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128 | With a total area of 147,040 square miles (380,800 km2), Montana is slightly larger than Japan. It is the fourth largest state in the United States after Alaska, Texas, and California; the largest landlocked U.S. state; and the 56th largest national state/province subdivision in the world. To the north, Montana shares a 545-mile (877 km) border with three Canadian provinces: British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the only state to do so. It borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south and Idaho to the west and southwest. | [
{
"answer": "147,040 square miles",
"question": "What is the total area of Montana?"
},
{
"answer": "Wyoming",
"question": "What state does Montana border to the south?"
},
{
"answer": "Idaho",
"question": "What state does it border to the west?"
}
] |
129 | The topography of the state is roughly defined by the Continental Divide, which splits much of the state into distinct eastern and western regions. Most of Montana's 100 or more named mountain ranges are concentrated in the western half of the state, most of which is geologically and geographically part of the Northern Rocky Mountains. The Absaroka and Beartooth ranges in the south-central part of the state are technically part of the Central Rocky Mountains. The Rocky Mountain Front is a significant feature in the north-central portion of the state, and there are a number of isolated island ranges that interrupt the prairie landscape common in the central and eastern parts of the state. About 60 percent of the state is prairie, part of the northern Great Plains. | [
{
"answer": "western half of the state",
"question": "Where are most of the states mountain ranges?"
},
{
"answer": "About 60 percent",
"question": "How much of the state is prarie?"
}
] |
130 | The northern section of the Divide, where the mountains give way rapidly to prairie, is part of the Rocky Mountain Front. The front is most pronounced in the Lewis Range, located primarily in Glacier National Park. Due to the configuration of mountain ranges in Glacier National Park, the Northern Divide (which begins in Alaska's Seward Peninsula) crosses this region and turns east in Montana at Triple Divide Peak. It causes the Waterton River, Belly, and Saint Mary rivers to flow north into Alberta, Canada. There they join the Saskatchewan River, which ultimately empties into Hudson Bay. | [
{
"answer": "north",
"question": "Which direction do the rivers flow near the Triple Divide Peak?"
},
{
"answer": "Hudson Bay.",
"question": "Where does the Saskatchewan River empty into?"
}
] |
131 | East of the divide, several roughly parallel ranges cover the southern part of the state, including the Gravelly Range, the Madison Range, Gallatin Range, Absaroka Mountains and the Beartooth Mountains. The Beartooth Plateau is the largest continuous land mass over 10,000 feet (3,000 m) high in the continental United States. It contains the highest point in the state, Granite Peak, 12,799 feet (3,901 m) high. North of these ranges are the Big Belt Mountains, Bridger Mountains, Tobacco Roots, and several island ranges, including the Crazy Mountains and Little Belt Mountains. | [
{
"answer": "over 10,000 feet",
"question": "How high is the Beartooth Plateau?"
},
{
"answer": "Granite Peak",
"question": "What is thie highest point in the state?"
},
{
"answer": "12,799 feet",
"question": "How high is Granite Peak?"
}
] |
132 | However, at the state level, the pattern of split ticket voting and divided government holds. Democrats currently hold one of the state's U.S. Senate seats, as well as four of the five statewide offices (Governor, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Secretary of State and State Auditor). The lone congressional district has been Republican since 1996 and in 2014 Steve Daines won one of the state's Senate seats for the GOP. The Legislative branch had split party control between the house and senate most years between 2004 and 2010, when the mid-term elections returned both branches to Republican control. The state Senate is, as of 2015, controlled by the Republicans 29 to 21, and the State House of Representatives at 59 to 41. | [
{
"answer": "one",
"question": "How many seats do Democrats hold in the state US Senate's seats?"
},
{
"answer": "1996",
"question": "How long has the single congressional district been Republican?"
},
{
"answer": "59 to 41.",
"question": "What is the split in the State House of Repr... |
133 | In presidential elections, Montana was long classified as a swing state, though the state has voted for the Republican candidate in all but two elections from 1952 to the present. The state last supported a Democrat for president in 1992, when Bill Clinton won a plurality victory. Overall, since 1889 the state has voted for Democratic governors 60 percent of the time and Democratic presidents 40 percent of the time, with these numbers being 40/60 for Republican candidates. In the 2008 presidential election, Montana was considered a swing state and was ultimately won by Republican John McCain, albeit by a narrow margin of two percent. | [
{
"answer": "a swing state",
"question": "In elections, what is Montana considered?"
},
{
"answer": "1992",
"question": "What year was the last Democrat for president supported?"
},
{
"answer": "60 percent",
"question": "How often has Montana voted for a Democratic governor?"
},
... |
134 | Bozeman Yellowstone International Airport is the busiest airport in the state of Montana, surpassing Billings Logan International Airport in the spring of 2013. Montana's other major Airports include Billings Logan International Airport, Missoula International Airport, Great Falls International Airport, Glacier Park International Airport, Helena Regional Airport, Bert Mooney Airport and Yellowstone Airport. Eight smaller communities have airports designated for commercial service under the Essential Air Service program. | [
{
"answer": "Bozeman Yellowstone International Airport",
"question": "What is the name of the busiest airport in Montana?"
},
{
"answer": "2013",
"question": "When did Bozeman Airport surpass Billings Logan as the largest busiest in Montana?"
}
] |
135 | Railroads have been an important method of transportation in Montana since the 1880s. Historically, the state was traversed by the main lines of three east-west transcontinental routes: the Milwaukee Road, the Great Northern, and the Northern Pacific. Today, the BNSF Railway is the state's largest railroad, its main transcontinental route incorporating the former Great Northern main line across the state. Montana RailLink, a privately held Class II railroad, operates former Northern Pacific trackage in western Montana. | [
{
"answer": "BNSF Railway",
"question": "What is the states largest railway?"
},
{
"answer": "1880s",
"question": "How long have railroads been important since in Montana"
}
] |
136 | Montana is home to the Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation and has a historic big game hunting tradition. There are fall bow and general hunting seasons for elk, pronghorn antelope, whitetail deer and mule deer. A random draw grants a limited number of permits for moose, mountain goats and bighorn sheep. There is a spring hunting season for black bear and in most years, limited hunting of bison that leave Yellowstone National Park is allowed. Current law allows both hunting and trapping of a specific number of wolves and mountain lions. Trapping of assorted fur bearing animals is allowed in certain seasons and many opportunities exist for migratory waterfowl and upland bird hunting. | [
{
"answer": "Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation",
"question": "What is the name of the big game hunting foundation in Montana?"
},
{
"answer": "spring",
"question": "What season is black bear hunting allowed?"
},
{
"answer": "wolves and mountain lions",
"question": "What two predators can... |
137 | Montana has been a destination for its world-class trout fisheries since the 1930s. Fly fishing for several species of native and introduced trout in rivers and lakes is popular for both residents and tourists throughout the state. Montana is the home of the Federation of Fly Fishers and hosts many of the organizations annual conclaves. The state has robust recreational lake trout and kokanee salmon fisheries in the west, walleye can be found in many parts of the state, while northern pike, smallmouth and largemouth bass fisheries as well as catfish and paddlefish can be found in the waters of eastern Montana. Robert Redford's 1992 film of Norman Mclean's novel, A River Runs Through It, was filmed in Montana and brought national attention to fly fishing and the state. | [
{
"answer": "1930s",
"question": "Since when has Montana been a destination for trout fisheries?"
},
{
"answer": "Federation of Fly Fishers",
"question": "What fishing organization has its home here?"
},
{
"answer": "trout and kokanee salmon fisheries",
"question": "What type of fish... |
139 | Montana contains thousands of named rivers and creeks, 450 miles (720 km) of which are known for "blue-ribbon" trout fishing. Montana's water resources provide for recreation, hydropower, crop and forage irrigation, mining, and water for human consumption. Montana is one of few geographic areas in the world whose rivers form parts of three major watersheds (i.e. where two continental divides intersect). Its rivers feed the Pacific Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and Hudson Bay. The watersheds divide at Triple Divide Peak in Glacier National Park. | [
{
"answer": "450",
"question": "How many miles of rivers are known for high class trout?"
},
{
"answer": "Hudson Bay",
"question": "What Bay do rivers from Montana feed?"
},
{
"answer": "Triple Divide Peak in Glacier National Park.",
"question": "Where do the watersheds divide at?"
... |
140 | East of the divide the Missouri River, which is formed by the confluence of the Jefferson, Madison and Gallatin rivers near Three Forks, flows due north through the west-central part of the state to Great Falls. From this point, it then flows generally east through fairly flat agricultural land and the Missouri Breaks to Fort Peck reservoir. The stretch of river between Fort Benton and the Fred Robinson Bridge at the western boundary of Fort Peck Reservoir was designated a National Wild and Scenic River in 1976. The Missouri enters North Dakota near Fort Union, having drained more than half the land area of Montana (82,000 square miles (210,000 km2)). Nearly one-third of the Missouri River in Montana lies behind 10 dams: Toston, Canyon Ferry, Hauser, Holter, Black Eagle, Rainbow, Cochrane, Ryan, Morony, and Fort Peck. | [
{
"answer": "Jefferson, Madison and Gallatin rivers",
"question": "What rivers form the Missouri River?"
},
{
"answer": "Three Forks",
"question": "Near where do the rivers form up for the Missouri river merging?"
},
{
"answer": "north",
"question": "Which direction does the water fl... |
141 | The Yellowstone River rises on the continental divide near Younts Peak in Wyoming's Teton Wilderness. It flows north through Yellowstone National Park, enters Montana near Gardiner, and passes through the Paradise Valley to Livingston. It then flows northeasterly across the state through Billings, Miles City, Glendive, and Sidney. The Yellowstone joins the Missouri in North Dakota just east of Fort Union. It is the longest undammed, free-flowing river in the contiguous United States, and drains about a quarter of Montana (36,000 square miles (93,000 km2)). | [
{
"answer": "north",
"question": "Which direction does the Yellowstone River flow through the national park?"
},
{
"answer": "North Dakota",
"question": "Where does the Yellowstone meet the Missouri river?"
}
] |
142 | There are at least 3,223 named lakes and reservoirs in Montana, including Flathead Lake, the largest natural freshwater lake in the western United States. Other major lakes include Whitefish Lake in the Flathead Valley and Lake McDonald and St. Mary Lake in Glacier National Park. The largest reservoir in the state is Fort Peck Reservoir on the Missouri river, which is contained by the second largest earthen dam and largest hydraulically filled dam in the world. Other major reservoirs include Hungry Horse on the Flathead River; Lake Koocanusa on the Kootenai River; Lake Elwell on the Marias River; Clark Canyon on the Beaverhead River; Yellowtail on the Bighorn River, Canyon Ferry, Hauser, Holter, Rainbow; and Black Eagle on the Missouri River. | [
{
"answer": "at least 3,223",
"question": "How many named lakes are there in Montana?"
},
{
"answer": "Flathead Lake",
"question": "What is the name of the largest freshwater lake in western United States?"
},
{
"answer": "Fort Peck Reservoir",
"question": "What is the name of the la... |
143 | Vegetation of the state includes lodgepole pine, ponderosa pine; Douglas fir, larch, spruce; aspen, birch, red cedar, hemlock, ash, alder; rocky mountain maple and cottonwood trees. Forests cover approximately 25 percent of the state. Flowers native to Montana include asters, bitterroots, daisies, lupins, poppies, primroses, columbine, lilies, orchids, and dryads. Several species of sagebrush and cactus and many species of grasses are common. Many species of mushrooms and lichens are also found in the state. | [
{
"answer": "approximately 25 percent",
"question": "About how much area do forests cover the state?"
}
] |
144 | Montana is home to a diverse array of fauna that includes 14 amphibian, 90 fish, 117 mammal, 20 reptile and 427 bird species. Additionally, there are over 10,000 invertebrate species, including 180 mollusks and 30 crustaceans. Montana has the largest grizzly bear population in the lower 48 states. Montana hosts five federally endangered species–black-footed ferret, whooping crane, least tern, pallid sturgeon and white sturgeon and seven threatened species including the grizzly bear, Canadian lynx and bull trout. The Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks manages fishing and hunting seasons for at least 17 species of game fish including seven species of trout, walleye and smallmouth bass and at least 29 species of game birds and animals including ring-neck pheasant, grey partridge, elk, pronghorn antelope, mule deer, whitetail deer, gray wolf and bighorn sheep. | [
{
"answer": "90",
"question": "How many different types of fish are diverse to Montana?"
},
{
"answer": "grizzly bear",
"question": "What type of bear does Montana have the highest population of?"
},
{
"answer": "five",
"question": "How many endangered species are in Montana?"
},
... |
146 | Montana's personal income tax contains 7 brackets, with rates ranging from 1 percent to 6.9 percent. Montana has no sales tax. In Montana, household goods are exempt from property taxes. However, property taxes are assessed on livestock, farm machinery, heavy equipment, automobiles, trucks, and business equipment. The amount of property tax owed is not determined solely by the property's value. The property's value is multiplied by a tax rate, set by the Montana Legislature, to determine its taxable value. The taxable value is then multiplied by the mill levy established by various taxing jurisdictions—city and county government, school districts and others. | [
{
"answer": "7",
"question": "How many tax brackets does Montana have?"
},
{
"answer": "6.9 percent",
"question": "What is the highest tax bracket in Montana?"
},
{
"answer": "no",
"question": "Does Montana have a sales tax?"
}
] |
148 | While the largest European-American population in Montana overall is German, pockets of significant Scandinavian ancestry are prevalent in some of the farming-dominated northern and eastern prairie regions, parallel to nearby regions of North Dakota and Minnesota. Farmers of Irish, Scots, and English roots also settled in Montana. The historically mining-oriented communities of western Montana such as Butte have a wider range of European-American ethnicity; Finns, Eastern Europeans and especially Irish settlers left an indelible mark on the area, as well as people originally from British mining regions such as Cornwall, Devon and Wales. The nearby city of Helena, also founded as a mining camp, had a similar mix in addition to a small Chinatown. Many of Montana's historic logging communities originally attracted people of Scottish, Scandinavian, Slavic, English and Scots-Irish descent.[citation needed] | [
{
"answer": "German",
"question": "What is the largest European-American race in Montana?"
},
{
"answer": "a mining camp",
"question": "What was Helena originally founded as?"
}
] |
150 | The climate has become warmer in Montana and continues to do so. The glaciers in Glacier National Park have receded and are predicted to melt away completely in a few decades. Many Montana cities set heat records during July 2007, the hottest month ever recorded in Montana. Winters are warmer, too, and have fewer cold spells. Previously these cold spells had killed off bark beetles which are now attacking the forests of western Montana. The combination of warmer weather, attack by beetles, and mismanagement during past years has led to a substantial increase in the severity of forest fires in Montana. According to a study done for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency by the Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Science, portions of Montana will experience a 200-percent increase in area burned by wildfires, and an 80-percent increase in related air pollution. | [
{
"answer": "2007",
"question": "In what year did many cities in Montana set heat records?"
},
{
"answer": "July",
"question": "What month was the hottest ever recorded?"
},
{
"answer": "forest fires",
"question": "What problem has substantially increased in its severity?"
}
] |
151 | As white settlers began populating Montana from the 1850s through the 1870s, disputes with Native Americans ensued, primarily over land ownership and control. In 1855, Washington Territorial Governor Isaac Stevens negotiated the Hellgate treaty between the United States Government and the Salish, Pend d'Oreille, and the Kootenai people of western Montana, which established boundaries for the tribal nations. The treaty was ratified in 1859. While the treaty established what later became the Flathead Indian Reservation, trouble with interpreters and confusion over the terms of the treaty led whites to believe that the Bitterroot Valley was opened to settlement, but the tribal nations disputed those provisions. The Salish remained in the Bitterroot Valley until 1891. | [
{
"answer": "1855",
"question": "What year was the Hellgate treaty formed?"
},
{
"answer": "Isaac Stevens",
"question": "Who negotiated the Hellgate treaty?"
},
{
"answer": "1859",
"question": "What year was the treaty ratified?"
},
{
"answer": "Flathead Indian Reservation",
... |
152 | The first U.S. Army post established in Montana was Camp Cooke on the Missouri River in 1866 to protect steamboat traffic going to Fort Benton, Montana. More than a dozen additional military outposts were established in the state. Pressure over land ownership and control increased due to discoveries of gold in various parts of Montana and surrounding states. Major battles occurred in Montana during Red Cloud's War, the Great Sioux War of 1876, the Nez Perce War and in conflicts with Piegan Blackfeet. The most notable of these were the Marias Massacre (1870), Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876), Battle of the Big Hole (1877) and Battle of Bear Paw (1877). The last recorded conflict in Montana between the U.S. Army and Native Americans occurred in 1887 during the Battle of Crow Agency in the Big Horn country. Indian survivors who had signed treaties were generally required to move onto reservations. | [
{
"answer": "Camp Cooke",
"question": "What was the name of the first US Army post?"
},
{
"answer": "on the Missouri River",
"question": "Where was Camp Cooke situated?"
},
{
"answer": "1876",
"question": "What year was the Great Sioux War?"
},
{
"answer": "1877",
"questi... |
154 | According to the 2010 Census, 89.4 percent of the population was White (87.8 percent Non-Hispanic White), 6.3 percent American Indian and Alaska Native, 2.9 percent Hispanics and Latinos of any race, 0.6 percent Asian, 0.4 percent Black or African American, 0.1 percent Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 0.6 percent from Some Other Race, and 2.5 percent from two or more races. The largest European ancestry groups in Montana as of 2010 are: German (27.0 percent), Irish (14.8 percent), English (12.6 percent), Norwegian (10.9 percent), French (4.7 percent) and Italian (3.4 percent). | [
{
"answer": "89.4 percent",
"question": "What percent of the state is White?"
},
{
"answer": "6.3 percent",
"question": "What percent of the state is Native American Indian?"
},
{
"answer": "2.9",
"question": "Hispanics account for what percentage of Monatanas population?"
}
] |
155 | The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Montana was 1,032,949 on July 1, 2015, a 4.40% increase since the 2010 United States Census. The 2010 census put Montana's population at 989,415 which is an increase of 43,534 people, or 4.40 percent, since 2010. During the first decade of the new century, growth was mainly concentrated in Montana's seven largest counties, with the highest percentage growth in Gallatin County, which saw a 32 percent increase in its population from 2000-2010. The city seeing the largest percentage growth was Kalispell with 40.1 percent, and the city with the largest increase in actual residents was Billings with an increase in population of 14,323 from 2000-2010. | [
{
"answer": "1,032,949",
"question": "What was the population of the state in 2015?"
},
{
"answer": "4.40%",
"question": "How much did the population increase since 2010?"
},
{
"answer": "Gallatin County",
"question": "What county saw the largest growth?"
},
{
"answer": "Kali... |
156 | In 1940, Jeannette Rankin had once again been elected to Congress, and in 1941, as she did in 1917, she voted against the United States' declaration of war. This time she was the only vote against the war, and in the wake of public outcry over her vote, she required police protection for a time. Other pacifists tended to be those from "peace churches" who generally opposed war. Many individuals from throughout the U.S. who claimed conscientious objector status were sent to Montana during the war as smokejumpers and for other forest fire-fighting duties. | [
{
"answer": "1917",
"question": "What year was Jeannette Rankin vote against war the first time?"
},
{
"answer": "1941",
"question": "When did she vote a second time against war?"
},
{
"answer": "smokejumpers and for other forest fire-fighting duties.",
"question": "What were conscie... |
157 | Simultaneously with these conflicts, bison, a keystone species and the primary protein source that Native people had survived on for centuries were being destroyed. Some estimates say there were over 13 million bison in Montana in 1870. In 1875, General Philip Sheridan pleaded to a joint session of Congress to authorize the slaughtering of herds in order to deprive the Indians of their source of food. By 1884, commercial hunting had brought bison to the verge of extinction; only about 325 bison remained in the entire United States. | [
{
"answer": "over 13 million",
"question": "About how many bison were in Montana in 1870?"
},
{
"answer": "about 325",
"question": "In 1884 about how many bison remained?"
},
{
"answer": "General Philip Sheridan",
"question": "Who pleaded to Congress for slaughtering bison?"
},
{... |
158 | Tracks of the Northern Pacific Railroad (NPR) reached Montana from the west in 1881 and from the east in 1882. However, the railroad played a major role in sparking tensions with Native American tribes in the 1870s. Jay Cooke, the NPR president launched major surveys into the Yellowstone valley in 1871, 1872 and 1873 which were challenged forcefully by the Sioux under chief Sitting Bull. These clashes, in part, contributed to the Panic of 1873 which delayed construction of the railroad into Montana. Surveys in 1874, 1875 and 1876 helped spark the Great Sioux War of 1876. The transcontinental NPR was completed on September 8, 1883, at Gold Creek. | [
{
"answer": "1881",
"question": "When did the Northern Pacific Railroad reach Montana from the west?"
},
{
"answer": "1882",
"question": "When did the Northern Pacific Railroad reach Montana from the east?"
},
{
"answer": "1871, 1872 and 1873",
"question": "What years were the railro... |
159 | Under Territorial Governor Thomas Meagher, Montanans held a constitutional convention in 1866 in a failed bid for statehood. A second constitutional convention was held in Helena in 1884 that produced a constitution ratified 3:1 by Montana citizens in November 1884. For political reasons, Congress did not approve Montana statehood until 1889. Congress approved Montana statehood in February 1889 and President Grover Cleveland signed an omnibus bill granting statehood to Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota and Washington once the appropriate state constitutions were crafted. In July 1889, Montanans convened their third constitutional convention and produced a constitution acceptable by the people and the federal government. On November 8, 1889 President Benjamin Harrison proclaimed Montana the forty-first state in the union. The first state governor was Joseph K. Toole. In the 1880s, Helena (the current state capital) had more millionaires per capita than any other United States city. | [
{
"answer": "1866",
"question": "When was the first constitutional convention held in Montana?"
},
{
"answer": "bid for statehood",
"question": "Why was this constitutional convention held?"
},
{
"answer": "1884",
"question": "When was the second constitutional convention held?"
},... |
160 | The Homestead Act of 1862 provided free land to settlers who could claim and "prove-up" 160 acres (0.65 km2) of federal land in the midwest and western United States. Montana did not see a large influx of immigrants from this act because 160 acres was usually insufficient to support a family in the arid territory. The first homestead claim under the act in Montana was made by David Carpenter near Helena in 1868. The first claim by a woman was made near Warm Springs Creek by Miss Gwenllian Evans, the daughter of Deer Lodge Montana Pioneer, Morgan Evans. By 1880, there were farms in the more verdant valleys of central and western Montana, but few on the eastern plains. | [
{
"answer": "1862",
"question": "What year did the Homestead Act provide land to settlers?"
},
{
"answer": "160 acres",
"question": "How much land did the Homestead Act allow?"
},
{
"answer": "1868",
"question": "What year was the first homestead claim claimed?"
}
] |
161 | The Desert Land Act of 1877 was passed to allow settlement of arid lands in the west and allotted 640 acres (2.6 km2) to settlers for a fee of $.25 per acre and a promise to irrigate the land. After three years, a fee of one dollar per acre would be paid and the land would be owned by the settler. This act brought mostly cattle and sheep ranchers into Montana, many of whom grazed their herds on the Montana prairie for three years, did little to irrigate the land and then abandoned it without paying the final fees. Some farmers came with the arrival of the Great Northern and Northern Pacific Railroads throughout the 1880s and 1890s, though in relatively small numbers. | [
{
"answer": "1877",
"question": "When was the Desert Land Act passed?"
},
{
"answer": "640 acres",
"question": "How much land did the Desert Land Act allot?"
},
{
"answer": "$.25",
"question": "How much was the charge per acre at first?"
}
] |
163 | In June 1917, the U.S. Congress passed the Espionage Act of 1917 which was later extended by the Sedition Act of 1918, enacted in May 1918. In February 1918, the Montana legislature had passed the Montana Sedition Act, which was a model for the federal version. In combination, these laws criminalized criticism of the U.S. government, military, or symbols through speech or other means. The Montana Act led to the arrest of over 200 individuals and the conviction of 78, mostly of German or Austrian descent. Over 40 spent time in prison. In May 2006, then-Governor Brian Schweitzer posthumously issued full pardons for all those convicted of violating the Montana Sedition Act. | [
{
"answer": "1917",
"question": "When did Congress pass the Espionage Act?"
},
{
"answer": "1918",
"question": "When was the Sedition Act passed?"
},
{
"answer": "criminalized criticism of the U.S. government, military, or symbols through speech or other means",
"question": "What wer... |
165 | The phrase "in whole or in part" has been subject to much discussion by scholars of international humanitarian law. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001) that Genocide had been committed. In Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Appeals Chamber – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004) paragraphs 8, 9, 10, and 11 addressed the issue of in part and found that "the part must be a substantial part of that group. The aim of the Genocide Convention is to prevent the intentional destruction of entire human groups, and the part targeted must be significant enough to have an impact on the group as a whole." The Appeals Chamber goes into details of other cases and the opinions of respected commentators on the Genocide Convention to explain how they came to this conclusion. | [
{
"answer": "entire human groups",
"question": "In the judgement, it is stated that the aim of the Genocide Convention, at its most simplest, is preventing the destruction of which victims?"
},
{
"answer": "that group",
"question": "In addressing the issue of \"in part,\" the Appeals Chamber fou... |
166 | In the same judgement the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts judgements. It noted that International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Court of Justice had agreed with the narrow interpretation, that biological-physical destruction was necessary for an act to qualify as genocide. The ECHR also noted that at the time of its judgement, apart from courts in Germany which had taken a broad view, that there had been few cases of genocide under other Convention States municipal laws and that "There are no reported cases in which the courts of these States have defined the type of group destruction the perpetrator must have intended in order to be found guilty of genocide". | [
{
"answer": "that biological-physical destruction was necessary",
"question": "Two bodies of the United Nations agreed with what restricted provision in defining genocide?"
},
{
"answer": "the type of group destruction",
"question": "A definition of what, by the States, was necessary to preserve... |
167 | After the Holocaust, which had been perpetrated by the Nazi Germany and its allies prior to and during World War II, Lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of international laws defining and forbidding genocides. In 1946, the first session of the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution that "affirmed" that genocide was a crime under international law, but did not provide a legal definition of the crime. In 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) which defined the crime of genocide for the first time. | [
{
"answer": "the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide",
"question": "In 1948, what general assembly resolution established genocide as a prosecutable act? "
},
{
"answer": "Nazi Germany",
"question": "In which war-era country was the Holocaust immortalized? "
},... |
168 | The first draft of the Convention included political killings, but these provisions were removed in a political and diplomatic compromise following objections from some countries, including the USSR, a permanent security council member. The USSR argued that the Convention's definition should follow the etymology of the term, and may have feared greater international scrutiny of its own Great Purge. Other nations feared that including political groups in the definition would invite international intervention in domestic politics. However leading genocide scholar William Schabas states: “Rigorous examination of the travaux fails to confirm a popular impression in the literature that the opposition to inclusion of political genocide was some Soviet machination. The Soviet views were also shared by a number of other States for whom it is difficult to establish any geographic or social common denominator: Lebanon, Sweden, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela, the Philippines, the Dominican Republic, Iran, Egypt, Belgium, and Uruguay. The exclusion of political groups was in fact originally promoted by a non-governmental organization, the World Jewish Congress, and it corresponded to Raphael Lemkin’s vision of the nature of the crime of genocide.” | [
{
"answer": "political killings",
"question": "Which provision was initially included in the first write-up of the Convention and then removed?"
},
{
"answer": "USSR",
"question": "What is one of the countries that objected to the inclusion of political killings in the early version of the Conve... |
169 | In 2007 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. Germany case that in 1992 the majority of legal scholars took the narrow view that "intent to destroy" in the CPPCG meant the intended physical-biological destruction of the protected group and that this was still the majority opinion. But the ECHR also noted that a minority took a broader view and did not consider biological-physical destruction was necessary as the intent to destroy a national, racial, religious or ethnic group was enough to qualify as genocide. | [
{
"answer": "majority of legal scholars",
"question": "Which group was accused by the ECHR of having an overly constricted idea of the meaning of destruction in defining genocide?"
},
{
"answer": "national, racial, religious or ethnic",
"question": "What groups did the ECHR feel should be includ... |
170 | The word genocide was later included as a descriptive term to the process of indictment, but not yet as a formal legal term According to Lemming, genocide was defined as "a coordinated strategy to destroy a group of people, a process that could be accomplished through total annihilation as well as strategies that eliminate key elements of the group's basic existence, including language, culture, and economic infrastructure.” He created a concept of mobilizing much of the international relations and community, to working together and preventing the occurrence of such events happening within history and the international society. Australian anthropologist Peg LeVine coined the term "ritualcide" to describe the destruction of a group's cultural identity without necessarily destroying its members. | [
{
"answer": "as a descriptive term",
"question": "Prior to being a formal legal term, how was the word \"genocide\" used in an indictment scenario?"
},
{
"answer": "Lemming",
"question": "Who ultimately defined genocide as a series of strategies leading up to the annihilation of an entire group?... |
171 | The study of genocide has mainly been focused towards the legal aspect of the term. By formally recognizing the act of genocide as a crime, involves the undergoing prosecution that begins with not only seeing genocide as outrageous past any moral standpoint but also may be a legal liability within international relations. When genocide is looked at in a general aspect it is viewed as the deliberate killing of a certain group. Yet is commonly seen to escape the process of trial and prosecution due to the fact that genocide is more often than not committed by the officials in power of a state or area. In 1648 before the term genocide had been coined, the Peace of Westphalia was established to protect ethnic, national, racial and in some instances religious groups. During the 19th century humanitarian intervention was needed due to the fact of conflict and justification of some of the actions executed by the military. | [
{
"answer": "legal aspect of the term",
"question": "What has been the primary focus in the study of genocide?"
},
{
"answer": "a crime",
"question": "In prosecuting genocide, what must the act be formally acknowledged as?"
},
{
"answer": "the deliberate killing of a certain group",
... |
172 | Genocide has become an official term used in international relations. The word genocide was not in use before 1944. Before this, in 1941, Winston Churchill described the mass killing of Russian prisoners of war and civilians as "a crime without a name". In that year, a Polish-Jewish lawyer named Raphael Lemkin, described the policies of systematic murder founded by the Nazis as genocide. The word genocide is the combination of the Greek prefix geno- (meaning tribe or race) and caedere (the Latin word for to kill). The word is defined as a specific set of violent crimes that are committed against a certain group with the attempt to remove the entire group from existence or to destroy them. | [
{
"answer": "1944",
"question": "When was the word \"genocide\" first used?"
},
{
"answer": "The word genocide is the combination of the Greek prefix geno- (meaning tribe or race) and caedere (the Latin word for to kill).",
"question": "What is the etymology of the term \"genocide\"?"
},
{
... |
173 | The judges continue in paragraph 12, "The determination of when the targeted part is substantial enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations. The numeric size of the targeted part of the group is the necessary and important starting point, though not in all cases the ending point of the inquiry. The number of individuals targeted should be evaluated not only in absolute terms, but also in relation to the overall size of the entire group. In addition to the numeric size of the targeted portion, its prominence within the group can be a useful consideration. If a specific part of the group is emblematic of the overall group, or is essential to its survival, that may support a finding that the part qualifies as substantial within the meaning of Article 4 [of the Tribunal's Statute]." | [
{
"answer": "when the targeted part is substantial enough",
"question": "Several considerations were involved in meeting the requirement to determine what? "
},
{
"answer": "The numeric size",
"question": "What is the key aspect of the targeted part of the group at the starting point of the inq... |
174 | In paragraph 13 the judges raise the issue of the perpetrators' access to the victims: "The historical examples of genocide also suggest that the area of the perpetrators’ activity and control, as well as the possible extent of their reach, should be considered. ... The intent to destroy formed by a perpetrator of genocide will always be limited by the opportunity presented to him. While this factor alone will not indicate whether the targeted group is substantial, it can—in combination with other factors—inform the analysis." | [
{
"answer": "perpetrators' access to the victims",
"question": "The issue of what is raised by judges in Paragraph 13? "
},
{
"answer": "historical examples of genocide",
"question": "What is the basis for suggesting that several factors regarding the activity of the perpetrators be considered? ... |
175 | The Convention came into force as international law on 12 January 1951 after the minimum 20 countries became parties. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council were parties to the treaty: France and the Republic of China. The Soviet Union ratified in 1954, the United Kingdom in 1970, the People's Republic of China in 1983 (having replaced the Taiwan-based Republic of China on the UNSC in 1971), and the United States in 1988. This long delay in support for the Convention by the world's most powerful nations caused the Convention to languish for over four decades. Only in the 1990s did the international law on the crime of genocide begin to be enforced. | [
{
"answer": "12 January 1951",
"question": "On which date did the Genocide Convention become effective?"
},
{
"answer": "20",
"question": "What was the minimum number of countries necessary to form parties? "
},
{
"answer": "only two",
"question": "Of the five permanent members of th... |
176 | Writing in 1998 Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Björnson stated that the CPPCG was a legal instrument resulting from a diplomatic compromise. As such the wording of the treaty is not intended to be a definition suitable as a research tool, and although it is used for this purpose, as it has an international legal credibility that others lack, other definitions have also been postulated. Jonassohn and Björnson go on to say that none of these alternative definitions have gained widespread support for various reasons. | [
{
"answer": "a diplomatic compromise",
"question": "In 1998 it was written that the CPPCG was a legal entity resulting in which type of compromise?"
},
{
"answer": "a research tool",
"question": "Rather than a definition, the text of the treaty is considered as what type of tool?"
},
{
"... |
177 | Jonassohn and Björnson postulate that the major reason why no single generally accepted genocide definition has emerged is because academics have adjusted their focus to emphasise different periods and have found it expedient to use slightly different definitions to help them interpret events. For example, Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn studied the whole of human history, while Leo Kuper and R. J. Rummel in their more recent works concentrated on the 20th century, and Helen Fein, Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr have looked at post World War II events. Jonassohn and Björnson are critical of some of these studies, arguing that they are too expansive, and conclude that the academic discipline of genocide studies is too young to have a canon of work on which to build an academic paradigm. | [
{
"answer": "Jonassohn and Björnson",
"question": "What two writers examined the lack of an accepted and singular definition for genocide?"
},
{
"answer": "their focus",
"question": "The two writers suggested that academics adjusted what in their different definitions to assist them in interpret... |
178 | The exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the CPPCG legal definition has been criticized by some historians and sociologists, for example M. Hassan Kakar in his book The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982 argues that the international definition of genocide is too restricted, and that it should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator and quotes Chalk and Jonassohn: "Genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group, as that group and membership in it are defined by the perpetrator." While there are various definitions of the term, Adam Jones states that the majority of genocide scholars consider that "intent to destroy" is a requirement for any act to be labelled genocide, and that there is growing agreement on the inclusion of the physical destruction criterion. | [
{
"answer": "social and political groups",
"question": "Some historians were critical of what exclusion in the definition of victims of genocide?"
},
{
"answer": "The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response",
"question": "In what book did Kakar contend that the international definition of genoci... |
179 | Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr defined genocide as "the promotion and execution of policies by a state or its agents which result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a group ...[when] the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or nationality." Harff and Gurr also differentiate between genocides and politicides by the characteristics by which members of a group are identified by the state. In genocides, the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or nationality. In politicides the victim groups are defined primarily in terms of their hierarchical position or political opposition to the regime and dominant groups. Daniel D. Polsby and Don B. Kates, Jr. state that "... we follow Harff's distinction between genocides and 'pogroms,' which she describes as 'short-lived outbursts by mobs, which, although often condoned by authorities, rarely persist.' If the violence persists for long enough, however, Harff argues, the distinction between condonation and complicity collapses." | [
{
"answer": "policies",
"question": "Harff and Gurr's definition of genocide included the promotion and execution of what, by a state or its agents?"
},
{
"answer": "victimized groups",
"question": "Harff and Gurr further defined what in terms of ethnicity, religion or nationality?"
},
{
... |
180 | According to R. J. Rummel, genocide has 3 different meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. This also includes non-killings that in the end eliminate the group, such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children out of the group to another group. A generalized meaning of genocide is similar to the ordinary meaning but also includes government killings of political opponents or otherwise intentional murder. It is to avoid confusion regarding what meaning is intended that Rummel created the term democide for the third meaning. | [
{
"answer": "murder by government",
"question": "In the writings of Rummel, what is the first and ordinary meaning of genocide?"
},
{
"answer": "religious group",
"question": "Rummel postulates that murder of people of government is due to national, ethnic, racial and which other membership?"
... |
181 | Highlighting the potential for state and non-state actors to commit genocide in the 21st century, for example, in failed states or as non-state actors acquire weapons of mass destruction, Adrian Gallagher defined genocide as 'When a source of collective power (usually a state) intentionally uses its power base to implement a process of destruction in order to destroy a group (as defined by the perpetrator), in whole or in substantial part, dependent upon relative group size'. The definition upholds the centrality of intent, the multidimensional understanding of destroy, broadens the definition of group identity beyond that of the 1948 definition yet argues that a substantial part of a group has to be destroyed before it can be classified as genocide (dependent on relative group size). | [
{
"answer": "Adrian Gallagher",
"question": "In terms of failed states and non-state actors, the possession of weapons of mass destruction was an issue examined by which writer?"
},
{
"answer": "collective power",
"question": "In Gallagher's definition of genocide, a source of what is malicious ... |
182 | All signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both in peace and wartime, though some barriers make this enforcement difficult. In particular, some of the signatories—namely, Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, the United States, Vietnam, Yemen, and former Yugoslavia—signed with the proviso that no claim of genocide could be brought against them at the International Court of Justice without their consent. Despite official protests from other signatories (notably Cyprus and Norway) on the ethics and legal standing of these reservations, the immunity from prosecution they grant has been invoked from time to time, as when the United States refused to allow a charge of genocide brought against it by former Yugoslavia following the 1999 Kosovo War. | [
{
"answer": "acts of genocide",
"question": "Signatories to the CPPC are required to prevent and punish what?"
},
{
"answer": "both in peace and wartime",
"question": "During which times can a perpetrator of genocide be charged?"
},
{
"answer": "no claim of genocide could be brought agai... |
183 | Because the universal acceptance of international laws which in 1948 defined and forbade genocide with the promulgation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG), those criminals who were prosecuted after the war in international courts for taking part in the Holocaust were found guilty of crimes against humanity and other more specific crimes like murder. Nevertheless, the Holocaust is universally recognized to have been a genocide and the term, that had been coined the year before by Raphael Lemkin, appeared in the indictment of the 24 Nazi leaders, Count 3, which stated that all the defendants had "conducted deliberate and systematic genocide—namely, the extermination of racial and national groups..." | [
{
"answer": "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide",
"question": "In 1948 the worldwide acceptance of international laws that defined and forbade genocide was promulgated by which treaty?"
},
{
"answer": "humanity",
"question": "Perpetrators who were tried after Wo... |
184 | On 12 July 2007, European Court of Human Rights when dismissing the appeal by Nikola Jorgić against his conviction for genocide by a German court (Jorgic v. Germany) noted that the German courts wider interpretation of genocide has since been rejected by international courts considering similar cases. The ECHR also noted that in the 21st century "Amongst scholars, the majority have taken the view that ethnic cleansing, in the way in which it was carried out by the Serb forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to expel Muslims and Croats from their homes, did not constitute genocide. However, there are also a considerable number of scholars who have suggested that these acts did amount to genocide, and the ICTY has found in the Momcilo Krajisnik case that the actus reu, of genocide was met in Prijedor "With regard to the charge of genocide, the Chamber found that in spite of evidence of acts perpetrated in the municipalities which constituted the actus reus of genocide". | [
{
"answer": "European Court of Human Rights",
"question": "Which court dismissed Nikola Jorgic's appeal against his conviction for genocide by a German court?"
},
{
"answer": "wider interpretation of genocide",
"question": "In Jorgic v. Germany, what about the German courts was later rejected by... |
185 | About 30 people have been indicted for participating in genocide or complicity in genocide during the early 1990s in Bosnia. To date, after several plea bargains and some convictions that were successfully challenged on appeal two men, Vujadin Popović and Ljubiša Beara, have been found guilty of committing genocide, Zdravko Tolimir has been found guilty of committing genocide and conspiracy to commit genocide, and two others, Radislav Krstić and Drago Nikolić, have been found guilty of aiding and abetting genocide. Three others have been found guilty of participating in genocides in Bosnia by German courts, one of whom Nikola Jorgić lost an appeal against his conviction in the European Court of Human Rights. A further eight men, former members of the Bosnian Serb security forces were found guilty of genocide by the State Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina (See List of Bosnian genocide prosecutions). | [
{
"answer": "About 30",
"question": "In the 1990s, how many people were indicted for war crimes that were officially defined as genocide?"
},
{
"answer": "several plea bargains",
"question": "Convicted perpetrators Popovic and Beara were found guilty of genocide despite what evasive action?"
}... |
186 | Slobodan Milošević, as the former President of Serbia and of Yugoslavia, was the most senior political figure to stand trial at the ICTY. He died on 11 March 2006 during his trial where he was accused of genocide or complicity in genocide in territories within Bosnia and Herzegovina, so no verdict was returned. In 1995, the ICTY issued a warrant for the arrest of Bosnian Serbs Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić on several charges including genocide. On 21 July 2008, Karadžić was arrested in Belgrade, and he is currently in The Hague on trial accused of genocide among other crimes. Ratko Mladić was arrested on 26 May 2011 by Serbian special police in Lazarevo, Serbia. Karadzic was convicted of ten of the eleven charges laid against him and sentenced to 40 years in prison on March 24 2016. | [
{
"answer": "He died",
"question": "What event occurred in March 2006 that essentially ended Milosevic's trial?"
},
{
"answer": "Belgrade",
"question": "Where was Karadzic when he was finally arrested?"
},
{
"answer": "Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić",
"question": "With Milosevic d... |
187 | The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) is a court under the auspices of the United Nations for the prosecution of offenses committed in Rwanda during the genocide which occurred there during April 1994, commencing on 6 April. The ICTR was created on 8 November 1994 by the Security Council of the United Nations in order to judge those people responsible for the acts of genocide and other serious violations of the international law performed in the territory of Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31 December 1994. | [
{
"answer": "International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)",
"question": "What court was established under the aegis of the United Nations to prosecute genocidal crimes in Rwanda?"
},
{
"answer": "April 1994",
"question": "The prosecutorial efforts of the ICTR focused on genocidal acts that ... |
188 | There has been much debate over categorizing the situation in Darfur as genocide. The ongoing conflict in Darfur, Sudan, which started in 2003, was declared a "genocide" by United States Secretary of State Colin Powell on 9 September 2004 in testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. Since that time however, no other permanent member of the UN Security Council followed suit. In fact, in January 2005, an International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, authorized by UN Security Council Resolution 1564 of 2004, issued a report to the Secretary-General stating that "the Government of the Sudan has not pursued a policy of genocide." Nevertheless, the Commission cautioned that "The conclusion that no genocidal policy has been pursued and implemented in Darfur by the Government authorities, directly or through the militias under their control, should not be taken in any way as detracting from the gravity of the crimes perpetrated in that region. International offences such as the crimes against humanity and war crimes that have been committed in Darfur may be no less serious and heinous than genocide." | [
{
"answer": "situation in Darfur",
"question": "What has been widely debated as a possible act of genocide in Sudan?"
},
{
"answer": "Colin Powell",
"question": "In 2003 what well known U.S. Secretary of State declared the situation in Darfur as an act of genocide?"
},
{
"answer": "the S... |
189 | In March 2005, the Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, taking into account the Commission report but without mentioning any specific crimes. Two permanent members of the Security Council, the United States and China, abstained from the vote on the referral resolution. As of his fourth report to the Security Council, the Prosecutor has found "reasonable grounds to believe that the individuals identified [in the UN Security Council Resolution 1593] have committed crimes against humanity and war crimes," but did not find sufficient evidence to prosecute for genocide. | [
{
"answer": "Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court",
"question": "To whom did the Security Council officially refer the situation in Darfur?"
},
{
"answer": "the Commission report",
"question": "What was taken into account, without mentioning specific crimes?"
},
{
"answer": "th... |
190 | Other authors have focused on the structural conditions leading up to genocide and the psychological and social processes that create an evolution toward genocide. Ervin Staub showed that economic deterioration and political confusion and disorganization were starting points of increasing discrimination and violence in many instances of genocides and mass killing. They lead to scapegoating a group and ideologies that identified that group as an enemy. A history of devaluation of the group that becomes the victim, past violence against the group that becomes the perpetrator leading to psychological wounds, authoritarian cultures and political systems, and the passivity of internal and external witnesses (bystanders) all contribute to the probability that the violence develops into genocide. Intense conflict between groups that is unresolved, becomes intractable and violent can also lead to genocide. The conditions that lead to genocide provide guidance to early prevention, such as humanizing a devalued group, creating ideologies that embrace all groups, and activating bystander responses. There is substantial research to indicate how this can be done, but information is only slowly transformed into action. | [
{
"answer": "structural conditions",
"question": "In the build-up to genocide, what have other authors focused on?"
},
{
"answer": "psychological and social",
"question": "What processes are thought to create an evolution toward genocide?"
},
{
"answer": "Ervin Staub",
"question": "W... |
191 | The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains. | [
{
"answer": "resistance of bacteria",
"question": "What is a modern common occurence with antibiotics?"
},
{
"answer": "evolution",
"question": "What is resistance to antibiotics a cause of?"
},
{
"answer": "1943",
"question": "When was the Luria-Delbruck experiment?"
},
{
"a... |
192 | The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy. | [
{
"answer": "concentration",
"question": "What does the potency of antibacterials depend upon?"
},
{
"answer": "bacterial infection",
"question": "What does this eliminate?"
},
{
"answer": "bacterial growth phase",
"question": "What does the bactericidal activitty of antibacterials d... |
194 | With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.[citation needed] | [
{
"answer": "semisynthetic modifications",
"question": "What are antibiotics in chemical terms?"
},
{
"answer": "beta-lactam antibiotics",
"question": "What type of antibiotics include penicilin?"
},
{
"answer": "aminoglycosides",
"question": "What are the type of antibiotics which a... |
195 | Antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century, and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world. Their effectiveness and easy access led to overuse, especially in livestock raising, prompting bacteria to develop resistance. This has led to widespread problems with antimicrobial and antibiotic resistance, so much as to prompt the World Health Organization to classify antimicrobial resistance as a "serious threat [that] is no longer a prediction for the future, it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country". | [
{
"answer": "tuberculosis",
"question": "What is one disease that has been nearly eradicated thanks to vaccines and antibiotics?"
},
{
"answer": "overuse, especially in livestock raising, prompting bacteria to develop resistance",
"question": "What is one issue that can arise from overuse of ant... |
196 | In empirical therapy, a patient has proven or suspected infection, but the responsible microorganism is not yet unidentified. While the microorgainsim is being identified the doctor will usually administer the best choice of antibiotic that will be most active against the likely cause of infection usually a broad spectrum antibiotic. Empirical therapy is usually initiated before the doctor knows the exact identification of microorgansim causing the infection as the identification process make take several days in the laboratory. | [
{
"answer": "empirical therapy",
"question": "What is one kind of therapy that may be used when a patience has an infection, but it has not been identified?"
},
{
"answer": "laboratory",
"question": "Where do doctors perform microorganism identification testing?"
},
{
"answer": "broad sp... |
199 | The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. | [
{
"answer": "The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills",
"question": "Do antibiotics interact with birth control pills?"
},
{
"answer": "about 1%",
"question": "What percentage of birth control pill failure is attributed to antibiotics?"
},
{
"ans... |
200 | Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Despite the lack of a categorical counterindication, the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread. | [
{
"answer": "decreased effectiveness",
"question": "What is one potential issue with drinking alcohol while taking antibiotics?"
},
{
"answer": "moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics",
"question": "Do all antibiotics interact dangerously with alcohol?... |
201 | Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound. | [
{
"answer": "Intrinsic antibacterial resistance",
"question": "What is part of hje the make up of bacterial strains?"
},
{
"answer": "antibacterial resistance genes",
"question": "What is exchanged between between bacterial strains or species via plasmids that have this resistance?"
},
{
... |
202 | Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis (TB) that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials. The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency has stated that "most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections." | [
{
"answer": "superbugs",
"question": "What are strains that are resistant to antibiotics called sometimes?"
},
{
"answer": "tuberculosis",
"question": "What was a once almost controlled disease that is coming back do to resistance?"
},
{
"answer": "half a million",
"question": "How m... |
203 | Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Self prescription of antibiotics is an example of misuse. Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or that are likely to resolve without treatment. Also, incorrect or suboptimal antibiotics are prescribed for certain bacterial infections. The overuse of antibiotics, like penicillin and erythromycin, has been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance since the 1950s. Widespread usage of antibiotics in hospitals has also been associated with increases in bacterial strains and species that no longer respond to treatment with the most common antibiotics. | [
{
"answer": "Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse",
"question": "What are the two biggest reasons for resistance?"
},
{
"answer": "Self prescription",
"question": "What is a common method of misuse?"
},
{
"answer": "overuse of antibiotics",
"question": "What is an example o... |
204 | Common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment, for example, is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the common cold. One study on respiratory tract infections found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them". Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescription of antibiotics. | [
{
"answer": "prophylactic antibiotics",
"question": "What is a way of improperly using antibiotics for those traveling?"
},
{
"answer": "failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage",
"question": "What can happen if a doctor doesn't prescribe to a person's weight and prior us... |
205 | Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to actively address antimicrobial resistance, and is coordinated by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), as well as other US agencies. An NGO campaign group is Keep Antibiotics Working. In France, an "Antibiotics are not automatic" government campaign started in 2002 and led to a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, especially in children. | [
{
"answer": "US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance",
"question": "What is the name of a US government agency tasked with trying to stop improper use of antibiotics?"
},
{
"answer": "US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the Nationa... |
206 | The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)) have called for restrictions on antibiotic use in food animal production and an end to all nontherapeutic uses.[citation needed] However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742 and H.R. 2562) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed. These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including the American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA). | [
{
"answer": "2003",
"question": "When did the EU ban antibiotics for speeding up growth?"
},
{
"answer": "Swann report 1969",
"question": "What report caused the UK to worry about resistance?"
},
{
"answer": "American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (AP... |
207 | There has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock, which violated FDA regulations. | [
{
"answer": "animal husbandry",
"question": "What besides sick people are antibiotics used for?"
},
{
"answer": "1977",
"question": "When was resistance first discussed as a problem in the raising of farm animals?"
},
{
"answer": "March 2012",
"question": "When did a district court o... |
209 | The effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming postulated that the effect is mediated by an antibacterial compound he named penicillin, and that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterized some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists. | [
{
"answer": "mold",
"question": "What type of organism has been reported to have worked on infections?"
},
{
"answer": "Alexander Fleming",
"question": "Who noticed in a lab the antibacterial characteristics of mold?"
},
{
"answer": "penicillin",
"question": "What mold did Fleming no... |
210 | The first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against Gram-positive cocci, but not against enterobacteria. Research was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibacterials. | [
{
"answer": "Prontosil",
"question": "What was the first available antibiotic?"
},
{
"answer": "IG Farben",
"question": "What company developed Prontosil?"
},
{
"answer": "Gerhard Domagk",
"question": "Who led the team that came up with Prontosil?"
},
{
"answer": "1939 Nobel ... |
211 | In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II. Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the Axis and the Allied powers during the war. | [
{
"answer": "tyrothricin",
"question": "What was the first antibiotic developed from nature?"
},
{
"answer": "1939",
"question": "When was tyrothricin created?"
},
{
"answer": "start of World War II,",
"question": "What also happened in 1939 besides tyrothricin?"
},
{
"answer... |
212 | Florey and Chain succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, Norman Heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of penicillin was determined by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin in 1945. Purified penicillin displayed potent antibacterial activity against a wide range of bacteria and had low toxicity in humans. Furthermore, its activity was not inhibited by biological constituents such as pus, unlike the synthetic sulfonamides. The discovery of such a powerful antibiotic was unprecedented, and the development of penicillin led to renewed interest in the search for antibiotic compounds with similar efficacy and safety. For their successful development of penicillin, which Fleming had accidentally discovered but could not develop himself, as a therapeutic drug, Ernst Chain and Howard Florey shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Medicine with Fleming. Florey credited Dubos with pioneering the approach of deliberately and systematically searching for antibacterial compounds, which had led to the discovery of gramicidin and had revived Florey's research in penicillin. | [
{
"answer": "1942",
"question": "When was penicillin G first purified?"
},
{
"answer": "1945",
"question": "When did penicillin G become available outside of military use?"
},
{
"answer": "Norman Heatley",
"question": "Who came up with a way to quickly produce penicillin?"
},
{
... |
213 | Vaccines rely on immune modulation or augmentation. Vaccination either excites or reinforces the immune competence of a host to ward off infection, leading to the activation of macrophages, the production of antibodies, inflammation, and other classic immune reactions. Antibacterial vaccines have been responsible for a drastic reduction in global bacterial diseases. Vaccines made from attenuated whole cells or lysates have been replaced largely by less reactogenic, cell-free vaccines consisting of purified components, including capsular polysaccharides and their conjugates, to protein carriers, as well as inactivated toxins (toxoids) and proteins. | [
{
"answer": "immune modulation or augmentation",
"question": "What do vaccines need to work?"
},
{
"answer": "Antibacterial vaccines",
"question": "What type of vaccines have saved millions of lives?"
},
{
"answer": "Vaccines made from attenuated whole cells or lysates",
"question": ... |
214 | Phage therapy is another option that is being looked into for treating resistant strains of bacteria. The way that researchers are doing this is by infecting pathogenic bacteria with their own viruses, more specifically, bacteriophages. Bacteriophages, also known simply as phages, are precisely bacterial viruses that infect bacteria by disrupting pathogenic bacterium lytic cycles. By disrupting the lytic cycles of bacterium, phages destroy their metabolism, which eventually results in the cell's death. Phages will insert their DNA into the bacterium, allowing their DNA to be transcribed. Once their DNA is transcribed the cell will proceed to make new phages and as soon as they are ready to be released, the cell will lyse. One of the worries about using phages to fight pathogens is that the phages will infect "good" bacteria, or the bacteria that are important in the everyday function of human beings. However, studies have proven that phages are very specific when they target bacteria, which makes researchers confident that bacteriophage therapy is the definite route to defeating antibiotic resistant bacteria. | [
{
"answer": "Phage therapy",
"question": "What has been talked about to treat resistant bacteria?"
},
{
"answer": "infecting pathogenic bacteria",
"question": "How have researchers been doing this?"
},
{
"answer": "phages will infect \"good\" bacteria",
"question": "What is a worry o... |
215 | In April 2013, the Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA) reported that the weak antibiotic pipeline does not match bacteria's increasing ability to develop resistance. Since 2009, only 2 new antibiotics were approved in the United States. The number of new antibiotics approved for marketing per year declines continuously. The report identified seven antibiotics against the Gram-negative bacilli (GNB) currently in phase 2 or phase 3 clinical trials. However, these drugs do not address the entire spectrum of resistance of GNB. Some of these antibiotics are combination of existent treatments: | [
{
"answer": "2",
"question": "How many antibiotics have been created in the last 7 years?"
},
{
"answer": "seven",
"question": "How many are in the pipelin to fight GNB?"
},
{
"answer": "2013",
"question": "What year did the Infectious Disease Society of America say that production o... |
216 | Possible improvements include clarification of clinical trial regulations by FDA. Furthermore, appropriate economic incentives could persuade pharmaceutical companies to invest in this endeavor. Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment (ADAPT) Act aims to fast track the drug development to combat the growing threat of 'superbugs'. Under this Act, FDA can approve antibiotics and antifungals treating life-threatening infections based on smaller clinical trials. The CDC will monitor the use of antibiotics and the emerging resistance, and publish the data. The FDA antibiotics labeling process, 'Susceptibility Test Interpretive Criteria for Microbial Organisms' or 'breakpoints', will provide accurate data to healthcare professionals. According to Allan Coukell, senior director for health programs at The Pew Charitable Trusts, "By allowing drug developers to rely on smaller datasets, and clarifying FDA's authority to tolerate a higher level of uncertainty for these drugs when making a risk/benefit calculation, ADAPT would make the clinical trials more feasible." | [
{
"answer": "FDA",
"question": "Who regulates antibiotic approval?"
},
{
"answer": "economic incentives",
"question": "What could help to spur pharmaceuticals to make new antibiotics?"
},
{
"answer": "superbugs",
"question": "What are resistant bacteria called in the media?"
},
{... |
217 | Frédéric François Chopin (/ˈʃoʊpæn/; French pronunciation: [fʁe.de.ʁik fʁɑ̃.swa ʃɔ.pɛ̃]; 22 February or 1 March 1810 – 17 October 1849), born Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin,[n 1] was a Polish and French (by citizenship and birth of father) composer and a virtuoso pianist of the Romantic era, who wrote primarily for the solo piano. He gained and has maintained renown worldwide as one of the leading musicians of his era, whose "poetic genius was based on a professional technique that was without equal in his generation." Chopin was born in what was then the Duchy of Warsaw, and grew up in Warsaw, which after 1815 became part of Congress Poland. A child prodigy, he completed his musical education and composed his earlier works in Warsaw before leaving Poland at the age of 20, less than a month before the outbreak of the November 1830 Uprising. | [
{
"answer": "Polish and French",
"question": "What was Frédéric's nationalities?"
},
{
"answer": "Romantic era",
"question": "In what era was Frédéric active in?"
},
{
"answer": "solo piano",
"question": "For what instrument did Frédéric write primarily for?"
},
{
"answer": "... |
218 | At the age of 21 he settled in Paris. Thereafter, during the last 18 years of his life, he gave only some 30 public performances, preferring the more intimate atmosphere of the salon. He supported himself by selling his compositions and teaching piano, for which he was in high demand. Chopin formed a friendship with Franz Liszt and was admired by many of his musical contemporaries, including Robert Schumann. In 1835 he obtained French citizenship. After a failed engagement to Maria Wodzińska, from 1837 to 1847 he maintained an often troubled relationship with the French writer George Sand. A brief and unhappy visit to Majorca with Sand in 1838–39 was one of his most productive periods of composition. In his last years, he was financially supported by his admirer Jane Stirling, who also arranged for him to visit Scotland in 1848. Through most of his life, Chopin suffered from poor health. He died in Paris in 1849, probably of tuberculosis. | [
{
"answer": "21",
"question": "At what age did Frédéric move to Paris?"
},
{
"answer": "30",
"question": "How many public performances was Frédéric estimated to have given during the remainder of his life?"
},
{
"answer": "1835",
"question": "In what year did Frédéric obtain citizens... |
219 | All of Chopin's compositions include the piano. Most are for solo piano, though he also wrote two piano concertos, a few chamber pieces, and some songs to Polish lyrics. His keyboard style is highly individual and often technically demanding; his own performances were noted for their nuance and sensitivity. Chopin invented the concept of instrumental ballade. His major piano works also include mazurkas, waltzes, nocturnes, polonaises, études, impromptus, scherzos, preludes and sonatas, some published only after his death. Influences on his compositional style include Polish folk music, the classical tradition of J. S. Bach, Mozart and Schubert, the music of all of whom he admired, as well as the Paris salons where he was a frequent guest. His innovations in style, musical form, and harmony, and his association of music with nationalism, were influential throughout and after the late Romantic period. | [
{
"answer": "piano",
"question": "What instrument did every composition by Frédéric include?"
},
{
"answer": "instrumental ballade",
"question": "What concept was Frédéric credited with creating?"
},
{
"answer": "J. S. Bach, Mozart and Schubert",
"question": "Whose music did Frédéric... |
220 | In his native Poland, in France, where he composed most of his works, and beyond, Chopin's music, his status as one of music's earliest superstars, his association (if only indirect) with political insurrection, his love life and his early death have made him, in the public consciousness, a leading symbol of the Romantic era. His works remain popular, and he has been the subject of numerous films and biographies of varying degrees of historical accuracy. | [
{
"answer": "indirect",
"question": "What was the degree of Frédéric's association with political insurrection?"
},
{
"answer": "his love life and his early death",
"question": "What parts of Frédéric's personal life influenced his legacy as a leading symbol of the era?"
},
{
"answer": "... |
221 | Fryderyk Chopin was born in Żelazowa Wola, 46 kilometres (29 miles) west of Warsaw, in what was then the Duchy of Warsaw, a Polish state established by Napoleon. The parish baptismal record gives his birthday as 22 February 1810, and cites his given names in the Latin form Fridericus Franciscus (in Polish, he was Fryderyk Franciszek). However, the composer and his family used the birthdate 1 March,[n 2] which is now generally accepted as the correct date. | [
{
"answer": "Żelazowa Wola",
"question": "In what village was Frédéric born in?"
},
{
"answer": "22 February 1810",
"question": "On what date was Frédéric born on?"
},
{
"answer": "1 March",
"question": "Despite the birthdate given by parish baptismal, what date is given by the compo... |
222 | Fryderyk's father, Nicolas Chopin, was a Frenchman from Lorraine who had emigrated to Poland in 1787 at the age of sixteen. Nicolas tutored children of the Polish aristocracy, and in 1806 married Justyna Krzyżanowska, a poor relative of the Skarbeks, one of the families for whom he worked. Fryderyk was baptized on Easter Sunday, 23 April 1810, in the same church where his parents had married, in Brochów. His eighteen-year-old godfather, for whom he was named, was Fryderyk Skarbek, a pupil of Nicolas Chopin. Fryderyk was the couple's second child and only son; he had an elder sister, Ludwika (1807–55), and two younger sisters, Izabela (1811–81) and Emilia (1812–27). Nicolas was devoted to his adopted homeland, and insisted on the use of the Polish language in the household. | [
{
"answer": "Justyna Krzyżanowska",
"question": "Who did Frédéric's father marry in 1806?"
},
{
"answer": "23 April 1810",
"question": "On what date was Frédéric baptised?"
},
{
"answer": "Polish",
"question": "What language did Frédéric's father, Nicolas, insist on using in the hous... |
223 | In October 1810, six months after Fryderyk's birth, the family moved to Warsaw, where his father acquired a post teaching French at the Warsaw Lyceum, then housed in the Saxon Palace. Fryderyk lived with his family in the Palace grounds. The father played the flute and violin; the mother played the piano and gave lessons to boys in the boarding house that the Chopins kept. Chopin was of slight build, and even in early childhood was prone to illnesses. | [
{
"answer": "October",
"question": "During what month did Frédéric move to Warsaw with his family?"
},
{
"answer": "French",
"question": "What language did Frédéric's father teach after they had moved to Warsaw?"
},
{
"answer": "the Palace grounds",
"question": "Where did Frédéric li... |
224 | Fryderyk may have had some piano instruction from his mother, but his first professional music tutor, from 1816 to 1821, was the Czech pianist Wojciech Żywny. His elder sister Ludwika also took lessons from Żywny, and occasionally played duets with her brother. It quickly became apparent that he was a child prodigy. By the age of seven Fryderyk had begun giving public concerts, and in 1817 he composed two polonaises, in G minor and B-flat major. His next work, a polonaise in A-flat major of 1821, dedicated to Żywny, is his earliest surviving musical manuscript. | [
{
"answer": "Wojciech Żywny",
"question": "Who was Frédéric's first professional teacher in music?"
},
{
"answer": "Ludwika",
"question": "Which sister did Frédéric play duets with sometimes while being tutored at this time?"
},
{
"answer": "7",
"question": "At what age did Frédéric ... |
225 | In 1817 the Saxon Palace was requisitioned by Warsaw's Russian governor for military use, and the Warsaw Lyceum was reestablished in the Kazimierz Palace (today the rectorate of Warsaw University). Fryderyk and his family moved to a building, which still survives, adjacent to the Kazimierz Palace. During this period, Fryderyk was sometimes invited to the Belweder Palace as playmate to the son of the ruler of Russian Poland, Grand Duke Constantine; he played the piano for the Duke and composed a march for him. Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, in his dramatic eclogue, "Nasze Przebiegi" ("Our Discourses", 1818), attested to "little Chopin's" popularity. | [
{
"answer": "1817",
"question": "In what year was the Saxon Palace taken by the Russian governor for use regarding the military?"
},
{
"answer": "Warsaw University",
"question": "What establishment today contains what was known as the Warsaw Lyceum during that time?"
},
{
"answer": "Kazi... |
227 | During 1824–28 Chopin spent his vacations away from Warsaw, at a number of locales.[n 4] In 1824 and 1825, at Szafarnia, he was a guest of Dominik Dziewanowski, the father of a schoolmate. Here for the first time he encountered Polish rural folk music. His letters home from Szafarnia (to which he gave the title "The Szafarnia Courier"), written in a very modern and lively Polish, amused his family with their spoofing of the Warsaw newspapers and demonstrated the youngster's literary gift. | [
{
"answer": "Dominik Dziewanowski",
"question": "Who was Frédéric a guest of during his visit of Szafarnia in 1824 and 1825?"
},
{
"answer": "Szafarnia",
"question": "In which village did Frédéric first experience rural Polish folk music?"
},
{
"answer": "his family",
"question": "To... |
228 | In 1827, soon after the death of Chopin's youngest sister Emilia, the family moved from the Warsaw University building, adjacent to the Kazimierz Palace, to lodgings just across the street from the university, in the south annex of the Krasiński Palace on Krakowskie Przedmieście,[n 5] where Chopin lived until he left Warsaw in 1830.[n 6] Here his parents continued running their boarding house for male students; the Chopin Family Parlour (Salonik Chopinów) became a museum in the 20th century. In 1829 the artist Ambroży Mieroszewski executed a set of portraits of Chopin family members, including the first known portrait of the composer.[n 7] | [
{
"answer": "1827",
"question": "During what year did Frédéric's youngest sister, Emilia, pass away?"
},
{
"answer": "Krakowskie Przedmieście",
"question": "What street did Frédéric's family move to after the death of his youngest sister?"
},
{
"answer": "1830",
"question": "What yea... |
229 | Four boarders at his parents' apartments became Chopin's intimates: Tytus Woyciechowski, Jan Nepomucen Białobłocki, Jan Matuszyński and Julian Fontana; the latter two would become part of his Paris milieu. He was friendly with members of Warsaw's young artistic and intellectual world, including Fontana, Józef Bohdan Zaleski and Stefan Witwicki. He was also attracted to the singing student Konstancja Gładkowska. In letters to Woyciechowski, he indicated which of his works, and even which of their passages, were influenced by his fascination with her; his letter of 15 May 1830 revealed that the slow movement (Larghetto) of his Piano Concerto No. 1 (in E minor) was secretly dedicated to her – "It should be like dreaming in beautiful springtime – by moonlight." His final Conservatory report (July 1829) read: "Chopin F., third-year student, exceptional talent, musical genius." | [
{
"answer": "Jan Matuszyński and Julian Fontana",
"question": "Of the individuals that became intimate with Frédéric during their stay at the family apartments, which two became part of Frédéric's social environment in Paris?"
},
{
"answer": "Konstancja Gładkowska",
"question": "Which singer was... |
230 | In September 1828 Chopin, while still a student, visited Berlin with a family friend, zoologist Feliks Jarocki, enjoying operas directed by Gaspare Spontini and attending concerts by Carl Friedrich Zelter, Felix Mendelssohn and other celebrities. On an 1829 return trip to Berlin, he was a guest of Prince Antoni Radziwiłł, governor of the Grand Duchy of Posen—himself an accomplished composer and aspiring cellist. For the prince and his pianist daughter Wanda, he composed his Introduction and Polonaise brillante in C major for cello and piano, Op. 3. | [
{
"answer": "Feliks Jarocki",
"question": "Who did Frédéric visit Berlin with in September 1828?"
},
{
"answer": "Gaspare Spontini",
"question": "Which opera director did Frédéric see works of during his stay in Berlin?"
},
{
"answer": "Prince Antoni Radziwiłł",
"question": "Who was ... |
231 | Back in Warsaw that year, Chopin heard Niccolò Paganini play the violin, and composed a set of variations, Souvenir de Paganini. It may have been this experience which encouraged him to commence writing his first Études, (1829–32), exploring the capacities of his own instrument. On 11 August, three weeks after completing his studies at the Warsaw Conservatory, he made his debut in Vienna. He gave two piano concerts and received many favourable reviews—in addition to some commenting (in Chopin's own words) that he was "too delicate for those accustomed to the piano-bashing of local artists". In one of these concerts, he premiered his Variations on Là ci darem la mano, Op. 2 (variations on an aria from Mozart's opera Don Giovanni) for piano and orchestra. He returned to Warsaw in September 1829, where he premiered his Piano Concerto No. 2 in F minor, Op. 21 on 17 March 1830. | [
{
"answer": "Souvenir de Paganini",
"question": "What did Frédéric compose after hearing Niccolò Paganini perform on the violin?"
},
{
"answer": "August",
"question": "During what month did Frédéric make his first appearance in Vienna?"
},
{
"answer": "two",
"question": "How many pia... |
232 | Chopin's successes as a composer and performer opened the door to western Europe for him, and on 2 November 1830, he set out, in the words of Zdzisław Jachimecki, "into the wide world, with no very clearly defined aim, forever." With Woyciechowski, he headed for Austria, intending to go on to Italy. Later that month, in Warsaw, the November 1830 Uprising broke out, and Woyciechowski returned to Poland to enlist. Chopin, now alone in Vienna, was nostalgic for his homeland, and wrote to a friend, "I curse the moment of my departure." When in September 1831 he learned, while travelling from Vienna to Paris, that the uprising had been crushed, he expressed his anguish in the pages of his private journal: "Oh God! ... You are there, and yet you do not take vengeance!" Jachimecki ascribes to these events the composer's maturing "into an inspired national bard who intuited the past, present and future of his native Poland." | [
{
"answer": "2 November 1830",
"question": "On what date did Frédéric begin his journey into Western Europe?"
},
{
"answer": "Austria",
"question": "Which country did Frédéric go to first after setting out for Western Europe?"
},
{
"answer": "1830",
"question": "In what year did his ... |
233 | Chopin arrived in Paris in late September 1831; he would never return to Poland, thus becoming one of many expatriates of the Polish Great Emigration. In France he used the French versions of his given names, and after receiving French citizenship in 1835, he travelled on a French passport. However, Chopin remained close to his fellow Poles in exile as friends and confidants and he never felt fully comfortable speaking French. Chopin's biographer Adam Zamoyski writes that he never considered himself to be French, despite his father's French origins, and always saw himself as a Pole. | [
{
"answer": "the Polish Great Emigration",
"question": "What event was Frédéric a part of when he arrived in Paris during the later part of September in 1831?"
},
{
"answer": "French",
"question": "What version of Frédéric's birth name did he begin using after arriving in France?"
},
{
"... |
234 | In Paris, Chopin encountered artists and other distinguished figures, and found many opportunities to exercise his talents and achieve celebrity. During his years in Paris he was to become acquainted with, among many others, Hector Berlioz, Franz Liszt, Ferdinand Hiller, Heinrich Heine, Eugène Delacroix, and Alfred de Vigny. Chopin was also acquainted with the poet Adam Mickiewicz, principal of the Polish Literary Society, some of whose verses he set as songs. | [
{
"answer": "Paris",
"question": "In what city did Frédéric achieve celebrity status?"
},
{
"answer": "Adam Mickiewicz",
"question": "Who was the principal of the Polish Literary Society that Frédéric became acquainted with?"
},
{
"answer": "songs",
"question": "What did Frédéric cre... |
235 | Two Polish friends in Paris were also to play important roles in Chopin's life there. His fellow student at the Warsaw Conservatory, Julian Fontana, had originally tried unsuccessfully to establish himself in England; Albert Grzymała, who in Paris became a wealthy financier and society figure, often acted as Chopin's adviser and "gradually began to fill the role of elder brother in [his] life." Fontana was to become, in the words of Michałowski and Samson, Chopin's "general factotum and copyist". | [
{
"answer": "Julian Fontana",
"question": "Which friend of Frédéric failed to achieve success in England?"
},
{
"answer": "Albert Grzymała",
"question": "Who was Frédéric's trusted adviser while in Paris?"
},
{
"answer": "elder brother",
"question": "What familial role was Albert Grz... |
239 | Although it is not known exactly when Chopin first met Liszt after arriving in Paris, on 12 December 1831 he mentioned in a letter to his friend Woyciechowski that "I have met Rossini, Cherubini, Baillot, etc.—also Kalkbrenner. You would not believe how curious I was about Herz, Liszt, Hiller, etc." Liszt was in attendance at Chopin's Parisian debut on 26 February 1832 at the Salle Pleyel, which led him to remark: "The most vigorous applause seemed not to suffice to our enthusiasm in the presence of this talented musician, who revealed a new phase of poetic sentiment combined with such happy innovation in the form of his art." | [
{
"answer": "Woyciechowski",
"question": "Who was the recipient of Frédéric's letter he wrote on 12 December 1831?"
},
{
"answer": "Herz, Liszt, Hiller",
"question": "What are the three names stated in Frédéric's letter that he had shown interest and curiosity in?"
},
{
"answer": "Liszt"... |
240 | The two became friends, and for many years lived in close proximity in Paris, Chopin at 38 Rue de la Chaussée-d'Antin, and Liszt at the Hôtel de France on the Rue Lafitte, a few blocks away. They performed together on seven occasions between 1833 and 1841. The first, on 2 April 1833, was at a benefit concert organized by Hector Berlioz for his bankrupt Shakespearean actress wife Harriet Smithson, during which they played George Onslow's Sonata in F minor for piano duet. Later joint appearances included a benefit concert for the Benevolent Association of Polish Ladies in Paris. Their last appearance together in public was for a charity concert conducted for the Beethoven Memorial in Bonn, held at the Salle Pleyel and the Paris Conservatory on 25 and 26 April 1841. | [
{
"answer": "38 Rue de la Chaussée-d'Antin",
"question": "What address did Frédéric live at during his stay in Paris?"
},
{
"answer": "a few blocks",
"question": "How far down the road did Liszt live from Frédéric during this time?"
},
{
"answer": "seven",
"question": "How many times... |
244 | On 3 December, Chopin complained about his bad health and the incompetence of the doctors in Majorca: "Three doctors have visited me ... The first said I was dead; the second said I was dying; and the third said I was about to die." He also had problems having his Pleyel piano sent to him. It finally arrived from Paris in December. Chopin wrote to Pleyel in January 1839: "I am sending you my Preludes [(Op. 28)]. I finished them on your little piano, which arrived in the best possible condition in spite of the sea, the bad weather and the Palma customs." Chopin was also able to undertake work on his Ballade No. 2, Op. 38; two Polonaises, Op. 40; and the Scherzo No. 3, Op. 39. | [
{
"answer": "Three",
"question": "How many doctors saw Frédéric by the 3rd of December?"
},
{
"answer": "piano",
"question": "What did Frédéric have trouble playing as a result of his growing illness?"
},
{
"answer": "best possible condition",
"question": "What condition did Frédéric... |
245 | Although this period had been productive, the bad weather had such a detrimental effect on Chopin's health that Sand determined to leave the island. To avoid further customs duties, Sand sold the piano to a local French couple, the Canuts.[n 8] The group traveled first to Barcelona, then to Marseilles, where they stayed for a few months while Chopin convalesced. In May 1839 they headed for the summer to Sand's estate at Nohant, where they spent most summers until 1846. In autumn they returned to Paris, where Chopin's apartment at 5 rue Tronchet was close to Sand's rented accommodation at the rue Pigalle. He frequently visited Sand in the evenings, but both retained some independence. In 1842 he and Sand moved to the Square d'Orléans, living in adjacent buildings. | [
{
"answer": "bad weather",
"question": "What is stated as having a negative effect on Frédéric's health during this productive time?"
},
{
"answer": "Canuts",
"question": "What culture of French people did Sand sell the piano to?"
},
{
"answer": "Marseilles",
"question": "What city d... |
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