Daily Papers

We propose Intelligent Schema Memory (ISM), a self-evolving memory-augmented system that improves mathematical reasoning for a frozen LLM under continual learning with hard episodic resets. ISM maintains a compact, self-refined bank of strategy schemas learned from both successful and failed episodes, with symbolic tools that check intermediate steps and certify answers. Without updating model parameters, ISM outperforms passive, retrieval, and reflection baselines on MATH-Hard and OlympiadBench, using 64% and 86% fewer schemas respectively than the strongest passive baseline. These results show that small, actively maintained, and verified strategy memories can support reliable continual mathematical reasoning under strict episodic isolation. The codebase is available at https://github.com/pdx97/ISM .

Memory systems are fundamental to AI agents, yet existing work often lacks adaptability to diverse tasks and overlooks the constructive and task-oriented role of AI agent memory. Drawing from Piaget's theory of cognitive development, we propose PISA, a pragmatic, psych-inspired unified memory system that addresses these limitations by treating memory as a constructive and adaptive process. To enable continuous learning and adaptability, PISA introduces a trimodal adaptation mechanism (i.e., schema updation, schema evolution, and schema creation) that preserves coherent organization while supporting flexible memory updates. Building on these schema-grounded structures, we further design a hybrid memory access architecture that seamlessly integrates symbolic reasoning with neural retrieval, significantly improving retrieval accuracy and efficiency. Our empirical evaluation, conducted on the existing LOCOMO benchmark and our newly proposed AggQA benchmark for data analysis tasks, confirms that PISA sets a new state-of-the-art by significantly enhancing adaptability and long-term knowledge retention.

Personalized AI assistants must recall and reason over long-term user memory, which naturally spans multiple modalities and sources such as images, videos, and emails. However, existing Long-term Memory benchmarks focus primarily on dialogue history, failing to capture realistic personalized references grounded in lived experience. We introduce ATM-Bench, the first benchmark for multimodal, multi-source personalized referential Memory QA. ATM-Bench contains approximately four years of privacy-preserving personal memory data and human-annotated question-answer pairs with ground-truth memory evidence, including queries that require resolving personal references, multi-evidence reasoning from multi-source and handling conflicting evidence. We propose Schema-Guided Memory (SGM) to structurally represent memory items originated from different sources. In experiments, we implement 5 state-of-the-art memory systems along with a standard RAG baseline and evaluate variants with different memory ingestion, retrieval, and answer generation techniques. We find poor performance (under 20\% accuracy) on the ATM-Bench-Hard set, and that SGM improves performance over Descriptive Memory commonly adopted in prior works. Code available at: https://github.com/JingbiaoMei/ATM-Bench

Large language models (LLMs) deployed in user-facing applications require long-horizon consistency: the ability to remember prior interactions, respect user preferences, and ground reasoning in past events. However, contemporary memory systems often adopt complex architectures such as knowledge graphs, multi-stage retrieval pipelines, and OS-style schedulers, which introduce engineering complexity and reproducibility challenges. We present ENGRAM, a lightweight memory system that organizes conversation into three canonical memory types (episodic, semantic, and procedural) through a single router and retriever. Each user turn is converted into typed memory records with normalized schemas and embeddings and stored in a database. At query time, the system retrieves top-k dense neighbors for each type, merges results with simple set operations, and provides the most relevant evidence as context to the model. ENGRAM attains state-of-the-art results on LoCoMo, a multi-session conversational QA benchmark for long-horizon memory, and exceeds the full-context baseline by 15 points on LongMemEval while using only about 1% of the tokens. These results show that careful memory typing and straightforward dense retrieval can enable effective long-term memory management in language models without requiring complex architectures.

For industrial-scale text-to-SQL, supplying the entire database schema to Large Language Models (LLMs) is impractical due to context window limits and irrelevant noise. Schema linking, which filters the schema to a relevant subset, is therefore critical. However, existing methods incur prohibitive costs, struggle to trade off recall and noise, and scale poorly to large databases. We present AutoLink, an autonomous agent framework that reformulates schema linking as an iterative, agent-driven process. Guided by an LLM, AutoLink dynamically explores and expands the linked schema subset, progressively identifying necessary schema components without inputting the full database schema. Our experiments demonstrate AutoLink's superior performance, achieving state-of-the-art strict schema linking recall of 97.4\% on Bird-Dev and 91.2\% on Spider-2.0-Lite, with competitive execution accuracy, i.e., 68.7\% EX on Bird-Dev (better than CHESS) and 34.9\% EX on Spider-2.0-Lite (ranking 2nd on the official leaderboard). Crucially, AutoLink exhibits exceptional scalability, maintaining high recall, efficient token consumption, and robust execution accuracy on large schemas (e.g., over 3,000 columns) where existing methods severely degrade-making it a highly scalable, high-recall schema-linking solution for industrial text-to-SQL systems.

While large language model (LLM) agents can effectively use external tools for complex real-world tasks, they require memory systems to leverage historical experiences. Current memory systems enable basic storage and retrieval but lack sophisticated memory organization, despite recent attempts to incorporate graph databases. Moreover, these systems' fixed operations and structures limit their adaptability across diverse tasks. To address this limitation, this paper proposes a novel agentic memory system for LLM agents that can dynamically organize memories in an agentic way. Following the basic principles of the Zettelkasten method, we designed our memory system to create interconnected knowledge networks through dynamic indexing and linking. When a new memory is added, we generate a comprehensive note containing multiple structured attributes, including contextual descriptions, keywords, and tags. The system then analyzes historical memories to identify relevant connections, establishing links where meaningful similarities exist. Additionally, this process enables memory evolution - as new memories are integrated, they can trigger updates to the contextual representations and attributes of existing historical memories, allowing the memory network to continuously refine its understanding. Our approach combines the structured organization principles of Zettelkasten with the flexibility of agent-driven decision making, allowing for more adaptive and context-aware memory management. Empirical experiments on six foundation models show superior improvement against existing SOTA baselines. The source code for evaluating performance is available at https://github.com/WujiangXu/AgenticMemory, while the source code of agentic memory system is available at https://github.com/agiresearch/A-mem.

Existing Text-to-SQL generators require the entire schema to be encoded with the user text. This is expensive or impractical for large databases with tens of thousands of columns. Standard dense retrieval techniques are inadequate for schema subsetting of a large structured database, where the correct semantics of retrieval demands that we rank sets of schema elements rather than individual elements. In response, we propose a two-stage process for effective coverage during retrieval. First, we instruct an LLM to hallucinate a minimal DB schema deemed adequate to answer the query. We use the hallucinated schema to retrieve a subset of the actual schema, by composing the results from multiple dense retrievals. Remarkably, hallucination x2013 generally considered a nuisance x2013 turns out to be actually useful as a bridging mechanism. Since no existing benchmarks exist for schema subsetting on large databases, we introduce three benchmarks. Two semi-synthetic datasets are derived from the union of schemas in two well-known datasets, SPIDER and BIRD, resulting in 4502 and 798 schema elements respectively. A real-life benchmark called SocialDB is sourced from an actual large data warehouse comprising 17844 schema elements. We show that our method1 leads to significantly higher recall than SOTA retrieval-based augmentation methods.

Long-term memory remains a structural weakness of AI agents. The dominant approach, retrieval-augmented generation (RAG), relies on embedding-based similarity search, which is opaque by construction, difficult to audit, and bounded by the theoretical limits of vector representations. We present the Memory-Orchestrated Semantic System (MOSS), an agentic memory architecture in which the agent drives retrieval over a structured relational database. MOSS is model-agnostic, storage-agnostic, and API-agnostic: it runs on any relational engine, connects to any LLM provider (or to deterministic non-LLM processes), and deploys on any infrastructure, local or cloud. Its retrieval execution is symbolic and reproducible (once a query is formulated, no LLM participates in the retrieval loop) and every step of the system, from indexing to answer formulation, is logged and inspectable, making MOSS auditable by construction. Rather than imposing an external ontology, MOSS derives its conceptual vocabulary from the corpus itself. We report on a longitudinal deployment unique in the agentic-memory literature: a year of continuous production over an individual scholar's working corpus--a conversational corpus reaching back to October 2024 (some 44 million tokens, retroactively indexed) comprising 110,183 segments, alongside 163,494 catalogued documents, 569 inductively derived concepts, 322,662 concept annotations, and eleven metadata graphs totaling approximately five million relations--across four successive infrastructure generations. While the present case is that of a single researcher, the architecture is in no way specific to one person: it serves a team, an institution, or any entity that accumulates knowledge over time. We argue that auditable, sovereign, structurally unbounded memory is a precondition for AI agents intended to accompany a person or an organization over years rather than sessions.

Large Language Models (LLMs), such as GPT3.5, have exhibited remarkable proficiency in comprehending and generating natural language. However, their unpersonalized generation paradigm may result in suboptimal user-specific outcomes. Typically, users converse differently based on their knowledge and preferences. This necessitates the task of enhancing user-oriented LLM which remains unexplored. While one can fully train an LLM for this objective, the resource consumption is unaffordable. Prior research has explored memory-based methods to store and retrieve knowledge to enhance generation without retraining for new queries. However, we contend that a mere memory module is inadequate to comprehend a user's preference, and fully training an LLM can be excessively costly. In this study, we propose a novel computational bionic memory mechanism, equipped with a parameter-efficient fine-tuning schema, to personalize LLMs. Our extensive experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness and superiority of the proposed approach. To encourage further research into this area, we are releasing a new conversation dataset generated entirely by LLM based on an open-source medical corpus, as well as our implementation code.

Long-range tasks require reasoning over long inputs. Existing solutions either need large compute budgets, training data, access to model weights, or use complex, task-specific approaches. We present PRISM, which alleviates these concerns by processing information as a stream of chunks, maintaining a structured in-context memory specified by a typed hierarchy schema. This approach demonstrates superior performance to baselines on diverse tasks while using at least 4x smaller contexts than long-context models. Moreover, PRISM is token-efficient. By producing short outputs and efficiently leveraging key-value (KV) caches, it achieves up to 54% cost reduction when compared to alternative short-context approaches. The method also scales down to tiny information chunks (e.g., 500 tokens) without increasing the number of tokens encoded or sacrificing quality. Furthermore, we show that it is possible to generate schemas to generalize our approach to new tasks with minimal effort.

Memory plays a foundational role in augmenting the reasoning, adaptability, and contextual fidelity of modern Large Language Models and Multi-Modal LLMs. As these models transition from static predictors to interactive systems capable of continual learning and personalized inference, the incorporation of memory mechanisms has emerged as a central theme in their architectural and functional evolution. This survey presents a comprehensive and structured synthesis of memory in LLMs and MLLMs, organizing the literature into a cohesive taxonomy comprising implicit, explicit, and agentic memory paradigms. Specifically, the survey delineates three primary memory frameworks. Implicit memory refers to the knowledge embedded within the internal parameters of pre-trained transformers, encompassing their capacity for memorization, associative retrieval, and contextual reasoning. Recent work has explored methods to interpret, manipulate, and reconfigure this latent memory. Explicit memory involves external storage and retrieval components designed to augment model outputs with dynamic, queryable knowledge representations, such as textual corpora, dense vectors, and graph-based structures, thereby enabling scalable and updatable interaction with information sources. Agentic memory introduces persistent, temporally extended memory structures within autonomous agents, facilitating long-term planning, self-consistency, and collaborative behavior in multi-agent systems, with relevance to embodied and interactive AI. Extending beyond text, the survey examines the integration of memory within multi-modal settings, where coherence across vision, language, audio, and action modalities is essential. Key architectural advances, benchmark tasks, and open challenges are discussed, including issues related to memory capacity, alignment, factual consistency, and cross-system interoperability.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have become an essential infrastructure for Artificial General Intelligence (AGI), yet their lack of well-defined memory management systems hinders the development of long-context reasoning, continual personalization, and knowledge consistency.Existing models mainly rely on static parameters and short-lived contextual states, limiting their ability to track user preferences or update knowledge over extended periods.While Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) introduces external knowledge in plain text, it remains a stateless workaround without lifecycle control or integration with persistent representations.Recent work has modeled the training and inference cost of LLMs from a memory hierarchy perspective, showing that introducing an explicit memory layer between parameter memory and external retrieval can substantially reduce these costs by externalizing specific knowledge. Beyond computational efficiency, LLMs face broader challenges arising from how information is distributed over time and context, requiring systems capable of managing heterogeneous knowledge spanning different temporal scales and sources. To address this challenge, we propose MemOS, a memory operating system that treats memory as a manageable system resource. It unifies the representation, scheduling, and evolution of plaintext, activation-based, and parameter-level memories, enabling cost-efficient storage and retrieval. As the basic unit, a MemCube encapsulates both memory content and metadata such as provenance and versioning. MemCubes can be composed, migrated, and fused over time, enabling flexible transitions between memory types and bridging retrieval with parameter-based learning. MemOS establishes a memory-centric system framework that brings controllability, plasticity, and evolvability to LLMs, laying the foundation for continual learning and personalized modeling.

Long-term memory is one of the key factors influencing the reasoning capabilities of Large Language Model Agents (LLM Agents). Incorporating a memory mechanism that effectively integrates past interactions can significantly enhance decision-making and contextual coherence of LLM Agents. While recent works have made progress in memory storage and retrieval, such as encoding memory into dense vectors for similarity-based search or organizing knowledge in the form of graph, these approaches often fall short in structured memory organization and efficient retrieval. To address these limitations, we propose a Hierarchical Memory (H-MEM) architecture for LLM Agents that organizes and updates memory in a multi-level fashion based on the degree of semantic abstraction. Each memory vector is embedded with a positional index encoding pointing to its semantically related sub-memories in the next layer. During the reasoning phase, an index-based routing mechanism enables efficient, layer-by-layer retrieval without performing exhaustive similarity computations. We evaluate our method on five task settings from the LoCoMo dataset. Experimental results show that our approach consistently outperforms five baseline methods, demonstrating its effectiveness in long-term dialogue scenarios.

Agent memory systems must accommodate continuously growing information while supporting efficient, context-aware retrieval for downstream tasks. Abstraction is essential for scaling agent memory, yet it often comes at the cost of specificity, obscuring the fine-grained details required for effective reasoning. We introduce Memora, a harmonic memory representation that structurally balances abstraction and specificity. Memora organizes information via its primary abstractions that index concrete memory values and consolidate related updates into unified memory entries, while cue anchors expand retrieval access across diverse aspects of the memory and connect related memories. Building on this structure, we employ a retrieval policy that actively exploits these memory connections to retrieve relevant information beyond direct semantic similarity. Theoretically, we show that standard Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) and Knowledge Graph (KG)-based memory systems emerge as special cases of our framework. Empirically, Memora establishes a new state-of-the-art on the LoCoMo and LongMemEval benchmarks, demonstrating better retrieval relevance and reasoning effectiveness as memory scales.

Large language model agents rely on specialized memory systems to accumulate and reuse knowledge during extended interactions. Recent architectures typically adopt a fixed memory design tailored to specific domains, such as semantic retrieval for conversations or skills reused for coding. However, a memory system optimized for one purpose frequently fails to transfer to others. To address this limitation, we introduce M^star, a method that automatically discovers task-optimized memory harnesses through executable program evolution. Specifically, M^star models an agent memory system as a memory program written in Python. This program encapsulates the data Schema, the storage Logic, and the agent workflow Instructions. We optimize these components jointly using a reflective code evolution method; this approach employs a population-based search strategy and analyzes evaluation failures to iteratively refine the candidate programs. We evaluate M^star on four distinct benchmarks spanning conversation, embodied planning, and expert reasoning. Our results demonstrate that M^star improves performance over existing fixed-memory baselines robustly across all evaluated tasks. Furthermore, the evolved memory programs exhibit structurally distinct processing mechanisms for each domain. This finding indicates that specializing the memory mechanism for a given task explores a broad design space and provides a superior solution compared to general-purpose memory paradigms.

Large language models (LLMs) demonstrate strong reasoning and generation abilities, but their fixed context windows limit long-term information accumulation and reuse across multi-session interactions. Existing memory-augmented systems often construct memory in a coarse and unstable manner, relying on inefficient memory representations or unstable unconstrained updates. To address these challenges, we propose AtomMem, a long-term memory system designed for value-dense storage and stable memory evolution. AtomMem introduces a Fact Executor, which selectively extracts high value atomic facts from long form interactions to serve as highly efficient memory representations. Subsequently, AtomMem organizes these facts into hierarchical event structures and temporal profiles, capturing coherent episodic contexts and tracking dynamically evolving user attributes over time. During retrieval, the system activates an associative memory graph to connect fragmented memories. Experiments on the LoCoMo benchmark confirm that AtomMem achieves state-of-the-art performance across various reasoning tasks, offering a scalable and economically viable solution for deploying intelligent personalized agents.

Recent advancements in large language models have significantly improved their context windows, yet challenges in effective long-term memory management remain. We introduce MemTree, an algorithm that leverages a dynamic, tree-structured memory representation to optimize the organization, retrieval, and integration of information, akin to human cognitive schemas. MemTree organizes memory hierarchically, with each node encapsulating aggregated textual content, corresponding semantic embeddings, and varying abstraction levels across the tree's depths. Our algorithm dynamically adapts this memory structure by computing and comparing semantic embeddings of new and existing information to enrich the model's context-awareness. This approach allows MemTree to handle complex reasoning and extended interactions more effectively than traditional memory augmentation methods, which often rely on flat lookup tables. Evaluations on benchmarks for multi-turn dialogue understanding and document question answering show that MemTree significantly enhances performance in scenarios that demand structured memory management.

In-Context Learning (ICL) enables transformer-based language models to adapt to new tasks by conditioning on demonstration examples. However, traditional example-driven in-context learning lacks explicit modules for knowledge retrieval and transfer at the abstraction level. Inspired by cognitive science, specifically schema theory, which holds that humans interpret new information by activating pre-existing mental frameworks (schemas) to structure understanding, we introduce SCHEMA ACTIVATED IN CONTEXT LEARNING (SA-ICL). This framework extracts the representation of the building blocks of cognition for the reasoning process instilled from prior examples, creating an abstracted schema, a lightweight, structured template of key inferential steps and their relationships, which is then used to augment a model's reasoning process when presented with a novel question. We demonstrate that a broad range of large language models (LLMs) lack the capacity to form and utilize internal schema-based learning representations implicitly, but instead benefit significantly from explicit schema-based scaffolding. Across chemistry and physics questions from the GPQA dataset, our experiments show that SA-ICL consistently boosts performance, up to 36.19 percent, when the single demonstration example is of high quality, which simultaneously reduces reliance on the number of demonstrations and enhances interpretability. SCHEMA ACTIVATED IN CONTEXT LEARNING not only bridges disparate ICL strategies ranging from pattern priming to Chain-of-Thought prompting, but also paves a new path for enhancing human-like reasoning in LLMs.

Large language models (LLMs) with memory are computationally universal. However, mainstream LLMs are not taking full advantage of memory, and the designs are heavily influenced by biological brains. Due to their approximate nature and proneness to the accumulation of errors, conventional neural memory mechanisms cannot support LLMs to simulate complex reasoning. In this paper, we seek inspiration from modern computer architectures to augment LLMs with symbolic memory for complex multi-hop reasoning. Such a symbolic memory framework is instantiated as an LLM and a set of SQL databases, where the LLM generates SQL instructions to manipulate the SQL databases. We validate the effectiveness of the proposed memory framework on a synthetic dataset requiring complex reasoning. The project website is available at https://chatdatabase.github.io/ .

The transition from stateless language model inference to persistent, multi session autonomous agents has revealed memory to be a primary architectural bottleneck in the deployment of production grade agentic systems. Existing methodologies largely depend on hybrid semantic graph architectures, which impose substantial computational overhead during both ingestion and retrieval. These systems typically require large language model mediated entity extraction, explicit graph schema maintenance, and multi query retrieval pipelines. This paper introduces Memanto, a universal memory layer for agentic artificial intelligence that challenges the prevailing assumption that knowledge graph complexity is necessary to achieve high fidelity agent memory. Memanto integrates a typed semantic memory schema comprising thirteen predefined memory categories, an automated conflict resolution mechanism, and temporal versioning. These components are enabled by Moorcheh's Information Theoretic Search engine, a no indexing semantic database that provides deterministic retrieval within sub ninety millisecond latency while eliminating ingestion delay. Through systematic benchmarking on the LongMemEval and LoCoMo evaluation suites, Memanto achieves state of the art accuracy scores of 89.8 percent and 87.1 percent respectively. These results surpass all evaluated hybrid graph and vector based systems while requiring only a single retrieval query, incurring no ingestion cost, and maintaining substantially lower operational complexity. A five stage progressive ablation study is presented to quantify the contribution of each architectural component, followed by a discussion of the implications for scalable deployment of agentic memory systems.

Large Language Models (LLMs) lack persistent memory for long-term personalized conversations. Existing graph-based memory systems suffer from information dilution, absent provenance tracking, and uniform retrieval that ignores query context. We introduce MemORAI (Memory Organization and Retrieval via Adaptive Graph Intelligence), a framework that integrates three innovations: selective memory filtering with dual-layer compression to retain user-persona-relevant content, a provenance-enriched multi-relational graph tracking factual origins at the turn level, and query-adaptive subgraph retrieval with Dynamic Weighted PageRank that applies query-conditioned edge weighting. Evaluated on LOCOMO and LongMemEval benchmarks, MemORAI achieves state-of-the-art performance in memory retrieval and personalized response generation, demonstrating that selective storage, enriched representation, and adaptive retrieval are essential for coherent, personalized LLM agents.

Multi-step retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) has become a widely adopted strategy for enhancing large language models (LLMs) on tasks that demand global comprehension and intensive reasoning. Many RAG systems incorporate a working memory module to consolidate retrieved information. However, existing memory designs function primarily as passive storage that accumulates isolated facts for the purpose of condensing the lengthy inputs and generating new sub-queries through deduction. This static nature overlooks the crucial high-order correlations among primitive facts, the compositions of which can often provide stronger guidance for subsequent steps. Therefore, their representational strength and impact on multi-step reasoning and knowledge evolution are limited, resulting in fragmented reasoning and weak global sense-making capacity in extended contexts. We introduce HGMem, a hypergraph-based memory mechanism that extends the concept of memory beyond simple storage into a dynamic, expressive structure for complex reasoning and global understanding. In our approach, memory is represented as a hypergraph whose hyperedges correspond to distinct memory units, enabling the progressive formation of higher-order interactions within memory. This mechanism connects facts and thoughts around the focal problem, evolving into an integrated and situated knowledge structure that provides strong propositions for deeper reasoning in subsequent steps. We evaluate HGMem on several challenging datasets designed for global sense-making. Extensive experiments and in-depth analyses show that our method consistently improves multi-step RAG and substantially outperforms strong baseline systems across diverse tasks.

Memory data are ubiquitous in Large Language Model (LLM)-based agents (e.g., OpenClaw and Manus). A few recent works have attempted to exploit agents'memory for improving their performance on the question-answering (QA) task, but they lack a principled mechanism for effectively modeling how memory data evolves over time and retrieving memory data effectively, leading to poor performance in memory utilization. To fill this gap, we present H-Mem, a novel memory mechanism via a hybrid structure that can not only effectively model the evolution of agent memory over a long period of time, but also provide an efficient memory retrieval approach. Particularly, H-Mem builds a temporal and semantic tree structure that allows the short-term memory data to evolve progressively into long-term memory data, where the latter provides summarized information about the former, while simultaneously constructing a knowledge graph to capture the relationships between entities in memory. Moreover, it offers an effective memory retrieval approach by exploiting the hybrid structure of the tree and graph structures. Extensive experiments on three agent memory benchmarks show that H-Mem achieves state-of-the-art performance on the QA task.

Large language model (LLM) agents increasingly rely on external memory to support long-horizon interaction, personalized assistance, and multi-step reasoning. However, existing memory systems still face three core challenges: they often rely too heavily on semantic similarity, which can miss evidence crucial for user-centric understanding; they frequently store related experiences as isolated fragments, weakening temporal and causal coherence; and they typically use static memory granularities that do not adapt well to the requirements of different questions. We propose AdaMem, an adaptive user-centric memory framework for long-horizon dialogue agents. AdaMem organizes dialogue history into working, episodic, persona, and graph memories, enabling the system to preserve recent context, structured long-term experiences, stable user traits, and relation-aware connections within a unified framework. At inference time, AdaMem first resolves the target participant, then builds a question-conditioned retrieval route that combines semantic retrieval with relation-aware graph expansion only when needed, and finally produces the answer through a role-specialized pipeline for evidence synthesis and response generation. We evaluate AdaMem on the LoCoMo and PERSONAMEM benchmarks for long-horizon reasoning and user modeling. Experimental results show that AdaMem achieves state-of-the-art performance on both benchmarks. The code will be released upon acceptance.

Although long-term memory systems have made substantial progress in recent years, they still exhibit clear limitations in adaptability, scalability, and self-evolution under continuous interaction settings. Inspired by cognitive theories, we propose HiMem, a hierarchical long-term memory framework for long-horizon dialogues, designed to support memory construction, retrieval, and dynamic updating during sustained interactions. HiMem constructs cognitively consistent Episode Memory via a Topic-Aware Event--Surprise Dual-Channel Segmentation strategy, and builds Note Memory that captures stable knowledge through a multi-stage information extraction pipeline. These two memory types are semantically linked to form a hierarchical structure that bridges concrete interaction events and abstract knowledge, enabling efficient retrieval without sacrificing information fidelity. HiMem supports both hybrid and best-effort retrieval strategies to balance accuracy and efficiency, and incorporates conflict-aware Memory Reconsolidation to revise and supplement stored knowledge based on retrieval feedback. This design enables continual memory self-evolution over long-term use. Experimental results on long-horizon dialogue benchmarks demonstrate that HiMem consistently outperforms representative baselines in accuracy, consistency, and long-term reasoning, while maintaining favorable efficiency. Overall, HiMem provides a principled and scalable design paradigm for building adaptive and self-evolving LLM-based conversational agents. The code is available at https://github.com/jojopdq/HiMem.

Existing memory systems enable Large Language Models (LLMs) to support long-horizon human-LLM interactions by persisting historical interactions beyond limited context windows. However, while recent approaches have succeeded in constructing effective memories, they often disrupt the inherent logical and temporal relationships within interaction sessions, resulting in fragmented memory units and degraded reasoning performance. In this paper, we propose MetaMem, a novel framework that augments memory systems with a self-evolving meta-memory, aiming to teach LLMs how to effectively utilize memorized knowledge. During meta-memory optimization, MetaMem iteratively distills transferable knowledge utilization experiences across different tasks by self-reflecting on reasoning processes and performing actions to update the current meta-memory state. The accumulated meta-memory units serve as explicit knowledge utilization experiences, guiding the LLM to systematically identify and integrate critical evidence from scattered memory fragments. Extensive experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of MetaMem, which significantly outperforms strong baselines by over 3.6%. All codes and datasets are available at https://github.com/OpenBMB/MetaMem.

Long-term memory is essential for large language model (LLM) agents operating in complex environments, yet existing memory designs are either task-specific and non-transferable, or task-agnostic but less effective due to low task-relevance and context explosion from raw memory retrieval. We propose PlugMem, a task-agnostic plugin memory module that can be attached to arbitrary LLM agents without task-specific redesign. Motivated by the fact that decision-relevant information is concentrated as abstract knowledge rather than raw experience, we draw on cognitive science to structure episodic memories into a compact, extensible knowledge-centric memory graph that explicitly represents propositional and prescriptive knowledge. This representation enables efficient memory retrieval and reasoning over task-relevant knowledge, rather than verbose raw trajectories, and departs from other graph-based methods like GraphRAG by treating knowledge as the unit of memory access and organization instead of entities or text chunks. We evaluate PlugMem unchanged across three heterogeneous benchmarks (long-horizon conversational question answering, multi-hop knowledge retrieval, and web agent tasks). The results show that PlugMem consistently outperforms task-agnostic baselines and exceeds task-specific memory designs, while also achieving the highest information density under a unified information-theoretic analysis. Code and data are available at https://github.com/TIMAN-group/PlugMem.

Large language model (LLM) agents demonstrate strong performance in short-text contexts but often underperform in extended dialogues due to inefficient memory management. Existing approaches face a fundamental trade-off between efficiency and effectiveness: memory compression risks losing critical details required for complex reasoning, while retaining raw text introduces unnecessary computational overhead for simple queries. The crux lies in the limitations of monolithic memory representations and static retrieval mechanisms, which fail to emulate the flexible and proactive memory scheduling capabilities observed in humans, thus struggling to adapt to diverse problem scenarios. Inspired by the principle of cognitive economy, we propose HyMem, a hybrid memory architecture that enables dynamic on-demand scheduling through multi-granular memory representations. HyMem adopts a dual-granular storage scheme paired with a dynamic two-tier retrieval system: a lightweight module constructs summary-level context for efficient response generation, while an LLM-based deep module is selectively activated only for complex queries, augmented by a reflection mechanism for iterative reasoning refinement. Experiments show that HyMem achieves strong performance on both the LOCOMO and LongMemEval benchmarks, outperforming full-context while reducing computational cost by 92.6\%, establishing a state-of-the-art balance between efficiency and performance in long-term memory management.

Long-term LLM agents need persistent memory that can track changing facts and provide relevant evidence across sessions. Existing memory systems often store observations as isolated records, summaries, or indexed fragments, which makes evidence aggregation, fact revision, and memory maintenance difficult. We propose Infini Memory, a maintainable text-based persistent memory architecture that treats agent memory as topic-structured documents. Each topic document serves as a semantic unit for collecting related evidence, preserving metadata, and revising facts over time. New observations are first staged in a buffer and periodically consolidated into coherent textual contexts. At inference time, an agentic retrieval procedure lets the LLM read memory through iterative tool calls rather than a single retrieval step. On MemoryAgentBench, Infini Memory achieves 64.7% overall score. Ablations show that topic-structured maintenance and iterative evidence inspection improve complementary aspects of long-term memory use.

The rapid evolution of Large Language Model (LLM) agents has necessitated robust memory systems to support cohesive long-term interaction and complex reasoning. Benefiting from the strong capabilities of LLMs, recent research focus has shifted from simple context extension to the development of dedicated agentic memory systems. However, existing approaches typically rely on rigid retrieval granularity, accumulation-heavy maintenance strategies, and coarse-grained update mechanisms. These design choices create a persistent mismatch between stored information and task-specific reasoning demands, while leading to the unchecked accumulation of logical inconsistencies over time. To address these challenges, we propose Adaptive Memory via Multi-Agent Collaboration (AMA), a novel framework that leverages coordinated agents to manage memory across multiple granularities. AMA employs a hierarchical memory design that dynamically aligns retrieval granularity with task complexity. Specifically, the Constructor and Retriever jointly enable multi-granularity memory construction and adaptive query routing. The Judge verifies the relevance and consistency of retrieved content, triggering iterative retrieval when evidence is insufficient or invoking the Refresher upon detecting logical conflicts. The Refresher then enforces memory consistency by performing targeted updates or removing outdated entries. Extensive experiments on challenging long-context benchmarks show that AMA significantly outperforms state-of-the-art baselines while reducing token consumption by approximately 80% compared to full-context methods, demonstrating its effectiveness in maintaining retrieval precision and long-term memory consistency.

The training and inference of large language models (LLMs) are together a costly process that transports knowledge from raw data to meaningful computation. Inspired by the memory hierarchy of the human brain, we reduce this cost by equipping LLMs with explicit memory, a memory format cheaper than model parameters and text retrieval-augmented generation (RAG). Conceptually, with most of its knowledge externalized to explicit memories, the LLM can enjoy a smaller parameter size, training cost, and inference cost, all proportional to the amount of remaining "abstract knowledge". As a preliminary proof of concept, we train from scratch a 2.4B LLM, which achieves better performance than much larger LLMs as well as RAG models, and maintains higher decoding speed than RAG. The model is named Memory^3, since explicit memory is the third form of memory in LLMs after implicit memory (model parameters) and working memory (context key-values). We introduce a memory circuitry theory to support the externalization of knowledge, and present novel techniques including a memory sparsification mechanism that makes storage tractable and a two-stage pretraining scheme that facilitates memory formation.

Most modern Text2SQL systems prompt large language models (LLMs) with entire schemas -- mostly column information -- alongside the user's question. While effective on small databases, this approach fails on real-world schemas that exceed LLM context limits, even for commercial models. The recent Spider 2.0 benchmark exemplifies this with hundreds of tables and tens of thousands of columns, where existing systems often break. Current mitigations either rely on costly multi-step prompting pipelines or filter columns by ranking them against user's question independently, ignoring inter-column structure. To scale existing systems, we introduce \toolname, an open-source, LLM-efficient schema filtering framework that compacts Text2SQL prompts by (i) ranking columns with a query-aware LLM encoder enriched with values and metadata, (ii) reranking inter-connected columns via a lightweight graph transformer over functional dependencies, and (iii) selecting a connectivity-preserving sub-schema with a Steiner-tree heuristic. Experiments on real datasets show that \toolname achieves near-perfect recall and higher precision than CodeS, SchemaExP, Qwen rerankers, and embedding retrievers, while maintaining sub-second median latency and scaling to schemas with 23,000+ columns. Our source code is available at https://github.com/thanhdath/grast-sql.

In this paper, we propose KnowCoder, a Large Language Model (LLM) to conduct Universal Information Extraction (UIE) via code generation. KnowCoder aims to develop a kind of unified schema representation that LLMs can easily understand and an effective learning framework that encourages LLMs to follow schemas and extract structured knowledge accurately. To achieve these, KnowCoder introduces a code-style schema representation method to uniformly transform different schemas into Python classes, with which complex schema information, such as constraints among tasks in UIE, can be captured in an LLM-friendly manner. We further construct a code-style schema library covering over 30,000 types of knowledge, which is the largest one for UIE, to the best of our knowledge. To ease the learning process of LLMs, KnowCoder contains a two-phase learning framework that enhances its schema understanding ability via code pretraining and its schema following ability via instruction tuning. After code pretraining on around 1.5B automatically constructed data, KnowCoder already attains remarkable generalization ability and achieves relative improvements by 49.8% F1, compared to LLaMA2, under the few-shot setting. After instruction tuning, KnowCoder further exhibits strong generalization ability on unseen schemas and achieves up to 12.5% and 21.9%, compared to sota baselines, under the zero-shot setting and the low resource setting, respectively. Additionally, based on our unified schema representations, various human-annotated datasets can simultaneously be utilized to refine KnowCoder, which achieves significant improvements up to 7.5% under the supervised setting.

Extracting structured information from unstructured text is crucial for modeling real-world processes, but traditional schema mining relies on semi-structured data, limiting scalability. This paper introduces schema-miner, a novel tool that combines large language models with human feedback to automate and refine schema extraction. Through an iterative workflow, it organizes properties from text, incorporates expert input, and integrates domain-specific ontologies for semantic depth. Applied to materials science--specifically atomic layer deposition--schema-miner demonstrates that expert-guided LLMs generate semantically rich schemas suitable for diverse real-world applications.

While inference-time scaling enables LLMs to carry out increasingly long and capable reasoning traces, the patterns and insights uncovered during these traces are immediately discarded once the context window is reset for a new query. External memory is a natural way to persist these discoveries, and recent work has shown clear benefits for reasoning-intensive tasks. We see an opportunity to make such memories more broadly reusable and scalable by moving beyond instance-based memory entries (e.g. exact query/response pairs, or summaries tightly coupled with the original problem context) toward concept-level memory: reusable, modular abstractions distilled from solution traces and stored in natural language. For future queries, relevant concepts are selectively retrieved and integrated into the prompt, enabling test-time continual learning without weight updates. Our design introduces new strategies for abstracting takeaways from rollouts and retrieving entries for new queries, promoting reuse and allowing memory to expand with additional experiences. We evaluate on ARC-AGI, a benchmark that stresses compositional generalization and abstract reasoning, making it a natural fit for concept memory. Our method yields a 7.5% relative gain over a strong no-memory baseline with performance continuing to scale with inference compute. We find abstract concepts to be the most consistent memory design, outscoring the baseline at all tested inference compute scales. Moreover, dynamically updating memory during test-time outperforms fixed settings, supporting the hypothesis that accumulating and abstracting patterns enables further solutions in a form of self-improvement. Code is available at https://github.com/matt-seb-ho/arc_memo.

Retrieval in the SQL setting has largely been studied as the task of finding, within a large collection of SQL statements, the statement that answers a natural-language question. At scale, however, a more fundamental retrieval problem precedes generation: schema retrieval, identifying the tables and columns a question requires in a database that may contain thousands of them, far more than fit in a model's context. We argue that this step warrants first-class evaluation. To this end, we recast five text-to-SQL datasets (Spider, BIRD, BEAVER, and two LiveSQLBench variants) as retrieval tasks at both table and column granularity, covering realistic and enterprise-scale schemas under two document representations, and we show that off-the-shelf text and code embedders transfer poorly to this setting. We then propose corpus-adaptive fine-tuning: natural-language queries are synthesized directly from the target schema corpus, granularity-aware hard negatives are mined, and a 305M-parameter embedder is fine-tuned contrastively. This procedure raises average recall@10 from 60.4 to 75.6 (nDCG@10 from 51.9 to 68.0), making the 305M model the strongest retriever under one billion parameters and competitive with state-of-the-art embedders of 4-8B parameters, more than an order of magnitude larger. The same recipe improves an 8B state-of-the-art embedder from 77.8 to 78.4 recall@10, matching the best result on the benchmark and indicating that the adaptation is backbone-agnostic. Leave-one-corpus-out experiments and a leakage audit show that these gains reflect a transferable schema-retrieval ability rather than memorization of the evaluation data. Our results establish schema linking as a standalone retrieval task and lightweight, label-free corpus adaptation as a practical route to deploying it at enterprise scale.

Memory emerges as the core module in the Large Language Model (LLM)-based agents for long-horizon complex tasks (e.g., multi-turn dialogue, game playing, scientific discovery), where memory can enable knowledge accumulation, iterative reasoning and self-evolution. Among diverse paradigms, graph stands out as a powerful structure for agent memory due to the intrinsic capabilities to model relational dependencies, organize hierarchical information, and support efficient retrieval. This survey presents a comprehensive review of agent memory from the graph-based perspective. First, we introduce a taxonomy of agent memory, including short-term vs. long-term memory, knowledge vs. experience memory, non-structural vs. structural memory, with an implementation view of graph-based memory. Second, according to the life cycle of agent memory, we systematically analyze the key techniques in graph-based agent memory, covering memory extraction for transforming the data into the contents, storage for organizing the data efficiently, retrieval for retrieving the relevant contents from memory to support reasoning, and evolution for updating the contents in the memory. Third, we summarize the open-sourced libraries and benchmarks that support the development and evaluation of self-evolving agent memory. We also explore diverse application scenarios. Finally, we identify critical challenges and future research directions. This survey aims to offer actionable insights to advance the development of more efficient and reliable graph-based agent memory systems. All the related resources, including research papers, open-source data, and projects, are collected for the community in https://github.com/DEEP-PolyU/Awesome-GraphMemory.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have emerged as foundational infrastructure in the pursuit of Artificial General Intelligence (AGI). Despite their remarkable capabilities in language perception and generation, current LLMs fundamentally lack a unified and structured architecture for handling memory. They primarily rely on parametric memory (knowledge encoded in model weights) and ephemeral activation memory (context-limited runtime states). While emerging methods like Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) incorporate plaintext memory, they lack lifecycle management and multi-modal integration, limiting their capacity for long-term knowledge evolution. To address this, we introduce MemOS, a memory operating system designed for LLMs that, for the first time, elevates memory to a first-class operational resource. It builds unified mechanisms for representation, organization, and governance across three core memory types: parametric, activation, and plaintext. At its core is the MemCube, a standardized memory abstraction that enables tracking, fusion, and migration of heterogeneous memory, while offering structured, traceable access across tasks and contexts. MemOS establishes a memory-centric execution framework with strong controllability, adaptability, and evolvability. It fills a critical gap in current LLM infrastructure and lays the groundwork for continual adaptation, personalized intelligence, and cross-platform coordination in next-generation intelligent systems.

Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly deployed as intelligent agents that reason, plan, and interact with their environments. To effectively scale to long-horizon scenarios, a key capability for such agents is a memory mechanism that can retain, organize, and retrieve past experiences to support downstream decision-making. However, most existing approaches organize and store memories in a flat manner and rely on simple similarity-based retrieval techniques. Even when structured memory is introduced, existing methods often struggle to explicitly capture the logical relationships among experiences or memory units. Moreover, memory access is largely detached from the constructed structure and still depends on shallow semantic retrieval, preventing agents from reasoning logically over long-horizon dependencies. In this work, we propose CompassMem, an event-centric memory framework inspired by Event Segmentation Theory. CompassMem organizes memory as an Event Graph by incrementally segmenting experiences into events and linking them through explicit logical relations. This graph serves as a logic map, enabling agents to perform structured and goal-directed navigation over memory beyond superficial retrieval, progressively gathering valuable memories to support long-horizon reasoning. Experiments on LoCoMo and NarrativeQA demonstrate that CompassMem consistently improves both retrieval and reasoning performance across multiple backbone models.

Universal information extraction (UIE) primarily employs an extractive generation approach with large language models (LLMs), typically outputting structured information based on predefined schemas such as JSON or tables. UIE suffers from a lack of adaptability when selecting between predefined schemas and on-the-fly schema generation within the in-context learning paradigm, especially when there are numerous schemas to choose from. In this paper, we propose a unified adaptive text-to-structure generation framework, called Schema as Parameterized Tools (SPT), which reimagines the tool-calling capability of LLMs by treating predefined schemas as parameterized tools for tool selection and parameter filling. Specifically, our SPT method can be applied to unify closed, open, and on-demand IE tasks by adopting Schema Retrieval by fetching the relevant schemas from a predefined pool, Schema Filling by extracting information and filling slots as with tool parameters, or Schema Generation by synthesizing new schemas with uncovered cases. Experiments show that the SPT method can handle four distinct IE tasks adaptively, delivering robust schema retrieval and selection performance. SPT also achieves comparable extraction performance to LoRA baselines and current leading UIE systems with significantly fewer trainable parameters.

Long-horizon LLM agents must preserve information from past interactions to support future tasks. Existing memory systems typically rely on eager consolidation, invoking LLMs after each interaction to extract, summarize, or update memories. This design makes memory construction increasingly costly as conversations grow. Coarse summarization can reduce construction cost but risks discarding fine-grained contextual evidence, whereas larger retrieval contexts or multi-hop LLM reasoning shift the overhead to query time. We present LycheeMemory V2, an efficient long-term memory framework that replaces turn-level consolidation with semantic segment-level consolidation. Instead of consolidating every interaction, LycheeMemory batches multiple exchanges into segments and encodes each finalized segment into context-independent typed memory records. Segment-level batching lowers LLM encoding frequency, while semantic boundary detection helps preserve coherent event-level and temporal evidence compared with fixed-window batching. The resulting records are organized with lightweight structured indexes for query-planned evidence retrieval. Experiments using GPT-4.1-Mini show that LycheeMemory achieves state-of-the-art performance, reaching 89.22% on LoCoMo and 92.20% on LongMemEval-S. Compared with A-Mem, it reduces construction tokens by 86.0% on LoCoMo and 75.9% on LongMemEval-S without increasing query-time token usage. More broadly, our results suggest that the accuracy--cost trade-off of long-term agent memory depends not only on what information is retained, but also on the granularity at which it is consolidated.

Large language model (LLM) agents increasingly operate in settings where a single context window is far too small to capture what has happened, what was learned, and what should not be repeated. Memory -- the ability to persist, organize, and selectively recall information across interactions -- is what turns a stateless text generator into a genuinely adaptive agent. This survey offers a structured account of how memory is designed, implemented, and evaluated in modern LLM-based agents, covering work from 2022 through early 2026. We formalize agent memory as a write--manage--read loop tightly coupled with perception and action, then introduce a three-dimensional taxonomy spanning temporal scope, representational substrate, and control policy. Five mechanism families are examined in depth: context-resident compression, retrieval-augmented stores, reflective self-improvement, hierarchical virtual context, and policy-learned management. On the evaluation side, we trace the shift from static recall benchmarks to multi-session agentic tests that interleave memory with decision-making, analyzing four recent benchmarks that expose stubborn gaps in current systems. We also survey applications where memory is the differentiating factor -- personal assistants, coding agents, open-world games, scientific reasoning, and multi-agent teamwork -- and address the engineering realities of write-path filtering, contradiction handling, latency budgets, and privacy governance. The paper closes with open challenges: continual consolidation, causally grounded retrieval, trustworthy reflection, learned forgetting, and multimodal embodied memory.

Memory for large language model (LLM) agents has rapidly evolved from simple retrieval-augmented mechanisms into a data management system that supports persistent information storage, retrieval, update, consolidation, and dynamic lifecycle governance throughout agent execution. Despite this evolution, existing evaluations still benchmark agent memory mainly through end-to-end task success metrics (e.g., F1, BLEU), while treating the underlying system as a monolithic black box. As a result, critical system-level concerns, including operational costs, architectural trade-offs across memory modules, and robustness under dynamic knowledge updates, remain insufficiently explored. In this paper, we present a systematic experimental study of agent memory from a data management perspective. We propose an analytical framework that decomposes agent memory into four core modules: memory representation and storage, extraction, retrieval and routing, and maintenance. Under this framework, we evaluate 12 representative memory systems and two reference baselines across five benchmark workloads spanning 11 datasets. Our extensive end-to-end evaluation shows that no single architecture dominates across all scenarios; instead, effectiveness depends heavily on how well the memory structure aligns with the workload bottleneck. Furthermore, through fine-grained ablation studies, we quantify their individual effects on representation fidelity, retrieval precision, update correctness, and long-horizon stability. Finally, we reveal cost-performance trade-offs under realistic workloads, showing localized maintenance is more cost-efficient than global reorganization. Based on these findings, we identify promising directions towards building truly agent-native memory systems. The code is publicly available at https://github.com/OpenDataBox/MemoryData.

Schema linking -- the process of aligning natural language questions with database schema elements -- is a critical yet underexplored component of Text-to-SQL systems. While recent methods have focused primarily on improving SQL generation, they often neglect the retrieval of relevant schema elements, which can lead to hallucinations and execution failures. In this work, we propose a context-aware bidirectional schema retrieval framework that treats schema linking as a standalone problem. Our approach combines two complementary strategies: table-first retrieval followed by column selection, and column-first retrieval followed by table selection. It is further augmented with techniques such as question decomposition, keyword extraction, and keyphrase extraction. Through comprehensive evaluations on challenging benchmarks such as BIRD and Spider, we demonstrate that our method significantly improves schema recall while reducing false positives. Moreover, SQL generation using our retrieved schema consistently outperforms full-schema baselines and closely approaches oracle performance, all without requiring query refinement. Notably, our method narrows the performance gap between full and perfect schema settings by 50\%. Our findings highlight schema linking as a powerful lever for enhancing Text-to-SQL accuracy and efficiency.

Despite advances in large language model (LLM)-based natural language interfaces for databases, scaling to enterprise-level data catalogs remains an under-explored challenge. Prior works addressing this challenge rely on domain-specific fine-tuning - complicating deployment - and fail to leverage important semantic context contained within database metadata. To address these limitations, we introduce a component-based retrieval architecture that decomposes database schemas and metadata into discrete semantic units, each separately indexed for targeted retrieval. Our approach prioritizes effective table identification while leveraging column-level information, ensuring the total number of retrieved tables remains within a manageable context budget. Experiments demonstrate that our method maintains high recall and accuracy, with our system outperforming baselines over massive databases with varying structure and available metadata. Our solution enables practical text-to-SQL systems deployable across diverse enterprise settings without specialized fine-tuning, addressing a critical scalability gap in natural language database interfaces.

Memory-Augmented Generation (MAG) extends large language models with external memory to support long-context reasoning, but existing approaches universally treat memory as an external service that agents call into, delegating storage to separate pipelines of chunking, embedding, and graph extraction. This architectural separation means the system that stores knowledge does not understand it, leading to semantic drift between what the agent intended to remember and what the pipeline actually captured, loss of coordination context across agents, and fragile recovery after failures. In this paper, we propose ByteRover, an agent-native memory architecture that inverts the memory pipeline: the same LLM that reasons about a task also curates, structures, and retrieves knowledge. ByteRover represents knowledge in a hierarchical Context Tree, a file-based knowledge graph organized as Domain, Topic, Subtopic, and Entry, where each entry carries explicit relations, provenance, and an Adaptive Knowledge Lifecycle (AKL) with importance scoring, maturity tiers, and recency decay. Retrieval uses a 5-tier progressive strategy that resolves most queries at sub-100 ms latency without LLM calls, escalating to agentic reasoning only for novel questions. Experiments on LoCoMo and LongMemEval demonstrate that ByteRover achieves state-of-the-art accuracy on LoCoMo and competitive results on LongMemEval while requiring zero external infrastructure, no vector database, no graph database, no embedding service, with all knowledge stored as human-readable markdown files on the local filesystem.

Memory plays a pivotal role in enabling large language model~(LLM)-based agents to engage in complex and long-term interactions, such as question answering (QA) and dialogue systems. While various memory modules have been proposed for these tasks, the impact of different memory structures across tasks remains insufficiently explored. This paper investigates how memory structures and memory retrieval methods affect the performance of LLM-based agents. Specifically, we evaluate four types of memory structures, including chunks, knowledge triples, atomic facts, and summaries, along with mixed memory that combines these components. In addition, we evaluate three widely used memory retrieval methods: single-step retrieval, reranking, and iterative retrieval. Extensive experiments conducted across four tasks and six datasets yield the following key insights: (1) Different memory structures offer distinct advantages, enabling them to be tailored to specific tasks; (2) Mixed memory structures demonstrate remarkable resilience in noisy environments; (3) Iterative retrieval consistently outperforms other methods across various scenarios. Our investigation aims to inspire further research into the design of memory systems for LLM-based agents.

Agent memory systems often adopt the standard Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) pipeline, yet its underlying assumptions differ in this setting. RAG targets large, heterogeneous corpora where retrieved passages are diverse, whereas agent memory is a bounded, coherent dialogue stream with highly correlated spans that are often duplicates. Under this shift, fixed top-k similarity retrieval tends to return redundant context, and post-hoc pruning can delete temporally linked prerequisites needed for correct reasoning. We argue retrieval should move beyond similarity matching and instead operate over latent components, following decoupling to aggregation: disentangle memories into semantic components, organise them into a hierarchy, and use this structure to drive retrieval. We propose xMemory, which builds a hierarchy of intact units and maintains a searchable yet faithful high-level node organisation via a sparsity--semantics objective that guides memory split and merge. At inference, xMemory retrieves top-down, selecting a compact, diverse set of themes and semantics for multi-fact queries, and expanding to episodes and raw messages only when it reduces the reader's uncertainty. Experiments on LoCoMo and PerLTQA across the three latest LLMs show consistent gains in answer quality and token efficiency.

Large language models (LLMs) achieve strong performance across a wide range of tasks, but remain frozen after pretraining until subsequent updates. Many real-world applications require timely, domain-specific information, motivating the need for efficient mechanisms to incorporate new knowledge. In this paper, we introduce MeMo (Memory as a Model), a modular framework that encodes new knowledge into a dedicated memory model while keeping the LLM parameters unchanged. Compared to existing methods, MeMo offers several advantages: (a) it captures complex cross-document relationships, (b) it is robust to retrieval noise, (c) it avoids catastrophic forgetting in the LLM, (d) it does not require access to the LLM's weights or output logits, enabling plug-and-play integration with both open and proprietary closed-source LLMs, and (e) its retrieval cost is independent of corpus size at inference time. Our experimental results on three benchmarks, BrowseComp-Plus, NarrativeQA, and MuSiQue, show that MeMo achieves strong performance compared to existing methods across diverse settings.

Personalizing language models by effectively incorporating user interaction history remains a central challenge in the development of adaptive AI systems. While large language models (LLMs), combined with Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG), have improved factual accuracy, they often lack structured memory and fail to scale in complex, long-term interactions. To address this, we propose a flexible external memory framework based on a knowledge graph that is constructed and updated automatically by the LLM. Building upon the AriGraph architecture, we introduce a novel hybrid graph design that supports both standard edges and two types of hyper-edges, enabling rich and dynamic semantic and temporal representations. Our framework also supports diverse retrieval mechanisms, including A*, WaterCircles traversal, beam search, and hybrid methods, making it adaptable to different datasets and LLM capacities. We evaluate our system on TriviaQA, HotpotQA, DiaASQ benchmarks and demonstrate that different memory and retrieval configurations yield optimal performance depending on the task. Additionally, we extend the DiaASQ benchmark with temporal annotations and internally contradictory statements, showing that our system remains robust and effective in managing temporal dependencies and context-aware reasoning

Constructing memory from users' long-term conversations overcomes LLMs' contextual limitations and enables personalized interactions. Recent studies focus on hierarchical memory to model users' multi-granular behavioral patterns via clustering and aggregating historical conversations. However, conversational noise and memory hallucinations can be amplified during clustering, causing locally aggregated memories to misalign with the user's global persona. To mitigate this issue, we propose Bi-Mem, an agentic framework ensuring hierarchical memory fidelity through bidirectional construction. Specifically, we deploy an inductive agent to form the hierarchical memory: it extracts factual information from raw conversations to form fact-level memory, aggregates them into thematic scenes (i.e., local scene-level memory) using graph clustering, and infers users' profiles as global persona-level memory. Simultaneously, a reflective agent is designed to calibrate local scene-level memories using global constraints derived from the persona-level memory, thereby enforcing global-local alignment. For coherent memory recall, we propose an associative retrieval mechanism: beyond initial hierarchical search, a spreading activation process allows facts to evoke contextual scenes, while scene-level matches retrieve salient supporting factual information. Empirical evaluations demonstrate that Bi-Mem achieves significant improvements in question answering performance on long-term personalized conversational tasks.

Memory is a fundamental component of AI systems, underpinning large language models (LLMs) based agents. While prior surveys have focused on memory applications with LLMs, they often overlook the atomic operations that underlie memory dynamics. In this survey, we first categorize memory representations into parametric, contextual structured, and contextual unstructured and then introduce six fundamental memory operations: Consolidation, Updating, Indexing, Forgetting, Retrieval, and Compression. We systematically map these operations to the most relevant research topics across long-term, long-context, parametric modification, and multi-source memory. By reframing memory systems through the lens of atomic operations and representation types, this survey provides a structured and dynamic perspective on research, benchmark datasets, and tools related to memory in AI, clarifying the functional interplay in LLMs based agents while outlining promising directions for future researchThe paper list, datasets, methods and tools are available at \href{https://github.com/Elvin-Yiming-Du/Survey_Memory_in_AI{https://github.com/Elvin-Yiming-Du/Survey\_Memory\_in\_AI}.}.

Schemas play a vital role in ensuring data quality and supporting usability in the Semantic Web and natural language processing. Traditionally, their creation demands substantial involvement from knowledge engineers and domain experts. Leveraging the impressive capabilities of large language models (LLMs) in tasks like ontology engineering, we explore schema generation using LLMs. To bridge the resource gap, we introduce two datasets: YAGO Schema and Wikidata EntitySchema, along with novel evaluation metrics. The LLM-based pipelines utilize local and global information from knowledge graphs (KGs) to generate schemas in Shape Expressions (ShEx). Experiments demonstrate LLMs' strong potential in producing high-quality ShEx schemas, paving the way for scalable, automated schema generation for large KGs. Furthermore, our benchmark introduces a new challenge for structured generation, pushing the limits of LLMs on syntactically rich formalisms.

External memory systems are pivotal for enabling Large Language Model (LLM) agents to maintain persistent knowledge and perform long-horizon decision-making. Existing paradigms typically follow a two-stage process: computationally expensive memory construction (e.g., structuring data into graphs) followed by naive retrieval-augmented generation. However, our empirical analysis reveals two fundamental limitations: complex construction incurs high costs with marginal performance gains, and simple context concatenation fails to bridge the gap between retrieval recall and reasoning accuracy. To address these challenges, we propose CoM (Chain-of-Memory), a novel framework that advocates for a paradigm shift toward lightweight construction paired with sophisticated utilization. CoM introduces a Chain-of-Memory mechanism that organizes retrieved fragments into coherent inference paths through dynamic evolution, utilizing adaptive truncation to prune irrelevant noise. Extensive experiments on the LongMemEval and LoCoMo benchmarks demonstrate that CoM outperforms strong baselines with accuracy gains of 7.5%-10.4%, while drastically reducing computational overhead to approximately 2.7% of token consumption and 6.0% of latency compared to complex memory architectures.

LLM agents are increasingly deployed on long-horizon tasks requiring sustained reasoning over extended interaction histories. Realizing this at scale requires agents to persistently store, retrieve, and update their own memory across sessions. A rich ecosystem of agent memory systems has emerged spanning flat retrieval, LLM-mediated extraction, consolidating fact stores, and agentic control flows. Yet, their system-level behavior remains uncharacterized. We present the first systems characterization of agent memory. First, we introduce a system-oriented taxonomy classifying agent memory systems along four axes. Second, we build a phase-aware profiling harness attributing cost to construction, retrieval, and generation. Third, we characterize ten representative systems across two benchmark suites, uncovering how design choices shift cost across the write and read paths. Finally, we derive 10 system recommendations covering construction scheduling, capability floors, amortization via query volume, freshness-latency tradeoffs, and fleet-scale management.

Long-term conversational agents need to remember and query cross-session, multi-typed information with complex correlations. Existing agent memory systems rely on heterogeneous vector and graph databases, which fragment memory information and cause high cross-database I/O latency. For retrieval, common RAG-style methods tend to introduce noise, miss correlated clues, and lack token budget control, degrading LLM accuracy and efficiency. We propose Mandol, an agglomerative memory system that consolidates fragmented memory representations and storage into a unified memory-native architecture. Its core components include: (1) a hierarchical memory model that organizes memory into a basic layer representing raw memory information and a high-level abstract layer that agglomerates basic memories into traceable abstract memories, both uniformly represented as structured semantic graphs; (2) an agglomerative semantic data structure combining SemanticMap and SemanticGraph, which natively fuses key-value, vector, and graph structures and provides unified hybrid retrieval operators to eliminate cross-database I/O; and (3) a quantitative query mechanism with query-adaptive routing, quantitative denoising and conflict resolution, and token-constrained context generation, all without involving LLMs during retrieval. Experiments on two widely used long-term conversation benchmarks, LoCoMo and LongMemEval, show that Mandol achieves the best overall accuracy among representative agent memory systems. For performance comparison, Mandol also obtains a 5.4x retrieval speedup and a 4.8x insertion speedup under 10 QPS concurrent load, while still maintaining low latency on consumer-grade hardware.

Schemata are structured representations of complex tasks that can aid artificial intelligence by allowing models to break down complex tasks into intermediate steps. We propose a novel system that induces schemata from web videos and generalizes them to capture unseen tasks with the goal of improving video retrieval performance. Our system proceeds in three major phases: (1) Given a task with related videos, we construct an initial schema for a task using a joint video-text model to match video segments with text representing steps from wikiHow; (2) We generalize schemata to unseen tasks by leveraging language models to edit the text within existing schemata. Through generalization, we can allow our schemata to cover a more extensive range of tasks with a small amount of learning data; (3) We conduct zero-shot instructional video retrieval with the unseen task names as the queries. Our schema-guided approach outperforms existing methods for video retrieval, and we demonstrate that the schemata induced by our system are better than those generated by other models.

Large language model agents heavily rely on external memory to support knowledge reuse and complex reasoning tasks. Yet most memory systems store experiences in a single global retrieval pool which can gradually dilute or corrupt stored knowledge. This problem is especially pronounced for small language models (SLMs), which are highly vulnerable to irrelevant context. We introduce CLAG, a CLustering-based AGentic memory framework where an SLM agent actively organizes memory by clustering. CLAG employs an SLM-driven router to assign incoming memories to semantically coherent clusters and autonomously generates cluster-specific profiles, including topic summaries and descriptive tags, to establish each cluster as a self-contained functional unit. By performing localized evolution within these structured neighborhoods, CLAG effectively reduces cross-topic interference and enhances internal memory density. During retrieval, the framework utilizes a two-stage process that first filters relevant clusters via their profiles, thereby excluding distractors and reducing the search space. Experiments on multiple QA datasets with three SLM backbones show that CLAG consistently improves answer quality and robustness over prior memory systems for agents, remaining lightweight and efficient.

Long-running AI agents need persistent memory. Memory supports learning across sessions, reduces repeated context injection, and enables auditing of past decisions. Current agent memory systems and database paradigms treat memory as storage. They localize correctness at records, embeddings, or edges. Each supplies only some of the capabilities that long-term memory requires. The result is four recurring failure modes: unregulated growth, missing semantic revision, capacity-driven forgetting, and read-only retrieval. In our vision, long-term agent memory is a new data-management workload. Its correctness is a property of the state trajectory, not of individual records. We formalize this as Governed Evolving Memory (GEM). GEM replaces record-level database operations with four state-level operators: ingestion, revision, forgetting, and retrieval. Six correctness conditions govern how the state evolves. Three structural observations establish that no record-level system can satisfy these conditions, regardless of the storage model. We realize the abstraction in MemState, a prototype on a property-graph backend. MemState validates feasibility and exposes the gap to a native engine. We outline three research directions that define memory-centric data management as a workload.

We present AutoSchemaKG, a framework for fully autonomous knowledge graph construction that eliminates the need for predefined schemas. Our system leverages large language models to simultaneously extract knowledge triples and induce comprehensive schemas directly from text, modeling both entities and events while employing conceptualization to organize instances into semantic categories. Processing over 50 million documents, we construct ATLAS (Automated Triple Linking And Schema induction), a family of knowledge graphs with 900+ million nodes and 5.9 billion edges. This approach outperforms state-of-the-art baselines on multi-hop QA tasks and enhances LLM factuality. Notably, our schema induction achieves 92\% semantic alignment with human-crafted schemas with zero manual intervention, demonstrating that billion-scale knowledge graphs with dynamically induced schemas can effectively complement parametric knowledge in large language models.

While Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) scales capacity via conditional computation, Transformers lack a native primitive for knowledge lookup, forcing them to inefficiently simulate retrieval through computation. To address this, we introduce conditional memory as a complementary sparsity axis, instantiated via Engram, a module that modernizes classic N-gram embedding for O(1) lookup. By formulating the Sparsity Allocation problem, we uncover a U-shaped scaling law that optimizes the trade-off between neural computation (MoE) and static memory (Engram). Guided by this law, we scale Engram to 27B parameters, achieving superior performance over a strictly iso-parameter and iso-FLOPs MoE baseline. Most notably, while the memory module is expected to aid knowledge retrieval (e.g., MMLU +3.4; CMMLU +4.0), we observe even larger gains in general reasoning (e.g., BBH +5.0; ARC-Challenge +3.7) and code/math domains~(HumanEval +3.0; MATH +2.4). Mechanistic analyses reveal that Engram relieves the backbone's early layers from static reconstruction, effectively deepening the network for complex reasoning. Furthermore, by delegating local dependencies to lookups, it frees up attention capacity for global context, substantially boosting long-context retrieval (e.g., Multi-Query NIAH: 84.2 to 97.0). Finally, Engram establishes infrastructure-aware efficiency: its deterministic addressing enables runtime prefetching from host memory, incurring negligible overhead. We envision conditional memory as an indispensable modeling primitive for next-generation sparse models.

Recent benchmarks for Large Language Model (LLM) agents primarily focus on evaluating reasoning, planning, and execution capabilities, while another critical component-memory, encompassing how agents memorize, update, and retrieve long-term information-is under-evaluated due to the lack of benchmarks. We term agents with memory mechanisms as memory agents. In this paper, we identify four core competencies essential for memory agents: accurate retrieval, test-time learning, long-range understanding, and conflict resolution. Existing datasets either rely on limited context lengths or are tailored for static, long-context settings like book-based QA, which do not reflect the interactive, multi-turn nature of memory agents that incrementally accumulate information. Furthermore, no existing benchmarks cover all four competencies. Therefore, we introduce MemoryAgentBench, a new benchmark specifically designed for memory agents. Our benchmark combines reformulated existing datasets with newly constructed ones, covering the above four memory competencies, providing a systematic and challenging testbed for assessing memory quality. We evaluate a diverse set of memory agents, ranging from simple context-based and retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) systems to advanced agents with external memory modules and tool integration. Empirical results reveal that current methods fall short of mastering all four competencies, underscoring the need for further research into comprehensive memory mechanisms for LLM agents.

Several approaches are proposed to deal with the problem of the Automatic Schema Matching (ASM). The challenges and difficulties caused by the complexity and uncertainty characterizing both the process and the outcome of Schema Matching motivated us to investigate how bio-inspired emerging paradigm can help with understanding, managing, and ultimately overcoming those challenges. In this paper, we explain how we approached Automatic Schema Matching as a systemic and Complex Adaptive System (CAS) and how we modeled it using the approach of Agent-Based Modeling and Simulation (ABMS). This effort gives birth to a tool (prototype) for schema matching called Reflex-SMAS. A set of experiments demonstrates the viability of our approach on two main aspects: (i) effectiveness (increasing the quality of the found matchings) and (ii) efficiency (reducing the effort required for this efficiency). Our approach represents a significant paradigm-shift, in the field of Automatic Schema Matching.

Large language model-based agents operating in long-horizon interactions require memory systems that support temporal consistency, multi-hop reasoning, and evidence-grounded reuse across sessions. Existing approaches largely rely on unstructured retrieval or coarse abstractions, which often lead to temporal conflicts, brittle reasoning, and limited traceability. We propose MemWeaver, a unified memory framework that consolidates long-term agent experiences into three interconnected components: a temporally grounded graph memory for structured relational reasoning, an experience memory that abstracts recurring interaction patterns from repeated observations, and a passage memory that preserves original textual evidence. MemWeaver employs a dual-channel retrieval strategy that jointly retrieves structured knowledge and supporting evidence to construct compact yet information-dense contexts for reasoning. Experiments on the LoCoMo benchmark demonstrate that MemWeaver substantially improves multi-hop and temporal reasoning accuracy while reducing input context length by over 95\% compared to long-context baselines.

We present Prompt Cache, an approach for accelerating inference for large language models (LLM) by reusing attention states across different LLM prompts. Many input prompts have overlapping text segments, such as system messages, prompt templates, and documents provided for context. Our key insight is that by precomputing and storing the attention states of these frequently occurring text segments on the inference server, we can efficiently reuse them when these segments appear in user prompts. Prompt Cache employs a schema to explicitly define such reusable text segments, called prompt modules. The schema ensures positional accuracy during attention state reuse and provides users with an interface to access cached states in their prompt. Using a prototype implementation, we evaluate Prompt Cache across several LLMs. We show that Prompt Cache significantly reduce latency in time-to-first-token, especially for longer prompts such as document-based question answering and recommendations. The improvements range from 8x for GPU-based inference to 60x for CPU-based inference, all while maintaining output accuracy and without the need for model parameter modifications.

Memory has evolved into a foundational architectural dimension in large language models (LLMs), shifting from an implicit byproduct of computation to a spectrum of explicit, controllable mechanisms. While recent advances introduce diverse strategies---spanning transient attention, recurrent state dynamics, parameter-efficient adaptations, and scalable lookup storage---this rapid evolution has led to a highly fragmented research landscape. In this survey, we present a systematic, architecture-centric taxonomy of memory in LLMs. Our framework characterizes memory along three orthogonal axes: representation (implicit versus explicit), update dynamics (offline versus online), and persistence (short-term versus long-term). We further formalize the granular mechanisms dictating memory writing, routing, state transitions, and consolidation. This unified perspective elucidates the conceptual boundaries between computation-coupled and independently addressable memory, effectively bridging disparate architectural paradigms. Additionally, we critically analyze hybrid memory architectures, system-level efficiency trade-offs, and multi-dimensional evaluation methodologies. By consolidating these scattered advancements into a cohesive framework, this survey charts the trajectory of memory-centric LLM design and provides a principled foundation for future innovations in scalable and adaptive language modeling.

One of the key factors influencing the reasoning capabilities of LLM-based agents is their ability to leverage long-term memory. Integrating long-term memory mechanisms allows agents to make informed decisions grounded in historical interactions. While recent advances have significantly improved the storage and retrieval components, by encoding memory into dense vectors for similarity search or organizing memory as structured knowledge graphs most existing approaches fall short in memory updating. In particular, they lack mechanisms for dynamically refining preference memory representations in response to evolving user behaviors and contexts. To address this gap, we propose a Preference-Aware Memory Update Mechanism (PAMU) that enables dynamic and personalized memory refinement. By integrating sliding window averages (SW) with exponential moving averages (EMA), PAMU constructs a fused preference-aware representation that captures both short-term fluctuations and long-term user tendencies. We conduct experiments on five task scenarios of the LoCoMo dataset, and the results show that our mechanism can significantly improve the output quality of LLM in five baselines, validating its effectiveness in long-term conversations.

MLLMs exhibit strong reasoning on isolated queries, yet they operate de novo -- solving each problem independently and often repeating the same mistakes. Existing memory-augmented agents mainly store past trajectories for reuse. However, trajectory-based memory suffers from brevity bias, gradually losing essential domain knowledge. More critically, even in truly multimodal problem-solving settings, it records only a single-modality trace of past behavior, failing to preserve how visual attention and logical reasoning jointly contributed to the solution. This is fundamentally misaligned with human cognition: semantic memory is both multimodal and integrated, preserving visual and abstract knowledge through coordinated but distinct representational streams. We thus introduce ViLoMem, a dual-stream memory framework that constructs compact, schema-based memory. It separately encodes visual distraction patterns and logical reasoning errors, enabling MLLMs to learn from their successful and failed experiences. Following a grow-and-refine principle, the system incrementally accumulates and updates multimodal semantic knowledge -- preserving stable, generalizable strategies while avoiding catastrophic forgetting. Across six multimodal benchmarks, ViLoMem consistently improves pass@1 accuracy and substantially reduces repeated visual and logical errors. Ablations confirm the necessity of dual-stream memory with explicit distraction--hallucination separation, demonstrating the value of error-aware multimodal memory for lifelong and cross-domain agentic learning. Our project page will be available at https://weihao-bo.github.io/ViLoMeo-page.

Why do we need another AI to help the AI? We argue you don't. Stateless LLM sessions impose re-orientation costs on iterative, session-heavy workflows. Prior work addresses cross-session memory through retrieval-augmented approaches: store history, embed it, retrieve by semantic similarity. Cross-session memory is a state management problem, not a search problem. Similarity search fails for named entity resolution within bounded vocabulary contexts because beliefs about a shared technical domain are semantically proximate by construction. A single user is the simplest bounded vocabulary context; engineering teams converge on the same property through shared codebases and terminology. We present Tenure, a local-first proxy that maintains a typed belief store with epistemic status, versioned supersession, and scope isolation, injecting curated context into every LLM session through precision-first retrieval. Hard scope isolation provides a structural guarantee: the right beliefs surface, and only within the boundaries the user has authorized. Tenure's typed schema converts extracted facts into imperative instructions via a why it matters field, making injected beliefs directly actionable rather than raw material for the model to re-derive. A controlled evaluation on 72 retrieval cases demonstrates the gap. Cosine similarity over dense embeddings achieves mean precision of 0.12. Alias-weighted BM25 maintains mean precision of 1.0, passing 72/72 cases versus 8/72 for cosine similarity on the same corpus. Hybrid retrieval typically solves vocabulary mismatch between disparate authors; Tenure eliminates this structurally: query and belief authors are the same person, and an alias enrichment flywheel continuously indexes their specific vocabulary. Under multi-turn topic drift this worsens: the vector backend produces drift scores of 0.43--0.50 on noise-critical turns where BM25 maintains 0.

Organizing long-term memory for multimodal agents remains challenging because existing methods either suffer from expensive question-agnostic offline summaries or naive embedding similarity matching that introduces incomplete and redundant context. To address these issues, we propose GraphMemix, a combinatorial-optimization graph memory framework that models memory organization as query-aware evidence-forest construction. Specifically, our method consists of three key components:(1) candidate graph construction, which expands multi-view seed memories through schema and semantic relations to acquire query-aware original context; (2) evidence utility and activation costs, which decouples direct memory support from anchor-conditioned relation verification to suppress redundant or conflicting information; and (3) forest optimization, which jointly selects a forest-format memory context under a maximum evidence budget and its reliable relational structure. By organizing memory into a query-relevant subgraph, the method avoids substantial lifecycle cost and recovers low-similarity complementary evidence. Experimental results across four long-term multimodal memory benchmarks demonstrate significant improvements with different foundation models and establish a new Pareto frontier between accuracy and lifecycle cost.

Driven by the development of persistent, self-adapting autonomous agents, equipping these systems with high-fidelity memory access for long-horizon reasoning has emerged as a critical requirement. However, prevalent retrieval-based memory frameworks often follow an incremental processing paradigm that continuously extracts and updates conversational memories into vector databases, relying on semantic retrieval when queried. While this approach is fast, it inherently relies on lossy abstraction, frequently missing contextually critical information and struggling to resolve queries that rely on fine-grained contextual understanding. To address this, we introduce D-Mem, a dual-process memory system. It retains lightweight vector retrieval for routine queries while establishing an exhaustive Full Deliberation module as a high-fidelity fallback. To achieve cognitive economy without sacrificing accuracy, D-Mem employs a Multi-dimensional Quality Gating policy to dynamically bridge these two processes. Experiments on the LoCoMo and RealTalk benchmarks using GPT-4o-mini and Qwen3-235B-Instruct demonstrate the efficacy of our approach. Notably, our Multi-dimensional Quality Gating policy achieves an F1 score of 53.5 on LoCoMo with GPT-4o-mini. This outperforms our static retrieval baseline, Mem0^ast (51.2), and recovers 96.7\% of the Full Deliberation's performance (55.3), while incurring significantly lower computational costs.

Although natural language is the default medium for Large Language Models (LLMs), its limited expressive capacity creates a profound bottleneck for complex problem-solving. While recent advancements in AI have relied heavily on scaling, merely internalizing knowledge does not guarantee its effective application. Defining language representation as the linguistic and symbolic constructs used to map and model the real world, this paper argues that shaping schemas through advanced language representation is the next frontier for expanding LLM intelligence. We posit that an LLM's knowledge activation and organization -- its schema -- depends heavily on the structural and symbolic sophistication of the language used to represent a given task. This paper contributes both a formalization of this claim and the empirical evidence to support it. With a new formalization, we present multiple lines of evidence to support our position: Firstly, we review recent empirical practices and emerging methodologies that demonstrate the substantial performance gains achievable through deliberate language representation design, even without modifying model parameters or scale. Secondly, we conduct controlled experiments showing that LLM performance and its internal feature activations vary under different language representations of the same underlying task. Together, these findings highlight language representation design as a promising direction for future research.

We describe a family of architectures to support transductive inference by allowing memory to grow to a finite but a-priori unknown bound while making efficient use of finite resources for inference. Current architectures use such resources to represent data either eidetically over a finite span ("context" in Transformers), or fading over an infinite span (in State Space Models, or SSMs). Recent hybrid architectures have combined eidetic and fading memory, but with limitations that do not allow the designer or the learning process to seamlessly modulate the two, nor to extend the eidetic memory span. We leverage ideas from Stochastic Realization Theory to develop a class of models called B'MOJO to seamlessly combine eidetic and fading memory within an elementary composable module. The overall architecture can be used to implement models that can access short-term eidetic memory "in-context," permanent structural memory "in-weights," fading memory "in-state," and long-term eidetic memory "in-storage" by natively incorporating retrieval from an asynchronously updated memory. We show that Transformers, existing SSMs such as Mamba, and hybrid architectures such as Jamba are special cases of B'MOJO and describe a basic implementation, to be open sourced, that can be stacked and scaled efficiently in hardware. We test B'MOJO on transductive inference tasks, such as associative recall, where it outperforms existing SSMs and Hybrid models; as a baseline, we test ordinary language modeling where B'MOJO achieves perplexity comparable to similarly-sized Transformers and SSMs up to 1.4B parameters, while being up to 10% faster to train. Finally, we show that B'MOJO's ability to modulate eidetic and fading memory results in better inference on longer sequences tested up to 32K tokens, four-fold the length of the longest sequences seen during training.

Utilizing large language models (LLMs) for transforming natural language questions into SQL queries (text-to-SQL) is a promising yet challenging approach, particularly when applied to real-world databases with complex and extensive schemas. In particular, effectively incorporating data catalogs and database values for SQL generation remains an obstacle, leading to suboptimal solutions. We address this problem by proposing a new pipeline that effectively retrieves relevant data and context, selects an efficient schema, and synthesizes correct and efficient SQL queries. To increase retrieval precision, our pipeline introduces a hierarchical retrieval method leveraging model-generated keywords, locality-sensitive hashing indexing, and vector databases. Additionally, we have developed an adaptive schema pruning technique that adjusts based on the complexity of the problem and the model's context size. Our approach generalizes to both frontier proprietary models like GPT-4 and open-source models such as Llama-3-70B. Through a series of ablation studies, we demonstrate the effectiveness of each component of our pipeline and its impact on the end-to-end performance. Our method achieves new state-of-the-art performance on the cross-domain challenging BIRD dataset.

Large language model (LLM) agents often struggle in long-context interactions. As the agent accumulates more interaction history, context management approaches such as sliding window and prompt compression may omit earlier structured information that later steps rely on. Recent retrieval-based memory systems surface relevant content but still overlook the causal and logical structure needed for multi-step reasoning. We introduce ContextWeaver, a selective and dependency-structured memory framework that organizes an agent's interaction trace into a graph of reasoning steps and selects the relevant context for future actions. Unlike prior context management approaches, ContextWeaver supports: (1) dependency-based construction and traversal that link each step to the earlier steps it relies on; (2) compact dependency summarization that condenses root-to-step reasoning paths into reusable units; and (3) a lightweight validation layer that incorporates execution feedback. On the SWE-Bench Verified and Lite benchmarks, ContextWeaver improves performance over a sliding-window baseline in pass@1, while reducing reasoning steps and token usage. Our observations suggest that modeling logical dependencies provides a stable and scalable memory mechanism for LLM agents that use tools.

Memory has emerged, and will continue to remain, a core capability of foundation model-based agents. As research on agent memory rapidly expands and attracts unprecedented attention, the field has also become increasingly fragmented. Existing works that fall under the umbrella of agent memory often differ substantially in their motivations, implementations, and evaluation protocols, while the proliferation of loosely defined memory terminologies has further obscured conceptual clarity. Traditional taxonomies such as long/short-term memory have proven insufficient to capture the diversity of contemporary agent memory systems. This work aims to provide an up-to-date landscape of current agent memory research. We begin by clearly delineating the scope of agent memory and distinguishing it from related concepts such as LLM memory, retrieval augmented generation (RAG), and context engineering. We then examine agent memory through the unified lenses of forms, functions, and dynamics. From the perspective of forms, we identify three dominant realizations of agent memory, namely token-level, parametric, and latent memory. From the perspective of functions, we propose a finer-grained taxonomy that distinguishes factual, experiential, and working memory. From the perspective of dynamics, we analyze how memory is formed, evolved, and retrieved over time. To support practical development, we compile a comprehensive summary of memory benchmarks and open-source frameworks. Beyond consolidation, we articulate a forward-looking perspective on emerging research frontiers, including memory automation, reinforcement learning integration, multimodal memory, multi-agent memory, and trustworthiness issues. We hope this survey serves not only as a reference for existing work, but also as a conceptual foundation for rethinking memory as a first-class primitive in the design of future agentic intelligence.

Recent conversational memory systems invest heavily in LLM-based structuring at ingestion time and learned retrieval policies at query time. We show that neither is necessary. SmartSearch retrieves from raw, unstructured conversation history using a fully deterministic pipeline: NER-weighted substring matching for recall, rule-based entity discovery for multi-hop expansion, and a CrossEncoder+ColBERT rank fusion stage -- the only learned component -- running on CPU in ~650ms. Oracle analysis on two benchmarks identifies a compilation bottleneck: retrieval recall reaches 98.6%, but without intelligent ranking only 22.5% of gold evidence survives truncation to the token budget. With score-adaptive truncation and no per-dataset tuning, SmartSearch achieves 93.5% on LoCoMo and 88.4% on LongMemEval-S, exceeding all known memory systems under the same evaluation protocol on both benchmarks while using 8.5x fewer tokens than full-context baselines.

Agentic memory systems enable large language model (LLM) agents to maintain state across long interactions, supporting long-horizon reasoning and personalization beyond fixed context windows. Despite rapid architectural development, the empirical foundations of these systems remain fragile: existing benchmarks are often underscaled, evaluation metrics are misaligned with semantic utility, performance varies significantly across backbone models, and system-level costs are frequently overlooked. This survey presents a structured analysis of agentic memory from both architectural and system perspectives. We first introduce a concise taxonomy of MAG systems based on four memory structures. Then, we analyze key pain points limiting current systems, including benchmark saturation effects, metric validity and judge sensitivity, backbone-dependent accuracy, and the latency and throughput overhead introduced by memory maintenance. By connecting the memory structure to empirical limitations, this survey clarifies why current agentic memory systems often underperform their theoretical promise and outlines directions for more reliable evaluation and scalable system design.

Memory-Augmented Generation (MAG) extends Large Language Models with external memory to support long-context reasoning, but existing approaches largely rely on semantic similarity over monolithic memory stores, entangling temporal, causal, and entity information. This design limits interpretability and alignment between query intent and retrieved evidence, leading to suboptimal reasoning accuracy. In this paper, we propose MAGMA, a multi-graph agentic memory architecture that represents each memory item across orthogonal semantic, temporal, causal, and entity graphs. MAGMA formulates retrieval as policy-guided traversal over these relational views, enabling query-adaptive selection and structured context construction. By decoupling memory representation from retrieval logic, MAGMA provides transparent reasoning paths and fine-grained control over retrieval. Experiments on LoCoMo and LongMemEval demonstrate that MAGMA consistently outperforms state-of-the-art agentic memory systems in long-horizon reasoning tasks.

Text-to-SQL systems powered by Large Language Models have excelled on academic benchmarks but struggle in complex enterprise environments. The primary limitation lies in their reliance on static schema representations, which fails to resolve semantic ambiguity and scale effectively to large, complex databases. To address this, we propose APEX-SQL, an Agentic Text-to-SQL Framework that shifts the paradigm from passive translation to agentic exploration. Our framework employs a hypothesis-verification loop to ground model reasoning in real data. In the schema linking phase, we use logical planning to verbalize hypotheses, dual-pathway pruning to reduce the search space, and parallel data profiling to validate column roles against real data, followed by global synthesis to ensure topological connectivity. For SQL generation, we introduce a deterministic mechanism to retrieve exploration directives, allowing the agent to effectively explore data distributions, refine hypotheses, and generate semantically accurate SQLs. Experiments on BIRD (70.65% execution accuracy) and Spider 2.0-Snow (51.01% execution accuracy) demonstrate that APEX-SQL outperforms competitive baselines with reduced token consumption. Further analysis reveals that agentic exploration acts as a performance multiplier, unlocking the latent reasoning potential of foundation models in enterprise settings. Ablation studies confirm the critical contributions of each component in ensuring robust and accurate data analysis.

Agent memory has been touted as a dimension of growth for LLM-based applications, enabling agents that can accumulate experience, adapt across sessions, and move beyond single-shot question answering. The current generation of agent memory systems treats memory as an external layer that extracts salient snippets from conversations, stores them in vector or graph-based stores, and retrieves top-k items into the prompt of an otherwise stateless model. While these systems improve personalization and context carry-over, they still blur the line between evidence and inference, struggle to organize information over long horizons, and offer limited support for agents that must explain their reasoning. We present Hindsight, a memory architecture that treats agent memory as a structured, first-class substrate for reasoning by organizing it into four logical networks that distinguish world facts, agent experiences, synthesized entity summaries, and evolving beliefs. This framework supports three core operations -- retain, recall, and reflect -- that govern how information is added, accessed, and updated. Under this abstraction, a temporal, entity aware memory layer incrementally turns conversational streams into a structured, queryable memory bank, while a reflection layer reasons over this bank to produce answers and to update information in a traceable way. On key long-horizon conversational memory benchmarks like LongMemEval and LoCoMo, Hindsight with an open-source 20B model lifts overall accuracy from 39% to 83.6% over a full-context baseline with the same backbone and outperforms full context GPT-4o. Scaling the backbone further pushes Hindsight to 91.4% on LongMemEval and up to 89.61% on LoCoMo (vs. 75.78% for the strongest prior open system), consistently outperforming existing memory architectures on multi-session and open-domain questions.

The performance of Large Language Models (LLMs) is fundamentally determined by the contextual information provided during inference. This survey introduces Context Engineering, a formal discipline that transcends simple prompt design to encompass the systematic optimization of information payloads for LLMs. We present a comprehensive taxonomy decomposing Context Engineering into its foundational components and the sophisticated implementations that integrate them into intelligent systems. We first examine the foundational components: context retrieval and generation, context processing and context management. We then explore how these components are architecturally integrated to create sophisticated system implementations: retrieval-augmented generation (RAG), memory systems and tool-integrated reasoning, and multi-agent systems. Through this systematic analysis of over 1300 research papers, our survey not only establishes a technical roadmap for the field but also reveals a critical research gap: a fundamental asymmetry exists between model capabilities. While current models, augmented by advanced context engineering, demonstrate remarkable proficiency in understanding complex contexts, they exhibit pronounced limitations in generating equally sophisticated, long-form outputs. Addressing this gap is a defining priority for future research. Ultimately, this survey provides a unified framework for both researchers and engineers advancing context-aware AI.

Personalized agents that interact with users over long periods must maintain persistent memory across sessions and update it as circumstances change. However, existing benchmarks predominantly frame long-term memory evaluation as fact retrieval from past conversations, providing limited insight into agents' ability to consolidate memory over time or handle frequent knowledge updates. We introduce Memora, a long-term memory benchmark spanning weeks to months long user conversations. The benchmark evaluates three memory-grounded tasks: remembering, reasoning, and recommending. To ensure data quality, we employ automated memory-grounding checks and human evaluation. We further introduce Forgetting-Aware Memory Accuracy (FAMA), a metric that penalizes reliance on obsolete or invalidated memory when evaluating long-term memory. Evaluations of four LLMs and six memory agents reveal frequent reuse of invalid memories and failures to reconcile evolving memories. Memory agents offer marginal improvements, exposing shortcomings in long-term memory for personalized agents.

Memory is the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information, allowing humans to retain experiences, knowledge, skills, and facts over time, and serving as the foundation for growth and effective interaction with the world. It plays a crucial role in shaping our identity, making decisions, learning from past experiences, building relationships, and adapting to changes. In the era of large language models (LLMs), memory refers to the ability of an AI system to retain, recall, and use information from past interactions to improve future responses and interactions. Although previous research and reviews have provided detailed descriptions of memory mechanisms, there is still a lack of a systematic review that summarizes and analyzes the relationship between the memory of LLM-driven AI systems and human memory, as well as how we can be inspired by human memory to construct more powerful memory systems. To achieve this, in this paper, we propose a comprehensive survey on the memory of LLM-driven AI systems. In particular, we first conduct a detailed analysis of the categories of human memory and relate them to the memory of AI systems. Second, we systematically organize existing memory-related work and propose a categorization method based on three dimensions (object, form, and time) and eight quadrants. Finally, we illustrate some open problems regarding the memory of current AI systems and outline possible future directions for memory in the era of large language models.

Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated the world with the sparks of artificial general intelligence (AGI). One opinion, especially from some startups working on LLMs, argues that an LLM with nearly unlimited context length can realize AGI. However, they might be too optimistic about the long-context capability of (existing) LLMs -- (1) Recent literature has shown that their effective context length is significantly smaller than their claimed context length; and (2) Our reasoning-in-a-haystack experiments further demonstrate that simultaneously finding the relevant information from a long context and conducting (simple) reasoning is nearly impossible. In this paper, we envision a pathway from LLMs to AGI through the integration of memory. We believe that AGI should be a system where LLMs serve as core processors. In addition to raw data, the memory in this system would store a large number of important conclusions derived from reasoning processes. Compared with retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) that merely processing raw data, this approach not only connects semantically related information closer, but also simplifies complex inferences at the time of querying. As an intermediate stage, the memory will likely be in the form of natural language descriptions, which can be directly consumed by users too. Ultimately, every agent/person should have its own large personal model, a deep neural network model (thus AI-native) that parameterizes and compresses all types of memory, even the ones cannot be described by natural languages. Finally, we discuss the significant potential of AI-native memory as the transformative infrastructure for (proactive) engagement, personalization, distribution, and social in the AGI era, as well as the incurred privacy and security challenges with preliminary solutions.

Text-to-SQL aims to map natural language questions to SQL queries. The sketch-based method combined with execution-guided (EG) decoding strategy has shown a strong performance on the WikiSQL benchmark. However, execution-guided decoding relies on database execution, which significantly slows down the inference process and is hence unsatisfactory for many real-world applications. In this paper, we present the Schema Dependency guided multi-task Text-to-SQL model (SDSQL) to guide the network to effectively capture the interactions between questions and schemas. The proposed model outperforms all existing methods in both the settings with or without EG. We show the schema dependency learning partially cover the benefit from EG and alleviates the need for it. SDSQL without EG significantly reduces time consumption during inference, sacrificing only a small amount of performance and provides more flexibility for downstream applications.

Structured output, where an LLM populates a predefined JSON schema, has become a default mechanism for data labeling and information extraction, but it also introduces a second instruction channel through schema descriptions. We tested whether classification-label definitions are better placed in the system prompt, user prompt, or schema description using a single-field classification task with nonce labels across ten model configurations from two vendors. Schema descriptions did not consistently outperform prompt-based placement; for GPT-4.1 and GPT-5.4 without reasoning, schema placement underperformed system prompts by 11-13 percentage points. Yet schemas are not inert metadata: when prompts and schemas conflicted, incorrect schema instructions caused accuracy drops of 5-45 points, with Claude Haiku 4.5 falling from 52.5% to 7%, indicating that schema instructions can override prompt instructions, and GPT-5.5 falling from 100% to 73%. Further, adding a required intermediate reasoning field before the label field improved schema-only accuracy by 15-24 points when headroom existed, exceeding system-prompt-only performance in every case tested. The effect held even for Claude Sonnet 4.6 at medium reasoning, where extended thinking alone did not produce a comparable gain. This suggests that schema design can affect how effectively models use information encoded in field descriptions. Overall, these results indicate that schema influence is model-dependent. In practice, the system prompt remains a safe default for definitions, but the bigger discipline is maintaining a single source of truth and preventing prompt/schema drift. More importantly, schema design itself may be a stronger lever than instruction placement. Practitioners should treat prompts and schemas as a unified instruction surface and empirically validate both placement and field design for their target model.

Existing agent memory systems universally follow what we term a Memory-as-Tool paradigm where a single query triggers one-shot retrieval of flat passage lists, suffering from passive invocation, reasoning-retrieval decoupling, and structural mismatch between retrieved fragments and the agent's navigational needs. We propose MemCog, a Memory-as-Cognition system that makes memory access an integral part of the reasoning process. MemCog organizes user knowledge as Navigable Memory Store with associative link graphs, exposes Cross-Dimensional Navigation Interface for multi-step reasoning-driven traversal, and employs Proactive Reasoning Protocol that drives agents to spontaneously initiate memory exploration from conversational context. We additionally construct ProactiveMemBench, the first benchmark for evaluating proactive memory triggering. Experiments show that MemCog achieves state-of-the-art on passive QA benchmarks (92.98 on LoCoMo, 95.8 on LongMemEval) while substantially outperforming baselines on ProactiveMemBench, demonstrating the advantage of Memory-as-Cognition.

The evolution of Large Language Models (LLMs) into autonomous agents necessitates the management of extensive, dynamic contexts. Current benchmarks, however, remain largely static, relying on passive retrieval tasks that fail to simulate the complexities of agent-environment interaction, such as non-linear reasoning and iterative feedback. To address this, we introduce AgentLongBench, which evaluates agents through simulated environment rollouts based on Lateral Thinking Puzzles. This framework generates rigorous interaction trajectories across knowledge-intensive and knowledge-free scenarios. Experiments with state-of-the-art models and memory systems (32K to 4M tokens) expose a critical weakness: while adept at static retrieval, agents struggle with the dynamic information synthesis essential for workflows. Our analysis indicates that this degradation is driven by the minimum number of tokens required to resolve a query. This factor explains why the high information density inherent in massive tool responses poses a significantly greater challenge than the memory fragmentation typical of long-turn dialogues.

Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly deployed as personalized assistants that interact with users over extended periods of time. As conversations grow longer, relying on full interaction histories becomes increasingly inefficient and unreliable: long contexts introduce substantial computational overhead, making it difficult for models to consistently identify and utilize the most relevant information for the current request. These challenges have motivated memory systems that structure and retrieve user-specific information. In realistic interactions, users often seek practical guidance such as recommendations, planning, and decision support. Unlike factual recall tasks, personalized guidance requires models to integrate information across multiple past conversations and reason about changing user preferences and experiences. However, existing conversational memory evaluations mainly focus on retrieval and factual recall. To study this challenge, we introduce PRAGMA, a benchmark for evaluating personalized guidance in long-term conversations. PRGAMA contains curated longitudinal conversation histories, evidence annotations, and guidance scenarios grounded in evolving user contexts and incorrect user assumptions. Experiments across retrieval systems, memory systems, and long-context models reveal that current systems struggle both to recover the appropriate conversational evidence and to effectively use it for personalized guidance. Our results highlight the need for memory architectures that support robust conversational retrieval and memory-grounded reasoning beyond evidence recall.

This paper examines memory mechanisms in Large Language Models (LLMs), emphasizing their importance for context-rich responses, reduced hallucinations, and improved efficiency. It categorizes memory into sensory, short-term, and long-term, with sensory memory corresponding to input prompts, short-term memory processing immediate context, and long-term memory implemented via external databases or structures. The text-based memory section covers acquisition (selection and summarization), management (updating, accessing, storing, and resolving conflicts), and utilization (full-text search, SQL queries, semantic search). The KV cache-based memory section discusses selection methods (regularity-based summarization, score-based approaches, special token embeddings) and compression techniques (low-rank compression, KV merging, multimodal compression), along with management strategies like offloading and shared attention mechanisms. Parameter-based memory methods (LoRA, TTT, MoE) transform memories into model parameters to enhance efficiency, while hidden-state-based memory approaches (chunk mechanisms, recurrent transformers, Mamba model) improve long-text processing by combining RNN hidden states with current methods. Overall, the paper offers a comprehensive analysis of LLM memory mechanisms, highlighting their significance and future research directions.

Large language model (LLM)-powered multi-agent systems (MAS) have demonstrated cognitive and execution capabilities that far exceed those of single LLM agents, yet their capacity for self-evolution remains hampered by underdeveloped memory architectures. Upon close inspection, we are alarmed to discover that prevailing MAS memory mechanisms (1) are overly simplistic, completely disregarding the nuanced inter-agent collaboration trajectories, and (2) lack cross-trial and agent-specific customization, in stark contrast to the expressive memory developed for single agents. To bridge this gap, we introduce G-Memory, a hierarchical, agentic memory system for MAS inspired by organizational memory theory, which manages the lengthy MAS interaction via a three-tier graph hierarchy: insight, query, and interaction graphs. Upon receiving a new user query, G-Memory performs bi-directional memory traversal to retrieve both high-level, generalizable insights that enable the system to leverage cross-trial knowledge, and fine-grained, condensed interaction trajectories that compactly encode prior collaboration experiences. Upon task execution, the entire hierarchy evolves by assimilating new collaborative trajectories, nurturing the progressive evolution of agent teams. Extensive experiments across five benchmarks, three LLM backbones, and three popular MAS frameworks demonstrate that G-Memory improves success rates in embodied action and accuracy in knowledge QA by up to 20.89% and 10.12%, respectively, without any modifications to the original frameworks. Our codes are available at https://github.com/bingreeky/GMemory.

Large language models still struggle with reliable long-term conversational memory: simply enlarging context windows or applying naive retrieval often introduces noise and destabilizes responses. We present APEX-MEM, a conversational memory system that combines three key innovations: (1) a property graph which uses domain-agnostic ontology to structure conversations as temporally grounded events in an entity-centric framework, (2) append-only storage that preserves the full temporal evolution of information, and (3) a multi-tool retrieval agent that understands and resolves conflicting or evolving information at query time, producing a compact and contextually relevant memory summary. This retrieval-time resolution preserves the full interaction history while suppressing irrelevant details. APEX-MEM achieves 88.88% accuracy on LOCOMO's Question Answering task and 86.2% on LongMemEval, outperforming state-of-the-art session-aware approaches and demonstrating that structured property graphs enable more temporally coherent long-term conversational reasoning.

Large Language Model based agents increasingly operate in high stakes, multi turn settings where factual grounding is critical, yet their memory systems typically rely on flat key value stores or plain vector retrieval with no mechanism to track the provenance or trustworthiness of stored knowledge. We present ElephantBroker, an open source cognitive runtime that unifies a Neo4j knowledge graph with a Qdrant vector store through the Cognee SDK to provide durable, verifiable agent memory. The system implements a complete cognitive loop (store, retrieve, score, compose, protect, learn) comprising a hybrid five source retrieval pipeline, an eleven dimension competitive scoring engine for budget constrained context assembly, a four state evidence verification model, a five stage context lifecycle with goal aware assembly and continuous compaction, a six layer cheap first guard pipeline for safety enforcement, an AI firewall providing enforceable tool call interception and multi tier safety scanning, a nine stage consolidation engine that strengthens useful patterns while decaying noise, and a numeric authority model governing multi organization identity with hierarchical access control. Architectural validation through a comprehensive test suite of over 2,200 tests spanning unit, integration, and end to end levels confirms subsystem correctness. The modular design supports three deployment tiers, five profile presets with inheritance, multi gateway isolation, and a management dashboard for human oversight, enabling configurations from lightweight memory only agents to full cognitive runtimes with enterprise grade safety and auditability.

We introduce RAM, an innovative RAG-based framework with an ever-improving memory. Inspired by humans' pedagogical process, RAM utilizes recursively reasoning-based retrieval and experience reflections to continually update the memory and learn from users' communicative feedback, namely communicative learning. Extensive experiments with both simulated and real users demonstrate significant improvements over traditional RAG and self-knowledge methods, particularly excelling in handling false premise and multi-hop questions. Furthermore, RAM exhibits promising adaptability to various feedback and retrieval method chain types, showcasing its potential for advancing AI capabilities in dynamic knowledge acquisition and lifelong learning.

Large language models (LLMs) need knowledge updates to meet the ever-growing world facts and correct the hallucinated responses, facilitating the methods of lifelong model editing. Where the updated knowledge resides in memories is a fundamental question for model editing. In this paper, we find that editing either long-term memory (direct model parameters) or working memory (non-parametric knowledge of neural network activations/representations by retrieval) will result in an impossible triangle -- reliability, generalization, and locality can not be realized together in the lifelong editing settings. For long-term memory, directly editing the parameters will cause conflicts with irrelevant pretrained knowledge or previous edits (poor reliability and locality). For working memory, retrieval-based activations can hardly make the model understand the edits and generalize (poor generalization). Therefore, we propose WISE to bridge the gap between memories. In WISE, we design a dual parametric memory scheme, which consists of the main memory for the pretrained knowledge and a side memory for the edited knowledge. We only edit the knowledge in the side memory and train a router to decide which memory to go through when given a query. For continual editing, we devise a knowledge-sharding mechanism where different sets of edits reside in distinct subspaces of parameters, and are subsequently merged into a shared memory without conflicts. Extensive experiments show that WISE can outperform previous model editing methods and overcome the impossible triangle under lifelong model editing of question answering, hallucination, and out-of-distribution settings across trending LLM architectures, e.g., GPT, LLaMA, and Mistral. Code will be released at https://github.com/zjunlp/EasyEdit.

Despite recent progress, LLM agents still struggle with reasoning over long interaction histories. While current memory-augmented agents rely on a static retrieve-then-reason paradigm, this rigid pipeline design prevents them from dynamically adapting memory access to intermediate evidence discovered during inference. To bridge this gap, we propose MRAgent, a framework that combines an associative memory graph with an active reconstruction mechanism. We represent memory as a Cue-Tag-Content graph, where associative tags serve as semantic bridges connecting fine-grained cues to memory contents. Operating on this structure, our active reconstruction mechanism integrates LLM reasoning directly into memory access, allowing the agent to iteratively explore and prune retrieval paths based on accumulated evidence. This ensures that memory retrieval is dynamically adapted to the reasoning context while avoiding combinatorial explosion caused by unconstrained expansion. Experiments on the LoCoMo benchmark and LongMemEval benchmark demonstrate significant improvements over strong baselines (up to 23%), while substantially reducing token and runtime cost, highlighting the effectiveness of active and associative reconstruction for long-horizon memory reasoning.

Large Language Models (LLMs) demonstrate remarkable capabilities, yet their inability to maintain persistent memory in long contexts limits their effectiveness as autonomous agents in long-term interactions. While existing memory systems have made progress, their reliance on arbitrary granularity for defining the basic memory unit and passive, rule-based mechanisms for knowledge extraction limits their capacity for genuine learning and evolution. To address these foundational limitations, we present Nemori, a novel self-organizing memory architecture inspired by human cognitive principles. Nemori's core innovation is twofold: First, its Two-Step Alignment Principle, inspired by Event Segmentation Theory, provides a principled, top-down method for autonomously organizing the raw conversational stream into semantically coherent episodes, solving the critical issue of memory granularity. Second, its Predict-Calibrate Principle, inspired by the Free-energy Principle, enables the agent to proactively learn from prediction gaps, moving beyond pre-defined heuristics to achieve adaptive knowledge evolution. This offers a viable path toward handling the long-term, dynamic workflows of autonomous agents. Extensive experiments on the LoCoMo and LongMemEval benchmarks demonstrate that Nemori significantly outperforms prior state-of-the-art systems, with its advantage being particularly pronounced in longer contexts.

We present a memory system for AI agents that treats stored information as continuous fields governed by partial differential equations rather than discrete entries in a database. The approach draws from classical field theory: memories diffuse through semantic space, decay thermodynamically based on importance, and interact through field coupling in multi-agent scenarios. We evaluate the system on two established long-context benchmarks: LoCoMo (ACL 2024) with 300-turn conversations across 35 sessions, and LongMemEval (ICLR 2025) testing multi-session reasoning over 500+ turns. On LongMemEval, the field-theoretic approach achieves significant improvements: +116% F1 on multi-session reasoning (p<0.01, d= 3.06), +43.8% on temporal reasoning (p<0.001, d= 9.21), and +27.8% retrieval recall on knowledge updates (p<0.001, d= 5.00). Multi-agent experiments show near-perfect collective intelligence (>99.8%) through field coupling. Code is available at github.com/rotalabs/rotalabs-fieldmem.

Long-term memory supports the self-evolution of LLM agents by retaining experience and skills across tasks and enabling their retrieval, reuse, and revision in subsequent long-horizon decision-making. Yet existing memory management approaches remain limited to discriminative retrieval and to address the sparse, hierarchical, and highly redundant structure of reusable experience: only a small, task-dependent subset of trajectories and memories warrants retention, retrieval, or revision. Learning these operations is further complicated by sparse, delayed, and indirect task-level feedback, with weak supervision across the memory lifecycle. Moreover, continual memory evolution introduces an architectural tension as addressing invariance: stored experience is perpetually revised, yet the addressing interface consumed by learned retrieval policies must remain stable. To address, we present GenMem, which reformulates memory management as generative symbolic addressing. Its core mechanism is the Symbolic Identifier (SID), a multi-level discrete token tuple drawn from a Cartesian-product address space that factorizes a million-scale sparse memory space using fewer than one hundred discrete symbols. Instead of generating ever-changing raw content, the memory agent learns to generate SIDs, while memory evolution rewrites the payload at a fixed address without shifting the address itself. Architecturally, GenMem couples a MemRetriever and a MemEvolver within a multi-agent harness, trained via GRPO with dense process and outcome rewards with two-channels optimization. Under offline memory evolution, experiments spanning ALFWorld, WebShop, multi-hop QA, medical reasoning, and deep research evaluate GenMem against strong memory-augmented baselines...

Modern Text-to-SQL systems often follow generate-execute-select pipelines, generating multiple candidate queries then selecting the best one. Listwise selection, by jointly comparing multiple candidates, has been widely adopted, but fine-tuning listwise selectors is costly. We thus propose a fine-tuning-free listwise selector. We replace two major fine-tuning objectives with inference-time strategies: (1) learning selection criteria as ordering and (2) mitigating positional bias. First, we build reusable structured memories instead of learning selection behavior as model parameters. Given a question, MaP-SQL retrieves memories distilled from training data that encode how natural language maps to schema elements, SQL operations, and expected outputs. These memories serve as explicit decision criteria for evaluating candidates in a listwise manner. Second, to mitigate ordering bias of listwise selectors, we aggregate rankings across multiple input permutations, with inference cost optimized by execution results and pointwise scoring. Our approach improves selection accuracy while maintaining efficiency and compatibility with existing large language models. Across Text-to-SQL benchmarks, it produces more stable selection without fine-tuning and fewer unnecessary comparisons than existing methods. On BIRD-dev, it outperforms the previous state-of-the-art selector-based method R^3-SQL by 2.02 execution accuracy points on average using the same candidate sets, with 2.92x fewer tokens.

Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable proficiency in understanding and generating responses to complex queries through large-scale pre-training. However, the efficacy of these models in memorizing and reasoning among large-scale structured knowledge, especially world knowledge that explicitly covers abundant factual information remains questionable. Addressing this gap, our research investigates whether LLMs can effectively store, recall, and reason with knowledge on a large scale comparable to latest knowledge bases (KBs) such as Wikidata. Specifically, we focus on three crucial aspects to study the viability: (1) the efficiency of LLMs with different sizes in memorizing the exact knowledge in the large-scale KB; (2) the flexibility of recalling the memorized knowledge in response to natural language queries; (3) the capability to infer new knowledge through reasoning. Our findings indicate that while LLMs hold promise as large-scale KBs capable of retrieving and responding with flexibility, enhancements in their reasoning capabilities are necessary to fully realize their potential.

Many students struggle with math word problems (MWPs), often finding it difficult to identify key information and select the appropriate mathematical operations.Schema-based instruction (SBI) is an evidence-based strategy that helps students categorize problems based on their structure, improving problem-solving accuracy. Building on this, we propose a Schema-Based Instruction Retrieval-Augmented Generation (SBI-RAG) framework that incorporates a large language model (LLM).Our approach emphasizes step-by-step reasoning by leveraging schemas to guide solution generation. We evaluate its performance on the GSM8K dataset, comparing it with GPT-4 and GPT-3.5 Turbo, and introduce a "reasoning score" metric to assess solution quality. Our findings suggest that SBI-RAG enhances reasoning clarity and problem-solving accuracy, potentially providing educational benefits for students

Schema matching is a crucial task in data integration, involving the alignment of a source schema with a target schema to establish correspondence between their elements. This task is challenging due to textual and semantic heterogeneity, as well as differences in schema sizes. Although machine-learning-based solutions have been explored in numerous studies, they often suffer from low accuracy, require manual mapping of the schemas for model training, or need access to source schema data which might be unavailable due to privacy concerns. In this paper we present a novel method, named ReMatch, for matching schemas using retrieval-enhanced Large Language Models (LLMs). Our method avoids the need for predefined mapping, any model training, or access to data in the source database. Our experimental results on large real-world schemas demonstrate that ReMatch is an effective matcher. By eliminating the requirement for training data, ReMatch becomes a viable solution for real-world scenarios.

Recent studies introduce conditional memory modules that decouple knowledge storage from neural computation, enabling more direct knowledge access. Compared to MoE, which relies on dynamic computation paths, explicit lookup provides a more efficient knowledge retrieval mechanism. However, these approaches still depend on learned memory embeddings, requiring additional training and limiting flexibility. To address this, we propose N-gram Memory (NGM), a training-free, plug-and-play module composed of a Causal N-Gram Encoder and a Cosine-Gated Memory Injector. The Causal N-Gram Encoder directly averages the pretrained token embeddings of the backbone model to construct N-gram representations, thereby eliminating the need to train separate N-gram embeddings from scratch. This design requires neither an additional memory table nor a retrieval pipeline. The Cosine-Gated Memory Injector then uses a non-parametric cosine gate with ReLU to modulate the retrieved embeddings into the contextual representations. We evaluate NGM on the Qwen3 series from 0.6B to 14B across eight benchmarks. NGM improves average performance by 0.5 to 1.2 points, with particularly clear gains on code generation and knowledge-intensive tasks (e.g., +3.0 on LiveCodeBench and +3.03 on GPQA for Qwen3-14B). Moreover, NGM also improves performance in multimodal benchmarks (e.g., MMStar +1.53 on Qwen3-VL-2B).

The exploration of whether agents can align with their environment without relying on human-labeled data presents an intriguing research topic. Drawing inspiration from the alignment process observed in intelligent organisms, where declarative memory plays a pivotal role in summarizing past experiences, we propose a novel learning framework. The agents adeptly distill insights from past experiences, refining and updating existing notes to enhance their performance in the environment. This entire process transpires within the memory components and is implemented through natural language, so we character this framework as In-memory Learning. We also delve into the key features of benchmarks designed to evaluate the self-improvement process. Through systematic experiments, we demonstrate the effectiveness of our framework and provide insights into this problem.

When completing knowledge-intensive tasks, humans sometimes need not just an answer but also a corresponding reference passage for auxiliary reading. Previous methods required obtaining pre-segmented article chunks through additional retrieval models. This paper explores leveraging the parameterized knowledge stored during the pre-training phase of large language models (LLMs) to independently recall reference passage from any starting position. We propose a two-stage framework that simulates the scenario of humans recalling easily forgotten references. Initially, the LLM is prompted to recall document title identifiers to obtain a coarse-grained document set. Then, based on the acquired coarse-grained document set, it recalls fine-grained passage. In the two-stage recall process, we use constrained decoding to ensure that content outside of the stored documents is not generated. To increase speed, we only recall a short prefix in the second stage, then locate its position to retrieve a complete passage. Experiments on KILT knowledge-sensitive tasks have verified that LLMs can independently recall reference passage location in various task forms, and the obtained reference significantly assist downstream tasks.

Memory enables Large Language Model (LLM) agents to perceive, store, and use information from past dialogues, which is essential for personalization. However, existing methods fail to properly model the temporal dimension of memory in two aspects: 1) Temporal inaccuracy: memories are organized by dialogue time rather than their actual occurrence time; 2) Temporal fragmentation: existing methods focus on point-wise memory, losing durative information that captures persistent states and evolving patterns. To address these limitations, we propose Temporal Semantic Memory (TSM), a memory framework that models semantic time for point-wise memory and supports the construction and utilization of durative memory. During memory construction, it first builds a semantic timeline rather than a dialogue one. Then, it consolidates temporally continuous and semantically related information into a durative memory. During memory utilization, it incorporates the query's temporal intent on the semantic timeline, enabling the retrieval of temporally appropriate durative memories and providing time-valid, duration-consistent context to support response generation. Experiments on LongMemEval and LoCoMo show that TSM consistently outperforms existing methods and achieves up to 12.2% absolute improvement in accuracy, demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed method.

To sustain coherent long-term interactions, Large Language Model (LLM) agents must navigate the tension between acquiring new information and retaining prior knowledge. Current unified stream-based memory systems facilitate context updates but remain vulnerable to interference from transient noise. Conversely, discrete structured memory architectures provide robust knowledge retention but often struggle to adapt to evolving narratives. To address this, we propose GAM, a hierarchical Graph-based Agentic Memory framework that explicitly decouples memory encoding from consolidation to effectively resolve the conflict between rapid context perception and stable knowledge retention. By isolating ongoing dialogue in an event progression graph and integrating it into a topic associative network only upon semantic shifts, our approach minimizes interference while preserving long-term consistency. Additionally, we introduce a graph-guided, multi-factor retrieval strategy to enhance context precision. Experiments on LoCoMo and LongDialQA indicate that our method consistently outperforms state-of-the-art baselines in both reasoning accuracy and efficiency.

While Large Language Models (LLMs) excel at generalized reasoning, standard retrieval-augmented approaches fail to address the disconnected nature of long-term agentic memory. To bridge this gap, we introduce Synapse (Synergistic Associative Processing Semantic Encoding), a unified memory architecture that transcends static vector similarity. Drawing from cognitive science, Synapse models memory as a dynamic graph where relevance emerges from spreading activation rather than pre-computed links. By integrating lateral inhibition and temporal decay, the system dynamically highlights relevant sub-graphs while filtering interference. We implement a Triple Hybrid Retrieval strategy that fuses geometric embeddings with activation-based graph traversal. Comprehensive evaluations on the LoCoMo benchmark show that Synapse significantly outperforms state-of-the-art methods in complex temporal and multi-hop reasoning tasks, offering a robust solution to the "Contextual Tunneling" problem. Our code and data will be made publicly available upon acceptance.

As agentic tasks grow in complexity, LLM agents increasingly rely on experiential memory to reuse procedural knowledge across tasks. Effective memory design must jointly address what to store, how memory is structured and retrieved, and how memory evolves. Existing systems tackle each only partially: they store trajectories, insights, or workflows as isolated entries, discarding compositional relationships among subtasks and reusable skills; retrieve by flat embedding similarity that ignores relational signals; and maintain memory without leveraging its relational structure. We propose HyperSkill, a hypergraph-based memory framework that jointly improves all three. HyperSkill represents memory as a hypergraph with two node types, subtask steps and reusable skills, where each hyperedge links the subtasks and skills from a single trajectory. Dual-path retrieval queries both subtask and trajectory levels, ranking skills by co-occurrence across retrieved trajectories. Periodic structure-informed maintenance prunes low-utility nodes and merges redundant skills via quality-weighted propagation. Across xBench, GAIA, and WebWalkerQA with GPT-4o and Qwen3-30B-A3B, HyperSkill outperforms ten memory baselines, yielding gains of up to +11.51 on GAIA and +11.18 on WebWalkerQA.

Memory plays a key role in enhancing LLMs' performance when deployed to real-world applications. Existing solutions face trade-offs: explicit memory designs based on external storage require complex management and incur storage overhead, while implicit memory designs that store information via parameters struggle with reliable retrieval. In this paper, we propose R^3Mem, a memory network that optimizes both information Retention and Retrieval through Reversible context compression. Specifically, R^3Mem employs virtual memory tokens to compress and encode infinitely long histories, further enhanced by a hierarchical compression strategy that refines information from document- to entity-level for improved assimilation across granularities. For retrieval, R^3Mem employs a reversible architecture, reconstructing raw data by invoking the model backward with compressed information. Implemented via parameter-efficient fine-tuning, it can integrate seamlessly with any Transformer-based model. Experiments demonstrate that our memory design achieves state-of-the-art performance in long-context language modeling and retrieval-augmented generation tasks. It also significantly outperforms conventional memory modules in long-horizon interaction tasks like conversational agents, showcasing its potential for next-generation retrieval systems.

Persistent AI assistants, such as OpenClaw, accumulate large collections of related memories over long-term interactions. As these memories grow, they may reinforce one another, diverge across contexts, or directly conflict, making correct assistance depend on memory relations rather than isolated recall. Existing long-term memory benchmarks rarely probe how agents preserve and utilize such relations during downstream tasks. To address this gap, we introduce SubtleMemory, a benchmark for fine-grained relational memory discrimination in long-running AI agents. SubtleMemory constructs relation-controlled latent semantic artifacts whose variants instantiate complementary, nuanced, or contradictory relations, and embeds them into realistic user-agent histories, requiring agents to recover distributed relational structures during later queries and instructions. The benchmark contains 1,522 evaluation instances over 10 long histories, grounded in 1,090 relation-controlled memory-variant sets and spanning user-related and non-user-related queries. Evaluating six standalone memory systems, two Claw-style agents with native memory modules, and three Claw-style agents with plugin memory modules, we find that current systems remain weak on fine-grained relational memory discrimination. We further introduce diagnostic protocols that reveal distinct capability profiles across memory preservation, retrieval, and downstream reasoning stages.

Agentic memory is becoming essential for long-horizon AI agents, yet many existing systems rely on autoregressive LLMs to control how memories are organized, retrieved, and used, placing expensive generation on the critical path of memory operations. We introduce \method, a new agentic memory architecture inspired by System-One/System-Two cognition. System One captures fast, lightweight decision-making, whereas System Two performs slower, deliberative reasoning. Jev-Mem brings this division of labor to agentic memory through a dedicated System-One control plane, a structured multi-relational memory plane, and a System-Two reasoning plane. The System-One controller governs memory typing and relational organization during construction, and dynamically performs query routing, retrieval-budget allocation, graph traversal, candidate scoring, and adaptive stopping during retrieval. System Two is invoked only for complex reasoning and answer synthesis. This design improves both memory effectiveness and system efficiency: on LoCoMo Jev-Mem achieves an overall LLM-as-a-Judge score of 0.777, an 11.0\% relative improvement over the strongest baseline, while reducing memory construction time to 158\,s, a 6.6times speedup over the fastest competing memory system, and lowering average query latency to 0.93\,s, a 36.7\% reduction.

To tackle the challenges of large language model performance in natural language to SQL tasks, we introduce XiYan-SQL, an innovative framework that employs a multi-generator ensemble strategy to improve candidate generation. We introduce M-Schema, a semi-structured schema representation method designed to enhance the understanding of database structures. To enhance the quality and diversity of generated candidate SQL queries, XiYan-SQL integrates the significant potential of in-context learning (ICL) with the precise control of supervised fine-tuning. On one hand, we propose a series of training strategies to fine-tune models to generate high-quality candidates with diverse preferences. On the other hand, we implement the ICL approach with an example selection method based on named entity recognition to prevent overemphasis on entities. The refiner optimizes each candidate by correcting logical or syntactical errors. To address the challenge of identifying the best candidate, we fine-tune a selection model to distinguish nuances of candidate SQL queries. The experimental results on multiple dialect datasets demonstrate the robustness of XiYan-SQL in addressing challenges across different scenarios. Overall, our proposed XiYan-SQL achieves the state-of-the-art execution accuracy of 89.65% on the Spider test set, 69.86% on SQL-Eval, 41.20% on NL2GQL, and a competitive score of 72.23% on the Bird development benchmark. The proposed framework not only enhances the quality and diversity of SQL queries but also outperforms previous methods.

Long-term memory is essential for persistent LLM agents, yet prevailing architectures store historical interactions as unstructured, flat text. This unconstrained storage induces provenance-role collapse, a critical failure mode where agents suffer from source-monitoring errors. To resolve this cognitive vulnerability at the architectural level, we propose MemIR, a typed Memory Intermediate Representation that operationalizes source monitoring as a structural constraint. MemIR writes long-term memory into grounded atoms that separate raw evidence, retrieval cues, and truth-bearing claims, with factual authorization restricted to supported claim atoms. It then applies multi-route atomic projection and provenance-scoped utilization to transform heterogeneous retrieval hits into claim-centered candidate bundles and a normalized fact interface for answer generation. Experiments on LoCoMo and BEAM-100K demonstrate that MemIR consistently outperforms existing memory baselines, especially on tasks requiring source tracking, temporal grounding, and aggregation of fragmented evidence.

Memory systems have been designed to leverage past experiences in Large Language Model (LLM) agents. However, many deployed memory systems primarily optimize compression and storage, with comparatively less emphasis on explicit, closed-loop control of memory retrieval. From this observation, we build memory retrieval as an autonomous, accurate, and compatible agent system, named MemR^3, which has two core mechanisms: 1) a router that selects among retrieve, reflect, and answer actions to optimize answer quality; 2) a global evidence-gap tracker that explicitly renders the answering process transparent and tracks the evidence collection process. This design departs from the standard retrieve-then-answer pipeline by introducing a closed-loop control mechanism that enables autonomous decision-making. Empirical results on the LoCoMo benchmark demonstrate that MemR^3 surpasses strong baselines on LLM-as-a-Judge score, and particularly, it improves existing retrievers across four categories with an overall improvement on RAG (+7.29%) and Zep (+1.94%) using GPT-4.1-mini backend, offering a plug-and-play controller for existing memory stores.

Recent advances in AI agents have increasingly internalized native capabilities into their underlying foundation models, giving rise to multimodal foundation models and large reasoning models. However, agent memory is still primarily implemented through external modules, leaving the native memory capability largely unexplored. In this paper, we take a first step toward this direction by introducing memory foundation models, which empower foundation models with native memory capabilities. We formalize native memory from two perspectives: a persistent and dynamically evolving memory state within the backbone, and native memory procedures that autonomously store and utilize information through model computation. We show that native memory offers advantages in architecture, end-to-end optimization, and efficiency. Based on this formulation, we propose Metis, the first prototype of memory foundation models. Metis introduces a new architecture that equips a foundation model with a native memory state, allowing historical information to be compressed into the model and accessed through memory attention. We construct large-scale memory-specific training data and introduce multiple optimization objectives to acquire these native memory procedures through mid-training. The online memory maintenance of Metis is gradient-free, and the memory update requires only a forward pass. At inference time, all learned model weights remain frozen, while the native memory states are autonomously transformed through standard forward computation. Through extensive experiments, we show that Metis exhibits native memory capabilities and further provide a detailed analysis of its strengths, limitations, and behaviors. To facilitate future research on memory foundation models, we release our project and model checkpoints.

Learning to complete tasks in unfamiliar environments with unknown rules remains a key challenge for LLM agents. Current LLM agents often record their discoveries in prose, which may not provide a compact, explicit account of how the environment works. Inspired by how scientists organize observations into testable, predictive theories, we introduce Schema, an agent harness that organizes learning and action through interactive program induction. The LLM agent decides what to investigate and how to act, expressing its evolving understanding of the environment as executable programs. The harness consists of a persistent program workspace and a small set of interfaces for checking these programs against the interaction history, planning within them, and executing plans under step-by-step verification. Schema raises ARC-AGI-3 RHAE from 58.7% to 99.2% with the same base model, solves 100% of the public DiG-bench games, and reaches the median performance of the top-50 human players on MazeBench. Extensive analysis shows the effectiveness of Schema in unknown mechanism discovery, and ablations confirm the contribution of each component.

AI Memory, specifically how models organizes and retrieves historical messages, becomes increasingly valuable to Large Language Models (LLMs), yet existing methods (RAG and Graph-RAG) primarily retrieve memory through similarity-based mechanisms. While efficient, such System-1-style retrieval struggles with scenarios that require global reasoning or comprehensive coverage of all relevant information. In this work, We propose Mnemis, a novel memory framework that integrates System-1 similarity search with a complementary System-2 mechanism, termed Global Selection. Mnemis organizes memory into a base graph for similarity retrieval and a hierarchical graph that enables top-down, deliberate traversal over semantic hierarchies. By combining the complementary strength from both retrieval routes, Mnemis retrieves memory items that are both semantically and structurally relevant. Mnemis achieves state-of-the-art performance across all compared methods on long-term memory benchmarks, scoring 93.9 on LoCoMo and 91.6 on LongMemEval-S using GPT-4.1-mini.