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Communications in a Cockpit Mean a Lot a Few Miles Up,” The New York Times (June 26, 1994). 2. The survey of 250 executives: Michael Maccoby, “The Corporate Climber Has to Find His Heart,” Fortune (Dec. 1976). 3. Zuboff: in conversation, June 1994. For the impact of information technologies, see her book I...
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Journal of Applied Psychology 75, 3 (1990). 7. Specific and vague criticism: Harry Levinson, “Feedback to Subordinates” Addendum to the Levinson Letter , Levinson Institute, Waltham, MA (1992). 8. Changing face of workforce: A survey of 645 national companies by Towers Perrin management consultants in Manhatt...
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Magazine (Nov. 11, 1994). 14. IBM: “Responding to a Diverse Work Force,” The New York Times (Aug. 26, 1990). 15. Power of speaking out: Fletcher Blanchard, “Reducing the Expression of Racial Prejudice,” Psychological Science (vol. 2, 1991). 16. Stereotypes break down: Gaertner and Davidio, Prejudice, Discrimin...
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20. The usefulness of informal networks is noted by David Krackhardt and Jeffrey R. Hanson, “Informal Networks: The Company Behind the Chart,” Harvard Business Review (July-Aug. 1993), p. 104. Chapter 11. Mind and Medicine 1. Immune system as the body’s brain: Francisco Varela at the Third Mind and Life meeting,...
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American Psychologist (Dec. 1994). 6. Toxic emotions: Howard Friedman and S. Boothby-Kewley, “The Disease-Prone Personality: A Meta-Analytic View,” American Psychologist 42 (1987). This broad analysis of studies used “meta-analysis,” in which results from many smaller studies can be combined statistically into o...
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medical condition, as well as precipitating it; for that reason the most convincing data come from prospective studies in which emotional states are evaluated prior to the onset of disease. 8. Gail Ironson et al., “Effects of Anger on Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction in Coronary Artery Disease,” The American Jo...
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pumping efficiency means a weakening of the heart muscle. 9. Of the dozen or so studies of hostility and death from heart disease, some have failed to find a link. But that failure may be due to differences in method, such as using a poor measure of hostility, and to the relative subtlety of the effect. For instanc...
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14. Murray A. Mittleman, “Triggering of Myocardial Infarction Onset by Episodes of Anger,” Circulation , vol. 89, no. 2 (1994). 15. Suppressing anger raises blood pressure: Robert Levenson, “Can We Control Our Emotions, and How Does Such Control Change an Emotional Episode?” in Richard Davidson and Paul Ekman, eds., ...
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Mechanisms Leading to Disease,” Archives of Internal Medicine 153 (Sept. 27, 1993). The study they are describing is M. Robertson and J. Ritz, “Biology and Clinical Relevance of Human Natural Killer Cells,” Blood 76 (1990). 21. There may be multiple reasons why people under stress are more vulnerable to sickness, ...
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exam stress, the students had not only a lowered immune control of the herpes virus, but also a decline in the ability of their white blood cells to kill infected cells, as well as an increase in levels of a chemical associated with suppression of immune abilities in lymphocytes, the white blood cells central to the i...
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measured both by days with fever and flu antibody levels. See R. D. Clover et al., “Family Functioning and Stress as Predictors of Influenza B Infection,” Journal of Family Practice 28 (May 1989). 25. Herpes virus flare-up and stress: a series of studies by Ronald Glaser and Janice Kiecolt- Glaser—e.g., “Psychologic...
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role in making some men more vulnerable to heart disease. In a study at the University of Alabama medical school, 1,123 men and women between the ages of forty-five and seventy-seven were assessed on their emotional profiles. Those men most prone to anxiety and worry in middle age were far more likely than others to ha...
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30. Bone marrow transplant: cited in James Strain, “Cost Offset From a Psychiatric Consultation-Liaison Intervention With Elderly Hip Fracture Patients,” American Journal of Psychiatry 148 (1991). 31. Howard Burton et al., “The Relationship of Depression to Survival in Chronic Renal Failure,” Psychosomatic Medicin...
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depressed, your symptoms seem worse to you. Having a chronic physical disease is a major adaptive challenge. If you’re depressed, you’re less able to learn to take care of your illness. Even with physical impairment, if you’re motivated and have energy and feelings of self-worth—all of which are at risk in depression—t...
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findings, cited in House, “Social Relationships and Health,” have found that the simple presence of another person can reduce anxiety and lessen physiological distress in people in intensive-care units. The comforting effect of another person’s presence has been found to lower not just heart rate and blood pressure, bu...
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catecholamines, all neurochemicals that trigger more rapid breathing, a quickened heartbeat, and other physiological signs of stress. 39. Strain, “Cost Offset.” 40. Heart attack survival and emotional support: Lisa Berkman et al., “Emotional Support and Survival After Myocardial Infarction, A Prospective Population B...
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Association meeting, Washington, DC (1992). 45. Psychotherapy and medical improvements: Lester Luborsky et al., “Is Psychotherapy Good for Your Health?” paper presented at the American Psychological Association meeting, Washington, DC (1993). 46. Cancer support groups: David Spiegel et al., “Effect of Psychosocial T...
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Times (Dec. 10, 1987). 51. Family care in the hospital: Again, Planetree is a model, as are the Ronald McDonald houses that allow parents to stay next door to hospitals where their children are patients. 52. Mindfulness and medicine: See Jon Kabat-Zinn, Full Catastrophe Living (New York: Delacorte, 1991). 53. Prog...
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Professions, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco (Aug. 1994). 55. Left the hospital early: Strain, “Cost Offset.” 56. Unethical not to treat depression in heart disease patients: Redford Williams and Margaret Chesney, “Psychosocial Factors and Prognosis in Established Coronary Heart Disease,” Jou...
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PART FOUR: WINDOWS OF OPPORTUNITY Chapter 12. The Family Crucible 1. Leslie and the video game: Beverly Wilson and John Gottman, “Marital Conflict and Parenting: The Role of Negativity in Families,” in M. H. Bornstein, ed., Handbook of Parenting , vol. 4 (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1994). 2. The research...
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7. Infants and mothers: Heart Start , p. 9. 8. Damage from neglect: M. Erickson et al., “The Relationship Between Quality of Attachment and Behavior Problems in Preschool in a High-Risk Sample,” in I. Betherton and E. Waters, eds., Monographs of the Society of Research in Child Development 50, series no. 209. ...
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were the most aggressive in grade school were having the most emotional turmoil in late adolescence. These were children (about twice as many boys as girls) who not only continually picked fights, but who also were belittling or openly hostile toward other children, and even toward their families and teachers. Their ho...
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difficulties ranged from tangles with the law to anxiety problems and depression. 11. Lack of empathy in abused children: The day-care observations and findings are reported in Mary Main and Carol George, “Responses of Abused and Disadvantaged Toddlers to Distress in Agemates: A Study in the Day-Care Setting,” Develo...
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The New York Times “Education Life” section (Jan. 7, 1990). 2. The examples of PTSD in crime victims were offered by Dr. Shelly Niederbach, a psychologist at the Victims’ Counseling Service, Brooklyn. 3. The Vietnam memory is from M. Davis, “Analysis of Aversive Memories Using the Fear- Potentiated Startle Pa...
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them, is in Dennis Charney et al., “Psychobiologic Mechanisms of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder,” Archives of General Psychiatry 50 (April 1993), 294–305. 8. Some of the evidence for trauma-induced changes in this brain network comes from experiments in which Vietnam vets with PTSD were injected with yohimbine, a ...
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catecholamines; the result is increasing catecholamine levels. With the neural brakes on anxiety disarmed by the drug injections, the yohimbine triggered panic in 9 of 15 PTSD patients, and lifelike flashbacks in 6. One vet had a hallucination of a helicopter being shot down in a trail of smoke and a bright flash; anot...
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that streams through the body to trigger catecholamines. But in the PTSD patients, unlike a comparison group of people without PTSD, there was no discernible change in levels of ACTH—a sign that their brains had cut back on CRF receptors because they already were overloaded with the stress hormone. The research was des...
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—an effect that became apparent only when they were reexposed to something reminiscent of the original trauma. In this sequence the amygdala first evaluates the emotional importance of what we see. The study was done by Dr. Roger Pitman, a Harvard psychiatrist. As with other symptoms of PTSD, this brain change is not ...
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“Emotional Numbing: A Possible Endorphin-Mediated Phenomenon Associated with Post- Traumatic Stress Disorders and Other Allied Psychopathologic States,” Journal of Traumatic Stress 5, 4 (1992). 13. The brain evidence reviewed in this section is based on Dennis Charney’s excellent article, “Psychobiologic Mechanisms....
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—as is so often the case in these studies—learned to fear a tone paired with an electric shock. The rats then had what amounts to a lobotomy, a surgical lesion in their brain that cut off the prefrontal lobes from the amygdala. For the next several days the rats heard the tone without getting an electric shock. Slowly,...
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Too Scared to Cry (New York: HarperCollins, 1990). 18. Pathway to recovery from trauma: Judith Lewis Herman, Trauma and Recovery (New York: Basic Books, 1992). 19. “Dosing” of trauma: Mardi Horowitz, Stress Response Syndromes (Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson, 1986). 20. Another level at which relearning goes on, a...
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21. That the original fear persists, even if subdued, has been shown in studies where lab rats were conditioned to fear a sound, such as a bell, when it was paired with an electric shock. Afterward, when they heard the bell they reacted with fear, even though no shock accompanied it. Gradually, over the course of a ye...
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(Dec. 1992). The fullest description of the biology of temperament is in Kagan, Galen’s Prophecy . 2. Tom and Ralph, archetypically timid and bold types, are described in Kagan, Galen’s Prophecy , pp. 155–57. 3. Lifelong problems of the shy child: Iris Bell, “Increased Prevalence of Stress-related Symptoms in...
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(May 1993). 6. The research on personality and hemispheric differences was done by Dr. Richard Davidson at the University of Wisconsin, and by Dr. Andrew Tomarken, a psychologist at Vanderbilt University: see Andrew Tomarken and Richard Davidson, “Frontal Brain Activation in Repressors and Nonrepressors,” Journal ...
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10. Hubel and Wiesel: David H. Hubel, Thorsten Wiesel, and S. Levay, “Plasticity of Ocular Columns in Monkey Striate Cortex,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 278 (1977). 11. Experience and the rat’s brain: The work of Marian Diamond and others is described in Richard Thompson, The Brain ...
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Function, Affective Style and Psychopathology: The Role of Early Experience and Plasticity,” Development and Psychopathology vol. 6 (1994), pp. 741–58. 16. Biological attunement and brain growth: Schore, Affect Regulation . 17. M. E. Phelps et al., “PET: A Biochemical Image of the Brain at Work,” in N. A. Lassen e...
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PART FIVE: EMOTIONAL LITERACY Chapter 15. The Cost of Emotional Illiteracy 1. Emotional literacy: I wrote about such courses in The New York Times (March 3, 1992). 2. The statistics on teen crime rates are from the Uniform Crime Reports, Crime in the U.S., 1991 , published by the Department of Justice. 3....
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American Psychologist (Feb. 1993). 4. In 1950 the suicide rate for those 15 to 24 was 4.5 per 100,000. By 1989 it was three times higher, 13.3. Suicide rates for children 10 to 14 almost tripled between 1968 and 1985. Figures on suicide, homicide victims, and pregnancies are from Health, 1991 , U.S. Department of...
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percent of women said so. See Ruby Takanashi, “The Opportunities of Adolescence,” and Children’s Safety Network, A Data Book of Child and Adolescent Injury . 6. Heroin and cocaine use for whites rose from 18 per 100,000 in 1970 to a rate of 68 in 1990—about three times higher. But over the same two decades among b...
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being separated from their parents. Binge drinking climbs during the teenage years among boys to a rate of about 20 percent by age 20. I reported much of this data on emotional disorders in children in The New York Times (Jan. 10, 1989). 8. The national study of children’s emotional problems, and comparison with ...
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, vol. 59 (Sept. 1988). 12. The bully experiment: John Lochman, “Social-Cognitive Processes of Severely Violent, Moderately Aggressive, and Nonaggressive Boys,” Journal of Clinical and Consulting Psychology , 1994. 13. The aggressive boys research: Kenneth A. Dodge, “Emotion and Social Information Processing,” in J....
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(Sept. 1994). 17. What happens in a child’s family before the child reaches school is, of course, crucial in creating a predisposition to aggression. One study, for example, showed that children whose mothers rejected them at age 1, and whose birth was more complicated, were four times as likely as others to commit a ...
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impulsivity lowers those scores. In the Pittsburgh Youth Study, a well-designed longitudinal project where both IQ and impulsivity were assessed in ten- to twelve-year- olds, impulsivity was almost three times more powerful than verbal IQ in predicting delinquency. See the discussion in: Jack Block, “On the Relation Be...
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Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Depressed Adolescents (New York: Guilford Press, 1993). 23. Rising rates of depression worldwide: Cross-National Collaborative Group, “The Changing Rate of Major Depression: Cross-National Comparisons,” Journal of the American Medical Association (Dec. 2, 1992). 24. Ten times greate...
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Management of Major Depressive and Dysthymic Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence: Issues and Prospects,” in I. M. Goodyer, ed., Mood Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994). 27. Depression in children: Kovacs, op. cit. 28. I interviewed Maria Kovacs in The New York Ti...
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31. Pessimism and depression in children: Judy Garber, Vanderbilt University. See, e.g., Ruth Hilsman and Judy Garber, “A Test of the Cognitive Diathesis Model of Depression in Children: Academic Stressors, Attributional Style, Perceived Competence and Control,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 (1994)...
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149 (1969). Her seminal book, The Golden Cage: The Enigma of Anorexia Nervosa (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press) was not published until 1978. 38. The study of eating disorders: Gloria R. Leon et al., “Personality and Behavioral Vulnerabilities Associated with Risk Status for Eating Disorders in Adolescent Gi...
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and John Coie, eds., Peer Rejection in Childhood (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990). 44. Emory Cowen et al., “Longterm Follow-up of Early Detected Vulnerable Children,” Journal of Clinical and Consulting Psychology 41 (1973). 45. Best friends and the rejected: Jeffrey Parker and Steven Asher, “Friendshi...
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46. The coaching for socially rejected children: Steven Asher and Gladys Williams, “Helping Children Without Friends in Home and School Contexts,” in Children’s Social Development: Information for Parents and Teachers (Urbana and Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1987). 47. Similar results: Stephen Nowicki, “...
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53. Distress and abuse: Jeanne Tschann, “Initiation of Substance Abuse in Early Adolescence,” Health Psychology 4 (1994). 54. I interviewed Ralph Tarter in The New York Times (Apr . 26, 1990). 55. Tension levels in sons of alcoholics: Howard Moss et al., “Plasma GABA-like Activity in Response to Ethanol Challenge ...
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Cocaine: A Clinician’s Handbook (New York: Guilford Press, 1987). 60. Heroin addiction and anger: Edward Khantzian, Harvard Medical School, in conversation, based on over 200 patients he has treated who were addicted to heroin. 61. No more wars: The phrase was suggested to me by Tim Shriver of the Collaborative for ...
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Environments.” Greg Duncan and Patricia Garrett each described their research findings in separate articles in Child Development (Apr. 1994). 63. Traits of resilient children: Norman Garmezy, The Invulnerable Child (New York: Guilford Press, 1987). I wrote about children who thrive despite hardship in The New Yor...
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Pediatrics (Oct. 1984). 66. The national survey of children about sexual abuse prevention programs was done by David Finkelhor, a sociologist at the University of New Hampshire. 67. The figures on how many victims child molesters have are from an interview with Malcolm Gordon, a psychologist at the Violence and Trau...
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4–5(1992), p. 84. 4. The Child Development Project: See, e.g., Daniel Solomon et al., “Enhancing Children’s Prosocial Behavior in the Classroom,” American Educational Research Journal (Winter 1988). 5. Benefits from Head Start: Report by High/Scope Educational Research Foundation, Ypsilanti, Michigan (Apr. 199...
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Development/Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 36 (1990). 7. The transition to grade school and middle school: David Hamburg, Today’s Children: Creating a Future for a Generation in Crisis (New York: Times Books, 1992). 8. Hamburg, Today’s Children , pp. 171–72. 9. Hamburg, Today’s Children , p. 182. 10....
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15. Moral lessons: Steven C. Rockefeller, John Dewey: Religious Faith and Democratic Humanism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991). 16. Doing right by others: Thomas Lickona, Educating for Character (New York: Bantam, 1991). 17. The arts of democracy: Francis Moore Lappe and Paul Martin DuBois, The Quick...
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, and much of this summary of it is based on conversations with him, letters to me, his article, “Integration of the Cognitive and Psychodynamic Unconscious” (American Psychologist 44 (1994), and his book with Archie Brodsky, You’re Smarter Than You Think (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993). While his model of the e...
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3. Ekman, op cit., p. 187. 4. Ekman, op cit., p. 189. 5. Epstein, 1993, p. 55. 6. J. Toobey and L. Cosmides, “The Past Explains the Present: Emotional Adaptations and the Structure of Ancestral Environments,” Ethology and Sociobiology , 11, pp. 418–19. 7. While it may seem self-evident that each emoti...
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Also by Daniel Goleman THE MEDITATIVE MIND VITAL LIES, SIMPLE TRUTHS WORKING WITH EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE PRIMAL LEADERSHIP (COAUTHOR) DESTRUCTIVE EMOTIONS (NARRATOR) SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE
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About the Author DANIEL GOLEMAN, Ph.D., is also the author of Social Intelligence and the bestseller Working with Emotional Intelligence and a coauthor of Primal Leadership . He received his Ph.D. from Harvard and reported on the brain and behavioral sciences for the New York Times for twelve years. He was awarde...
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emotional_intelligence.pdf