type C nerve fibers. Unmyelinated, slower traveling, type C nerves communicate pain signals, temperature, and social touch. In humans, type C nerves have the greatest response to soft strokes from stimuli matching skin temperature. These afferent nerves also exhibit a tuning curve for caressing speed specific to that which an individual finds most pleasant. The 'social touch hypothesis', coined by Håkan Olausson in 2010, proposes that C afferent nerve fibers are most sensitive to tactile stimuli occurring during close social interaction.
Patient G. L.
Much of the understanding of affective and discriminative touch can be attributed to a woman known as 'Patient G. L'. Patient G. L. had Guillain-Barré syndrome, a rare autoimmune disorder wherein an immune system attacks the body's own muscle and sensory neurons. Due to the condition, Patient G. L. lacked type A nerve fibers, while type C remained intact. Though the patient could not perceive physical contact, such as pressure on her skin, she still reported an emotional response to consoling touch. Further functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) examination confirmed the patient lacked activation in the somatosensory cortex during touch.
Because the somatosensory cortex is responsible for type A processing, a healthy control would exhibit activation of these areas. Instead, patient G. L. showed heightened activation in the posterior insula. The posterior insula is not sensitive to visceral input, but is involved in recognition, intensity encoding, and reward assessment. Patient G. L. described being the recipient of social touch as "a faint, hard-to-place, pleasant sensation". Olausson, a professor of clinical neuroscience, has compiled a great deal of work on the somatosensory system. He has identified not only cases like Patient G. L., but her inverse. Numerous adults without type C nerve fibers, but with type A were identified and studied. FMRI data confirmed these patients exhibited activation of the somatosensory cortex with no firing of the posterior insula. These findings are some of the first to confirm C afferent nerve fibers convey emotional and social information involving the reward system while type A communicate tactile information within the somatosensory cortex.
Individual differences
Individuals vary in their preference for consoling touch. It is speculated that culture and upbringing are the greatest determinants. Going beyond environmental factors, there is a notable relationship between tactile experience and the autism spectrum. 96% of individuals on the spectrum report an altered, and largely heightened, sensitivity to tactile input. These variations in nerve processing manifest in different ways, be it wearing very specific fabrics, or avoiding rain because the sensation of drops on the skin is painful. Kevin Pelphrey, a clinical neuroscientist at Yale, recently evaluated response to social touch in non-autistic and autistic children. Children had their arms gently grazed with a paint brush and had their palms touched by a caregiver while in an fMRI scanner. Non-autistic children elicited the expected response. There was heightened activation of C afferent nerves and the posterior insula in the palm touch condition while type A nerves responded to the paintbrush condition. The children on the Autism spectrum, however, elicited a similar neuronal response in both conditions with marked activation of the somatosensory cortex. The findings raise the possibility that individuals on the spectrum may not be extracting social information from touch. These findings are preliminary and cannot be used to assume individual preference or experience of social touch.
See also
Affective haptics
Social rejection
References
Behavior | Consoling touch | [
"Biology"
] | 2,503 | [
"Behavior"
] |
69,259,445 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trifluoroacetonitrile | Trifluoroacetonitrile is a nitrile with the chemical formula CF3CN.
Production
Trifluoroacetonitrile can be produced by dehydration of trifluoroacetamide with trifluoroacetic anhydride in pyridine or carbon tetrachloride. This synthesis route was first described by Frédéric Swarts in 1922.
Trifluoroacetonitrile can also be produced by reacting 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethane and ammonia at 610 °C.
Properties
Trifluoroacetonitrile is a colourless gas that is insoluble in water. Solid trifluoroacetonitrile's crystal structure is orthorhombic.
Uses
Trifluoroacetonitrile can be used to prepare other chemicals such as 3-(trifluoromethyl)isoquinoline and 2,4-bis(trifluoromethyl)pyrimidine.
References
Trifluoromethyl compounds
Nitriles
Organic compounds with 2 carbon atoms | Trifluoroacetonitrile | [
"Chemistry"
] | 245 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Nitriles",
"Functional groups",
"Organic compounds with 2 carbon atoms"
] |
69,262,097 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invariant%20decomposition | The invariant decomposition is a decomposition of the elements of pin groups into orthogonal commuting elements. It is also valid in their subgroups, e.g. orthogonal, pseudo-Euclidean, conformal, and classical groups. Because the elements of Pin groups are the composition of oriented reflections, the invariant decomposition theorem readsEvery -reflection can be decomposed into commuting factors.
It is named the invariant decomposition because these factors are the invariants of the -reflection . A well known special case is the Chasles' theorem, which states that any rigid body motion in can be decomposed into a rotation around, followed or preceded by a translation along, a single line. Both the rotation and the translation leave two lines invariant: the axis of rotation and the orthogonal axis of translation. Since both rotations and translations are bireflections, a more abstract statement of the theorem reads "Every quadreflection can be decomposed into commuting bireflections". In this form the statement is also valid for e.g. the spacetime algebra , where any Lorentz transformation can be decomposed into a commuting rotation and boost.
Bivector decomposition
Any bivector in the geometric algebra of total dimension can be decomposed into orthogonal commuting simple bivectors that satisfy
Defining , their properties can be summarized as (no sum). The are then found as solutions to the characteristic polynomial
Defining
and , the solutions are given by
The values of are subsequently found by squaring this expression and rearranging, which yields the polynomial
By allowing complex values for , the counter example of Marcel Riesz can in fact be solved. This closed form solution for the invariant decomposition is only valid for eigenvalues with algebraic multiplicity of 1. For degenerate the invariant decomposition still exists, but cannot be found using the closed form solution.
Exponential map
A -reflection can be written as where is a bivector, and thus permits a factorization
The invariant decomposition therefore gives a closed form formula for exponentials, since each squares to a scalar and thus follows Euler's formula:
Carefully evaluating the limit gives
and thus translations are also included.
Rotor factorization
Given a -reflection we would like to find the factorization into . Defining the simple bivector
where . These bivectors can be found directly using the above solution for bivectors by substituting
where selects the grade part of . After the bivectors have been found, is found straightforwardly as
Principal logarithm
After the decomposition of into has been found, the principal logarithm of each simple rotor is given by
and thus the logarithm of is given by
General Pin group elements
So far we have only considered elements of , which are -reflections. To extend the invariant decomposition to a -reflections , we use that the vector part is a reflection which already commutes with, and is orthogonal to, the -reflection . The problem then reduces to finding the decomposition of using the method described above.
Invariant bivectors
The bivectors are invariants of the corresponding since they commute with it, and thus under group conjugation
Going back to the example of Chasles' theorem as given in the introduction, the screw motion in 3D leaves invariant the two lines and , which correspond to the axis of rotation and the orthogonal axis of translation on the horizon. While the entire space undergoes a screw motion, these two axes remain unchanged by it.
History
The invariant decomposition finds its roots in a statement made by Marcel Riesz about bivectors:Can any bivector be decomposed into the direct sum of mutually orthogonal simple bivectors?Mathematically, this would mean that for a given bivector in an dimensional geometric algebra, it should be possible to find a maximum of bivectors , such that , where the satisfy and should square to a scalar . Marcel Riesz gave some examples which lead to this conjecture, but also one (seeming) counter example. A first more general solution to the conjecture in geometric algebras was given by David Hestenes and Garret Sobczyck. However, this solution was limited to purely Euclidean spaces. In 2011 the solution in (3DCGA) was published by Leo Dorst and Robert Jan Valkenburg, and was the first solution in a Lorentzian signature. Also in 2011, Charles Gunn was the first to give a solution in the degenerate metric . This offered a first glimpse that the principle might be metric independent. Then, in 2021, the full metric and dimension independent closed form solution was given by Martin Roelfs in his PhD thesis. And because bivectors in a geometric algebra form the Lie algebra , the thesis was also the first to use this to decompose elements of groups into orthogonal commuting factors which each follow Euler's formula, and to present closed form exponential and logarithmic functions for these groups. Subsequently, in a paper by Martin Roelfs and Steven De Keninck the invariant decomposition was extended to include elements of , not just , and the direct decomposition of elements of without having to pass through was found.
References
Group theory | Invariant decomposition | [
"Mathematics"
] | 1,061 | [
"Group theory",
"Fields of abstract algebra"
] |
69,262,667 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrosociology | Astrosociology, sociology of outer space, or sociology of the universe is the study of the relationship between outer space, extraterrestrial places, and the wider universe and society. It is an interdisciplinary study between space-related sciences and sociology that seeks to understand the impact of human society outside our current planetary system.
Astrosociology focuses on space exploration and related issues alongside the social and cultural dimensions of outer space from the viewpoint of human civilisation.
History
Astrosociology started as a subfield and interdisciplinary area of study in 2003 to research the two-way relationship that exists between outer space and society, or astrosocial phenomena (e.g. the social, cultural, and behavioral patterns related to outer space).
In 2008, Jim Pass created the Astrosociology Research Institute (ARI) as a nonprofit research centre to advance the field of astrosociology.
Research areas
Commercialisation of space
The process and phenomenon of globalisation can be seen to be expanding past the planetary system and into space commercialisation. Capitalist, including neoliberal, points of view are that space is an untapped resource for marketisation. This presents a shift from the Space Race and astropolitics of the Cold War and into a new era of space commercialisation. Examples of this are Blue Origin and SpaceX that offer private contract services for government agencies like NASA.
Extraterrestrial life
The existence of extraterrestrial life, life outside of Earth, is an ongoing scientific search as well as societal debate. Astrobiology to planetary geology are some of the disciplines interested in finding life elsewhere in space. Astrosociology intersects these by exploring the social dimensions of finding extraterrestrial life – exploring the impact of human systems throughout religious to economic.
There is also research into how these extraterrestrial places and potential life interlink with our own world, with the global environmental and ecological systems here on Earth, and vice versa. This potential relationship of space and extraterrestrial places impacting our society, humanity, and humans as we know ourselves alongside our impact elsewhere plays an ongoing astrosociologcial paradigm within research.
Human civilisations beyond Earth
A focus of astrosociology is the presence of human populations outside the confines of Earth. In 2006, Jim Pass predicted this as being likely, stating, "For a number of reasons, the construction of a single space colony represents a future social reality strongly likely to play itself out repeatedly as the twenty-first century advances".
Social systems beyond Earth will be affected by the technology involved, including programmes like SpaceX and Deep Space Transport. Time will be considered a question of study for astrosociology, in the sense that the social representation and understanding of time and how the passing of time is understood outside of the day-night cycle here on Earth.
Human existence outside of Earth is expected to create new areas of astrosocial and astropolitical dimensions that human societies. Public perceptions of space are considered as a subtopic of astrosociology. The transition from beyond-Earth human existence being seen as external to society to it being seen as part of society is a question to be studied in astrosociology.
Space exploration
Understanding future expansion into places like the Moon, Mars, and elsewhere outside of Earth needs a reflection on the sociological factors throughout exploration phases. An example of this is looking at past space explorations and social dynamics, from leadership relations among astronauts to work-rest scheduling, to provide sociological insight into future space exploration missions. As humans remain in an era phase of space exploration and travel, the astrosociological focus is often on the micro societal aspects of space that are created in situations like the International Space Station and future space missions.
See also
References
Interdisciplinary subfields of sociology
Outer space | Astrosociology | [
"Astronomy"
] | 758 | [
"Outer space"
] |
69,263,899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carla%20Seatzu | Carla Seatzu (born 1971) is an Italian electrical engineer whose research concerns discrete-event simulation, Petri nets, fault detection and isolation, and networked control systems, with applications in manufacturing and transportation. She is an ordinary professor (equivalent to full professor) in the faculty of engineering at the University of Cagliari.
Education and career
Seatzu earned a laurea in electrical engineering in 1996 at the University of Cagliari, at the same time passing the state examination in engineering. She completed her doctorate at the University of Cagliari in 2000. Her dissertation, Decentralized control of open-channel hydraulic systems, was supervised by Elio Usai.
After working as a research assistant and researcher at the University of Cagliari from 2000 to 2011, she became an associate professor there in 2011, and earned a habilitation in 2012–2013. She has been a full professor since 2017.
References
External links
1971 births
Living people
Italian electrical engineers
Italian women engineers
Control theorists
Academic staff of the University of Cagliari | Carla Seatzu | [
"Engineering"
] | 210 | [
"Control engineering",
"Control theorists"
] |
69,264,543 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium%20ozonide | Sodium ozonide (NaO3) is an oxygen-rich compound of sodium. As an ozonide, it contains the ozonide anion (O3−).
Some experiments report creating sodium ozonide by applying ozone to sodium hydroxide, but the substance was not pure, and the claimed stability at room temperature was contradicted by other reports. This is in contrast to potassium ozonide, rubidium ozonide, and caesium ozonide, which can be synthesized applying ozone directly to the metal. Instead, it is made in ammonia solution using ion exchange and cryptands.
The compound is unstable at room temperature and decomposes at -10 °C to sodium superoxide and oxygen.
However, the compound can be stored for months at -18 °C.
References
Sodium compounds
Ozonides | Sodium ozonide | [
"Chemistry"
] | 170 | [
"Inorganic compounds",
"Inorganic compound stubs"
] |
69,264,624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bern%20Hoffman | Benjamin Bernard Hoffman (February 17, 1913 – December 15, 1979) was an American film, television and theatre actor. He was perhaps best known for playing "Earthquake McGoon" in Li'l Abner, both in the Broadway play and in the 1959 film.
Life and career
Hoffman was born in Maryland, the son of Rose Hoffman. He had a brother and a sister. Hoffman attended Johns Hopkins University, where he studied medicine, and also attended Loyola College, where he studied explosives engineering. Hoffman left college to help out and support his family.
Hoffman began his career in 1937, when he appeared in two films, Meet the Missus and Forty Naughty Girls, playing the uncredited role of the "Orchestra Leader" in both films. Hoffman made his theatre debut in 1944, appearing in the Broadway play titled Catherine Was Great. He also played the role of "Joey Biltmore" in Guys and Dolls, during its first production. Hoffman later played the role of "Pawnee Bill" in the Broadway play Annie Get Your Gun.
Hoffman later moved to North Hollywood, California with his family. He played the role of "Earthquake McGoon" in the film version of the Broadway play Li'l Abner. Hoffman’s film and television credits include, On The Town, Tombstone Territory, The Man Who Understood Women, Ironside, Death Valley Days, The Phil Silvers Show, Somebody Up There Likes Me, Rawhide, The Outfit and The Streets of San Francisco.
He played Marcus in "The Jarbo Pierce Story" S8 E26 of "Wagon Train", 1965.
Death
Hoffman died in December 1979 at the Sherman Oaks Hospital in Sherman Oaks, California, at the age of 66. He was buried in Mount Sinai Memorial Park Cemetery.
Television
References
External links
Rotten Tomatoes profile
1913 births
1979 deaths
Actors from Maryland
Male actors from Maryland
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male stage actors
20th-century American male actors
Explosives engineers
Johns Hopkins University alumni
Western (genre) television actors
Burials at Mount Sinai Memorial Park Cemetery | Bern Hoffman | [
"Engineering"
] | 412 | [
"Explosives engineering",
"Explosives engineers"
] |
69,264,636 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%2034266 | HD 34266, also known as HR 1721 is a solitary, yellow hued star located in the southern constellation Columba, the dove. It has an apparent magnitude of 5.73, making it faintly visible to the naked eye under ideal conditions. Based on Gaia DR3 parallax measurements, the object is located 539 light years away. It appears to be drifting away from the Solar System, having a heliocentric radial velocity of .
This is an evolved giant star that is currently on the red giant branch, fusing hydrogen in a shell around an inert helium core. It has a stellar classification of G8 III. HD 34266 is calculated to be 490 million years old, almost 10 times younger than the Sun. However, it already left the main sequence due to a mass of . HD 34266 has expanded to 16.2 times the Sun's girth and now radiates 144 times the luminosity of the Sun from its photosphere at an effective temperature of . HD 34266 has a near solar metallicity and spins modestly with a projected rotational velocity of .
References
Columba (constellation)
034266
24426
1721
G-type giants
Red giants
Columbae, 6
Durchmusterung objects | HD 34266 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 261 | [
"Columba (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
69,264,706 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micronekton | A micronekton is a group of organisms of 2 to 20 cm in size which are able to swim independently of ocean currents. The word 'nekton' is derived from the Greek νήκτον, translit. nekton, meaning "to swim", and was coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1890.
Overview
Micronekton organisms are ubiquitous in the world's oceans and they can be divided into broad taxonomic groups. The distinction between micronekton and micro-, meso- and macro- zooplankton is based on size. Micronekton typically ranges in size from 2 to 20 cm, macro-zooplankton from 2 mm to 2 cm, meso-zooplankton from 0.2 to 2 mm and micro-zooplankton from 20 μm to 0.2 mm. Micronekton represents 3.8-11.8 billion tons of mesopelagic fishes worldwide, approximately 380 million tons of Antarctic krill in the Southern Ocean and a global estimated biomass of at least 55 million tons of a single group of Ommastrephid squid. This diverse group assemblage is distributed between the sea surface and approximately 1000 m deep (in the mesopelagic zone). Micronekton shows a diverse range of migration patterns including diel vertical migration over several hundreds of metres from below 400 m (deeper layers) to the top 200 m (shallower layers) of the water column at dusk and inversely at dawn, reverse migration (organisms stay in the shallow layer during the day) mid-water migration (organisms stay in the intermediate layer, i.e. between 200 and 400 m) or non-migration (organisms stay in the deep layer at night and shallow layer during the day). Micronekton plays a key role in the oceanic biological pump by transporting organic carbon from the euphotic zone to deeper parts of the oceans It is also preyed upon by various predators such as tunas, billfishes, sharks, marine birds and marine mammals.
Taxonomic groups
Generally, the taxonomy of global existing micronekton is not yet complete due to the paucity of faunal surveys, net avoidance (organisms sensing the approach of the net and swimming out of its path) and escapement (animals escape through the meshes after entering the net), and gear in-adaptability. New species are continually being discovered and described in new regions of the world's oceans.
Crustaceans are highly diverse, with a single group, the decapods, consisting of 15,000 species in around 2,700 genera. Euphausiids consist of 10 genera with a total of 85 species. Hyperiids are also widely distributed in the world's oceans with approximately 233 species across 72 genera.
Cephalopods comprise less than 1000 species distributed across 43 families. They occur in all marine habitats such as benthic, burrowing on coral reefs, grass flats, sand, mud, rocks; are epibenthic, pelagic and epipelagic in bays, seas and the open ocean.
Bristlemouths (Gonostomatidae), largely Cyclothone, account for more than 50% of the total vertebrate abundance between 100 and 1000 m. Twenty-one species of bristlemouths have been described globally. Lanternfishes are the secondmost abundant marine vertebrates, having diversified into 252 species.
Hatchetfishes (Sternoptychidae) and dragonfishes (Stomiidae) are other common mesopelagic taxa in the deep-sea environment.
Anatomy and physiology
Crustaceans
The crustacean body is divided into three sections: head, thorax and tail. They typically have 2 antennae and a varying number of pairs of thoracic legs called pereiopods (or thoracopods). Crustacean species such as Systelaspis debilis and Oplophorus spinosus have specific visual pigments thought to facilitate congener recognition. The oplophorid genera Systellaspis, Acanthephyra and Oplophorus secrete luminous fluids as part of their distress response.
Cephalopods
Cephalopods are soft-bodied animals with a cranium and, in most forms, a mantle/fin (cuttlebone or gladius) as primary skeletal features. They have highly developed central nervous systems with well-organized eyes. Cephalopods can be divided into four main groups: squids, cuttlefishes, octopuses and chambered nautiluses, which have distinguishable morphological features. Squids can have chromatic vision through the presence of various visual pigments.
Mesopelagic fishes
Few anatomical and physiological studies of mesopelagic fishes have been conducted, except for research of the swimbladder of these organisms. The deepest-living mesopelagic fishes have no swimbladder. Most species inhabiting the upper mesopelagic zone have gas-filled swimbladders (which aid in buoyancy). Other species have a gas-filled swimbladder when young which becomes filled with fat with age. Polyunsaturated wax esters are common in muscle or adipose tissue of lanternfishes, posing an obstacle to human consumption.
Lanternfishes possess retina with a single pigment capable of absorbing bioluminescent light ranging from 480 to 492 nm at a distance of up to 30 m in the deep ocean.
Bioluminescence
Bioluminescence is the production and emission of light from a living organism as a result of a natural chemical reaction, typically the molecular decomposition of luciferin substrates by the luciferase enzyme in the presence of oxygen. Bioluminescence in animals is used to communicate, defend against predation, and find or attract prey. It is mainly generated endogenously (e.g. photophores of lanternfishes) or through bacterially-mediated symbiosis (e.g. most anglerfish lures, flashlightfish subocular organs), within teleosts. It is common in micronekton (including many types of planktonic crustaceans, mesopelagic fishes such as myctophids/lanternfishes and stomiiformes, and squids).
Many mesopelagic species (midwater squids, fish and shrimps) have counter shading ventral bioluminescent photophores which serve to match the intensity of downwelling light so as to hide from predators lurking below. To conceal itself with bioluminescence, the animal must precisely match its luminescence to the intensity, angular distribution and color of the downwelling light.
Stomiiformes have barbels, ventral arrays, and red and blue suborbital photophores. Lanternfishes have also developed lateral photophores on the sides of their bodies (for species recognition) and sexually dimorphic luminescent organs on the tail or head. The sexual dimorphism of bioluminescent signalling and sensory systems may help facilitate sexual encounters in the deep ocean. At the onset of sexual maturity, secondary light organs develop in some of the arms of certain female squids e.g. cranchiids (Liocranchia and Leachia pacifica) for use in sexual recognition. Females of the octopod Japetella develop a ring of bioluminescent tissue around their mouth just prior to mating and this tissue atrophies once the eggs are spent. In the squid Ctenopteryx siculus, males develop a large photophore within the posterior region of their body at sexual maturity. Bioluminescent signaling by micronekton also carries some degree of risk for it may expose the organism to a predator.
Ecology
Foraging patterns
Crustaceans show omnivorous feeding patterns since they prey on zooplankton, such as euphausiids and copepods, and are also known for occasional herbivory. All squids have carnivorous foraging patterns. Most mesopelagic fishes are carnivores. Some mesopelagic fishes, for example Ceratoscopelus warmingii, have some herbivorous feeding strategies, and can thus be classified as omnivores. Mesopelagic fishes mostly feed at night or dusk, with a few species being acyclic.
Role in food webs
Micronekton plays an important role in oceanic food webs by connecting top predators such as tunas and billfishes to lower trophic level zooplankton. Crustaceans, cephalopods and mesopelagic fishes generally have overlapping isotopic niche widths suggesting some degree of similarity in their diet with low level of resource partitioning and a high level of competition among these broad categories. In low productive environments, predators such as swordfish were shown to forage on larger-sized squids since micronekton prey density is reduced and the costs associated with finding prey are higher than the energy intake when consuming smaller-sized micronekton. Crustaceans and mesopelagic fishes generally occupy trophic level 3, smaller-sized squids occupy trophic level 3 to 4 and large nektonic squids such as Ommastrephes bartramii occupy trophic level 5.
Behaviour
Swarming
Crustaceans, such as krill, may form several aggregation types, from high to low densities distributed throughout the water column, that are influenced by current velocities, direction, mean depth, and predator foraging. Cephalopods may form large schools of neritic and oceanic species with millions of individuals, or small schools with a few dozens of individuals or may be found as isolated territorial individuals. Some mesopelagic fishes form schools or are aggregated in scattering layers while others are dispersed
Swimming
Krill individuals of 45.4 mm in length can maintain horizontal sustained swimming speeds of 0.2 cm s−1 and are able to swim into currents for several hours at speeds of 0.17 cm s-1. Krill are able to dart rapidly backwards to escape predators. Cephalopods such as Illex illecebrosus are able to swim continuously. During daytime, mesopelagic fish often hang motionless in the water column with head up or down in a state of torpor. Myctophids have sustained swimming speeds of approximately 75 cm s−1, with larger individuals having higher rates than smaller ones. At night, fishes in the upper layers of the water column are active and swim horizontally, while those which stayed at depth are immobile and vertically oriented. Mesopelagic fishes are capable of rapid evasive movements to escape predators.
However, crustaceans, cephalopods and mesopelagic fishes can adapt their swimming speeds, with the fastest swimming during escape, intermediate during foraging and lowest speed during migration:
Reproduction and growth rate
Sexual differences in gonads of krill first occur in subadults (> 24 mm), and secondary sexual (external) characteristics develop progressively in the late sub-adult stage (35 mm for females and 43 mm or larger for males). The reproductive cycle of krill usually spans from December to April.
Cephalopods have a wide range of reproductive strategies and may spawn once or more than once, with the latter including: (1) polycyclic spawning, with eggs laid in separate batches during the spawning season and growth between the production of egg batches, (2) multiple spawning, with group-synchronous ovulation, monocyclic spawning and growth between egg batches, (3) intermittent terminal spawning, with group-synchronous ovulation, monocyclic spawning and no growth between egg batches, (4) continuous spawning, with asynchronous ovulation, monocyclic spawning and growth between egg batches. Cephalopods typically grow fast and mature rapidly, with their life cycle generally terminating with reproduction.
The age of mesopelagic fishes can be determined from their otoliths and their growth rate can be calculated from the von Bertalanffy growth equation. Most mesopelagic fishes become sexually mature one year after hatching in highly productive areas, and more than two years in low productive areas. Most tropical myctophids and smaller gonostomatids are believed to have a one-year life cycle compared to mesopelagic fishes from colder waters which have a longer life cycle. In temperate and subtropical regions, myctophids spawn mainly from late winter to summer. The spawning season for Gonostomatids differ among species, with Sigmops elongatus spawning in spring and summer, Gonostoma ebelingi in early fall, Gonostoma atlanticum during all seasons in the subtropical central Pacific, and Gonostoma gracile in fall and winter in the western Pacific. Other mesopelagic fishes such Maurolicus muelleri, Vinciguerria nimbaria and Vinciguerria poweriae spawn mainly in spring and summer.
Vertical and horizontal distributions
Vertical migration
The vertical migration patterns of micronekton are species dependent. Most micronekton show an extensive diel vertical migration whereby they are concentrated below 400 m of the water column during the day and migrate to the top 200 m at dusk, and they migrate in the opposite direction to below 400 m at dawn. Diel vertical migration of the mesopelagic community represents one of the Earth's largest daily animal migrations. The change in light intensity is believed to be the stimulus for triggering this vertical movement, with the main biological reason being enhanced foraging opportunities at the surface and decreased predation at night than in daytime. Migrant micronekton may be following the movements of their main prey which undergo diel vertical migration at dusk. Upward and downward migrations seem to occur in a series of events by different micronekton groups, with for example, smaller fishes which swim at smaller speeds leaving their location first than larger fishes.
Other micronekton species, however, are non-migrating or weakly migrating and hence stay below 400 m depth at dusk, for e.g., members of the Cyclothone genus and some sternoptychids. Mid-water migration, i.e., migration to the lower limit of the shallow scattering layer (at approximately 200 m depth) at nighttime and back to 400 m before daytime, is also seen in some taxa.
Ontogenic vertical migration
Almost all mesopelagic species are believed to change their vertical distribution range during their life history, with younger individuals generally inhabiting shallower depths than older ones.
Horizontal distribution
The distributional patterns of micronekton generally seem to coincide with water mass distribution, mesoscale oceanographic processes such as eddies, and presence of seamounts. Micronekton showed reverse migration patterns, being located in the top 200 m of the water column during daytime, in a cyclonic mesoscale eddy in the South West Indian Ocean. Cyclonic eddies also showed greater micronekton densities than anti-cyclonic eddies. Mesoscale cyclonic eddies may hence create favorable conditions, such as enhanced foraging opportunities, for micronekton.
Most micronekton species are oceanic but neritic patterns have also been observed. Some micronekton taxa, such as Diaphus suborbitalis, preferentially associate with seamounts. Large populations of D. suborbitalis have been reported off the slopes of the Equator, La Pérouse and MAD-Ridge seamounts in the Indian Ocean. They are located at depths around the seamounts' flanks during the day, and ascend in dense schools to the upper portion of the flanks and over the summits at dusk.
Fishes may interact with seamounts in different ways:
Diurnal vertically migrating organisms to the surface layer at dusk and being advected to the seamount summit by surface currents,
weakly migrant/ non-migrant fishes that are not able to counter strong currents and are hence advected over the benthopelagic zone around seamounts,
adults of meso- and bathypelagic species that live over seamount summits to increase their feeding efficiency, and reduce predation risks,
"pseudo-oceanic" or "nerito-pelagic" species that preferentially associate with seamounts and resist advection off the pinnacles.
Some micronekton taxa may show the "feed-rest" hypothesis, whereby they would rest in the quiescent shelter offered by the seamount topography and sense the environment around the seamount to take advantage of the flow-advected prey, while avoiding advective loss by strong currents. Some cephalopod species may use seamounts as spawning and foraging grounds.
Nutritional value
The high protein and low-fat content of cephalopods make them interesting components in human diets. Mesopelagic fishes are good sources of "Omega-3" n-3 PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acids), EPA (icosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid), making them attractive candidates as dietary supplements for human consumption, as fishmeal in aquaculture farms, or for use as nutraceuticals.
Trace element concentrations
Compared to pelagic species such as tuna, sharks, and marine mammals, trace element concentrations in micronekton have been poorly studied. Trace elements are defined as those occurring in trace amounts (typically < 0.01% of the organism), and excluding the macronutrients calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium. Some trace elements, such as iron, manganese, selenium, and zinc are essential to the normal functioning of an organism. Cadmium, lead, and mercury, however, are non-essential elements (i.e., with no known biological function). Other elements such as copper, zinc and selenium, are important in metabolic processes but toxic in high doses. Trace elements, such as mercury, can bioaccumulate to harmful levels when they are stored in tissues of organisms faster than they can be detoxified and/or excreted. Marine vertebrates have specific proteins, metallothionein, which bind trace elements such as cadmium, copper and zinc when in excess. The trace element selenium may reduce the availability of methylmercury by sequestering mercury, thus decreasing its toxicity.
Trace element concentrations vary between micronekton broad categories and between metals, with crustaceans having higher levels of arsenic, copper, and zinc, compared to mesopelagic fishes. Copper and zinc are both known to associate with the respiratory pigment hemocyanin in crustaceans. Cephalopods are known to bioaccumulate higher cadmium, copper and zinc concentrations in their digestive glands compared to fishes.
Myctophids sampled in the Indian Ocean and Gulf of California were enriched in iron, zinc and cobalt. The mesopelagic fishes Chauliodus sloani, Sigmops elongatus, and Ceratoscopelus warmingii of the South West Indian Ocean, and the Sulu, Celebes and Philippine Seas (South China), have similar range of values of arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, copper, chromium, manganese, lead, selenium, silver, and zinc, suggesting that these organisms have similar biochemical processes, irrespective of their location.
Some micronekton organisms showed trace element concentrations above the permitted levels determined by European and worldwide legislations, and will hence have to be regularly monitored for their trace element content so as not to pose a threat to human consumption.
Commercial interests
There are growing interests in the commercial exploitation of micronekton for human consumption, as fishmeal in aquaculture farms and for nutraceutical products. Cephalopod fisheries already exist, targeting a wide range of species, and with more than half of the total catch taken in the northeast and northwest Pacific, and the northeast and northwest Atlantic. The fisheries target neritic and oceanic squids (e.g., Todarodes, Loligo, Illex, etc.), cuttlefish (e.g., Sepia, Sepiella, and allied genera), and octopuses (Octopus and Eledone).
The cephalopod fisheries use the following principal types of fishing methods and gear:
Interest in mesopelagic fish exploitation is also rapidly growing due to their sheer number and ubiquitous nature. The mesopelagic fish stock has been estimated at 20-100 billion tons with a potential yield of approximately 200 000 tons per year in the Arabian Sea, and a total global fish biomass of 2-19.5 gigatons between 70°N and 70°S. Catches of mesopelagic fishes for scientific surveys are made using various types of trawls (Isaacs-Kidd midwater trawl, Cobb trawl, rectangular midwater trawl, Hokkaido University Frame Trawl, International Young Gadoid Pelagic Trawl, etc.), with mouth areas of 1–10 m2. Experiments have been conducted with commercial trawls having large mouth openings (100–1000 m2) and large meshes (e.g., 20 cm) in the front part and gradually decreasing towards the codend. These commercial-sized trawls catch larger mesopelagic fishes but poorly sample small Cyclothone species.
References
External links
Plankton
Crustaceans
Cephalopods
Bioluminescence | Micronekton | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 4,478 | [
"Biochemistry",
"Luminescence",
"Bioluminescence"
] |
69,264,724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%2047500 | HD 47500, also known as HR 2446, is a binary star in the southern constellation Columba. The primary has an apparent magnitude of 5.91, making it faintly visible to the naked eye if viewed under ideal conditions. As for the companion, its visual magnitude is 7.51. The system is located relatively far at a distance of 1,120 light years based on parallax measurements, and is receding with a heliocentric radial velocity of .
The binary nature of this system was first discovered by Richard Alfred Rossiter in 1942. Their current separation is half of an arcsecond, making it difficult to measure the components properties. Nevertheless, the secondary component is located along a position angle of 4° as of 1999.
HD 47500 has a stellar classification of B6 IV-V, a B-type star with a luminosity class intermediate between a subgiant and main sequence star. Hube (1970) gave the primary a slightly cooler class of B7 III, indicating that it is already a giant star, while Houk (1982) gave it a class of B5/7 IV, intermediate between a B5 and B7 subgiant. Nevertheless, it is estimated to be 34 million years old, having completed 98.5% of its main sequence lifetime. HD 47500 A has 5.01 times the mass of the Sun and an enlarged radius of . It radiates 1,482 times the luminosity of the Sun. from its photosphere at an effective temperature of , giving it a bluish-white hue. Unlike most hot stars, the object spins modestly with a projected rotational velocity of .
References
B-type subgiants
Binary stars
047500
31637
2446
Columbae, 112
Columba (constellation)
CD-36 03031
B-type main-sequence stars | HD 47500 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 382 | [
"Columba (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
69,265,237 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network%20Protocol%20Virtualization | Network Protocol Virtualization or Network Protocol Stack Virtualization is a concept of providing network connections as a service, without concerning application developer to decide the exact communication stack composition.
Concept
Network Protocol Virtualization (NPV) was firstly proposed by Heuschkel et al. in 2015 as a rough sketch as part of a transition concept for network protocol stacks. The concept evolved and was published in a deployable state in 2018.
The key idea is to decouple applications from their communication stacks. Today the socket API requires application developer to compose the communication stack by hand by choosing between IPv4/IPv6 and UDP/TCP. NPV proposes the network protocol stack should be tailored to the observed network environment (e.g. link layer technology, or current network performance). Thus, the network stack should not be composed at development time, but at runtime and it needs the possibility to be adapted if needed.
Additionally, the decoupling relaxes the chains of the ISO OSI network layer model, and thus enables alternative concepts of communication stacks. Heuschkel et al. proposes the concept of Application layer middleboxes as an example to add additional layers to the communication stack to enrich the communication with useful services (e.g. HTTP optimizations)
The Figure illustrates the data flow. Applications interface to the NPV software through some kind of API. Heuschkel et al. proposed socket API equivalent replacements but envisioned more sophisticated interfaces for future applications. A scheduler assigns the application payload to one (of potentially many) communication stack to get processed to network packets, that get sent using networking hardware. A management component decides how communication stacks get composed and the scheduling scheme. To support decisions a management interface is provided to integrate the management system in software-defined networking contexts.
NPV has been further investigated as a central element of LPWAN Internet of Things (IoT) scenarios. Specifically, the deployment of applications that are agnostic to the underlying transport, network, link and physical layers was explored by Rolando Herrero in 2020. In this context, NPV becomes a very successful and flexible tool to accomplish the deployment and management of constrained sensors, actuators and controllers in massive IoT access networks.
Implementations
Currently there is just one academic implementation available to demonstrate the concept. Heuschkel et al. published this implementation as demonstrator in 2016.
The last iteration of this code is available under AGPLv3 on Github.
See also
Application virtualization
Hardware virtualization
Virtualization
References
External links
An introduction to Virtualization
MAKI
VirtualStack (NPV Prototype)
Computer networking | Network Protocol Virtualization | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 533 | [
"Computer networking",
"Computer science",
"Computer engineering"
] |
69,265,960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrari%20Indy%20V8%20engine | Ferrari made a turbocharged, 2.65-liter, V-8, Indy racing engine, dubbed the Tipo 034, designed and purpose-built for competitive use in the CART PPG Indy Car World Series, but, although tested and unveiled to the press in 1986, never raced.
Technical
For an engine that was supposedly only a bargaining tool, the 637 was well-engineered and carefully thought out. The Type 034 engine was a turbocharged, 32-valve, 90-degree, 2.65-liter V8, as per the CART regulations, which used upward mounted exhausts. It had no intercooler, and ran of turbo boost pressure.
Applications
Ferrari 637
References
Engines by model
Ferrari engines
IndyCar Series
Champ Car
V8 engines
Ferrari in motorsport
Ferrari | Ferrari Indy V8 engine | [
"Technology"
] | 160 | [
"Engines",
"Engines by model"
] |
69,267,058 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfa%20Romeo%20Tipo%201035 | The Alfa Romeo Tipo 1035 is a naturally-aspirated, 3.5-liter, V10 racing engine, designed and built by Alfa Romeo. It was originally specially designed for the Ligier Formula One team, but was later used in the experimental Alfa Romeo 164 Procar touring car, and the Alfa Romeo SE 048SP Group C sports prototype race car.
Engine design
In 1990, the Group C regulations underwent a major revamp, with the primary focus being on changing the engines to 3.5-litre units sourced from Formula One cars.
The project itself was a well-kept secret, and very little was ever revealed about the car's specifications. One thing that Alfa Romeo did reveal was that it used the 3.5-litre Tipo 1035 V10 engine from the still-born Alfa Romeo 164 Procar; this was a naturally aspirated 72 degree V10 originally designed for the Ligier Formula One team, and produced a claimed output of at 13,300 RPM.
Applications
Alfa Romeo 164 Procar
Alfa Romeo SE 048SP
References
Engines by model
Gasoline engines by model
Alfa Romeo
Group C
Formula One engines
V10 engines
Alfa Romeo in motorsport
Alfa Romeo engines | Alfa Romeo Tipo 1035 | [
"Technology"
] | 245 | [
"Engines",
"Engines by model"
] |
69,267,531 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrari%20268/282C/308C%20engine | The Ferrari 268/282C/308C engine is a twin-turbocharged, 2.6-litre, 2.8-litre, and 3.0-litre, V-8 racing engine, designed, developed and built by Ferrari, for their sister company Lancia, to use in their Lancia LC2 Group C sports prototype race car; between 1983 and 1986. The engine itself is derived from the Dino engine.
Design
Besides the fact that the LC1 had an open-cockpit, the turbocharged straight-four Lancia engine it had used was not capable of achieving the fuel economy necessary in the new Group C regulations, requiring Lancia to also seek a new powerplant. Under the direction of Cesare Fiorio, Lancia began to work on the LC1's replacement.
Lancia lacked a production engine large enough to base a racing engine on, leaving the company to turn to outside sources. Since Lancia were owned by the Fiat Group, they were able to seek the assistance of fellow Fiat company Ferrari. Ferrari allowed Lancia to adapt the new naturally aspirated four valve V8 which had been introduced in the Ferrari 308 GTBi QV in 1982. The development of the engine was assigned by Enzo Ferrari to Nicola Materazzi, then Chief Engineer in the Racing Department. The development was done in parallel with that of the F114B powering the 288 GTO and both engines were intended with high duty in mind, with one difference being that the 288 GTO engine would use IHI turbos for the road.
The basic engine architecture was heavily redesigned for racing purposes and the engine was reduced in capacity to and two KKK turbochargers were added to help the engine provide the fuel economy and power necessary. The specific engine displacement was chosen because of the possibility of using the same engine in the North American CART series. The engine was initially connected to a Hewland five-speed manual gearbox, which was replaced by an Abarth-cased unit in 1984.
The Ferrari V8 was modified in 1984, bringing the displacement back up to 3.0-litres in an attempt to increase reliability and horsepower while improved engine electronics from Magneti Marelli allowed the larger engine to use the same amount of fuel as the previous version. The engine developed just under 840 HP at 9000 rpm with massive 800 lb.-ft. at 4800 rpm, the twin KKK turbos were running at 3.0 bar boost and would start pulling from 3000 rpm. In total, seven LC2s were built under the direction of Lancia, while a further two were built for Gianni Mussato without official backing after the program had ended.
After the program had ended, Abarth acquired an LC2 and fitted it with the 3.5-litre Alfa Romeo Tipo 1035 V10 engine from the Alfa Romeo 164 Procar, and developed it under the project name SE047. The SE047 was an early development of the Alfa Romeo SE 048SP project in 1988. The SE047's engine was ultimately not utilized in the later stages of the SE 048SP development.
Applications
Lancia LC2
References
Engines by model
Gasoline engines by model
Ferrari
Group C
V8 engines
Alfa Romeo in motorsport
Ferrari in motorsport
Ferrari engines | Ferrari 268/282C/308C engine | [
"Technology"
] | 660 | [
"Engines",
"Engines by model"
] |
69,267,805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenotypic%20response%20surfaces | Phenotypic response surfaces (PRS) is an artificial intelligence-guided personalized medicine platform that relies on combinatorial optimization principles to quantify drug interactions and efficacies to develop optimized combination therapies to treat a broad spectrum of illnesses.
Phenotypic response surfaces fit a parabolic surface to a set of drug doses and biomarker values based on the understanding that the relationship between drugs, their interactions, and their effect on the measure biomarker can be modeled by quadric surface. The resulting surface allows for the omission of both in-vitro and in-silico screening of multi-drug combinations based on a patient's unique phenotypic response. This provides a method to utilize small data sets to create time-critical personalized therapies that is independent of the disease or drug mechanism. The adaptable nature of the platform allows it to tackle a wide range of applications from isolating novel combination therapies to predicting daily drug regimen adjustments to support in-patient treatments.
History
Modern medical practice since its inception in the early 19th to 20th centuries has been seen as "a science of uncertainty and art of probability" as mused by one of its founders, Sir William Osler. The lack of a concrete mechanism for the relationship between drug dosing and its efficacy led largely to the use of population averages as a metric for determine optimal doses for patients. This issue is further compounded by the introduction of combination therapies as there is an exponential growth in number of possible combinations and outcomes as the number of drugs increases. Combinatory therapy treatments provide significant benefits over monotherapy alternatives including greater efficacies and lower side effects and fatality rates, making them ideal candidates to optimize. In 2011 the PRS methodology was developed by a team led by Dr. Ibrahim Al-Shyoukh and Dr. Chih Ming Ho of the University of California Los Angeles to provide a platform that would allow for a comparatively small number of calibration tests to optimize multi-drug combination therapies based on measurement of cellular biomarkers. Since its inception the PRS platform has been applied to a broad range of disease areas including organ transplants, oncology, and infectiology. The PRS platform has since become the basis for a commercial optimization platform marketed by Singapore based Kyan Therapeutics in partnership with Kite Pharma and the National University of Singapore to provided personalized combination therapies for oncological applications.
Methodology
The PRS platform utilizes a neural network to fit data sets to a regression function resulting in a parabolic surface that provides a direct quantitative relationship between drug dose and efficacy. The governing function for the PRS platform is given as the following:
where:
E is the combination efficacy as a function drug dose and time, given as a biomarker value
C is the drug dose
t is time
x, y, z are PRS coefficients representing drug interaction
M is the number of drugs
The parabolic nature of the relationship allows for the minimal required calibration test to utilize the PRS regression in the search area of NM combinations, where N is the number of dosing regimens and M is the number of drugs in the combination.
Applications
The mechanism-independent nature of the PRS platform makes it utilizable to treat a broad spectrum of diseases including for the treatment of cancers, infectious diseases, and for organ transplants.
Oncology
Optimization of combination therapies is of particular importance in oncology. Conventional cancer treatments often rely on the sequential use of chemotherapy drugs, with each new drug starting as soon as the previous agent loses efficacy. This methodology allows for cancerous cells, due to their rapid rate of mutation, to develop resistances to chemotherapy drugs in instances where chemotherapy drugs fail to be effective. Combination therapies are therefore vital to preventing the development of drug resistant tumors and thereby decreasing the likelihood of relapse among cancer patients. The PRS platform alleviates the principal difficulty in developing combination therapies to treat cancer as it omits the need to perform in-vitro high throughput screening to determine the most effective regimen that is currently employed. PRS based therapy has been used to successful derive an optimized 3 drug combination to treat multiple myeloma and overcome drug resistance. The PRS derivative CURATE.AI platform has also been used to optimize a 2 drug combination of a bromodomain inhibitor and enzalutamide to successfully treat and prevent the progression of prostate cancer.
Infectious disease
Drug resistance is a particular challenge when attempting to treat infectious diseases as monotherapy solutions carry the risk of increasing drug resistance and combination therapy demonstrates lower mortality rates. Highly contagious infectious diseases like tuberculosis have become the leading cause of death by infectious disease world wide. Tuberculosis treatment requires the sustained use of antibiotics over an extended period of time, with high rates of noncompliance among patients, which increases the risk of development of drug resistant forms of tuberculosis. The PRS platform has been successfully used to develop combinatory regimens that reduce tuberculosis treatment time by 75% and can be employed on both drug sensitive and resistant variants of the disease. The PRS derivative IDENTIF.AI platform has been used in Singapore to identify viable SARS-CoV-2 delta variant treatments on behalf of the Singapore Ministry of Health. The platform identified the metabolite EIDD-1931 as having strong antiviral properties that can be used in combination with other commercial antiviral agents to create an effective therapy for the treatment of the SARS-CoV-2 delta variant.
Organ transplant
The PRS derived phenotypic personalized dosing platform developed in 2016 has been used to provide personalized tacrolimus and prednisone dosing for liver transplant procedures and post transplant care to prevent transplant rejection events. This methodology is able to use the minimal number of calibration tests and as a result provides a physicians with a rolling window in which daily optimized drug dose can be predicted. The platform is recalibrated daily to take into consideration the patients changing physiological responses to the drug regimen providing physicians with accessible personalized treatment tools and eliminating the need to use of population average based dosing. The platform is actively being considered for other transplant uses including kidney and heart transplants.
References
Quadrics
Systems biology
Personalized medicine
Medical models
Biomarkers | Phenotypic response surfaces | [
"Biology"
] | 1,294 | [
"Biomarkers",
"Systems biology"
] |
69,268,508 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bierbrand | Bierbrand (also known as Bierschnaps or Eau de vie de bière) is a liquor produced by distilling beer. Bierbrand produced in the European Union and Switzerland is required to contain at least 38% alcohol by volume and retain the flavor profile of beer. Additives such as neutral spirits or flavorings are prohibited, except for caramel color.
It is a traditional spirit in the German state of Bavaria, where small brewers would convert excess or leftover beer, a perishable good, into a spirit with a longer shelf-life. It can be consumed neat, either chilled or at room temperature, or is sometimes mixed into beer to make a boilermaker. Bierbrand is also occasionally used as an ingredient in Bierlikör.
Bierbrand differs from whiskey in that it is not aged in oak barrels, and whiskey is made without hops.
References
German beer culture
Distilled drinks | Bierbrand | [
"Chemistry"
] | 192 | [
"Distillation",
"Distilled drinks"
] |
69,270,338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylammonium%20tin%20halide | Methylammonium tin halides are solid compounds with perovskite structure and a chemical formula of CH3NH3SnX3, where X = I, Br or Cl. They are promising lead-free alternatives to lead perovskites as photoactive semiconductor materials. Tin-based perovskites have shown excellent mobility in transistors which gives them an opportunity to be explored more for solar cell applications.
Tin halide perovskites, despite being regarded as semiconductors, often display metallic-like behavior due to the inadvertent and/or spontaneous hole carrier doping resulting from the easy oxidation of Sn2+ to Sn4+.
See also
Perovskite solar cell
Methylammonium halide
Methylammonium lead halide
Tin-based perovskite solar cells
References
Solar power
Perovskites
Methylammonium compounds
C | Methylammonium tin halide | [
"Physics"
] | 178 | [
"Materials stubs",
"Materials",
"Matter"
] |
58,345,666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally%20Brooker | Sally Anne Brooker is a New Zealand inorganic chemist. She has been a full professor at the University of Otago since 2006.
Education
Brooker was educated at Hawarden Area School in North Canterbury from 1970 to 1982, and was dux of the school in her final year there. She went on to study chemistry at the University of Canterbury, first graduating Bachelor of Science with first-class honours, and then completing a PhD titled Synthesis and characterisation of polynuclear complexes with macrocyclic and related ligands under the supervision of Vickie McKee in 1989.
Academic and research career
After a period of post-doctoral research with George Sheldrick at the University of Göttingen, Brooker returned to New Zealand to take up a lectureship in chemistry at the University of Otago in 1991. She rose to become a full professor in 2006.
Brooker's research is in the fields of transition-metal and macrocyclic chemistry. Her work has included the development of molecular switches and molecular magnets, with potential application in nanodevices.
Honours and awards
In the 2017 Queen's Birthday Honours, Brooker was appointed a Member of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to science. Later that year, she won the Hector Medal from the Royal Society of New Zealand. Also in 2017, Brooker was selected as one of the Royal Society Te Apārangi's "150 women in 150 words", celebrating the contributions of women to knowledge in New Zealand.
Brooker was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of New Zealand in 2007, and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 2011. She is also a Fellow of the New Zealand Institute of Chemistry. In October 2019, Brooker was appointed one of seven inaugural sesquicentennial distinguished chairs, or , at Otago University. She was awarded the University's Distinguished Research Medal in 2015.
Selected works
References
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
New Zealand women academics
Members of the New Zealand Order of Merit
People from North Canterbury
University of Canterbury alumni
Academic staff of the University of Otago
New Zealand chemists
Inorganic chemists
New Zealand women chemists
Fellows of the Royal Society of New Zealand
Fellows of the Royal Society of Chemistry
Fellows of the New Zealand Institute of Chemistry
People educated at Hurunui College | Sally Brooker | [
"Chemistry"
] | 464 | [
"Inorganic chemists"
] |
58,345,675 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winners%20Take%20All%3A%20The%20Elite%20Charade%20of%20Changing%20the%20World | Winners Take All: The Elite Charade of Changing the World is a 2018 non-fiction book by American author Anand Giridharadas. It is his third book and was published by Alfred A. Knopf on August 28, 2018. The book appeared on The New York Times Best Seller list.
Thesis
In the book, Giridharadas argues that members of the global elite, though sometimes engaged in philanthropy, use their wealth and influence to preserve systems that concentrate wealth at the top at the expense of societal progress.
He criticizes the limits of that philanthropy, claiming that rich donors avoid charitable causes that could undermine their own power or wealth. In some cases, their political lobbying has weakened or reduced the scope of government such that government becomes ineffective at solving the same problems. Giridharadas suggests in some cases it would be better for rich people to do less harm in the process of accumulating their wealth. He claims pleas to do less harm are typically rejected whereas requests to do more good are often heeded.
Publication and promotion
Winners Take All was first published in hardcover by Alfred A. Knopf on August 28, 2018. The book was also published in paperback on October 1, 2019, by Vintage Books.
The book debuted at number eight on The New York Times Hardcover Nonfiction best sellers list and at number six on its Combined Print & E-Book Nonfiction best sellers list for the September 16, 2018 issue of The New York Times Book Review. The paperback edition of the book debuted at number eight on the Paperback Nonfiction best sellers list in the October 20, 2019 issue of The New York Times Book Review.
Giridharadas appeared on The Daily Show on October 1, 2019, to promote Winners Take All. He also appeared on Patriot Act with Hasan Minhaj on December 1, 2019, speaking about the thesis of his book.
Reception
Writing for The New York Times, economist Joseph Stiglitz praised the book, writing that Giridharadas "writes on two levels—seemingly tactful and subtle—but ultimately he presents a devastating portrait of a whole class, one easier to satirize than to reform."
Publishers Weekly gave the book a positive review, writing, "This damning portrait of contemporary American philanthropy is a must-read for anyone interested in 'changing the world.
Kirkus Reviews called it a "provocative critique of the kind of modern, feel-good giving that addresses symptoms and not causes."
James Pekoll of Booklist called it an "excellent book for troubled times".
Bethany McLean of The Washington Post gave the book a mixed review, criticizing Giridharadas for not engaging "in any specific analysis" and writing that "the book would have been more powerful if Giridharadas had stayed within his definition of an old-school public intellectual: someone who is willing to throw bombs at the current state of affairs, but lacks the arrogance and self-righteousness that comes with believing you have the solution."
Andrew Anthony of The Guardian gave the book a mixed review, writing, "So much of what Giridharadas writes is almost self-evidently true and urgently in need of addressing, yet his argument is slightly undermined by repetition and a reluctance to acknowledge that big business and technical innovation are sometimes forces for universal good, even if profits are made."
It was listed in The Economists "Our books of the year", described as a "timely polemic against philanthrocapitalism, which argues that supposedly do-gooding companies merely offer sticking-plaster solutions to social problems that they have helped create."
References
2018 non-fiction books
Alfred A. Knopf books
Books about economic inequality
Books about wealth distribution
Books critical of capitalism
Philanthropy
Social philosophy literature
Books about the upper class | Winners Take All: The Elite Charade of Changing the World | [
"Biology"
] | 760 | [
"Philanthropy",
"Behavior",
"Altruism"
] |
58,345,806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenopause | Adrenopause is the decline in secretion and levels of adrenal androgens such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) from the zona reticularis of the adrenal glands with age. Levels of adrenal androgens start to increase around age 7 or 8 years (adrenarche), peak in early adulthood around age 20 to 25 years, and decrease at a rate of approximately 2% per year thereafter, eventually reaching levels of 10 to 20% of those of young adults by age 80 years. It is caused by the progressive apoptosis of adrenal androgen-secreting cells and hence involution of the zona reticularis. It is analogous to andropause in men and menopause in women, the abrupt or gradual decline in production of sex hormones from the gonads with age.
DHEA can be supplemented or taken as a medication in the form of prasterone to replace adrenal androgens later in life if it is desired. Some clinical studies have found benefits of DHEA supplementation in the elderly and people with adrenal insufficiency.
See also
Adrenal androgen-stimulating hormone
References
Developmental stages
Endocrine system | Adrenopause | [
"Biology"
] | 278 | [
"Organ systems",
"Endocrine system"
] |
58,345,860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauri%20Kaila | Lauri Kaila is a Finnish entomologist and researcher of biodiversity, specializing in Lepidoptera, at the Finnish Museum of Natural History of the University of Helsinki. As of 2019, Kaila authored 324 species within the family of Elachistidae.
Publications
See Wikispecies below.
References
External links
Living people
Taxon authorities
Finnish entomologists
Finnish biologists
Finnish zoologists
Academic staff of the University of Helsinki
Year of birth missing (living people) | Lauri Kaila | [
"Biology"
] | 94 | [
"Taxon authorities",
"Taxonomy (biology)"
] |
58,345,897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing%20Committee%20on%20Vaccination | The Standing Committee on Vaccination at the Robert Koch Institute (,
), or STIKO (), is a scientific committee comprising 18 members at the Robert Koch Institute in Berlin, Germany that provides official recommendations for the vaccination schedules used by the individual German states. The committee meets twice yearly to review the latest research regarding vaccination against infectious diseases. Although the STIKO makes recommendations, immunization in Germany is voluntary and there are no official government recommendations. German Federal States typically follow the STIKO's recommendations minimally, although each state can make recommendations for their geographic jurisdiction that extends beyond the recommended list. In addition to the proposed immunization schedule for children and adults, the STIKO recommends vaccinations for occupational groups, police, travelers, and other at risk groups.
History
The STIKO was established in 1972 as a department of the German Federal Health Agency in Berlin. During a reorganization of the Federal Health Agency in 1994, the STIKO was attached to the Robert Koch Institute (RKI) in Berlin which was now an independent Upper-level federal agency under the purview of the Federal Ministry of Health (BMG). RKI compiles data of immunization status upon the entry of children at school, and measures vaccine coverage of Germany at a national level.
The legal basis for the STIKO is §20 of the Infection Protection Act (, or IfSG). Members of the expert body are appointed by the Federal Ministry of Health in coordination with the state ministries of health. Additional expert representatives from the Paul Ehrlich Institute, Robert Koch Institute Federal and state ministries of health attend the meetings in an advisory capacity.
Responsibility
The commission's responsibility is to provide scientifically based recommendations regarding the necessary vaccinations in Germany. Due to the importance of the recommendations, these have been codified in the Infection Protection Act since 2001. In accordance with the goals of the Infection Protection Act, the recommendations are focused on vaccinations that are most relevant to the protection of public health.
The law does not require the commission to perform cost–benefit analysis on individual vaccinations. The commission's recommendations are based on a vaccine's risk–benefit ratio, evaluating the effectiveness of a vaccine versus any risks posed. The commission has developed criteria to minimize vaccine injuries caused by side effects.
German health insurance companies are obligated to cover the cost of any immunizations recommended by the STIKO after they have been reviewed the Federal Joint Committee (G-BA). The G-BA generally adopts the commission's recommendations, although minor differences do exist.
Membership
The members of the STIKO are appointed by the Federal Ministry for Health for 3-year terms. The members serve pro bono publico. Members include experts from many scientific disciplines and public health fields and professionals with extensive experience on vaccination.
For the period of 2024 through 2027, the commission has the following members:
Chairman: Klaus Überla, Virological Institute of Clinical and Molecular Virology, University Hospital Erlangen
Deputy Chairwoman: Dr. Marianne Röbl-Mathieu, Gynaecological Practice, Munich
Dr. Reinhard Berner, Clinic and Polyclinic for Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus Dresden
Prof. Dr. Horst von Bernuth, Section Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Pulmonology, Immunology and Intensive Care Medicine, Charité University Medicine, Berlin
Stefan Brockmann, State Health Office of Baden-Württemberg
Prof. Dr. Alexander Dalpke, Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital
Prof. Dr. Stefan Flasche, Charité Center for Global Health and London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine
Dr. Thomas Grünewald, Clinic for Infectious and Tropical Medicine, Chemnitz Hospital
Prof. Dr. Andrea Kaifie-Pechmann, Institute and Polyclinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg
Dr. Anja Kwetkat, Department of Geriatrics and Palliative Medicine, Osnabrück Hospital
Dr. Berit Lange, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig
Prof. Dr. Jörg Meerpohl, Cochrane Centre Germany, Freiburg
Prof. Dr. Beate Müller, Institute of General Medicine, University Medicine Cologne
Dr. Christian Schönfeld, travel medical advice and vaccinations, Charité University Medicine, Berlin
Dr. Julia Tabatabai, pediatric group practice, Scheden and Center for Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine/Center for Infectious Diseases/Virology, Heidelberg University Hospital
Prof. Dr. Constanze Rossmann, Institute of Communication Science and Media Research, Ludwig Maximilian University, Munich
Prof. Dr. Birgitta Weltermann, Institute of General Practice, University Hospital Bonn
Dipl.-Med. Gudrun Widders, formerly Health Department Berlin
Prof. Dr. Ursula Wiedermann-Schmidt, Special Outpatient Clinic for Vaccinations, Travel and Tropical Medicine, Institute for Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna
See also
National Immunization Technical Advisory Group (the global concept)
Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (United States)
Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation (United Kingdom)
National Advisory Committee on Immunization (Canada)
References
1972 establishments in West Germany
Medical and health organisations based in Berlin
Robert Koch Institute
Vaccination-related organizations | Standing Committee on Vaccination | [
"Biology"
] | 1,115 | [
"Vaccination-related organizations",
"Vaccination"
] |
58,345,902 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatopause | Somatopause is the progressive decline in the levels of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), hormones of the hypothalamic–pituitary–somatotropic axis (HPS axis), with age. Secretion of GH may only be 60% of that of a young adult by age 70 years. Somatopause results in changes in the body, such as body composition changes like a decrease in lean body mass. Estrogens and progesterone may oppose somatopause by increasing GH and IGF-1 levels.
References
Developmental stages
Endocrine system | Somatopause | [
"Biology"
] | 139 | [
"Organ systems",
"Endocrine system"
] |
58,346,759 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ob-Ugric%20creation%20myth | The Ob-Ugric creation myth is the genesis story of the world in the mythology of the Khanty and Mansi people of Western Siberia. Their creation myth is very similar to the creation myths of other peoples of the Urals, sharing a lot of common elements, such as the skygod, the primordial waterfowl, the primordial waters, etc, but is also similar to the creation myths of many peoples of the northern hemisphere such as the Cherokees, Yukaghirs, Chukchis and Ainus. It is categorised as an Earth diver myth.
There once lived an old man and an old woman (skygod Numi-Toorum and fertility goddess Kaltaš). They lived in a cottage in the middle of an ocean. They lived like that for a long time, until one day a rumble was heard from the upper sky. The old man looked outside of the window and saw that from the sky fell a loon, who landed on the water and was looking for land. It dived into the water three times, until it finally found a bit of mud and flew with it back to the sky. The next day, a rumble was heard again. The same loon came down from the sky and was looking for land again. After diving into the water three times, it came out with mud on its beak. The loon rubbed the mud on the house where the old man and old woman lived, and flew back to the sky once again. The mud grew and grew and after three days, the whole world was covered in it.
References
Further reading
Abenójar Sanjuán, Óscar. “Los dioses del panteón ugrio y la epopeya de La inundación del cielo y de la tierra”. In: Culturas Populares. Revista Electrónica 7 (julio-diciembre 2008). http://www.culturaspopulares.org/textos7/articulos/abenojar1.htm; .
Creation myths
Siberian culture
Asian mythology
Uralic mythology
Ugrian mythology | Ob-Ugric creation myth | [
"Astronomy"
] | 441 | [
"Cosmogony",
"Creation myths"
] |
58,347,350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald%20Fricke | Ronald Fricke is a German ichthyologist and researcher of biodiversity at the State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart. As of 2022, Fricke authored 8 families, 10 genera and 186 species within the families of Callionymidae, Gobiesocidae, Ophichthidae, Tripterygiidae and other families.
He is a co-editor of Eschmeyer's Catalog of Fishes; among his current tasks is the building of a digital ichthyological literature archive.
Publications
See Wikispecies below.
Taxon described by him
See :Category:Taxa named by Ronald Fricke
References
External links
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Taxon authorities
German ichthyologists
21st-century German zoologists
Scientists from Stuttgart | Ronald Fricke | [
"Biology"
] | 153 | [
"Taxon authorities",
"Taxonomy (biology)"
] |
58,347,867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothar%20Seegers | Lothar Seegers (3 October 1947 – 6 August 2018) was a German ichthyologist. Seegers authored 9 species within the family of Rivulidae.
Publications (selection)
The Fishes of the Lake Rukwa Drainage. Koninklijk Museum voor Midden-Afrika, 1996.
Killifishes of the world: Old World Killis II. A.C.S. GmbH, 1997.
Killifishes of the World: New World Killis. A.C.S., 2000.
The catfishes of Africa: A Handbook for Identification and Maintenance. Aqualog Verlag, 2008.
See also
:Category:Taxa named by Lothar Seegers
References
External links
1947 births
2018 deaths
Taxon authorities
German ichthyologists
20th-century German zoologists | Lothar Seegers | [
"Biology"
] | 161 | [
"Taxon authorities",
"Taxonomy (biology)"
] |
58,348,103 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence%20embedding | In natural language processing, a sentence embedding is a representation of a sentence as a vector of numbers which encodes meaningful semantic information.
State of the art embeddings are based on the learned hidden layer representation of dedicated sentence transformer models. BERT pioneered an approach involving the use of a dedicated [CLS] token prepended to the beginning of each sentence inputted into the model; the final hidden state vector of this token encodes information about the sentence and can be fine-tuned for use in sentence classification tasks. In practice however, BERT's sentence embedding with the [CLS] token achieves poor performance, often worse than simply averaging non-contextual word embeddings. SBERT later achieved superior sentence embedding performance by fine tuning BERT's [CLS] token embeddings through the usage of a siamese neural network architecture on the SNLI dataset.
Other approaches are loosely based on the idea of distributional semantics applied to sentences. Skip-Thought trains an encoder-decoder structure for the task of neighboring sentences predictions; this has been shown to achieve worse performance than approaches such as InferSent or SBERT.
An alternative direction is to aggregate word embeddings, such as those returned by Word2vec, into sentence embeddings. The most straightforward approach is to simply compute the average of word vectors, known as continuous bag-of-words (CBOW). However, more elaborate solutions based on word vector quantization have also been proposed. One such approach is the vector of locally aggregated word embeddings (VLAWE), which demonstrated performance improvements in downstream text classification tasks.
Applications
In recent years, sentence embedding has seen a growing level of interest due to its applications in natural language queryable knowledge bases through the usage of vector indexing for semantic search. LangChain for instance utilizes sentence transformers for purposes of indexing documents. In particular, an indexing is generated by generating embeddings for chunks of documents and storing (document chunk, embedding) tuples. Then given a query in natural language, the embedding for the query can be generated. A top k similarity search algorithm is then used between the query embedding and the document chunk embeddings to retrieve the most relevant document chunks as context information for question answering tasks. This approach is also known formally as retrieval-augmented generation
Though not as predominant as BERTScore, sentence embeddings are commonly used for sentence similarity evaluation which sees common use for the task of optimizing a Large language model's generation parameters is often performed via comparing candidate sentences against reference sentences. By using the cosine-similarity of the sentence embeddings of candidate and reference sentences as the evaluation function, a grid-search algorithm can be utilized to automate hyperparameter optimization .
Evaluation
A way of testing sentence encodings is to apply them on Sentences Involving Compositional Knowledge (SICK) corpus
for both entailment (SICK-E) and relatedness (SICK-R).
In the best results are obtained using a BiLSTM network trained on the Stanford Natural Language Inference (SNLI) Corpus. The Pearson correlation coefficient for SICK-R is 0.885 and the result for SICK-E is 86.3. A slight improvement over previous scores is presented in: SICK-R: 0.888 and SICK-E: 87.8 using a concatenation of bidirectional Gated recurrent unit.
See also
Distributional semantics
Word embedding
External links
InferSent sentence embeddings and training code
Universal Sentence Encoder
Learning General Purpose Distributed Sentence Representations via Large Scale Multi-task Learning
References
Language modeling
Artificial neural networks
Natural language processing
Computational linguistics | Sentence embedding | [
"Technology"
] | 769 | [
"Natural language processing",
"Natural language and computing",
"Computational linguistics"
] |
58,348,409 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20191A | NGC 191A (also PGC 2332, IC 1563, MCG -2-2-76 of ARP 127) is a lenticular galaxy in the constellation Cetus.
In 2006 a supernova was discovered in this galaxy and was designated SN 2006ej.
See also
List of NGC objects
References
Lenticular galaxies
Cetus
0191A
IC objects | NGC 191A | [
"Astronomy"
] | 76 | [
"Cetus",
"Constellations"
] |
58,350,478 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakutani%27s%20theorem%20%28measure%20theory%29 | In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, Kakutani's theorem is a fundamental result on the equivalence or mutual singularity of countable product measures. It gives an "if and only if" characterisation of when two such measures are equivalent, and hence it is extremely useful when trying to establish change-of-measure formulae for measures on function spaces. The result is due to the Japanese mathematician Shizuo Kakutani. Kakutani's theorem can be used, for example, to determine whether a translate of a Gaussian measure is equivalent to (only when the translation vector lies in the Cameron–Martin space of ), or whether a dilation of is equivalent to (only when the absolute value of the dilation factor is 1, which is part of the Feldman–Hájek theorem).
Statement of the theorem
For each , let and be measures on the real line , and let and be the corresponding product measures on . Suppose also that, for each , and are equivalent (i.e. have the same null sets). Then either and are equivalent, or else they are mutually singular. Furthermore, equivalence holds precisely when the infinite product
has a nonzero limit; or, equivalently, when the infinite series
converges.
References
(See Theorem 2.12.7)
Probability theorems
Theorems in measure theory | Kakutani's theorem (measure theory) | [
"Mathematics"
] | 277 | [
"Theorems in mathematical analysis",
"Theorems in measure theory",
"Theorems in probability theory",
"Mathematical problems",
"Mathematical theorems"
] |
58,350,677 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%206056 | NGC 6056 is a barred lenticular galaxy located about 525 million light-years away in the constellation Hercules. It was discovered by astronomer Lewis Swift on June 8, 1886. It was then rediscovered by Swift on June 8, 1888 and was later listed as IC 1176. NGC 6056 is a member of the Hercules Cluster.
See also
List of NGC objects (6001–7000)
References
External links
6056
57075
Hercules (constellation)
Hercules Cluster
Astronomical objects discovered in 1886
Barred lenticular galaxies
IC objects | NGC 6056 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 105 | [
"Hercules (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
58,351,058 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland%20Press%20Excellence%20in%20Science%20Award | The Portland Press Excellence in Science Award was an annual award instituted in 1964 to recognize notable research in any branch of biochemistry undertaken in the UK or Republic of Ireland. It was initially called the CIBA Medal and Prize, then the Novartis Medal and Prize. The prize consists of a medal and a £3000 cash award. The winner is invited to present a lecture at a Society conference and submit an article to one of the Society's publications. Notable recipients include the Nobel laureates John E. Walker, Paul Nurse, Sydney Brenner, César Milstein, Peter D. Mitchell, Rodney Porter, and John Cornforth.
The Novartis Medal and Prize was last presented in 2019 and will be replaced from 2021 by the Portland Press Excellence in Science Award. Portland Press is the publishing arm of the Biochemical Society.
Recipients
Source: Biochemical Society
Novartis Medal and Prize
2021: Bart Vanhaesebroeck
2019: Caroline Dean
2018: Laurence Pearl
2017: Doreen Cantrell
2016:
2015:
2014: Jeff Errington
2013: Tony Kouzarides
2012:
2011:
2010: D. Grahame Hardie
2009: Louise Johnson
2008: Stephen C. West
2007: Adrian Bird
2006: James Barber
2005: Alan Hall
2004: Jean D. Beggs
2003: Iain D. Campbell
2002: Michael S. Neuberger
2001:
2000: Kiyoshi Nagai
1999: Christopher J. Marshall
1998: Richard N. Perham
1997: Ronald Laskey
1996: John E. Walker
1995: Christopher F. Higgins
1994:
1993: T. Rabbitts
1992: Philip Cohen
1991: Paul Nurse
1988:
1987: Thomas L. Blundell
1985: E. A. Barnard
1984: Philip J. Randle
1983: George K. Radda
1981: I. Helen Muir
1980: Sydney Brenner
1979: J. B. Gurdon
1978: J. Rodney Quayle
1977: César Milstein
1976: Samuel V. Perry
1975:
1974:
1973: Peter D. Mitchell
1972: R. T. Williams
1971: D. H. Northcote
1970: D. C. Phillips
1969:
1968: William J. Whelan
1967: D. M. Blow
1966: R. R. Porter
1965: J. W. Cornforth and
Source:
See also
List of biochemistry awards
References
Biology in the United Kingdom
British science and technology awards
Biochemistry awards
Novartis | Portland Press Excellence in Science Award | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 487 | [
"Biochemistry",
"Biochemistry awards"
] |
58,352,456 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20New | Elizabeth Joy New (born 1984) is an Australian chemist and Professor of the School of Chemistry, University of Sydney. She won the 2018 Australian Museum 3M Eureka Prize.
Early life and education
New was born in Sydney in 1984. She represented Australia at the International Chemistry Olympiad in 2000 and 2001, winning bronze and gold medals respectively, and graduated from James Ruse Agricultural High School with a UAI of 100. She earned a bachelor's degree in chemistry at the University of Sydney in 2005, where she completed her master's degree in 2006 with Professor Trevor Hambley. During her graduate studies she worked on fluorescent tags to monitor the cellular uptake and metabolism of anti-tumor complexes. New completed her doctoral studies at Durham University working with David Parker, graduating in 2010. Her work looked at the cellular behaviour of lanthanide complexes.
Research and career
She was appointed a Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 Research Fellow at the University of California, Berkeley in 2010. She worked with Christopher Chang on fluorescent sensors for copper. She was an Australian Research Council Discovery Early Career Research Fellow from 2012-2014, and held a Westpac Research Fellowship from 2016-2019. New's group developed reversible fluorescent sensors for cellular redox environments. She provided the first examples of reversible ratiometric cytoplasmic sensing and mitochondrial sensing. Her group has developed cobalt complexes for contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging. The complexes can be used to monitor oxidative stress. They have also worked on the development of fluorescent sensor arrays for biological and analytical applications.
New was made a lecturer in 2015 and a senior lecturer in 2016. In 2017 she received the ChemComm Emerging Investigator. She was appointed Associate Professor in 2018 and Professor in 2021.
Awards
2024 Medal of the Order of Australia (OAM)
2023 Society for Biological Inorganic Chemistry Early Career Award
2022 Australian Financial Review Emerging Leader in Higher Education
2020 Chemosensors Young Investigator Award
2019 Malcolm McIntosh Prize for Physical Scientist of the Year
2018 Royal Society of New South Wales Edgeworth David Medal
2018 3M Eureka Prize for Emerging Leader in Science
2018 Fellow of the Royal Society of New South Wales
2017 Royal Australian Chemical Institute Rennie Memorial Medal
2017 Royal Australian Chemical Institute Educator of the Year Award
2016 New South Wales Early Career Researcher of the Year
2015 Office of Learning and Teaching Teaching Excellence Award
2015 Young Tall Poppy Science Award
2015 Selby Research Award
2015 Vice-Chancellor award for Outstanding Teaching
2014 Royal Australian Chemical Institute Nyholm Lectureship, 2014-2015
2014 Asian Biological Inorganic Chemistry Early Career Research Award
2011 Royal Society of Chemistry Dalton Young Researchers Award
2005 University of Sydney The University Medal
References
Inorganic chemists
Australian women chemists
University of Sydney alumni
Alumni of Ustinov College, Durham
Academic staff of the University of Sydney
1984 births
Living people
Recipients of the Medal of the Order of Australia
Fellows of the Royal Society of New South Wales
21st-century Australian chemists
People educated at James Ruse Agricultural High School | Elizabeth New | [
"Chemistry"
] | 591 | [
"Inorganic chemists"
] |
58,354,188 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call-to-gate%20system | A call-to-gate system is an airport terminal design in which passengers are kept in a central area until shortly before their flight is due to board, rather than waiting near their gate. The international terminal at Calgary International Airport was the first terminal in North America to use this system, which is also used by European airports such as London Heathrow. The system is used to decrease the amount of time that passengers spend around the gate area, thereby increasing the amount of time they spend in the retail areas of the terminal.
References
Airport infrastructure | Call-to-gate system | [
"Engineering"
] | 109 | [
"Airport infrastructure",
"Aerospace engineering"
] |
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