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11,068,978 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnosporangium%20globosum | Gymnosporangium globosum is a fungal plant pathogen that causes cedar-hawthorn rust.
Hosts and symptoms
Gymnosporangium globosum is a heteroecious rust fungus that requires two hosts to complete its life cycle. Its telial stage occurs on eastern red cedar, Rocky Mountain juniper, southern red cedar, and other common junipers while its aecial stage will be found on apple, crabapple, hawthorne, and occasionally on pear, quince, and serviceberry. The symptoms on the evergreens (telial stage) start with small galls that form on its twigs and small branches. After the galls grow to be to inch in diameter, circular indents (similar to those of a golf ball) will begin to appear on the twig side of the gall. Once spring arrives, a reddish-brown structure will begin to grow out of the indent eventually producing orange, jelly-like telial horns. These telial horns can reach up to 4 inches long and can be easily seen. The symptoms of the deciduous trees (aecial stage) begin with yellow spots that progress into orange-red as the season continues. Black dots (spermagonia) will then develop in the center of the lesion. Mature lesions will then produce small tubes (aecia). These lesions can be found on leaves, petioles, twigs, and fruit. The aecia are approximately ⅛ inch long.
Disease cycle
The fungus begins its cycle overwintering in the galls of its telial host. During early spring, the telial horns form on the evergreen host, which produces teliospores that germinate creating a basidium. The basidium then produces basidiospores, which are released via wind and rain to infect its aecial, deciduous host's plant tissues (leaves, twigs, fruit, petioles). 80–90 days after the basidiospores germinate, aecia are produced that create aeciospores. The aeciospores are released into the air by the combination of wind and low humidity and infect susceptible evergreen hosts from midsummer into early fall beginning its telial stage. The fungus then survives as hyphae in the evergreen over that winter and begins to produce a gall the following spring. The gall increases in size throughout the summer and fall seasons so it can overwinter the spore bearing structures that will protrude out the following spring thus restarting the cycle. Thus, the entire life cycle of this rust takes 24 months to complete.
Environment
The cedar-hawthorne rust is common all across the Midwest and Eastern United States. Its overwintering capability allows it to thrive in seasonal climates with harsh winters. The pathogen prefers humid and cloudy conditions for developing growth and the spores depend on rain and wind to be dispersed to its alternate host. Requiring two separate hosts to complete its life cycle is a limiting factor on where it can grow as both hosts must be present within a 1–2 mile radius.
Management
There are a variety of ways to attempt to prevent this pathogen from spreading. The first being to prune out any infected branches of either host species. The second is to avoid planting two host plants within a two-mile radius of each other. This does not guarantee safety as there have been cases reported of cedar-hawthorne rust spores traveling 15 miles to infect its complementary host. There are also a multitude of different hawthorne varieties that have been bred for resistance, so choosing one of those is wise if a known susceptible evergreen host is growing nearby. Resorting to fungicide application is also an option. It is found to be most effective when applied during the spore producing period of its life cycle. If all else fails, both hosts can live with G. globosum without dying for decades as the pathogen is rarely lethal.
Importance
Many of the susceptible hosts are common ornamental landscaping shrubs and trees which add importance to this pathogen. Although cedar-hawthorne rust typically does not kill either of the host plants, it can cause atypical growth and present unattractive symptoms on the leaves, stems, and fruit of the plants. Apples are not the preferred deciduous host for Gymnosporangium globosum but it can decimate apple orchards. A closely related rust, Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae, causes cedar-apple rust and is the more common rust that affects apple yields and is a consistent difficulty for apple growers.
References
Fungal tree pathogens and diseases
Pucciniales
Fungi described in 1880
Fungus species | Gymnosporangium globosum | [
"Biology"
] | 925 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,068,986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnosporangium%20juniperi-virginianae | Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae is a plant pathogen that causes cedar-apple rust. In virtually any location where apples or crabapples (Malus) and eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) coexist, cedar apple rust can be a destructive or disfiguring disease on both the apples and cedars. Apples, crabapples, and eastern red cedar are the most common hosts for this disease. Similar diseases can be found on quince and hawthorn and many species of juniper can substitute for the eastern red cedars.
Symptoms
On the apple tree, the infections occur on leaves, fruit and young twigs. The brightly colored spots produced on the leaves make it easy to identify. Small, yellow-orange spots appear on the upper surfaces of the leaves, anytime from April to June. These spots gradually enlarge and turn orange or red and may show concentric rings of color. Drops of orange liquid may be visible on the spots. Later in the season, black dots appear on the orange spots on the upper leaf surface. In late summer, tube-like structures develop on the undersurface of the apple leaf. Infected leaves sometimes drop prematurely, particularly during drought conditions or when the tree is under additional stress. Infections on fruit are usually near the blossom end and are somewhat similar to the leaf lesions.
On the eastern red cedar host, the fungus produces reddish-brown galls from to 2 inches (6 to 50 mm). After reaching a diameter of about , the galls show many small circular depressions. In the center of each depression is a small, pimple-like structure. In the spring these structures absorb water during rainy periods and elongate into orange gelatinous telial horns that are 10–20 mm long. The wind carries the microscopic spores to infect apple leaves, blossoms, fruit and young twigs on trees within a radius of several miles of the infected tree.
On other species of juniper more common in landscaping and bonsai, the sizes of the infections are reduced. Early in the infection, the galls are small bumps on the woody portions of the plant. They maintain the orange gelatinous form after the first warm rains of spring but generally on a greatly reduced scale.
Disease cycle
Cedar apple rust is caused by the fungi Gymnosporangium or more specifically Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae that spend part of their life cycles on Eastern Red Cedars growing near orchards. The complex disease cycle of cedar apple rust, alternating between two host plants, was first delineated by Anders Sandøe Ørsted.
When exposed to the first warm rain of spring, the small bumps on the galls absorb water, swell, and produce telial horns –gelatinous masses that produce teliospores. When swollen, teliospores will germinate and produce basidiospores which are forcibly discharged and travel along air currents to infect apple trees and other alternate hosts. The telial horns will dry out once the rain passes and will lose their gelatinous appearance, instead resembling dark brown threads. When the rain returns, the horns will swell again. This process can repeat eight to ten times during the spring. It can take as little as four hours for basidiospores to form inside the telial horns under optimal conditions.
Wind carries the spores to apple leaves at about the time that apple buds are in the pink or early blossom stage. Upon reaching apple buds or leaves covered by films of water, the spores attach themselves to the young leaves, germinate, and enter the leaf or fruit tissues. Light infection can take place in as little as two hours under favorable conditions. Heavy infections take at least four hours to develop. Lower temperatures delay infection. Yellow-orange lesions develop on the upper sides of leaves or on fruit one to two weeks following infection. These lesions contain pycnia and pycniospores. These lesions will produce a sticky honeydew like substance to attract insects that assist in the transport of the pycniospores to different lesions, allowing for sexual recombination.
One to two months later, in July and August, orange-yellow aecia are produced in concentric rings on the bottom of the apple leaves or surrounding the pycnia on the fruit. The aecia produce aeciospores. The wind carries the spores back to eastern red cedars, completing the infectious cycle. The spores land on cedar needle bases or in cracks or crevices of twigs. There, they germinate and produce small, green-brown swellings about the size of a pea. Galls do not produce spores until the second spring. However, mature galls usually are present every year. This fungus produces four out of five of the spores known to be produced by the class Urediniomycetes during its life cycle. (These include teliospores, basidiospores, spermatia (also called pycniospores, and aeciospores. The type of spore it does not produce is urediniospores.) Rust fungi have a complicated life-cycle with up to five types of spores (each borne on a different type of structure) in its life cycle and often an alternate host, and an "alternate alternate host" as well. Basidiomycetes that have all 5 spore stages and those with less are said to be "macrocyclic" or "microcyclic" respectively.
Control
Because apples are an economically important crop, control is usually focused there. Interruption of the disease cycle is the only effective method for control of the cedar apple rust. Removing as many cedar trees within close proximity of an apple orchard will reduce potential sources of inoculum. The closer the tree to the orchard the greater impact removal will have. Removing all junipers within the 4–5 miles (6.5–8 km) would provide complete control of the disease. Additionally, pruning and disposing of galls from infected cedar trees would reduce sources of inoculum for infection of apple trees, however this would likely be time consuming and uneconomical. For those doing bonsai, it is common to have the trees within feet of each other and on the central eastern seaboard of the United States, eastern red cedar is a common first-growth conifer along roadsides.
There are differences in the susceptibility of various apple varieties. 'Jonathan', 'Rome Beauty', 'Wealthy', 'Stayman', 'Jonafree' and 'York Imperial' are susceptible. 'Grimes Golden', 'Red Delicious', 'Winesap', 'Redfree', 'McIntosh', 'Liberty', and 'Priscilla' are resistant. Crabapples are generally more susceptible than apples. Resistant crabapples include 'Adams', 'Beverly', 'Candied Apple', 'Dolgo', 'Donald Wyman', 'Eleyi', 'Inglis', 'Indian Summer', 'Liset', 'Mt. Arbor', M. persicifolia, 'Red Jewel', 'Robinson', 'Robusta', 'Royalty', M. sargentii, 'Tina', 'Snowdrift', and 'Special Radiant'. Resistant Crataegus (Hawthorn) include C. crus-galli, series Intricatae, C. laevigata, 'Autumn Glory', C. phaenopyrum, C. pruinosa, C. viridis, and 'Winter King'. The resistant varieties are less susceptible to attack, but that does not mean that they are free from an aggressive attack.
Fungicide sprays applied in a timely manner are highly effective against the rust diseases during the apple cycle. Most protective fungicide sprays are applied four times at 7- to 10-day intervals, starting with pink bud on crabapples. These applications are to protect the apples from spores being released from the cedar host in mid-spring. If cedar apple rust disease is diagnosed on apple fruits and leaves it is far too late to spray. Although curative fungicides also exist for cedar apple rust, they must still be applied before trees begin to develop symptoms. Systemic fungicides are available as well, which require fewer sprays during the season. However, there are no fungicides available to home gardeners that can be used on trees that produce fruit which will be eaten by people.
Gallery
References
External links
Cedar-Apple Rust, Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae
Fungi described in 1822
Fungi of North America
Fungal tree pathogens and diseases
Apple tree diseases
Pucciniales
Fungus species | Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae | [
"Biology"
] | 1,787 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,068,990 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnosporangium%20libocedri | Gymnosporangium libocedri, the Pacific Coast pear rust, is a plant pathogen and rust fungus. It produces orange gelatinous growths (telia) on incense cedar in the spring. Its secondary hosts include apple, crabapple, hawthorn, mountain ash, pear, quince, and serviceberry.
References
External links
PNW Plant Disease Handbook
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Pear tree diseases
Fungi described in 1908
Pucciniales
Fungus species | Gymnosporangium libocedri | [
"Biology"
] | 96 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,068,996 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnosporangium%20yamadae | Gymnosporangium yamadae is a plant pathogen that causes Japanese apple rust.
References
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Fungi described in 1904
Pucciniales
Fungus species | Gymnosporangium yamadae | [
"Biology"
] | 37 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,069,002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptosphaeria%20coniothyrium | Leptosphaeria coniothyrium is a plant pathogen. It can be found around the world.
Host symptoms and signs
All brambles, especially black raspberries, are susceptible to cane blight. The causal agent for Cane Blight is the fungus Leptosphaeria coniothyrium.
The infection spreads internally first, therefore outwardly noticeable symptoms typically do not appear quickly. Symptoms could be exposed by peeling back the xylem and looking at the internal plant tissue. Healthy tissue would appear green, whereas diseased tissue develop dark lesions and vascular streaking.
By late summer or fall, well after the initial infection, dark red or purple lesions can appear near wounded sites. Sometimes, large cankers develop causing necrosis and death of the cane in the following year. In the spring buds may fail to break, lateral branches may appear wilted, or canes may die as the fruit begins to ripen. Canes can also break or appear brittle near infection sites.
Signs of cane blight include small black raised specks, which are the sporocarps, or fruiting bodies called pycnidia and/or pseudothecia. In wet conditions, gray spore masses may appear and ooze from cankers on the cane or in dry conditions appear fuzzy and powdery.
Disease cycle
The disease cycle for cane blight begins when the fungus, Leptosphaeria coniothyrium, enters the vascular tissue of the canes through wounds. Wounds are commonly caused by pruning, but insect damage, freeze injury, or other various forms of mechanical injury can also be points of entry.
L. coniothyrium has both an asexual and sexual life cycle. The fruiting body, or ascocarp, of the sexual cycle is called a pseudothecia which releases ascospores. The pycnidia is the asexual fruiting body that produces conidia.
L. coniothyrium can overwinter on dead tissue of old canes and is a source of inoculum if not properly removed. First year canes are infected by the fungus through wounds. The following spring, pseudothecium and/or pycnidium appear near lesions on the wounded cane. Spring rain causes the ascospores to be ejected from the pseudothecia which become airborne. Additionally, the conidia are released from the pycnidia and are dispersed by rain splashes and wind. The conidia and/or ascospores germinate and infect new wounded canes.
Management
Several methods of cultural control can be used to manage cane blight
Only prune if necessary and avoid pruning in wet conditions when possible. Do not prune infected canes during the growing season. Prune during dormant season because spores are not actively being produced.
Disinfect pruning tools after each cut.
Remove old or infected canes by burying or destroying with fire because they are a source of inoculum.
Keep growing environment as dry as possible. Avoid overhead irrigation. Choose a site that is well drained and sunny. Keep rows weeded for good air circulation.
Maintain optimum soil fertility so that the plant is healthy to fight infection.
Chemical control
Early spring application of lime sulfur or Copper before the buds are a half inch in length.
Fungicides can be used after pruning to prevent cane blight. Be sure to properly follow instructions and laws pertaining to fungicide use.
Importance
Cane blight is a major and widespread disease of brambles, including blackberry and raspberry. Necrotic lesions can cause premature decimation of the cane and blight of fruit bearing spurs. Cane Blight can lead to significant yield and economic losses, especially in wet years.
Environment
Wet humid environments are conducive to sporulation, which allows L. coniothyrium to multiply and cane blight to spread.
References
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Pleosporales
Fungi described in 1875
Fungus species | Leptosphaeria coniothyrium | [
"Biology"
] | 822 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,069,007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptosphaeria%20pratensis | Leptosphaeria pratensis is a plant pathogen. It causes stagonospora root rot.
References
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Pleosporales
Fungi described in 1885
Fungus species | Leptosphaeria pratensis | [
"Biology"
] | 43 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,069,011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nectria%20cinnabarina | Nectria cinnabarina, also known as coral spot, is a plant pathogen that causes cankers on broadleaf trees. This disease is polycyclic and infects trees in the cool temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. N. cinnabarina is typically saprophytic, but will act as a weak parasite if presented with an opportunity via wounds in the tree or other stressors that weaken the tree's defense to the disease. A study published in 2011 showed that this complex consists of at least 4 distinct species. There are only a few ways to manage this disease with techniques such as sanitation and pruning away branches that have the cankers. N. cinnabarina is not as significant a problem as other Nectria spp., some of which are the most important pathogens to infect hardwood trees.
Hosts and symptoms
Nectria cinnabarina, also known as coral spot, is a weak pathogen of broadleaf trees. While beech is the main host, the parasite can also affect Sycamore, Horse Chestnut, and Hornbeam. This pathogen usually affects trees that have already been weakened as a result of stressful factors, such as drought or fungal infestation. Physical damage can also make the tree susceptible to the pathogen. The pathogen forms pink fungal blobs (indicative of its sexual stage) on the outside of dead wood which turn a reddish-brown color and become quite hard. The blobs are usually 1 to 4 mm in length. Other symptoms include small twigs and branches dying back and branch necrosis. The bark that is infected becomes weak and tends to snap off in windy weather. The pathogen thrives in dead wood and airborne spores infect living trees and shrubs through wounds. Since it is caused by a weak fungus, isolation of the pathogen from diseased tissue and an analysis for fungal properties, such as induced sporulation or microscopically seeing cross-walls in hyphae, can aid in diagnosis. Furthermore, many fungi studies in media involve the formation of concentric hyphal zonations or rings of sporulation as the colony develops. This zonation is usually attributed to environmental changes. The sporulation rhythm of N. cinnabarina is conveyed by concentric rings or spirals and is dependent on temperature.
Disease cycle
Typically, N. cinnabarina grows as a saprophyte on dead wood. If a plant is wounded, the pathogen becomes an opportunistic weak parasite and infects susceptible plants. The complex life cycle of the N. cinnabarina would be characterized as polycyclic because it is capable of several infection cycles. During spring or early summer, coral pink or light purplish red spore-producing structures form. These age to tan or brown. This is the sexual stage and is distinguished by the aforementioned pink structures, which are tough perithecia that produce sexual spores. Because N. cinnabarina has sporodochial anamorphs, the perithecia form within the sporodochium. In summer and autumn, orange-red fruiting structures are produced; eventually these structures mature to dark red and can survive through the winter. This is the asexual stage and it is characterized by spongy conidia which can be distinguished by the hard, dark red blobs on the bark. Both of these structures release spores that can be dispersed by water and invade susceptible tissue.
Environment
Nectria cinnabarina is common in the cool, temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. It is widespread throughout the UK and parts of mainland Europe, typically wherever there are hosts for the pathogen. The fungus enters the plant by wounds caused by improper pruning, storm damage, and other types of mechanical damage. Infection typically occurs in these wounds when there is a surplus of water, and the temperature is above freezing. Infection is most common in the spring and fall.
Management
There are only a few ways to manage disease caused by N. cinnabarina. One way to control the spread of this fungus is pruning branches of trees that have cankers. N. cinnabarina is a saprophyte and mainly resides in and on dead tissue, but as the fungus progresses, it invades living tissue and causes further disease. Trimming the areas so that no dead tissue remains is important because this removes the areas where the fungus is spreading from dead tissue to living tissue.
Another important control measure is to make sure all pruning tools are sanitized. This will prevent the spread of the fungus from infected branches to healthy branches. Pruning should be done during dry periods to prevent the possibility of creating a wound in the tree while the fungus is sporulating. N. cinnabarina is an opportunistic weak parasite that will mainly affect trees that are stressed. Choosing tree species that grow well in the environmental conditions of the area is a good way to keep them from being stressed.
Drought stress, root pruning, and transplantation of trees are all stressors that may cause susceptibility to infection by this fungus and these processes should generally be avoided if the fungus is suspected to be present. Keeping trees from being stressed is important because the natural defense of trees is to form cankers around infected areas, which contain the fungus and prevent it from spreading. However, stressed trees have a slower canker response, which allows the fungus to proliferate and spread to other areas of the tree and may eventually lead to death of the tree.
Importance
The pathogen was first described in 1791 when the German mycologist and theologian Heinrich Julius Tode described this fungus under the scientific name, Sphaeria cinnabarina. This name was changed when Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries transferred the species to the Nectria genus in 1849. The currently adopted scientific name, Nectria cinnabarina, was then born. According to the article “The Range and Importance of Nectaria Canker on hardwoods in the NorthEast” by D.S. Welch, one of the most important pathogens to affect hardwood trees is the Nectria genus, or Nectria canker caused by Nectria spp. The Nectria Canker is a fungal infection of the cortex and cambium that spreads slowly over the years. N. cinnabarina is not as significant a problem as other Nectria spp., some of which are the most important to infect hardwoods.
Pathogenesis
Nectria cinnabarina is typically saprophytic but will act as a weak parasite if presented with an opportunity via wounds in the tree or other stressors that weaken the tree's defense to the disease. When a tree is stressed it has a slower response to infection by N. cinnabarina, which allows the fungus to continue spreading throughout the tree and cause further infection. N. cinnabarina typically invades dead tissue first and then spreads to living tissue via hyphae that grow through the xylem. This causes dieback and allows further colonization of the fungus. It is also possible for the spores of the pathogen to infect living tissue through the lenticels, but this typically only occurs in stressed plants.
References
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
cinnabarina
Fungi of Europe
Fungi described in 1849
Fungus species | Nectria cinnabarina | [
"Biology"
] | 1,504 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,069,022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bionectria%20ochroleuca | Bionectria ochroleuca is a plant pathogen that causes seed rot in oil seed rape.
References
External links
USDA ARS Fungal Database
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Eudicot diseases
Fungi described in 1997
Bionectriaceae
Fungus species | Bionectria ochroleuca | [
"Biology"
] | 52 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,069,027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoma%20sclerotioides | Phoma sclerotioides is a plant pathogen and is the culprit for brown root rot disease in, for instance, alfalfa and clover.
References
External links
Index Fungorum
USDA ARS Fungal Database
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
sclerotioides
Fungi described in 1892
Fungus species | Phoma sclerotioides | [
"Biology"
] | 64 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,069,029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascochyta%20medicaginicola | Ascochyta medicaginicola (syn. Phoma medicaginis) is a plant pathogen infecting alfalfa and Medicago truncatula. One particular disease is spring black stem.
See also
List of Ascochyta species
References
External links
Index Fungorum
USDA ARS Fungal Database
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Food plant pathogens and diseases
Pleosporales
Fungi described in 1886
Taxa named by Casimir Roumeguère
Fungus species | Ascochyta medicaginicola | [
"Biology"
] | 100 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,069,109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uromyces%20striatus | Uromyces striatus is a fungal species and plant pathogen causing rust in Medicago species.
It was originally found on the leaves of Genista tinctoria, Medicago sativa, Medicago falcata, Medicago media, Medicago lupulina, Medicago scutellata, and also Trifolium arvense in Germany.
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) rust caused by Uromyces striatus is an important disease in many areas and is damaging to alfalfa grown for seed.
References
External links
USDA ARS Fungal Database
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Uromyces
Fungi described in 1870
Taxa named by Joseph Schröter
Fungus species | Uromyces striatus | [
"Biology"
] | 149 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,069,114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uromyces%20oblongus | Uromyces oblongus is a plant pathogen infecting alfalfa.
References
External links
Index Fungorum
USDA ARS Fungal Database
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
oblongus
Fungi described in 1877
Fungus species | Uromyces oblongus | [
"Biology"
] | 46 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,069,121 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monilinia%20laxa | Monilinia laxa is a plant pathogen that is the causal agent of brown rot of stone fruits.
Disease cycle
Monilinia laxa is an ascomycete fungus that is responsible for the brown rot blossom blight disease that infects many different types of stone fruit trees, such as apricots, cherries and peaches. It can also occasionally affect some pome fruits; for example, apples and pears. The pathogen overwinters on infected plant parts, particularly on infected twigs, branches, old flower parts or mummified fruits. In spring, the pathogen produces asexual conidia on the aforementioned infected plant debris. In addition, apothecia, which are small, open cup, mushroom-like sexual propagative structures of M. laxa that produce ascospores, also develop on the fallen fruits on the ground. Both asexual (conidia) and sexual (ascospores) spore types are spread during the spring via wind and rain in which they infect blossoms and young shoots. Floral tissue is the most susceptible to both spores’ infection when the trees are in full bloom. The infected floral tissues are responsible for the production of the secondary inoculums that further continues the disease cycle during the spring season. If the environmental conditions are very conducive (i.e. warm and wet environments), infection can also occur in non-flowering shoots or leaves. Infection is sometimes not visible until after the fruit begins to ripen and the pit hardens. These ripe fruits are at a high risk of being infected and passing the disease onto other plants during harvest.
Importance
Throughout the entire world, brown rot is arguably the most common reason for crop loss of stone fruits both before and after harvest, especially in regions with warmer temperatures and wet climates.[5] This disease has actually been shown to have a variety of incidence from year to year due to environmental variation. Before the discovery of extremely effective fungicides, when fruit ripened during a period of high rainfall, there were significant losses due to Brown rot blossom blight.[5] After centuries of studying this disease in both Europe and North America, the use of fungicides have more recently become effective. Demethylation inhibitor (DMI) fungicides and Benzimidazole (BZI) fungicides are both examples of common fungicides that have been used to treat brown rot. However, since the beginning of these fungicides, another set of problems arose. After time, brown rot has become resistant to a few fungicides including both DMI and BZI. Luckily, scientists have been able to develop strategies for managing or delaying fungicide resistance to Brown rot blossom blight.[6]
In addition to this, brown rot has been shown to be of serious economic importance even though it has been harder to estimate. Brown rot can cause detrimental losses to stone fruits in very wet seasons during flowering or immediately pre-harvest. Brown rot mostly occurs on maturing fruit close to harvest. Moreover, these losses may occur to fruit after postharvest. For example, post harvest decay of fruits have been approximated to be about 9% loss during transporting and marketing just in the US.
Environment
Monilinia laxa proliferates the most in warm and wet weather. Therefore, it is unsurprising to find that it is most commonly found in California as well as the midwestern and northeastern states. Conversely, the disease has not been found in the southeastern states. Outside of the United States, M. laxa is commonly found in Europe, South Africa, and Chile.
Conidia begin to develop on infected plant debris once the temperature reaches . While infection does not occur below , it does occur once the temperature increases beyond that point. The ideal temperature for M. laxa infection is between . The spores produced by this pathogen can be dispersed by both wind and rain. However, the fungus is also able to proliferate in dry and highly humid conditions. Compared to in cooler conditions, at high humidity ash-gray-brown spore masses can form on the diseased flowers and twig cankers. Typically fruit susceptibility to brown rot increases about two to three weeks prior to harvest.
References
Sclerotiniaceae
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Apple tree diseases
Stone fruit tree diseases
Fungi described in 1945
Fungus species | Monilinia laxa | [
"Biology"
] | 894 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,069,124 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucostoma%20auerswaldii | Leucostoma auerswaldii is a plant pathogen.
References
External links
Index Fungorum
USDA ARS Fungal Database
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Diaporthales
Taxa named by Theodor Rudolph Joseph Nitschke
Fungus species | Leucostoma auerswaldii | [
"Biology"
] | 49 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,069,126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucostoma%20persoonii | Leucostoma persoonii is a plant pathogen, which causes perennial canker (also referred to as Cytospora canker and Valsa canker or Leucostoma canker).
On Species Fungorum the current name is given as Cytospora leucostoma (Pers.) Sacc., (1881)
References
External links
Index Fungorum
USDA ARS Fungal Database
Diaporthales
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Fungus species
Taxa named by Theodor Rudolph Joseph Nitschke | Leucostoma persoonii | [
"Biology"
] | 110 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,069,128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycosphaerella%20brassicicola | Mycosphaerella brassicicola is a plant pathogen. The pathogen is the teleomorph phase of an ascomycete fungus, which causes the ring spot disease of brassicas. The supplementary anamorph phase Asteromella brassicae produces conidia through its asexual reproduction, however these spores are not confirmed to cause disease in host plants.
Hosts
Mycosphaerella brassicicola is common among a variety of crops within the genus Brassica and has been historically noted on Brussels sprouts, winter cauliflower, and cabbage. Alternative species of the Mycosphaerella are thought to have a more restricted host range, though there is not yet concrete evidence to support this conclusion.
Disease cycle
The fungus produces ascospores through its sexual reproductive stage which infect host plants by entering the plant through the stomata. The infection begins through the spores germinating penetration pegs and germ tubes. Around three weeks following infection small black specks of conidia within pycnidia, and ascospores within perithecia, can be seen forming upon concentric ring-shaped lesions. Both spore types develop lesions, though the sexual spores tend to create larger more spherical rings. The conidia produced from asexual reproduction may cause spots upon host leaves, however such signs are not known to induce disease from infection. The ascospores are bicellular and 8 are contained within each asci inside of their corresponding perithecium. The fruiting bodies require moisture to facilitate their reproduction and tend to form after a period of 100% relative humidity lasting at least four days. The longer the duration of wetness, the more severe the infection may spread, with ascospores traveling between crops through wind transport.
Symptoms
An infection from Mycosphaerella brassicicola typically presents itself on older leaves, though can be seen on younger foliage with more severe infections. Although infection is most noted on the leaves of the host, spores are technically able to cause disease on any above ground portion of the plant. Lesions tend to appear around 10–14 days following fungal infection. The ring lesions produced by ascospore infection will terminate at the veins of leaves, at times restricting the characteristic circular nature of the signs of Mycosphaerella brassicicola. The ring symptoms may be green-brown or grey-black in color then will progress until grey when dry, turning black when wet. The outer edge typically form a ring of chlorosis around the necrotic tissue within the lesion. The rings originate as 3-5mm diameter spots that can potentially grow up to 2–3 cm. If the infection spreads far enough it may lead to premature defoliation of the host.
Environment
The disease has been especially prevalent in areas of Great Britain and south-west England. Infection is most common at 16-20 °C during wet periods to allow for easy entry through the stomata. Poor soil drainage can contribute to Mycosphaerella brassicicola proliferation through allowing for the high levels of moisture required for the ascospores to infect their host. Intensive agricultural operations further enhance the spread of disease by wind and water from the close proximity of host crops, as well as the potential for contact to occur between infected and healthy crop foliage.
See also
List of Mycosphaerella species
References
brassicicola
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Fungi described in 1897
Fungus species | Mycosphaerella brassicicola | [
"Biology"
] | 705 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,069,140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudopeziza%20medicaginis | Pseudopeziza medicaginis (P. medicaginis) is a fungal pathogen of alfalfa.
Host and Symptoms
The pathogen P. medicaginis is an ascomycete and can cause leaf spot in crops like red clover. The common leaf spot on alfalfa is a foliar disease. Although not much research has been done on this specific disease, it has been reported as the most common alfalfa disease and caused the greatest yield loss in alfalfa crops over the past 100 years. It has been shown in multiple studies that it can cause up to 40% loss in yield but average losses are closer to 18%. The first symptoms of leaf spot are small circular lesions that form on the lowest leaves on the plant. These lesions are usually less than 2 mm in diameter and are brown or black in color with smooth margins. The younger leaves show symptoms first, and the disease works its way up the plant. Eventually, the leaves will become so diseased that they will turn yellow and fall off. P. medicaginis will not kill the plant but there will be a reduction in quality and yield. Leaf spots start to appear 5 – 13 days after infection and apothecia are formed 14 days later. In the center of the lesion, a dark colored raised disk can be observed and is known as the apothecium. This feature is a diagnostic sign of the disease. These ascocarps contain the asci which eventually release ascospores to infect more tissues. If the disease progresses enough, elliptical lesions can be observed on the succulent stems. These lesions are not commonly found and do not produce fruiting bodies.
Environment
Common leaf spot can be found in any alfalfa field across the United States of America (US). While the Southwestern states, including Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and Colorado, are only at moderate risk for this disease, the rest of the US is considered to be under a severe risk. Common leaf spot can be found anywhere that alfalfa is grown, but prefers cool, moist conditions, and acidic soils. The ideal temperature for the pathogen is 60-75° Fahrenheit. The first and second harvests of alfalfa are the most threatened. Second harvest tends to be the most affected by the disease because the environmental conditions are just right and the disease has had time to develop. During a rainy season, the dense canopy of alfalfa traps the humidity and makes the perfect environment for the pathogen, giving rise to common leaf spot.
Management
There has been a significant amount of work done over the years to produce a strain of alfalfa that is resistant to P. medicaginis. However, currently there is no variety that is completely resistant. Planting less susceptible varieties of alfalfa is the best way to combat the issue of common leaf spot. It is important to scout fields early and look for symptoms on the younger leaves of plants. Fungicides can be applied, but are not always successful or cost effective. The severity of the disease is very dependent on the weather and the environment. During cold and wet seasons, the fields should be scouted frequently and more carefully. If leaf spot is discovered early in the season, it is possible the symptoms will decrease as the weather warms up. The best thing to do is to harvest early because delayed harvest can make the situation worse. Harvesting early will prevent further defoliation of the current crop, which will preserve some of the quality and yield. P. medicaginis overwinters in infected plant debris so harvesting early can also reduce the amount of inoculum available for further infections in that growing season and the next year. Harvesting early also allows the field to dry out, and reduces humidity in the phyllosphere making conditions less ideal for the pathogen. Another way to reduce the effects of common leaf spot is proper nutrient management. Applications of potassium fertilizer can minimize yield loss, severity, and leaf drop.
References
Alfalfa leaf spot (Pseudopeziza medicaginis ). (2010, October 26). Retrieved from https://www.forestryimages.org/browse/detail.cfm?imgnum=1436036.
https://extension.entm.purdue.edu/newsletters/pestandcrop/article/foliar-diseases-of-alfalfa/
http://corn.agronomy.wisc.edu/Management/pdfs/IPMManual_2_Alfalfa.pdf
https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=24022
https://www.agronomy.org/files/publications/alfalfa-management-guide.pdf
https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=L_niDCIHF9YC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Pseudopeziza+medicaginis+life+cycle&ots=Y04tdywIlo&sig=EgERIGkIYVLQzrD3uCaPHcBAOwQ#v=onepage&q=Pseudopeziza%20medicaginis%20life%20cycle&f=false
Grewal, H. S., & Williams, R. (2002). Influence of potassium fertilization on leaf to stem ratio, nodulation, herbage yield, leaf drop, and common leaf spot disease of alfalfa.
Nutter Jr, F. W., Guan, J., Gotlieb, A. R., Rhodes, L. H., Grau, C. R., Sulc, R. M. (2002). Quantifying alfalfa yield losses caused by foliar diseases in Iowa, Ohio, Wisconsin, and Vermont. Plant disease. 86(3): 269-277.
Samac, D. A., Rhodes, L. H., & Lamp, W. O. (2015). Compendium of Alfalfa diseases and pests. St. Paul, MN: APS Press.
External links
Index Fungorum
USDA ARS Fungal Database
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Dermateaceae
Fungus species | Pseudopeziza medicaginis | [
"Biology"
] | 1,318 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,069,143 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrenopeziza%20brassicae | Pyrenopeziza brassicae is a plant pathogen infecting Brassicaceae (formerly known as Cruciferae).
References
External links
Index Fungorum
USDA ARS Fungal Database
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Dermateaceae
Fungi described in 1850
Fungus species | Pyrenopeziza brassicae | [
"Biology"
] | 58 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,069,149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptotrochila%20medicaginis | Leptotrochila medicaginis is a fungal plant pathogen.
References
External links
Index Fungorum
USDA ARS Fungal Database
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Dermateaceae
Fungus species
Fungi described in 1870 | Leptotrochila medicaginis | [
"Biology"
] | 45 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
11,069,468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-77%20Oganj | The M-77 Oganj (from ) is a 128mm self-propelled multiple rocket launcher developed in the former Yugoslavia. Its NATO designation is YMRL-32.
Development
Development of the system began in 1968. Professor Obrad Vučurović, mechanical engineer and Chief Operating Officer of the Military Technical Institute's Artillery Department, was responsible for overseeing its development and production.
The six pre-serial production models were based on a FAP 2220 6x6 truck and were shown to the public for the first time in 1975. Serial production commenced two years later. The serial production variant is mounted on FAP 2026 BDS/A 6x6 truck bed. The rocket system is placed on the back of the platform and contains 32 128mm launch tubes capable of reaching targets away. The system is operated by five personnel. One of its unique features is its retracting canvas, which allows the rocket launcher to be easily disguised and makes it difficult for the enemy to spot until the crew is ready to fire. It is thus an effective means of military deception. In 1994, Serbia developed a new version called the M-94 Oganj C, which could fire the rockets M91 (cluster-type warhead with 40 submunition grenades) and M77 (HE warhead). This version featured a 32-rocket reloading system which makes it possible to fully reload and launch a second salvo within three minutes.
Modernization
The Military Technical Institute has prepared a modernization package for the system on request from the Serbian Armed Forces which includes a modern navigation and fire control system. The rocket launcher was also modified to be able to fire several different types of rockets, including the 122mm BM-21 Grad. As part of the modernization program, a new 128mm rocket with a range of and improved circular error probable (CEP) will be produced by Krušik. For the needs of the Serbian Army, the modernization process entailed a switch to modern digitalized technology, which enables the crew to occupy a firing position, fire their rockets and leave three minutes without exiting the vehicle, whereas it previously took 26 minutes to assume a position and fire a salvo. At that time, it included occupying the orientation position and determining the coordinates of the firing position, directing the weapon in the azimuth of the basic direction, calculating the initial elements, correction and group shooting. Due to the new automatic aiming line, automatic determination of the coordinates of the firing position and shooting elements, as well as the new inertial navigation system and GPRS navigation, the modernized variant is able to open fire much faster, more precisely and with a greater effect on the target. New M-18 missiles with a range of up to have also been introduced, as has a new rocket with path correction and with a range of up to . The latter has entered serial production for delivery to the Serbian Army.
Further development of the M-77 concept and the LRSVM Morava led to the creation of the new modular rocket launcher M-18 Oganj, which contains an armored cabin on a 6x6 chassis for up-close battlefield action. It is also capable of launching the Košava 1 and ALAS missiles, among others.
Operators
Current operators
– 20
– 12 (uses 122mm rockets)
– 60
Former operators
– Passed on to successor states
See also
Related development
Comparable systems
Compatible with
- newly developed MLRS for Serbian Army as well as exports; planned replacement of M-77 Oganj and M-63 Plamen
References
128 mm artillery
Military vehicles introduced in the 1970s
Modular rocket launchers
Multiple rocket launchers of Yugoslavia
Self-propelled artillery of Serbia | M-77 Oganj | [
"Engineering"
] | 748 | [
"Modular design",
"Modular rocket launchers"
] |
11,070,790 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum%20entropy%20spectral%20estimation | Maximum entropy spectral estimation is a method of spectral density estimation. The goal is to improve the spectral quality based on the principle of maximum entropy. The method is based on choosing the spectrum which corresponds to the most random or the most unpredictable time series whose autocorrelation function agrees with the known values. This assumption, which corresponds to the concept of maximum entropy as used in both statistical mechanics and information theory, is maximally non-committal with regard to the unknown values of the autocorrelation function of the time series. It is simply the application of maximum entropy modeling to any type of spectrum and is used in all fields where data is presented in spectral form. The usefulness of the technique varies based on the source of the spectral data since it is dependent on the amount of assumed knowledge about the spectrum that can be applied to the model.
In maximum entropy modeling, probability distributions are created on the basis of that which is known, leading to a type of statistical inference about the missing information which is called the maximum entropy estimate. For example, in spectral analysis the expected peak shape is often known, but in a noisy spectrum the center of the peak may not be clear. In such a case, inputting the known information allows the maximum entropy model to derive a better estimate of the center of the peak, thus improving spectral accuracy.
Method description
In the periodogram approach to calculating the power spectra, the sample autocorrelation function is multiplied by some window function and then Fourier transformed. The window is applied to provide statistical stability as well as to avoid leakage from other parts of the spectrum. However, the window limits the spectral resolution.
Maximum entropy method attempts to improve the spectral resolution by extrapolating the correlation function beyond the maximum lag in such a way that the entropy of the corresponding probability density function is maximized in each step of the extrapolation.
The maximum entropy rate stochastic process that satisfies the given empirical autocorrelation and variance constraints is an autoregressive model with independent and identically distributed zero-mean Gaussian input.
Therefore, the maximum entropy method is equivalent to least-squares fitting the available time series data to an autoregressive model
where the are independent and identically distributed as . The unknowns coefficients are found using least-square method. Once the autoregressive coefficients have been determined, the spectrum of the time series data is estimated by evaluating the power spectral density function of the fitted autoregressive model
where is the sampling period and is the imaginary unit.
References
Cover, T. and Thomas, J. (1991) Elements of Information Theory. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Burg J.P. (1967). Maximum Entropy Spectral Analysis. Proceedings of 37th Meeting, Society of Exploration Geophysics, Oklahoma City.
External links
kSpectra Toolkit for Mac OS X from SpectraWorks.
memspectum: a python package for maximum entropy spectral estimation with python
Entropy
Information theory
Statistical signal processing
Spectroscopy | Maximum entropy spectral estimation | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Mathematics",
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 611 | [
"Thermodynamic properties",
"Telecommunications engineering",
"Molecular physics",
"Spectrum (physical sciences)",
"Physical quantities",
"Statistical signal processing",
"Instrumental analysis",
"Quantity",
"Applied mathematics",
"Computer science",
"Entropy",
"Information theory",
"Enginee... |
11,070,797 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20oxidase | The alternative oxidase (AOX) is an enzyme that forms part of the electron transport chain in mitochondria of different organisms. Proteins homologous to the mitochondrial oxidase and the related plastid terminal oxidase have also been identified in bacterial genomes.
The oxidase provides an alternative route for electrons passing through the electron transport chain to reduce oxygen. However, as several proton-pumping steps are bypassed in this alternative pathway, activation of the oxidase reduces ATP generation. This enzyme was first identified as a distinct oxidase pathway from cytochrome c oxidase as the alternative oxidase is resistant to inhibition by the poison cyanide.
Function
This metabolic pathway leading to the alternative oxidase diverges from the cytochrome-linked electron transport chain at the ubiquinone pool. Alternative pathway respiration only produces proton translocation at Complex 1 (NADH dehydrogenase) and so has a lower ATP yield than the full pathway. The expression of the alternative oxidase gene AOX is influenced by stresses such as cold, reactive oxygen species and infection by pathogens, as well as other factors that reduce electron flow through the cytochrome pathway of respiration. Although the benefit conferred by this activity remains uncertain, it may enhance an organism's ability to resist these stresses by maintaining the oxidized state of the upstream electron-transport components, thereby reducing the level of oxidative stress induced by overreduced electron carriers.
Unusually, the bloodstream form of the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei, which is the cause of sleeping sickness, depends entirely on the alternative oxidase pathway for cellular respiration through its electron transport chain. This major metabolic difference between the parasite and its human host has made the T. brucei alternative oxidase an attractive target for drug design. Of the known inhibitors of alternative oxidases, the antibiotic ascofuranone inhibits the T. brucei enzyme and cures infection in mice.
In fungi, the ability of the alternative oxidase to bypass inhibition of parts of the electron transport chain can contribute to fungicide resistance. This is seen in the strobilurin fungicides that target complex III, such as azoxystrobin, picoxystrobin and fluoxastrobin. However, even though the alternative pathway generates less ATP, these fungicides are still effective in preventing spore germination, as this is an energy-intensive process.
Structure and mechanism
The alternative oxidase is an integral monotopic membrane protein that is tightly bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane from matrix side The enzyme has been predicted to contain a coupled diiron center on the basis of a conserved sequence motif consisting of the proposed iron ligands, four glutamate and two histidine amino acid residues. The electron spin resonance study of Arabidopsis thaliana alternative oxidase AOX1a showed that the enzyme contains a hydroxo-bridged mixed-valent Fe(II)/Fe(III) binuclear iron center. A catalytic cycle has been proposed that involves this di-iron center and at least one transient protein-derived free radical, which is probably formed on a tyrosine residue.
See also
Plastid terminal oxidase
Metalloprotein
Bioinorganic chemistry
Cofactor
References
External links
Electron transport proteins
InterPro entry on alternative oxidases
Alternative respiration Root Research Introduction Virtual Course Seminar
Integral membrane proteins
Cellular respiration
Metabolism
EC 1.10.3 | Alternative oxidase | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 732 | [
"Biochemistry",
"Cellular respiration",
"Metabolism",
"Cellular processes"
] |
11,070,944 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophiostoma%20novo-ulmi | Ophiostoma novo-ulmi is a species of fungus in the family Ophiostomataceae. It is one of the key causative agents associated with Dutch Elm Disease (DED), along with Ophiostoma ulmi and Ophiostoma himal-ulmi.
Dutch Elm Disease was first identified in Europe during the early 1900s and by the 1940s the disease had spread throughout Europe and into the United States and Canada. Elm trees (Ulmus) were heavily used as a trade commodity in logging practices in the late 1800s-1900s. Historically, these trees have seen widespread use as a building material in products such as wheels, chairs, ships, and coffins. Wood from Ulmus trees has been favored for building due to the trees' ability to withstand prolonged exposure to water without rotting. The adaptability of this tree along with its multitude of applications for building opened up its demand in trading.
It has been determined that Ophiostoma ulmi and Ophiostoma novo-ulmi have evolved separately from each other in different regions of the world though it has been thought that novo-ulmi has obtained genes from Ophiostoma ulmi making it a more effective pathogen for Elm trees.
O. ulmi caused one of the first pandemics of the species, within Europe and North America, between 1910-1940 and caused 10-40% death of genus Ulmus. This pandemic was followed by a second pandemic beginning in the 1940s caused by the O. novo-ulmi species. This pathogen proved to be more invasive and aggressive in comparison to other species associated with the disease. The introduction of O. novo-ulmi is traced back to the logging trade among regions. Logs infected with the pathogen and traded throughout Europe and intercontinentally leading to the spread of the fungus. O. novo-ulmi came in contact with various amounts of highly susceptible host species in Europe, western Asia and North America making it easier to spread Dutch Elm Disease. Bark beetles have become a vector for the fungus to spread among elm tree groves. The bark beetles often carry spores on their bodies. The spores are easily transferred via twig crotches where they obstruct vessels by gums, tyloses, fungal material and foliage wilts, causing the tree to die. These beetles complete an entire life cycle in one elm tree until the tree can no longer support the beetles. Following this young beetles will find healthy trees to inhabit which they infect with spores they carry from the previous elm tree. When the beetles feed on the tree they introduce the fungi to the food and water supply of the tree via the branches connecting to the xylem of the tree, allowing rapid spread throughout the vascular tissue of the tree.
Once the fungus has been introduced to the vascular tissue of the tree it spreads rapidly, causing death as a result of the tree's natural immune response. In the xylem vessels the fungus produces yeast-like spores and multicellular filamentous hyphae. This allows for vertical movement in the vessels, then moves laterally to infect neighboring vessels. Logs that contain both the fungi and beetles can transmit the pathogen to native species at much higher rate and cause a greater range for invasion. Furthermore, O. novo-ulmi can also spread from infected trees to healthy trees through root grafts. When the roots of adjacent elm trees come into contact with each other underground, the fungus can move from the infected tree to the healthy tree through these root connections. It can also invade an elm tree through wounds on the bark or branches. This can occur naturally through storms, animal activity, or human interventions such as pruning or other tree care practices. The spores of the fungus can enter the tree through these wounds and establish an infection. Once inside the tree, O. novo-ulmi grows in the water-conducting vessels of the tree, blocking the flow of water and nutrients, which eventually leads to wilting, yellowing of leaves, and tree death. The fungus also produces toxic compounds that further contribute to the damage to the tree's vascular system and overall health.
O. novo-ulmi infestation can spread rapidly, causing severe damage and death to susceptible elm trees. Effective management strategies, such as tree removal, pruning, and applications, may be used to control the spread of the disease in affected areas. Early detection and prevention are key in managing Dutch elm disease caused by O. novo-ulmi.
References
Ophiostomatales
Fungus species | Ophiostoma novo-ulmi | [
"Biology"
] | 923 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
8,899,175 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20COED%20Project | The COED Project, or the COmmunications and EDiting Project, was an innovative software project created by the Computer Division of NOAA, US Department of Commerce in Boulder, Colorado in the 1970s. This project was designed, purchased and implemented by the in-house computing staff rather than any official organization.
Intent
The computer division previously had a history of frequently replacing its mainframe computers. Starting with a CDC 1604, then a CDC 3600, a couple of CDC 3800s, and finally a CDC 6600. The department also had an XDS 940 timesharing system which would support up to 32 users on dial-up modems. Due to rapidly changing requirements for computer resources, it was expected that new systems would be installed on a regular basis, and the resultant strain on the users to adapt to each new system was perceived to be excessive. The COED project was the result of a study group convened to solve this problem.
The project was implemented by the computer specialists who were also responsible for the purchase, installation, and maintenance of all the computers in the division. COED was designed and implemented in long hours of overtime. The data communications aspect of the system was fully implemented and resulted in greatly improved access to the XDS 940 and CDC 6600 systems. It was also used as the front end of the - Free University of Amsterdam's SARA system for many years.
Design
A complete networked system was a pair of Modcomps: one II handled up to 256 communication ports, and one IV handled the disks and file editing. The system was designed to be fully redundant. If one pair failed the other automatically took over. All computer systems in the network were kept time-synchronized so that all file dates/times would be accurate - synchronized to the National Bureau of Standards atomic clock, housed in the same building. Another innovation was asynchronous dynamic speed recognition. After a terminal connected to a port, the user would type a Carriage Return character, and the software would detect the speed of the terminal (in the range of 110 to 9600 bit/s) and present a log in message to the user at the appropriate speed. Due to limitations of the operating systems which came with the Modcomps, new Operating systems had to be created, CORTEX for the Modcomp II's and IV BRAIN for the Modcomp IV's.
History
(Dates are approximate - from memory)
1970: First discussions of new communications system for XDS 940
1971: The COED Project was created
1972: The system was designed, funding was approved, a Request for Quote for the hardware was issued and executed
1973: The hardware components—2 Modcomp IV's and 2 Modcomp II's were delivered and installed and implementation began
1976: (April 8) First communication through COED to XDS 940 worked!
1979: project terminated
Staff
Those involved in the original design meetings were:
Ralph Slutz, George Sugar, Jim Winkelman and most of the COED implementors. Support was also provided by Tom Gray.
The COED implementors were:
W. Schyler (Sky) Stevenson, Project Manager and operating system implementer
Howard Bussey, Mark Emmer, David Lillie, and Vern Schryver. The 6600 interface to COED was implemented by Anthony Brittain, Dan Dechatelets and Kathy Browne.
External links
Author - David Lillie's homepage
Computer systems
Software projects
1970s establishments in Colorado | The COED Project | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 705 | [
"Computer engineering",
"Computer systems",
"Information technology projects",
"Computer science",
"Software projects",
"Computers"
] |
8,900,027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecromeximab | Ecromeximab is a chimeric monoclonal antibody being developed for the treatment of malignant melanoma.
The drug was developed by Kyowa Hakko Kogyo Co., Ltd. As of December 2015 development had been discontinued.
References
Monoclonal antibodies
Abandoned drugs | Ecromeximab | [
"Chemistry"
] | 60 | [
"Drug safety",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
8,900,075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abagovomab | Abagovomab is a mouse anti-idiotype monoclonal antibody whose variable epitope mirrors a tumour antigen (CA-125) highly expressed in the epithelial ovarian cancer. Abagovomab does not bind directly to CA-125, but it works as a "surrogate" antigen, enabling the immune system to identify and attack tumour cells displaying the CA-125 protein. Through this, it is hoped that the body's immune system may be able to combat any remaining individual tumour cells and thus prevent recurrence of the disease.
Current status
Abagovomab is under clinical development in patients with advanced ovarian cancer, as consolidation of the remission status obtained following surgery and standard platinum and taxane first line chemotherapy.
Phase II
In a Phase II study on 119 patients with advanced ovarian cancer in which the standard therapies had already been ineffective, treatment with abagovomab led to a prolongation of survival time (23.4 months compared to 4.9 months) in those patients who responded to the vaccination, i.e. those in whom the formation of antibodies against the tumour was proven (almost 70% of patients).
The vaccine showed hardly any side effects in preliminary studies.
Ovarian cancer
Ovarian cancer is the most malignant tumour of the female reproductive organs. After endometrial cancer, it is the second most common genital tumour in women with c. 9,000 women newly affected each year and, because of its aggressiveness, it has the highest mortality rate. This is due in part to the fact that there is no screening examination for early detection, and that the disease is therefore usually only discovered at an advanced stage, and in part to the tumour's tendency, although responding well to initial treatment, to recur again later.
In spite of initially successful treatment with surgery and chemotherapy, which forces back the tumour "completely", i.e. into no longer visible residues, there is a relapse of the disease (recurrence) in more than half the women affected. Today, no further therapy would be conducted in this situation as long as the disease did not occur again, i.e. clinical monitoring of the symptom-free patients as part of follow-up care is the current standard procedure.
In this time-window of the patient's history so called ‘watch and wait’ abagovomab is potentially capable of deferring or even preventing the occurrence of the relapse.
Development
Abagovomab has been developed by the pharmaceutical company Menarini. A multicenter clinical trial, internationally known as MIMOSA (Monoclonal antibody Immunotherapy for Malignancies of the Ovary by Subcutaneous Abagovomab), in which Abagovomab will be administered as maintenance therapy (after first line therapy with surgery and chemotherapy), is ongoing in patients with ovarian cancer.
Nine hundred women in whom the ovarian tumour was removed by surgery and standard chemotherapy with paclitaxel and carboplatin can be enrolled in the MIMOSA study, involving eight countries throughout the world (Germany, United States, Italy, Poland, Czech Republic, Spain, Hungary and Belgium) in more than 120 experienced clinical sites.
Phase III of the trial showed no evidence of slowing ovarian cancer with a monoclonal antibody against CA125. Price of the vaccine is $3009.3.
References
Further reading
External links
Menarini page about abagovomab
Menarini page about MIMOSA project
Clinical trial MIMOSA
Clinical trial MIMOSA
Monoclonal antibodies for tumors
Experimental cancer drugs
Abandoned drugs | Abagovomab | [
"Chemistry"
] | 774 | [
"Drug safety",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
8,900,325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UniHan%20IME | UniHan IME is an input method based on the framework of IIIMF developed by Hong Kong Sun Wah Hi-Tech Ltd..
UniHan IME is an input method interface that maps the keyboard keys string to the Han character in the latest version of Unicode Table.
UniHan is the CJKV characters section which occupied more than half the storage space of the Unicode Table. There are more than 75,000 characters coded in version 6.0.0 in year 2010. The Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese shared the Han characters for naming for more than thousand years. The input methods for the Han characters from Unicode are mainly keyboard typing, mouse pointing on screen or hand writing on pad. The popular methods are the pinyin keyboard method and the hand writing method. A complete font set for Unihan version 6.0.0 is yet to come and so is the Unihan IME.
A similar IME called 8 Steps Unihan was developed by 8 Steps Unihan company in Melbourne, Australia. The 8StepsA font coupled with Microsoft windows 10 SimSunExtB font are able to display all the characters in Unihan 10.0. which includes the extension F character set. The glyphs that are repeated have been linked together and only one of the linked code is used by the IME so that all the displayable characters are unique.
References
External links
UniHan 2 Homepage
CJK input methods
Chinese-language computing | UniHan IME | [
"Technology"
] | 302 | [
"Computing stubs"
] |
8,900,441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangean | Sangean Electronics, Inc. () is a Taiwanese electronics company headquartered in Zhonghe District, New Taipei, Taiwan, with a factory located in Dongguan, China. The organisation is globally active with business units in Venlo, Netherlands, for Europe and Santa Fe Springs, California, for the Americas. The business units are directly in contact with distributors in relevant areas. It is noted for its shortwave radio receivers and digital radio (HD and DAB) receivers.
Products
Sangean produces DAB / DAB plus (DAB+) radios, shortwave radio receivers, HD Radio tuner radios (with international tuning support), weather radios, internet radios, work site radios, shower radios, portable radios and handheld radios.
The brand is distinctive for its designed products. Several products have won awards, which include and the Taiwan Symbol of Excellence.
Products
Apart from products sold under its own brand names, which include Lextronix, Sangean also produces on behalf of other companies: Many of the shortwave radios marketed by Siemens, Panasonic, Braun, Grundig, C.Crane, and Roberts have been and are being developed and produced by Sangean.
The UNDOK app
Most of the internet radios Sangean produces are compatible with the UNDOK app. The app can be used to connect a mobile device to the radio and select an input (DAB, FM, Bluetooth) or radio station.
See also
List of electronics companies
List of companies of Taiwan
Sources
External links
Sangean Official Website
Sangean Facebook
Sangean Instagram
Sangean Youtube
Sangean Europe
Sangean Australia
1974 establishments in Taiwan
Electronics companies established in 1974
Digital radio
Electronics companies of Taiwan
Manufacturing companies based in New Taipei
Taiwanese brands
Zhonghe District
Radio manufacturers | Sangean | [
"Engineering"
] | 354 | [
"Radio electronics",
"Radio manufacturers"
] |
8,901,049 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nexus%20%28standard%29 | Nexus or IEEE-ISTO 5001-2003 is a standard debugging interface for embedded systems.
Features
The IEEE-ISTO 5001-2003 (Nexus) feature set is modeled on today's on-chip debug implementations, most of which are processor-specific. Its goal is to create a rich debug feature set while minimizing the required pin-count and die area, and being both processor- and architecture independent. It also supports multi-core and multi-processor designs. Accordingly, it is comparable to the ARM CoreSight debug architecture.
Physically, IEEE-ISTO 5001-2003 defines a standard set of connectors for connecting the debug tool to the target or system under test. Logically, data is transferred using a packet-based protocol. This protocol can be JTAG (IEEE 1149.1); or, for high-speed systems, an auxiliary port can be used that supports full duplex, higher bandwidth transfers.
Key Nexus functionality involves either JTAG-style request/response interactions, or packets transferred through the debug port, and includes:
Run-time control ... With all implementations, debug tools can start and stop the processor, modify registers, and single-step machine instructions.
Memory access ... Nexus supports memory access while the processor is running. Such access is required when debugging systems where it is not possible to halt the system under test. Examples include Engine Control, where stopping digital feedback loops can create physically dangerous situations.
Breakpoints ... Programs halt when a specified event, a breakpoint, has occurred. The event can be specified as a code execution address, or as a data access (read or write) to an address with a specified value. Nexus breakpoints can be set at any address, including flash or ROM memory; CPUs may also provide special breakpoint instructions.
Several kinds of event tracing are defined, mostly depending on a high speed auxiliary port to offload the voluminous data without negatively impacting program execution:
Program trace ... Branch tracing compresses program execution data, by emitting messages at branch or exception instructions only. Trace analysis reconstructs the program flow using a local image of code memory contents.
Data trace ... Accesses to memory locations may be tracked, as limited by range (start and stop address) and access type (read or write).
Ownership trace ... An operating system (OS, possibly an RTOS) may write a task identifier to a Nexus register when switching tasks, forcing an ownership trace message to be emitted.
Memory substitution and port replacement ... This feature allows memory or port accesses to be emulated over the auxiliary Nexus port.
Data acquisition ... Rapid prototyping may require rapid transfer of large amounts of data via the auxiliary port to the debug tools. It uses a more efficient protocol than that used in data trace. It also helps calibration in automotive applications.
A low-level application programming interface (API) is also allowed for, to mask target specifics such as the host connection mechanism (such as an emulator or Calibration-instrument) and processor specific Nexus register details. This API is produced jointly by the tool and semiconductor vendor.
Compliance classes
IEEE-ISTO 5001-2003 is a scalable standard; there are currently four classes of compliance to the standard, ranging from the basic (JTAG only) Class 1 up to Class 4.
Class 1 supports run-time control (run, stop, memory upload/download when the processor is halted, breakpoints, read or set registers) using the JTAG interface. Communications are half duplex only and bandwidth is limited. Trace is not supported.
Class 2 adds ownership trace and program trace and allows the auxiliary debugging port to be shared with "slow" I/O port pins. Ownership trace allows current task or current process trace for systems based on real-time kernels or operating-systems.
Class 3 adds data write trace and memory read/write on-the-fly without halting execution. Data read/write tracing, sharing of the auxiliary port with high speed I/O ports such as the address/data bus, and support for data acquisition (visibility of related data parameters stored in internal resources, typically related calibration variables) may also be optionally part of Class 3 compliance.
Class 4 adds memory substitution (fetching or reading data over the Nexus auxiliary port) and allows tracing to be triggered by a watchpoint. Triggering memory substitution on a watchpoint is an optional feature of Class 4 compliance.
See also
BDM
JTAG
Further reading
IEEE-ISTO 5001™-1999,The Nexus 5001 Forum™ Standard - providing the Gateway to the Embedded Systems of the Future
IEEE-ISTO 5001-2003, The Nexus 5001 Forum Standard for a Global Embedded Processor Debug Interface
External links
NEXUS 5001 Forum
Nexus 5001 Forum Global Embedded Processor Debug Interface Standard, by William Wong
Multi-core analysis made easy with the Nexus 5001 debug spec, by Dr. Neal Stollon
The NEXUS Debug Standard: Gateway to the Embedded Systems of the Future, by Ashling Microsystems, Inc.
Debugging
IEEE standards | Nexus (standard) | [
"Technology"
] | 1,079 | [
"Computer standards",
"IEEE standards"
] |
8,901,227 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporocarp%20%28fungus%29 | The sporocarp (also known as fruiting body, fruit body or fruitbody) of fungi is a multicellular structure on which spore-producing structures, such as basidia or asci, are borne. The fruitbody is part of the sexual phase of a fungal life cycle, while the rest of the life cycle is characterized by vegetative mycelial growth and asexual spore production.
The sporocarp of a basidiomycete is known as a basidiocarp or basidiome, while the fruitbody of an ascomycete is known as an ascocarp. Many shapes and morphologies are found in both basidiocarps and ascocarps; these features play an important role in the identification and taxonomy of fungi.
Fruitbodies are termed epigeous if they grow on the ground, while those that grow underground are hypogeous. Epigeous sporocarps that are visible to the naked eye, especially fruitbodies of a more or less agaricoid morphology, are often called mushrooms. Epigeous sporocarps have mycelia that extend underground far beyond the mother sporocarp. There is a wider distribution of mycelia underground than sporocarps above ground. Hypogeous fungi are usually called truffles or false truffles. There is evidence that hypogeous fungi evolved from epigeous fungi. During their evolution, truffles lost the ability to disperse their spores by air currents, and propagate instead by animal consumption and subsequent defecation.
In amateur mushroom hunting, and to a large degree in academic mycology as well, identification of higher fungi is based on the features of the sporocarp.
The largest known fruitbody is a specimen of Phellinus ellipsoideus (formerly Fomitiporia ellipsoidea) found on Hainan Island, part of China. It measures up to in length and is estimated to weigh between .
Ecology
A wide variety of animals feed on epigeous and hypogeous fungi. The mammals that feed on fungi are as diverse as fungi themselves and are called mycophages. Squirrels and chipmunks eat the greatest variety of fungi, but there are many other mammals that also forage on fungi, such as marsupials, mice, rats, voles, lemmings, deer, shrews, rabbits, weasels, and more. Some animals feed on fungi opportunistically, while others rely on them as a primary source of food. Hypogeous sporocarps are a highly nutritious primary food source for some small mammals like the Tasmanian bettong. Evidence of this is that the composition of fungi in the diet of Tasmanian bettong was positively correlated with body condition and growth rates of pouch young. Ectomycorrhizal or hypogeous fungi form a symbiotic relationship with small mycophagous mammals. Hypogeous sporocarps depend on small fungivorous mammals to disperse their spores since they are underground and cannot utilize wind dispersal like epigeous sporocarps.
Underground fungi also play a role in a three-way symbiotic relationship with small marsupials and Australian Eucalyptus forests. In Eucalyptus forests, hypogeous sporocarp dispersal is positively affected by fires. After a fire, most if not all epigeous sporocarps are wiped out, leaving hypogeous sporocarps to be the primary source of fungi for small marsupials. The ability of hypogeous fungi to resist disasters, such as fire, could be due to their evolved ability to survive the digestive systems of animals in order to distribute. Sporocarps can also serve as a food source for other fungi.
Sporocarps can be hosts to diverse communities of fungicolous fungi. Short-lived sporocarps are more often hosts to fungicolous fungi than are long-lived sporocarps, which may have evolved more investment in defense mechanisms and tend to have less water content than their short-lived counterparts. Resupinate sporocarps, sporocarps that have a higher surface area to volume ratio, are hosts to a higher diversity of fungicolous fungi than pileate sporocarps are.
See also
Lamella – the gills
Sporangium
Stipe – the stalk
References
Further reading
Mycology
Fungal morphology and anatomy | Sporocarp (fungus) | [
"Biology"
] | 928 | [
"Mycology"
] |
8,901,258 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporocarp%20%28ferns%29 | A sporocarp is a specialised type of structure in the aquatic ferns of the order Salviniales whose primary function is the production and release of spores.
Sporocarps are found only in the Salviniales, a group that is aquatic and heterosporous, but the structures are very different in the two families of the order. In the Salviniaceae family, the sporocarp is nothing more than a modified sorus, a single cluster of spore-producing tissues enclosed by a thin sphere of tissue and attached to the leaves. In the Marsileaceae (water-clover) family, the sporocarp is a more elaborate structure formed from an entire leaf whose development and form is greatly modified. These are hairy, short-stalked, bean-shaped structures (usually 3 to 8 mm in diameter) with a hardened outer covering. This outer covering is tough and resistant to drying out, allowing the spores inside to survive unfavorable conditions such as winter frost or summer desiccation. Despite this toughness, the sporocarps will open readily in water if conditions are favorable, and specimens have been successfully germinated after being stored for more than forty years. Each growing season, only one sporocarp develops per node along the rhizome near the base of the other leaf-stalks.
The sporocarps are functionally and developmentally modified leaves, although they have much shorter stalks than the vegetative leaves. Inside the sporocarp, the modified leaflets bear several sori, each of which consists of several sporangia covered by a thin hood of tissue (the indusium). Each sorus includes a mix of two types of sporangium, each type producing only one of two kinds of spores. Toward the center of each sorus and developing first are the megasporangia, each of which will produce a single large female megaspore. Surrounding them at the edge of the sorus and developing later are the microsporangia, each of which will produce many small male microspores.
References
Salviniales
Plant morphology | Sporocarp (ferns) | [
"Biology"
] | 435 | [
"Plant morphology",
"Plants"
] |
8,901,379 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogolyubov%20Prize%20for%20young%20scientists | The Bogoliubov Prize for young scientists is an award offered to young researchers in theoretical physics by the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR), an international intergovernmental organization located in Dubna, Russia. The award is issued in memory of the physicist and mathematician Nikolay Bogoliubov.
The prize is awarded to young (up to 33-year-old) researchers for "outstanding contributions in fields of theoretical physics related to Bogoliubov's scientific interests". The awardee is one who has demonstrated "early scientific maturity" and whose results are recognized worldwide and peer-reviewed. The laureates generally emulate Bogoliubov's own skill in using sophisticated mathematics to attempt to solve concrete physical problems (mostly in the fields of nonlinear dynamics, statistical physics, quantum field theory and elementary particle physics).
Jury
The jury is presided by the theoretical physicist Dmitry Shirkov, who co-authored many works with Nikolay Bogoliubov.
Laureates
1999 Oleg Shvedov (Moscow State University, Russia): for a series of works on asymptotical methods in statistical physics and quantum field theory.
2001 Evgenii Ivashkevich (JINR, Russia): for a series of works on analytical methods in non-equilibrium statistical mechanics.
2005 Aurélien Barrau (the Laboratory of sub-atomic physics and cosmology and Joseph Fourier University, Grenoble, France): for a series of works on astrophysics and cosmology.
See also
List of physics awards
References
Science and technology in Russia
Physics education
Physics awards
Awards with age limits | Bogolyubov Prize for young scientists | [
"Physics",
"Technology"
] | 326 | [
"Science and technology awards",
"Applied and interdisciplinary physics",
"Physics education",
"Physics awards"
] |
8,902,379 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Otis%20Whitman | Charles Otis Whitman (December 6, 1842 – December 14, 1910) was an American zoologist, who was influential to the founding of classical ethology (study of animal behavior). In 1888, he was the founding director of the Marine Biological Laboratory. A dedicated educator who preferred to teach a few research students at a time, he made major contributions in the areas of evolution and embryology of worms, comparative anatomy, heredity, and animal behaviour. He was known as the "Father of Zoology" in Japan.
Biography
Whitman was born in Woodstock, Maine. His parents were Adventist pacifists and prevented his efforts to enlist in the Union army in 1862. He worked as a part-time teacher and converted to Unitarianism. He graduated from Bowdoin College in 1868. Following graduation, Whitman became principal of the Westford Academy, a small Unitarian-oriented college preparatory school outside Lowell, Massachusetts. In 1872 he moved to Boston and after becoming a member of the Boston Society of Natural History in 1874, he decided to study zoology full-time. In 1875, he took a leave of absence and went to the University of Leipzig in Germany to complete a Ph.D. which he obtained in 1878.
A year later he received a postdoctoral fellowship at the Johns Hopkins University, but immediately gave it up when after being recommended by noted biologist Edward Sylvester Morse, he was hired by the Japanese government to succeed Morse as professor at the Tokyo Imperial University from 1879 to 1881. Influenced by his training in Germany, he introduced systematic methods of biological research, including the use of the microscope.After leaving Japan, Whitman performed research at the Naples Zoological Station (1882), became an assistant at the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University (1883–5), then directed the Allis Lake Laboratory, in Milwaukee (1886–9), where he founded the Journal of Morphology (1887).
In 1884, Whitman married Emily Nunn. He moved to Clark University (Worcester, Massachusetts) (1889–92), then became a professor and curator of the Zoological Museum at the University of Chicago (1892–1910), while concurrently serving as founding director of the Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts (1888–1908). During the 1880s, Whitman established himself as the central figure of academic biology in the United States. He systematized the procedures that European anatomists and zoologists had gradually developed over the past two decades. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1890, the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1895, and the American Philosophical Society in 1899.
Over the course of his career, Whitman worked with more than 700 species of pigeons, studying the relationship between phenotypic variation and heredity. By the turn of the 20th century, the last group of passenger pigeons, all descended from the same pair, was kept by Whitman at the University of Chicago. The last attempt to breed the remaining specimens was done by Whitman and the Cincinnati Zoo, which included attempts at making a rock dove foster passenger pigeon eggs. Whitman sent Martha, which was to be the last known specimen, to Cincinnati Zoo in 1902.
In December of 1910, he caught a chill and died a few days later.
Whitman was a non-Darwinian evolutionist. Stephen Jay Gould wrote that Whitman did not believe in Lamarckism, Darwinism or mutationism, instead Whitman was an advocate of orthogenesis. Whitman only wrote one book on orthogenesis which was published nine years after his death in 1919 titled Orthogenetic evolution in pigeons the book was published in a three volume set titled Posthumous Works of Charles Otis Whitman, Gould claims that the book was written "too late, to win any potential influence".
Partial bibliography
A contribution to the embryology, life-history, and classification of the Dicyemids (1882)
The Leeches of Japan (1886)
The Naturalist's Occupation (1891)
Evolution and epigenesis: Bonnet's theory of evolution, a system of negations (1895)
Animal Behavior (1899)
The metamerism of clepsine (1912)
Posthumous Works of Charles Otis Whitman (1919)
Notes
References
External links
Guide to the Charles Otis Whitman Collection ca. 1911 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center
Whitman's Pigeons
1842 births
1910 deaths
Foreign advisors to the government in Meiji-era Japan
Foreign educators in Japan
Clark University faculty
Harvard University staff
University of Chicago faculty
Bowdoin College alumni
Leipzig University alumni
Johns Hopkins University alumni
Non-Darwinian evolution
People from Woodstock, Maine
19th-century American zoologists
20th-century American zoologists
Biologists from Maine
Members of the American Philosophical Society | Charles Otis Whitman | [
"Biology"
] | 940 | [
"Non-Darwinian evolution",
"Biology theories"
] |
8,903,697 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nifurtimox | Nifurtimox, sold under the brand name Lampit, is a medication used to treat Chagas disease and sleeping sickness. For sleeping sickness it is used together with eflornithine in nifurtimox-eflornithine combination treatment. In Chagas disease it is a second-line option to benznidazole. It is given by mouth.
Common side effects include abdominal pain, headache, nausea, and weight loss. There are concerns from animal studies that it may increase the risk of cancer but these concerns have not been found in human trials. Nifurtimox is not recommended in pregnancy or in those with significant kidney or liver problems. It is a type of nitrofuran.
Nifurtimox came into medication use in 1965. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is not available commercially in Canada. It was approved for medical use in the United States in August 2020. In regions of the world where the disease is common nifurtimox is provided for free by the World Health Organization (WHO).
Medical uses
Nifurtimox has been used to treat Chagas disease, when it is given for 30 to 60 days. However, long-term use of nifurtimox does increase chances of adverse events like gastrointestinal and neurological side effects. Due to the low tolerance and completion rate of nifurtimox, benznidazole is now being more considered for those who have Chagas disease and require long-term treatment.
In the United States nifurtimox is indicated in children and adolescents (birth to less than 18 years of age and weighing at least for the treatment of Chagas disease (American Trypanosomiasis), caused by Trypanosoma cruzi.
Nifurtimox has also been used to treat African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), and is active in the second stage of the disease (central nervous system involvement). When nifurtimox is given on its own, about half of all patients will relapse, but the combination of melarsoprol with nifurtimox appears to be efficacious. Trials are awaited comparing melarsoprol/nifurtimox against melarsoprol alone for African sleeping sickness.
Combination therapy with eflornithine and nifurtimox is safer and easier than treatment with eflornithine alone, and appears to be equally or more effective. It has been recommended as first-line treatment for second-stage African trypanosomiasis.
Pregnancy and breastfeeding
Use of nifurtimox should be avoided in pregnant women due to limited use. There is limited data shown that nifurtimox doses up to 15 mg/kg daily can cause adverse effects in breastfed infants. Other authors do not consider breastfeeding a contraindication during nifurtimox use.
Side effects
Side effects occur following chronic administration, particularly in elderly people.
Major toxicities include immediate hypersensitivity such as anaphylaxis and delayed hypersensitivity reaction involving icterus and dermatitis. Central nervous system disturbances and peripheral neuropathy may also occur.
Most common side effects
anorexia
weight loss
nausea
vomiting
headache
dizziness
amnesia
Less common effects
rash
depression
anxiety
confusion
fever
sore throat
chills
seizures
impotence
tremors
muscle weakness
numbness of hands or feet
Contraindications
Nifurtimox is contraindicated in people with severe liver or kidney disease, as well as people with a background of neurological or psychiatric disorders.
Mechanism of action
Nifurtimox forms a nitro-anion radical metabolite that reacts with nucleic acids of the parasite causing significant breakdown of DNA. Its mechanism is similar to that proposed for the antibacterial action of metronidazole. Nifurtimox undergoes reduction and creates oxygen radicals such as superoxide. These radicals are toxic to T. cruzi. Mammalian cells are protected by presence of catalase, glutathione, peroxidases, and superoxide dismutase. Accumulation of hydrogen peroxide to cytotoxic levels results in parasite death.
Society and culture
Legal status
Nifurtimox is licensed for use in Argentina, the United States, Turkey and Germany amongst others. It was approved for medical use in the United States in August 2020.
Names
Research
Nifurtimox is in a phase-II clinical trial for the treatment of pediatric neuroblastoma and medulloblastoma.
References
External links
Antiprotozoal agents
Chagas disease
Drugs developed by Bayer
Hydrazones
Nitrofurans
Sulfones
Thiomorpholines
World Health Organization essential medicines
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Orphan drugs | Nifurtimox | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 968 | [
"Antiprotozoal agents",
"Functional groups",
"Sulfones",
"Hydrazones",
"Biocides"
] |
8,903,910 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20cleaning | Green cleaning refers to using cleaning methods and products with environmentally friendly ingredients and procedures which are designed to preserve human health and environmental quality. Green cleaning techniques and products avoid the use of products which contain toxic chemicals, some of which emit volatile organic compounds causing respiratory, dermatological and other conditions. Green cleaning can also describe the way residential and industrial cleaning products are manufactured, packaged and distributed. If the manufacturing process is environmentally friendly and the products are biodegradable, then the term "green" or "eco-friendly" may apply.
Product labeling programs
Among the product-labeling programs is the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Design for the Environment program which labels products that meet the EPA's criteria for chemicals. These products are allowed to carry the Design for the Environment (DfE) label, renamed EPA Safer Choice in 2015. Generally, products which are labelled 'low' or 'zero' VOC are safer for human and animal health in the home as well as the environment. In addition, the EPA's Toxic Substances Control Act addresses chemicals in the environment and makes regulatory rules to maximize human health. There are also independent product labeling programs for cleaning products and cleaning services offered by nonprofit organizations like Green Seal.
On October 15, 2017, California Governor Jerry Brown signed into law Senate Bill 258, the Cleaning Product Right to Know Act. The bill was brought to the floor by Senator Ricardo Lara and supported by some of the oldest green cleaning manufacturers, such as Kelly Vlahakis-Hanks of Earth Friendly Products and board member of the American Sustainable Business Council, as well as mainstream companies who are entering into the green cleaning space such as SC Johnson who recently purchased Mrs. Meyers and Method. The Cleaning Product Right to Know Act makes California the first state to require ingredient labeling both on product labels and online for cleaning products. Unlike retail packaged food, no federal requirements exist for disclosing ingredients on cleaning products. The Cleaning Product Right to Know Act will require known hazardous chemicals in cleaning products to be listed on both product labels and online by 2020. The legislation lists 34 chemicals found in cleaning products that have been shown to cause cancer, birth defects, asthma and other serious health effects:
1,4-Dioxane
1,1-Dichloroethane
Acrylic acid
Benzene
Benzidine
1,3-Butadiene
Carbon tetrachloride
Chloroform
Ethylene oxide
Nitrilotriacetic acid
Butyl benzyl phthalate
Butyl decyl phthalate
Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
Diethyl phthalate
Diisobutyl phthalate
Di(n-octyl) phthalate
Diisononyl phthalate
Dioctyl phthalate
Butylparaben
Ethylparaben
Isobutylparaben
Methylparaben
Propylparaben
Formaldehyde
DMDM hydantoin
Diazolidinyl urea
Glyoxal
Imidazolidinyl urea
Polyoxymethylene urea
Sodium hydroxymethylglycinate
2-Bromo-2-nitropropane-1,3-diol
N-Nitrosodimethylamine
N-Nitrosodiethylamine
1-(3-chloroallyl)-3,5,7-triaza-1-azoniaadamantane chloride
In the announcement made by the California State Senate said the bill was in "response to consumers' demand for transparency."
See also
Green Seal
Cleaning agent
Environmental impact of cleaning agents
Design for the Environment
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Greenwashing
References
External links
Epa.gov
Cleaning products
Cleaning and the environment
Cleaning methods | Green cleaning | [
"Chemistry"
] | 759 | [
"Cleaning products",
"Products of chemical industry"
] |
8,903,990 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wet%20wing | A wet wing (also referred to as integral fuel tanks) is an aerospace engineering technique where an aircraft's wing structure is sealed and used as a fuel tank.
The use of wet wings has become common among civilian designs, from large transport aircraft, such as airliners, to small general aviation aircraft. Several military aircraft, such as airlifters and aerial refueling tankers, have incorporated the technique as well. A number of strike aircraft, such as the Grumman A-6 Intruder, have also been furnished with wet wings. While it is technically feasible, studies have found it generally impractical to convert aircraft between wet wing and non-wet wing fuel storage.
Features and performance
The wet wing offers several advantages. By eliminating the need for separate bladders, tanks, or other containers to house the fuel, weight savings are achieved, improving operational efficiency and performance. In comparison with other methods, the wet wing maximises the structural volume available within the wings, while alternative approaches are less space-efficient. There are benefits from a safety point of view, as fuel would be discharged externally in the event of a leak, rather than within a potentially populated section of the aircraft. The thickness of the wing is typically greater than that of an individual bladder or tank, a factor which decreases the likelihood of damage-related leaks, particularly in the event of a crash.
A disadvantage of the wet wing is that every rivet, bolt, nut plate, hose and tube that penetrates the wing must be sealed to prevent fuel from leaking or seeping around these hardware components. This sealant must allow for expansion and contraction due to rapid temperature changes (such as when cold fuel is pumped into a warm wing tank) and must retain its sealing properties when submerged in fuel and when left dry for long periods of time. Because the tanks form an integral part of the structure, they cannot be removed without considerable disassembly of the overall aircraft; several access panels are also necessary to perform maintenance activities and permit inspections.
Beyond the complications in the design and manufacture of the aircraft, a wet wing necessitates ongoing maintenance activities throughout its operating life. Commonly, the sealant shall need to be replaced; the removal of old sealant (and the application of fresh) can be considerably difficult when working on a relatively small wing tank. Without appropriate maintenance, wet wings will commonly start leaking after a while, usually due to seal deterioration; however, resealing work may not be immediately successful and require multiple applications. Improved methods of sealing have been devised, reportedly extending the interval between resealing.
Notable accidents in which the wet wing design and its drawbacks were causative include Chalk's Ocean Airways Flight 101 and the 1961 Goldsboro B-52 crash. Multiple aircraft have also sustained considerable structural damage due to improper wet wing maintenance. Multiple instances of manufacturing-related debris, posing a threat to aircraft safety, have been discovered on both civilian and military aircraft.
References
Citations
Bibliography
Air Safety Board: Hearings...on H.R. 5561. United States Congress House Interstate and Foreign Commerce, 1950.
Whitford, Ray. Fundamentals of Fighter Design. Marlborough, Wiltshire: The Crowood Press Ltd, 2004. .
Aircraft wing components
Aircraft fuel system components
Aerospace engineering
Fuel containers | Wet wing | [
"Engineering"
] | 664 | [
"Aerospace engineering"
] |
8,904,174 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethe%20formula | The Bethe formula or Bethe–Bloch formula describes the mean energy loss per distance travelled of swift charged particles (protons, alpha particles, atomic ions) traversing matter (or alternatively the stopping power of the material). For electrons the energy loss is slightly different due to their small mass (requiring relativistic corrections) and their indistinguishability, and since they suffer much larger losses by Bremsstrahlung, terms must be added to account for this. Fast charged particles moving through matter interact with the electrons of atoms in the material. The interaction excites or ionizes the atoms, leading to an energy loss of the traveling particle.
The non-relativistic version was found by Hans Bethe in 1930; the relativistic version (shown below) was found by him in 1932. The most probable energy loss differs from the mean energy loss and is described by the Landau-Vavilov distribution.
The formula
For a particle with speed v, charge z (in multiples of the electron charge), and energy E, traveling a distance x into a target of electron number density n and mean excitation energy I (see below), the relativistic version of the formula reads, in SI units:
where c is the speed of light and ε0 the vacuum permittivity, , e and me the electron charge and rest mass respectively.
Here, the electron density of the material can be calculated by
where ρ is the density of the material, Z its atomic number, A its relative atomic mass, NA the Avogadro number and Mu the Molar mass constant.
In the figure to the right, the small circles are experimental results obtained from measurements of various authors, while the red curve is Bethe's formula. Evidently, Bethe's theory agrees very well with experiment at high energy. The agreement is even better when corrections are applied (see below).
For low energies, i.e., for small velocities of the particle β << 1, the Bethe formula reduces to
This can be seen by first replacing βc by v in eq. (1) and then neglecting β2 because of its small size.
At low energy, the energy loss according to the Bethe formula therefore decreases approximately as v−2 with increasing energy. It reaches a minimum for approximately E = 3Mc2, where M is the mass of the particle (for protons, this would be about at 3000 MeV). For highly relativistic cases β ≈ 1, the energy loss increases again, logarithmically due to the transversal component of the electric field.
The mean excitation energy
In the Bethe theory, the material is completely described by a single number, the mean excitation energy I. In 1933 Felix Bloch showed that the mean excitation energy of atoms is approximately given by
where Z is the atomic number of the atoms of the material. If this approximation is introduced into formula () above, one obtains an expression which is often called Bethe-Bloch formula. But since we have now accurate tables of I as a function of Z (see below), the use of such a table will yield better results than the use of formula ().
The figure shows normalized values of I, taken from a table. The peaks and valleys in this figure lead to corresponding valleys and peaks in the stopping power. These are called "Z2-oscillations" or "Z2-structure" (where Z2 = Z means the atomic number of the target).
Corrections to the Bethe formula
The Bethe formula is only valid for energies high enough so that the charged atomic particle (the ion) does not carry any atomic electrons with it. At smaller energies, when the ion carries electrons, this reduces its charge effectively, and the stopping power is thus reduced. But even if the atom is fully ionized, corrections are necessary.
Bethe found his formula using quantum mechanical perturbation theory. Hence, his result is proportional to the square of the charge z of the particle. The description can be improved by considering corrections which correspond to higher powers of z. These are: the Barkas-Andersen-effect (proportional to z3, after Walter H. Barkas and Hans Henrik Andersen), and the Felix Bloch-correction (proportional to z4). In addition, one has to take into account that the atomic electrons of the material traversed are not stationary ("shell correction").
The corrections mentioned have been built into the programs PSTAR and ASTAR, for example, by which one can calculate the stopping power for protons and alpha particles. The corrections are large at low energy and become smaller and smaller as energy is increased.
At very high energies, Fermi's density correction has to be added.
See also
Stopping power (particle radiation)
Landau distribution
Hans Bethe
References
External links
The Straggling function. Energy Loss Distribution of charged particles
Original Publication: Zur Theorie des Durchgangs schneller Korpuskularstrahlen durch Materie in "Annalen der Physik", Vol. 397 (1930) 325 -400
Passage of charged particles through matter, with a graph
Stopping power for protons and alpha particles
Stopping Power graphs and data
Recent numerical solutions
Nuclear physics | Bethe formula | [
"Physics"
] | 1,097 | [
"Nuclear physics"
] |
8,904,811 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold%20Standard%20%28carbon%20offset%20standard%29 | The Gold Standard (GS), or Gold Standard for the Global Goals, is a standard and logo certification mark program, for non-governmental emission reductions projects in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), the Voluntary Carbon Market and other climate and development interventions. It is published and administered by the Gold Standard Foundation, a non-profit foundation headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. It was designed with an intent to ensure that carbon credits are real, verifiable, and that projects make measurable contributions to sustainable development. The objective of the GS is to add branding, with a quality label, to carbon credits generated by projects which can then be bought and traded by countries that have a binding legal commitment according to the Kyoto Protocol, businesses, or other organizations for carbon offsetting purposes.
History
The Gold Standard for CDM (GS-CER) was developed in 2003 by World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), South-North, and Helio International. The Voluntary Gold Standard (GS-VER), a standard for use within the voluntary carbon market, was launched in May 2006. The programs were created following a 12-month consultation period that included workshops and web-based consultation conducted by an independent standard advisory board composed of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), scientists, project developers and government representatives.
As of October 2018, more than 80 non-profit organizations internationally had officially endorsed the Gold Standard program.
The program is administered by the Gold Standard Foundation, a non-profit foundation under Swiss law that is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. It also employs local experts in Brazil, India, and South Africa.
In July 2008, the Gold Standard Version 2.0 was released, including sets of guidelines and manuals on the GS requirements, toolkits, and other supporting documents to be used by project developers and DOEs. This relegated the previously applicable manuals to Version 1.0. The Version 2.0 also supports Program of Activities (PoA).
In July 2017, a new version called the Gold Standard for the Global Goals was released, superseding the previous Gold Standards.
In June 2024 Gold Standard released a Public Carbon Regulations tracker, commissioned by South Pole to increase visibility on regulations across continents for project developers.
Scholarly recognition and criticisms
The Gold Standard is recognized by carbon market and scholars of carbon markets and climate change politics scholars as a prime example of voluntary standards. As a program certifying emissions trading programs, criticisms of the general practice of emissions trading may also generally apply to the Gold Standard certification program.
Eligibility
To be eligible for Gold Standard Certification, a project must:
Be a Gold Standard-approved Renewable Energy Supply or End use Energy Efficiency, Afforestation/Reforestation or Agriculture project type
Be reducing one of the three eligible Greenhouse Gases: Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4) and Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
Not employ Official Development Assistance (ODA) under the condition that the credits coming out of the project are transferred to the donor country
Not be applying for other certifications, to ensure there is no double counting of credits
Demonstrate its additionality by using the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change's (UNFCCC) Large Scale Additionality Tool; and show that the project is not a 'business-as-usual' scenario
Make a net-positive contribution to the economic as well as the environmental and social welfare of the local population that hosts it, in the form of contributions to a minimum of three Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
The Gold Standard Registry
Status of projects that apply for Gold Standard can be tracked on its registry. Project Developers, Designated Operational Entities (DOEs) (also known as Validators), Traders and Buyers of credits can open accounts with the registry. There are various publicly available reports.
See also
Climate, Community & Biodiversity Alliance
Verified Carbon Standard
References
External links
Gold Standard organization
Certification marks
Carbon finance | Gold Standard (carbon offset standard) | [
"Mathematics"
] | 786 | [
"Symbols",
"Certification marks"
] |
8,905,001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobrowsing | Cobrowsing (short for collaborative browsing), in the context of web browsing, is the joint navigation through the World Wide Web by two or more people accessing the same web page at the same time.
History of cobrowsing software
Early cobrowsing was achieved by local execution of software that had to be installed on the computer of each participant. More advanced tools didn't have to be installed, but still required local execution of software or at least web-browser plug-ins, extensions, or applets. Most tools were limited to a single user that was able to navigate, while the others could only watch. Newer co-browsing solutions no longer require downloads, installations, or plug-ins. Instead, these solutions rely on peer-to-peer connections and DOM manipulation.
Some tools provide very limited cobrowsing by only synchronizing the page location (URL) of the page that should be shared. Full cobrowsing supports automatic synchronization of the browsers' state and content, including frames, portlets, or even content of the form fields and controls. Some tools can even identify complex media objects such as audio and video players and offer capability of synchronous (coordinated) playback with start/pause/stop functionality.
During cobrowsing sessions, some solutions can display multiple labeled cursors and on-screen highlighting tools. Additionally, some modern cobrowsing solutions will also offer observation capabilities whereby a second person can view a live web browsing session, but not participate in its navigation.
Cobrowsing is difficult to implement due to the essential confidence requirements to share any real-time experience, and strong resistance provided by OS and browser security mechanisms. Cobrowsing technology has many inherent challenges such as page personalizations or sites that require user authentication, but many leading cobrowsing solutions are now able to overcome many of these challenges.
When used in conjunction with communication channels like live chat, video chat, or voice calls, cobrowsing has been shown to greatly improve both online sales and customer support.
Developers of cobrowsing software
In 2014, Oracle Corporation purchased LiveLOOK for its cobrowsing technology. Also in 2014, Pegasystems acquired the cobrowsing tool Firefly, which was developed by a startup from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania funded by First Round Capital.
See also
Web conferencing
Online banking
Collaborative real-time editor
Technical support
References
Further reading
Franke, Jörn; Cheng, Bin: "Real-Time Privacy-Preserving Cobrowsing with Element Masking," 17th Conference on Intelligence in Next Generation Networks, Venice, Italy, 2013.
Teleconferencing
Computing terminology
Web browsers
de:Desktop-Sharing#Cobrowsing | Cobrowsing | [
"Technology"
] | 572 | [
"Computing terminology"
] |
8,905,895 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freshwater%20pearl%20mussel | The freshwater pearl mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera) is an endangered species of freshwater mussel, an aquatic bivalve mollusc in the family Margaritiferidae.
Although the name "freshwater pearl mussel" is often used for this species, other freshwater mussel species (e.g. Margaritifera auricularia) can also create pearls and some can also be used as a source of mother of pearl. Most cultured pearls today come from Hyriopsis species in Asia, or Amblema species in North America, both members of the related family Unionidae; pearls are also found within species in the genus Unio.
The interior of the shell of Margaritifera margaritifera has thick nacre (the inner mother of pearl layer of the shell). This species is capable of making fine-quality pearls, and was historically exploited in the search for pearls from wild sources. In recent times, the Russian malacologist Valeriy Zyuganov received worldwide reputation after he discovered that the pearl mussel exhibited negligible senescence and he determined that it had a maximum lifespan of 210–250 years. The data of V. V. Zyuganov have been confirmed by Finnish malacologists and gained general acceptance.
Subspecies
Subspecies within the species Margaritifera magaritifera include:
Margaritifera margaritifera margaritifera (Linnaeus, 1758)
Margaritifera margaritifera parvula (Haas, 1908)
Margaritifera margaritifera durrovensis Phillips, 1928 – critically endangered subspecies in Ireland. Synonym: Margaritifera durrovensis. This subspecies is mentioned in annexes II and V of Habitats Directive as Margaritifera durrovensis.
Description
The freshwater pearl mussel is one of the longest-living invertebrates in existence. The oldest known specimen in Europe was caught in 1993 in Estonia when it was 134 years old.
Like all bivalve molluscs, the freshwater pearl mussel has a shell consisting of two parts that are hinged together, which can be closed to protect the animal's soft body within. The shell is large, heavy and elongated, typically yellowish-brown in colour when young and becoming darker with age. Older parts of the shell often appear corroded, an identifying feature of this mussel species. The inner surface of the shell is pearl white, sometimes tinged with attractive iridescent colours. Like all molluscs, the freshwater pearl mussel has a muscular 'foot'; this very large, white foot enables the mussel to move slowly and bury itself within the bottom substrate of its freshwater habitat.
Distribution
The native distribution of this species is Holarctic. The freshwater pearl mussel can be found on both sides of the Atlantic, from the Arctic and temperate regions of western Russia, through Europe to northeastern North America.
North America: eastern Canada and New England in the United States' Northeast.
Europe, including:
Austria – estimated total population of 70 000 individuals in Mühlviertel (declining) and in Waldviertel (some recruitment), in the states of Upper and Lower Austria, respectively.
Belgium
Czech Republic – critically endangered (CR). In Bohemia, probably locally extinct in Moravia. Listed in Decree for implementation, No. 395/1992 Sb. (Czech code) (in Czech: Vyhláška 395/1992 Sb. ve znění vyhl. 175/2006 Sb.) as Critically Threatened species. Its conservation status in 2004-2006 was bad (U2) in a report for the European Commission in accordance with Habitats Directive.
Serbia - most commonly found along the shores of the Danube river and its lakes, as well as in some other rivers and freshwater areas in the Pannonian Basin
Denmark - only known from Varde River (never recorded elsewhere in the country in historical or recent times). Although sometimes suggested to have been extirpated in the period directly after 1970, it has been documented from the river in recent years and indirect evidence suggests that the population size is significant.
Estonia
Fennoscandia – vulnerable in Norway, endangered in Finland and Sweden. Very rare in southern Finland, more common in the north. Widespread but not common in Norway; Norway is considered to host a large proportion of the European stock. Rare in Sweden. Also in Kola Peninsula and Karelia (Russia) (see below).
France
Germany – critically endangered (vom Aussterben bedroht). Listed as strictly protected species in annex 1 in Bundesartenschutzverordnung.
Great Britain. More than half the world's recruiting population exists in Scotland with populations in more than 50 rivers, mainly in the Highlands, although illegal harvesting has seriously affected their survival. 75% of sites surveyed in 2010 had suffered "significant and lasting criminal damage" and in response the police and Scottish Natural Heritage have launched a campaign to protect the species. This species has been fully protected in the United Kingdom under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 since 1998 and partly protected according to section 9(1) since 1991.
Iberian Peninsula (Portugal and Spain)
Ireland. The Cladagh (Swanlinbar) river contains one of the largest populations surviving in northern Ireland, estimated minimum 10,000, confined to a 6 km stretch of undisturbed river in the middle section.
Luxembourg
Latvia
Lithuania – extinct
Poland – extinct
Russian Federation – in the rivers of the White Sea basin of the Arkhangelsk and Murmansk Regions. It is east border of the area of distribution M. margaritifera.
Habitat
Clean, fast-flowing streams and rivers are required for the freshwater pearl mussel, where it lives buried or partly buried in fine gravel and coarse sand, generally in water at depths between 0.5 and 2 metres, but sometimes at greater depths. Clean gravel and sand is essential, particularly for juvenile freshwater pearl mussels, for if the stream or river bottom becomes clogged with silt, they cannot obtain oxygen and will die. Also essential is the presence of a healthy population of salmonids, a group of fish including salmon and trout, on which the freshwater pearl mussel relies for part of its life cycle.
Lifecycle
Capable of living for up to 130 years, the freshwater pearl mussel begins life as a tiny larva, measuring just 0.6 to 0.7 millimetres long, which is ejected into the water from an adult mussel in a mass of one to four million other larvae. This remarkable event takes place over just one to two days, sometime between July and September. The larvae, known as glochidia, resemble tiny mussels, but their minute shells are held open until they snap shut on a suitable host. The host of freshwater pearl mussel larvae are juvenile fish from the salmonid family, which includes the Atlantic salmon and sea trout. The chances of a larva encountering a suitable fish are very low, and thus nearly all are swept away and die; only a few are inhaled by an Atlantic salmon or sea trout, where they snap shut onto the fish's gills.
Attached to the gills of a fish, the glochidia live and grow in this oxygen-rich environment until the following May or June, when they drop off. The juvenile must land on clean gravelly or sandy substrates if it is to successfully grow. Attached to the substrate, juvenile freshwater pearl mussels typically burrow themselves completely into the sand or gravel, while adults are generally found with a third of their shell exposed. Should they become dislodged, freshwater pearl mussels can rebury themselves, and are also capable of moving slowly across sandy sediments, using their large, muscular foot.
The freshwater pearl mussel grows extremely slowly, inhaling water through exposed siphons, and filtering out tiny organic particles on which it feeds. It is thought that in areas where this species was once abundant, this filter feeding acted to clarify the water, benefiting other species which inhabited the rivers and streams. Maturity is reached at an age of 10 to 15 years, followed by a reproductive period of over 75 years in which about 200 million larvae can be produced. In early summer each year, around June and July, male freshwater pearl mussels release sperm into the water, where they are inhaled by female mussels. Inside the female, the fertilized eggs develop in a pouch on the gills for several weeks, until temperature or other environmental cues trigger the female to release the larvae into the surrounding water.
Threats and conservation
Once the most abundant bivalve mollusc in ancient rivers around the world, numbers of the freshwater pearl mussel are now declining in all countries and this species is nearly extinct in many areas. The causes of this decline are not fully understood, but alteration and degradation of its freshwater habitat undoubtedly plays a central role. The negative impacts humans have on rivers and streams come from a wide range of activities such as river regulation, drainage, sewage disposal, dredging, and water pollution, including the introduction of excess nutrients. Anything that affects the abundance of the fish hosts will also affect the freshwater pearl mussel; for example, the introduction of exotic fish species, such as the rainbow trout, reduce the number of native fish hosts. Introduced species are also directly affecting the freshwater pearl mussel; the invasion of the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha), which has been spread to new locations by being transported on the bottom of boats or in ballast waters, has impacted freshwater pearl mussel populations in all countries it has invaded.
The freshwater pearl mussel, which is completely protected in all European countries, has been the focus of a significant amount of conservation efforts. Measures have included the transfer of adult mussels to areas where it had gone extinct, the culture of juvenile mussels, and the release of juvenile trout, which have been infected with glochidia, into small rivers, but mainly the freshwater pearl mussel has benefited from habitat restoration projects in some areas. Due to the essential role salmonid fish play in the life of the freshwater pearl mussel, the conservation of salmon and trout is also central in the survival of this endangered freshwater mussel.
Conservation efforts
The LIFE R4ever Kent project is a 5 year project worth 3.8 million pounds, led by Natural England, that began in January 2022. Its aim is saving and restore the River Kent's population of freshwater pearl mussels, as well as improving existing breeding areas to secure the long-term future of the population. The River Kent's population of freshwater pearl mussels was severely damaged by pollution, degraded habitats, low genetic diversity, and the lack of natural survival of juvenile pearl mussels. The project was developed in tandem with the Environmental Agency, the Freshwater Biological Association, and the South Cumbria Rivers Trust. The River Kent catchment area is the only river in the UK where the freshwater pearl mussel and the white clawed crayfish are found in the same habitat. The goal is to increase the freshwater pearl mussel population by 4,000 individuals and expand its range within the River Kent Special Area of Conservation (SAC). The site's population will be bolster using donor stock from other freshwater pearl mussel sites, while also improving breeding facilities within England. Louise Lavictoire, head of science at the Freshwater Biological Association, stated that the remnant populations in the River Kent and surrounding tributaries are too small to sustain a population into the future, and maintaining a self-sustaining population would need to be supplemented with captive breeding. The goal of the hatchery improvements are to bred more than 4,000 juveniles for release; release 3,000 of the 4,000 as juveniles; and retain 1,000 for reintroduction to the SAC once they have grown to a larger size.
References
Further reading
Anonymous 2004. Margaritifera margaritifera. Stage 1 and Stage 2 survey guidelines. Irish Wildlife Manuals, No. 12. National Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government, Dublin, Ireland. 25 pp.
Moorkens E. A. 2000. Conservation Management of the Freshwater Pearl Mussel Margaritifera margaritifera. Part 2: Water Quality Requirements. Irish Wildlife Manuals, No. 9., 44 pp.
Makhrov A., Bespalaya J., Bolotov I., Vikhrev I., Gofarov M., Alekseeva Ya., Zotin A. 2013. Historical geography of pearl harvesting and current status of populations of the freshwater pearl mussel Margaritifera margaritifera (L.) in west part of Northern European Russia. – Hydrobiologia. DOI 10.1007/s10750-013-1546-1
Bolotov, I.N., Yu.V. Bespalaya, A.A. Makhrov, P.E. Aspholm, A.S. Aksenov, M.Yu. Gofarov, G.A. Dvoryankin, O.V. Usacheva, I.V. Vikhrev, S.E. Sokolova, A.A. Pashinin & A.N. Davydov, 2012. Influence of Historical Exploitation and Recovery of Biological Resources on Contemporary Status of Margaritifera margaritifera L. and Salmo salar L. Populations in Northwestern Russia. - Biology Bulletin Reviews 2(6): 460–478. DOI 10.1134/S2079086412060035
Bespalaya Yu.V., Bolotov I.N., Makhrov A.A., Vikhrev I.V. 2012. Historical Geography of Pearl Fishing in Rivers of the Southern White Sea Region (Arkhangelsk Oblast). - Regional Research of Russia 2(2): 172–181. DOI 10.1134/S2079970512020025
Bespalaja Yu.V., Bolotov I.N., Makhrov A.A. 2007. State of the Population of the European Pearl Mussel Margaritifera margaritifera (L.) (Mollusca, Margaritiferidae) at the Northeastern Boundary of Its Range (Solza River, White Sea Basin). - Russ. J. Ecol. 37(3): 222–229. DOI 10.1134/S1067413607030095
Bolotov I. N., A. A. Makhrov, Yu. V. Bespalaya, I. V. Vikhrev, O. V. Aksenova, P. E. Aspholm, M. Yu. Gofarov, A. N. Ostrovskii, I. Yu. Popov, I. S. Pal'tser, M. Rudzite, M. Rudzitis, I. S. Voroshilova, S. E. Sokolova 2013. Results of testing the comparatory method: The curvature of the shell valve frontal section is inappropriate as a systematic character for the freshwater pearl mussel of the genus Margaritifera. Biology Bulletin 40(2): 221–231. DOI 10.1134/S1062359013020027
A critical view of attempts to protect mussel population in Cumbria, from
External links
University of Helsinki - Science of River Pearl Mussel
UK Biodiversity Action Plan
Russian Margaritifera Research Consortium
Margaritifera
Freshwater bivalves
Molluscs described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Negligibly senescent organisms
Bivalves of Asia
Molluscs of Europe
Bivalves and humans
Habitats Directive species | Freshwater pearl mussel | [
"Biology"
] | 3,249 | [
"Senescence",
"Negligibly senescent organisms",
"Organisms by adaptation"
] |
8,906,418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel%20fence%20post | A steel fence post, also called (depending on design or country) a T-post, a Y-post, or variants on star post, is a type of fence post or picket. They are made of steel and are sometimes manufactured using durable rail steel. They can be used to support various types of wire or wire mesh. The end view of the post creates an obvious T, Y, or other shape. The posts are driven into the ground with a manual or pneumatic post pounder. All along the post, along the spine, there are studs or nubs that prevent the barbed wire or mesh from sliding up or down the post. They are generally designated as 1.01, 1.25 or 1.33, referring to the weight in pounds per lineal foot. They are commonly painted with a white tip on top; white improves the visibility of the fence line. When driving the post with a post pounder the white top paint is a visual means to ensure the user doesn’t raise the pounder too high while pounding. Raising the pounder too high allows it to lean towards the user and could lean to striking them in the head.
While T-Posts are more common in the United States, Y-posts are more common in Australia and New Zealand where they are sometimes called either star pickets or "Waratahs", after the company which registered a patent for them in 1926. In New Zealand Waratahs are often used for trail blazing.
In areas (such as the British Isles) where treated timber is relatively inexpensive, wooden fence-posts are used and steel ones are unusual for agricultural purposes. In the British Isles steel posts are however often used for fencing into solid rock. In this case a hole is drilled into the rock, and the post is fixed using cement or epoxy.
In Australia these are normally called a star picket and sizing is by length, normally one notch on the top and holes down the length. They are often covered in a black bituminous coating.
See also
Agricultural fencing
Stanchion
References
Building materials
Metal fences
Fence
Steel objects | Steel fence post | [
"Physics",
"Engineering"
] | 424 | [
"Building engineering",
"Construction",
"Materials",
"Building materials",
"Matter",
"Architecture"
] |
8,906,668 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acousto-optics | Acousto-optics is a branch of physics that studies the interactions between sound waves and light waves, especially the diffraction of laser light by ultrasound (or sound in general) through an ultrasonic grating.
Introduction
In general, acousto-optic effects are based on the change of the refractive index of a medium due to the presence of sound waves in that medium. Sound waves produce a refractive index grating in the material, and it is this grating that is "seen" by the light wave. These variations in the refractive index, due to the pressure fluctuations, may be detected optically by refraction, diffraction, and interference effects; reflection may also be used.
The acousto-optic effect is extensively used in the measurement and study of ultrasonic waves. However, the growing principal area of interest is in acousto-optical devices for the deflection, modulation, signal processing and frequency shifting of light beams. This is due to the increasing availability and performance of lasers, which have made the acousto-optic effect easier to observe and measure. Technical progress in both crystal growth and high frequency piezoelectric transducers has brought valuable benefits to acousto-optic components' improvements.
Along with the current applications, acousto-optics presents interesting possible application. It can be used in nondestructive testing, structural health monitoring and biomedical applications, where optically generated and optical measurements of ultrasound gives a non-contact method of imaging.
History
Optics has had a very long and full history, from ancient Greece, through the renaissance and modern times. As with optics, acoustics has a history of similar duration, again starting with the ancient Greeks. In contrast, the acousto-optic effect has had a relatively short history, beginning with Brillouin predicting the diffraction of light by an acoustic wave, being propagated in a medium of interaction, in 1922. This was then confirmed with experimentation in 1932 by Debye and Sears, and also by Lucas and Biquard.
The particular case of diffraction on the first order, under a certain angle of incidence, (also predicted by Brillouin), has been observed by Rytow in 1935. Raman and Nath (1937) have designed a general ideal model of interaction taking into account several orders. This model was developed by Phariseau (1956) for diffraction including only one diffraction order.
Acousto-optic effect
The acousto-optic effect is a specific case of photoelasticity, where there is a change of a material's permittivity, , due to a mechanical strain . Photoelasticity is the variation of the optical indicatrix coefficients caused by the strain given by,
where is the photoelastic tensor with components, , = 1,2,...,6.
Specifically in the acousto-optic effect, the strains are a result of the acoustic wave which has been excited within a transparent medium. This then gives rise to the variation of the refractive index. For a plane acoustic wave propagating along the z axis, the change in the refractive index can be expressed as
where is the undisturbed refractive index, is the angular frequency, is the wavenumber of the acoustic wave, and is the amplitude of variation in the refractive index generated by the acoustic wave, and is given as,
The generated refractive index, (2), gives a diffraction grating moving with the velocity given by the speed of the sound wave in the medium. Light which then passes through the transparent material, is diffracted due to this generated refraction index, forming a prominent diffraction pattern. This diffraction pattern corresponds with a conventional diffraction grating at angles from the original direction, and is given by,
where is the wavelength of the optical wave, is the wavelength of the acoustic wave and is the integer order maximum.
Light diffracted by an acoustic wave of a single frequency produces two distinct diffraction types. These are Raman–Nath diffraction and Bragg diffraction.
Raman–Nath diffraction is observed with relatively low acoustic frequencies, typically less than 10 MHz, and with a small acousto-optic interaction length, ℓ, which is typically less than 1 cm. This type of diffraction occurs at an arbitrary angle of incidence, .
In contrast, Bragg diffraction occurs at higher acoustic frequencies, usually exceeding 100 MHz. The observed diffraction pattern generally consists of two diffraction maxima; these are the zeroth and the first orders. However, even these two maxima only appear at definite incidence angles close to the Bragg angle, . The first order maximum or the Bragg maximum is formed due to a selective reflection of the light from the wave fronts of ultrasonic wave. The Bragg angle is given by the expression,
where is the wavelength of the incident light wave (in a vacuum), is the acoustic frequency, is the velocity of the acoustic wave, is the refractive index for the incident optical wave, and is the refractive index for the diffracted optical waves.
In general, there is no point at which Bragg diffraction takes over from Raman–Nath diffraction. It is simply a fact that as the acoustic frequency increases, the number of observed maxima is gradually reduced due to the angular selectivity of the acousto-optic interaction. Traditionally, the type of diffraction, Bragg or Raman–Nath, is determined by the conditions and respectively, where Q is given by,
which is known as the Klein–Cook parameter. Since, in general, only the first order diffraction maximum is used in acousto-optic devices, Bragg diffraction is preferable due to the lower optical losses. However, the acousto-optic requirements for Bragg diffraction limit the frequency range of acousto-optic interaction. As a consequence, the speed of operation of acousto-optic devices is also limited.
Acousto-optic devices
Acousto-optic modulator
By varying the parameters of the acoustic wave, including the amplitude, phase, frequency and polarization, properties of the optical wave may be modulated. The acousto-optic interaction also makes it possible to modulate the optical beam by both temporal and spatial modulation.
A simple method of modulating the optical beam travelling through the acousto-optic device is done by switching the acoustic field on and off. When off the light beam is undiverted, the intensity of light directed at the Bragg diffraction angle is zero. When switched on and Bragg diffraction occurs, the intensity at the Bragg angle increases. So the acousto-optic device is modulating the output along the Bragg diffraction angle, switching it on and off. The device is operated as a modulator by keeping the acoustic wavelength (frequency) fixed and varying the drive power to vary the amount of light in the deflected beam.
There are several limitations associated with the design and performance of acousto-optic modulators. The acousto-optic medium must be designed carefully to provide maximum light intensity in a single diffracted beam. The time taken for the acoustic wave to travel across the diameter of the light beam gives a limitation on the switching speed, and hence limits the modulation bandwidth. The finite velocity of the acoustic wave means the light cannot be fully switched on or off until the acoustic wave has traveled across the light beam. So to increase the bandwidth the light must be focused to a small diameter at the location of the acousto-optic interaction. This minimum focused size of the beam represents the limit for the bandwidth.
Acousto-optic tunable filter
The principle behind the operation of acousto-optic tunable filters is based on the wavelength of the diffracted light being dependent on the acoustic frequency. By tuning the frequency of the acoustic wave, the desired wavelength of the optical wave can be diffracted acousto-optically.
There are two types of the acousto-optic filters, the collinear and non-collinear filters. The type of filter depends on geometry of acousto-optic interaction.
The polarization of the incident light can be either ordinary or extraordinary. For the definition, we assume ordinary polarization. Here the following list of symbols is used,
: the angle between the acoustic wave vector and the crystallographic axis z of the crystal;
: the wedge angle between the input and output faces of the filter cell (the wedge angle is necessary for eliminating the angular shift of the diffracted beam caused by frequency changing);
: the angle between the incident light wave vector and [110] axis of the crystal;
: the angle between the input face of the cell and acoustic wave vector;
: the angle between deflected and non-deflected light at the central frequency;
: the transducer length.
The incidence angle and the central frequency of the filter are defined by the following set of equations,
Refractive indices of the ordinary () and extraordinary () polarized beams are determined by taking into account their dispersive dependence.
The sound velocity, , depends on the angle α, such that,
and are the sound velocities along the axes [110] and [001], consecutively. The value of is determined by the angles and ,
The angle between the diffracted and non-diffracted beams defines the view field of the filter; it can be calculated from the formula,
Input light need not be polarized for a non-collinear design. Unpolarized input light is scattered into orthogonally polarized beams separated by the scattering angle for the particular design and wavelength. If the optical design provides an appropriate beam block for the unscattered light, then two beams (images) are formed in an optical passband that is nearly equivalent in both orthogonally linearly polarized output beams (differing by the Stokes and Anti-Stokes scattering parameter). Because of dispersion, these beams move slightly with scanning rf frequency.
Acousto-optic deflectors
An acousto-optic deflector spatially controls the optical beam. In the operation of an acousto-optic deflector the power driving the acoustic transducer is kept on, at a constant level, while the acoustic frequency is varied to deflect the beam to different angular positions. The acousto-optic deflector makes use of the acoustic frequency dependent diffraction angle, where a change in the angle as a function of the change in frequency is given as,
where is the optical wavelength of the beam and is the velocity of the acoustic wave.
AOD technology has made practical the Bose–Einstein condensation for which the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Eric A. Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle and Carl E. Wieman. Another application of acoustic-optical deflection is optical trapping of small molecules.
AODs are essentially the same as acousto-optic modulators (AOMs). In an AOM, only the amplitude of the sound wave is modulated (to modulate the intensity of the diffracted laser beam), whereas in an AOD, both the amplitude and frequency are adjusted, making the engineering requirements tighter for an AOD than an AOM.
Materials
All materials display the acousto-optic effect. Fused silica is used as a standard to compare when measuring photoelastic coefficients. Lithium niobate is often used in high frequency devices. Softer materials, such as arsenic trisulfide, tellurium dioxide and tellurite glasses, lead silicate, Ge55As12S33, mercury(I) chloride, lead(II) bromide, with slow acoustic waves make high efficiency devices at lower frequencies, and give high resolution.
See also
Acousto-optic modulator
Acousto-optic deflector
Nonlinear optics
Sonoluminescence
Schaefer–Bergmann diffraction
References
Diffraction
Light
Acoustics
Nonlinear optics
Waves | Acousto-optics | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science"
] | 2,496 | [
"Physical phenomena",
"Spectrum (physical sciences)",
"Electromagnetic spectrum",
"Classical mechanics",
"Acoustics",
"Waves",
"Diffraction",
"Motion (physics)",
"Light",
"Crystallography",
"Spectroscopy"
] |
8,906,733 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oseltamivir%20total%20synthesis | Oseltamivir total synthesis concerns the total synthesis of the anti-influenza drug oseltamivir marketed by Hoffmann-La Roche under the trade name Tamiflu. Its commercial production starts from the biomolecule shikimic acid harvested from Chinese star anise and from recombinant E. coli. Control of stereochemistry is important: the molecule has three stereocenters and the sought-after isomer is only 1 of 8 stereoisomers.
Commercial production
The current production method is based on the first scalable synthesis developed by Gilead Sciences starting from naturally occurring quinic acid or shikimic acid. Due to lower yields and the extra steps required (because of the additional dehydration), the quinic acid route was dropped in favour of the one based on shikimic acid, which received further improvements by Hoffmann-La Roche.
The current industrial synthesis is summarised below:
Karpf / Trussardi synthesis
The current production method includes two reaction steps with potentially hazardous azides. A reported azide-free Roche synthesis of tamiflu is summarised graphically below:
The synthesis commences from naturally available (−)-shikimic acid. The 3,4-pentylidene acetal mesylate is prepared in three steps: esterification with ethanol and thionyl chloride; ketalization with p-toluenesulfonic acid and 3-pentanone; and mesylation with triethylamine and methanesulfonyl chloride. Reductive opening of the ketal under modified Hunter conditions in dichloromethane yields an inseparable mixture of isomeric mesylates. The corresponding epoxide is formed under basic conditions with potassium bicarbonate. Using the inexpensive Lewis acid magnesium bromide diethyl etherate (commonly prepared fresh by the addition of magnesium
turnings to 1,2-dibromoethane in benzene:diethyl ether), the epoxide is opened with allyl amine to yield the corresponding 1,2-amino alcohol. The water-immiscible solvents methyl tert-butyl ether and acetonitrile are used to simplify the workup procedure, which involved stirring with 1 M aqueous ammonium sulfate. Reduction on palladium, promoted by ethanolamine, followed by acidic workup yielded the deprotected 1,2-aminoalcohol. The aminoalcohol was converted directly to the corresponding allyl-diamine in an interesting cascade sequence that commences with the unselective imination of benzaldehyde with azeotropic water removal in methyl tert-butyl ether. Mesylation, followed by removal of the solid byproduct triethylamine hydrochloride, results in an intermediate that was poised to undergo aziridination upon transimination with another equivalent of allylamine. With the librated methanesulfonic acid, the
aziridine opens cleanly to yield a diamine that immediately undergoes a second transimination. Acidic hydrolysis then removed the imine. Selective acylation with acetic anhydride (under buffered conditions, the 5-amino group is protonated owing to a considerable difference in pKa, 4.2 vs 7.9, preventing acetylation) yields the desired N-acetylated product in crystalline form upon extractive workup. Finally, deallylation as above, yielded the freebase of oseltamivir, which was converted to the desired oseltamivir phosphate by treatment with phosphoric acid. The final product is obtained in high purity (99.7%) and an overall yield of 17-22% from (−)-shikimic acid. It is noted that the synthesis avoids the use of potentially explosive azide reagents and intermediates; however, the synthesis actually used by Roche uses azides. Roche has other routes to
oseltamivir that do not involve the use of (−)-shikimic acid as a chiral pool starting material, such as a Diels-Alder route involving furan and ethyl acrylate or an isophthalic acid route, which involves catalytic hydrogenation and enzymatic desymmetrization.
Corey synthesis
In 2006 the group of E.J. Corey published a novel route bypassing shikimic acid starting from butadiene and acrylic acid. The inventors chose not to patent this procedure which is described below.
Butadiene 1 reacts in an asymmetric Diels-Alder reaction with the esterification product of acrylic acid and 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol 2 catalysed by the CBS catalyst. The ester 3 is converted into an amide in 4 by reaction with ammonia and the next step to lactam 5 is an iodolactamization with iodine initiated by trimethylsilyl triflate. The amide group is fitted with a BOC protecting group by reaction with Boc anhydride in 6 and the iodine substituent is removed in an elimination reaction with DBU to the alkene 7. Bromine is introduced in 8 by an allylic bromination with NBS and the amide group is cleaved with ethanol and caesium carbonate accompanied by elimination of bromide to the diene ethyl ester 9. The newly formed double bond is functionalized with N-bromoacetamide 10 catalyzed with
tin(IV) bromide with complete control of stereochemistry. In the next step the bromine atom in 11 is displaced by the nitrogen atom in the amide group with the strong base KHMDS to the aziridine 12 which in turn is opened by reaction with 3-pentanol 13 to the ether 14. In the final step the BOC group is removed with phosphoric acid and the oseltamivir phosphate 15 is formed.
Shibasaki synthesis
Also in 2006 the group of Masakatsu Shibasaki of the University of Tokyo published a synthesis again bypassing shikimic acid.
An improved method published in 2007 starts with the enantioselective desymmetrization of aziridine 1 with trimethylsilyl azide (TMSN3) and a chiral catalyst to the azide 2. The amide group is protected as a BOC group with Boc anhydride and DMAP in 3 and iodolactamization with iodine and potassium carbonate first gives the unstable intermediate 4 and then stable cyclic carbamate 5 after elimination of hydrogen iodide with DBU.
The amide group is reprotected as BOC 6 and the azide group converted to the amide 7 by reductive acylation with thioacetic acid and 2,6-lutidine. Caesium carbonate accomplishes the hydrolysis of the carbamate group to the alcohol 8 which is subsequently oxidized to ketone 9 with Dess-Martin periodinane. Cyanophosphorylation with diethyl phosphorocyanidate (DEPC) modifies the ketone group to the cyanophosphate 10 paving the way for an intramolecular allylic rearrangement to unstable β-allyl phosphate 11 (toluene, sealed tube) which is hydrolyzed to alcohol 12 with ammonium chloride. This hydroxyl group has the wrong stereochemistry and is therefore inverted in a Mitsunobu reaction with p-nitrobenzoic acid followed by hydrolysis of the p-nitrobenzoate to 13.
A second Mitsunobu reaction then forms the aziridine 14 available for ring-opening reaction with 3-pentanol catalyzed by boron trifluoride to ether 15. In the final step the BOC group is removed (HCl) and phosphoric acid added to objective 16.
Fukuyama synthesis
An approach published in 2007 like Corey's starts by an asymmetric Diels-Alder reaction this time with starting materials pyridine and acrolein.
Pyridine (1) is reduced with sodium borohydride in presence of benzyl chloroformate to the Cbz protected dihydropyridine 2. The asymmetric Diels-Alder reaction with acrolein 3 is carried out with the McMillan catalyst to the aldehyde 4 as the endo isomer which is oxidized to the carboxylic acid 5 with sodium chlorite, monopotassium phosphate and 2-methyl-2-butene. Addition of bromine gives halolactonization product 6 and after replacement of the Cbz protective group by a BOC protective group in 7 (hydrogenolysis in the presence of di-tert-butyl dicarbonate) a carbonyl group is introduced in intermediate 8 by catalytic ruthenium(IV) oxide and sacrificial catalyst sodium periodate. Addition of ammonia cleaves the ester group to form amide 9 the alcohol group of which is mesylated to compound 10. In the next step iodobenzene diacetate is added, converting the amide in a Hofmann rearrangement to the allyl carbamate 12 after capturing the intermediate isocyanate with allyl alcohol 11. On addition of sodium ethoxide in ethanol three reactions take place simultaneously: cleavage of the amide to form new an ethyl ester group, displacement of the mesyl group by newly formed BOC protected amine to an aziridine group and an elimination reaction forming the alkene group in 13 with liberation of HBr. In the final two steps the aziridine ring is opened by 3-pentanol 14 and boron trifluoride to aminoether 15 with the BOC group replaced by an acyl group and on removal of the other amine protecting group (Pd/C, Ph3P, and 1,3-dimethylbarbituric acid in ethanol) and addition of phosphoric acid oseltamivir 16 is obtained.
Trost synthesis
In 2008 the group of Barry M. Trost of Stanford University published the shortest synthetic route to date.
Hayashi synthesis
In 2009, Hayashi et al. successfully produced an efficient, low cost synthetic route to prepare (-)-oseltamivir (1). Their goal was to design a procedure that would be suitable for large-scale production. Keeping cost, yield, and number of synthetic steps in mind, an enantioselective total synthesis of (1) was accomplished through three one-pot operations. Hayashi et al.'s use of one-pot operations allowed them to perform several reactions steps in a single pot, which ultimately minimized the number of purification steps needed, waste, and saved time.
In the first one-pot operation, Hayashi et al. begins by using diphenylprolinol silyl ether (4) as an organocatalyst, along with alkoxyaldehyde (2) and nitroalkene (3) to perform an asymmetric Michael reaction, affording an enantioselective Michael adduct. Upon addition of a diethyl vinylphosphate derivative (5) to the Michael adduct, a domino Michael reaction and Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons reaction occurs due to the phosphonate group produced from (5) to give an ethyl cyclohexenecarboxylate derivative along with two unwanted by-products. To transform the undesired by-products into the desired ethyl cyclohexencarboxylate derivative, the mixture of the product and by-products was treated with Cs2CO3 in ethanol. This induced a retro-Michael reaction on one by-product and a retro-aldol reaction accompanied with a Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons reaction for the other. Both by-products were successfully converted to the desired derivative. Finally, the addition of p-toluenethiol with Cs2CO3 gives (6) in a 70% yield after being purified by column chromatography, with the desired isomer dominating.
In the second one-pot operation, trifluoroacetic acid is employed first to deprotect the tert-butyl ester of (6); any excess reagent was removed via evaporation. The carboxylic acid produced as a result of the deprotection was then converted to an acyl chloride by oxalyl chloride and a catalytic amount of DMF. Finally, addition of sodium azide, in the last reaction of the second one-pot operation, produce the acyl azide (7) without any purification needed.
The final one-pot operation begins with a Curtius Rearrangement of acyl azide (7) to produce an isocyanate functional group at room temperature. The isocyanate derivative then reacts with acetic acid to yield the desired acetylamino moiety found in (1). This domino Curtius rearrangement and amide formation occurs in the absence of heat, which is extremely beneficial for reducing any possible hazard. The nitro moiety of (7) is reduced to the desired amine observed in (1) with Zn/HCl. Due to the harsh conditions of the nitro reduction, ammonia was used to neutralize the reaction. Potassium carbonate was then added to give (1), via a retro-Michael reaction of the thiol. (1) was then purified by an acid/base extraction. The overall yield for the total synthesis of (-)-oseltamivir is 57%. Hayashi et al. use of inexpensive, non-hazardous reagents has allowed for an efficient, high yielding synthetic route that can allow for vast amount of novel derivatives to be produced in hopes of combatting against viruses resistant to (-)-oseltamivir.
References
External links
Oseltamivir Total Syntheses @ SynArchive.com
Total synthesis
Neuraminidase inhibitors | Oseltamivir total synthesis | [
"Chemistry"
] | 2,945 | [
"Total synthesis",
"Glycobiology",
"Neuraminidase inhibitors",
"Chemical synthesis"
] |
8,906,931 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loki%207%20bombings | Roger Charles Bell is a Canadian former secondary school teacher and convicted criminal from Prince Edward Island. Born in Murray River in 1944, Bell is a graduate of University of Western Ontario and taught high school chemistry at several schools in eastern Prince Edward Island.
Criminal conviction
Bell was arrested in 1997 and charged in connection with a series of pipe bomb explosions in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, and Halifax, Nova Scotia, dating from 1988 to 1996. During this time, a series of communications to media and law enforcement officials claimed that the bombings were undertaken by a group calling itself "Loki 7". Bell was convicted in 1997 by Chief Justice Armand DesRoches on charges of exploding four pipe bombs over a period of eight years and was given a nine-year sentence which he served at the Springhill Institution in Nova Scotia.
Bombings
A pipe bomb exploded outside the Sir Louis Henry Davies Law Courts in Charlottetown in October 1988. The bomb was obscured in a flower bed and exploded at 0600, causing no structural damage, although windows were broken and damage was sustained to the law library.
After a 6-year lull, a pipe bomb planted in a trash can in Halifax's Point Pleasant Park was discovered in 1994. Law enforcement were alerted and the bomb was defused with no damage being reported.
On April 20, 1995, one day after the Oklahoma City bombing attack, a powerful pipe bomb that was planted under a wood-framed wheelchair ramp on the north side of Province House in Charlottetown exploded in the mid-morning hours. The explosion occurred several minutes after a class of school children had passed through the area. Over 20 windows were damaged on the building and shrapnel and debris was thrown around the area. One injury was reported by an individual sitting on a nearby park bench who received a broken ankle and severed blood vessels from the shrapnel and the shockwave. After this explosion, police and media (ATV News) received the first communiqué from "Loki 7".
On June 25, 1996, the Prince Edward Island station of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) received a warning from "Loki 7" about a bomb located at a nearby propane terminal. Law enforcement evacuated the surrounding area and discovered the device affixed to a large above-ground propane storage tank. Several empty garbage trucks were placed around the tank to shield potential blast effects and police bomb squads removed the device using a water cannon. It exploded but did not cause any damage to the propane terminal or other equipment.
Investigation
Law enforcement had no leads following the 1988 and 1994 bombings, although the 1988 case had received much speculation from local residents who thought it might be linked to organized crime. It was not until after the 1995 bombing at Province House that all three were linked together.
Communiqués
Communications from "Loki 7" were taken seriously, but with suspicion, since most of the information could have been gleaned from media reports. Police were also puzzled by how long it took the bomber or bombers to claim credit for each action.
The name Loki 7 was also a source of consternation. Police knew that Loki was the Norse god of mischief. As with previous correspondence from "Loki 7", the swastika-emblazoned missive ended with the declaration "Heil, Thor."
Given the odd nature of the letters it was considered by some investigators to be a prank, rather than actual contact from the bombers. This changed after the 1996 bombing when a letter from "Loki 7" described precisely where to find a bomb that had been left at the propane terminal.
Each letter contained references to "venal injustice officials" and "crypto-Zionist producers" but revealed little about potential motives. Despite some of the neo-Nazi rhetoric, police were not led to believe that "Loki 7" represented a white supremacist group.
The Charlottetown Police Department, along with major crime investigators and criminal profilers with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), assembled a task force to solve the case. Prior to the 1996 propane terminal bombing, Charlottetown Police had 3 investigators working on the file and this was increased to 6 personnel with an unconfirmed number from the RCMP.
Roger Bell had gained the interest of Charlottetown Police following the 1988 bombing, but he had been one of many at the time and given the 6-year lull (7 on Prince Edward Island) in activity, he received less interest over time. Less than one month after the 1996 bombing, the joint task force had narrowed the field of suspects which again included Bell. He was placed under 24-hour surveillance that August and arrested that fall.
Bell pleaded guilty and was convicted the following year and sentenced to nine years in a federal penitentiary. He was released for parole in 2006.
Motive
When Bell was caught, he did not reveal his motives until a 2002 appearance before the National Parole Board, when Bell said, "I think my mission was simply revenge at society."
See also
Unabomber
References
External links
"Charlottetown Bombing", a Maclean's article from May 1, 1995, on The Canadian Encyclopedia.
Bombing
1997 in Canadian law
1990s crimes in Canada
Charlottetown
Halifax County, Nova Scotia | Loki 7 bombings | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,048 | [
"Bombing",
"Explosions"
] |
8,907,443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caccioppoli%20set | In mathematics, a Caccioppoli set is a subset of whose boundary is (in a suitable sense) measurable and has (at least locally) a finite measure. A synonym is set of (locally) finite perimeter. Basically, a set is a Caccioppoli set if its characteristic function is a function of bounded variation, and its perimeter is the total variation of the characteristic function.
History
The basic concept of a Caccioppoli set was first introduced by the Italian mathematician Renato Caccioppoli in the paper : considering a plane set or a surface defined on an open set in the plane, he defined their measure or area as the total variation in the sense of Tonelli of their defining functions, i.e. of their parametric equations, provided this quantity was bounded. The measure of the boundary of a set was defined as a functional, precisely a set function, for the first time: also, being defined on open sets, it can be defined on all Borel sets and its value can be approximated by the values it takes on an increasing net of subsets. Another clearly stated (and demonstrated) property of this functional was its lower semi-continuity.
In the paper , he precised by using a triangular mesh as an increasing net approximating the open domain, defining positive and negative variations whose sum is the total variation, i.e. the area functional. His inspiring point of view, as he explicitly admitted, was those of Giuseppe Peano, as expressed by the Peano-Jordan Measure: to associate to every portion of a surface an oriented plane area in a similar way as an approximating chord is associated to a curve. Also, another theme found in this theory was the extension of a functional from a subspace to the whole ambient space: the use of theorems generalizing the Hahn–Banach theorem is frequently encountered in Caccioppoli research. However, the restricted meaning of total variation in the sense of Tonelli added much complication to the formal development of the theory, and the use of a parametric description of the sets restricted its scope.
Lamberto Cesari introduced the "right" generalization of functions of bounded variation to the case of several variables only in 1936: perhaps, this was one of the reasons that induced Caccioppoli to present an improved version of his theory only nearly 24 years later, in the talk at the IV UMI Congress in October 1951, followed by five notes published in the Rendiconti of the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei. These notes were sharply criticized by Laurence Chisholm Young in the Mathematical Reviews.
In 1952 Ennio De Giorgi presented his first results, developing the ideas of Caccioppoli, on the definition of the measure of boundaries of sets at the Salzburg Congress of the Austrian Mathematical Society: he obtained this results by using a smoothing operator, analogous to a mollifier, constructed from the Gaussian function, independently proving some results of Caccioppoli. Probably he was led to study this theory by his teacher and friend Mauro Picone, who had also been the teacher of Caccioppoli and was likewise his friend. De Giorgi met Caccioppoli in 1953 for the first time: during their meeting, Caccioppoli expressed a profound appreciation of his work, starting their lifelong friendship. The same year he published his first paper on the topic i.e. : however, this paper and the closely following one did not attracted much interest from the mathematical community. It was only with the paper , reviewed again by Laurence Chisholm Young in the Mathematical Reviews, that his approach to sets of finite perimeter became widely known and appreciated: also, in the review, Young revised his previous criticism on the work of Caccioppoli.
The last paper of De Giorgi on the theory of perimeters was published in 1958: in 1959, after the death of Caccioppoli, he started to call sets of finite perimeter "Caccioppoli sets". Two years later Herbert Federer and Wendell Fleming published their paper , changing the approach to the theory. Basically they introduced two new kind of currents, respectively normal currents and integral currents: in a subsequent series of papers and in his famous treatise, Federer showed that Caccioppoli sets are normal currents of dimension in -dimensional euclidean spaces. However, even if the theory of Caccioppoli sets can be studied within the framework of theory of currents, it is customary to study it through the "traditional" approach using functions of bounded variation, as the various sections found in a lot of important monographs in mathematics and mathematical physics testify.
Formal definition
In what follows, the definition and properties of functions of bounded variation in the -dimensional setting will be used.
Caccioppoli definition
Definition 1. Let be an open subset of and let be a Borel set. The perimeter of in is defined as follows
where is the characteristic function of . That is, the perimeter of in an open set is defined to be the total variation of its characteristic function on that open set. If , then we write for the (global) perimeter.
Definition 2. The Borel set is a Caccioppoli set if and only if it has finite perimeter in every bounded open subset of , i.e.
whenever is open and bounded.
Therefore, a Caccioppoli set has a characteristic function whose total variation is locally bounded. From the theory of functions of bounded variation it is known that this implies the existence of a vector-valued Radon measure such that
As noted for the case of general functions of bounded variation, this vector measure is the distributional or weak gradient of . The total variation measure associated with is denoted by , i.e. for every open set we write for .
De Giorgi definition
In his papers and , Ennio De Giorgi introduces the following smoothing operator, analogous to the Weierstrass transform in the one-dimensional case
As one can easily prove, is a smooth function for all , such that
also, its gradient is everywhere well defined, and so is its absolute value
Having defined this function, De Giorgi gives the following definition of perimeter:
Definition 3. Let be an open subset of and let be a Borel set. The perimeter of in is the value
Actually De Giorgi considered the case : however, the extension to the general case is not difficult. It can be proved that the two definitions are exactly equivalent: for a proof see the already cited De Giorgi's papers or the book . Now having defined what a perimeter is, De Giorgi gives the same definition 2 of what a set of (locally) finite perimeter is.
Basic properties
The following properties are the ordinary properties which the general notion of a perimeter is supposed to have:
If then , with equality holding if and only if the closure of is a compact subset of .
For any two Cacciopoli sets and , the relation holds, with equality holding if and only if , where is the distance between sets in euclidean space.
If the Lebesgue measure of is , then : this implies that if the symmetric difference of two sets has zero Lebesgue measure, the two sets have the same perimeter i.e. .
Notions of boundary
For any given Caccioppoli set there exist two naturally associated analytic quantities: the vector-valued Radon measure and its total variation measure . Given that
is the perimeter within any open set , one should expect that alone should somehow account for the perimeter of .
The topological boundary
It is natural to try to understand the relationship between the objects , , and the topological boundary . There is an elementary lemma that guarantees that the support (in the sense of distributions) of , and therefore also , is always contained in :
Lemma. The support of the vector-valued Radon measure is a subset of the topological boundary of .
Proof. To see this choose : then belongs to the open set and this implies that it belongs to an open neighborhood contained in the interior of or in the interior of . Let . If where is the closure of , then for and
Likewise, if then for so
With arbitrary it follows that is outside the support of .
The reduced boundary
The topological boundary turns out to be too crude for Caccioppoli sets because its Hausdorff measure overcompensates for the perimeter defined above. Indeed, the Caccioppoli set
representing a square together with a line segment sticking out on the left has perimeter , i.e. the extraneous line segment is ignored, while its topological boundary
has one-dimensional Hausdorff measure .
The "correct" boundary should therefore be a subset of . We define:
Definition 4. The reduced boundary of a Caccioppoli set is denoted by and is defined to be equal to be the collection of points at which the limit:
exists and has length equal to one, i.e. .
One can remark that by the Radon-Nikodym Theorem the reduced boundary is necessarily contained in the support of , which in turn is contained in the topological boundary as explained in the section above. That is:
The inclusions above are not necessarily equalities as the previous example shows. In that example, is the square with the segment sticking out, is the square, and is the square without its four corners.
De Giorgi's theorem
For convenience, in this section we treat only the case where , i.e. the set has (globally) finite perimeter. De Giorgi's theorem provides geometric intuition for the notion of reduced boundaries and confirms that it is the more natural definition for Caccioppoli sets by showing
i.e. that its Hausdorff measure equals the perimeter of the set. The statement of the theorem is quite long because it interrelates various geometric notions in one fell swoop.
Theorem. Suppose is a Caccioppoli set. Then at each point of the reduced boundary there exists a multiplicity one approximate tangent space of , i.e. a codimension-1 subspace of such that
for every continuous, compactly supported . In fact the subspace is the orthogonal complement of the unit vector
defined previously. This unit vector also satisfies
locally in , so it is interpreted as an approximate inward pointing unit normal vector to the reduced boundary . Finally, is (n-1)-rectifiable and the restriction of (n-1)-dimensional Hausdorff measure to is , i.e.
for all Borel sets .
In other words, up to -measure zero the reduced boundary is the smallest set on which is supported.
Applications
A Gauss–Green formula
From the definition of the vector Radon measure and from the properties of the perimeter, the following formula holds true:
This is one version of the divergence theorem for domains with non smooth boundary. De Giorgi's theorem can be used to formulate the same identity in terms of the reduced boundary and the approximate inward pointing unit normal vector . Precisely, the following equality holds
See also
Geometric measure theory
Divergence theorem
Pfeffer integral
Notes
References
Historical references
. A paper surveying the history of the theory of sets of finite perimeter, from the seminal paper of Renato Caccioppoli and the contributions of Ennio De Giorgi to some more recent developments and open problems in metric measure spaces, in Carnot groups and in infinite-dimensional Gaussian spaces.
. The first paper containing the seminal concept of what a Caccioppoli set is.
. The work where Caccioppoli made rigorous and developed the concepts introduced in the preceding paper .
.The first paper detailing the theory of finite perimeter set in a fairly complete setting.
. A selection from Caccioppoli's scientific works with a biography and a commentary of Mauro Picone.
. Available at Numdam. Cesari's watershed paper, where he extends the now called Tonelli plane variation concept to include in the definition a subclass of the class of integrable functions.
. The first note published by De Giorgi describing his approach to Caccioppoli sets.
. The first complete exposition by De Giorgi of the theory of Caccioppoli sets.
. The first paper of Herbert Federer illustrating his approach to the theory of perimeters based on the theory of currents.
. A paper sketching the history of the theory of sets of finite perimeter, from the seminal paper of Renato Caccioppoli to main discoveries.
Scientific references
. An advanced text, oriented towards the theory of minimal surfaces in the multi-dimensional setting, written by one of the leading contributors.
, particularly chapter 4, paragraph 4.5, sections 4.5.1 to 4.5.4 "Sets with locally finite perimeter". The absolute reference text in geometric measure theory.
, particularly Chapter 3, Section 14 "Sets of Locally Finite Perimeter".
, particularly part I, chapter 1 "Functions of bounded variation and Caccioppoli sets". A good reference on the theory of Caccioppoli sets and their application to the Minimal surface problem.
, particularly part II, chapter 4 paragraph 2 "Sets with finite perimeter". One of the best books about –functions and their application to problems of mathematical physics, particularly chemical kinetics.
; particularly chapter 6, "On functions in the space ". One of the best monographs on the theory of Sobolev spaces.
. A seminal paper where Caccioppoli sets and –functions are deeply studied and the concept of functional superposition is introduced and applied to the theory of partial differential equations.
External links
Function of bounded variation at Encyclopedia of Mathematics
Mathematical analysis
Calculus of variations
Measure theory | Caccioppoli set | [
"Mathematics"
] | 2,811 | [
"Mathematical analysis"
] |
8,907,461 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sill%20plate | A sill plate or sole plate in construction and architecture is the bottom horizontal member of a wall or building to which vertical members are attached. The word "plate" is typically omitted in America and carpenters speak simply of the "sill". Other names are rat sill, ground plate, ground sill, groundsel, night plate, and midnight sill.
Sill plates are usually composed of lumber but can be any material. The timber at the top of a wall is often called a top plate, pole plate, mudsill, wall plate or simply "the plate".
Timber sills
In historic buildings the sills were almost always large, solid timbers framed together at the corners, carry the bents, and are set on the stone or brick foundation walls, piers, or piles (wood posts driven or set into the ground). The sill typically carries the wall framing (posts and studs) and floor joists.
There are rare examples of historic buildings in the U.S. where the floor joists land on the foundation and a plank sill or timber sill sit on top of the joists. Another rare, historic building technique is for the posts of a timber-frame building to land directly on a foundation or in the ground and the sills fit between the posts and are called interrupted sills.
Stick framing
In modern wood construction, sills usually come in sizes of 2×4, 2×6, 2×8, and 2×10. In stick framing, the sill is made of treated lumber, and is anchored to the foundation wall, often with J-bolts, to keep the building from coming off the foundation during a severe storm or earthquake. Building codes require that the bottom of the sill plate be kept 6 to 8 inches above the finished grade, to hinder termites, and to prevent the sill plate from rotting.
Automobiles
In automobiles, the sill plate is located underneath the door and sometimes displays the make or model of the vehicle.
Naval architecture
In naval architecture, sill also refers to the lower horizontal plate (frame) height, above which doors and access opening are fixed.
References
Burrows, John (2005). Canadian Wood-Frame House Construction. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, .
External links
US Coast Guard Load Line Technical Manual
Building engineering
Structural system
Woodworking
Architectural elements
Carpentry | Sill plate | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 481 | [
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"Building engineering",
"Structural system",
"Architectural elements",
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"Components",
"Architecture"
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8,908,470 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conodont%20Alteration%20Index | The Conodont Alteration Index (CAI) is used to estimate the maximum temperature reached by a sedimentary rock using thermal alteration of conodont fossils. Conodonts in fossiliferous carbonates are prepared by dissolving the matrix with weak acid, since the conodonts are composed of apatite and thus do not dissolve as readily as carbonate. The fossils are then compared to the index under a microscope. The index was first developed by Anita Epstein and colleagues at the United States Geological Survey.
The CAI ranges from 1 to 6, as follows:
The CAI is commonly used by paleontologists due to its ease of measurement and the abundance of Conodonta throughout marine carbonates of the Paleozoic. However, the organism disappears from the fossil record after the Triassic period, so the CAI is not available to analyze rocks younger than . Additionally, the index can be positively skewed in regions of hydrothermal alteration.
See also
Foraminiferal Colouration Index (FCI)
References
Epstein, A., Epstein, J., Harris, L. (1977). "Conodont Color Alteration - an Index to Organic Metamorphism." United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 995, 1-27.
(Image)
Conodonts
Fossil record of animals
Geochemistry
Sedimentology | Conodont Alteration Index | [
"Chemistry"
] | 264 | [
"Geochemistry stubs",
"nan"
] |
8,908,573 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riccardo%20Morandi | Riccardo Morandi (1 September 1902 – 25 December 1989) was an Italian civil engineer best known for his innovative use of reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete, although over the years some of his particular cable-stayed bridges have had some maintenance trouble.
Amongst his best-known works are the General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge, an cable-stayed bridge crossing Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela; a similar bridge in Genoa commonly known as Ponte Morandi (officially Viadotto Polcevera), which partially collapsed in 2018 for reasons under investigation; and the Subterranean Automobile Showroom in Turin.
Career
Morandi was born in Rome. After his graduation in 1927, Morandi gained experience in Calabria working with reinforced concrete in earthquake-damaged areas. On his return to Rome to open his own office, he continued with his technical exploration of reinforced and prestressed concrete structures and embarked on the design of a series of novel cinema structures and bridges.His numerous later works include his work on the Fiumicino Airport (Rome) in 1970.
Morandi was appointed professor of bridge design both at the University of Florence and the University of Rome, became a Fellow of the "Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce" (FRSA) in 1963, and received an honorary doctorate in architecture by Technical University of Munich (T.U.M.) in 1979.
Criticism of the cable-stayed bridges by Morandi
Morandi's cable-stayed bridges are characterised by very few stays, often as few as two per span, and often with the spans constructed from prestressed concrete rather than the more-usual steel.
Although these bridges are often impressive, they are less economic than bridges with multiple stays and have therefore been of little influence on other engineers. Bridges by Morandi have proved to require extensive maintenance and repairs over the years to pass bridge safety inspections, and cables embedded in concrete are difficult to inspect.
On his General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge in Venezuela - where the cables of the stays are not covered with prestressed concrete (as instead intended from the initial project, and optimal for Morandi) - several exposed cables snapped from rapid corrosion, and all the stay-cables were replaced just 18 years after construction.
About Ponte Morandi in Genoa (Polcevera Viaduct), since the 1970s Morandi himself had signaled and requested attention to the incorrect structural response of his bridge in Genoa, with the related safety risks, mentioning an unexpectedly fast corrosion as a possible reason for the problems, and has called for corrective works.
In 2016 Ponte Morandi had been described by Antonio Brencich as a "failure of engineering", with escalating maintenance costs to keep it safe. Pier number 9 of the bridge collapsed on 14 August 2018, causing 43 fatalities. The other two stayed-piers remained standing, as did the other eight non-stayed piers. The cause of the collapse was still under investigation more than two years later.
Morandi's similar but smaller Wadi el Kuf Bridge, in Libya, was closed for 2 days in October 2017 for safety reasons. This was after inspections identified potential fractures in the bridge. After the alert, road transport engineers inspected the bridge concluding that it needed only emergency maintenance and was safe. It was open again for light traffic, while local security officials were stopping heavily-loaded trucks from crossing in groups. A similar security alert followed in August 2018.
Projects
Major works (bridges only) by Morandi is shown below:
Morandi was also involved in the construction of the Powerline crossing of Messina Strait.
References
External links
Short biography
1902 births
1989 deaths
Engineers from Rome
Structural engineers
Bridge engineers
Italian civil engineers
Modernist architecture in Italy
Academic staff of the University of Florence
Academic staff of the Sapienza University of Rome
20th-century Italian engineers
Burials at Campo Verano | Riccardo Morandi | [
"Engineering"
] | 774 | [
"Structural engineering",
"Structural engineers"
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8,908,599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut%20Ruska | Helmut Ruska (June 7, 1908, in Heidelberg – August 30, 1973) was a German physician and biologist from Heidelberg. After earning his medical degree, he spent several years working as a physician at hospitals in Heidelberg and Berlin. During this time, he also worked closely with his brother Ernst Ruska (1906-1988) and brother-in-law Bodo von Borries (1905-56), who were both research scientists at Siemens-Reiniger-Werke. Ernst Ruska was the inventor of the electron microscope, and later winner of a Nobel Prize. From 1948 to 1951, Helmut Ruska was a professor at the University of Berlin, in 1952 he moved to the United States where he was a micromorphologist for the New York State Department of Health in Albany. He returned to Germany in 1958 as director of biophysics at the University of Düsseldorf.
Through close association with his brother, Helmut Ruska is remembered for developing the electron microscope for biological and medical applications. He was the first scientist to study "sub-microscopic" structures of parasites, bacteriophages and various viruses with an electron microscope. In the 1940s, he published numerous articles regarding his research, including Die Bedeutung der Übermikroskopie für die Virusforschung (The Significance of Electron Microscopy for Virus Research).
External links
Helmut Ruska & The Visualization of Viruses
1908 births
1973 deaths
Physicians from Heidelberg
People from the Grand Duchy of Baden
German microbiologists
Microscopists
Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin
Academic staff of Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf
Burials at the Waldfriedhof Zehlendorf | Helmut Ruska | [
"Chemistry"
] | 332 | [
"Microscopists",
"Microscopy"
] |
7,399,069 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-Ethylpentane | 3-Ethylpentane (C7H16) is a branched saturated hydrocarbon. It is an alkane, and one of the many structural isomers of heptane, consisting of a five carbon chain with a two carbon branch at the middle carbon.
An example of an alcohol derived from 3-ethylpentane is the tertiary alcohol 3-ethylpentan-3-ol.
References
Alkanes
Ethyl compounds | 3-Ethylpentane | [
"Chemistry"
] | 94 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Alkanes"
] |
7,399,238 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diisopropylzinc | Diisopropylzinc is an organozinc compound with the chemical formula
ZnC6H14.
It is the key reagent in the Soai reaction, which is both autocatalytic and enantiospecific. This chemical is pyrophoric, bursting into flame in air or in contact with water. It is generally packaged in toluene.
References
Organozinc compounds
Isopropyl compounds | Diisopropylzinc | [
"Chemistry"
] | 95 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Organic compound stubs",
"Organic chemistry stubs"
] |
7,399,275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wet%20oxidation | Wet oxidation is a form of hydrothermal treatment. It is the oxidation of dissolved or suspended components in water using oxygen as the oxidizer. It is referred to as "Wet Air Oxidation" (WAO) when air is used. The oxidation reactions occur in superheated water at a temperature above the normal boiling point of water (100 °C), but below the critical point (374 °C).
The system must be maintained under pressure to avoid excessive evaporation of water. This is done to control energy consumption due to the latent heat of vaporization. It is also done because liquid water is necessary for most of the oxidation reactions to occur. Compounds oxidize under wet oxidation conditions that would not oxidize under dry conditions at the same temperature and pressure.
Wet oxidation has been used commercially for around 60 years. It is used predominantly for treating wastewater. It is often referred to as Zimpro (from ZIMmerman PROcess), after Fred J. Zimmermann who commercialized it in the mid 20th century.
System Description
Commercial systems typically use a bubble column reactor, where air is bubbled through a vertical column that is liquid full of the hot and pressurized wastewater. Fresh wastewater enters the bottom of the column and oxidized wastewater exits the top. The heat released during the oxidation is used to maintain the operating temperature.
WAO is a liquid phase reaction using dissolved oxygen in water to oxidize wastewater contaminants. The dissolved oxygen is typically supplied using pressurized air, but pure oxygen can also be used. The oxidation reaction generally occurs at moderate temperatures of 150°-320 °C and at pressures from 10 to 220 bar. The process converts organic contaminants to carbon dioxide, water, and biodegradable short chain organic acids. Inorganic constituents such as sulfides and cyanides are converted to non-reactive inorganic compounds.
In the WAO reaction, complex organic molecules, including biological refractory compounds, are broken into simpler organic compounds or to a complete mineralized state (CO2, NH3, Cl−, SO4−2, PO4−3). Simple organic compounds such as low molecular weight carboxylic acids and mineralized reaction products may be present in the WAO effluents. Because of this, the WAO effluent generally requires post treatment prior to discharge. WAO effluents are typically readily biodegradable and exhibit high values for BOD:COD ratios. Standard treatment techniques such as activated sludge biotreatment are typically used with WAO for complete treatment.
Catalyst can be used in the WAO system to enhance treatment and achieve a higher COD destruction. Heterogeneous and homogenous catalysts have been used. Heterogeneous catalysts are based on precious metals deposited on a stable substrate. Homogenous catalysts are dissolved transition metals. Several processes, such as Ciba-Geigy, LOPROX, and ATHOS utilize a homogenous catalyst. Mixed metal catalysts, such a Ce/Mn, Co/Ce, Ag/Ce, have also been effective in improving the treatment achieved in a WAO system.
A special type of wet oxidation process was the so-called "VerTech process" system. A system of this type operated in Apeldoorn, Netherlands between 1994 and 2004. The system was installed in a below-ground pressure vessel (also called a gravity pressure vessel or GPV). The pressure was supplied by feeding the material to a reactor with a depth of . The deep shaft reactor also served as a heat exchanger, so no pre-heating was required. The operating temperature was about 270 °C with a pressure of about . The installation was eventually shut down due to operational problems.
Commercial Applications
Spent Caustic Treatment
The majority of commercial wet oxidation systems are used to treat industrial wastewater, such as sulfide laden spent caustic streams from ethylene and LPG production as well as naphthenic and cresylic spent caustics from refinery applications.
Typical classification of WAO treatment systems.
Low temperature WAO systems oxidize sulfides to thiosulfate and sulfate but high concentrations of thiosulfate are present in the treated effluent. The mid temperature systems fully oxidize sulfides to sulfate and mercaptans are oxidized to sulfonic acids. For sulfidic spent caustics, this results in a high chemical oxygen demand (COD) destruction (>90%). High temperature systems are used to oxidize organic compounds that are present in naphthenic and cresylic spent caustics.
Sewage Sludge Treatment
Almost as many systems are also used for treating biosolids, in order to pasteurize and to decrease volume of material for disposal. The thermal conditioning occurs at temperatures of 210 – 240 °C. A 4% dry solid slurry can be processed in a WAO system where it is disinfected and the treated effluent can be dewatered to 55% dry solids using a filter press.
Other Applications
Wet air oxidation has also been used to treat a variety of other industrial process waters and wastewaters which include:
· Hazardous Waste
· Kinetic Hydrate Inhibitors (KHI) from produced water
· Polyol ether/styrene monomer (POSM) wastewater
· Ammonium sulfate crystallizer mother liquor
· Pharmaceutical wastewater
· Cyanide Wastewater
· Powdered Activated Carbon regeneration
See also
Supercritical water oxidation
Incineration
List of waste-water treatment technologies
Powdered activated carbon treatment
References
Zimmermann, F. Waste Disposal, US Patent 2665249, 1950.
Mishra, V.; Mahajani, V.; Joshi, J. "Wet Air Oxidation", Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.", 34, 2-48, 1995.
Maugans C.; Ellis, C. "Wet Air Oxidation: A Review of Commercial Sub-Critical Hydrothermal Treatment", Twenty First Annual International Conference on Incineration and Thermal Treatment Technologies, New Orleans, May 13–17, 2002. WAO History Paper
Patria, L.; Maugans, C.; Ellis, C.; Belkhodja, M.; Cretenot, D.; Luck, F.; Copa, B. "Wet Air Oxidation Processes", Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water and Wastewater Treatment'', S. Parsons Editor, pp 247–274. 2004, IWA Publishing.
Giudici, D.; Maugans, C. "Improvement of Industrial Synthesis of Methyl Methacrylate Application of a Wet Air Oxidation Process (WAO)", MMA WAO Paper
Chemical processes
Thermal treatment
Waste treatment technology
Water pollution | Wet oxidation | [
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7,399,459 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodesk%20Revit | Autodesk Revit is a building information modeling software for architects, structural engineers, mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) engineers, and contractors. The original software was developed by Charles River Software, founded in 1997, renamed Revit Technology Corporation in 2000 and acquired by Autodesk in 2002. The software allows users to design a building and structure and its components in 3D, annotate the model with 2D drafting elements and access building information from the building model's database. Revit is 4D building information modeling (BIM) application capable with tools to plan and track various stages in the building's lifecycle, from concept to construction and later maintenance and/or demolition.
Company history
Charles River Software was founded in Newton, Massachusetts, on October 31, 1997, by Leonid Raiz and Irwin Jungreis, key developers of PTC's Pro/Engineer software for mechanical design, with the intent of bringing the power of parametric modeling to the building industry (PTC had previously tried and failed to market its recently acquired Reflex software to the construction sector). With funding from venture capitalists Atlas Venture and North Bridge Venture Partners, Raiz and Jungreis hired several software developers and architects and began developing Revit in C++ on the Microsoft Windows platform. In 1999 they hired Dave Lemont as CEO and recruited board members Jon Hirschtick, founder of SolidWorks and Arol Wolford, founder of CMD Group.
The company was renamed Revit Technology Corporation in January 2000. Autodesk, best known for its AutoCAD line of products, purchased Revit Technology Corporation for US $133 million in 2002. The purchase allowed more research, development and improvement of the software.
With their Revit platform, Autodesk is a significant player in the BIM market together with Tekla Structures, Trimble, Bentley Systems and the Nemetschek group (owner of Graphisoft's BIM application ArchiCAD, plus solutions including Allplan and Vectorworks), among others.
Product history
Inception
From the outset, Revit was intended to allow architects and other building professionals to design and document a building by creating a parametric three-dimensional model that included both the geometry and non-geometric design and construction information, which is also known as building information modeling or BIM (1975 Eastman C.). At the time, several other software packages—such as ArchiCAD and Reflex—provided a three-dimensional virtual building model and let the user control individual components via parameters (parametric components). Two key differences in Revit were that users created parametric components in a graphical "family editor" rather than a programming language. The model captured all relationships between components, views and annotations so that a change to any element automatically propagated to keep the model consistent. For example, moving a wall updated neighboring walls, floors and roofs, corrected the placement and values of dimensions and notes, adjusted the floor areas reported in schedules, redrew section views, etc.—so that the model remained connected and all documentation was coordinated. The concept of bi-directional associativity between components, views and annotations was a distinguishing feature of Revit for many releases. The ease of making changes inspired the name Revit, a contraction of Revise-Instantly. At the heart of Revit is a parametric change propagation engine that relied on a new technology, context-driven parametrics, that was more scalable than the variational and history-driven parametrics used in mechanical CAD software. The term parametric building model was adopted to reflect the fact that changes to parameters drove the whole building model and associated documentation, not just individual components.
Version 1.0 and beyond
Revit version 1.0 was released on April 5, 2000. The software progressed rapidly, with version 2.0, 3.0, 3.1, 4.0 and 4.1 released in August 2000; October 2000; February 2001; June 2001; November 2001; and January 2002, respectively.
The software was initially offered only as a monthly rental, with no option to purchase. Licensing was controlled by an entirely automatic process, an innovation at a time when human intervention and manual transmission of authorization codes was required to buy other types of design software.
Autodesk released several versions of Revit after 2004. In 2005 Revit Structure was introduced, then in 2006 Revit MEP. After the 2006 release Revit Building was renamed Revit Architecture.
In 2011 Dynamo was released in beta form allowing first glimpses of directly programming the behavior of hosted components through a drag and drop node interface. This is similar to the way the visual programming language Grasshopper 3d works on objects in Rhinoceros 3D.
In 2012 Revit LT became the newest version of Revit on the market. It was a feature limited or Lite version of Revit which excluded features such as rendering and multi-user environments. In 2013, Autodesk began introducing rental licensing for some of its products, including Revit.
Since Revit 2013 the different disciplines have been rolled into one product, simply called Revit.
Autodesk sells several packages or 'industry collections'; Revit is included in the AEC Collection.
Revit is available in multiple language localizations: English, German, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Russian, Polish, Czech, Chinese, Japanese and Korean.
With the release of Revit 2016, Autodesk dropped support for 32-bit Windows.
Features
Modeling
The Revit work environment allows users to manipulate whole buildings or assemblies (in the project environment) or individual 3D shapes (in the family editor environment). Modeling tools can be used with pre-made solid objects or imported geometric models. However, Revit is not a NURBS modeller and also lacks the ability to manipulate an object's individual polygons except on some specific object types such as roofs, slabs and terrain or in the massing environment.
Revit includes categories of objects ("families" in Revit terminology). These fall into three groups:
System families, such as walls, floors, roofs, ceilings, major finishes and even furniture built inside a project
Loadable families/components, which are built with primitives (extrusions, sweeps, etc.) separately from the project and loaded into a project for use
In-place families, which are built in-situ within a project with the same toolset as loadable components
An experienced user can create realistic and accurate families ranging from furniture to lighting fixtures, as well as import existing models from other programs. Revit families can be created as parametric models with dimensions and properties. This lets users modify a given component by changing predefined parameters such as height, width or number in the case of an array. In this way a family defines a geometry that is controlled by parameters, each combination of parameters can be saved as a type, and each occurrence (instance in Revit) of a type can also contain further variations. For example, a swing door may be a Family. It may have types that describe different sizes and the actual building model has instances of those types placed in walls where instance-based parameters could specify the door hardware uniquely for each occurrence of the door.
Although Revit software comes with a range of families out of the box (OOTB), they are limited, so users may find a need to build their own families or buy them from online stores.
Because of copyright issues in project work, fully 3D-modeled Revit project models are rarely for sale. Indeed, as most projects are site-specific and bespoke, the demand for existing models is light anyway. However, new practices or students of Revit may want to refer to completed models. There are a few sources for these, including websites such as BIMGallery and GrabCad.
Multiuser collaboration
Since version 3.0 Revit enables multiple users to work on the same building model. The workflow is similar to the use of a version control system in software engineering, that allows multiple developers to reliably collaborate on a common code base. Each Revit user works on a local copy of the design, periodically checking in the work into the central repository. New user starts with creating a local copy of this repository. When a user starts modifying some building elements, these elements get automatically locked, preventing others from modifying them. The locks are maintained in the central repository. The elements stay locked until the "borrower" checks in her work and releases the locks. Patented technology called "worksharing" allows Revit to minimize the set of elements being locked while allowing change propagation engine to update as many elements as needed, including the elements that are not locked. Revit typically avoids merge conflicts during check-in.
In early Revit versions the central repository has been a folder on LAN. This option is still available and appropriate for co-located design team. Since 2013 Autodesk also offers hosted cloud-based central repositories for Revit as a service.
Rendering
When a user creates a building, model or any other kind of object in Revit, they may use Revit's rendering engine to make a more realistic image of what is otherwise a very diagrammatic model. The user accomplishes this either by using the premade model, wall, floor, etc., tools, or making their own models, walls, materials, etc. Since Revit's 2010 release, the software came with a plethora of predefined materials, each of which can be modified to the user's desires. The user can also begin with a "Generic" material. With this, the user can set the rotation, size, brightness and intensity of textures, gloss maps (also known as shine maps), transparency maps, reflection maps, oblique reflection maps, hole maps and bump maps, as well as leaving the map part out and just using the sliders for any one (or all or none) of the aforementioned features of textures.
Cloud-based rendering with the experimental plug-in dubbed Project Neon, located on Autodesk Labs is in the beta phases and allows for the user to render their images through their Autodesk account instead of locally through their own computers. Revit models may also be linked directly into Autodesk 3ds Max (release 2013 and later) for more advanced rendering and animation projects with much of their material and object information maintained.
See also
Comparison of computer-aided design software
Industry Foundation Classes
List of BIM software
Virtual design and construction
References
Further reading
xvi, 480 p., [16] p. of plates : ill. (some col.) ; 24 cm.
External links
Autodesk products
BIM software
Building information modeling
Computer-aided design software for Windows
Windows-only proprietary software | Autodesk Revit | [
"Engineering"
] | 2,199 | [
"Construction",
"Building information modeling",
"Building engineering",
"Construction software"
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7,399,717 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiral%20resolution | Chiral resolution, or enantiomeric resolution, is a process in stereochemistry for the separation of racemic mixture into their enantiomers. It is an important tool in the production of optically active compounds, including drugs. Another term with the same meaning is optical resolution.
The use of chiral resolution to obtain enantiomerically pure compounds has the disadvantage of necessarily discarding at least half of the starting racemic mixture. Asymmetric synthesis of one of the enantiomers is one means of avoiding this waste.
Crystallization of diastereomeric salts
The most common method for chiral resolution involves conversion of the racemic mixture to a pair of diastereomeric derivatives by reacting them with chiral derivatizing agents, also known as chiral resolving agents. The derivatives which are then separated by conventional crystallization, and converted back to the enantiomers by removal of the resolving agent. The process can be laborious and depends on the divergent solubilities of the diastereomers, which is difficult to predict. Often the less soluble diastereomer is targeted and the other is discarded or racemized for reuse. It is common to test several resolving agents. Typical derivatization involves salt formation between an amine and a carboxylic acid. Simple deprotonation then yields back the pure enantiomer. Examples of chiral derivatizing agents are tartaric acid and the amine brucine. The method was introduced (again) by Louis Pasteur in 1853 by resolving racemic tartaric acid with optically active (+)-cinchotoxine.
Case study
One modern-day method of chiral resolution is used in the organic synthesis of the drug duloxetine:
In one of its steps the racemic alcohol 1 is dissolved in a mixture of toluene and methanol to which solution is added optically active (S)-mandelic acid 3. The alcohol (S)-enantiomer forms an insoluble diastereomeric salt with the mandelic acid and can be filtered from the solution. Simple deprotonation with sodium hydroxide liberates free (S)-alcohol. In the meanwhile the (R)-alcohol remains in solution unaffected and is recycled back to the racemic mixture by epimerization with hydrochloric acid in toluene. This process is known as RRR synthesis in which the R's stand for Resolution-Racemization-Recycle.
Common resolving agents
Antimony potassium tartrate, an anion, that forms diastereomeric salts with chiral cations.
Camphorsulfonic acid, an acid that forms diastereomeric salts with chiral amines
1-Phenylethylamine, a base that forms diastereomeric salts with chiral acids. Many related chiral amines have been demonstrated.
The chiral pool consists of many widely available resolving agents.
Spontaneous resolution and related specialized techniques
Via the process known as spontaneous resolution, 5-10% of all racemates crystallize as mixtures of enantiopure crystals. This phenomenon allowed Louis Pasteur to separate left-handed and right-handed sodium ammonium tartrate crystals. These experiments underpinned his discovery of optical activity. In 1882 he went on to demonstrate that by seeding a supersaturated solution of sodium ammonium tartrate with a d-crystal on one side of the reactor and a l-crystal on the opposite side, crystals of opposite handedness will form on the opposite sides of the reactor.
Spontaneous resolution has also been demonstrated with racemic methadone. In a typical setup 50 grams dl-methadone is dissolved in petroleum ether and concentrated. Two millimeter-sized d- and l-crystals are added and after stirring for 125 hours at 40 °C two large d- and l-crystals are recovered in 50% yield.
Another form of direct crystallization is preferential crystallization also called resolution by entrainment of one of the enantiomers. For example, seed crystals of (−)- induce crystallization of this enantiomer from an ethanol solution of (±)-.
Chiral column chromatography
In chiral column chromatography the stationary phase is made chiral with similar resolving agents as described above.
Further reading
References
Stereochemistry | Chiral resolution | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 913 | [
"Spacetime",
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"nan"
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7,400,895 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic%20predicate | A syntactic predicate specifies the syntactic validity of applying a production in a formal grammar and is analogous to a semantic predicate that specifies the semantic validity of applying a production. It is a simple and effective means of dramatically improving the recognition strength of an LL parser by providing arbitrary lookahead. In their original implementation, syntactic predicates had the form “( α )?” and could only appear on the left edge of a production. The required syntactic condition α could be any valid context-free grammar fragment.
More formally, a syntactic predicate is a form of production intersection, used in parser specifications or in formal grammars. In this sense, the term predicate has the meaning of a mathematical indicator function. If p1 and p2, are production rules, the language generated by both p1 and p2 is their set intersection.
As typically defined or implemented, syntactic predicates implicitly order the productions so that predicated productions specified earlier have higher precedence than predicated productions specified later within the same decision. This conveys an ability to disambiguate ambiguous productions because the programmer can simply specify which production should match.
Parsing expression grammars (PEGs), invented by Bryan Ford, extend these simple predicates by allowing "not predicates" and permitting a predicate to appear anywhere within a production. Moreover, Ford invented packrat parsing to handle these grammars in linear time by employing memoization, at the cost of heap space.
It is possible to support linear-time parsing of predicates as general as those allowed by PEGs, but reduce the memory cost associated with memoization by avoiding backtracking where some more efficient implementation of lookahead suffices. This approach is implemented by ANTLR version 3, which uses Deterministic finite automata for lookahead; this may require testing a predicate in order to choose between transitions of the DFA (called "pred-LL(*)" parsing).
Overview
Terminology
The term syntactic predicate was coined by Parr & Quong and differentiates this form of predicate from semantic predicates (also discussed).
Syntactic predicates have been called multi-step matching, parse constraints, and simply predicates in various literature. (See References section below.) This article uses the term syntactic predicate throughout for consistency and to distinguish them from semantic predicates.
Formal closure properties
Bar-Hillel et al. show that the intersection of two regular languages is also a regular language, which is to say that the regular languages are closed under intersection.
The intersection of a regular language and a context-free language is also closed, and it has been known at least since Hartmanis that the intersection of two context-free languages is not necessarily a context-free language (and is thus not closed). This can be demonstrated easily using the canonical Type 1 language, :
Let (Type 2)
Let (Type 2)
Let
Given the strings , , and , it is clear that the only string that belongs to both L1 and L2 (that is, the only one that produces a non-empty intersection) is .
Other considerations
In most formalisms that use syntactic predicates, the syntax of the predicate is noncommutative, which is to say that the operation of predication is ordered. For instance, using the above example, consider the following pseudo-grammar, where X ::= Y PRED Z is understood to mean: "Y produces X if and only if Y also satisfies predicate Z":
S ::= a X
X ::= Y PRED Z
Y ::= a+ BNCN
Z ::= ANBN c+
BNCN ::= b [BNCN] c
ANBN ::= a [ANBN] b
Given the string , in the case where Y must be satisfied first (and assuming a greedy implementation), S will generate aX and X in turn will generate , thereby generating . In the case where Z must be satisfied first, ANBN will fail to generate , and thus is not generated by the grammar. Moreover, if either Y or Z (or both) specify any action to be taken upon reduction (as would be the case in many parsers), the order that these productions match determines the order in which those side-effects occur. Formalisms that vary over time (such as adaptive grammars) may rely on these side effects.
Examples of use
ANTLR
Parr & Quong give this example of a syntactic predicate:
stat: (declaration)? declaration
| expression
;
which is intended to satisfy the following informally stated constraints of C++:
If it looks like a declaration, it is; otherwise
if it looks like an expression, it is; otherwise
it is a syntax error.
In the first production of rule stat, the syntactic predicate (declaration)? indicates
that declaration is the syntactic context that must be present for the rest of that production to succeed. We can interpret the use of (declaration)? as "I am not sure if
declaration will match; let me try it out and, if it does not match, I shall try the next
alternative." Thus, when encountering a valid declaration, the rule declaration will be
recognized twice—once as syntactic predicate and once during the actual parse to execute semantic actions.
Of note in the above example is the fact that any code triggered by the acceptance of the declaration production will only occur if the predicate is satisfied.
Canonical examples
The language can be represented in various grammars and formalisms as follows:
Parsing Expression Grammars
S ← &(A !b) a+ B !c
A ← a A? b
B ← b B? c
§-Calculus
Using a bound predicate:
S → {A}B
A → X 'c+'
X → 'a' [X] 'b'
B → 'a+' Y
Y → 'b' [Y] 'c'
Using two free predicates:
A → <'a+'>a <'b+'>b Ψ(a b)X <'c+'>c Ψ(b c)Y
X → 'a' [X] 'b'
Y → 'b' [Y] 'c'
Conjunctive Grammars
(Note: the following example actually generates , but is included here because it is the example given by the inventor of conjunctive grammars.):
S → AB&DC
A → aA | ε
B → bBc | ε
C → cC | ε
D → aDb | ε
Perl 6 rules
rule S { <before <A> <!before b>> a+ <B> <!before c> }
rule A { a <A>? b }
rule B { b <B>? c }
Parsers/formalisms using some form of syntactic predicate
Although by no means an exhaustive list, the following parsers and grammar formalisms employ syntactic predicates:
ANTLR (Parr & Quong)
As originally implemented, syntactic predicates sit on the leftmost edge of a production such that the production to the right of the predicate is attempted if and only if the syntactic predicate first accepts the next portion of the input stream. Although ordered, the predicates are checked first, with parsing of a clause continuing if and only if the predicate is satisfied, and semantic actions only occurring in non-predicates.
Augmented Pattern Matcher (Balmas)
Balmas refers to syntactic predicates as "multi-step matching" in her paper on APM. As an APM parser parses, it can bind substrings to a variable, and later check this variable against other rules, continuing to parse if and only if that substring is acceptable to further rules.
Parsing expression grammars (Ford)
Ford's PEGs have syntactic predicates expressed as the and-predicate and the not-predicate.
§-Calculus (Jackson)
In the §-Calculus, syntactic predicates are originally called simply predicates, but are later divided into bound and free forms, each with different input properties.
Raku rules
Raku introduces a generalized tool for describing a grammar called rules, which are an extension of Perl 5's regular expression syntax. Predicates are introduced via a lookahead mechanism called before, either with "<before ...>" or "<!before ...>" (that is: "not before"). Perl 5 also has such lookahead, but it can only encapsulate Perl 5's more limited regexp features.
ProGrammar (NorKen Technologies)
ProGrammar's GDL (Grammar Definition Language) makes use of syntactic predicates in a form called parse constraints. ATTENTION NEEDED: This link is no longer valid!
Conjunctive and Boolean Grammars (Okhotin)
Conjunctive grammars, first introduced by Okhotin, introduce the explicit notion of conjunction-as-predication. Later treatment of conjunctive and boolean grammars is the most thorough treatment of this formalism to date.
References
External links
Alexander Okhotin's Conjunctive Grammars Page
Alexander Okhotin's Boolean Grammars Page
The Packrat Parsing and Parsing Expression Grammars Page
Parsing
Formal languages | Syntactic predicate | [
"Mathematics"
] | 1,980 | [
"Formal languages",
"Mathematical logic"
] |
7,401,066 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HiPER | The High Power laser Energy Research facility (HiPER), is a proposed experimental laser-driven inertial confinement fusion (ICF) device undergoing preliminary design for possible construction in the European Union. , the effort appears to be inactive.
HiPER was designed to study the "fast ignition" approach to generating nuclear fusion, which uses much smaller lasers than conventional ICF designs, yet produces fusion power outputs of about the same magnitude. This offers a total "fusion gain" that is much higher than devices like the National Ignition Facility (NIF), and a reduction in construction costs of about ten times. This opened a window for a small machine to be rapidly built that would reach ignition before NIF. HiPER and the Japanese FIREX designs intended to explore this approach.
However, research into the fast ignition approach on smaller machines like the Omega laser in the US demonstrated a number of problems with the concept. Another alternative approach, shock ignition, began to take over future development starting around 2012. HiPER and FIREX both appear to have seen no additional development since that time.
HiPER should not be confused with an earlier ICF device in Japan known as "HIPER", which has not been operational for some time.
Background
Inertial confinement fusion (ICF) devices use "drivers" to rapidly heat the outer layers of a "target" to compress it. The target is a small spherical pellet containing a few milligrams of fusion fuel, typically a mix of deuterium and tritium, or "D-T". The heat of the laser burns the surface of the pellet into a plasma, which explodes off the surface. The remaining portion of the target is driven inward due to Newton's Third Law, collapsing into a small point of very high density. The rapid blowoff also creates a shock wave that travels toward the center of the compressed fuel. When it reaches the center of the fuel and meets the shock from the other side of the target, the energy in the center further heats and compresses the tiny volume around it. If the temperature and density of that small spot can be raised high enough, fusion reactions will occur. This approach is now known as "hot-spot ignition" to distinguish it from new approaches.
The fusion reactions release high-energy particles, some of which (primarily alpha particles) collide with the high density fuel around it and slow down. This heats the surrounding fuel, and can potentially cause that fuel to undergo fusion as well. Given the right overall conditions of the compressed fuel – high enough density and temperature – this heating process can result in a chain reaction, burning outward from the center. This is a condition known as "ignition", which can lead to a significant portion of the fuel in the target undergoing fusion, and the release of significant amounts of energy.
To date most ICF experiments have used lasers to heat the targets. Calculations show that the energy must be delivered quickly to compress the core before it disassembles, as well as creating a suitable shock wave. The energy must also be focused extremely evenly across the target's outer surface to collapse the fuel into a symmetric core. Although other drivers have been suggested, notably heavy ions driven in particle accelerators, lasers are currently the only devices with the right combination of features.
Description
In the case of HiPER, the driver laser system is similar to existing systems like NIF, but considerably smaller and less powerful.
The driver consists of a number of "beamlines" containing Nd:glass laser amplifiers at one end of the building. Just prior to firing, the glass is "pumped" to a high-energy state with a series of xenon flash tubes, causing a population inversion of the neodymium (Nd) atoms in the glass. This readies them for amplification via stimulated emission when a small amount of laser light, generated externally in a fibre optic, is fed into the beamlines. The glass is not particularly effective at transferring power into the beam, so to get as much power as possible back out, the beam is reflected through the glass four times in a mirrored cavity, each time gaining more power. When this process is complete, a Pockels cell switches the light out of the cavity. One problem for the HiPER project is that Nd:glass is no longer being produced commercially, so a number of options need to be studied to ensure supply of the estimated 1,300 disks.
From there, the laser light is fed into a very long spatial filter to clean up the resulting pulse. The filter is essentially a telescope that focuses the beam into a spot some distance away, where a small pinhole located at the focal point cuts off any "stray" light caused by inhomogeneities in the laser beam. The beam then widens out until a second lens returns it to a straight beam again. It is the use of spatial filters that lead to the long beamlines seen in ICF laser devices. In the case of HiPER, the filters take up about 50% of the overall length. The beam width at exit of the driver system is about 40 cm × 40 cm.
One of the problems encountered in previous experiments, notably the Shiva laser, was that the infrared light provided by the Nd:glass lasers (at ~1054 nm in vaco) couples strongly with the electrons around the target, losing a considerable amount of energy that would otherwise heat the target itself. This is typically addressed through the use of an optical frequency multiplier, which can double or triple the frequency of the light, into the green or ultraviolet, respectively. These higher frequencies interact less strongly with the electrons, putting more power into the target. HiPER will use frequency tripling on the drivers.
When the amplification process is complete the laser light enters the experimental chamber, lying at one end of the building. Here it is reflected off a series of deformable mirrors that help correct remaining imperfections in the wavefront, and then feeds them into the target chamber from all angles. Since the overall distances from the ends of the beamlines to different points on the target chamber are different, delays are introduced on the individual paths to ensure they all reach the center of the chamber at the same time, within about 10 picoseconds (ps). The target, a fusion fuel pellet about 1 mm in diameter in the case of HiPER, lies at the center of the chamber.
HiPER differs from most ICF devices in that it also includes a second set of lasers for directly heating the compressed fuel. The heating pulse needs to be very short, about 10 to 20 ps long, but this is too short a time for the amplifiers to work well. To solve this problem HiPER uses a technique known as chirped pulse amplification (CPA). CPA starts with a short pulse from a wide-bandwidth (multi-frequency) laser source, as opposed to the driver which uses a monochromatic (single-frequency) source. Light from this initial pulse is split into different colours using a pair of diffraction gratings and optical delays. This "stretches" the pulse into a chain several nanoseconds long. The pulse is then sent into the amplifiers as normal. When it exits the beamlines it is recombined in a similar set of gratings to produce a single very short pulse, but because the pulse now has very high power, the gratings have to be large (approx 1 m) and sit in a vacuum. Additionally the individual beams must be lower in power overall; the compression side of the system uses 40 beamlines of about 5 kJ each to generate a total of 200 kJ, whereas the ignition side requires 24 beamlines of just under 3 kJ to generate a total of 70 kJ. The precise number and power of the beamlines are currently a subject of research. Frequency multiplication will also be used on the heaters, but it has not yet been decided whether to use doubling or tripling; the latter puts more power into the target, but is less efficient converting the light. As of 2007, the baseline design is based on doubling into the green.
Fast Ignition and HiPER
In traditional ICF devices the driver laser is used to compress the target to very high densities. The shock wave created by this process further heats the compressed fuel when it collides in the center of the sphere. If the compression is symmetrical enough the increase in temperature can create conditions close to the Lawson criterion and lead to ignition.
The amount of laser energy needed to effectively compress the targets to ignition conditions has grown rapidly from early estimates. In the "early days" of ICF research in the 1970s it was believed that as little as 1 kilojoules (kJ) would suffice, and a number of experimental lasers were built to reach these power levels. When they did, a series of problems, typically related to the homogeneity of the collapse, turned out to seriously disrupt the implosion symmetry and lead to much cooler core temperatures than originally expected. Through the 1980s the estimated energy required to reach ignition grew into the megajoule range, which appeared to make ICF impractical for fusion energy production. For instance, the National Ignition Facility (NIF) uses about 420 MJ of electrical power to pump the driver lasers, and in the best case is expected to produce about 20 MJ of fusion power output. Without dramatic gains in output, such a device would never be a practical energy source.
The fast ignition approach attempts to avoid these problems. Instead of using the shock wave to create the conditions needed for fusion above the ignition range, this approach directly heats the fuel. This is far more efficient than the shock wave, which becomes less important. In HiPER, the compression provided by the driver is "good", but not nearly that created by larger devices like NIF; HiPER's driver is about 200 kJ and produces densities of about 300 g/cm3. That's about one-third that of NIF, and about the same as generated by the earlier NOVA laser of the 1980s. For comparison, lead is about 11 g/cm3, so this still represents a considerable amount of compression, notably when one considers the target's interior contained light D-T fuel around 0.1 g/cm3.
Ignition is started by a very-short (~10 picoseconds) ultra-high-power (~70 kJ, 4 PW) laser pulse, aimed through a hole in the plasma at the core. The light from this pulse interacts with the cool surrounding fuel, generating a shower of high-energy (3.5 MeV) relativistic electrons that are driven into the fuel. The electrons heat a spot on one side of the dense core, and if this heating is localised enough it is expected to drive the area well beyond ignition energies.
The overall efficiency of this approach is many times that of the conventional approach. In the case of NIF the laser generates about 4 MJ of infrared power to create ignition that releases about 20 MJ of energy. This corresponds to a "fusion gain" —the ratio of input laser power to output fusion power— of about 5. If one uses the baseline assumptions for the current HiPER design, the two lasers (driver and heater) produce about 270 kJ in total, yet generate 25 to 30 MJ, a gain of about 100. Considering a variety of losses, the actual gain is predicted to be around 72. Not only does this outperform NIF by a wide margin, the smaller lasers are much less expensive to build. In terms of power-for-cost, HiPER is expected to be about an order of magnitude less expensive than conventional devices like NIF.
Compression is already a fairly well-understood problem, and HiPER is primarily interested in exploring the precise physics of the rapid heating process. It is not clear how quickly the electrons stop in the fuel load; while this is known for matter under normal pressures, it's not for the ultra-dense conditions of the compressed fuel. To work efficiently, the electrons should stop in as short a distance as possible, to release their energy into a small spot and thus raise the temperature (energy per unit volume) as high as possible.
How to get the laser light onto that spot is also a matter for further research. One approach uses a short pulse from another laser to heat the plasma outside the dense "core", essentially burning a hole through it and exposing the dense fuel inside. This approach will be tested on the OMEGA-EP system in the US. Another approach, tested successfully on the GEKKO XII laser in Japan, uses a small gold cone that cuts through a small area of the target shell; on heating no plasma is created in this area, leaving a hole that can be aimed into by shining the laser into the inner surface of the cone. HiPER is currently planning on using the gold cone approach, but will likely study the burning solution as well.
Related research
In 2005 HiPER completed a preliminary study outlining possible approaches and arguments for its construction. The report received positive reviews from the EC in July 2007, and moved onto a preparatory design phase in early 2008 with detailed designs for construction beginning in 2011 or 2012.
In parallel, the HiPER project also proposes to build smaller laser systems with higher repetition rates. The high-powered flash lamps used to pump the laser amplifier glass causes it to deform, and it cannot be fired again until it cools off, which takes as long as a day. Additionally only a very small amount of the flash of white light generated by the tubes is of the right frequency to be absorbed by the Nd:glass and thus lead to amplification, in general only about 1 to 1.5% of the energy fed into the tubes ends up in the laser beam.
Key to avoiding these problems is replacing the flash lamps with more efficient pumps, typically based on laser diodes. These are far more efficient at generating light from electricity, and thus run much cooler. More importantly, the light they do generate is fairly monochromatic and can be tuned to frequencies that can be easily absorbed. This means that much less power needs to be used to produce any particular amount of laser light, further reducing the overall amount of heat being generated. The improvement in efficiency can be dramatic; existing experimental devices operate at about 10% overall efficiency, and it is believed "near term" devices will improve this as high as 20%.
Current status
Further research in the fast ignition approach cast serious doubt on its future. By 2013, the US National Academy of Sciences concluded that it was no longer a worthwhile research direction, stating "At this time, fast ignition appears to be a less promising approach for IFE than other ignition concepts."
See also
Laser Mégajoule
References
Bibliography
Mike Dunne et al., "HiPER Technical Background and Conceptual Design Report 2007", June 2007
Mike Dunne et al., "HiPER: a laser fusion facility for Europe", 2005
Edwin Cartlidge, "Europe plans laser-fusion facility", Physics World, 2 September 2005
External links
HiPER Project – Project home page
Fast track to fusion – includes an image of the gold-cone approach
Hydrodynamic Instability Experiments at the GEKKO XII/HIPER Laser – the Japanese experiment of the same name, for comparison
Laser vision fuels energy future – BBC news report
Professor Mike Dunne, Director of the UK's Central Laser Facility, on European plans for creating fusion energy, Ingenia magazine, December 2007
HiPER Power – Article on physics.org, August 2009
Nuclear research institutes
Inertial confinement fusion research lasers
Energy in the European Union | HiPER | [
"Engineering"
] | 3,214 | [
"Nuclear research institutes",
"Nuclear organizations"
] |
7,401,552 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioastronautics | Bioastronautics is a specialty area of biological and astronautical research which encompasses numerous aspects of biological, behavioral, and medical concern governing humans and other living organisms in outer space; and includes the design of space vehicle payloads, space habitats, and life-support systems. In short, it spans the study and support of life in space.
Bioastronautics includes many similarities with its sister discipline astronautical hygiene; they both study the hazards that humans may encounter during a space flight. However, astronautical hygiene differs in many respects e.g. in this discipline, once a hazard is identified, the exposure risks are then assessed and the most effective measures determined to prevent or control exposure and thereby protect the health of the astronaut. Astronautical hygiene is an applied scientific discipline that requires knowledge and experience of many fields including bioastronautics, space medicine, ergonomics etc. The skills of astronautical hygiene are already being applied for example, to characterise Moon dust and design the measures to mitigate exposure during lunar exploration, to develop accurate chemical monitoring techniques and use the results in the setting SMACs.
Of particular interest from a biological perspective are the effects of reduced gravitational force felt by inhabitants of spacecraft. Often referred to as "microgravity", the lack of sedimentation, buoyancy, or convective flows in fluids results in a more quiescent cellular and intercellular environment primarily driven by chemical gradients. Certain functions of organisms are mediated by gravity, such as gravitropism in plant roots and negative gravitropism in plant stems, and without this stimulus growth patterns of organisms onboard spacecraft often diverge from their terrestrial counterparts. Additionally, metabolic energy normally expended in overcoming the force of gravity remains available for other functions. This may take the form of accelerated growth in organisms as diverse as worms like C. elegans to miniature parasitoid wasps such as Spangia endius. It may also be used in the augmented production of secondary metabolites such as the vinca alkaloids Vincristine and Vinblastine in the rosy periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus), whereby space grown specimens often have higher concentrations of these constituents that on earth are present in only trace amounts.
Engineering considerations
From an engineering perspective, facilitating the delivery and exchange of air, food, and water, and the processing of waste products is also challenging. The transition from expendable physicochemical methods to sustainable bioregenerative systems that function as a robust miniature ecosystem is another goal of bioastronautics in facilitating long duration space travel. Such systems are often termed Closed Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS).
Medical considerations
From a medical perspective, long duration space flight also has physiological impacts on astronauts. Accelerated bone decalcification, similar to osteopenia and osteoporosis on Earth, is just one such condition. Another serious concern is the effects of space travel upon the kidneys. Current estimates of these effects upon the kidneys indicates that unless some kind of effective additional remedial technology against kidney damage is employed, astronauts who have been exposed to micro-gravity, reduced gravity, and Galactic radiation for 3 years or so on a Mars mission may have to return to Earth while attached to dialysis machines. The study of the potential effects of space travel is useful not only for advancing methods of the safe habitation of space, and the travel through space, but also in uncovering ways to more effectively treat closely related terrestrial ailments.
NASA's Bioastronautics library
NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas maintains a Bioastronautics Library. The one-room facility provides a collection of textbooks, reference books, conference proceedings, and academic journals related to bioastronautics topics. Because the library is located within secure government property (not part of Space Center Houston, the official visitors center of JSC), it is not generally accessible to the public.
See also
Effect of spaceflight on the human body
Life support system
Space habitation
Locomotion in space
Reduced muscle mass, strength and performance in space
Space food
Astronautical hygiene
Spaceflight radiation carcinogenesis
Space medicine
Sex in space
Space tourism
Space-based economy
List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents
Writing in space
Space art#Art in space
Religion in space
Organisms at high altitude
Astrobiology
Astrobotany
Plants in space
References
External links
Harvard-MIT Health Sciences and Technology - Bioastronautics Training Program (HST-Bioastro)
NASA's Bioastronautics Roadmap
University of Colorado at Boulder Bioastronautics Research Group
The American Society for Gravitational and Space Biology (ASGSB)
1965 radio series titled Their Other World, 13 half-hour episodes with typed transcript .
Aviation medicine
Human spaceflight
Biological engineering
Space medicine | Bioastronautics | [
"Engineering",
"Biology"
] | 988 | [
"Biological engineering"
] |
7,402,847 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldport%20%28Pan%20Am%29 | Terminal 3, also known by the trademarked name Worldport, was an airport terminal built by Pan American World Airways (Pan Am) in 1960 at John F. Kennedy International Airport in Queens, New York, United States. It operated from May 24, 1960 to May 24, 2013, and was demolished in 2013–2014.
History
Original use
The terminal was originally known as the "Pan Am Terminal" or Pan Am "Unit Terminal Building" (UTB). It was designed by Ives, Turano & Gardner Associated Architects and Walther Prokosch of Tippets-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton as a showcase for international jet travel and was particularly famous for its "flying saucer" roof projecting out from the outer columns of the terminal supported on 32 sets of pre-stressed horizontal steel posts and cables. The terminal was designed to allow for aircraft to be parked under the overhanging roof; marketing brochures promoted it as the Jet Age terminal that brought the plane to the passenger. The overhang sheltered passengers as they boarded the aircraft by stairs or by uncovered bridges. The American Institute of Architects (AIA) Guide to New York City called the terminal a "genuine architectural attempt to answer the problem of all-weather connections to the planes" but derided the overall concept as "compromised by an overabundance of distracting detail".
The building's facade originally featured zodiac figures made by sculptor Milton Hebald, although these were later removed by the Port Authority. The terminal featured the Panorama Room, a dining room with a view of the entire concourse, and the Clipper Hall museum of Pan Am history.
In 1971, the terminal was expanded to accommodate the large Boeing 747 and renamed the "Pan Am Worldport". Worldport was the world's largest airline terminal and held the title for several years.
Operation of Worldport changed hands when Pan Am declared bankruptcy in 1991. Delta Air Lines acquired many of Pan Am's assets, including the lease on Worldport, which became known simply as "Terminal 3", and operated most of its long-haul flights out of JFK to Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America from the building.
In March 2006, Delta COO Jim Whitehurst announced that Delta would spend US$10 million before the end of that year to renovate Terminal 2 and Terminal 3, including its public spaces, BusinessElite lounge, and Crown Room Clubs. In the July 2007 issue of Delta's Sky Magazine, Delta Senior Vice President Joanne Smith remarked on the "distinctive" saucer roof in an article on new flooring, lighting, and signage at this "historic airport".
Redevelopment and preservation campaign
On August 4, 2010, The New York Times reported that Delta was planning to move its international flights to Terminal 4 following the construction of nine additional gates in Concourse B of that terminal. Delta's domestic flights would continue to be operated out of Terminal 2. Terminal 3 would subsequently be demolished to create additional aircraft parking between Terminals 2 and 4. Construction of the Terminal 4 expansion began in November 2010 and was completed in May 2013.
On May 23, 2013, the final departure from Terminal 3, Delta Air Lines Flight 268, a Boeing 747-400 to Tel Aviv Ben Gurion Airport, departed from Gate 6 at 11:25pm local time. The terminal ceased operations on the next day, 53 years to the day from when it opened.
Preservation groups campaigned to save the building and have it nominated by the New York State Historic Preservation Office as a historic place. On June 19, 2013, Worldport was placed on the National Trust for Historic Preservation's list of eleven Most Endangered Places in America for 2013, but by June 25, 2013, demolition of the elevated roadway leading to the terminal had already begun, although preservationists continued to protest against the demolition of the building itself. The New York State Historic Preservation Office, which had revoked the building's eligibility for the National Register of Historic Places in 2001, upheld this decision in May 2013, claiming the building had lost significant historic integrity due to excessive modifications.
The preservation campaign was ultimately unsuccessful and demolition of the flying saucer roof was completed on November 22, 2013. Demolition work on the remainder of the terminal completed in summer 2014. The National Trust for Historic Preservation cited Worldport as one of ten historic sites lost in 2013.
There was subsequently a media outcry, particularly in other countries, over the demolition of Worldport. Several online petitions requesting the restoration of the original 'flying saucer' gained popularity.
In popular culture
Worldport has appeared in several films and publications.
A Pan Am Boeing 747 and the Worldport briefly appear in the 1973 James Bond film [[Live and Let Die (film)|Live and Let Die]]. A partially digital reconstruction of the Pan Am Terminal is featured in most episodes of the ABC television series Pan Am, as the show's Pan Am characters are based there.
The September 22, 1961 issue of Life'' featured a photo essay of JFK Airport (then known as Idlewild Airport) by Ukrainian-born photographer Dmitri Kessel. Many of the photos were of the newly built Pan Am Terminal.
References
Notes
Further reading
External links
Archival Port Authority photos
Worldport Preservation Campaign
1960 establishments in New York City
2013 disestablishments in New York (state)
Buildings and structures demolished in 2014
Airport terminals
Architectural history
Aviation in New York City
Buildings and structures completed in 1960
John F. Kennedy International Airport
Pan Am
Transport infrastructure completed in 1960
Transportation buildings and structures in Queens, New York
Jet Age | Worldport (Pan Am) | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,128 | [
"Architectural history",
"Architecture"
] |
7,402,901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-MAC | In television electronics, A-MAC carries digital information: sound, and data-teletext on an FM subcarrier at 7 MHz. Since the vision bandwidth of a standard MAC signal is 8.4 MHz, the horizontal resolution on A-MAC has to be reduced to make room for the 7 MHz carrier. A-MAC has not been used in service.
Technical details
MAC transmits luminance and chrominance data separately in time rather than separately in frequency (as other analog television formats do, such as composite video).
Audio and Scrambling (selective access)
Audio, in a format similar to NICAM was transmitted digitally rather than as an FM subcarrier.
The MAC standard included a standard scrambling system, EuroCrypt, a precursor to the standard DVB-CSA encryption system.
TV transmission systems
Analog high-definition television systems
PAL, what MAC technology tried to replace
SECAM, what MAC technology tried to replace
A-MAC
B-MAC
C-MAC
D-MAC
E-MAC
S-MAC
D2-MAC
HD-MAC, an early high-definition television standard allowing for 2048x1152 resolution.
DVB-S, MAC technology was replaced by this standard
DVB-T, MAC technology was replaced by this standard
External links
Multiplexed Analogue Components in "Analog TV Broadcast Systems" by Paul Schlyter
Video formats
Television technology | A-MAC | [
"Technology"
] | 280 | [
"Information and communications technology",
"Television technology"
] |
7,402,971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-MAC | B-MAC is a form of analog video encoding, specifically a type of Multiplexed Analogue Components (MAC) encoding. MAC encoding was designed in the mid 80s for use with Direct Broadcast Satellite systems. Other analog video encoding systems include NTSC, PAL and SECAM. Unlike the FDM method used in those, MAC encoding uses a TDM method. B-MAC was a proprietary MAC encoding used by Scientific-Atlanta for encrypting broadcast video services; the full name was "Multiple Analogue Component, Type B".
B-MAC uses teletext-style non-return-to-zero (NRZ) signaling with a capacity of 1.625 Mbit/s. The video and audio/data signals are therefore combined at baseband.
Both PAL (626/50) and NTSC (525/60) versions of B-MAC were developed and used.
User base (PAL/NTSC zones)
This system was used in South Africa and Australia (for TVRO until 2000).
B-MAC was used for satellite broadcasts of the American Forces Radio and Television Service from the early 1980s until 1996-1997 when the analogue standard was replaced by the digital PowerVu system.
B-MAC has not been used for DTH applications since Primestar switched to an all-digital delivery system in the mid-1990s.
Technical details
MAC transmits luminance and chrominance data separately in time rather than separately in frequency (as other analog television formats do, such as composite video).
Audio and Scrambling (selective access)
Audio, in a format similar to NICAM was transmitted digitally rather than as an FM subcarrier.
The MAC standard included a standard scrambling system, EuroCrypt, a precursor to the standard DVB-CSA encryption system.
See also
Analog high-definition television systems
PAL, what MAC technology tried to replace
SECAM, what MAC technology tried to replace
A-MAC
B-MAC
C-MAC
D-MAC
E-MAC
S-MAC
D2-MAC
HD-MAC, an early high-definition television standard allowing for 2048x1152 resolution.
DVB-S, MAC technology was replaced by this standard
DVB-T, MAC technology was replaced by this standard
References
External links
Multiplexed Analogue Components in "Analog TV Broadcast Systems" by Paul Schlyter
Video formats
Television technology | B-MAC | [
"Technology"
] | 476 | [
"Information and communications technology",
"Television technology"
] |
7,402,988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-MAC | C-MAC is the television technology variant approved by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) for satellite transmissions. The digital information is modulated using 2-4PSK (phase-shift keying), a variation of quadrature PSK where only two of the phaser angles (±90°) are used.
The data capacity for C-MAC is 3 Mbit/s.
C-MAC data has to be sent to the transmitter separately from the vision.
The transmitter switches between FM (vision) and PSK (sound/data) modulation during each television line period.
C-MAC variants : E-MAC
E-MAC (Extended MAC) is 16:9 version of C-MAC. Originally E-MAC was designed for 15:9 pictures, it later adopted the 16:9 aspect ratio.
In E-MAC all the 4:3 information is transmitted exactly as in C-MAC so that C-MAC receivers are still compatible.
E-MAC hides extra luminance and chrominance information in the field blanking interval and parts of the line blanking interval.
E-MAC has a lower data capacity because luminance is hidden where data would usually be located.
A 'steering' signal is transmitted to indicate to the 16:9 receiver whereabouts the 4:3 picture information.
E-MAC receivers stitch the 4:3 and helper wide-screen data into a seamless 16:9 picture.
Technical details
MAC transmits luminance and chrominance data separately in time rather than separately in frequency (as other analog television formats do, such as composite video).
Audio and Scrambling (selective access)
Audio, in a format similar to NICAM was transmitted digitally rather than as an FM sub-carrier.
The MAC standard included a standard scrambling system, Euro-Crypt, a precursor to the standard DVB-CSA encryption system.
See also
TV transmission systems
Analog high-definition television systems
DVB-S
DVB-T
Multiplexed Analogue Components
PAL
SECAM
References
Television technology
Video formats | C-MAC | [
"Technology"
] | 414 | [
"Information and communications technology",
"Television technology"
] |
7,403,000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-MAC | Among the family of MAC or Multiplexed Analogue Components systems for television broadcasting, D-MAC is a reduced bandwidth variant designed for transmission down cable.
The data is duobinary coded with a data burst rate of 20.25 Mbit/s so that 0° as well as ±90° phasors are used.
D-MAC has a bandwidth of 8.4 MHz versus 27 MHz for C-MAC.
Most cable systems work on EBU 7 MHz channel spacing, so this approach did not work universally.
D-MAC's bandwidth problems were later fixed by D2-MAC.
D2-MAC: A fix for D-MAC
D-MAC consumed too much bandwidth for many applications, so D2-MAC was designed for European cable TV systems.
Luminance and chrominance
MAC transmits luminance and chrominance data separately in time rather than separately in frequency (as other analog television formats do, such as composite video).
Audio and scrambling (selective access)
Audio, in a format similar to NICAM was transmitted digitally rather than as an FM subcarrier.
The MAC standard included a standard scrambling system, EuroCrypt, a precursor to the standard DVB-CSA encryption system.
History and politics
MAC was developed by the UK's Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA) and in 1982 was adopted as the transmission format for the UK's forthcoming direct broadcast satellite (DBS) television services (eventually provided by British Satellite Broadcasting). The following year MAC was adopted by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) as the standard for all DBS.
By 1986, despite there being two standards, D-MAC and D2-MAC, favoured by different countries in Europe, an EU Directive imposed MAC on the national DBS broadcasters, to provide a stepping stone from analogue PAL and Secam formats to the eventual high definition and digital television of the future, with European TV manufacturers in a privileged position to provide the equipment required.
However, the Astra satellite system was also starting up at this time (the first satellite, Astra 1A was launched in 1989) and that operated outside of the EU's MAC requirements, due to being a non-DBS satellite. Despite further pressure from the EU (including a further Directive originally intended to make MAC provision compulsory in TV sets, and a subsidy to broadcasters to use the MAC format), most broadcasters outside Scandinavia preferred the lower cost of PAL transmission and receiving equipment.
In the 2000s, the use of D-MAC and D2-MAC ceased when the satellite broadcasts of the channels concern changed to DVB-S format.
See also
Analog high-definition television systems
PAL and SECAM, analogous technologies that MAC was designed to replace
A-MAC
B-MAC
C-MAC
E-MAC
S-MAC
D2-MAC
HD-MAC, an early high-definition television standard allowing for 2048x1152 resolution.
DVB-S, MAC technology was replaced by this standard
DVB-T, MAC technology was replaced by this standard
References
External links
Multiplexed Analogue Components in "Analog TV Broadcast Systems" by Paul Schlyter
Television technology
Video formats
British inventions
1982 introductions
Audiovisual introductions in 1982 | D-MAC | [
"Technology"
] | 650 | [
"Information and communications technology",
"Television technology"
] |
7,403,045 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D2-MAC | D2-MAC is a satellite television transmission standard, a member of Multiplexed Analogue Components family. It was created to solve D-MAC's bandwidth usage by further reducing it, allowing usage of the system on cable and satellite broadcast. It could carry four high quality (15 kHz bandwidth) sound channels or eight lower quality audio channels. It was adopted by Scandinavian, German and French satellite broadcasts (CNBC Europe, TV3 (Sweden), TV3 (Denmark), EuroSport, NRK 1, TV-Sat 2, TDF 1, TDF 2, etc.). The system was used until July 2006 in Scandinavia and until the mid-1990s for German and French sound channels.
Technical details
MAC transmits luminance and chrominance data separately in time rather than separately in frequency (as other analog television formats do, such as composite video).
Audio, in a format similar to NICAM was transmitted digitally rather than as an FM sub-carrier.
The MAC standard included a standard scrambling system, EuroCrypt, a precursor to the standard DVB-CSA encryption system.
D2-MAC uses half the data rate of D-MAC
D2-MAC has a reduced vision bandwidth, about 1/2 that of D-MAC.
D2-MAC retains most of the quality of a D-MAC signal—but consumes only 5 MHz of bandwidth.
History and politics
MAC was developed by the UK's Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA) and in 1982 was adopted as the transmission format for the UK's forthcoming direct broadcast satellite (DBS) television services (eventually provided by British Satellite Broadcasting). The following year MAC was adopted by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) as the standard for all DBS.
By 1986, despite there being two standards, D-MAC and D2-MAC, favoured by different countries in Europe, an EU Directive imposed MAC on the national DBS broadcasters, to provide a stepping stone from analogue PAL and SECAM formats to the eventual high definition and digital television of the future, with European TV manufacturers in a privileged position to provide the equipment required.
However, the Astra satellite system was also starting up at this time (the first satellite, Astra 1A was launched in 1989) and that operated outside of the EU's MAC requirements, due to being a non-DBS satellite. Despite further pressure from the EU (including a further Directive originally intended to make MAC provision compulsory in TV sets, and a subsidy to broadcasters to use the MAC format), most broadcasters outside Scandinavia preferred the lower cost of PAL transmission and receiving equipment.
In the 2000s, the use of D-MAC and D2-MAC ceased when the satellite broadcasts of the channels concerned changed to DVB-S format.
See also
Analog high-definition television systems
PAL & SECAM
Multiplexed Analogue Components
DVB-S & DVB-T
References
External links
Multiplexed Analogue Components in "Analog TV Broadcast Systems" by Paul Schlyter
Example of a raw D2-MAC transmission being received
Television technology
Television transmission standards
Video formats
British inventions
1982 introductions
Audiovisual introductions in 1982 | D2-MAC | [
"Technology"
] | 636 | [
"Information and communications technology",
"Television technology"
] |
7,403,047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-squares | C-squares (acronym for the Concise Spatial QUery And REpresentation System) is a system of spatially unique, location-based identifiers (geocodes) for areas on the surface of the earth, represented as cells from a latitude- and longitude-based Discrete Global Grid at a hierarchical set of resolution steps, obtained by progressively subdividing 10×10 degree World Meteorological Organization squares; the term "c-square" is also available for use to designate any component cell of the grid. Individual cell identifiers incorporate literal values of latitude and longitude in an interleaved notation (producing grid resolutions of 10, 1, 0.1 degrees, etc.), together with additional digits that support intermediate grid resolutions of 5, 0.5, 0.05 degrees, etc.
The system was initially designed to represent data "footprints" or spatial extents in a more flexible manner than a standard minimum bounding rectangle, and to support "lightweight", text-based spatial querying; it can also provide a set of identifiers for grid cells used for assembly, storage and analysis of spatially organised data, in a unified notation that transcends national or jurisdictional boundaries. Dataset extents expressed in c-squares notation can be visualised using a web-based utility, the c-squares mapper, an online instance of which is currently provided by CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere in Australia. C-squares codes and associated published software are free to use and the software is released under version 2 of the GNU General Public License (GPL), a licence of the Free Software Foundation.
History
The c-squares method was developed by Tony Rees at CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere in Australia (then "CSIRO Marine Research") in 2001–2, initially as a method for spatial indexing, rapid query, and compact storage and visualization of dataset spatial "footprints" in an agency-specific metadata directory (data catalogue); it was first publicly announced at the 2002 "EOGEO" Technical Workshop held at Ispra, Italy in May 2002. A more complete description was published in the scientific literature in 2003, together with a web-accessible mapping utility entitled the "c-squares mapper" for visualisation of data extents expressed in the c-squares notation. Since that time, a number of projects and international collaborations have employed c-squares to support spatial indexing and/or map production, including FishBase (to map stored data points for any species), the Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS), AquaMaps, data analysis to support the designation of marine biogeographic realms, for multi-national fisheries data collation by the Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries (STECF) of the European Commission, and for data reporting by ICES. For its application in displaying and modelling global biodiversity data, c-squares was one of four components cited in the award of the Ebbe Nielsen Prize to Rees by the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) in 2014. The concept of representing dataset "footprints" as cells of spatial data of this nature and alignment was stated to have been inspired by the data addressing method in the U.S. National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) "World Ocean Database" product, which uses 10 degree World Meteorological Organization squares (the starting point for c-squares hierarchical subdivision) for organising its data content, and the set of 1:100,000 topographic maps issued by the national mapping agency for Australia (coverage and index here); each map covers a 0.5 degree square and, with its associated mapsheet labels, can notionally be used as a unit of spatial identification. The method has been discussed further in texts on georeferencing, including those by Hill, 2006 and Guo et al., 2020.
The system name "c-squares" was chosen because it can be represented as an acronym (for "concise spatial query and representation system") and also because it signals that this method belongs to a notional group of similarly named, latitude-longitude gridded subdivisions of the Globe that includes World Meteorological Organization Squares and Marsden squares, and contrasts with other tessellations of the Globe that use different shaped basic units such as rectangles, triangles, diamonds, and hexagons (for examples refer e.g. Sahr et al., 2003). It is also intended that any individual component cell of the grid can be referred to as a "c-square" (no initial capitalization required).
Rationale
Spatial data are inherently (at least) 2-dimensional; without additional indexing, a numeric range query in 2 dimensions (e.g. x and y, or latitude and longitude) is required to retrieve data items within a particular area. Such queries are computationally expensive so it can be beneficial to pre-process (index) the data in some manner that reduces the inherent dimensionality from two to one dimension, for example as labelled cells of a grid. The grid labels can then be indexed by standard, one dimensional methods for rapid search and retrieval, and/or searched by simple alphanumeric text searches. C-squares is an example of such a grid where the cell identifiers are designed to be human- as well as machine-readable, and to be concordant with recognizable and commonly intervals of latitude and longitude.
Additional areas where a grid-based approach to spatial indexing can be beneficial can be for the representation of data "footprints" in support of spatial search, data binning to reduce complex and potentially voluminous data into "blocks" which then can be more easily compared and summarised, and the potential for a hierarchical approach wherein finer resolutions of the grid are nested into coarser ones, with a shared notation (common identifiers for the larger portions of the relevant grid cells). A jurisdiction-independent, (global) grid such as c-squares can also be used to integrate data across national boundaries, in contrast to (for example) the national grids of various countries such as those of the United Kingdom, Ireland, etc., which are not the same in their approach and may have differences or gaps where such grids overlap, or fail to meet (for example in marine regions around two areas).
A potential disadvantage of "equal angle" grids (the class that includes c-squares), which are based on standardised units of latitude and longitude, is that the length of the "sides" and the shape (and area) of the grid cells is not constant on the ground (the height remains approximately constant but the width varies with latitude), and some particular effects are noticeable at the poles, where the cells become 3- rather than 4-sided in practice (refer illustration). These disadvantages can be offset by the advantages that data transformation in and out of grid notation can be accomplished by relatively straightforward steps, the results are congruent with conventional maps that show intervals of latitude and longitude, and the concepts of (for example) "1-degree squares" and "0.5 degree squares" may have familiarity and meaning to human users, in a way that non-square, purely mathematically derived shapes and sizes (based upon some form of spherical trigonometry) may not.
The c-squares global grid notation
Initial 10 degree squares
10-degree c-squares are specified as being identical to equivalent World Meteteorological Organization (WMO) square codes, refer illustration at right. These squares are aligned with 10-degree subdivisions of the global latitude–longitude grid, which for c-squares use is specified as employing the WGS84 datum. WMO (10 degree) squares are encoded with four digits, in the series 1xxx, 3xxx, 5xxx and 7xxx. The leading digit indicates the "global quadrant" with 1 for north-east (latitude and longitude are both positive), 3 for south-east (latitude is negative and longitude positive), 5 for south-west (latitude and longitude are both negative) and 7 for north-west (latitude is positive and longitude negative). The next digit, 0 through 8, corresponds to the tens of latitude degrees either north or south; while the remaining 2 digits, 00 through 17, correspond to the tens of longitude degrees either east or west (by specification, 0 is treated as positive). Thus the 10 degree cell with its lower left corner at 0,0 (latitude,longitude) is encoded 1000, and acts as a bin to contain all spatial data between 0 and 10 degrees north (actually, 0 and 9.999...) and 0 and 9.999... degrees east; the 10 degree cell with its lower left corner at 80 N, 170 E is encoded 1817, and acts as a bin to contain all spatial data between 80 and 90 degrees north and 170 and 179.999... degrees east.
Subsequent recursive subdivision
C-squares extends the initial WMO 10×10 square notation via a recursive series of "cycles", each 3 digits long (the final one may be 1 digit), separated by the colon character, the number of characters (and cycles) indicating the resolution encoded, as per these examples:
1000 ... 10×10 degree square (up to 1000×1000 km nominal)
1000:1 ... 5×5 degree square (up to 500×500 km nominal)
1000:100 ... 1×1 degree square (up to 100×100 km nominal)
1000:100:1 ... 0.5×0.5 degree square (up to 50×50 km nominal)
1000:100:100 ... 0.1×0.1 degree square (up to 10×10 km nominal)
1000:100:100:1 ... 0.05×0.05 degree square (up to 5×5 km nominal)
(etc.)
Cell size is typically selected to suit the nature (granularity and volume) of the data to be encoded, the overall spatial extent of the area in question (e.g. global to local), the desired spatial resolution of the resulting grid (smallest features/areas that can be differentiated from each other), and the computing resources available (numbers of cells to cover the same area increase by either ×4 or ×25 with each decrease in square size, either requiring an equivalent increase in computing resources or possibly slower addressing times). For example, relatively generalised, global compilations may be best suited to aggregate (index) data by 10- or 5- degree cells, while more local gridded areas may favour 1-, 0.5- or 0.1- degree cells, as appropriate.
The nominal sizes given above reflect the fact that at the equator, 1 degree of both latitude and longitude correspond to around 110 km, with the actual value for longitude declining between there and the poles, where it becomes zero (latitude actual: 110.567 km at the equator, 111.699 km at the poles; longitude actual: 111.320 km at the equator, 78.847 km at latitude ±45 degrees, 0 km at the poles); at a sample northern hemisphere latitude e.g. that of London (51.5 degrees north), a 1×1 degree square measures approximately 111×69 km.
To produce the 1 or 3 digits in any cycle following the initial 4-digit, 10-degree square identifier, first an "intermediate quadrant", 1 through 4 is designated (refer diagram at right), where 1 indicates low absolute values of both latitude and longitude (regardless of sign), 2 indicates low longitude and high latitude, 3 indicates high latitude and low longitude, and 4 indicates high values for both; "low" and high" being taken from the relevant portion of the data to be gridded (for example within the 10 degree cell extending from 10 to 20 degrees, 10 is treated as low and 19 as high). This leading digit in a cycle is then followed simply by the next applicable digit for first latitude and then longitude: thus an input value of latitude +11.0, longitude +12.0 degrees will be encoded as the 5 degree c-square code 1101:1 and the 1 degree code 1101:112. Inspection of this code will show that the input latitude value can be recovered directly from the digits 1101:112 while the longitude is included as 1101:112; the sign for these is both positive, as indicated by the first digit of the leading 4 (1 in this case, indicating the north east global quadrant).
From 2002 onwards (still current at 2020), an online "latlong to c-squares conversion page" is available at the website of CSIRO Marine Research (now CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere) which will convert input values of latitude and longitude to the equivalent c-square code at user selectable resolutions from 10 to 0.1 degree cell size. Alternatively it is a comparatively simple task to program from first principles (or construct as, for example, a Microsoft Excel worksheet) according to the c-squares specification; an example is available here.
C-squares strings, and the c-squares mapper
A set of c-squares (contiguous or non contiguous) can be represented as a concatenated list of individual square codes, separated by the "pipe" (|) character, thus: 7500:110:3|7500:110:1|1500:110:3|1500:110:1 (etc.). This set of squares can then serve as an indication of a dataset extent, similar in function (but simpler to specify) to a MultiPolygon in the Well-known text representation of geometry, the functional difference being that defined points forming the boundary of a polygon can be continuously variable, while those for the c-square boundaries are constrained to fixed intervals from the grid square resolution in use. If these strings are stored, for example as "long text" within a field of a conventional text storage system (e.g. spreadsheet, database, etc.) they can be used for the operation of spatial searches (see following section/s).
C-squares strings can also be used directly as input to an instance of the "c-squares mapper", a web-based utility in operation since 2002 at CSIRO in Australia (under the domain obis.org.au) and also at other global locations. To visualize the position of any set of squares on a map, the current syntax to address an installation of the "c-squares mapper" is (e.g.):
http://www.obis.org.au/cgi-bin/cs_map.pl?csq=3211:123:2|3211:113:4|3211:114:1|3211:206:2|3211:206:1|3111:496:3|3111:495:4|3111:495:1|3111:394:2|3111:495:2|3111:384:3|3111:383:1|3111:382:2|3111:372:3|3111:371:4|3112:371:1|3111:370:2| (etc.).
It should be noted here that the above call to the c-squares mapper is a simple one, with only a single parameter (a single c-squares string) which produces a simple "default map"; the mapper is in fact quite highly customizable, capable of accepting up to seven c-squares strings concurrently, plotting them in user-specified colours, with a choice of empty of filled squares, user-selectable base map, etc. etc.; a full list of available input parameters is provided on the mapper "technical information" page. A more sophisticated map produced using a larger number of available parameters is the colour-coded example at right (AquaMap, i.e. modelled distribution, for the ocean sunfish). Commencing in 2006, an upgrade of the mapper incorporating the independently-written Xplanet software also allows the plots of supplied c-squares to be displayed on a user-rotatable and zoomable globe, which can offer a more realistic view for either Pacific Ocean- or polar- centred data than are possible with a flat map (e.g. equirectangular) projection.
Th c-squares mapper is one of several options currently (2006–present) available for real time mapping of fish point data records in FishBase, as per this example page for the species Salmo trutta (sea trout); similar options are also available for other (non fish) marine species via SeaLifeBase as per this example. Since 2006, the mapper has also produced in excess of 100,000 species maps for the AquaMaps project (33,500 species x 4 "standard maps" per species as at 2021, additional user-generated maps available on demand).
Spatial searching
In a system that uses c-squares codes as units of spatial indexing, a text-based search on any of these square identifiers will retrieve data associated with the relevant square. If a wildcard search is supported (for example in the case that the wildcard character is a percent sign), a search on "7500%" will retrieve all data items in that ten degree square, a search on "7500:1%" will retrieve all data items in that five degree square, etc.
The asterisk character "*" has a special (reserved) meaning in c-squares notation, being a "compact" notation indicating that all finer cells within a higher level cell are included, to the level of resolution indicated by the number of asterisks. In the example above, "7500:*" would indicate that all 4 five-degree cells within parent ten-degree cell "7500" are filled, "7500:***" would indicate that all 100 one-degree cells within parent ten-degree cell "7500" are filled, etc. This approach enables the filling of contiguous blocks of cells with an economy of characters in many cases (a form of data compression), that is useful for efficient storage and transfer of c-squares codes as required.
Spatial data reporting, assembly, and analysis
C-squares has been employed at a range of resolutions for data reporting, assembly and analysis on scales ranging from global to local, also incorporating multi-national data compilations where a gridded data system is required that is not tied to the boundaries of any single jurisdiction. Examples include:
5×5 degree squares:
production of the first world scale map of marine biogeographic realms based on distributions of 65,000 marine species, by Costello et al., 2017
1×1 degree squares:
geographic presentation of marine mammal, seabird and sea turtle data by the OBIS-SEAMAP (Spatial Ecologial Analysis of Megavertebrate Populations) project (also offers additional options i.e. 0.1×0.1 and 0.01×0.01 degree squares)
0.5×0.5 degree squares:
modelling of marine (and some freshwater) species distributions by the AquaMaps project, plus associated spatial search; the AquaMaps front page https://www.aquamaps.org/ offers "click on a map" spatial search facility based on 0.5×0.5 degree c-squares, example spatial search result here. AquaMaps have been further employed in subsequent studies such as the Ecological Assessment of the Sustainable Impacts of Fisheries (EASI-Fish) approach.
reporting and collation of fishing activity by member states by the Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries (STECF) of the European Commission Data contributed by 23 member States is available as a data product "Fisheries landings & effort: data by c-square (2015-2019)", further discussed in a 2020 STECF Working Group Report (no. 20–10).
analysing and forecasting fisheries time series data in the Indian Ocean
delineating high priority areas for marine biodiversity conservation in the Coral Triangle, bordered by both the Pacific and Indian Oceans
AquaMaps makes available its base data coverages of global marine environmental variables as c-squares gridded data at 0.5 degree resolution
0.1×0.1 degree squares:
fish catch reporting for the purpose of stock assessment by the New South Wales Department of Primary Industries/Fisheries New South Wales in Australia; examples:
0.05×0.05 degree squares:
Vessel monitoring system (VMS) data and fishing logbook data for International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) and others, as also implemented in the ICES "FishFrame" regional database
identification of vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs) in the North-East Atlantic for the EU-funded Horizon 2020 ATLAS Project. According to Turner et al., 2021, "ATLAS partners helped develop a data aggregation approach, the VME Index, to help identify areas where vulnerable marine ecosystems are known or are likely to occur. The VME Index is a single metric based on a multi-criteria assessment method that combines VME indicator records within a C-square (i.e., a spatial unit used by ICES: 0.05 x 0.05 degree grid, equivalent to approximately 15 km2 at 60°N latitude) based on the abundance/presence of VME indicator taxa and how reliable the underlying data are. ... ICES has been using the VME Index since 2018 to provide advice concerning the protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems."
a 2019 ICES Report "Working Group on Spatial Fisheries Data (WGSFD)" contains a number of example maps plotted using 0.05×0.05 degree c-squares, and also a discussion of whether or not a move towards 0.01×0.01 degree square reporting would be beneficial (higher spatial data resolution) or detrimental (increased number of squares with no content)
a 2023 study of the effects of bottom trawlers in the southern Baltic Sea by H. Corell et al.
identification of at-risk benthic areas and habitats in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea by Smith et al., 2023.
0.01×0.01 degree squares:
a survey of spatial patterns in deep-sea trawling off the Portuguese continental coast by Campos et al., 2021.
C-squares labelled cells were adopted as the underlying grid for analysis by the European Union-funded MINOUW project (MINimisation Of UnWanted catches in European Waters), via their web application (MINOUWApp), in support of spatial data (notably fishing effort and density patches of potential unwanted catches) supplied by project researchers across different European countries in a range of formats, in combination with layers of spatial information from external sources.
Target audience/potential users
According to its design principles, the principal target audience for c-squares is data custodians who wish to organise spatial data by latitude-longitude grid squares at any of the resolutions supported by the system, namely any decimal subdivision of either 10×10 or 5×5 degree squares, to support associated data query, retrieval, analysis, representation (mapping), and potential external data exchange and aggregation. Fine resolution c-squares may also be used as a general "location encoder", selected desirable attributes of which are discussed further by the developers of the Google Open Location Code method, since the c-squares method satisfies the majority of the criteria set out in that discussion document. As evidenced by the references cited in this article, principal adopters of the method to date have been concerned with marine data in particular; this most likely stems from the fact that the oceans are trans-national in their governance, therefore otherwise established local or national grids are unsuitable for analysis of ocean or fisheries data on anything other than a local scale. Although initially deployed in marine-related systems (as per its description in the journal "Oceanography"), in essence the system is terrain-agnostic (as is the latitude-longitude grid upon which it is based) and is applicable equally to both marine and terrestrial data.
An additional aspect of c-squares noted by Larsen et al., 2009 and either implicit or explicit in other equivalent "data aggregation methods" is the use of such frameworks to "allow general level analyses without exposing the precise coordinates of potentially sensitive information". For example, real time data on the exact location of fishing vessels is frequently considered "commercial in confidence" to avoid release to competitors of the best fishing localities according to the nature of the resource, which may be continually moving, while for biodiversity data, the exact location of individuals or (for example) nests of rare species may again not be desirable to release to the public. The use of grid cells or similar methods to accurately represent the general location of data points without revealing their more exact location, while still rendering the data available for statistical analysis, is a recognised useful approach in such situations, refer e.g. Chapman, 2020.
Congruence with other latitude-longitude geocoding systems
At its maximum scale, 10 degree c-squares are congruent with both World Meteorological Organization squares (whose identifiers are re-used within the c-squares notation) and Marsden squares, which share the same boundaries but use a different notation. Both 1 degree and 0.5 degree c-squares are partially congruent with "standard resolution" ICES Statistical Rectangles, which utilize a grid cell area of 1×0.5 degrees over a restricted portion of the Globe (north Atlantic region): 2 vertically adjacent ICES rectangles are exactly equivalent to a single 1 degree c-square, while if needed, the content of a single ICES rectangle can be apportioned between 2 horizontally adjacent 0.5 degree c-squares for data interchange at that resolution (refer note).
A separate system, QDGC or Quarter Degree Grid Cells, has been developed for interchange of some biodiversity data in Africa, and later extended to cope with data across the Equator and Prime Meridian. QDGC cells, at 0.25×0.25 degrees, lie between the 0.5×0.5 and 0.1×0.1 degree resolution steps of the c-squares system, and are thus not exactly compatible with it, although the "parent" squares of the QDGC grid from which they are derived, at 1×1 and 0.5×0.5 degrees, are congruent with equivalent c-squares grid cells, however using a different notation. In their proposal for an "extended" QDGC system, Larsen et al. additionally describe the potential subdivision of 0.25×0.25 degree QDGC cells by a recursive factor of 2, giving cell sizes of 0.125, 0.0625, 0.03125 degrees, etc., which progressively depart further from the "decimal degrees" concept incorporated into c-squares.
Licensing and software availability
There is no licence required to use the c-squares method, which has been openly published in the scientific literature since 2003. Source code for the mapper, etc., available via the SourceForge website, is released under the GNU General Public License version 2.0 (GPLv2), which provides free use and redistribution, and subsequent modification for any purpose so long as that licence is retained with the product and any subsequent modifications, in other words, that all the released improved versions will also be free software.
See also
List of geodesic-geocoding systems
World Meteorological Organization squares
Grid (spatial index)
Geocode
Geospatial metadata
Notes
References
External links
C-squares home page
C-squares project page on SourceForge, including:
lists of c-squares by ID, at resolutions from 10×10 to 0.5×0.5 degrees
ESRI shapefiles containing equivalent information
AquaMaps (demonstration of c-squares in real-world use)
Tony Rees, 2014: "Selected Innovations in Biodiversity Informatics" 2014 GBIF Ebbe Nielsen Prize Presentation, New Delhi. (includes an introduction to, and overview of c-squares)
Geocodes
Geographic coordinate systems
CSIRO | C-squares | [
"Mathematics"
] | 5,830 | [
"Geographic coordinate systems",
"Coordinate systems"
] |
7,404,294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteophagy | Osteophagy is the practice in which animals, usually herbivores, consume bones. Most vegetation around the world lacks sufficient amounts of phosphate. Phosphorus is an essential mineral for all animals, as it plays a major role in the formation of the skeletal system, and is necessary for many biological processes including: energy metabolism, protein synthesis, cell signaling, and lactation. Phosphate deficiencies can cause physiological side effects, especially pertaining to the reproductive system, as well as side effects of delayed growth and failure to regenerate new bone. The importance of having sufficient amounts of phosphorus further resides in the physiological importance of maintaining a proper phosphorus to calcium ratio. Having a Ca:P ratio of 2:1 is important for the absorption of these minerals, as deviations from this optimal ratio can inhibit their absorption. Dietary calcium and phosphorus ratio, along with vitamin D, regulates bone mineralization and turnover by affecting calcium and phosphorus transport and absorption in the intestine.
It has been suggested that osteophagy is an innate behavior that allows animals to supplement their phosphorus and calcium uptake in order to avoid the costly effects of deficiencies in these minerals. Osteophagic behavior has been observed in pastoral and wild animals, most notably ungulates and other herbivores, for over two hundred years. Osteophagy has been inferred from archaeological studies of dental wear in Pleistocene fossils dating back 780,000 years. It has been seen in domestic animals, as well as red deer, camels, giraffes, wildebeest, antelopes, tortoises, and grizzly bears. Due to differences in tooth structure, herbivores tend to chew old dry bones that are easier to break, while carnivores prefer to chew softer fresh bones. Variations of the behavior have also been observed in humans.
While osteophagy has been regarded as a beneficial behavior to combat mineral deficiencies in animals, osteophagic practices have also been observed to be detrimental to the dentition of herbivores. It has been observed that the pattern of wear on the cheek teeth of herbivores is congruous to the manner in which herbivores hold and chew bones. A major cost of osteophagy is therefore significant wear on teeth and dental breakage in herbivores, whose teeth did not evolve to enable the regular consumption of hard materials but rather for the grinding of vegetal fibers.
Animals
Wolverine
Wolverines are observed finding large bones invisible in deep snow and are specialists at scavenging bones specifically to cache. Wolverine upper molars are rotated 90 degrees inward, which is the identifying dentition characteristic of the family Mustelidae (weasel family), of which the wolverine has the most mass, so they can crack the bones and eat the frozen marrow of large animals. This structural feature helps the wolverine be successful as a scavenger and adapt to a frozen habitat.
Porcupine
Porcupine species including the largest, African porcupine and North American porcupine, are nocturnal bone collectors of thousands of bones, stored inside their den and in open piles in their vicinity. The bones do not satisfy seasonal nutritional deficiency, they prevent overgrown teeth but the shavings are ingested as the bulk of their diet.
Tortoise
Osteophagy in desert tortoises has largely been observed in captivity, and more rarely in the wild where osteophagy observed above ground is quick and seldom, usually lasting only a few minutes.
Desert plants are a major food source for desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii), as they have a mainly herbivorous diet. In addition to desert plants, desert tortoises also consume vulture feces (which contain bones), soil (layers contain calcium), mammal hairs, feathers, arthropods, stones, bones of conspecifics, as well as snake and lizard skin castings. Desert tortoises have been observed to exhibit mounting behavior, aggressive biting, and repeated striking of carcasses when practicing osteophagy.
Osteophagy in herbivores has been viewed to serve as a source for supplemental minerals. Desert plants grow in mineral-deficient soil, and may be a cause of mineral deficiency in desert tortoise diets, resulting in the intake of this supplemental material.
An observational study of tortoises near St. George, Utah, found that the tortoises exclusively consume the Mojave Desert's white stones, which are composed of calcite (mostly calcium carbonate), as opposed to the brown, grey, or other colored stones. The ingestion of these white stones is attributed to the deliberate intake of additional calcium.
Furthermore, it is thought that these additional sources of food are sources of not only calcium, but also other nutrients including phosphorus, sodium, iron, copper, and selenium.
It has also been hypothesized that osteophagy is a practice necessary for the maintenance of desert tortoise shells. This parallels the phenomenon of osteophagy in birds, in which snail shells are ingested by egg-laying females to supplement the increased calcium needed for eggshell formation. Therefore, it would be expected that the increased physiological needs of juvenile and gravid female tortoises would also increase mineral demands and promote ingestion of bones, stones, and soil. Alternatively, the need to consume supplemental minerals may serve the purpose of detoxifying plant compounds, or may serve other purposes not related to nutrition such as to dislodge gut parasites.
Cattle
In the late 1800s, a then relatively unknown disease called botulism was seen in very high levels in South African cattle, especially those that grazed in pastures with low phosphorus levels. Researchers found that feeding the cattle sterile bonemeal, or maize with unnaturally high levels of phosphorus, nearly eliminated botulism. The simplest conclusion for this was that the botulism symptoms were caused by a lack of phosphorus.
In the early 1900s, Sir Thomas Thieler revisited the issue, and began following herds of cattle to observe their behavior. Incredibly, he found that the phosphorus-deficient cattle would eat the decomposing bones of dead cattle and other animals, and that this activity was highly correlated to botulism. Over the next several years, he was able to show that a bacterial strain living in the decomposing carcasses, Clostridium botulinum, was the true cause of the disease. The cattle would eat the carcasses to replenish their phosphorus deficiency, and would contract the disease.
More recently, in 2005, it was found that cows experimentally depleted of phosphate through the extended provision of a low-phosphate diet exhibited a specific appetite for bones compared to controls who did not develop an interest in bones. After researchers increased blood plasma inorganic phosphate levels in the experimental group of cattle, the appetite for whole bones was suppressed. This experiment provided evidence for the causal link between osteophagy and phosphorus deficiency in cattle.
Bears
Grizzly bears in the wild have been observed to gnaw on shed moose antlers, which can provide a valuable source of protein, calcium, and phosphorus.
Grizzly bears are at the weakest point into their annual cycle following emergence from hibernation, in terms of lacking mineral and protein nutrition. Grizzly bears (Ursus arctos), after emerging from hibernation, may be experiencing a skewed phosphorus-to-calcium ratio due to the lack of consumption of animal resources during the period of hibernation.
In winter conditions, while grizzly bears may be able to continue to maintain calcium intake with the ingestion of plants and maintain levels of vitamin D from solar radiation, low protein availability results in phosphorus deficiency in grizzly bear diets. This lack of protein during winter conditions can be attributed to the scarcity of animal proteins, a phenomenon that occurs in many ecosystems prior to green-up, or the ending of winter conditions. Therefore, overall, bones can serve as a valuable source of minerals at times where animal protein availability is low.
The resulting phosphorus deficiency in grizzly bear diets results in a skewed calcium to phosphorus ratio and creates an appetite for bone. Because this deficiency is associated with the cycle of the seasons, osteophagy in bears is likely to be a seasonal phenomenon rather than a constant dietary supplement.
Giraffes
Giraffes rely solely on browsing to maintain their diet, which consists primarily of leafy material. However, they are commonly observed supplementing their diet with bones. Although the exact purpose of this behavior is unknown, it is hypothesized that the ingestion of bones serves as an additional source of calcium and phosphorus. While leaves usually serve as a sufficient source of these nutrients, calcium and phosphorus concentrations in the leaves vary seasonally with rainfall; the giraffes' osteophagic behavior has been observed to parallel this variance in mineral concentration.
The benefits of this behavior remain unclear. Researchers have found that it is actually unlikely that the giraffes can sufficiently digest the bones to extract the calcium or phosphorus. There is also evidence to suggest that osteophagy is associated with the development of kidney stones and medullary and cortical lesions in giraffes due to the nutritional imbalance in their diet.
Domestic dog
While the media often portrays domestic dogs chewing bones, this is slightly misleading. Dogs chew bones only to eat any residual meat and bone marrow left on them, so it is not truly a form of osteophagy. Most modern toy "bones" for dogs are actually rawhide, which is simply dried animal skin, as animal bones are actually dangerous for dogs to chew.
Birds
Osteophagic behavior has been frequently observed among several carnivorous bird species including hawks and owls, however the
motivations differ from those of the aforementioned herbivores. Presumably, the bird's main purpose is to ingest the maximum amount of soft tissue from their prey as possible often resulting in the consumption of the prey's entire body. The digestible materials are broken down while the indigestible material (i.e. bone) forms a pellet which is then regurgitated. While the regurgitation of the bone is advantageous in that it frees space in the stomach for new prey, the behavior can be harmful in that the pellets are often larger than the digestive tract and could cause damage or obstruction. In addition, the bearded vulture is a specialized bone-eater with bones making up 70–90% of its diet.
Humans
Pica
Pica is the craving and consumption of non-nutrient substances that can cause health risks. Osteophagy in humans would be considered a form of pica. Unlike calcium and phosphorus in most animals, pica is associated with iron deficiencies in humans. Humans are unlikely to suffer from calcium and phosphorus deficiencies because the minerals are widely abundant in the foods they consume.
Geophagy, the eating of earthen materials like clay, can be another form of pica that is more commonly observed than osteophagy.
Religious practice
The Yanomami tribe live as nomads in the Brazilian and Venezuelan Amazon. When a tribe member dies, it is a custom for their family to "set their spirit free" in a religious ritual. During this ritual, the tribe grinds their bones to a fine ashen powder and mixes the powder into a plantain soup, which is eaten by the family of the deceased. It is possible that this ritual originated as a way to increase phosphorus and other minerals in the tribe's diet, though it may just be a religious ritual without any other purpose.
See also
Geophagy
References
Eating behaviors
Ethology | Osteophagy | [
"Biology"
] | 2,414 | [
"Behavior",
"Biological interactions",
"Eating behaviors",
"Behavioural sciences",
"Ethology"
] |
7,404,467 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambient%20isotopy | In the mathematical subject of topology, an ambient isotopy, also called an h-isotopy, is a kind of continuous distortion of an ambient space, for example a manifold, taking a submanifold to another submanifold. For example in knot theory, one considers two knots the same if one can distort one knot into the other without breaking it. Such a distortion is an example of an ambient isotopy. More precisely, let and be manifolds and and be embeddings of in . A continuous map
is defined to be an ambient isotopy taking to if is the identity map, each map is a homeomorphism from to itself, and . This implies that the orientation must be preserved by ambient isotopies. For example, two knots that are mirror images of each other are, in general, not equivalent.
See also
Isotopy
Regular homotopy
Regular isotopy
References
M. A. Armstrong, Basic Topology, Springer-Verlag, 1983
Sasho Kalajdzievski, An Illustrated Introduction to Topology and Homotopy, CRC Press, 2010, Chapter 10: Isotopy and Homotopy
Topology
Maps of manifolds | Ambient isotopy | [
"Physics",
"Mathematics"
] | 245 | [
"Topology stubs",
"Topology",
"Space",
"Geometry",
"Spacetime"
] |
7,404,657 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetPath | NetPath is a manually curated resource of human signal transduction pathways. It is a joint effort between Pandey Lab at the Johns Hopkins University and the Institute of Bioinformatics (IOB), Bangalore, India, and is also worked on by other parties.
NetPath hosts 45 signaling pathways, including 10 pathways with a major role in the regulation of immune system and 10 pathways with relevance to regulation of cancer.
Overview
The 45 pathways contain information pertaining to protein-protein interactions, enzyme-protein substrate reactions which bring about post translational modifications (PTMs) and also a catalogue of genes which are differentially regulated upon activation of specific ligand mediated receptor pathways. The molecules which localises to different cellular organelles due to their PTMs or specific protein-protein interactions which occur downstream of ligand-receptor mediated pathway are available under translocation events. Recently, NetPath has also curated the molecules involved in the transcriptional regulation of genes in the context of immune signaling pathways. The reactions in NetPath are curated by PhD level scientists from experimental evidence available in published research articles. NetPath also contains textual description of its reactions with information on PTMs, dependence of PTMs on various signaling reactions, subcellular location, protein interaction domains or motifs and the cell type or cell line in which reactions are proved. The information in NetPath is linked to their corresponding research articles and are frequently updated. Each pathway is subjected to different level of internal quality checks and peer-review by the pathway experts and authorities.
Development
NetPath was developed using PathBuilder, an open source software application for annotating and developing pathway resources. PathBuilder enables annotation of molecular events including protein-protein interactions, enzyme-substrate relationships and protein translocation events via manual or automatic methods. The features of PathBuilder include automatic validation of data formats, built-in modules for visualizing pathways, automated import of data from other pathway resources, export of data in several standard data exchange formats and an application programming interface for retrieving pathway datasets.
Data availability
All 45 pathways are freely downloadable in BioPAX, PSI-MI and SBML formats. BioPAX is an emerging standard for pathway data exchange. The pathways are made available under an adaptive Creative Commons License 2.5 which stipulates that the pathways may be used if adequate credit is given to the authors.
Immune signaling pathways
The following immune signaling pathways are hosted by Netpath:
B cell receptor pathway
T cell receptor pathway
Interleukin-1 pathway
Interleukin-2 pathway
Interleukin-3 pathway
Interleukin-4 pathway
Interleukin-5 pathway
Interleukin-6 pathway
Interleukin-7 pathway
Interleukin-9 pathway
Cancer signaling pathways
The cancer signaling pathways were developed in collaboration with the Computational Biology Center at Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center and with Bader Lab at the University of Toronto for the "Cancer Cell Map". The following cancer signaling pathways are hosted by Netpath:
Epidermal growth factor receptor Pathway
Transforming growth factor beta receptor pathway
Tumor necrosis factor alpha pathway
Alpha6 Beta4 Integrin pathway
Inhibitor of DNA binding pathway
Hedgehog pathway
Notch pathway
Wnt pathway
Androgen receptor pathway
Kit receptor pathway
Current statistics
Community participation programme
The community participation programme is aimed at training the students in various universities from India on curation of pathway reactions. This is a joint programme led by the Institute of Bioinformatics (IOB), Bangalore, India with active participation from Akhilesh Pandey's laboratory at the Johns Hopkins University (USA) and Gary Bader's lab at the University of Toronto, Canada. Currently, students from 3 major Indian Universities namely Pondicherry University, University of Pune and University of Mysore are participants of this community effort.
References
External links
NetPath
Biological databases
Johns Hopkins University
2010 establishments | NetPath | [
"Biology"
] | 786 | [
"Bioinformatics",
"Biological databases"
] |
7,405,126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita%20xanthocephala | Amanita xanthocephala, known as the vermilion grisette, pretty grisette or vermilion amanita is a colourful mushroom of the genus Amanita. It is found in Australia in association with Eucalyptus and may be toxic to humans.
Taxonomy
At one stage this fungus was known as A. pulchella, in a small genus that all grisettes (ringless Amanita species) were placed in. This genus later sunk back into Amanita. Unlike most ringless Amanita, which are part of Amanita section Vaginatae (e.g. A. vaginata), A. xanthcephala belongs to Amanita section Amanita (e.g. A. muscaria).
It derives its specific epithet xanthocephala from the Greek xanthos/ξανθοѕ "yellow" and kephale/κεφαλη "head".
Description
It is a ringless mushroom with a yellowish- to reddish-orange cap up to in diameter, with deeper colour toward the centre, and paler similar-coloured warts. The gills and slim ringless stipe are pale yellow or white. The white volva has a neat outturned lip and is often bordered with orange or yellow.
Distribution and habitat
A. xanthocephala is distributed in southwest Western Australia, as well as southeastern Australia from around Adelaide to Southeast Queensland. It is particularly found in eucalypt forests, as it has an ectomycorrhizal relationship with Eucalyptus.
Toxicity
Like its relative A. muscaria, it is reported to be toxic. There is one report of a person being quite ill after tasting a small piece of it in 1997.
See also
List of Amanita species
References
External links
Fungimap reference Amanita xanthocephala
Amanita xanthocephala
xanthocephala
Fungi native to Australia
Poisonous fungi
Fungus species | Amanita xanthocephala | [
"Biology",
"Environmental_science"
] | 413 | [
"Poisonous fungi",
"Fungi",
"Toxicology",
"Fungus species"
] |
7,405,199 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adnoun | Adnoun is a linguistic term used with two different meanings.
Hyponym of adjective
An adnoun is a kind of lexical category. In English, it is a word that is usually an adjective, but is being used as a noun. The origin of the word is thought to date to around 1763-1792. Often these usages are simply identified as the noun form of the word.
Examples:
"guide-dogs for the blind", "blind" is an adnoun because it stands in for the noun phrase "blind people"
"tax cuts for the rich", "rich" is an adnoun because it stands in for the noun phrase "rich people"
Synonym of adjective
Adnoun is an alternative term, which is considered to be archaic, for adjective. As John Eliot states in his 1666 Indian Grammar Begun..., "An Adnoun is a part of Speech that attendeth upon a Noun, and signifieth the Qualification thereof."
References
Syntactic entities
Parts of speech | Adnoun | [
"Technology"
] | 213 | [
"Parts of speech",
"Components"
] |
7,405,398 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid%20%28spatial%20index%29 | In the context of a spatial index, a grid or mesh is a regular tessellation of a manifold or 2-D surface that divides it into a series of contiguous cells, which can then be assigned unique identifiers and used for spatial indexing purposes. A wide variety of such grids have been proposed or are currently in use, including grids based on "square" or "rectangular" cells, triangular grids or meshes, hexagonal grids, and grids based on diamond-shaped cells. A "global grid" is a kind of grid that covers the entire surface of the globe.
Types of grids
Square or rectangular grids are frequently used for purposes such as translating spatial information expressed in Cartesian coordinates (latitude and longitude) into and out of the grid system. Such grids may or may not be aligned with the grid lines of latitude and longitude; for example, Marsden Squares, World Meteorological Organization squares, c-squares and others are aligned, while Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system and various local grid based systems such as the British national grid reference system are not. In general, these grids fall into two classes, "equal angle" or "equal area". Grids that are "equal angle" have cell sizes that are constant in degrees of latitude and longitude but are unequal in area (particularly with varying latitude). Grids that are "equal area" (statistical grids), that have cell sizes that are constant in distance on the ground (e.g. 100 km, 10 km) but not in degrees of longitude, in particular.
A commonly used triangular grid is the "Quaternary Triangular Mesh" (QTM), which was developed by Geoffrey Dutton in the early 1980s. It eventually resulted in a thesis entitled "A Hierarchical Coordinate System for Geoprocessing and Cartography" that was published in 1999.
This grid was also employed as the basis of the rotatable globe that forms part of the Microsoft Encarta product.
Hexagonal grids may also be used. In general, triangular and hexagonal grids are constructed so as to better approach the goals of equal-area (or nearly so) plus more seamless coverage across the poles, which tends to be a problem area for square or rectangular grids since in these cases, the cell width diminishes to nothing at the pole and those cells adjacent to the pole then become 3- rather than 4-sided. Criteria for optimal discrete global gridding have been proposed by both Goodchild and Kimerling in which equal area cells are deemed of prime importance.
Quadtrees are a specialised form of grid in which the resolution of the grid is varied according to the nature and complexity of the data to be fitted, across the 2-d space. Polar grids utilize the polar coordinate system, using circles of a prescribed radius that are divided into sectors of a certain angle. Coordinates are given as the radius and angle from the center of the grid.
Grid-based spatial indexing
In practice, construction of grid-based spatial indices entails allocation of relevant objects to their position or positions in the grid, then creating an index of object identifiers vs. grid cell identifiers for rapid access. This is an example of a "space-driven" or data independent method, as opposed to "data-driven" or data dependent method, as discussed further in Rigaux et al. (2002)). A grid-based spatial index has the advantage that the structure of the index can be created first, and data added on an ongoing basis without requiring any change to the index structure; indeed, if a common grid is used by disparate data collecting and indexing activities, such indices can easily be merged from a variety of sources. On the other hand, data driven structures such as R-trees can be more efficient for data storage and speed at search execution time, though they are generally tied to the internal structure of a given data storage system.
The use of such spatial indices is not limited to digital data; the "index" section of any global or street atlas commonly contains a list of named features (towns, streets, etc.) with associated grid square identifiers, and may be considered a perfectly acceptable example of a spatial index (in this case, typically organised by feature name, though the reverse is conceptually also possible).
Other uses
The individual cells of a grid system can also be useful as units of aggregation, for example as a precursor to data analysis, presentation, mapping, etc. For some applications (e.g., statistical analysis), equal-area cells may be preferred, although for others this may not be a prime consideration.
In computer science, one often needs to find out all cells a ray is passing through in a grid (for raytracing or collision detection); this is called "grid traversal".
See also
Discrete global grid
Euclidean tilings by convex regular polygons
Geodesic grid
Spatial index
Grid plan
Grid reference
Geocode
hex map
quadrilateralized spherical cube
Quadtree
R-tree
Alpha-numeric grid
Utility pole#Coordinates on pole tags (some based on rectangular grids)
HEALPix
References
Indexing the Sky - Clive Page - Grid indices for astronomy
External links
Grid Traversal implementation details and applet demonstration
PYXIS Discrete Global Grid System using the ISEA3H Grid
Geocodes
Geographic coordinate systems
Database index techniques | Grid (spatial index) | [
"Mathematics"
] | 1,107 | [
"Geographic coordinate systems",
"Coordinate systems"
] |
7,405,764 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20cooperative%20movement | The history of the cooperative movement concerns the origins and history of cooperatives across the world. Although cooperative arrangements, such as mutual insurance, and principles of cooperation existed long before, the cooperative movement began with the application of cooperative principles to business organization.
Beginnings
The cooperative spirit spread in Greece earlier than in other European countries. During the 18th century, a particular form of cooperative organization was developed in certain areas under Ottoman sovereignty. It was associated with specific agricultural or craft products destined to international markets. Derived from the Byzantine guilds, it was favored by the Ottoman administration because it was enabling better control of the production and tax collection.
The Common Company (Syntrofia) of Ambelakia (1780 to 1812), established in Thessaly and providing Europe with high quality red cotton yarns, is typical of this system. Its development was related with a dyeing technique using the roots of the wild madder (ριζάρι, Rubia tinctorum) and providing an indelible and shiny color. 22 villages possessing 24 factories participated to the Syntrofia, which had 6000 individual members: financiers and landowners providing for capital and land, technicians providing knowhow, workers providing labor. It operated several branch stores abroad (Amsterdam, Dresden, Hamburg, Leipzig, Odessa, London, St. Petersburg...). In 1810, its capital amounted to 20 000 000 gold francs, deposited in the Bank of Vienna. Other well-known cooperatives established in Greece during the Ottoman period, are the Shipping Guilds of the islands Hydra, Spetses and Psara; the Community of Mantemi, exploiting the mines of Chalkidhiki (Macedonia); and the Community of “Mastic Villages” (Μαστιχοχώρια) de Chios (North Aegean), whose activities were based on the mastic - a resin extracted from the mastic trees, growing only on this island and used for cosmetic, culinary and medicinal purposes.
In the rest of Europe, primarily in Britain and France, the cooperative movement began mainily in the 19th century. The Industrial Revolution and the increasing mechanisation of the economy transformed society and threatened the livelihoods of many workers. The concurrent labour and social movements and the issues they attempted to address describe the climate at the time.
The first documented consumer cooperative was founded in 1769, in a barely furnished cottage in Fenwick, East Ayrshire, when local weavers manhandled a sack of oatmeal into John Walker's whitewashed front room and began selling the contents at a discount, forming the Fenwick Weavers' Society.
In 1810, Rev. Henry Duncan of the Ruthwell Presbyterian Church in Dumfriesshire, Scotland founded a friendly society to create a cooperative depository institution at which his poorest parishioners could hold savings accounts accruing interest for sickness and old-age, which was the first established savings bank that would be merged into the Trustee Savings Bank between 1970 and 1985.
In the decades that followed, several cooperatives or cooperative societies formed including Lennoxtown Friendly Victualling Society, founded in 1812.
By 1830, there were several hundred co-operatives.
Some were initially successful, but most cooperatives founded in the early 19th century had failed by 1840.
However, Lockhurst Lane Industrial Co-operative Society (founded in 1832 and now Heart of England Co-operative Society), and Galashiels and Hawick Co-operative Societies (1839 or earlier, merged with The Co-operative Group) still trade today.
It was not until 1844 when the Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers established the "Rochdale Principles" on which they ran their cooperative, that the basis for development and growth of the modern cooperative movement was established.
Financially, cooperative banks, called credit unions in the US, were invented in Germany in the mid-19th century, first by Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch (1852, urban), then by Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen (1864, rural). While Schulze-Delitzsch is chronologically earlier, Raiffeisen has proven more influential over time – see history of credit unions. In Britain, the friendly society, building society, and mutual savings bank were earlier forms of similar institutions.
Robert Owen
Robert Owen (1771–1858) is considered as the father of the cooperative movement. A Welshman who made his fortune in the cotton trade, Owen believed in putting his workers in a good environment with access to education for themselves and their children. These ideas were put into effect successfully in the cotton mills of New Lanark, Scotland. It was here that the first co-operative store was opened. Spurred on by the success of this, he had the idea of forming "villages of co-operation" where workers would drag themselves out of poverty by growing their own food, making their own clothes and ultimately becoming self-governing. He tried to form such communities in Orbiston in Scotland and in New Harmony, Indiana in the United States of America, but both communities failed.
William King
Although Owen inspired the co-operative movement, others – such as Dr. William King (1786–1865) – took his ideas and made them more workable and practical. King believed in starting small, and realized that the working classes would need to set up co-operatives for themselves, so he saw his role as one of instruction. He founded a monthly periodical called The Co-operator, the first edition of which appeared on 1 May 1828. This gave a mixture of co-operative philosophy and practical advice about running a shop using cooperative principles. King advised people not to cut themselves off from society, but rather to form a society within a society, and to start with a shop because, "We must go to a shop every day to buy food and necessaries – why then should we not go to our own shop?" He proposed sensible rules, such as having a weekly account audit, having 3 trustees, and not having meetings in pubs (to avoid the temptation of drinking profits).
Rochdale Pioneers
The Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers was a group of 10 weavers and 20 others in Rochdale, England, that was formed in 1844. As the mechanization of the Industrial Revolution was forcing more and more skilled workers into poverty, these tradesmen decided to band together to open their own store selling food items they could not otherwise afford. With lessons from prior failed attempts at co-operation in mind, they designed the now famous Rochdale Principles, and over a period of four months they struggled to pool one pound sterling per person for a total of 28 pounds of capital. On December 21, 1844, they opened their store with a very meagre selection of butter, sugar, flour, oatmeal and a few candles. Within three months, they expanded their selection to include tea and tobacco, and they were soon known for providing high quality, unadulterated goods.
English CWS and Co-operative Group
The Co-operative Group formed gradually over 140 years from the merger of many independent retail societies, and their wholesale societies and federations. In 1863, twenty years after the Rochdale Pioneers opened their co-operative, the North of England Co-operative Society was launched by 300 individual co-ops across Yorkshire and Lancashire. By 1872, it had become known as the Co-operative Wholesale Society (CWS). Through the 20th century, smaller societies merged with CWS, such as the Scottish Co-operative Wholesale Society (1973) and the South Suburban Co-operative Society (1984).
By the 1990s, CWS's share of the market had declined considerably and many came to doubt the viability of co-operative model. CWS sold its factories to Andrew Regan in 1994. Regan returned in 1997 with a £1.2 billion bid for CWS. There were allegations of "carpet-bagging" – new members who joined simply to make money from the sale – and more seriously fraud and commercial leaks. After a lengthy battle, Regan's bid was seen off and two senior CWS executives were dismissed and imprisoned for fraud. Regan was cleared of charges. The episode recharged CWS and its membership base. Tony Blair's Co-operative Commission, chaired by John Monks, made major recommendations for the co-operative movement, including the organisation and marketing of the retail societies. It was in this climate that, in 2000, CWS merged with the UK's second largest society, Co-operative Retail Services.
Its headquarters complex is situated on the north side of Manchester city centre adjacent to the Manchester Victoria railway station. The complex is made up of many different buildings with two notable tower blocks of New Century House and the solar panel-clad CIS tower.
Other independent societies are part owners of the Group. Representatives of the societies that part own the Group are elected to the Group's national board. The Group manages The Co-operative brand and the Co-operative Retail Trading Group (CRTG), which sources and promotes goods for food stores. There is a similar purchasing group (CTTG) for co-operative travel agents.
U.S. Co-operatives
The United States first known Co-op was the mutual fire insurance company founded in 1752 by Benjamin Franklin. The first dairy co-op was founded in 1810 with small locals found nationwide by 1866. The first known consumer co-op in 1845 was Boston's Workingman's Protective Union. The country's first organization to promote cooperative values and the Rochdale Principles was the Order of the Patrons of Husbandry, known as the Grange that started after the Civil War. The co-operative movement grew during the 1890s in response to the expansion of large corporate monopolies. The country's first credit unions were in Massachusetts while The Cooperative League of the United States of America, known today as the National Cooperative Business Association was organized in 1916 to promote cooperatives. In the late 1960s the Co-op movement entered a new phase with Food cooperatives and Food Conspiracies as an alternative to corporate agriculture that linked organic farmers to urban consumers.
The co-operative model has a long history in the U.S., including a factory in the 1790s, the Knights of Labor, and the Grange. In Colorado, the Meadowlark cooperative administered the only private free land program in the United States, providing many services to its members who buy and sell together. In New York City, several food co-operatives were founded around 2010, adding to others, some existing since the 1970s. The U.S. has some diverse worker co-operatives, such as a home care agency, an organic bread factory co-op and an engineering firm. Some have already incorporated environmental and/or Fair Trade criteria into their products, such as the aforementioned bread-maker, Organic Valley, and Equal Exchange.
Credit unions were established in the U.S. by 1908. Their member-owned, co-operative structure created stable governance structure, so that they were only slightly affected by the 2008 mortgage securities crisis.
Electrical co-operatives became an important economic strategy for U.S. rural areas beginning in the 1930s, and continue to operate successfully through events such as Hurricane Sandy in 2012. However, the majority in the U.S. demonstrate that co-operative values do not necessarily lead to a progressive social and environmental consciousness, as many remain focuses on fossil fuel and nuclear fuels. Nevertheless, new generation renewable power co-operatives have begun to be organized.
Agricultural co-operatives in the U.S. have had some mainstream success, including Welch's, Ocean Spray, and Land O'Lakes.
In the United States, a co-operative association was founded by 1920. Currently there are over 29,000 co-operatives employing 2 million people with over $652 billion in annual revenue. To address the need for an organization oriented to newer and smaller co-ops, the United States Federation of Worker Cooperatives was founded after 2000.
An alternative method of employee-ownership, the Employee Stock Ownership Plan (ESOP), was developed in the U.S. by Louis Kelso and advocated by Senator Russell Long to be incentivized in the ERISA law of 1974. For example, a large Southeastern US supermarket chain a California manufacturer, and a furniture-maker with earnings of more than $2 billion, are employee-owned. Employee-owned trusts have also been developed more or less independently, for example at an established iron pipe company
Co-operative Women's Guild
Alice Acland, the editor of the "Women's Corner" in the Co-operative News publication, and Mary Lawrenson, a teacher, recognized the need for a separate women's organization within the Cooperative Movement and began organizing a "Woman's League for the Spread of Co-operation" in 1883. This League formally met for the first time during the 1883 Co-operative Congress in Edinburgh in a group of 50 women and established Acland as its organizing secretary. By 1884 it had six different branches with 195 members, and the League was renamed the Women's Cooperative Guild.
The Guild organized around working women's issues and expanding the Cooperative Movement. It continued to publish articles advocating for women's involvement in the Cooperative Movement in the "Women's Corner," and later through its own publications such as "The importance of women for the cooperative movement." The Guild also opened the Sunderland cooperative store in 1902, which catered to poor working-class women. It engaged in many political campaigns concerning women's health, women's suffrage and pacifism. Until recently the organisation participated in social justice activism, but has now closed.
Chinese Industrial Cooperatives
Other developments
In Russia the village co-operative (obshchina or mir), operated from pre-serfdom times until the 20th century.
Raiffeisen and Schultz-Delitsch developed an independently formulated co-operative model in Germany, the credit union. The model also moved abroad, reaching the United States by the 1880s and the Knights of Labour's projects. Leland Stanford, the railroad magnate and Robber Baron, became a Senator and advocated for co-operatives. By 1920 a national association had formed in the U.S. This organization began to develop international programs, and by the 1970s, a World Council formed.
Co-operatives in the U.S. have a long history, including an early factory in the 1790s. By the 1860s Brigham Young had started applying co-operative ideas in Utah, and by the 1880s, the Knights of Labor and the Grange both promoted member-owned organizations. Energy co-operatives were founded in the U.S. during the Depression and the New Deal.
Diverse kinds of co-operatives were founded and have continued to perform successfully in different areas: in agriculture, wholesale purchasing, telephones, and in consumer-food buying.
James Warbasse, an American doctor, became the first president of the U.S. National Co-operative Business Association. He wrote extensively on co-operative history and philosophy. Benjamin Ward began an important effort in co-operative economic theory in the 1950s, with Jaroslav Vanek developing a general theory. David Ellerman began a line of theoretical thinking beginning with legal principles, developing especially the labor theory of property, and later reaching a treatment which evaluates the role of capital in labor managed firms using the conventional economic production formula Q = f(K, L). At one point in the 1990s he worked at the World Bank with Nobel laureate Joseph Stiglitz.
Modern day
Co-operative enterprises were formed successfully following Rochdale, and an international association was formed in 1895. Co-operative enterprises are now widespread, with one of the largest and most successful examples being the industrial Mondragón Cooperative Corporation in the Basque country of Spain. Mondragon Co-op was founded under the oppressive conditions of Fascist Franco Spain after community-based democracy-building activities of a priest, Jose Maria Arizmendiarrieta. They have become an extremely diverse network of co-operative enterprises, a huge enterprise in Spain, and a multinational concern. Co-operatives were also successful in Yugoslavia under Tito where Workers' Councils gained a significant role in management.
In many European countries, cooperative institutions have a predominant market share in the retail banking and insurance businesses. There are also concrete proposals for the cooperative management of the common goods, such as the one by Initiative 136 in Greece.
In the UK, co-operatives formed the Co-operative Party in the early 20th century to represent members of co-ops in Parliament. The Co-operative Party now has a permanent electoral pact with the Labour Party, and some Labour MPs are Co-operative Party members. UK co-operatives retain a significant market share in food retail, insurance, banking, funeral services, and the travel industry in many parts of the country.
Denmark has had a strong cooperative movement, especially in the farming and industrial sectors. Co-housing is also common in Denmark in which residents share a common eating and gathering space. In some instances, the living spaces are financed by the Danish Housing Association, but other times residents collectively own the land and property.
In Germany, the rebuilding of the country after World War II created a legislative opportunity in which politician Hans Boeckler significantly lobbied for the co-determination ("Mitbestimmung") policies which were established, requiring large companies to include a Workers' Council in the Board of Directors. These policies have had some influence on European Union policies.
Emilia Romagna, Italy had two separate and strong co-operative traditions that resisted Cold War interference by US agencies and have worked effectively in conjunction with each other.
Co-operative banks have become very successful throughout Europe, and were able to respond more effectively than most corporate banks during the 2008 mortgage-securities crisis.
Renewable Energy co-operatives in Europe became important in the early development of windpower in Denmark beginning in the 1970s. Germany followed in the early 1990s, first on a larger scale with wind co-ops, then with a citizen's movement which challenged the reliance on nuclear power, organized, challenged the energy monopolists there, and successfully created a successful co-op social enterprise by 1999. A citizen's group began operating wind turbines and involving broad community ownership in the U.K. by 1995. Deregulation of the electricity markets allowed energy co-operative social entrepreneurs to begin to create alternatives to the monopolies in various countries. In France, where an enormous percentage of the power is generated by nuclear sources, this occurred after 2000. In Spain, wind power was developed by corporate-led efforts, and it took longer for a renewable energy-focused social enterprise to get established. Similar renewable energy co-ops around Europe have organized in a network.
Asian societies have adapted the co-operative model, including some of the most successful in the world. Nevertheless, the crises generated by traditional inequalities and the shareholder model continues to require civil society and entrepreneurial responses, such as the Citizens Coalition for Economic Justice in South Korea, the Seikatsu Club Consumers' Co-operative Union in Japan, and the Self-Employed Women's Association in India. Other noteworthy efforts include Sophon Suphapong's efforts as governor in Thailand with agricultural co-ops and Antonio Yapsutco Fortich's contributions in the Philippines helping formulate a co-operative strategy with sugar workers.
The International Labor Organization, originally established in 1919, has a Co-operative Division.
Co-operatives were brought to Latin America and developed there by 1902. Substantial independent efforts to develop employee-owned enterprises or co-operatives have occurred as responses to crises, such as 2001 crisis in Argentina. In Brazil, the World Social Forum process lead to the articulation of Solidarity Economics, a modern, activist formulation of co-operativism.
The Fair Trade certification movement established first in the Netherlands in 1988 with an international headquarters in Bonn nine years later requires member farmers to have established a co-operative.
In 2016, UNESCO inscribed "Idea and practice of organizing shared interests in cooperatives" on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
See also
References
Further reading
Birchall, Johnston (1997), The International Co-operative Movement.
Curl, John (2009), For All The People: Uncovering the Hidden History of Cooperation, Cooperative Movements, and Communalism in America, PM Press.
Derr, Jascha (2013), The cooperative movement of Brazil and South Africa
Greider, William (2003), The Soul of Capitalism.
Kelly, Marjorie (2012), Owning Our Future: The Emerging Ownership Revolution.
Nadeau, E.G. & D.J. Thompson (1996), Cooperation Works!
Thompson, D.J. (1994), Weavers of Dreams: Founders of the Modern Cooperative Movement.
Whyte, W.F. & K.K. Whyte (1988), Making Mondragon.
Wolff, Richard (2012), Democracy at Work: A Cure for Capitalism.
A short history of co-operation and mutuality, Ed Mayo (2017)
External links
History of RECs
Over 160 rulebooks of co-operative societies from Great Britain and Ireland, 1877–1921, are available online
Digital Collection on the History of Cooperatives in Utah: "Extension, Enterprise, and Education: the Legacy of Co-operatives and Cooperation in Utah": Utah State University
Coop
Cooperative, History
Cooperative, History
Private aid programs | History of the cooperative movement | [
"Biology"
] | 4,357 | [
"Behavior",
"Altruism",
"Private aid programs"
] |
7,406,781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kugelrohr | A Kugelrohr (German for "ball tube") is a short-path vacuum distillation apparatus typically used to distill relatively small amounts of compounds with high boiling points (usually greater than 300 °C) under greatly reduced pressure.
Design
"Short path" refers to the short distance that the vapors of the distillate need to travel, which helps reduce loss and speed up collection of the distillate. This type of distillation is generally performed under vacuum to prevent the compound from charring due to atmospheric oxygen, as well as to allow the distillation to proceed at a lower temperature.
The apparatus consists of a tube furnace or other electric heater controlled by a thermostat, and two or more bulbs connected with ground glass joints. The compound to be distilled is placed in the terminal bulb. The other bulbs can be used to collect the distillates sequentially, when the desired fraction is being collected the bulb is cooled with water or ice to aid condensation. A motor drive is often used to rotate the string of bulbs to reduce bumping, give even heating, and increase the surface area for evaporation.
See also
Distillation
Short path distillation
Vacuum distillation
References
Gallery
Distillation
Laboratory equipment
Laboratory techniques | Kugelrohr | [
"Chemistry"
] | 266 | [
"Distillation",
"nan",
"Separation processes"
] |
7,406,806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanon%20Shah | Shanon Shah (born 14 August 1978 in Alor Star, Kedah), is a singer-songwriter, playwright and academic from Malaysia. He released two albums Dilanda Cinta (2005) and Suara Yang Ku Dengar (2010) on the InterGlobal Music Malaysia independent label. He is noted for his emotive voice and cabaret-style piano playing.
Trained as a chemical engineer, Shanon has previously worked as a credit risk analyst, human rights advocate and journalist. In his various writings, he focuses on issues relating to gender, sexuality and Islam.
Music
In 2003, Shanon won the Mandarin Oriental Fan of the Arts Most Promising Artist Award at the 2nd Annual Boh Cameronian Arts Awards. Two years later, he went on to win the Anugerah Industri Muzik award for best male vocal in an album for Dilanda Cinta.
In 2007, he entered the Ikon Malaysia televised competition which looked for an icon among existing Southeast Asian artistes. The Malaysian level of the competition was ultimately won by Jaclyn Victor.
Shanon has also performed as a duo with fellow singer-songwriter Azmyl Yunor and with his backing band the Cintas. Fellow singer-songwriter Ariff Akhir has also performed as part of the Cintas, and produced Shanon's second album, Suara Yang Ku Dengar.
Shanon's musical influences include Leonard Cohen, Aimee Mann and Sam Phillips.
Theatre and film
Shanon Shah is also a playwright. His play Air Con was by the Instant Cafe Theatre Company's FIRSTWoRKS programme. The play, directed by Jo Kukathas and Zalfian Fuzi, was performed to critical acclaim prompting a revival in 2009.
One reviewer praised not only the play's take on issues such as hate crimes against transsexuals, homophobic bullying in schools, racism and religious fundamentalism, but also its comedic touches and bilingual dialogue. Shanon has said he is greatly influenced by award-winning Malaysian actor and playwright Jit Murad.
Air Con was nominated in nine categories for the 7th BOH Cameronian Arts Awards, winning four awards, including Best Original Script (Bahasa Malaysia).
Shanon also co-wrote the screenplay and four original songs for Chris Chong Chan Fui's first full-length feature film Karaoke, which in 2009 was selected for the Directors' Fortnight of the Cannes Film Festival. The songs for Karaoke eventually made it into Suara Yang Ku Dengar.
Journalism and writing
Shanon Shah was also the former full-time Columns and Comments Editor at The Nut Graph, a bilingual, independent, Malaysian online news site aiming "to provide space for columnists and reader comments from as broad a political spectrum, and from as many sectors of interest, as possible". He contributed several English-language features, commentaries and interviews on the politics of Islam in Malaysia. His fortnightly Malay-language column, Secubit Garam, often took a light-hearted approach to serious political concerns through the fictional agony aunt Kak Nora.
Shanon has also been published in other print anthologies. His 5,000-word essay "The Khutbah Diaries" was published in New Malaysian Essays 2 in 2009. In the same year his essay, "Muslim 2 Muslim", was published in Body 2 Body, an English-language anthology of fiction and non-fiction on sexual diversity in Malaysia. Body 2 Body was published by writer-director Amir Muhammad's publishing company, Matahari Books.
In June 2012, Shanon's essay "Lot's Legacy" was published in the third issue of Critical Muslim (Fear and Loathing), a British "quarterly magazine of ideas and issues showcasing ground-breaking thinking on Islam and what it means to be a Muslim in a rapidly changing, interconnected world". The magazine is co-edited by London-based Muslim scholar and critic Ziauddin Sardar.
Current activities
In 2010, Shanon was awarded the Chevening Scholarship to pursue his Master of Arts (MA) in Religion in Contemporary Society at King's College London. He completed his MA in 2011 and won the Shelford MA Prize from King's School of Arts and Humanities.
He is currently a doctoral candidate at King's College London.
Discography
Dilanda Cinta (2005)
Suara Yang Ku Dengar (2010)
Filmography
Karaoke (2009)
Theatre
Air Con (2008)
Awards
First Prize – "Kisahmu Belum Berakhir" (song: music and lyrics) for Pertandingan Mencipta Lagu Patriotik Alaf Baru, by International College of Music Malaysia, 2001
Mandarin Oriental Fan of the Arts Most Promising Artist Award, 2nd BOH Cameronian Arts Awards, 2003
Best Male Vocal in an Album, for Dilanda Cinta, 13th Anugerah Industri Muzik, 2005
Best Original Script (Bahasa Malaysia), for Air Con, 7th BOH Cameronian Arts Awards, 2008
References
1978 births
Living people
Alumni of King's College London
Chemical engineers
Malaysian people of Malay descent
Malaysian Muslims
Malaysian male singer-songwriters
Malaysian singer-songwriters
Malaysian television personalities
People from Kedah
Malay-language singers
Malaysian soul singers | Shanon Shah | [
"Chemistry",
"Engineering"
] | 1,062 | [
"Chemical engineering",
"Chemical engineers"
] |
7,407,236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TIM/TOM%20complex | The TIM/TOM complex is a protein complex in cellular biochemistry which translocates proteins produced from nuclear DNA through the mitochondrial membrane for use in oxidative phosphorylation. In enzymology, the complex is described as an mitochondrial protein-transporting ATPase (), or more systematically ATP phosphohydrolase (mitochondrial protein-importing), as the TIM part requires ATP hydrolysis to work.
Only 13 proteins necessary for a mitochondrion are actually coded in mitochondrial DNA. The vast majority of proteins destined for the mitochondria are encoded in the nucleus and synthesised in the cytoplasm. These are tagged by an N-terminal or/and a C-terminal signal sequence. Following transport through the cytosol from the nucleus, the signal sequence is recognized by a receptor protein in the translocase of the outer membrane (TOM) complex. The signal sequence and adjacent portions of the polypeptide chain are inserted in the TOM complex, then begin interaction with a translocase of the inner membrane (TIM) complex, which are hypothesized to be transiently linked at sites of close contact between the two membranes. The signal sequence is then translocated into the matrix in a process that requires an electrochemical hydrogen ion gradient across the inner membrane. Mitochondrial Hsp70 binds to regions of the polypeptide chain and maintains it in an unfolded state as it moves into the matrix.
The ATPase domain is essential during the interactions of the proteins Hsp70 and subunit Tim44. Without the presence of ATPase, carboxy-terminal segment is not able to bind to protein of Tim44. As mtHsp70 transmits the nucleotide state of the ATPase domain with alpha-helices A and B, Tim44 interacts with the peptide binding domain to coordinate the protein bind.
TIC/TOC Complex vs. TIM/TOM Complex
This protein complex is functionally analogous to the TIC/TOC complex located on the inner and outer membranes of the chloroplast, in the sense that it transports proteins into the membrane of the mitochondria. Although they both hydrolyze triphosphates, they are evolutionally unrelated.
References
External links
TCDB 3.A.8 - description of the entire complex
Overview of the various import ways into mitochondria (group of N. Pfanner)
Transport proteins
Mitochondria
Transmembrane proteins
EC 3.6.3
EC 7.4.2
Enzymes of unknown structure | TIM/TOM complex | [
"Chemistry"
] | 524 | [
"Mitochondria",
"Metabolism"
] |
7,407,388 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatuha%20train%20crash | The Fatuha train crash was a rail transport accident that occurred on 4 April 1998, in India. Removal of fishplates led to the packed Howrah-Danapur Express jumping tracks, killing at least 11 passengers and injuring more than 50 near Fatuha Station in Fatuha city on the Eastern Railway's Danapur division. In all, nine bogies derailed disrupting traffic.
Local citizens assisted the injured at the scene until authorities arrived. The injured were rushed to the PMC hospital, Nalanda Medical College hospital and a hospital in Patna, about from the accident site. The remaining passengers were taken to Patna by a special train. Eleven passengers died at the scene, and one succumbed to his injuries at Patna Medical College hospital.
"Prima facie, the cause of the accident is removal of fish plates on the right side of the tracks," railway officials said.
References
Derailments in India
Railway accidents in 1998
Railway accidents and incidents in Bihar
History of Bihar (1947–present) | Fatuha train crash | [
"Technology"
] | 205 | [
"Railway accidents and incidents",
"Rail accident stubs"
] |
7,407,877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dense%20inert%20metal%20explosive | Dense inert metal explosive (DIME) is an experimental type of explosive that has a relatively small but effective blast radius. It is manufactured by producing a homogeneous mixture of an explosive material (such as phlegmatized HMX or RDX) and small particles of a chemically inert material such as tungsten. It is intended to limit the effective distance of the explosion, to avoid collateral damage in warfare.
The phrase inert metal refers to a metal that is not chemically active and therefore not part of the chemical reaction that causes the explosion, as opposed to some metals, such as aluminium, that do form part of the chemical reaction—e.g. in tritonal.
An emerging criticism of DIME weapons is that they might turn out to have strong biological effects in those who are hit by the micro-shrapnel from these explosives.
DIME mixtures have been studied for some time, but apparently only began to be adopted for weapons after the year 2000.
Method of operation
A DIME weapon consists of a carbon fiber casing filled with a mixture of explosive and very dense microshrapnel, consisting of very small particles (1–2 mm) or powder of a heavy metal. To date, tungsten alloy (heavy metal tungsten alloy, or HMTA) composed of tungsten and other metals such as cobalt and nickel or iron has been the preferred material for the dense microshrapnel or powder.
Two common HMTA alloys are:
rWNiCo: tungsten (91–93%), nickel (3–5%) and cobalt (2–4%)
rWNiFe: tungsten (91–93%), nickel (3–5%) and iron (2–4%)
Upon detonation of the explosive, the casing disintegrates into extremely small particles, as opposed to larger pieces of shrapnel which results from the fragmentation of a metal shell casing. The HMTA powder acts like micro-shrapnel which is very lethal at close range (about ), but loses momentum very quickly due to air resistance, coming to a halt within approximately 40 times the diameter of the charge. This increases the probability of killing people within a few meters of the explosion while reducing the probability of causing death and injuries or damage farther away. Survivors close to the lethal zone may still have their limbs amputated by the HMTA microshrapnel, which can slice through soft tissue and bone.
Toxic/carcinogenic effects
The carcinogenic effects of heavy metal tungsten alloys (HMTA) (along with depleted uranium [DU]) have been studied by the U.S. Armed Forces since at least the year 2000. These alloys were found to cause neoplastic transformations of human osteoblast cells.
A more recent U.S. Department of Health and Human Services study, from 2005, found that HMTA shrapnel rapidly induces rhabdomyosarcoma in laboratory rats.
Tungsten alloy carcinogenicity may be most closely related to the nickel content of the alloys used in weapons to date; however, pure tungsten and tungsten trioxide are also suspected of carcinogenic and other toxic properties, and have been shown to have such effects in animal studies.
In 2009, a group of Italian scientists affiliated with the New Weapons Research Committee (NWRC) watchdog group pronounced DIME wounds "untreatable" because the powdered tungsten they dispense cannot be removed surgically.
Use in battle
In July and August 2006, doctors in the Gaza Strip reported unusual wounds caused by Israel Defense Forces attacks against Palestinians, claiming that they were from previously unknown weapons. A lab analysis of the metals found in the victims' bodies was reportedly "compatible with the hypothesis" that DIME weapons were involved. Israel denied possessing or using such weapons, and an Israeli military expert said that the wounds were consistent with ordinary explosives.
Mads Gilbert and Erik Fosse, working on wounded from the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict, reported injuries that they believed were caused by some new type of weapon used by Israel, which they speculated were DIME bombs. Gilbert and Fosse made the same accusations during the 2014 Gaza conflict.
In the Israel Gaza war and subsequent Gaza Genocide, there have been reports of fragmentary explosive devices containing minuscule fragmentation clusters of tungsten alloy, with doctors having retrieved the material from bodies of victims.
See also
GBU-39 Small Diameter Bomb
References
External links
Dense Inert Metal Explosive (DIME)
How Goes the War From Here? Small diameter solutions SF Chronicle, September 12, 2006
Cancer worries for new U.S. bombs by Defense Tech
Ammunition
Explosives | Dense inert metal explosive | [
"Chemistry"
] | 954 | [
"Explosives",
"Explosions"
] |
7,408,536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable%20communicating%20thermostat | The term programmable communicating thermostat (PCT) is used by the California Energy Commission to describe programmable thermostats that can receive information wirelessly.
The first version of the PCT introduced in the 2008 building standards proceeding also required that PCTs allow temperature control during emergency events to avoid blackouts. This feature was removed after public input indicated a strong fear of the non-overrideable "big brother" feel of this feature.
A talk at the S4 SCADA security conference in January 2008 indicated adding a public key encryption scheme to the specification, giving each thermostat a random 160-bit number. The installer or homeowner would call this number in to the utility or other service provider (operator), who would then send the Operator's public key to the thermostat over RDS. Using this method, the PCT would receive messages only from the operator(s) explicitly agreed to by the homeowner.
Thermostats can also communicate wirelessly through the Internet or via a home automation technology, such as Insteon. These advanced thermostats can be adjusted via computer or Internet capable phone to allow users to adjust the temperature in their home without being present.
See also
Home automation
External links
TITLE 24, PART 6 – California's Energy Efficiency Standards for Residential and Nonresidential Buildings
Temperature control | Programmable communicating thermostat | [
"Technology"
] | 282 | [
"Home automation",
"Temperature control"
] |
7,408,685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20game%20playing | General game playing (GGP) is the design of artificial intelligence programs to be able to play more than one game successfully. For many games like chess, computers are programmed to play these games using a specially designed algorithm, which cannot be transferred to another context. For instance, a chess-playing computer program cannot play checkers. General game playing is considered as a necessary milestone on the way to artificial general intelligence.
General video game playing (GVGP) is the concept of GGP adjusted to the purpose of playing video games. For video games, game rules have to be either learnt over multiple iterations by artificial players like TD-Gammon, or are predefined manually in a domain-specific language and sent in advance to artificial players like in traditional GGP. Starting in 2013, significant progress was made following the deep reinforcement learning approach, including the development of programs that can learn to play Atari 2600 games as well as a program that can learn to play Nintendo Entertainment System games.
The first commercial usage of general game playing technology was Zillions of Games in 1998. General game playing was also proposed for trading agents in supply chain management there under price negotiation in online auctions from 2003 on.
History
In 1992, Barney Pell defined the concept of Meta-Game Playing, and developed the "MetaGame" system. This was the first program to automatically generate game rules of chess-like games, and one of the earliest programs to use automated game generation. Pell then developed the system Metagamer. This system was able to play a number of chess-like games, given game rules definition in a special language called Game Description Language (GDL), without any human interaction once the games were generated.
In 1998, the commercial system Zillions of Games was developed by Jeff Mallett and Mark Lefler. The system used a LISP-like language to define the game rules. Zillions of Games derived the evaluation function automatically from the game rules based on piece mobility, board structure and game goals. It also employed usual algorithms as found in computer chess systems: alpha–beta pruning with move ordering, transposition tables, etc. The package was extended in 2007 by the addition of the Axiom plug-in, an alternate metagame engine that incorporates a complete Forth-based programming language.
In 1998, z-Tree was developed by Urs Fischbacher. z-Tree is the first and the most cited software tool for experimental economics. z-Tree allows the definition of game rules in z-Tree-language for game-theoretic experiments with human subjects. It also allows definition of computer players, which participate in a play with human subjects.
In 2005, the Stanford Project General Game Playing was established.
In 2012, the development of PyVGDL started.
GGP implementations
Stanford project
General Game Playing is a project of the Stanford Logic Group of Stanford University, California, which aims to create a platform for general game playing. It is the most well-known effort at standardizing GGP AI, and generally seen as the standard for GGP systems. The games are defined by sets of rules represented in the Game Description Language. In order to play the games, players interact with a game hosting server that monitors moves for legality and keeps players informed of state changes.
Since 2005, there have been annual General Game Playing competitions at the AAAI Conference. The competition judges competitor AI's abilities to play a variety of different games, by recording their performance on each individual game. In the first stage of the competition, entrants are judged on their ability to perform legal moves, gain the upper hand, and complete games faster. In the following runoff round, the AIs face off against each other in increasingly complex games. The AI that wins the most games at this stage wins the competition, and until 2013 its creator used to win a $10,000 prize. So far, the following programs were victorious:
Other approaches
There are other general game playing systems, which use their own languages for defining the game rules. Other general game playing software include:
GVGP implementations
Reinforcement learning
GVGP could potentially be used to create real video game AI automatically, as well as "to test game environments, including those created automatically using procedural content generation and to find potential loopholes in the gameplay that a human player could exploit". GVGP has also been used to generate game rules, and estimate a game's quality based on Relative Algorithm Performance Profiles (RAPP), which compare the skill differentiation that a game allows between good AI and bad AI.
Video Game Description Language
The General Video Game AI Competition (GVGAI) has been running since 2014. In this competition, two-dimensional video games similar to (and sometimes based on) 1980s-era arcade and console games are used instead of the board games used in the GGP competition. It has offered a way for researchers and practitioners to test and compare their best general video game playing algorithms. The competition has an associated software framework including a large number of games written in the Video Game Description Language (VGDL), which should not be confused with GDL and is a coding language using simple semantics and commands that can easily be parsed. One example for VGDL is PyVGDL developed in 2013. The games used in GVGP are, for now, often 2-dimensional arcade games, as they are the simplest and easiest to quantify. To simplify the process of creating an AI that can interpret video games, games for this purpose are written in VGDL manually. VGDL can be used to describe a game specifically for procedural generation of levels, using Answer Set Programming (ASP) and an Evolutionary Algorithm (EA). GVGP can then be used to test the validity of procedural levels, as well as the difficulty or quality of levels based on how an agent performed.
Algorithms
Since GGP AI must be designed to play multiple games, its design cannot rely on algorithms created specifically for certain games. Instead, the AI must be designed using algorithms whose methods can be applied to a wide range of games. The AI must also be an ongoing process, that can adapt to its current state rather than the output of previous states. For this reason, open loop techniques are often most effective.
A popular method for developing GGP AI is the Monte Carlo tree search (MCTS) algorithm. Often used together with the UCT method (Upper Confidence Bound applied to Trees), variations of MCTS have been proposed to better play certain games, as well as to make it compatible with video game playing. Another variation of tree-search algorithms used is the Directed Breadth-first Search (DBS), in which a child node to the current state is created for each available action, and visits each child ordered by highest average reward, until either the game ends or runs out of time. In each tree-search method, the AI simulates potential actions and ranks each based on the average highest reward of each path, in terms of points earned.
Assumptions
In order to interact with games, algorithms must operate under the assumption that games all share common characteristics. In the book Half-Real: Video Games Between Real Worlds and Fictional Worlds, Jesper Juul gives the following definition of games: Games are based on rules, they have variable outcomes, different outcomes give different values, player effort influences outcomes, the player is attached to the outcomes, and the game has negotiable consequences. Using these assumptions, game playing AI can be created by quantifying the player input, the game outcomes, and how the various rules apply, and using algorithms to compute the most favorable path.
See also
AlphaZero
MuZero
Artificial general intelligence
Artificial intelligence in video games
Game Description Language
Multi-task learning
Outline of artificial intelligence
Transfer learning
References
External links
General Game Playing Home Page at Stanford University
See also the GGP.org, GGP.org GitHub page, and games.stanford.edu.
General Game Playing Resources provided by Dresden University of Technology.
AiAi by Stephen Tavener
PolyGamo Player Project by David M. Bennett
Axiom Development kit a meta-game development system compatible with Zillions of Games, by Greg Schmidt.
Palamedes - A General Game Playing IDE
ConvNetJS Deep Q Learning Demo
Game artificial intelligence
Algorithmic trading | General game playing | [
"Mathematics"
] | 1,701 | [
"Game theory",
"Game artificial intelligence"
] |
7,408,707 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20BPEL%20engines | This is a list of notable Business Process Execution Language (BPEL) and Business Process Model and Notation (BPMN) engines.
References
See also
Business Process Execution Language
Comparison of business integration software
List of BPMN 2.0 Engines
BPEL engines
Middleware
BPEL | List of BPEL engines | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 57 | [
"Lists of software",
"IT infrastructure",
"Computing-related lists",
"Software engineering",
"Middleware"
] |
7,408,997 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brand%20community | A brand community is a concept in marketing and consumer research which postulates that human beings form communities on the basis of attachment to a brand or marque. A brand community refers to structured social relationships in which participants share admiration and connection of a brand that they experience through shared rituals, traditions and a sense of responsibility towards other members. The term often refers to the intersection between brand, individual identity and culture.
Origin
The term "brand community" was first presented by Albert Muniz Jr. and Thomas C. O'Guinn in a 1995 paper for the Association for Consumer Research Annual Conference in Minneapolis, MN. In a 2001 article titled " Brand Community", they defined the concept as "a specialized, non-geographically bound community, based on a structured set of social relations among admirers of a brand." This 2001 paper recently has been acknowledged by Thomson Scientific & Healthcare to be one of the most cited papers in the field of economics and business.
Description
Brand community members develop connections with like-minded individuals by sharing appreciation, lifestyle and meanings associated with a particular brand. Brands can be seen as relationship builders that consumers use to relate with each other and with brands in order to seek the consensus of affective link and emotional support. Among the concepts developed to explain the behavior of consumers, the concept of a brand community focuses on the interconnections and relationships between consumers. Under this view, consumers and firms co-create value.
A brand community can be defined as an enduring self-selected group of actors sharing a system of values, standards and representations (a culture) and recognizing bonds of membership with each other and with the whole. Many brands provide examples of brand communities. In computers and electronics: Apple Inc. (Macintosh, iPod, iPhone), Holga and LOMO cameras, and Palm and Pocket PC Ultra-Mobile PCs. In vehicles: Ford Bronco, Jeep, Miata, Mini Cooper, Saab, Saturn and Subaru automobiles, and Royal Enfield and Harley-Davidson motorcycles. In toys: Barbie and Lego.
Corporate motivations
There are certainly many advantages to brand communities, some of which add to company image, whereas others simply boost sales and revenue across the board. Well known advantages of having followers include perks such as: a loyal customer-base, low price sensitivity, improved competitiveness, and snowball advertising. A loyal customer base means that through ‘thick and thin’, the consumer will stay by your side. A good example of this is when Nike, although being found out for exploiting cheap child labour in the Nike owned sweatshops, maintains a fanatical following from their loyal customer base. Another advantage previously mentioned is low price sensitivity. This means that consumers aren’t as conscious as to the price they are paying for their worshipped brand's goods. The consumers are able to pay more in a guilt-free manner without the need to shop for a cheaper and/or better alternative, i.e. an elastic demand. The third mentioned advantage was that of the ‘improved competitiveness’ category. This means that as a result of a fanatical, loyal following, consumers see no real competition or substitute for their chosen brand/s. Linking back to low price sensitivity, consumers are willing to pay any price for the product and as a result, the companies do not partake in any sort of price war with competitors. The fourth and final mentioned advantage is ‘snowball advertising’. Here snowball advertising means that loyal customers spread word of praise for their chosen brand/s. Linking back to a “cultist recruitment stage” companies are able to let consumers broaden their demographic as people who hear positive word about a product are likely to go through at least one of the three cultist brand stages.
Variants
There are several concepts that are directly related to brand communities
Consumer tribes or brand tribes refer to ephemeral and impermanent groups that lack structured hierarchy and organized leadership. Building on the notion of neotribalism, consumer tribes as “a fluid group of people who share ephemeral experiences based on a particular product, service, brand or consumption activity”, that enable communal experiences of consumption.
Subcultures of consumption infer social orders or subcultures that endure through interpersonal connections, rituals, and sets of beliefs that can preclude other social affiliations, thus impacting on the identity of participants.
Community of Style refers to a community formed on the basis of attachment to a combination of brands. In contrast to brand community, where communal social interaction is formed between members because of a shared interest in one particular brand, the concept of community of style illustrates how community emerge when the combining of brands.
References
Types of communities
Consumer behaviour | Brand community | [
"Biology"
] | 952 | [
"Behavior",
"Consumer behaviour",
"Human behavior"
] |
5,666,569 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola%20TXTR | The Motorola TXTR is a Bluetooth wireless keyboard designed to connect to Bluetooth enabled cell phones, such as the RAZR. This peripheral is designed for the purpose of Text Messaging on a QWERTY keyboard instead of a cell-phone style number pad.
References
Computer keyboard models | Motorola TXTR | [
"Technology"
] | 59 | [
"Computing stubs",
"Computer hardware stubs"
] |
5,666,707 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural%20terracotta | Architectural terracotta refers to a fired mixture of clay and water that can be used in a non-structural, semi-structural, or structural capacity on the exterior or interior of a building. Terracotta is an ancient building material that translates from Latin as "baked earth". Some architectural terracotta is stronger than stoneware. It can be unglazed, painted, slip glazed, or glazed.
Usually solid in earlier uses, in most cases from the 19th century onwards each piece of terracotta is composed of a hollow clay web enclosing a void space or cell. The cell can be installed in compression with mortar or hung with metal anchors; such cells are often partially backfilled with mortar.
Terracotta can be used together with brick, for ornamental areas; if the source of the clay is the same they can be made to harmonize, or if different to contrast. It is often a cladding over a different structural material.
History
Terracotta was made by the ancient Greeks, Babylonians, ancient Egyptians, Romans, Chinese, and the Indus River Valley and Native American cultures. It was used for roof tiles, medallions, statues, capitals and other small architectural details.
Ancient Eastern terracotta
Indian terracotta manufacturers hand pressed, poured, and double-molded the clay mix. Plaster casts have been found in several ancient sites in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India and Pakistan. Similarities in motifs and manufacturing processes have caused scholars to note cross cultural pollination between the Hellenic and Indus River Valley sculptural terracotta traditions. Famous early examples include the Bhitargaon temple and the Jain temple in the Mahbubnagar district.
Chinese, Korean, and Japanese terracotta making traditions were focused on non-architectural uses such as statuary or cookware but various forms of terracotta tiles were popular roofing materials.
Western terracotta
Antiquity–1700s
Greeks used terracotta for capitals, friezes, and other elements of their temples like at Olympia or Selenius. Domestically they used it for statuary and roof tiles. The Etruscans used terracotta for roof tiles, encased beams, and enclosed brick walls with it. The Roman terracotta innovation was the underfloor or hypocaust heating system that they used for their bath houses. Medieval European architecture did not expand terracotta use beyond the ancients. The manufacture of tile roofs diminished with low cost thatch roofing widely available. Southern German, Italian and Spanish city states kept the tradition alive.
1700s–1880s
Great Britain
Richard Holt and Thomas Ripley patented an artificial stone recipe in 1722. The business was fairly successful at making small architectural ornaments. Their company was taken over by George and Eleanor Coade in 1769. [See Coade stone, See Eleanor Coade ] George died a year later, leaving the company to his wife and daughter, both named Eleanor Coade. The Coade ladies popularized the grey mix of terracotta as an alternative to stone with the help of architects like Horace Walpole and Sir John Soane. Georgian architectural style was in vogue and demand for repetitive, classically inspired décor was very fashionable. The Victoria and Albert Museum (1867–1880) and the Natural History Museum of London (1879–1880) buildings ushered in an era of mass-produced architectural terracotta.
North America
Early manufacture
The earliest manufacturer of architectural terracotta in the United States was started by Henry Tolman Jr. in Worcester, Massachusetts, around 1849. In the 1850s, New York City architects like Richard Upjohn and James Renwick used it on some of their projects, but the material failed to gain widespread popularity and many American architects falsely believed it couldn't endure the North American climate.
1870s–1930s
The Chicago Fire of 1871 destroyed many of the wood and stone-constructed buildings of Chicago, Illinois, and spurred greater interest in fireproof building materials that could enable the elaborate construction of the era. James Taylor, an English-trained ceramicist, played a key role in establishing effective widespread terracotta production in the United States through his work for various firms such as the Chicago Terra Cotta Company, the Boston Terra Cotta Company, and the New York Architectural Terra-Cotta Company.
The American architectural terracotta industry peaked during the late 1800s and helped enable the construction of skyscrapers by allowing for more lightweight construction on top of tall metal-framed structures. The fire-resistance of terracotta protected structural steel on many buildings constructed during this period, such as New York City's Flatiron Building.
There was an increase in popularity of architectural terracotta made with colored, or polychrome, glazed architectural terracotta during the first decade of the 1900s. Architects began to employ combinations of colors to achieve dynamic designs and appearances. This usage diminished as time went on, especially after the success of Cass Gilbert's Woolworth Building increased demand for monochromatic terracotta. Trends in the 1920s favored setbacks in skyscraper towers, leading to increasing demand for sculpted forms in low relief.
1930s–1980s
Usage of terracotta in architecture had diminished through the end of the 1920s and the onset of the Great Depression further harmed the industry: the number of terracotta companies dropped from eighteen in 1929 to eleven in 1933. This was largely attributed to architect's increasing preference for building with cheaper metal, glass, and cement.
The time-intensive process of terracotta manufacture put it at a disadvantage compared to newer products. Changing fashions towards more minimalist, modern styles such as the Bauhaus School and International Style further harmed the industry, despite attempts by manufacturers to create products suited to these styles.
Structural problems of earlier terracotta resulting from incomplete waterproofing, improper installation, poor maintenance, and interior corroding mild steel provided bad publicity for terracotta and further harmed its reputation for architects. For much of the 20th century the American terracotta industry was a fraction of its earlier scale and the few surviving companies largely subsisted on jobs producing less complex products like machine-produced ceramic veneers.
Detailed architectural terracotta remained in use through the 1950s and 1960s, however it was often overlooked or misidentified. Architects during this time period did not embrace terracotta's natural properties and instead tended to use it to imitate other materials.
1980s-present
Terracotta experienced a growth in popularity beginning in the 1980s when a resurgence in interest in historic preservation led to demand for architectural terracotta for restoration purposes. Historic manufacturers of terracotta such as Gladding, McBean, Ludowici-Celadon, and newer companies such as Boston Valley Terra Cotta all manufactured pieces used in the restoration of landmarks.
Architects became interested in newer uses for terracotta and companies developed products such as rainscreen and wall cladding to allow for dynamic installations that retained terracotta's unique and distinct qualities while working with modern architectural styles.
Manufacturing process
Terracotta can be made by pouring or pressing the mix into a plaster or sandstone mold, clay can be hand carved, or mix can be extruded into a mold using specialized machines. Clay shrinks as it dries from water loss therefore all molds are made slightly larger than the required dimensions. After the desired green-ware, or air dried, shape is created it is fired in a kiln for several days where it shrinks even further. The hot clay is slowly cooled then hand finished. The ceramics are shipped to the project site where they are installed by local contractors. The hollow pieces are partially backfilled with mortar then placed into the wall, suspended from metal anchors, or hung on metal shelf angles.
Design
Academically trained artists were often the designers of the terracotta forms. Their drawings would be interpreted by the manufacturer who would plan out the joint locations and anchoring system. Once finalized, the drawings were turned into a plaster reality by sculptors who would create the mold for the craftsmen.
Clay preparation
Clay selection was very important to manufacture of terracotta. Homogenous, finer grain sizes were preferred. The color of the clay body was determined by the types of deposits that were locally available to the manufacture. Sand was added to temper the process. Crushed ceramic scraps called grog were also added to stiffen the product and help reduce shrinkage.
Weathering the clay allowed pyrites to chemically change to hydrated ferric oxide and reduced alkali content. This aging minimizes the potential chemical changes during the rest of the manufacturing process. The weathered raw clay was dried, ground, and screened. Later, it would have been pugged in a mill that would mix the clay with water using rotating blades and force the blend through a sieve.
Hand pressing terracotta
An artist makes a negative plaster mold based on a clay positive prototype. 1–1¼" of the clay/water mixture is pressed into the mold. Wire mesh or other stiffeners are added to create the web, or clay body that surrounds the hollow cell. The product is air dried to allow the plaster to suck the moisture out of the green clay product. It is fired then slowly cooled.
Extrusion
Mechanized extrusion was used for the mass-production of terracotta blocks, popular in the 1920s. Prepared clay was fed into a machine that would then push the mix through a mold. The technique required the blocks to be made with simple shapes, so this process was often used for flooring, roofing, cladding, and later hollow clay tiles.
Glazing
The last step before firing the greenware was glazing. True glazes are made from various salts but prior to the 1890s most blocks were slip glazed or coated with a watered-down version of the clay mix. Liquefying the clay increased the amount of small silica particles that would be deposited on the surface of the block. These would melt during firing and harden. By 1900 almost all colors could be achieved with the addition of salt glazes. Black or brown were made by adding manganese oxide.
Firing
The kiln firing process could take days, up to two weeks. The clay is heated slowly to around 500°C to sweat off the loose or macroscopic water between the molecules. Then the temperature is increased to close to 900°C to release the chemically bonded water in gaseous form and the clay particles will begin to melt together or sinter. If the kiln reaches 1000°C then the clay particles will vitrtify and become glass like. After the maximum temperature was reached then the clay was slowly cooled over a few days. During firing a fireskin is created. A fireskin is the glass-like "bread crust" that covers the biscuit or interior body.
Various kilns were used as technology developed and capital was available for investment. Muffle kilns were the most common kiln. They were used as early as 1870. The kilns burned gas, coal, or oil that heated an interior chamber from an exterior chamber. The walls "muffled" the heat so the greenware was not directly exposed to the flames.
Down-draught kilns were also widely used. The interior chamber radiated heat around the terracotta by pulling in hot air from behind an exterior cavity wall. Like the muffle wall, the cavity wall protected the greenware from burning.
Installation
The earliest terracotta elements were laid directly into the masonry but as structural metal became more popular terracotta was suspended by metal anchors. The development of cast and later wrought iron as a structural material was closely linked to the rise of terracotta. Cast iron was first used as columns in the 1820s by William Strickland. Over the course of the 19th century metal became more incorporated into construction but it was not widely used structurally until the late 1890s.
A series of disastrous fires (Chicago, 1871; Boston, 1872; and San Francisco, 1906) earned terracotta a reputation for being a fireproof, lightweight cladding material that could protect metal from melting. Holes were bored in the hollow blocks in choice locations to allow for metal 'J' or 'Z' hooks to connect the blocks to the load bearing steel frame and/or masonry walls. The metal could be hung vertically or anchored horizontally. Pins, clamps, clips, plates, and a variety of other devices were used to help secure the blocks. The joints would then be mortared and the block would be partially backfilled.
Chemistry
Composition
Terracotta is made of a clay or silt matrix, a fluxing agent, and grog or bits of previously fired clay. Clays are the remnants of weathered rocks that are smaller than 2 microns. They are composed of silica and alumina. Kaolinite, halloysite, montmorillonite, illite and mica are all good types of clays for ceramic production. When mixed with water they create hydrous aluminum silica that is plastic and moldable. During the firing process the clays lose their water and become a hardened ceramic body.
Fluxes add oxygen when they burn to create more uniform melting of the silica particles throughout the body of the ceramic. This increases the strength of the material. Common fluxing materials are calcium carbonate, alkaline feldspars, manganese, and iron oxides. Grog is used to prevent shrinking and provide structure for the fine clay matrix.
Causes of failure
The most common reasons for terracotta to fail are: poor manufacturing, improper installation, weathering, freeze/thaw cycling, and salt formation from atmospheric pollution.
Porosity
The porosity of terracotta greatly impacts its performance. The ability or inability for water and pollutants to enter into the material is directly correlated to its structural capacity. Terracotta is very strong in compression but weak in tension and shear strength. Any anomalous material expanding (ice, salts, incompatible fill material, or corroding metal anchors which cause rust jacking) inside the clay body will cause it to crack and eventually spall.
Improper molding
Inherent faults can severely impact the performance of the material. Improper molding can cause air pockets to form that increase the rate of deterioration. If the block is not fired or cooled properly then the fireskin will not be uniformly adhered to the substrate and can flake off. Likewise, if a glaze is not fired properly it will crack, flake, and fall off. Discolorations can result from mineral impurities such as pyrites or barium carbonates.
Handling defects
A fair amount of damage comes from clumsy transportation, storage, or installation of the material. If the mortar used around and inside the blocks is too strong then the stress will be translated to the terracotta block which will fail over time. Corroding interior metal anchors expand at a faster rate than the surrounding ceramic body causing it to fail from the inside out. Improper loading of the hollow terracotta blocks can create stress cracks.
Flawed repairs
Imperfect repair work often exacerbates the underlying problems, speeding up the decay of surrounding elements as well. Making penetrations in terracotta units to attach objects to the outside walls also allows moisture to enter the system, and often crack the terracotta as well. Installing sealant rather than mortar, or applying impervious coating, will trap moisture within the terracotta.
Air polution
The environment also plays a large role in the survival of terracotta. Different types of air pollution can cause different types of surface problems. When it rains, water and salts get sucked into the voids in and around the terracotta through capillary action. If it freezes then ice forms, putting internal stress on the material, causing it to crack from inside. A similar problem happens with atmospheric pollutants that are carried into the gaps by rains water. The pollution creates a mildly acidic solution that eats at the clay body or a salt crust forms, causing similar issues as ice.
Consequences of failure
With the majority of terracotta buildings being over one-hundred years old, failing terracotta has become a problem in many cities such as New York. Regular inspections and maintenance and repair programs are required by law, but nonetheless well-publicized incidents such as the death of Erica Tishman after a piece of terracotta fell from a 105-year old building.
Manufacturers
Britain
Royal Doulton (1815 to present)
Fambrini & Daniels (1838 to 1913)
John Marriott Blashfield (1839 to 1878)
Gibbs and Canning (1847 to 1950s)
Burmantofts Pottery (1859 to 1957)
Shaws of Darwen (1897 to 2014)
Darwen Terracotta and Faience (2014 - present)
United States
Henry Tolman, Jr. (1848 to 1855)
Chicago Terra Cotta Works (1868 to 1880)
Gladding, McBean (1879 to present)
Perth Amboy Terra Cotta Company (1879 to 1907)
Boston Terra Cotta Company (1880 to 1893)
A. Hall Terra Cotta Company (1883 to 1887)
New York Architectural Terra-Cotta Company (1886 to 1929)
Los Angeles Pressed Brick Company (1887 to 1916)
Northwestern Terra Cotta Company (1888 to 1954)
Celadon Terra Cotta Company (1888 to 1906)
New Jersey Terra Cotta Company (1888 to 1928)
South Amboy Terra Cotta Company (1903 to 1928)
Denny-Renton Clay and Coal Company (1905 to 1927)
O.W. Ketcham Terra Cotta Works (1906 to 1995)
Ludowici-Celadon Company (1906 to present)
Atlantic Terra Cotta Company (1907 to 1943)
Federal Terra Cotta Company (1909 to 1928)
Moravian Pottery and Tile Works (1912 to present)
Federal Seaboard Terra Cotta Corporation (1928 to 1968)
Boston Valley Terra Cotta (1981 to present)
References
Bibliography
Barr, Emily. "PRESSING ISSUES IN-KIND TERRA COTTA REPLACEMENT IN THE 21ST CENTURY." Masters of Science Thesis. Columbia University. 2014
Dillon M. (1985) Bricks, Tiles and Terracotta, An Exhibition on one of the major industries of the Wrexham area, (Held at the Grosvenor Museum, Chester), 24pp.
Didden, Amanda. "Standardization of terracotta anchorage: an analysis of shop drawings from the Northwestern Terra Cotta Company and the O.W. Ketcham Terra Cotta Works." Masters Thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 2003.
Fidler, John. The Conservation of Architectural Terracotta and Faience. Transactions of the Association for Studies in the Conservation of Historic Buildings, no. 6(1981):3-16.
Fidler, John. Fragile Remains. Architectural Ceramics: their History, Manufacture and Conservation. London: James and James, 1996.
Gerns, Edward and Joshua Freedland. "Understanding terra-cotta distress: Evaluation and repair approaches." Journal of Building Appraisal. October 2006.
James W P Campbell & Will Pryce, (2003) Brick: A World History,
Jenkins, Moses. "Terracotta and Faience." Historic Scotland, Longmore House.
Mack, Robert C. "The Manufacture and Use of Architectural Terra Cotta in the United States." In The Technology of Historic American Buildings, edited by H. Ward Jandl, 117–51. Washington, D.C.: Foundation for Preservation Technology, 1983.
Ries, Heinrich and Henry Leighton. History of the Clay Working Industry in the United States. New York: John Wiley, 1909.
Stratton, M. (1993) The Terracotta Revival : Building Innovation and the Image of the Industrial City in Britain and North America. London : Gollancz.
Taylor, James. Terra Cotta. Architectural Record, Vol. 1(July 1891-July 1892):63-68.
Taylor, James. "History of Terra Cotta in New York City." Architectural Record 2 July 1892-July 1893:136-148.
Wells, Jeremy C. History of Structural Hollow Clay Tile in the United States
Construction History, Vol. 22 (2007):27-46.
External links
Article on terracotta in Victorian and Edwardian Terracotta Buildings
Understanding and Conserving Terracotta - Dr Michael Stratton
Bolton Museums
Soil-based building materials
Building
Terracotta | Architectural terracotta | [
"Engineering"
] | 4,135 | [
"Construction",
"Building"
] |
5,666,922 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20plants%20of%20Atlantic%20Forest%20vegetation%20of%20Brazil | A list of native plants found in the Atlantic Forest Biome of southeastern and southern Brazil. Additions occur as botanical discoveries and reclassifications are presented. They are grouped under their botanical Families.
Acanthaceae
Mendoncia velloziana Mart.
Mendoncia puberula Mart.
Aphelandra squarrosa Nees
Aphelandra stephanophysa Nees
Aphelandra rigida Glaz. et Mildbr.
Justicia polita (Nees) Profice
Justicia clausseniana (Nees) Profice
Justicia nervata (Lindau) Profice
Amaranthaceae
Pfaffia pulverulenta (Mart.) Kuntze
Amaryllidaceae
Hippeastrum calyptratum Herb.
Anacardiaceae
Astronium fraxinifolium Schott
Astronium graveolens Jacq.
Tapirira guianensis Aubl.
Annonaceae
Annona cacans Warm.
Duguetia salicifolia R.E.Fr.
Guatteria australis A.St.-Hil.
Guatteria dusenii R.E.Fr.
Guetteria nigrescens Mart.
Rollinia laurifolia Schltdl.
Rollinia sylvatica (A.St.-Hil.) Mart.
Rollinia xylopiifolia (A.St.-Hil.) R.E.Fr.
Xylopia brasiliensis Spreng.
Apocynaceae
Aspidosperma cylindrocarpon Müll.Arg.
Aspidosperma melanocalyx Müll.Arg.
Aspidosperma parvifolium A.DC.
Forsteronia refracta Müll.Arg.
Mandevilla funiformis (Vell.) K.Schum.
Mandevilla pendula (Ule) Woodson
Odontadenia lutea (Vell.) Markgr.
Peschiera australis (Müll.Arg.) Miers
Aquifoliaceae
Ilex breviscupis Reissek
Ilex integerrima Reissek
Ilex microdonta Reissek
Ilex paraguariensis A.St.-Hil.
Ilex taubertiana Loes.
Ilex theezans Mart.
Ilex pubiflora Reissek
Araceae
Anthurium galeottii K.Koch.
Anthurium harrisii G.Don
Anthurium longifolium G.Don
Anthurium lhotzkyanum Schott
Anthurium scandens (Aubl.) Engl. subsp. scandens
Anthurium solitarium Schott
Anthurium theresiopolitanum Engl.
Asterostigma luschnatianum Schott
Philodendron appendiculatum Nadruz et Mayo
Philodendron altomacaense Nadruz et Mayo
Philodendron edmundoi G.M.Barroso
Philodendron eximium Schott
Philodendron fragile Nadruz et Mayo
Philodendron hatschbachii Nadruz et Mayo
Philodendron roseopetiolatum Nadruz et Mayo
Philodendron ochrostemon Schott
Philodendron ornatum Schott
Philodendron propinquum Schott
Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott
Araliaceae
Didymopanax acuminatus Marchal
Didymopanax angustissimus Marchal
Oreopanax capitatus (Jacq.) Decne. et Planch.
Araucariaceae
Araucaria angustifolia (Bertol.) Kuntze
Arecaceae
Astrocaryum aculeatissimum (Schott) Burret
Attalea dubia (Mart.) Burret
Euterpe edulis Mart.
Geonoma pohliana Mart.
Geonoma wittigiana Glaz. ex Drude
Lytocaryum hoehnei (Burret) Toledo
Lytocaryum insigne (Drude) Toledo
Asclepiadaceae
Ditassa mucronata Mart.
Gonioanthela hilariana (E.Fourn.) Malme
Jobinia lindbergii E.Fourn.
Jobinia hatschbachii Fontella et E.A.Schwarz
Jobinia paranaensis Fontella et C.Valente
Oxypetalum insigne var. glaziovii (E.Fourn.) Fontella et E. A.Schwarz
Oxypetalum lutescens E.Fourn.
Oxypetalum pachuglossum Decne.
Macroditassa lagoensis (E.Fourn.) Malme
Macroditassa laxa (Malme) Fontella et de Lamare
Matelea glaziovii (E.Fourn.) Morillo
Asteraceae
Baccharis brachylaenoides DC. var. brachylaenoides
Baccharis intermixta Gardner
Baccharis microdonta DC.
Baccharis semiserrata DC. var. semiserrata
Baccharis trimera (Less.) DC.
Dasyphyllum brasiliense (Spreng.) Cabrera
Dasyphyllum spinescens (Less.) Cabrera
Dasyphyllum tomentosum var. multiflorum (Baker) Cabrera
Eupatorium adamantium Gardner
Eupatorium pyrifolium DC.
Eupatorium rufescens P.W.Lund. ex DC.
Eupatorium vauthierianum DC.
Gochnatia rotundifolia Less.
Hatschbachiella polyclada (Dusén ex Malme) R.M.King & H.Rob.
Mikania acuminata DC.
Mikania aff. myriantha DC.
Mikania argyreiae DC.
Mikania buddleiaefolia DC.
Mikania cabrerae G.M.Barroso
Mikania chlorolepis Baker
Mikania conferta Gardner
Mikania glomerata Spreng.
Mikania hirsutissima DC.
Mikania lanuginosa DC.
Mikania lindbergii Baker var. lindbergii
Mikania lindbergii var. collina Baker
Mikania microdonta DC.
Mikania rufescens Sch. Bip. ex Baker
Mikania trinervis Hook. et Arn.
Mikania vitifolia DC.
Mutisia speciosa Aiton ex. Hook.
Piptocarpha macropoda (DC.) Baker
Piptocarpha oblonga (Gardner) Baker
Piptocarpha quadrangularis (Vell.) Baker
Piptocarpha reitziana Cabrera
Senecio brasiliensis (Spreng.) Less.
Senecio desiderabilis Vell.
Senecio glaziovii Baker
Senecio organensis Casar.
Symphyopappus itatiayensis R.M.King et H.Rob.
Vanillosmopsis erythropappa (DC.) Sch.Bip.
Vernonia aff. puberula Less.
Vernonia diffusa Less.
Vernonia discolor (Spreng.) Less.
Vernonia macahensis Glaz. ex G.M.Barroso
Vernonia macrophylla Less.
Vernonia petiolaris DC.
Vernonia puberula Less.
Vernonia stellata (Spreng.) S.F.Blake
Wunderlichia insignis Baill.
Balanophoraceae
Langsdorffia hipogaea Mart.
Scybalium glaziovii Eichler
Basellaceae
Boussingaultia tucumanensis var. brasiliensis Hauman
Begoniaceae
Begonia angularis Raddi var. angularis
Begonia arborescens Raddi
Begonia coccinea Ruiz ex Klotzsch
Begonia collaris Brade
Begonia cucullata Willd. var. cucullata
Begonia dentatiloba A.DC.
Begonia digitata Raddi
Begonia fischeri Schrank
Begonia fruticosa A.DC.
Begonia isoptera Dryand.
Begonia herbacea Vell.
Begonia hispida Schott ex A.DC. var. hispida
Begonia hugelii Hort.Berol. ex A.DC.
Begonia integerrima Spreng. var. integerrima
Begonia lobata Schott
Begonia semidigitata Brade
Begonia paleata A.DC.
Begonia pulchella Raddi
Begonia solananthera A.DC.
Begonia valdensium A.DC. var. valdensium
Bignoniaceae
Anemopaegma chamberlaynii (Sims) Bureau & K.Schum.
Callichlamys latifolia (Rich.) K. Schum.
Fridericia speciosa Mart.
Haplolophium bracteatum Cham.
Lundia corymbifera (Vahl) Sandwith
Schlegelia parviflora (Oerst.) Monach.
Stizophyllum perforatum (Cham.) Miers
Tabebuia chrysotricha (Mart. ex A.DC.) Standl.
Tabebuia heptaphylla (Vell.) Toledo
Urbanolophium glaziovii (Bureau & K.Schum.) Melch.
Bombacaceae
Bombacopsis glabra (Pasq.) A.Robyns
Chorisia speciosa A.St.-Hil. – Floss silk tree
Eriotheca candolleana (K.Schum.) A.Robyns
Spirotheca rivieri (Decne.) Ulbrich
Boraginaceae
Cordia ecalyculata Vell.
Cordia ochnacea DC.
Cordia sellowiana Cham.
Cordia trichoclada DC.
Tournefortia breviflora DC.
Bromeliaceae
Aechmea blanchetiana (Baker) L.B.Sm.
Aechmea bromeliifolia (Rudge) Baker
Aechmea caesia E.Morren ex Baker
Aechmea pineliana (Brongn.ex Planch.) Baker var. pineliana
Ananas ananassoides (Baker) L.B.Sm.
Billbergia amoena var. rubra M.B.Foster
Billbergia pyramidalis var. concolor L.B.Sm.
Billbergia pyramidalis (Sims) var. pyramidalis Lindl.
Billbergia sanderiana E.Morren
Canistrum lindenii (Regel) Mez
Neoregelia carolinae (Beer) L.B.Sm.
Neoregelia bragarum (E.Pereira & L.B.Sm.) Leme
Neoregelia farinosa (Ule) L.B.Sm.
Neoregelia lymaniana R.Braga & Sucre
Nidularium innocentii Lem. var. innocentii
Nidularium microps E.Morren ex Mez var. microps
Nidularium procerum Lindm.
Nidularium scheremetiewii Regel
Pitcairnia carinata Mez
Pitcairnia flammea Lindl. var. flammea
Quesnelia lateralis Wawra
Quesnelia liboniana (De Jonghe) Mez
Tillandsia aeris-incola (Mez) Mez
Tillandsia geminiflora Brongn. var. geminiflora
Tillandsia spiculosa Griseb. var. spiculiosa
Tillandsia stricta Sol. ex Sims. var. stricta
Tillandsia tenuifolia L. var. tenuifolia
Vriesea bituminosa Wawra var. bituminosa
Vriesea carinata Wawra
Vriesea haematina L.B.Sm.
Vriesea heterostachys (Baker) L.B.Sm.
Vriesea hieroglyphica (Carrière) E.Morren var. hieroglyphica
Vriesea hydrophora Ule
Vriesea inflata (Wawra) Wawra
Vriesea longicaulis (Baker) Mez
Vriesea longiscapa Ule
Vriesea paraibica Wawra
Vriesea sparsiflora L.B.Sm.
Vriesea vagans (L.B.Sm.) L.B.Sm.
Wittrockia cyathiformis (Vell.) Leme
Wittrockia flavipetala (Wand.) Leme & H.Luther
Wittrockia gigantea (Baker) Leme
Wittrockia superba Lindm.
Wittrockia tenuisepala (Leme) Leme
Cactaceae
Hatiora salicornioides (Haw.) Britton & Rose
Lepismium houlletianum (Lem.) Barthlott
Rhipsalis capilliformes F.A.C.Weber
Rhipsalis clavata F.A.C.Weber
Rhipsalis elliptica G.Lindb. ex K.Schum.
Rhipsalis floccosa Salm-Dyck ex Pfeiff.
Rhipsalis houlletiana Lem.
Rhipsalis trigona Pfeiff.
Schlumbergera truncata (Haw.) Moran
Campanulaceae
Centropogon tortilis E.Wimm.
Siphocampylus longepedunculatus Pohl
Cannaceae
Canna coccinea Mill.
Canna paniculata Ruiz & Pav.
Caprifoliaceae
Lonicera japonica Thunb. ex Murray – Japanese Honeysuckle
Celastraceae
Celastrus racemosus Turcz.
Maytenus brasiliensis Mart.
Maytenus communis Reiss.
Chloranthaceae
Hedyosmum brasiliense Miq.
Chrysobalanaceae
Couepia venosa Prance
Licania kunthiana Hook.f.
Clethraceae
Clethra scabra var. laevigata (Meisn.) Sleumer
Cletha scabra Pers. var. scabra
Clusiaceae
Clusia criuva Cambess.
Clusia fragrans Gardner
Clusia lanceolata Cambess.
Clusia marizii Gomes da Silva & Weinberg
Clusia organensis Planch. & Triana
Clusia studartiana C.M.Vieira & Gomes da Silva
Kielmeyera insignis N.Saddi
Rheedia gardneriana Planch. & Triana
Tovomita glazioviana Engl.
Tovomitopsis saldanhae Engl.
Combretaceae
Terminalia januarensis DC.
Commelinaceae
Dichorisandra thyrsiflora J.C.Mikan
Tradescantia sp.
Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea demerariana Choisy (=Ipomoea phyllomega (Vell.) House)
Cornaceae
Griselina ruscifolia (Clos) Taub.
Cucurbitaceae
Anisosperma passiflora (Vell.) Silva Manso
Apodanthera argentea Cogn.
Cayaponia cf. tayuya (Vell.) Cogn.
Melothria cucumis Vell. var. cucumis
Melothrianthus smilacifolius (Cogn.) Mart. Crov.
Cunoniaceae
Lamanonia ternata Vell.
Weinmannia paullinifolia Pohl ex Ser.
Cyperaceae
Pleurostachys densefoliata H.Pfeiff.
Pleurostachys millegrana (Nees) Steud.
Rhynchospora exaltata Kunth
Scleria panicoides Kunth
Dichapetalaceae
Stephanopodium organense (Rizzini) Prance
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea subhastata Vell.
Hyperocarpa filiformes (Griseb.) G.M.Barroso, E.F.Guim. & Sucre
Elaeocarpaceae
Sloanea monosperma Vell.
Ericaceae
Gaultheria eriophylla (Pers.) Sleumer ex B.L.Burtt
Gaylussacia aff. fasciculata Gardner
Gaylussacia brasiliensis (Spreng.) Meisn.
Erythroxylaceae
Erythroxylum citrifolium A.St.-Hil.
Erythroxylum cuspidifolium Mart.
Euphorbiaceae
Alchornea triplinervia (Spreng.) Müll.Arg.
Croton floribundus Spreng.
Croton organensis Baill.
Croton salutaris Casar.
Fragariopsis scandens A.St.-Hil.
Hieronyma alchorneoides Allemão
Pera obovata (Klotzsch) Baill.
Phyllanthus glaziovii Müll.Arg.
Sapium glandulatum Pax
Tetrorchidium parvulum Müll.Arg.
Fabaceae: Caesalpinioideae
Bauhinia microstachya (Raddi) J.F.Macbr.
Copaifera trapezifolia Hayne
Sclerolobium beaurepairei Harms, synonym of Tachigali beaurepairei
Sclerolobium friburgense Harms
Sclerolobium rugosum Mart. ex Benth.
Senna macranthera (DC. ex Collad.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby var. macranthera
Senna multijuga var. lindleyana (Gardner) H.S.Irwin & Barneby
Tachigali paratyensis (Vell.) H.C. Lima (= Tachigali multijuga Benth.).
Fabaceae: Faboideae
Andira fraxinifolia Benth.
Camptosema spectabile (Tul.) Burkart
Crotalaria vitellina var. laeta (Mart. ex Benth.) Windler & S. Skinner
Dalbergia foliolosa Benth.
Dalbergia frutescens (Vell.) Britton
Dalbergia glaziovii Harms
Dalbergia lateriflora Benth.
Dioclea schottii Benth.
Erythrina falcata Benth.
Lonchocarpus glaziovii Taub.
Machaerium cantarellianum Hoehne
Machaerium gracile Benth.
Machaerium nyctitans (Vell.) Benth.
Machaerium oblongifolium Vogel
Machaerium reticulatum (Poir.) Pers.
Machaerium triste Vogel
Myrocarpus frondosus Allemão
Ormosia fastigiata Tul.
Ormosia friburgensis Glaz.
Pterocarpus rohrii Vahl
Swartzia myrtifolia var. elegans (Schott) R. S. Cowan
Zollernia glaziovii Yakovlev
Zollernia ilicifolia (Brongn.) Vogel
Fabaceae: Mimosoideae
Abarema langsdorfii (Benth.) Barneby & Grimes
Acacia lacerans Benth.
Acacia martiusiana (Steud.) Burkart
Calliandra tweediei Benth.
Inga barbata Benth.
Inga cylindrica (Vell.) Mart.
Inga dulcis (Vell.) Mart.
Inga lancifolia Benth.
Inga lenticellata Benth.
Inga lentiscifolia Benth.
Inga leptantha Benth.
Inga marginata Willd. = Inga semialata (Vell.) Mart.
Inga mendoncaei Harms = Inga organensis Pittier
Inga platyptera Benth.
Inga sessilis (Vell.) Mart.
Mimosa extensa Benth.
Piptadenia gonoacantha (Mart.) J. F. Macbr.
Piptadenia micracantha Benth.
Gentianaceae
Macrocarpaea glaziovii Gilg
Gesneriaceae
Besleria fasciculata Wawra
Besleria macahensis Brade
Besleria melancholica (Vell.) C. V. Morton
Codonanthe cordifolia Chautems
Codonanthe gracilis (Mart.) Hanst.
Nematanthus crassifolius subsp. chloronema (Mart.) Chautems
Nematanthus hirtellus (Schott) Wiehler
Nematanthus lanceolatus (Poir.) Chautems
Nematanthus serpens (Vell.) Chautems
Sinningia cooperi (Paxt.) Wiehler
Sinningia incarnata (Aubl.) D. L. Denham
Vanhouttea fruticulosa (Hoehne) Chautems
Hippocrateaceae
Cheiloclinium neglectum A.C.Sm.
Hippocratea volubilis L.
Salacia amygdalina Peyr.
Tontelea leptophylla A.C.Sm.
Humiriaceae
Humiriastrum glaziovii (Urb.) Cuatrec. var. glaziovii
Humiriastrum glaziovii var. angustifolium Cuatrec.
Vantanea compacta (Schnizl.) Cuatrec. subsp. compacta var. compacta
Vantanea compactasubsp. compacta var. grandiflora (Urb.) Cuatrec.
Icacinaceae
Citronella paniculata (Mart.) R.A.Howard
Labiatae
Salvia rivularis Gardner
Scutellaria uliginosa A.St.-Hil. ex Benth.
Lacistemataceae
Lacistema pubescens Mart.
Lauraceae
Aniba firmula (Nees et Mart.) Mez
Beilschmiedia fluminensis Kosterm.
Beilschmiedia rigida (Mez) Kosterm.
Cinnamomum glaziovii (Mez) Kosterm.
Cinnamomum riedelianum Kosterm.
Cryptocarya micrantha Meisn.
Cryptocarya moschata Nees et Mart. ex Nees
Endlicheria paniculata (Spreng.) J.F.Macbr.
Nectandra leucantha Nees
Nectandra oppositifolia Nees
Nectandra puberula (Schott) Nees
Ocotea acypahilla (Nees) Mez
Ocotea catharinensis Mez
Ocotea diospyrifolia (Meisn.) Mez
Ocotea dispersa (Nees) Mez
Ocotea divaricata (Nees) Mez
Ocotea domatiata Mez
Ocotea glaziovii Mez
Ocotea indecora (Schott) Mez
Ocotea teleiandra (Meisn.) Mez
Ocotea notata (Nees) Mez
Ocotea odorifera (Vell.) Rohwer
Ocotea porosa (Nees) Barroso
Ocotea puberula (Rich.) Nees
Ocotea pulchra Vattimo-Gil
Ocotea silvestris Vattimo-Gil
Ocotea spixiana (Nees) Mez
Ocotea tabacifolia Meisn.) Rohwer
Ocotea urbaniana Mez
Ocotea vaccinioides Meisn.
Persea fulva Koop var. fulva
Persea pyrifolia Nees & Mart. ex Nees
Rhodostemonodaphne macrocalyx (Meisn.) Rohwer ex Madriñán
Lecythidaceae
Cariniana estrellensis (Raddi) Kuntze
Lentibulariaceae
Utricularia geminiloba Benj.
Lobeliaceae
Lobelia thapsoidea Schott
Loganiaceae
Spigelia macrophylla (Pohl) DC.
Loranthaceae
Phoradendron crassifolium (Pohl & DC.) Eichler
Phoradendron warmingii var. rugulosum (Urb.) Rizzini
Psittacanthus flavo-viridis Eichler
Psittacanthus pluricotyledonarius Rizzini
Psittacanthus robustus (Mart.) Mart.
Struthanthus concinnus Mart.
Struthanthus marginatus (Desr.) Blume
Struthanthus salicifolius (Mart.) Mart.
Struthanthus syringaefolius (Mart.) Mart.
Magnoliaceae
Magnolia Magnolia ovata (A.St.-Hil.) Spreng.
Malpighiaceae
Banisteriopsis membranifolia (A. Juss.) B. Gates
Byrsonima laevigata (Poir.) DC.
Byrsonima laxiflora Griseb.
Byrsonima myricifolia Griseb.
Heteropteris anomala A. Juss. var. anomala
Heteropteris leschenaultiana A. Juss.
Heteropteris nitida (Lam.) DC.
Heteropteris sericea (Cav.) A. Juss. var. sericea
Hiraea gaudichaudiana (A. Juss.) A. Jsss.
Stigmaphyllon gayanum A. Juss
Tetrapterys crebiflora A. Juss.
Tetrapterys lalandiana A. Juss.
Tetrapterys lucida A. Juss.
Malvaceae
Abutilon rufirnerve A.St.-Hil. var. rufirnerve
Marantaceae
Stromanthe sanguinea Sond.
Marcgraviaceae
Marcgravia polyantha Delpino
Norantea cuneifolia (Gardner) Delpino
Melastomataceae
Behuria glazioviana Cogn.
Behuria mouraei Cogn.
Bertolonia grazielae Baumgratz
Bertolonia sanguinea var. santos-limae (Brade) Baumgratz
Bisglaziovia behurioides Cogn.
Clidemia octona (Bonpl.) L. Wms.
Henriettella glabra (Vell.) Cogn.
Huberia glazioviana Cogn.
Huberia minor Cogn.
Huberia parvifolia Cogn.
Huberia triplinervis Cogn.
Leandra acutiflora (Naudin) Cogn.
Leandra amplexicaulis DC.
Leandra aspera Cogn.
Leandra atroviridis Cogn.
Leandra aurea (Cham.) Cogn.
Leandra breviflora Cogn.
Leandra carassanae (DC.) Cogn.
Leandra confusa Cogn.
Leandra dasytricha (A.Gray) Cogn.
Leandra eriocalyx Cogn.
Leandra fallax (Cham.) Cogn.
Leandra foveolata (DC.) Cogn.
Leandra fragilis Cogn.
Leandra gracilis var. glazioviana Cogn.
Leandra hirta Raddi
Leandra hirtella Cogn.
Leandra laevigata (Triana) Cogn.
Leandra laxa Cogn.
Leandra magdalenensis Brade
Leandra melastomoides Raddi
Leandra mollis Cogn.
Leandra multiplinervis (Naudin) Cogn.
Leandra multisetosa Cogn.
Leandra neurotricha Cogn.
Leandra nianga Cogn.
Leandra nutans Cogn.
Leandra purpurascens Cogn.
Leandra quinquedentata (DC.) Cogn.
Leandra schwackei Cogn.
Leandra sphaerocarpa Cogn.
Leandra tetragona Cogn.
Leandra trauninensis Cogn.
Leandra xanthocoma (Naudin.) Cogn.
Leandra xanthostachya Cogn.
Marcetia taxifolia (A.St.-Hil.) DC.
Meriania claussenii Triana
Meriania robusta Cogn.
Miconia altissima Cogn.
Miconia argyrea Cogn.
Miconia augustii Cogn.
Miconia brasiliensis (Spreng.) Triana
Miconia brunnea DC.
Miconia budlejoides Triana
Miconia chartacea Triana
Miconia cinnamomifolia (DC.) Naudin
Miconia depauperata Gardner
Miconia dichroa Cogn.
Miconia divaricata Gardner
Miconia doriana Cogn.
Miconia fasciculata Gardner
Miconia formosa Cogn.
Miconia gilva Cogn.
Miconia glazioviana Cogn.
Miconia jucunda (DC.) Triana
Miconia latecrenata (DC.) Naudin
Miconia longicuspis Cogn.
Miconia octopetala Cogn.
Miconia organensis Gardner
Miconia ovalifolia Cogn.
Miconia molesta Cogn.
Miconia paniculata (DC.) Naudin
Miconia paulensis Naudin
Miconia penduliflora Cogn.
Miconia prasina (Sw.) DC.
Miconia pseudo-eichlerii Cogn.
Miconia pusilliflora (DC.) Naudin
Miconia rabenii Cogn.
Miconia saldanhaei var. grandiflora Cogn.
Miconia sellowiana Naudin
Miconia staminea (Desr.) DC.
Miconia subvernicosa Cogn.
Miconia theaezans (Bonpl.) Cogn.
Miconia tristis Spring
Miconia urophylla DC.
Miconia willdenowii Klotzsch ex Naudin
Mouriri arborea Gardner
Mouriri chamissoana Cogn.
Mouriri doriana Cogn.
Ossaea angustifolia (DC.) Triana var. brevifolia Cogn.
Ossaea brachystachya (DC.) Triana
Ossaea confertiflora (DC.) Triana
Pleiochiton micranthum Cogn.
Pleiochiton parvifolium Cogn.
Pleiochiton roseum Cogn.
Pleiochiton setulosum Cogn.
Pleroma semidecandrum (Schrank & Mart. ex DC.) Triana (syn. Tibouchina semidecandra)
Tibouchina alba Cogn.
Tibouchina arborea (Gardner) Cogn.
Tibouchina benthamiana var. punicea Cogn.
Tibouchina canescens (D.Don) Cogn.
Tibouchina estrellensis (Raddi) Cogn.
Tibouchina fissinervia (DC.) Cogn.
Tibouchina imperatoris Cogn.
Tibouchina moricandiana (DC.) Baill.
Tibouchina nervulosa Cogn.
Tibouchina ovata Cogn.
Tibouchina petroniana Cogn.
Tibouchina saldanhaei Cogn.
Tibouchina schwackei Cogn.
Trembleya parviflora (D.Don.) Cogn.
Meliaceae
Cabralea canjerana (Vell.) Mart. subsp. canjerana
Cedrela odorata L.
Guarea macrophylla subsp. tuberculata (Vell.) T.D.Penn.
Trichilia casaretti C.DC.
Trichilia emarginata (Turcz.) C.DC.
Menispermaceae
Abuta selloana Eichler
Chondodendron platyphyllum (A.St.-Hil.) Miers
Monimiaceae
Macropeplus ligustrinus var. friburgensis Perkins
Mollinedia acutissima Perkins
Mollinedia argyrogyna Perkins
Mollinedia engleriana Perkins
Mollinedia fasciculata Perkins
Mollinedia gilgiana Perkins
Mollinedia glaziovii Perkins
Mollinedia longicuspidata Perkins
Mollinedia lowtheriana Perkins
Mollinedia marliae Peixoto & V.Pereira
Mollinedia myriantha Perkins
Mollinedia oligantha Perkins
Mollinedia pachysandra Perkins
Mollinedia salicifolia Perkins
Mollinedia schottiana (Spreng.) Perkins
Mollinedia stenoplylla Perkins
Siparuna chlorantha Perkins
Moraceae
Cecropia cf.lyratiloba Miq.
Cecropia glaziovii Snethl.
Cecropia hololeuca Miq.
Coussapoa microcarpa (Schott) Rizzini
Ficus luschnathiana (Miq.) Miq.
Ficus organensis (Miq.) Miq.
Ficus trigona L.f.
Sorocea bonplandii (Baill.) W.C.Burger & Alii
Myristicaceae
Virola gardneri (A.DC.) Warb.
Myrsinaceae
Cybianthus brasiliensis (Mez) G.Agostini
Cybianthus glaber A.DC.
Rapanea acuminata Mez
Rapanea ferruginea (Ruiz & Pav.) Mez
Rapanea guianensis Aubl.
Rapanea lancifolia Mez
Rapanea schwackeana Mez
Rapanea umbellata (Mart.) Mez
Myrtaceae
Calycorectes schottianus O.Berg
Calyptranthes concinna DC.
Calyptranthes glazioviana Kiaersk.
Calyptranthes lucida Mart. ex DC.
Calyptranthes obovata Kiaersk.
Campomanesia guaviroba (DC.) Kiaersk.
Campomanesia laurifolia Gardner
Eugenia cambucarana Kiaersk.
Eugenia cuprea (O.Berg) Nied.
Eugenia curvato-petiolata Kiaersk.
Eugenia ellipsoidea Kiaersk.
Eugenia gracillima Kiaersk.
Eugenia stictosepala Kiaersk.
Eugenia subavenia O.Berg
Marlierea Marlierea aff.teuscheriana (O. Berg.) D. Legrand
Marlierea mar 'tinelii G. M. Barroso & Peixoto
Marlierea silvatica (Gardner) Kiaersk.
Marlierea suaveolens Cambess.
Myrceugenia kleinii D.Legrand & Kausel
Myrceugenia pilotantha (Kiaersk.) Landrum
Myrceugenia scutellata D. Legrand
Myrcia anacardiifolia Gardner
Myrcia coelosepala Kiaersk.
Myrcia fallax (Rich.) DC.
Myrcia fenzliana O.Berg
Myrcia glabra (O.Berg) D.Legrand
Myrcia glazioviana Kiaersk.
Myrcia guajavifolia O.Berg
Myrcia laruotteana Cambess.
Myrcia lineata (O. Berg) G. M. Barroso & Peixoto
Myrcia longipes (O. Berg) Kiaersk.
Myrcia multiflora (Lam.) DC.
Myrcia pubipetala Miq.
Myrcia rhabdoides Kiaersk.
Myrcia rufula Miq.
Myrcia spectabilis DC.
Myrcia tomentosa (Aubl.) DC.
Myrcia warmingiana Kiaersk.
Myrciaria floribunda (H. West. ex Willd.) O. Berg –Guavaberry
Myrciaria tenella (DC.) O. Berg
Pimenta pseudocaryophyllus var. fulvescens (DC.) Landrum
Plinia martinellii G. M. Barroso & M. Peron
Psidium guineense Sw.
Psidium Psidium robustum O. Berg
Psidium spathulatum Mattos
Siphoneugena densiflora O. Berg
Siphoneugena kiaerskoviana (Burret) Kausel
Nyctaginaceae
Guapira opposita (Vell.) Reitz
Ochnaceae
Luxemburgia glazioviana Beauverd
Ouratea parviflora (DC.) Baill.
Ouratea vaccinioides (A.St.-Hil.) Engl.
Olacaceae
Heisteria silvianii Schwacke
Oleaceae
Linociera micrantha Mart.
Onagraceae
Fuchsia glazioviana Taub.
Fuchsia regia subsp. serrae P.E.Berry
Orchidaceae
Barbosella porschii (Kraenzl.) Schltr.
Beadlea warmingii (Rchb.f.) Garay
Chytroglossa marileoniae Rchb.f.
Dichaea pendula (Aubl.) Cogn.
Epidendrum addae Pabst
Epidendrum paranaense Barb.Rodr.
Epidendrum saxatile Lindl.
Epidendrum xanthinum Lindl.
Gomesa recurva Lodd.
Maxillaria cerifera Barb.Rodr.
Maxillaria ubatubana var. mantiqueirana Hoehne
Miltonia cuneata Lindl.
Oncidium cf.hookeri Rolfe
Oncidium uniflorum Booth ex Lindl.
Pabstia jugosa (Lindl.) Garay
Pabstia triptera (Rolfe) Garay
Phymatidium aquinoi Schltr.
Phymatidium delicatulum Lindl.
Phymatidium falcifolium Lindl.
Phymatidium tillandsoides Barb.Rodr.
Pleurothallis aff.hamosa Barb.Rodr.
Pleurothallis trifida Lindl.
Prescottia epiphyta Barb.Rodr.
Rodrigueziopsis microphyta (Barb.Rodr.) Schltr.
Scaphyglottis modesta (Rchb.f.) Schltr.
Sophronitis aff.grandiflora Lindl.
Sophronitis aff.mantiqueirae (Fowlie) Fowlie
Zygopetalum crinitum Lodd.
Zygopetalum triste Barb.Rodr.
Passifloraceae
Passiflora actinia Hook.
Passiflora alata Dryand.
Passiflora amethystina J.C.Mikan
Passiflora deidamioides Harms
Passiflora odontophylla Harms ex Glaz.
Passiflora organensis Gardner
Passiflora rhamnifolia Mast.
Passiflora speciosa Gardner
Passiflora vellozii Gardner
Phytolaccaceae
Phytolacca thyrsiflora Fenzl ex J.A.Schmidt.
Seguieria langsdorffii Moq.
Piperaceae
Ottonia diversifolia Kunth
Peperomia alata Ruiz & Pav.
Peperomia corcovadensis Gardner
Peperomia glabella (Sw.) A. Dietr.
Peperomia lyman-smithii Yunck.
Peperomia rhombea Ruiz & Pav.
Peperomia rotundifolia (L.) H. B. & K.
Peperomia tetraphylla (G. Forst.) Hook. & Arn.
Piper aequilaterum C. DC.
Piper caldense C. DC.
Piper chimonanthifolium Kunth
Piper gaudichaudianum Kunth
Piper glabratum Kunth
Piper hillianum C. DC.
Piper lhotzkyanum Kunth
Piper malacophyllum (C. Presl) C. DC.
Piper permucronatum Yunck.
Piper pseudopothifolium C. DC.
Piper richardiifolium Kunth
Piper tectonifolium Kunth
Piper translucens Yunck.
Piper truncatum Vell.
Poaceae
Chusquea aff. oxylepis (Hack.) Ekman
Chusquea aff. tenella Nees
Chusquea anelytroides Rupr. ex Döll
Chusquea capitata Nees
Chusquea capituliflora Trin.
Guadua tagoara (Nees) Kunth
Merostachys aff. ternata Nees
Merostachys fischeriana Rupr. ex Döll
Podocarpaceae
Podocarpus lambertii Klotzsch ex Endl.
Podocarpus sellowii Klotzsch ex Endl.
Polygalaceae
Polygala laureola A.St.-Hil. & Moq.
Polygala oxyphylla DC.
Securidaca macrocarpa A.W.Benn.
Polygonaceae
Ruprechtia laxiflora Meisn.
Proteaceae
Roupala consimilis Mez
Roupala longepetiolata Pohl
Roupala rhombifolia Mart. ex Meisn.
Roupala warmingii Meisn.
Quiinaceae
Quiina glaziovii Engl.
Ranunculaceae
Clematis dioica var. australis Eichler
Clematis dioica var. brasiliana (DC.) Eichler
Rosaceae
Prunus brasiliensis Schott ex Spreng.
Rubus urticaefolius Poir.
Rubiaceae
Alibertia longiflora K.Schum.
Amaioua intermedia Mart.
Bathysa australis (A.St.-Hil.) Benth. & Hook.f.
Bathysa cuspidata (A.St.-Hil.) Hook.f.
Bathysa mendocaei K.Schum.
Chomelia brasiliana
Chomelia estrellana Müll.Arg.
Coccocypselum lanceolatum (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.
Coccocypselum sessiliflorum Standl.
Coussarea congestiflora Müll.Arg.
Coussarea friburgensis M. Gomes
Coussarea speciosa K.Schum. ex. Glaz.
Coutarea hexandra (Jacq.) K.Schum.
Diodia alataNees & Mart.
Emmeorrhiza umbellata (Spreng.) K.Schum.
Faramea dichotoma K.Schum. ex M.Gomes
Faramea multiflora var. salicifolia (C. Presl.) Steyerm.
Faramea urophylla Müll.Arg.
Galium hypocarpium subsp. indecorum (Cham. & Schltdl.) Dempster
Hillia parasitica Jacq.
Hindsia longiflora (Cham.) Benth.
Hoffmannia duseniiStandl.
Ixora brevifolia Benth.
Manettia beyrichiana K.Schum.
Manettia congesta (Vell.) K.Schum.
Manettia fimbriata Cham. & Schltdl.
Manettia mitis (Vell.) K. Schum.
Posoqueria acutifolia Mart.
Posoqueria latifolia (Rudge) Roem. & Schult.
Psychotria alto-macahensis M.Gomes
Psychotria appendiculata Müll.Arg.
Psychotria brachyanthema Standl.
Psychotria caudata M.Gomes
Psychotria constricta Müll.Arg.
Psychotria leiocarpa Cham. & Schltdl.
Psychotria nemerosa Gardner
Psychotria nitidula Cham. & Schltdl.
Psychotria pallens Gardner
Psychotria pubigera Schltdl.
Psychotria ruelliifolia (Cham. & Schltdl.) Müll.Arg.
Psychotria stachyoides Benth.
Psychotria suterella Müll.Arg.
Psychotria ulei Standl.
Psychotria vellosiana Benth.
Randia armata (Sw.) DC.
Rudgea corniculata Benth.
Rudgea gardenoides (Cham.) Müll.Arg.
Rudgea eugenioides Standl.
Rudgea insignis Müll.Arg.
Rudgea jasminoides (Cham.) Müll.Arg.
Rudgea leiocarpoides Müll.Arg.
Rudgea nobilis Müll.Arg.
Rudgea recurva Müll.Arg.
Rustia gracilis K.Schum.
Tocoyena sellowiana (Cham. & Schltdl.) K.Schum.
Rutaceae
Dictyoloma incanescens DC.
Zanthoxylum rhoifolium Lam. (= Fagara rhoifolia (Lam.) Engl.)
Sabiaceae
Meliosma brasiliensis Urb.
Meliosma sellowii Urb.
Salicaceae
Casearia arborea (Rich.) Urb.
Casearia decandra Jacq.
Casearia obliqua Spreng.
Casearia pauciflora Cambess.
Casearia sylvestris Sw.
Xylosma ciliatifolia (Clos) Eichler
Xylosma prockia (Turcz.) Turcz.
Sapindaceae
Allophylus edulis (A.St.-Hil.) Radlk.
Cupania emarginata Cambess.
Cupania oblongifolia Mart.
Cupania racemosa (Vell.) Radlk.
Cupania zanthoxyloides Cambess.
Matayba guianensis Aubl.
Paullinia carpopoda Cambess.
Paullinia meliaefolia Juss.
Paullinia trigonia Vell.
Serjania communis Cambess. var. communis
Serjania elegans Cambess.
Serjania gracilis Radlk.
Serjania laruotteana Cambess.
Serjania lethalis A.St.-Hil.
Serjania noxia Cambess.
Serjania reticulata Cambess.
Thinouia scandens (Cambess.) Triana & Planch.
Sapotaceae
Chrysophyllum imperiale
Chrysophyllum viride Martius & Eichler
Micropholis compta Pierre
Micropholis crassipedicellata (Mart. & Eichl.) Pierre
Pouteria guianensis Aubl.
Pouteria microstrigosa T.D.Penn.
Pouteria macahensis T.D.Penn.
Scrophulariaceae
Velloziella dracocephaloides Baill.
Simaroubaceae
Picramnia glazioviana Engl. subsp. glazioviana
Simarouba amara Aubl.
Smilacaceae
Smilax japicanga Griseb.
Smilax quinquenervia Vell.
Smilax spicata Vell.
Smilax staminea Griseb.
Solanaceae
Acnistus arborescens (L.) Schltdl.
Athenaea anonacea Sendtn.
Athenaea picta (Mart.) Sendtn.
Aureliana brasiliana (Hunz.) Barboza & Hunz.
Aureliana fasciculata (Vell.) Sendtn. var. fasciculata
Brunfelsia brasiliensis (Spreng.) L.B.Sm. & Downs var. brasiliensis
Brunfelsia hydrangaeformis (Pohl) Benth. subsp. hydrangaefomis
Capsicum campylopodium Sendtn.
Cestrum lanceolatum Miers var. lanceolatum
Cestrum aff.sessiliflorum Schott ex Sendtn.
Cestrum stipulatum Vell.
Cyphomandra calycina Sendtn.
Dyssochroma viridiflora (Sims) Miers
Sessea regnellii Taub.
Solanum aff.schizandrum Sendtn.
Solanum argenteum Dunal
Solanum caeruleum Vell.
Solanum cinnamomeum Sendtn.
Solanum decorum Sendtn. var. decorum
Solanum granuloso-leprosum Dunal
Solanum inaequale Vell.
Solanum inodorum Vell.
Solanum leucodendron Sendtn.
Solanum megalochiton var. villoso-tomentosum Dunal
Solanum odoriferum Vell.
Solanum stipulatum Vell.
Solanum swartzianum Roem. & Schult. var. swartzianum
Solanum undulatum Dunal
Symplocaceae
Symplocos celastrinea Mart. ex Miq.
Symplocos crenata (Vell.) Mattos
Symplocos glandulosomarginata Hoehne
Symplocos nitidiflora Brand.
Symplocos tertandra Mart. ex Miq.
Symplocos uniflora (Pohl) ex Benth.
Theaceae
Laplacea fruticosa (Schrad.) Kobuski
Thymelaeaceae
Daphnopsis martii Meisn.
Daphnopsis utilis Warm.
Tiliaceae
Luehea divaricata Mart.
Umbelliferae
Hydrocotyle leucocephala Cham. & Schltdl.
Valerianaceae
Valeriana scandens L.
Verbenaceae
Aegiphila fluminensis Vell.
Aegiphila obducta Vell.
Aegiphila sellowiana Cham.
Violaceae
Anchietea pyrifolia (Mart.) G.Don var. pyrifolia
Vitaceae
Cissus pulcherrima Vell.
Cissus sulcicaulis (Baker) Planch.
Vochysiaceae
Vochysia dasyantha Warm.
Vochysia glazioviana Warm.
Vochysia magnifica Warm.
Vochysia oppugnata (Vell.) Warm.
Vochysia rectiflora var. glabrescens Warm.
Vochysia saldanhana Warm.
Vochysia schwackeana Warm.
Vochysia spathulata Warm.
Vochysia tucanorum Mart.
Winteraceae
Drimys brasiliensis Miers
Zingiberaceae
Hedychium coronarium J.König
See also
Ecoregions of the Atlantic Forest biome
Official list of endangered flora of Brazil
List of plants of Amazon Rainforest vegetation of Brazil
List of plants of Caatinga vegetation of Brazil
List of plants of Cerrado vegetation of Brazil
List of plants of Pantanal vegetation of Brazil
References
LIMA, H. C.; MORIM, M. P.; GUEDES-BRUNI, R. R.; SYLVESTRE, L. S.; PESSOA, S. V. A.; SILVA NETO, S.; QUINET, A. (2001) Reserva Ecológica de Macaé de Cima, Nova Friburgo, Rio de Janeiro: Lista de espécies vasculares (List of vascular plants) — Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden.
Restinga.net — Atlantic Coast restingas.
External links
Atlantic Forest
Atlantic Forest
Atlantic Forest
Atlantic Forest
Brazil | List of plants of Atlantic Forest vegetation of Brazil | [
"Biology"
] | 11,202 | [
"Lists of biota",
"Lists of plants",
"Plants"
] |
5,666,951 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How%20Rude%21 | How Rude! is an American series of comical manners books for teens written by educator and psychologist Alex J. Packer, PhD.
Contents
In 465 pages, How Rude!: The Teenagers' Guide to Good Manners, Proper Behavior and Not Grossing People Out covers most aspects of life that teens are likely to encounter. The text is broken up into short chunks for easy reading.
According to Packer, "Good manners are good for you. They impress people. They build self-esteem. They can help you get what you want from life: friends, fun, success and respect. And they don't cost anything." Seeking to avoid the stereotype of etiquette books as preachy and dull, How Rude! keeps teenage readers amused as they learn the basics of polite behavior in all kinds of situations: at home, at school, in public, with friends, with strangers, at the mall, at the movies, on the phone, online, in conversations, at job interviews, in restaurants, on elevators, in cars, on skateboards, at parties, at formal dinners, on the bus and anywhere they go.
Young readers find out how to cope with cliques, handle friendship problems, be a host with the most (and a guest with the best), offer someone their seat, fight fair, answer invitations, deal with rude adults, respond to bigoted remarks, write a letter, dress properly for any occasion, master the proper techniques for civilized spitting, scratching, sneezing, yawning, coughing, hiccuping, nose-picking and much more.
Hundreds of "Dear Alex" questions and answers cover everything from dating to breaking up, thank-you notes to table manners, ethnic jokes to obscene phone calls, skiing to driving. "True Stories from the Manners Frontier" divulge the shocking consequences of not having good manners. Survey results reveal what teens, parents and teachers think about manners and why they are important.
Reception
How Rude! was selected by Young Adult Library Services Association (YALSA) as a "Popular Paperback for Young Adults" and a "Quick Pick for Reluctant Young Adult Readers."
Voice of Youth Advocates called How Rude! "the most incredibly readable, enjoyable, laughable, enlightening and insightful book." College Bound magazine described How Rude! as "...one fast-paced, fun-to-read book that covers the basics of good behavior for teens... Just one look at the table of contents will convince you that this isn't your grandma's guidebook. This is a wonderfully hip and humorous easy read!"
School Library Journal wrote, "From its intriguing title to the tongue-in-cheek ideas for dealing with many kinds of situations, readers will find this manual humorous, non-threatening, entertaining and educational."
Author
Packer is an author of many books on parenting. He is President Emeritus of FCD Educational Services, which provides drug education to colleges and schools.
Other books by Packer include: Wise Highs!: How to Thrill, Chill and Get Away from It All Without Alcohol or Other Drugs; Parenting One Day at a Time; Bringing Up Parents: The Teenager's Handbook; 365 Ways to Love Your Child; and with co-author John Dacey, Ph.D., The Nurturing Parent: How to Rasie Creative, Loving, Responsible Children. Packer's books have been translated into many languages including Spanish, German, Serbian, Mandarin, Romanian, Greek, Japanese, Korean and Thai.
References
Etiquette
Young adult non-fiction books | How Rude! | [
"Biology"
] | 730 | [
"Etiquette",
"Behavior",
"Human behavior"
] |
5,666,993 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatch%20Ltd | Hatch is a global multidisciplinary management, engineering and development consultancy. Its group companies have more than 10,000 staff in 70+ offices. In 2015, Hatch was ranked as a top 20 International Design Firm according to the Engineering News-Record (ENR) rankings.
The company was founded in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, by W.S. Atkins as W.S. Atkins & Associates in 1955. The company initially was involved in subway tunneling and other civil engineering projects, and expanded into metallurgy when Gerry Hatch joined the company in January 1958 as president. Over the next decade, the company grew from five employees to 60. He purchased the company in 1962, renaming It Hatch.
Hatch counts among its metals clients the major mining and metals companies in the world, including Alcan, Alcoa, BHP, Barrick Gold, BlueScope, Glencore (and predecessor Falconbridge), Vale (and predecessor Inco) and Rio Tinto.
Hatch retired as president in 1988 and as chairman in 1990. In 1996, the company began an expansion program by purchasing several aligned engineering companies including Billiton Engineering (1996), Rescan Mining (1998), BHP Engineering (1999), Kaiser Engineers (2000), Acres International (2004), and MEK Engenharia (2012). By 2005 the combined billing of the company was around CDN $700= million.
Hatch today provides consulting, operations support, technologies, process design, and project and construction management to clients in three principal sectors: mining and metals; energy; and infrastructure.
The company's main offices are in Canada, Australia, South Africa, Chile, China, Brazil, Peru, United Kingdom, and United States. They also have several smaller offices around the globe.
On November 1, 2020, Hatch acquired LTK Engineering Services – a global engineering firm in the rail transportation sector.
Business areas and sectors
Awards
The Newcastle Coal Infrastructure Group (NCIG) project won the 2013 Bulk Handling Facility of the Year Award (Resources and Infrastructure). In 2005 Hatch, in joint venture with Aurecon, assisted in the engineering and project management. The partnership went on to complete the full development in three successive phases, each one under budget, ahead of schedule, already capable of achieving nameplate capacity, and with an outstanding safety record with only two lost time injuries in over 8 million work-hours.
Hatch was awarded the PMI-Montréal Project of the Year 2013 for Phase 1 of the AP60 Project in Jonquière, Québec, Canada. The Project of the Year Award from PMI-Montréal honors a company’s excellence in project management. Phase 1 of the AP60 project, part of Rio Tinto Alcan’s strategic development plan, consisted of commissioning 38 first-generation AP60 cells that require an unprecedented 600 kA of current. Construction of the new plant showcases, on an industrial scale, how these new AP60 pots can produce 40% more aluminum at a lower cost and with fewer emissions.
The Niagara Tunnel Project was named the North American Project of the Year by International Water Power and Dam Construction magazine in their June 2013 edition. Hatch, in association with Hatch Mott MacDonald, provided "owner's representative" services to Ontario Power Generation for the design and construction of the project. Hatch's scope included preparation of design/build contract documents, design review, construction monitoring and contract administration.
For the sixth consecutive year, Hatch has been named one of Canada's best managed companies. In 2013, Hatch was announced as one of 50 Best Employers in Canada, an honor that has been awarded for the fourth consecutive year.
References
Mining engineering companies
Consulting firms established in 1962
Engineering consulting firms of Canada
International engineering consulting firms
Construction and civil engineering companies of Canada
Companies based in Mississauga
1962 establishments in Ontario
Construction and civil engineering companies established in 1962
Canadian companies established in 1962 | Hatch Ltd | [
"Engineering"
] | 785 | [
"Mining engineering",
"International engineering consulting firms",
"Engineering companies",
"Mining engineering companies",
"Engineering consulting firms"
] |
5,667,061 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gain%20%28projection%20screens%29 | Gain is a property of a projection screen and is one of the specifications quoted by projection screen manufacturers.
Interpretation
The measured number is called the peak gain at zero degrees viewing axis. It represents the gain value for a viewer seated along a line perpendicular to the screen's viewing surface. The gain value represents the screen's brightness ratio relative to a set standard (in this case, a sheet of magnesium carbonate). Screens with a higher brightness than this standard are rated with a gain higher than 1.0, while screens with lower brightness are rated from 0.0 to 1.0. Since a projection screen is designed to scatter the impinging light back to the viewers, the scattering can be highly diffuse or highly concentrated. Highly concentrated scatter results in a higher screen gain (a brighter image) at the cost of a more limited viewing angle (as measured by the half-gain viewing angle), whereas highly diffuse scattering results in lower screen gain (a dimmer image) with the benefit of a wider viewing angle.
Sources
Display technology | Gain (projection screens) | [
"Engineering"
] | 211 | [
"Electronic engineering",
"Display technology"
] |
5,667,519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masatoshi%20Nei | was a Japanese-born American evolutionary biologist.
Professional life
Masatoshi Nei was born in 1931 in Miyazaki Prefecture, on Kyūshū Island, Japan.
He received a Bachelor of Science degree from the University of Miyazaki in 1953, and published his first article, on the mathematics of plant breeding, that same year. In 1959, he completed his doctoral degree at Kyoto University on quantitative genetics for crop improvement.
For the next decade, Nei worked in Japan, including as a research scientist at the National Institute of Radiological Sciences, before emigrating to the United States in 1969.
Nei was associate professor and professor of biology at Brown University from 1969 to 1972 and professor of population genetics at the Center for Demographic and Population Genetics, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), from 1972 to 1990.
He was later an Evan Pugh Professor of Biology at Pennsylvania State University and Director of the Institute of Molecular Evolutionary Genetics, working there from 1990 to 2015.
From 2015, Nei was affiliated with the Department of Biology at Temple University as an adjunct Laura H. Carnell Professor.
Acting alone or working with his students, he has continuously developed statistical methods for studying molecular evolution taking into account discoveries in molecular biology. He has also developed concepts in evolutionary theory and advanced the theory of mutation-driven evolution.
Together with Walter Fitch, Nei co-founded the journal Molecular Biology and Evolution in 1983 and the Society for Molecular Biology and Evolution in 1993.
Work in population genetics
Theoretical studies
Nei was the first to show mathematically that, in the presence of gene interaction, natural selection always tends to enhance the linkage intensity between genetic loci or maintain the same linkage relationship. He then observed that the average recombination value per genome is generally lower in higher organisms than in lower organisms and attributed this observation to his theory of linkage modification. Recent molecular data indicate that many sets of interacting genes such as the Hox genes, immunoglobulin genes, and histone genes have often existed as gene clusters for a long evolutionary time. This observation can also be explained by his theory of linkage modification. He also showed that, unlike R. A. Fisher's argument, deleterious mutations can accumulate rather quickly on the Y chromosome or duplicate genes in finite populations.
In 1969, considering the rates of amino acid substitution, gene duplication, and gene inactivation, he predicted that higher organisms contain a large number of duplicate genes and nonfunctional genes (now called pseudogenes). This prediction was shown to be correct when many multigene families and pseudogenes were discovered in the 1980s and 1990s.
His notable contribution in the early 1970s is the proposal of a new measure of genetic distance (Nei's distance) between populations and its use for studying evolutionary relationships of populations or closely related species. He later developed another distance measure called DA, which is appropriate for finding the topology of a phylogenetic tree of populations. He also developed statistics of measuring the extent of population differentiation for any types of mating system using the GST measure. In 1975, he and collaborators presented a mathematical formulation of population bottleneck effects and clarified the genetic meaning of bottleneck effects. In 1979, he proposed a statistical measure called nucleotide diversity, which is now widely used for measuring the extent of nucleotide polymorphism. He also developed several different models of speciation and concluded that the reproductive isolation between species occurs as a passive process of accumulation of interspecific incompatibility mutations
Protein polymorphism and neutral theory
In the early 1960s and 1970s, there was a great controversy over the mechanism of protein evolution and the maintenance of protein polymorphism. Nei and his collaborators developed various statistical methods for testing the neutral theory of molecular evolution using polymorphism data. Their analysis of the allele frequency distribution, the relationship between average heterozygosity and protein divergence between species, etc., showed that a large portion of protein polymorphism can be explained by neutral theory. The only exception was the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) loci, which show an extraordinarily high degree of polymorphism. For these reasons, he accepted the neutral theory of evolution.
Human evolution
Using his genetic distance theory, he and A. K. Roychoudhury showed that the genetic variation between Europeans, Asians, and Africans is only about 11 percent of the total genetic variation of the human population. They then estimated that Europeans and Asians diverged about 55,000 years ago and these two populations diverged from Africans about 115,000 years ago. This conclusion was supported by many later studies using larger numbers of genes and populations, and the estimates appear to be still roughly correct. This finding could be considered an early indication of the out-of-Africa theory of human origins.
Molecular phylogenetics
Around 1980, Nei and his students initiated a study of inference of phylogenetic trees based on distance data. In 1985, they developed a statistical method for testing the accuracy of a phylogenetic tree by examining the statistical significance of interior branch lengths. They then developed the neighbor joining and minimum-evolution methods of tree inference. They also developed statistical methods for estimating evolutionary times from molecular phylogenies. In collaboration with Sudhir Kumar and Koichiro Tamura, he developed a widely used computer program package for phylogenetic analysis called MEGA.
MHC loci and positive Darwinian selection
Nei's group invented a simple statistical method for detecting positive Darwinian selection by comparing the numbers of synonymous nucleotide substitutions and nonsynonymous nucleotide substitutions. Applying this method, they showed that the exceptionally high degree of sequence polymorphism at MHC loci is caused by overdominant selection. Although various statistical methods for this test have been developed later, their original methods are still widely used.
New evolutionary concepts
Nei and his students studied the evolutionary patterns of a large number of multigene families and showed that they generally evolve following the model of a birth–death process. In some gene families, this process is very fast, caused by random events of gene duplication and gene deletion and generates genomic drift of gene copy number. Nei has long maintained the view that the driving force of evolution is mutation, including any types of DNA changes (nucleotide changes, chromosomal changes, and genome duplication), and that natural selection is primarily a force eliminating less fit genotypes (i.e., theory of mutation-driven evolution). He conducted statistical analyzes of evolution of genes controlling phenotypic characters such as immunity and olfactory reception and obtained evidence supporting this theory.
Personal life
Masatoshi Nei was born in 1931 Japan, and his lifelong interest in biology and genetics may have its roots in his upbringing on a farm, in a family of farmers. After completing his undergraduate and doctorate degrees in Japan, Nei emigrated to the United States in 1969. Nei was married with two children and two grandchildren, and enjoyed listening to classical music and sculpting topiary. In 2014, Nei suffered a stroke and moved to New Jersey after retiring from Pennsylvania State University. Nei died in Morristown, New Jersey on May 18, 2023, at the age of 92.
Select awards and honors
2017: John Scott Medal
2013: Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences
2006: Thomas Hunt Morgan Medal
2002: Honorary Doctorate, University of Miyazaki
2002: International Prize for Biology, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
1997: Member, National Academy of Sciences
Books
Nei, M. (2020) My Life as a Molecular Evolutionist. Blurb, self-published.
Nei, M.(2013) Mutation-Driven Evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Nei, M., and S. Kumar (2000) Molecular Evolution and Phylogenetics. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
National Research Council, (1996) The Evaluation of DNA Forensic Evidence. National Academies Press, Washington D.C.
Roychoudhury, A. K., and M. Nei (1988) Human Polymorphic Genes: World Distribution. Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York.
Nei, M. (1987) Molecular Evolutionary Genetics. Columbia University Press, New York.
Nei, M., and R. K. Koehn (eds). (1983) Evolution of Genes and Proteins. Sinauer Assoc., Sunderland, MA.
Nei, M. (1975) Molecular Population Genetics and Evolution. North-Holland, Amsterdam and New York.
References
External links
1931 births
2023 deaths
Japanese geneticists
Japanese molecular biologists
American geneticists
Statistical geneticists
Pennsylvania State University faculty
Brown University faculty
University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston faculty
People from Miyazaki Prefecture
University of Miyazaki alumni
Kyoto University alumni
Kyoto laureates in Basic Sciences
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Evolutionary biologists
Mutationism
Population geneticists
Japanese emigrants to the United States
American academics of Japanese descent
American scientists of Asian descent
Temple University faculty
Neutral theory | Masatoshi Nei | [
"Biology"
] | 1,836 | [
"Obsolete biology theories",
"Neutral theory",
"Non-Darwinian evolution",
"Biology theories",
"Mutationism"
] |
5,667,526 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loxoprofen | Loxoprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) in the propionic acid derivatives group, which also includes ibuprofen and naproxen among others. It is available in some countries for oral administration. A transdermal preparation was approved for sale in Japan in January 2006; medicated tape and gel formulations followed in 2008 and 2010.
It was patented in 1977 and approved for medical use in 1986.
Pharmacokinetics
Loxoprofen is a prodrug. It is quickly converted to its active trans-alcohol metabolite following oral administration, and reaches its peak plasma concentration within 30 to 50 minutes.
Mechanism of action
As most NSAIDs, loxoprofen is a non-selective cyclooxygenase inhibitor, and works by reducing the synthesis of prostaglandins from arachidonic acid.
Interactions
Loxoprofen should not be administered at the same time as second-generation quinolone antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin, as it increases their inhibition of GABA and this may cause seizures.
It may also increase the plasma concentration of warfarin, methotrexate, sulfonylurea derivatives and lithium salts, so care should be taken when loxoprofen is administered to patients taking any of these drugs.
Brand names
It is marketed in Brazil, Mexico, China and Japan by Sankyo as its sodium salt, loxoprofen sodium, under the trade name Loxonin; in Argentina as Oxeno; in India as Loxomac; in Thailand as Japrolox; and in Saudi Arabia as Roxonin and Roxonin Tape.
A generic drug is marketed in Brazil by Aché as Oxotron. In Japan, two fixed dose combinations are available: Loxonin S Plus, with magnesium oxide, and Loxonin S Premium, with apronal, caffeine, and aluminium magnesium silicate.
References
External links
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
Prodrugs
Cycloalkanones
Propionic acids
Daiichi Sankyo
Cyclopentanes | Loxoprofen | [
"Chemistry"
] | 448 | [
"Chemicals in medicine",
"Prodrugs"
] |
5,667,589 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanocomposite | Nanocomposite is a multiphase solid material where one of the phases has one, two or three dimensions of less than 100 nanometers (nm) or structures having nano-scale repeat distances between the different phases that make up the material.
In the broadest sense this definition can include porous media, colloids, gels and copolymers, but is more usually taken to mean the solid combination of a bulk matrix and nano-dimensional phase(s) differing in properties due to dissimilarities in structure and chemistry. The mechanical, electrical, thermal, optical, electrochemical, catalytic properties of the nanocomposite will differ markedly from that of the component materials. Size limits for these effects have been proposed:
<5 nm for catalytic activity
<20 nm for making a hard magnetic material soft
<50 nm for refractive index changes
<100 nm for achieving superparamagnetism, mechanical strengthening or restricting matrix dislocation movement
Nanocomposites are found in nature, for example in the structure of the abalone shell and bone. The use of nanoparticle-rich materials long predates the understanding of the physical and chemical nature of these materials. Jose-Yacaman et al. investigated the origin of the depth of colour and the resistance to acids and bio-corrosion of Maya blue paint, attributing it to a nanoparticle mechanism. From the mid-1950s nanoscale organo-clays have been used to control flow of polymer solutions (e.g. as paint viscosifiers) or the constitution of gels (e.g. as a thickening substance in cosmetics, keeping the preparations in homogeneous form). By the 1970s polymer/clay composites were the topic of textbooks, although the term "nanocomposites" was not in common use.
In mechanical terms, nanocomposites differ from conventional composite materials due to the exceptionally high surface to volume ratio of the reinforcing phase and/or its exceptionally high aspect ratio. The reinforcing material can be made up of particles (e.g. minerals), sheets (e.g. exfoliated clay stacks) or fibres (e.g. carbon nanotubes or electrospun fibres). The area of the interface between the matrix and reinforcement phase(s) is typically an order of magnitude greater than for conventional composite materials. The matrix material properties are significantly affected in the vicinity of the reinforcement. Ajayan et al. note that with polymer nanocomposites, properties related to local chemistry, degree of thermoset cure, polymer chain mobility, polymer chain conformation, degree of polymer chain ordering or crystallinity can all vary significantly and continuously from the interface with the reinforcement into the bulk of the matrix.
This large amount of reinforcement surface area means that a relatively small amount of nanoscale reinforcement can have an observable effect on the macroscale properties of the composite. For example, adding carbon nanotubes improves the electrical and thermal conductivity. Other kinds of nanoparticulates may result in enhanced optical properties, dielectric properties, heat resistance or mechanical properties such as stiffness, strength and resistance to wear and damage. In general, the nano reinforcement is dispersed into the matrix during processing. The percentage by weight (called mass fraction) of the nanoparticulates introduced can remain very low (on the order of 0.5% to 5%) due to the low filler percolation threshold, especially for the most commonly used non-spherical, high aspect ratio fillers (e.g. nanometer-thin platelets, such as clays, or nanometer-diameter cylinders, such as carbon nanotubes). The orientation and arrangement of asymmetric nanoparticles, thermal property mismatch at the interface, interface density per unit volume of nanocomposite, and polydispersity of nanoparticles significantly affect the effective thermal conductivity of nanocomposites.
Ceramic-matrix nanocomposites
Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) consist of ceramic fibers embedded in a ceramic matrix. The matrix and fibers can consist of any ceramic material, including carbon and carbon fibers. The ceramic occupying most of the volume is often from the group of oxides, such as nitrides, borides, silicides, whereas the second component is often a metal. Ideally both components are finely dispersed in each other in order to elicit particular optical, electrical and magnetic properties as well as tribological, corrosion-resistance and other protective properties.
The binary phase diagram of the mixture should be considered in designing ceramic-metal nanocomposites and measures have to be taken to avoid a chemical reaction between both components. The last point mainly is of importance for the metallic component that may easily react with the ceramic and thereby lose its metallic character. This is not an easily obeyed constraint because the preparation of the ceramic component generally requires high process temperatures. The safest measure thus is to carefully choose immiscible metal and ceramic phases. A good example of such a combination is represented by the ceramic-metal composite of TiO2 and Cu, the mixtures of which were found immiscible over large areas in the Gibbs’ triangle of ' Cu-O-Ti.
The concept of ceramic-matrix nanocomposites was also applied to thin films that are solid layers of a few nm to some tens of μm thickness deposited upon an underlying substrate and that play an important role in the functionalization of technical surfaces. Gas flow sputtering by the hollow cathode technique turned out as a rather effective technique for the preparation of nanocomposite layers. The process operates as a vacuum-based deposition technique and is associated with high deposition rates up to some μm/s and the growth of nanoparticles in the gas phase. Nanocomposite layers in the ceramics range of composition were prepared from TiO2 and Cu by the hollow cathode technique that showed a high mechanical hardness, small coefficients of friction and a high resistance to corrosion.
Metal-matrix nanocomposites
Metal matrix nanocomposites can also be defined as reinforced metal matrix composites. This type of composites can be classified as continuous and non-continuous reinforced materials. One of the more important nanocomposites is Carbon nanotube metal matrix composites, which is an emerging new material that is being developed to take advantage of the high tensile strength and electrical conductivity of carbon nanotube materials. Critical to the realization of CNT-MMC possessing optimal properties in these areas are the development of synthetic techniques that are (a) economically producible, (b) provide for a homogeneous dispersion of nanotubes in the metallic matrix, and (c) lead to strong interfacial adhesion between the metallic matrix and the carbon nanotubes. In addition to carbon nanotube metal matrix composites, boron nitride reinforced metal matrix composites and carbon nitride metal matrix composites are the new research areas on metal matrix nanocomposites.
A recent study, comparing the mechanical properties (Young's modulus, compressive yield strength, flexural modulus and flexural yield strength) of single- and multi-walled reinforced polymeric (polypropylene fumarate—PPF) nanocomposites to tungsten disulfide nanotubes reinforced PPF nanocomposites suggest that tungsten disulfide nanotubes reinforced PPF nanocomposites possess significantly higher mechanical properties and tungsten disulfide nanotubes are better reinforcing agents than carbon nanotubes. Increases in the mechanical properties can be attributed to a uniform dispersion of inorganic nanotubes in the polymer matrix (compared to carbon nanotubes that exist as micron sized aggregates) and increased crosslinking density of the polymer in the presence of tungsten disulfide nanotubes (increase in crosslinking density leads to an increase in the mechanical properties). These results suggest that inorganic nanomaterials, in general, may be better reinforcing agents compared to carbon nanotubes.
Another kind of nanocomposite is the energetic nanocomposite, generally as a hybrid sol–gel with a silica base, which, when combined with metal oxides and nano-scale aluminum powder, can form superthermite materials.
Polymer-matrix nanocomposites
In the simplest case, appropriately adding nanoparticulates to a polymer matrix can enhance its performance, often dramatically, by simply capitalizing on the nature and properties of the nanoscale filler (these materials are better described by the term nanofilled polymer composites). This strategy is particularly effective in yielding high performance composites, when uniform dispersion of the filler is achieved and the properties of the nanoscale filler are substantially different or better than those of the matrix. The uniformity of the dispersion is in all nanocomposites is counteracted by thermodynamically driven phase separation. Clustering of nanoscale fillers produces aggregates that serve as structural defects and result in failure. Layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly when nanometer scale layers of nanoparticulates and a polymers are added one by one. LbL composites display performance parameters 10-1000 times better that the traditional nanocomposites made by extrusion or batch-mixing.
Nanoparticles such as graphene, carbon nanotubes, molybdenum disulfide and tungsten disulfide are being used as reinforcing agents to fabricate mechanically strong biodegradable polymeric nanocomposites for bone tissue engineering applications. The addition of these nanoparticles in the polymer matrix at low concentrations (~0.2 weight %) cause significant improvements in the compressive and flexural mechanical properties of polymeric nanocomposites. Potentially, these nanocomposites may be used as a novel, mechanically strong, light weight composite as bone implants. The results suggest that mechanical reinforcement is dependent on the nanostructure morphology, defects, dispersion of nanomaterials in the polymer matrix, and the cross-linking density of the polymer. In general, two-dimensional nanostructures can reinforce the polymer better than one-dimensional nanostructures, and inorganic nanomaterials are better reinforcing agents than carbon based nanomaterials. In addition to mechanical properties, polymer nanocomposites based on carbon nanotubes or graphene have been used to enhance a wide range of properties, giving rise to functional materials for a wide range of high added value applications in fields such as energy conversion and storage, sensing and biomedical tissue engineering. For example, multi-walled carbon nanotubes based polymer nanocomposites have been used for the enhancement of the electrical conductivity.
An alternative route to synthesis of nanocomposites is sequential infiltration synthesis, in which inorganic nanomaterials are grown within polymeric substrates using vapor-phase precursors that diffuse into the matrix. Furthermore, nanocomposites can be prepared via in situ generation of nanoparticles on and within polymeric materials, an approach that relies on the chemical transformation of suitable precursors to targeted nanoparticles synchronous with the build-up of the nanohybrid systems. The in situ-generated nanoparticles tend to nucleate and grow on the active sites of the macromolecular chains, showing strong adhesion on the polymeric host.
Nanoscale dispersion of filler or controlled nanostructures in the composite can introduce new physical properties and novel behaviors that are absent in the unfilled matrices. This effectively changes the nature of the original matrix (such composite materials can be better described by the term genuine nanocomposites or hybrids). Some examples of such new properties are fire resistance or flame retardancy, and accelerated biodegradability.
A range of polymeric nanocomposites are used for biomedical applications such as tissue engineering, drug delivery, cellular therapies. Due to unique interactions between polymer and nanoparticles, a range of property combinations can be engineered to mimic native tissue structure and properties. A range of natural and synthetic polymers are used to design polymeric nanocomposites for biomedical applications including starch, cellulose, alginate, chitosan, collagen, gelatin, and fibrin, poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), poly(caprolactone) (PCL), poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), and poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS). A range of nanoparticles including ceramic, polymeric, metal oxide and carbon-based nanomaterials are incorporated within polymeric network to obtain desired property combinations.
Magnetic nanocomposites
Nanocomposites that can respond to an external stimulus are of increased interest due to the fact that, because of the large amount of interaction between the phase interfaces, the stimulus response can have a larger effect on the composite as a whole. The external stimulus can take many forms, such as a magnetic, electrical, or mechanical field. Specifically, magnetic nanocomposites are useful for use in these applications due to the nature of magnetic material's ability to respond both to electrical and magnetic stimuli. The penetration depth of a magnetic field is also high, leading to an increased area that the nanocomposite is affected by and therefore an increased response. In order to respond to a magnetic field, a matrix can be easily loaded with nanoparticles or nanorods The different morphologies for magnetic nanocomposite materials are vast, including matrix dispersed nanoparticles, core-shell nanoparticles,
colloidal crystals, macroscale spheres, or Janus-type nanostructures.
Magnetic nanocomposites can be utilized in a vast number of applications, including catalytic, medical, and technical. For example, palladium is a common transition metal used in catalysis reactions. Magnetic nanoparticle-supported palladium complexes can be used in catalysis to increase the efficiency of the palladium in the reaction.
Magnetic nanocomposites can also be utilized in the medical field, with magnetic nanorods embedded in a polymer matrix can aid in more precise drug delivery and release. Finally, magnetic nanocomposites can be used in high frequency/high-temperature applications. For example, multi-layer structures can be fabricated for use in electronic applications. An electrodeposited Fe/Fe oxide multi-layered sample can be an example of this application of magnetic nanocomposites.
In applications such as power micro-inductors where high magnetic permeability is desired at high operating frequencies. The traditional micro-fabricated magnetic core materials see both decrease in permeability and high losses at high operating frequency. In this case, magnetic nano composites have great potential for improving the efficiency of power electronic devices by providing relatively high permeability and low losses. For example, As Iron oxide nano particles embedded in Ni matrix enables us to mitigate those losses at high frequency. The high resistive iron oxide nanoparticles helps to reduce the eddy current losses where as the Ni metal helps in attaining high permeability. DC magnetic properties such as Saturation magnetization lies between each of its constituent parts indicating that the physical properties of the materials can be altered by creating these nanocomposites.
Heat resistant nanocomposites
In the recent years nanocomposites have been designed to withstand high temperatures by the addition of Carbon Dots (CDs) in the polymer matrix. Such nanocomposites can be utilized in environments wherein high temperature resistance is a prime criterion.
See also
Hybrid materials
Aquamelt
References
Further reading
Nanomaterials
Solid-state chemistry | Nanocomposite | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science"
] | 3,336 | [
"Condensed matter physics",
"nan",
"Nanotechnology",
"Nanomaterials",
"Solid-state chemistry"
] |
5,667,669 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackwater%20%28coal%29 | Blackwater is a form of pollution produced in coal preparation. In its purification, coal is crushed in a coal preparation plant and then separated and transported as a coal slurry, From the slurry, incombustible materials are removed and the coal can be sized. After the recovery of the coal particles from this slurry, the remaining water is black, contains very fine particles of coal. This blackwater cannot be processed in a water treatment plant.
Disasters
Impoundments for storage of blackwater and other coal-related wastes have a troubled history with often severe environmental consequences.
In February 1972, three dams holding a mixture of coal slurry in Logan County, West Virginia, failed in succession: of toxic water were released in the Buffalo Creek Flood. As discussed in the book The Buffalo Creek Flood: An Act of Man, out of a population of 5,000 people, 125 people were killed, 1,121 were injured, and over 4,000 were left homeless. The flood caused 50 million dollars in damages. Despite evidence of negligence, the Pittston Coal Company, which owned the compromised dam, called the event an "Act of God".
In 2002, a high, long valley fill in Lyburn, West Virginia, failed and slid into a sediment pond at the toe of the fill, generating a large wave of water and sediment that destroyed several cars and houses.
Other slurry disasters
Buffalo Creek Flood
Aberfan Disaster
Martin County sludge spill
Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill
Little Blue Run Lake
Future technologies
The ultimate solution to the blackwater problem is to process coal without the use of water. Such dry-separation technologies are under development.
References
Notes
Public Health & Coal Slurry > Coal Slurry ::: Journey Up Coal River
Coal and Air Pollution | Union of Concerned Scientists
Department for Natural Resources. Report Of The Black Water Task Force. Rep. Environmental and Public Protection Cabinet, 2005. Web. 27 Jan. 2013.
Hales, Simon, J. Gohlke, A. Pruess-Ustun, D. Campbell-Lendrum, and A. Woodward. "Mitigation of Climate Change and the Potential Reduction in Global Health Impact of Particulate Air Pollution from Coal Fired Power Station." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 6.58 (2009): 582014. Print.
King, A. J., Tonkin, Z., and Lieshcke, J. (2012). Short-term effects of a prolonged blackwater event on aquatic fauna in the Murray River, Australia: considerations for future events. Marine and Freshwater Research 63, 576–586.
Orem, Williams. Research Geochemist, USGS. Coal Slurry: Geochemistry and Impact on Human Health and Environmental Quality.
Ryan, Barry, Ross Leeder, John T. Price, and John F. Gransden. "The Effect Of Coal Preparation On The Quality Of Clean Coal And Coke." British Columbia Geological Survey, n.d. Web. 27 Jan. 2013.
"Uses of Coal." World Coal Association. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Jan. 2013.
Environmental impact of the coal industry
Pollution
Water pollution | Blackwater (coal) | [
"Chemistry",
"Environmental_science"
] | 665 | [
"Water pollution"
] |
5,667,758 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal-to-noise%20statistic | In mathematics the signal-to-noise statistic distance between two vectors a and b with mean values and and standard deviation and respectively is:
In the case of Gaussian-distributed data and unbiased class distributions, this statistic can be related to classification accuracy given an ideal linear discrimination, and a decision boundary can be derived.
This distance is frequently used to identify vectors that have significant difference. One usage is in bioinformatics to locate genes that are differential expressed on microarray experiments.
See also
Distance
Uniform norm
Manhattan distance
Signal-to-noise ratio
Signal to noise ratio (imaging)
Notes
Statistical distance
Statistical ratios | Signal-to-noise statistic | [
"Physics"
] | 129 | [
"Physical quantities",
"Statistical distance",
"Distance"
] |
5,667,839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Del%C3%A9pine%20reaction | The Delépine reaction is the organic synthesis of primary amines (4) by reaction of benzyl or alkyl halides (1) with hexamethylenetetramine (2) followed by acid hydrolysis of the quaternary ammonium salt (3). It is named after the French chemist Stéphane Marcel Delépine (1871–1965).
Advantages of this reaction are selective access to the primary amine without side reactions from easily accessible reactants with short reaction times and relatively mild reaction conditions. Downsides include that the reaction is often performed using chloroform as solvent, which is toxic, and poor atom economy, including the formation of several equivalents of formaldehyde (a known carcinogen) during quaternary ammonium salt formation.
An example is the synthesis of 2-bromoallylamine from 2,3-dibromopropene.
Reaction mechanism
The benzyl halide or alkyl halide 1 reacts with hexamethylenetetramine to a quaternary ammonium salt 3, each time just alkylating one nitrogen atom. By refluxing in concentrated ethanolic hydrochloric acid solution this salt is converted to the primary amine together with formaldehyde (as the acetal with ethanol) and ammonium chloride.
Depending on the hydrolysis conditions and structure, the nitrogen might instead be lost from the carbon where it had bonded in the first step to give a benzylic aldehyde (the Sommelet reaction).
See also
Gabriel synthesis
References
Substitution reactions
Name reactions | Delépine reaction | [
"Chemistry"
] | 324 | [
"Name reactions"
] |
5,667,842 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ApNano | ApNano Materials is a nanotechnology company, wholly owned and operated by Nanotech Industrial Solutions (NIS) with R&D lab, manufacturing, blending and packaging facilities in Avenel, New Jersey, United States, and Yavne, Israel. NIS is the only company in the world with an exclusive license to manufacture inorganic fullerene-like tungsten disulfide (IF-WS2) submicron (nanosized) spherical particles on a commercial scale with the patent from the Weizmann Institute. These inorganic fullerene-like tungsten disulfide-based nanomaterials opened up new possibilities for developing extreme performance industrial lubricants, coatings, and polymer composites.
History
Dr. Menachem Genut and Mr. Aharon Feuerstein founded the company in 2002. Dr. Genut served as President and CEO until 2010, and Mr. Feuerstein served as Chairman of the Board and CFO until 2010.[2]
In 2013 AP Nano became a wholly owned subsidiary of the leading American company “Nanotech Industrial Solutions, Inc.” Today, the CEO of NIS is Dr. George Diloyan, Ph.D. and CFO is Mr. Steven Wegbreit. ApNano's COO is Dr. Alexander Margolin, Ph.D. Mr. Itsik Havakuk serves as Vice President of Global Sales and Marketing.
Technology
NIS is specializing in commercial manufacturing of nanoparticles of Inorganic Fullerene-like Tungsten Disulfide (IF-WS2). The particles are called Inorganic Fullerene-like (IF), because of the near spherical geometry and a hollow core – similar to carbon fullerenes. The name “fullerenes” or “buckyballs” came from the architectural modeler Richard Buckminster Fuller, who popularized the geodesic dome. Professor Reshef Tenne discovered Inorganic Fullerene-like nanoparticles (IF-MXy where M- is transition metal and X - is chalcogen group) at the Weizmann Institute of Science in 1992. The diameter of the primary particle can range between 20 – 280 nm. IF-WS2 nanoparticles with a hollow sphere (Fullerene-like) morphology, provide extreme lubricity, anti-friction, and high impact resistance (up to 35 GPa).
Unlike standard solids that have platelet-like structures with moderate tribological properties, IF-WS2 particles have tens of caged concentric layers, making these particles excel under extreme pressure or load, thus significantly reducing friction and wear.
(also see tribology).
Products
IF-WS2 Formulated
In late 2018 APNano and NIS have undergone substantial structural changes, updating the product line and changing the name from “NanoLub” to “IF-WS2 Formulated.” IF-WS2 formulations are designed to lower friction and operating temperature, thereby reducing mechanical wear. At the same time, contact pressure causes submicron spheres of IF-WS2 to release tribofilms that attach to surface, reduce wear and filling asperities and smooth them, improving overall efficiency while extending machinery life. The company offers industrial lubricant additives and tribological packages based on IF-WS2 particles. The additives are available as a dispersion in oil, water, and solvent. Possible applications include, but not limited to, lubricants, grease, metalworking fluids, coatings, paints, and polymers used in mining, marine, heavy machinery, power station, space, and military industrial sectors.
References
External links
The official website for APNano|http://www.apnano.com/
The official website for Nanotech Industrial Solutions|http://nisusacorp.com/
Nanotechnology companies | ApNano | [
"Materials_science"
] | 801 | [
"Nanotechnology",
"Nanotechnology companies"
] |
5,667,970 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side%20reaction | A side reaction is a chemical reaction that occurs at the same time as the actual main reaction, but to a lesser extent. It leads to the formation of by-product, so that the yield of main product is reduced:
{A} + B ->[{k_1}] P1
{A} + C ->[{k_2}] P2
P1 is the main product if k1> k2. The by-product P2 is generally undesirable and must be separated from the actual main product (usually in a costly process).
In organic synthesis
B and C from the above equations usually represent different compounds. However, they could also just be different positions in the same molecule.
A side reaction is also referred to as competing reaction when different compounds (B, C) compete for another reactant (A). If the side reaction occurs about as often as the main reaction, it is spoken of parallel reactions (especially in the kinetics, see below).
Also there may be more complicated relationships: Compound A could reversibly but quickly react to substance B (with speed k1) or irreversible but slow (k1> k−1 >> k2) to substance C:
B <=> A ->[{k_2}] C
Assuming that the reaction to substance C is irreversible, as it is thermodynamically very stable. In this case, B is the kinetic and C is the thermodynamic product of the reaction (see also here). If the reaction is carried out at low temperatures and stopped after a short time, it is spoken of kinetic control, primarily the kinetic product B would be formed. When the reaction is carried out at high temperatures and for long time (in which case the necessary activation energy for the reaction to C is available, which is progressively formed over time), it is spoken of thermodynamic control; the thermodynamic product C is primarily formed.
Conditions for side reactions
In organic synthesis, elevated temperatures usually lead to more side products. Side products are usually undesirable, therefore low temperatures are preferred ("mild conditions"). The ratio between competing reactions may be influenced by a change in temperature because their activation energies are different in most cases. Reactions with high activation energy can be more strongly accelerated by an increase in temperature than those with low activation energy. Also, the state of equilibrium depends on temperature.
Detection reactions can be distorted by side reactions.
Kinetics
Side reactions are also described in the reaction kinetics, a branch of physical chemistry. Side reactions are understood as complex reaction, since the overall reaction (main reaction + side reaction) is composed of several (at least two) elementary reactions. Other complex reactions are competing reactions, parallel reactions, consecutive reactions, chain reactions, reversible reactions, etc.
If one reaction occurs much faster than the other one (k1 > k2), it (k1) will be called the main reaction, the other one (k2) side reaction. If both reactions roughly of same speed (k1 ≅ k2) is spoken of parallel reactions.
If the reactions {A} + B ->[{k_1}] P1 and {A} + C ->[{k_2}] P2 are irreversibly (without reverse reaction), then the ratio of P1 and P2 corresponds to the relative reactivity of B and C compared with A:
See also
References
Chemical reactions | Side reaction | [
"Chemistry"
] | 724 | [
"nan"
] |
5,668,325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute%20for%20Environment%20and%20Sustainability | The Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES) used to be a specialised institute of the Joint Research Centre (JRC) directorate of the European Commission, based in Ispra, Italy. Its mission was to provide scientific and technical support to EU policies for the protection of the environment contributing to sustainable development in Europe.
The Joint Research Centre underwent a reorganization in 2016, where the work of the scientific institutes was redistributed among scientific Directorates.
External links
Joint Research Centre
European Commission
Science and technology in Europe
Research institutes in Italy
International research institutes
Environmental research institutes
European Commission
Energy policies and initiatives of the European Union
European Union and the environment
Droughts in Europe | Institute for Environment and Sustainability | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 135 | [
"Environmental research institutes",
"Environmental research"
] |
5,668,369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexosamines | Hexosamines are amino sugars created by adding an amine group to a hexose.
Examples include:
Fructosamine (based upon fructose)
Galactosamine (based upon galactose)
Glucosamine (based upon glucose)
Mannosamine (based upon mannose)
External links | Hexosamines | [
"Chemistry"
] | 69 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Organic compound stubs",
"Organic chemistry stubs"
] |
5,668,570 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trisaccharide | Trisaccharides are oligosaccharides composed of three monosaccharides with two glycosidic bonds connecting them. Similar to the disaccharides, each glycosidic bond can be formed between any hydroxyl group on the component monosaccharides. Even if all three component sugars are the same (e.g., glucose), different bond combinations (regiochemistry) and stereochemistry (alpha- or beta-) result in trisaccharides that are diastereoisomers with different chemical and physical properties.
Examples
References
External links | Trisaccharide | [
"Chemistry"
] | 131 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Organic compound stubs",
"Organic chemistry stubs"
] |
5,668,914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JERRV | A JERRV (Joint EOD Rapid Response Vehicle) is any vehicle that United States Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) units use in war zones such as Iraq.
EOD application
These vehicles are used to safely transport EOD operators, supplies, and equipment, including remotely controlled robots (TALON and PackBot), bomb suits, and explosives. JERRVs are more resistant to the effects of landmines, improvised explosive devices (IEDs), and small arms than soft armored vehicles like Humvees. The JERRV is designed to deflect blasts. They are in some ways like heavier versions of armored cars.
Development
The JERRV was the natural follow-on to the earlier USMC-directed purchase of some 30 Hardened Engineer Vehicles (HEV). HEV was an urgent UNS program which resulted in an order being placed with Technical Solutions Group (TSG) in Ladson in April 2004. The original HEV requirement document (written on less than a single side of paper) called for some quite specific characteristics which were a major factor in the design of a new vehicle which was called 'Cougar' only to provide a degree of continuity for the user community. The new Cougar was designated Cougar H to differentiate it from the earlier of lightweight and non-military vehicle which had been imported from South Africa by TSG.
The designer was a British ex-army officer who had been asked to help out TSG in previous years and who offered to design a new vehicle when the USMC approached the company with their requirement. His own experiences, as well as a desire to distance TSG from its former South African partners, led to a policy from the outset of creating a new vehicle which would address many of the deficiencies of the older designs as well as to meet first world standards of protection, performance and sustainability. The design team was small - as was the USMC purchasing team - and consisted of the designer plus two other engineers and an automotive supply engineer who specified and purchase the running gear from Peterbilt dealer Rush Crane.
At the time, a few of the old South African designers tried to get involved and persuade TSG (led at that time by Mike Watts), to force the designer to abandon many of the new features. Watts' main contribution to the development of the modern mine protected vehicle (and one which should not be overlooked) was perhaps that he resisted all such pressures and kept these people away from the design team. In order to control the public utterances of some of the main critics, consultancies were awarded by TSG which allowed a degree of commercial confidentiality to be imposed.
Major differences from the older designs included a vertical hull side to increase internal volume, a full-length bottom plate to increase strength and to provide blast and ballistic protection for the engine, full US-specification engine, cooling, power-train etc., sufficient payload to provide ballistic-protection upgrades and so on. Ergonomics were based upon first-world standards as were protection levels and automotive specifications (earlier South Africa designs paid scant regard for these, applying their own local standards which caused some problems when operated by NATO countries).
During the design and construction of the first vehicle, considerable use was made of the carpentry team who worked closely with the design team and frequently led the whole process. They constructed many items in plywood and the engineering team measured the mock-ups and drew them in CAD.
At the same time as the main 4x4 version was being developed, the designer pressed the need for a 6x6 version to reduce ground pressures and axle loads; other versions which were designed and mocked up in wood were a flatbed variant (intended to meet the USMC requirement for a lightweight prime mover system capable of pulling a 155mm howitzer and carrying the crew plus ammunition), an ambulance and a command vehicle. The first HEV was delivered to the USMC in Sep/Oct 2004, less than six months after contract award - at which time the design was still a couple of sketches on a pad.
By September 2004, the US Army had shown interest in Cougar and sent its IED/EOD experts to Charleston, to talk to the design team. The designer agreed to modify the vehicle to make better use of in-service equipment and changed the engine to the military version of the CAT C-7 2136 - increasing from 300 hp to 330 hp and making its electrical system 24 volt. Based upon these assurances, the Army decided to combine with the USMC and order the Joint EOD Rapid Response Vehicle.
References
See also
MRAP (armored vehicle)
Military trucks
Bomb disposal
Armored personnel carriers of the United States | JERRV | [
"Chemistry"
] | 955 | [
"Explosion protection",
"Bomb disposal"
] |
5,669,256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal%20meridian | A principal meridian is a meridian used for survey control in a large region.
Canada
The Dominion Land Survey of Western Canada took its origin at the First (or Principal) Meridian, located at 97°27′28.41″ west of Greenwich, just west of Winnipeg, Manitoba. This line is exactly ten miles west of the Red River at the Canada–United States border.
Six other meridians were designated at four-degree intervals westward, with the seventh located in British Columbia; the second and fourth meridians form the general eastern border and the western border of Saskatchewan.
United States
In the United States Public Land Survey System, a principal meridian is the principal north–south line used for survey control in a large region, and which divides townships between east and west. The meridian meets its corresponding baseline at the point of origin, or initial point, for the land survey. For example, the Mount Diablo Meridian, used for surveys in California and Nevada, runs north–south through the summit of Mount Diablo.
Often, meridians are marked with roads, such as the Meridian Avenue in San Jose, California, Meridian Road in Vacaville, California, both on the Mount Diablo Meridian, Meridian Road in Wichita, Kansas on the Sixth Principal Meridian, and Meridian Avenue in several western Washington counties generally following the Willamette Meridian. Baseline Road or Base Line Street extends for about from Highland, California east of San Bernardino to La Verne, California where it meets Foothill Boulevard.
See also
Cardo
Baseline (surveying)
List of principal and guide meridians and base lines of the United States
External links
The Principal Meridian Project (US)
History of the Rectangular Survey System Note: this is a large file, approximately 46MB. Searchable PDF prepared by the author, C. A. White.
Resources page of the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management
Surveying
Meridians (geography) | Principal meridian | [
"Engineering"
] | 383 | [
"Surveying",
"Civil engineering"
] |
5,670,370 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific%20speed | Specific speed Ns, is used to characterize turbomachinery speed. Common commercial and industrial practices use dimensioned versions which are of equal utility. Specific speed is most commonly used in pump applications to define the suction specific speed —a quasi non-dimensional number that categorizes pump impellers as to their type and proportions. In Imperial units it is defined as the speed in revolutions per minute at which a geometrically similar impeller would operate if it were of such a size as to deliver one gallon per minute against one foot of hydraulic head. In metric units flow may be in l/s or m3/s and head in m, and care must be taken to state the units used.
Performance is defined as the ratio of the pump or turbine against a reference pump or turbine, which divides the actual performance figure to provide a unitless figure of merit. The resulting figure would more descriptively be called the "ideal-reference-device-specific performance." This resulting unitless ratio may loosely be expressed as a "speed," only because the performance of the reference ideal pump is linearly dependent on its speed, so that the ratio of [device-performance to reference-device-performance] is also the increased speed at which the reference device would need to operate, in order to produce the performance, instead of its reference speed of "1 unit."
Specific speed is an index used to predict desired pump or turbine performance. i.e. it predicts the general shape of a pump's impeller. It is this impeller's "shape" that predicts its flow and head characteristics so that the designer can then select a pump or turbine most appropriate for a particular application. Once the desired specific speed is known, basic dimensions of the unit's components can be easily calculated.
Several mathematical definitions of specific speed (all of them actually ideal-device-specific) have been created for different devices and applications.
Pump specific speed
Low-specific speed radial flow impellers develop hydraulic head principally through centrifugal force. Pumps of higher specific speeds develop head partly by centrifugal force and partly by axial force. An axial flow or propeller pump with a specific speed of 10,000 or greater generates its head exclusively through axial forces. Radial impellers are generally low flow/high head designs whereas axial flow impellers are high flow/low head designs. In theory, the discharge of a "purely" centrifugal machine (pump, turbine, fan, etc.) is tangential to the rotation of the impeller whereas a "purely" axial-flow machine's discharge will be parallel to the axis of rotation. There are also machines that exhibit a combination of both properties and are specifically referred to as "mixed-flow" machines.
Centrifugal pump impellers have specific speed values ranging from 500 to 10,000 (English units), with radial flow pumps at 500 to 4,000, mixed flow at 2,000 to 8,000, and axial flow pumps at 7,000 to 20,000. Values of specific speed less than 500 are associated with positive displacement pumps.
As the specific speed increases, the ratio of the impeller outlet diameter to the inlet or eye diameter decreases. This ratio becomes 1.0 for a true axial flow impeller.
The following equation gives a dimensionless specific speed:
where:
is specific speed (dimensionless)
is pump rotational speed (rad/sec)
is flowrate (m3/s) at the point of best efficiency
is total head (m) per stage at the point of best efficiency
Note that the units used affect the specific speed value in the above equation and consistent units should be used for comparisons. Pump specific speed can be calculated using British gallons or using Metric units (m3/s and metres head), changing the values listed above.
Suction specific speed
The suction specific speed is mainly used to see if there will be problems with cavitation during the pump's operation on the suction side. It is defined by centrifugal and axial pumps' inherent physical characteristics and operating point. The suction specific speed of a pump will define the range of operation in which a pump will experience stable operation. The higher the suction specific speed, then the smaller the range of stable operation, up to the point of cavitation at 8500 (unitless). The envelope of stable operation is defined in terms of the best efficiency point of the pump.
The suction specific speed is defined as:
where:
suction specific speed
rotational speed of pump in rpm
flow of pump in US gallons per minute
Net positive suction head (NPSH) required in feet at pump's best efficiency point
Turbine specific speed
The specific speed value for a turbine is the speed of a geometrically similar turbine which would produce unit power (one kilowatt) under unit head (one meter). The specific speed of a turbine is given by the manufacturer (along with other ratings) and will always refer to the point of maximum efficiency. This allows accurate calculations to be made of the turbine's performance for a range of heads.
Well-designed efficient machines typically use the following values: Impulse turbines have the lowest ns values, typically ranging from 1 to 10, a Pelton wheel is typically around 4, Francis turbines fall in the range of 10 to 100, while Kaplan turbines are at least 100 or more, all in imperial units.
Deriving the Turbine Specific Speed
To derive the Turbine specific speed equation we first start with the Power formula for water then using proportionalities with η,ρ, and g being constant they can be removed. The power of the turbine is therefore only dependent on the head H and flow Q.
so
let:
= Diameter of the turbine runner
= Width of the turbine runner
= Speed of the turbine (rpm)
= Tangential velocity of the turbine blade (m/s)
= Specific Speed of the Turbine
= Velocity of water at turbine (m/s)
Now utilising the constant speed ratio at the turbine tip, the following proportionality can be made that the tangential velocity of the turbine blade is proportional to the square root of the head.
Speed ratio
so
But from rotational speed in RPM to linear speed in m/s the following equation and proportionality can be made.
so
The flow through a turbine is the product of flow velocity and area so the flow through a turbine can be quantified.
with
and as shown previously:
So using the above 2, the following is obtained
By combining the equation for diameter and tangential speed, with tangential speed and head a relationship between flow and head can be reached.
Substituting this back into the power equation gives:
To convert this proportionality into an equation a factor of proportionality, say K, must be introduced which gives:
Now assuming our original proposition of producing 1 kilowatt at 1m head our speed N becomes our specific speed . So substituting these values into our equation gives:
Now we know we have a complete formula for specific speed,:
So rearranging for Specific Speed give the final following result:
where:
= Wheel speed (rpm)
= Power (kW)
= Water head (m)
English units
Expressed in English units, the "specific speed" is defined as ns = n /h5/4
where n is the wheel speed in rpm
P is the power in horsepower
h is the water head in feet
Metric units
Expressed in metric units, the "specific speed" is ns = 0.2626 n /h5/4
where n is the wheel speed in rpm
P is the power in kilowatts
h is the water head in meters
The factor 0.2626 is only required when the specific speed is to be adjusted to English units. In countries which use the metric system, the factor is omitted, and quoted specific speeds are correspondingly larger.
Example
Given a flow and head for a specific hydro site, and the RPM requirement of the generator, calculate the specific speed. The result is the main criteria for turbine selection or the starting point for analytical design of a new turbine. Once the desired specific speed is known, basic dimensions of the turbine parts can be easily calculated.
Turbine calculations:
= Runner diameter (m)
See also
Pump
Net positive suction head
Water turbine
References
Hydraulics
Fluid dynamics
Pumps | Specific speed | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Engineering"
] | 1,688 | [
"Pumps",
"Turbomachinery",
"Chemical engineering",
"Physical systems",
"Hydraulics",
"Piping",
"Fluid dynamics"
] |
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