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There are many ways in which each person is like most or all other people and by understanding those ways we may achieve an understanding of the general principles of human nature Individual and Group Differences The second level of personality analysis pertains to individual and group differences | [
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Some people are and love others prefer quiet evenings reading | [
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Some people take great physical risks by jumping indd 9 PM10 Introductionout of airplanes riding motorcycles and driving others avoid physical risks entirely | [
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Some people enjoy high and live life relatively free from others worry constantly and are plagued by | [
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These are dimensions of individual differences ways in which each person is like some other people g extraverts sensation Personality can also be observed by studying differences among groups | [
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That is people in one group may have certain personality features in common and these common features make that group of people different from other groups | [
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Examples of groups studied by psychologists include different cultures different age groups different political parties and groups from socioeconomic backgrounds | [
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Another important set of differences studied by personality psychologists concerns those between males and females | [
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Although many traits and mechanisms of humans are common to both sexes there are a few that differ | [
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For example there is accumulated evidence that across cultures males are typically more physically aggressive than fe males | [
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Males are responsible for most of the violence the world over | [
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One goal of personality psychology is to understand why certain aspects of personality differ among groups such as understanding how and why women are different from men and why people from one culture differ from those from another culture Individual Uniqueness No two individuals not even identical twins raised by the... | [
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Every individual has personal qualities not shared by any other person in the world | [
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One of the goals of personality psychology is to support individual uniqueness and to develop ways to capture the richness of unique individual lives One debate in the field concerns whether individuals should be studied is as individual instances of general characteristics that are distributed in the population or sho... | [
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Nomothetic research typically involves statistical comparisons of individuals or groups requiring samples of subjects on which to conduct research | [
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Nomothetic research is typically applied to identify universal human characteristics and dimensions of individual or group differences | [
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Idiographic literally as description of research typically focuses on a single subject trying to observe general principles that are manifest in a single life over time | [
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Often idiographic research results in case studies or the psychological biography of a single person | [
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Sigmund Freud for example wrote a psy chobiography of Leonardo da Vinci | [
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An example of another version of idiographic research is provided by Rosenzweig in which he proposes to analyze individuals in terms of the sequence of events in their lives trying to understand critical life events within the own histories The important point is that personality psychologists have been concerned with ... | [
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Each contributes valuable knowledge to the total understanding of the nature of personality Personality psychologists sometimes study group differences such as differences between men and women Images indd 10 PM Chapter 1 Introduction to Personality Psychology 11A Fissure in the Field Different personality psychologist... | [
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And there is a gap within the field that has not yet been successfully bridged | [
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It is the gap between the human nature level of analysis and the analysis of group and individual differences | [
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Many psychologists have theorized about what human nature is like in general | [
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However when doing research psychologists most often focus on individual and group differences in personality | [
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As a consequence there is a fissure between the grand theories of personality and contemporary research in personality Grand Theories of Personality Most of the grand theories of personality address the human nature level of analysis | [
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That is these theories attempt to provide a universal account of the fundamental psychological processes and characteristics of our species | [
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Sigmund Freud for example emphasized universal instincts of sex and a universal psychic structure of the id ego and and universal stages of psychosexual development anal phallic latency and | [
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Statements about the universal core of human nature lie at the centre of grand theories of personality Many of the textbooks used in teaching university courses in personality psychology are structured around grand theories | [
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These books have been criticized however because many of those theories are primarily of historical interest | [
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Only parts of them have stood the test of time and guide personality research today | [
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Although the grand theories are an important part of the history of personality psychology there is much personality research going on today that is not directly relevant to the historical grand theories Contemporary Research in Personality Most of the empirical research in contemporary personality addresses the ways i... | [
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For example the extensive research literature on extraversion and introversion on anxiety and neuroticism and on all focuses on the ways in which people differ from one another | [
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The extensive research on masculinity and femininity deals with the psychological ways in which men and women differ and the ways in which people acquire social roles | [
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Cultural research shows that one major dimension of difference concerns whether individuals endorse a collectivistic versus an individualis tic attitude | [
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Eastern cultures tend to be more collectivistic and Western cultures more individualistic Chapter One way to examine personality psychology would be to pick a dozen or so current research topics and explore what psychologists have learned about each | [
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For example a lot of research has been done on it is how it develops how people maintain high and how it functions in relationships | [
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There are many other interesting topics in contemporary personality aggression trust hypnotic susceptibility depression intelligence attributional style goal setting anxiety temperament sex roles extraversion sensation seeking agreeableness impulsivity sociopathy morality locus of control optimism creativity leadership... | [
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It would be like going to an auction and bidding on you would be overwhelmed | [
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Just picking topics to cover would indd 11 PM12 Introductionnot result in any sense of the connection among the aspects of personality | [
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Indeed the field of personality has been criticized for containing too many independent areas of investigation with no sense of the whole person behind the separate topics of investigation | [
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What holds personality together as a coherent field would be miss ing in such an approach You have probably heard the ancient legend of the three blind men who were presented with an elephant They tried to figure out what the whole elephant was like | [
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The first blind man approached walk ing up to the elephant and putting his hands and then arms around the leg he proclaimed the whole elephant is much like a tree slender and tall The second man grasped the trunk of the elephant and exclaimed the whole elephant is more like a large snake The third blind man grasped the... | [
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In a sense each blind man had a piece of the truth yet each failed to recognize that his per ceptions of the elephant captured only a narrow part of the truth | [
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Each failed to grasp the whole elephant | [
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Working together however the blind men could have assembled a reasonable understanding of the whole elephant The topic of personality is like the elephant and personality psychologists are sort of like the blind men ex amining only one perspective at a time | [
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Psychologists often approach the topic of personality from one per spective | [
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For example some psychologists study the biological aspects of personality | [
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Others study ways that culture promotes personality differences among people and among groups | [
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Still other psychologists study how various aspects of the mind interact and work together to produce personality | [
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And others study relationships among people and believe that social interaction is where personality manifests its most important effects | [
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Each of these perspectives on personality captures elements of truth yet each alone is inadequate to describe the entire realm of human whole elephant so to speak Six Domains of Knowledge About Human Nature The various views of researchers in personality stem not from the fact that one perspective is right and the othe... | [
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A domain of knowledge is a specialty area of science and scholarship in which psychologists have focused on learning about some specific and limited aspects of human nature | [
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A domain of knowledge delineates the boundaries of knowledge expertise and interests This degree of specialization is reasonable | [
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Indeed specialization characterizes many scientific fields | [
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The field of medicine for example has heart specialists and brain specialists focusing in great detail on their own domains | [
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It is likewise reasonable for the field of personality psychology to have intrapsychic specialists cultural specialists and biological specialists | [
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Each of these domains of personality has accumulated its own base of knowledge | [
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Nonetheless it is desirable to integrate these diverse domains to see how they all fit together The whole personality like the whole elephant is the sum of the various parts and the connections among them | [
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For personality each part is a domain of knowledge representing a collection of knowledge about indd 12 PM Chapter 1 Introduction to Personality Psychology 13certain aspects of personality | [
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How are the domains of knowledge For the most part natural aries have developed in the field of personality psychology | [
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That is researchers have formed natural clusters of topics that fit together and are distinct from other clusters of knowledge | [
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Within these identifiable domains researchers have developed common methods for asking have accumulated a foundation of known and have developed theoretical explanations that account for what is known about personality from the perspective of each domain The field of personality can be neatly cleaved into six distinct ... | [
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As a consequence psychologists from different domains can sometimes appear to contradict one another | [
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The psychoanalytic perspective of Sigmund Freud for example views the personality as consist ing of irrational sexual and aggressive instincts which ultimately motivate all human activity | [
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The cognitive perspective on personality in contrast views humans as rational calmly trying to anticipate pre dict and control the events that occur in their worlds On the surface these perspectives appear incompatible | [
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How can humans be both irrational and How can humans be driven by desire yet be cool and detached in their quest for accurate On deeper examination the contradictions may be more apparent than real | [
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It is entirely possible for example that humans have both powerful sexual and aggressive motivations and cognitive mechanisms designed to perceive and predict events with accuracy | [
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It is entirely possible that sometimes basic emotions and are activated and at other times the cool cognitive mechanisms are activated | [
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And it is possible that the two sets of mechanisms sometimes become linked with one another such as when the rational mechanisms are used in the service of fulfilling fundamental desires | [
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In short although each theoretical perspective may be focused on a critically important part of human psychological functioning each perspective by itself does not capture the whole person This book is organized around the six domains of personality biological intrapsy chic social and cultural and adjustment | [
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Within each of these domains of personality we focus on two key the theories that have been proposed within each domain including the basic assumptions about human nature and the empirical research that has been accumulating within each of these domains | [
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In an attempt to bridge the gap between theory and research in personality we focus primarily on the theories that have received the greatest research attention and the topics within each domain for which there is the greatest cumulative knowledge base Dispositional Domain The dispositional domain deals centrally with ... | [
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As such the dispositional domain cuts across all the other domains | [
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The reason is that individuals can differ in their habitual emotions their habitual concepts of self their physiological propensities and even their indd 13 PM14 Introductionintrapsychic mechanisms | [
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However what distinguishes the dispositional domain is an interest in the number and nature of fundamental dispositions | [
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The central goal of personality psychologists working in the domain is to identify and measure the most important ways in which individuals differ from one | [
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They are also interested in the origins of the important individual differences and in how they develop and are maintained Biological Domain The core assumption within the biological domain is that humans are first and foremost collections of biological systems and these systems provide the building blocks for behaviou... | [
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As personality psychologists use the term biological approaches typically refers to three areas of research within this general genetics and evolution The first area of research addresses the genetic derpinnings of personality | [
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Because of advances in behavioural genetic research a fair amount is known about the genetics of personality | [
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Some questions this research addresses include the Are twins more alike than fraternal twins in their per What happens to identical twins when they are reared apart versus when they are reared to Behavioural genetic research permits us to ask and provisionally answer these questions The second biological approach is be... | [
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Within this domain researchers summarize what is known about the basis of personality in terms of nervous system functioning | [
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Examples of such topics include cortical arousal and neurotransmitters cardiac reactivity strength of the nervous system pain tolerance circadian rhythms you are a morning or a night and the links between hormones such as testosterone and personality The third component of the biological approach concerns how evolution... | [
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This approach assumes that the psychological mechanisms that constitute human per sonality have evolved over thousands of years because they were effective in solving adaptive problems linked to survival and reproduction | [
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An evolutionary perspective sheds light on the functional aspects of personality Intrapsychic Domain The intrapsychic domain deals with mental mechanisms of personality many of which operate outside of conscious awareness | [
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The predominant theory in this domain is theory of psychoanalysis | [
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This Identical twins Alvin and Calvin Harrison age 26 celebrate their first and second place finishes in the race in Brisbane Australia August 8 2000 | [
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Psychologists study twins to determine whether some aspects of personality are influenced by genetics Images indd 14 PM Chapter 1 Introduction to Personality Psychology 15theory begins with fundamental assumptions about the instinctual sexual and aggressive forces that are presumed to drive and energize much of human a... | [
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Considerable research reveals that sexual and aggressive motives are indeed powerful and their manifestations in actual behaviour can be studied empirically | [
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The intrapsychic domain also includes defence mechanisms such as repression de nial and of which have been examined in laboratory studies | [
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Although the intrapsychic domain is most closely linked with the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud there are modern ver sions as well | [
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For example much of the research on the power motives achievement motives and motives is based on a key intrapsychic these forces often operate outside the realm of consciousness Domain The domain focuses on cognition and subjective experience such as conscious thoughts feelings beliefs and desires about oneself and ot... | [
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The psychological mechanisms involved in subjective experience differ however in form and content from one another | [
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One important element of our experience entails the self and | [
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Descriptive aspects of the self organize how we view knowledge of ourselves images of past selves and images of possible future selves | [
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Do we see ourselves as good or as Are our past successes or past failures prominent in our Do we envision ourselves in the future as married with children or as successful in a How we evaluate is another facet of the domain A somewhat different aspect of this domain pertains to the goals we strive for | [
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Some personality psycholo gists for example view human nature as inherently stressing the organizing influence of damental needs or strivings such as the need for affiliation and the striving to influence others | [
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Recent research within this tradition includes approaching personality through the personal that is the tasks that individuals are trying to accomplish in their daily lives | [
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These can range from the commonplace such as getting a date for Saturday night to the grandiose such as changing thought in Western civilization Another important aspect of subjective experience entails our emotions | [
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Are we habitually happy or What makes us angry or Do we keep our emotions bottled up inside or do we express them at the drop of a Joy sadness feelings of triumph and feelings of despair all are essential elements in our subjective experience and are subsumed by the domain Social and Cultural Domain One of the special ... | [
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