Datasets:

zer0int
/

Thatcher_Effect_Faces

pretty_name: Thatcher Effect Face Quartets FFHQ and SFHQ
license: other
task_categories:
  - image-feature-extraction
tags:
  - computer-vision
  - thatcher-effect
  - face-perception
  - vision-transformer
  - ffhq
  - sfhq
configs:
  - config_name: ffhq_passportify_gazefix
    data_files:
      - split: train
        path: data/ffhq/passportify_gazefix/*.parquet
  - config_name: ffhq_passportify
    data_files:
      - split: train
        path: data/ffhq/passportify/*.parquet
  - config_name: ffhq_gazefix
    data_files:
      - split: train
        path: data/ffhq/gazefix/*.parquet
  - config_name: ffhq_original
    data_files:
      - split: train
        path: data/ffhq/original/*.parquet
  - config_name: sfhq_passportify_gazefix
    data_files:
      - split: train
        path: data/sfhq/passportify_gazefix/*.parquet
  - config_name: sfhq_passportify
    data_files:
      - split: train
        path: data/sfhq/passportify/*.parquet
  - config_name: sfhq_gazefix
    data_files:
      - split: train
        path: data/sfhq/gazefix/*.parquet
  - config_name: sfhq_original
    data_files:
      - split: train
        path: data/sfhq/original/*.parquet

Thatcher Effect Faces: FFHQ + SFHQ

A Thatcher Effect dataset for computer vision models.

Format and variants

Contains matched upright Normal/Thatcher + upside-down Normal/Thatcher quartets for researching orientation-dependent face representations.
Four image roots are provided: original, gaze-corrected, frontal-view corrected (passportify), and frontal-view plus gaze-corrected.
One row per identity/condition with four embedded, lossless PNG images: normal_u, normal_i, thatcher_u, thatcher_i.

Roots: original, gazefix, passportify, passportify_gazefix.
Face conditions: both (eyes and mouth), eo (eyes only), mo (mouth only), ll (left-half mirror), rr (right-half mirror).
Mirror conditions: ll and rr occur only in gaze-corrected roots.

Three-model Thatcher-effect quickstart

The example compares OpenAI CLIP ViT-L/14, SigLIP-2-Large and DINOv2-Large.
Samples only the Full Thatcher both condition.
For per-feature-condition results, see the included getting_started.py.

👉 Click here to expand code for CLIP, SigLIP-2, DINOv2!

# CLIP vs SigLIP 2 Large vs DINOv2 Large on FFHQ and SFHQ.
# Install: pip install -U torch transformers datasets pillow
from itertools import islice
from io import BytesIO
from math import acos, pi
from pathlib import Path
from statistics import fmean, stdev

import torch
import torch.nn.functional as F
from datasets import Image as HFImage, load_dataset
from PIL import Image
from transformers import AutoImageProcessor, AutoProcessor, CLIPModel, Dinov2Model, SiglipVisionModel

REPO = "zer0int/Thatcher_Effect_Faces"  # HF ID by default; also accepts a local export folder.
N = 49  # 49 = Full-Thatcher ('both') quartets from each dataset's original root.
DEVICE = "cuda" if torch.cuda.is_available() else "cpu"
MODELS = [
    ("CLIP ViT-L/14", "openai/clip-vit-large-patch14", "clip"),
    ("SigLIP 2 Large", "google/siglip2-large-patch16-256", "siglip2"),
    ("DINOv2 Large", "facebook/dinov2-large", "dino"),
]


class SiglipImageOnly(SiglipVisionModel):
    # ignore unused text tower and contrastive logits that are unexpected
    # when loading the vision tower from a joint SigLIP checkpoint.
    _keys_to_ignore_on_load_unexpected = set(
        SiglipVisionModel._keys_to_ignore_on_load_unexpected or ()
    ) | {r"^text_model\.", r"^logit_scale$", r"^logit_bias$"}


def decode_rgb(image_value):
    if isinstance(image_value, Image.Image):
        return image_value.convert("RGB")
    if isinstance(image_value, dict):
        if image_value.get("bytes") is not None:
            with Image.open(BytesIO(image_value["bytes"])) as image:
                return image.convert("RGB")
        if image_value.get("path") and Path(image_value["path"]).is_file():
            with Image.open(image_value["path"]) as image:
                return image.convert("RGB")
    raise TypeError(f"Unsupported image format: {type(image_value).__name__}")


def summarize(upright, inverted):
    """Summarize paired faces, keeping model distances distinct from human accuracy."""
    excesses = [i - u for u, i in zip(upright, inverted)]
    n = len(excesses)
    if not n:
        raise ValueError("Cannot summarize an empty set of Thatcher quartets")
    # angular distance / 180 degrees as a genuine bounded percentage.
    # report the *paired* upright-minus-inverted angular distance in pp.
    angular_excess_pp = fmean(
        100.0 / pi * (acos(max(-1., min(1., u))) - acos(max(-1., min(1., i))))
        for u, i in zip(upright, inverted)
    )
    # % of face quartets where inversion makes normal and Thatcher MORE similar.
    favorable_pct = 100.0 * sum(e > 0 for e in excesses) / n
    # face-to-face consistency
    spread = stdev(excesses) if n > 1 else 0.0
    d_faces = fmean(excesses) / spread if spread > 0 else float("nan")
    return fmean(upright), fmean(inverted), fmean(excesses), angular_excess_pp, favorable_pct, d_faces, n


rows_by_source = {}
for source in ("ffhq", "sfhq"):
    if Path(REPO).is_dir():
        shards = sorted((Path(REPO) / "data" / source / "original").glob("*.parquet"))
        if not shards:
            raise FileNotFoundError(f"No {source} Parquet files in {REPO}")
        ds = load_dataset("parquet", data_files={"train": [str(p) for p in shards]},
                          split="train", streaming=False)
    else:
        ds = load_dataset(REPO, f"{source}_original", split="train", streaming=False)
    # .decode(False) is for IterableDataset, not a cached Dataset.
    # Disable automatic image decoding using the Dataset.cast_column API.
    for column in ("normal_u", "normal_i", "thatcher_u", "thatcher_i"):
        if isinstance(ds.features[column], HFImage):
            ds = ds.cast_column(column, HFImage(decode=False))
    rows_by_source[source] = list(islice((r for r in ds if r["face_variant"] == "both"), N))
    if not rows_by_source[source]:
        raise RuntimeError(f"Empty dataset config: {source}_original")

scores = {source: {} for source in rows_by_source}
for label, checkpoint, family in MODELS:
    # SigLIP's vision-only class bypasses the upstream text-config
    processor_cls = AutoProcessor if family == "clip" else AutoImageProcessor
    model_cls = {"clip": CLIPModel, "siglip2": SiglipImageOnly, "dino": Dinov2Model}[family]
    processor = processor_cls.from_pretrained(checkpoint)
    model = model_cls.from_pretrained(checkpoint).to(DEVICE).eval().float()
    for source, rows in rows_by_source.items():
        upright, inverted = [], []
        for row in rows:
            images = [decode_rgb(row[k]) for k in ("normal_u", "normal_i", "thatcher_u", "thatcher_i")]
            batch = {k: v.to(DEVICE) for k, v in processor(images=images, return_tensors="pt").items()}
            with torch.inference_mode():
                if family == "dino":
                    z = model(**batch).last_hidden_state[:, 0, :]
                elif family == "siglip2":
                    z = model(**batch).pooler_output
                else:
                    z = model.get_image_features(**batch)
                    if not isinstance(z, torch.Tensor):
                        z = (getattr(z, "image_embeds", None)
                             if getattr(z, "image_embeds", None) is not None
                             else z.pooler_output)
                z = F.normalize(z.float(), dim=-1)
                upright.append((z[0] * z[2]).sum().item())
                inverted.append((z[1] * z[3]).sum().item())
        scores[source][label] = summarize(upright, inverted)
    del model
    if DEVICE == "cuda":
        torch.cuda.empty_cache()

for source in ("ffhq", "sfhq"):
    print(f"\n{source.upper()} — original root, full Thatcher, {len(rows_by_source[source])} quartets")
    print(f"{'Model':20} {'N':>3} {'upright':>9} {'inverted':>9} {'cos excess':>10} {'ang pp':>8} {'% faces':>8} {'d_faces':>8}")
    for label, _, _ in MODELS:
        u, i, excess, ang_pp, favorable, d_faces, n = scores[source][label]
        print(f"{label:20} {n:3d} {u:9.4f} {i:9.4f} {excess:+10.4f} {ang_pp:+8.2f} {favorable:8.1f} {d_faces:8.2f}")

Thatcher Effect — Human vs. AI

Standardized Thatcher effects

Observer / Model Dataset N Standardized effect

Human participants † Behavioral study 36 2.98

CLIP ViT-L/14 FFHQ 49 1.94

CLIP ViT-L/14 SFHQ 49 2.30

SigLIP 2 Large FFHQ 49 1.22

SigLIP 2 Large SFHQ 49 1.43

DINOv2 Large FFHQ 49 0.84

DINOv2 Large SFHQ 49 1.13

Larger values indicate a stronger mean effect relative to variability within the respective sample.

† de Haas & Schwarzkopf (2018), Journal of Vision: Feature–location effects in the Thatcher illusion

Observer / Model	Dataset	N	Standardized effect
Human participants †	Behavioral study	36	2.98
CLIP ViT-L/14	FFHQ	49	1.94
CLIP ViT-L/14	SFHQ	49	2.30
SigLIP 2 Large	FFHQ	49	1.22
SigLIP 2 Large	SFHQ	49	1.43
DINOv2 Large	FFHQ	49	0.84
DINOv2 Large	SFHQ	49	1.13

Detailed Results

FFHQ — Full Thatcher, 49 Quartets

Model	N	Upright cos	Inverted cos	Cos excess	Ang pp	% faces	d_faces
CLIP ViT-L/14	49	0.8643	0.9807	+0.1164	+10.40	100.0	1.94
SigLIP 2 Large	49	0.9609	0.9949	+0.0340	+5.26	98.0	1.22
DINOv2 Large	49	0.9563	0.9845	+0.0281	+3.41	85.7	0.84

SFHQ — Full Thatcher, 49 Quartets

Model	N	Upright cos	Inverted cos	Cos excess	Ang pp	% faces	d_faces
CLIP ViT-L/14	49	0.8402	0.9712	+0.1311	+10.52	100.0	2.30
SigLIP 2 Large	49	0.9480	0.9946	+0.0466	+6.56	100.0	1.43
DINOv2 Large	49	0.9391	0.9872	+0.0481	+5.41	91.8	1.13

Human Visual Discrimination

Measurement: 200-ms masked match-to-sample visual discrimination.

Model	N	Upright accuracy	Inverted accuracy	Discrimination excess (pp)	d_z
Human	36	96.65%	64.62%	+32.03	2.98

Measurement Notes

Cosine similarity: Agreement between normal and Thatcherized image embeddings.
Cos excess: Inverted cosine minus upright cosine.
Ang pp: Mean extra angular separation, as percentage points of the 180° range.
% faces: Fraction of identities with positive cosine excess, expressed as a percentage.
Human excess: Upright minus inverted discrimination accuracy, in percentage points.

General standardized paired effect: d = mean(Δ) / SD(Δ), where Δ is the orientation-dependent Thatcher difference for each observation (positive for the expected effect). For humans, observations are participants (d_z); for models, they are face identities (d_faces).

Different models' cosine distributions are not calibrated across models.
For illustrative purposes; human accuracy and model cosine differences measure distinct quantities and are not directly comparable.

Dataset details

Source	Root	Feature condition	Quartets	Images
ffhq	gazefix	both	49	196
ffhq	gazefix	eo	49	196
ffhq	gazefix	ll	49	196
ffhq	gazefix	mo	49	196
ffhq	gazefix	rr	49	196
ffhq	original	both	49	196
ffhq	original	eo	49	196
ffhq	original	mo	49	196
ffhq	passportify	both	49	196
ffhq	passportify	eo	49	196
ffhq	passportify	mo	49	196
ffhq	passportify_gazefix	both	49	196
ffhq	passportify_gazefix	eo	49	196
ffhq	passportify_gazefix	ll	49	196
ffhq	passportify_gazefix	mo	49	196
ffhq	passportify_gazefix	rr	49	196
sfhq	gazefix	both	49	196
sfhq	gazefix	eo	49	196
sfhq	gazefix	ll	49	196
sfhq	gazefix	mo	49	196
sfhq	gazefix	rr	49	196
sfhq	original	both	49	196
sfhq	original	eo	49	196
sfhq	original	mo	49	196
sfhq	passportify	both	49	196
sfhq	passportify	eo	49	196
sfhq	passportify	mo	49	196
sfhq	passportify_gazefix	both	49	196
sfhq	passportify_gazefix	eo	49	196
sfhq	passportify_gazefix	ll	49	196
sfhq	passportify_gazefix	mo	49	196
sfhq	passportify_gazefix	rr	49	196

FFHQ: provenance and full original NVIDIA metadata

FFHQ (Flickr-Faces-HQ) was assembled by NVIDIA Corporation, associated with Tero Karras, Samuli Laine and Timo Aila, A Style-Based Generator Architecture for Generative Adversarial Networks, CVPR 2019. Official NVIDIA FFHQ project and metadata: https://github.com/NVlabs/ffhq-dataset. NVIDIA's FFHQ dataset materials are under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Each underlying Flickr image has its own individual license and photographer, as recorded in NVIDIA's original ffhq-dataset-v2.json (see github).

SFHQ: source

Synthetic Faces High Quality (SFHQ), David Beniaguev (2022). Official source: https://github.com/SelfishGene/SFHQ-dataset. Dataset DOI: https://doi.org/10.34740/kaggle/dsv/4737549.

Original Thatcher illusion

Peter Gage Thompson, Margaret Thatcher: A New Illusion, Perception 9(4), 483–484 (1980), https://doi.org/10.1068/p090483.