Daily Papers

While large language model-based multi-agent systems have shown strong potential for complex reasoning, how to effectively organize multiple agents remains an open question. In this paper, we introduce OrgAgent, a company-style hierarchical multi-agent framework that separates collaboration into governance, execution, and compliance layers. OrgAgent decomposes multi-agent reasoning into three layers: a governance layer for planning and resource allocation, an execution layer for task solving and review, and a compliance layer for final answer control. By evaluating the framework across reasoning tasks, LLMs, execution modes, and execution policies, we find that multi-agent systems organized in a company-style hierarchy generally outperform other organizational structures. Besides, hierarchical coordination also reduces token consumption relative to flat collaboration in most settings. For example, for GPT-OSS-120B, the hierarchical setting improves performance over flat multi-agent system by 102.73% while reducing token usage by 74.52% on SQuAD 2.0. Further analysis shows that hierarchy helps most when tasks benefit from stable skill assignment, controlled information flow, and layered verification. Overall, our findings highlight organizational structure as an important factor in multi-agent reasoning, shaping not only effectiveness and cost, but also coordination behavior.

Multi-agent systems powered by large language models exhibit strong capabilities in collaborative problem-solving. However, these systems suffer from substantial knowledge redundancy. Agents duplicate efforts in retrieval and reasoning processes. This inefficiency stems from a deeper issue: current architectures lack mechanisms to ensure agents share minimal sufficient information at each operational stage. Empirical analysis reveals an average knowledge duplication rate of 47.3\% across agent communications. We propose D3MAS (Decompose, Deduce, and Distribute), a hierarchical coordination framework addressing redundancy through structural design rather than explicit optimization. The framework organizes collaboration across three coordinated layers. Task decomposition filters irrelevant sub-problems early. Collaborative reasoning captures complementary inference paths across agents. Distributed memory provides access to non-redundant knowledge. These layers coordinate through structured message passing in a unified heterogeneous graph. This cross-layer alignment ensures information remains aligned with actual task needs. Experiments on four challenging datasets show that D3MAS consistently improves reasoning accuracy by 8.7\% to 15.6\% and reduces knowledge redundancy by 46\% on average.

Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have significantly advanced embodied AI, and using them to benchmark robotic intelligence has become a pivotal trend. However, existing frameworks remain predominantly confined to single-arm manipulation, failing to capture the spatio-temporal coordination required for bimanual tasks like lifting a heavy pot. To address this, we introduce BiManiBench, a hierarchical benchmark evaluating MLLMs across three tiers: fundamental spatial reasoning, high-level action planning, and low-level end-effector control. Our framework isolates unique bimanual challenges, such as arm reachability and kinematic constraints, thereby distinguishing perceptual hallucinations from planning failures. Analysis of over 30 state-of-the-art models reveals that despite high-level reasoning proficiency, MLLMs struggle with dual-arm spatial grounding and control, frequently resulting in mutual interference and sequencing errors. These findings suggest the current paradigm lacks a deep understanding of mutual kinematic constraints, highlighting the need for future research to focus on inter-arm collision-avoidance and fine-grained temporal sequencing.

AI agents powered by Large Language Models (LLMs) have made significant advances, enabling them to assist humans in diverse complex tasks and leading to a revolution in human-AI coordination. LLM-powered agents typically require invoking LLM APIs and employing artificially designed complex prompts, which results in high inference latency. While this paradigm works well in scenarios with minimal interactive demands, such as code generation, it is unsuitable for highly interactive and real-time applications, such as gaming. Traditional gaming AI often employs small models or reactive policies, enabling fast inference but offering limited task completion and interaction abilities. In this work, we consider Overcooked as our testbed where players could communicate with natural language and cooperate to serve orders. We propose a Hierarchical Language Agent (HLA) for human-AI coordination that provides both strong reasoning abilities while keeping real-time execution. In particular, HLA adopts a hierarchical framework and comprises three modules: a proficient LLM, referred to as Slow Mind, for intention reasoning and language interaction, a lightweight LLM, referred to as Fast Mind, for generating macro actions, and a reactive policy, referred to as Executor, for transforming macro actions into atomic actions. Human studies show that HLA outperforms other baseline agents, including slow-mind-only agents and fast-mind-only agents, with stronger cooperation abilities, faster responses, and more consistent language communications.

Multi-agent systems based on large language models, particularly centralized architectures, have recently shown strong potential for complex and knowledge-intensive tasks. However, central agents often suffer from unstable long-horizon collaboration due to the lack of memory management, leading to context bloat, error accumulation, and poor cross-task generalization. To address both task-level memory inefficiency and the inability to reuse coordination experience, we propose StackPlanner, a hierarchical multi-agent framework with explicit memory control. StackPlanner addresses these challenges by decoupling high-level coordination from subtask execution with active task-level memory control, and by learning to retrieve and exploit reusable coordination experience via structured experience memory and reinforcement learning. Experiments on multiple deep-search and agent system benchmarks demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach in enabling reliable long-horizon multi-agent collaboration.

Sequential LLM agents fail on long-horizon planning with hard constraints like budgets and diversity requirements. As planning progresses and context grows, these agents drift from global constraints. We propose HiMAP-Travel, a hierarchical multi-agent framework that splits planning into strategic coordination and parallel day-level execution. A Coordinator allocates resources across days, while Day Executors plan independently in parallel. Three key mechanisms enable this: a transactional monitor enforcing budget and uniqueness constraints across parallel agents, a bargaining protocol allowing agents to reject infeasible sub-goals and trigger re-planning, and a single policy trained with GRPO that powers all agents through role conditioning. On TravelPlanner, HiMAP-Travel with Qwen3-8B achieves 52.78% validation and 52.65% test Final Pass Rate (FPR). In a controlled comparison with identical model, training, and tools, it outperforms the sequential DeepTravel baseline by +8.67~pp. It also surpasses ATLAS by +17.65~pp and MTP by +10.0~pp. On FlexTravelBench multi-turn scenarios, it achieves 44.34% (2-turn) and 37.42% (3-turn) FPR while reducing latency 2.5x through parallelization.

The dawn of embodied intelligence has ushered in an unprecedented imperative for resilient, cognition-enabled multi-agent collaboration across next-generation ecosystems, revolutionizing paradigms in autonomous manufacturing, adaptive service robotics, and cyber-physical production architectures. However, current robotic systems face significant limitations, such as limited cross-embodiment adaptability, inefficient task scheduling, and insufficient dynamic error correction. While End-to-end VLA models demonstrate inadequate long-horizon planning and task generalization, hierarchical VLA models suffer from a lack of cross-embodiment and multi-agent coordination capabilities. To address these challenges, we introduce RoboOS, the first open-source embodied system built on a Brain-Cerebellum hierarchical architecture, enabling a paradigm shift from single-agent to multi-agent intelligence. Specifically, RoboOS consists of three key components: (1) Embodied Brain Model (RoboBrain), a MLLM designed for global perception and high-level decision-making; (2) Cerebellum Skill Library, a modular, plug-and-play toolkit that facilitates seamless execution of multiple skills; and (3) Real-Time Shared Memory, a spatiotemporal synchronization mechanism for coordinating multi-agent states. By integrating hierarchical information flow, RoboOS bridges Embodied Brain and Cerebellum Skill Library, facilitating robust planning, scheduling, and error correction for long-horizon tasks, while ensuring efficient multi-agent collaboration through Real-Time Shared Memory. Furthermore, we enhance edge-cloud communication and cloud-based distributed inference to facilitate high-frequency interactions and enable scalable deployment. Extensive real-world experiments across various scenarios, demonstrate RoboOS's versatility in supporting heterogeneous embodiments. Project website: https://github.com/FlagOpen/RoboOS

Recent advances in agent systems have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in solving both general-purpose and highly complex tasks. However, most current models lack mechanisms for coordinating specialized agents and have limited ability to generalize to new or diverse domains. To this end, we introduce AgentOrchestra, a hierarchical multi-agent framework for general-purpose task solving that integrates high-level planning with modular agent collaboration. Drawing inspiration from a conductor orchestrating a symphony, and grounded in the principles of extensibility, multimodality, modularity, and coordination, it features a central planning agent that decomposes complex objectives and delegates sub-tasks to a team of specialized agents. Each sub-agent is equipped with general programming tools, as well as abilities to tackle a wide range of real-world specific tasks, including data analysis, file operations, web navigation, and interactive reasoning in dynamic multimodal environments. Notably, AgentOrchestra introduces an MCP Manager Agent that enables intelligent evolution through dynamic tool creation, retrieval, and reuse mechanisms, significantly enhancing the system's adaptability and scalability. AgentOrchestra supports flexible orchestration through explicit sub-goal formulation, inter-agent communication, and adaptive role allocation. We evaluate the framework on three widely used benchmarks for assessing LLM-based agent systems. Experimental results show that AgentOrchestra consistently outperforms flat-agent and monolithic baselines in terms of task success rate and adaptability. On the GAIA benchmark testing dataset, AgentOrchestra achieves an average score of 83.39\%, ranking among the top general-purpose agents. These results highlight the effectiveness of hierarchical organization and role specialization in building scalable and general-purpose LLM-based agent systems.

Recent advancements in reinforcement learning have made significant impacts across various domains, yet they often struggle in complex multi-agent environments due to issues like algorithm instability, low sampling efficiency, and the challenges of exploration and dimensionality explosion. Hierarchical reinforcement learning (HRL) offers a structured approach to decompose complex tasks into simpler sub-tasks, which is promising for multi-agent settings. This paper advances the field by introducing a hierarchical architecture that autonomously generates effective subgoals without explicit constraints, enhancing both flexibility and stability in training. We propose a dynamic goal generation strategy that adapts based on environmental changes. This method significantly improves the adaptability and sample efficiency of the learning process. Furthermore, we address the critical issue of credit assignment in multi-agent systems by synergizing our hierarchical architecture with a modified QMIX network, thus improving overall strategy coordination and efficiency. Comparative experiments with mainstream reinforcement learning algorithms demonstrate the superior convergence speed and performance of our approach in both single-agent and multi-agent environments, confirming its effectiveness and flexibility in complex scenarios. Our code is open-sourced at: https://github.com/SICC-Group/GMAH.

In this paper, we tackle the problem of learning to play 3v3 multi-drone volleyball, a new embodied competitive task that requires both high-level strategic coordination and low-level agile control. The task is turn-based, multi-agent, and physically grounded, posing significant challenges due to its long-horizon dependencies, tight inter-agent coupling, and the underactuated dynamics of quadrotors. To address this, we propose Hierarchical Co-Self-Play (HCSP), a hierarchical reinforcement learning framework that separates centralized high-level strategic decision-making from decentralized low-level motion control. We design a three-stage population-based training pipeline to enable both strategy and skill to emerge from scratch without expert demonstrations: (I) training diverse low-level skills, (II) learning high-level strategy via self-play with fixed low-level skills, and (III) joint fine-tuning through co-self-play. Experiments show that HCSP achieves superior performance, outperforming non-hierarchical self-play and rule-based hierarchical baselines with an average 82.9% win rate and a 71.5% win rate against the two-stage variant. Moreover, co-self-play leads to emergent team behaviors such as role switching and coordinated formations, demonstrating the effectiveness of our hierarchical design and training scheme. The project page is at https://sites.google.com/view/hi-co-self-play.

The rapid growth of Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystems has intensified the challenge of efficiently allocating heterogeneous resources in highly dynamic, distributed environments. Conventional centralized mechanisms and single-objective auction models, focusing solely on metrics such as cost minimization or revenue maximization, struggle to deliver balanced system performance. This paper proposes the Multi-Objective Hierarchical Auction Framework (MOHAF), a distributed resource allocation mechanism that jointly optimizes cost, Quality of Service (QoS), energy efficiency, and fairness. MOHAF integrates hierarchical clustering to reduce computational complexity with a greedy, submodular optimization strategy that guarantees a (1-1/e) approximation ratio. A dynamic pricing mechanism adapts in real time to resource utilization, enhancing market stability and allocation quality. Extensive experiments on the Google Cluster Data trace, comprising 3,553 requests and 888 resources, demonstrate MOHAF's superior allocation efficiency (0.263) compared to Greedy (0.185), First-Price (0.138), and Random (0.101) auctions, while achieving perfect fairness (Jain's index = 1.000). Ablation studies reveal the critical influence of cost and QoS components in sustaining balanced multi-objective outcomes. With near-linear scalability, theoretical guarantees, and robust empirical performance, MOHAF offers a practical and adaptable solution for large-scale IoT deployments, effectively reconciling efficiency, equity, and sustainability in distributed resource coordination.

In embodied artificial intelligence, enabling heterogeneous robot teams to execute long-horizon tasks from high-level instructions remains a critical challenge. While large language models (LLMs) show promise in instruction parsing and preliminary planning, they exhibit limitations in long-term reasoning and dynamic multi-robot coordination. We propose Hierarchical Autonomous Intelligent Multi-Robot Planning(H-AIM), a novel embodied multi-robot task planning framework that addresses these issues through a three-stage cascaded architecture: 1) It leverages an LLM to parse instructions and generate Planning Domain Definition Language (PDDL) problem descriptions, thereby transforming commands into formal planning problems; 2) It combines the semantic reasoning of LLMs with the search capabilities of a classical planner to produce optimized action sequences; 3) It compiles the resulting plan into behavior trees for reactive control. The framework supports dynamically sized heterogeneous robot teams via a shared blackboard mechanism for communication and state synchronization. To validate our approach, we introduce the MACE-THOR benchmark dataset, comprising 42 complex tasks across 8 distinct household layouts. Experimental results demonstrate that H-AIM achieves a remarkable performance improvement, elevating the task success rate from 12% to 55% and boosting the goal condition recall from 32% to 72% against the strongest baseline, LaMMA-P.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have emerged as powerful operators for evolutionary search, yet the design of efficient search scaffolds remains ad hoc. While promising, current LLM-in-the-loop systems lack a systematic approach to managing the evolutionary process. We identify three distinct failure modes: Context Pollution, where experiment history biases future candidate generation; Mode Collapse, where agents stagnate in local minima due to poor exploration-exploitation balance; and Weak Collaboration, where rigid crossover strategies fail to leverage parallel search trajectories effectively. We introduce Progress-Aware Consistent Evolution (PACEvolve), a framework designed to robustly govern the agent's context and search dynamics, to address these challenges. PACEvolve combines hierarchical context management (HCM) with pruning to address context pollution; momentum-based backtracking (MBB) to escape local minima; and a self-adaptive sampling policy that unifies backtracking and crossover for dynamic search coordination (CE), allowing agents to balance internal refinement with cross-trajectory collaboration. We demonstrate that PACEvolve provides a systematic path to consistent, long-horizon self-improvement, achieving state-of-the-art results on LLM-SR and KernelBench, while discovering solutions surpassing the record on Modded NanoGPT.

Real-world embodied agents face long-horizon tasks, characterized by high-level goals demanding multi-step solutions beyond single actions. Successfully navigating these requires both high-level task planning (i.e., decomposing goals into sub-tasks) and low-level motion control (i.e., generating precise robot actions). While existing vision language action (VLA) models and hierarchical architectures offer potential in embodied tasks, the former often falter in planning, and the latter can suffer from coordination issues, both hampering performance. We introduce a new unified VLA framework for long-horizon tasks, dubbed LoHoVLA, to overcome these limitations. LoHoVLA leverages a large pretrained vision language model (VLM) as the backbone to jointly generate language and action tokens for sub-task generation and robot action prediction, respectively. This shared representation promotes better generalization across tasks. Additionally, LoHoVLA embraces a hierarchical closed-loop control mechanism to mitigate errors originating from both high-level planning and low-level control. To train LoHoVLA, we introduce LoHoSet, a dataset built on the Ravens simulator, containing 20 long-horizon tasks, each with 1,000 expert demonstrations composed of visual observations, linguistic goals, sub-tasks, and robot actions. Experimental results show that LoHoVLA significantly surpasses both hierarchical and standard VLA approaches on long-horizon embodied tasks in the Ravens simulator. These findings underscore the promise of unified architectures for advancing generalizable embodied intelligence.

Autonomous AI research has advanced rapidly, but long-horizon ML research engineering remains difficult: agents must sustain coherent progress across task comprehension, environment setup, implementation, experimentation, and debugging over hours or days. We introduce AiScientist, a system for autonomous long-horizon engineering for ML research built on a simple principle: strong long-horizon performance requires both structured orchestration and durable state continuity. To this end, AiScientist combines hierarchical orchestration with a permission-scoped File-as-Bus workspace: a top-level Orchestrator maintains stage-level control through concise summaries and a workspace map, while specialized agents repeatedly re-ground on durable artifacts such as analyses, plans, code, and experimental evidence rather than relying primarily on conversational handoffs, yielding thin control over thick state. Across two complementary benchmarks, AiScientist improves PaperBench score by 10.54 points on average over the best matched baseline and achieves 81.82 Any Medal% on MLE-Bench Lite. Ablation studies further show that File-as-Bus protocol is a key driver of performance, reducing PaperBench by 6.41 points and MLE-Bench Lite by 31.82 points when removed. These results suggest that long-horizon ML research engineering is a systems problem of coordinating specialized work over durable project state, rather than a purely local reasoning problem.

Cooperative multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL) is widely used to address large joint observation and action spaces by decomposing a centralized control problem into multiple interacting agents. However, such decomposition often introduces additional challenges, including non-stationarity, unstable training, weak coordination, and limited theoretical guarantees. In this paper, we propose the Consensus Multi-Agent Transformer (CMAT), a centralized framework that bridges cooperative MARL to a hierarchical single-agent reinforcement learning (SARL) formulation. CMAT treats all agents as a unified entity and employs a Transformer encoder to process the large joint observation space. To handle the extensive joint action space, we introduce a hierarchical decision-making mechanism in which a Transformer decoder autoregressively generates a high-level consensus vector, simulating the process by which agents reach agreement on their strategies in latent space. Conditioned on this consensus, all agents generate their actions simultaneously, enabling order-independent joint decision making and avoiding the sensitivity to action-generation order in conventional Multi-Agent Transformers (MAT). This factorization allows the joint policy to be optimized using single-agent PPO while preserving expressive coordination through the latent consensus. To evaluate the proposed method, we conduct experiments on benchmark tasks from StarCraft II, Multi-Agent MuJoCo, and Google Research Football. The results show that CMAT achieves superior performance over recent centralized solutions, sequential MARL methods, and conventional MARL baselines. The code for this paper is available at:https://github.com/RS2002/CMAT .

While current Computer Use Agent (CUA) benchmarks measure task completion effectively, they provide limited assessment of enterprise deployment readiness, emphasizing functional correctness over the operational reliability required for production systems. We present UI-CUBE (UiPath Computer Use BEnchmark), a systematic benchmark comprising 226 tasks across two difficulty tiers designed to expose fundamental architectural limitations in current CUAs. Our evaluation covers simple UI interactions (136 tasks) and complex workflows including copy-paste tasks (50 tasks) and enterprise application scenarios (40 tasks), with systematic interface variation coverage, multi-resolution testing and automated validation of task success through the application state. Evaluation of five state-of-the-art models reveals a sharp capability cliff rather than gradual performance degradation. Simple UI interactions achieve 67-85% success rates (compared to 97.9% human performance), but complex workflows drop precipitously to 9-19%. Human evaluators with no prior application experience achieve only 61.2% on complex tasks despite near-perfect performance on simple tasks, establishing realistic performance ceilings. This discontinuous performance pattern -- where agents achieve 68-87% of human performance on simple tasks but only 15-32% on complex workflows -- indicates fundamental architectural limitations in memory management, hierarchical planning, and state coordination rather than incremental capability gaps addressable through better training or prompting. UI-CUBE functions as an enterprise-readiness diagnostic, revealing that while current CUAs can manipulate individual interface elements, they cannot yet function as reliable workflow automation tools. These findings provide architectural insights essential for developing production-ready CUAs capable of managing complex, multi-step enterprise processes.

In this paper, we propose a framework for solving a single-agent task by using multiple agents, each focusing on different aspects of the task. This approach has two main advantages: 1) it allows for training specialized agents on different parts of the task, and 2) it provides a new way to transfer knowledge, by transferring trained agents. Our framework generalizes the traditional hierarchical decomposition, in which, at any moment in time, a single agent has control until it has solved its particular subtask. We illustrate our framework with empirical experiments on two domains.

Due to the dynamic and unpredictable open-world setting, navigating complex environments in Minecraft poses significant challenges for multi-agent systems. Agents must interact with the environment and coordinate their actions with other agents to achieve common objectives. However, traditional approaches often struggle to efficiently manage inter-agent communication and task distribution, crucial for effective multi-agent navigation. Furthermore, processing and integrating multi-modal information (such as visual, textual, and auditory data) is essential for agents to comprehend their goals and navigate the environment successfully and fully. To address this issue, we design the HAS framework to auto-organize groups of LLM-based agents to complete navigation tasks. In our approach, we devise a hierarchical auto-organizing navigation system, which is characterized by 1) a hierarchical system for multi-agent organization, ensuring centralized planning and decentralized execution; 2) an auto-organizing and intra-communication mechanism, enabling dynamic group adjustment under subtasks; 3) a multi-modal information platform, facilitating multi-modal perception to perform the three navigation tasks with one system. To assess organizational behavior, we design a series of navigation tasks in the Minecraft environment, which includes searching and exploring. We aim to develop embodied organizations that push the boundaries of embodied AI, moving it towards a more human-like organizational structure.

Hierarchical organization is fundamental to biological systems and human societies, yet artificial intelligence systems often rely on monolithic architectures that limit adaptability and scalability. Current hierarchical reinforcement learning (HRL) approaches typically restrict hierarchies to two levels or require centralized training, which limits their practical applicability. We introduce TAME Agent Framework (TAG), a framework for constructing fully decentralized hierarchical multi-agent systems.TAG enables hierarchies of arbitrary depth through a novel LevelEnv concept, which abstracts each hierarchy level as the environment for the agents above it. This approach standardizes information flow between levels while preserving loose coupling, allowing for seamless integration of diverse agent types. We demonstrate the effectiveness of TAG by implementing hierarchical architectures that combine different RL agents across multiple levels, achieving improved performance over classical multi-agent RL baselines on standard benchmarks. Our results show that decentralized hierarchical organization enhances both learning speed and final performance, positioning TAG as a promising direction for scalable multi-agent systems.

Many practical applications, such as recommender systems and learning to rank, involve solving multiple similar tasks. One example is learning of recommendation policies for users with similar movie preferences, where the users may still rank the individual movies slightly differently. Such tasks can be organized in a hierarchy, where similar tasks are related through a shared structure. In this work, we formulate this problem as a contextual off-policy optimization in a hierarchical graphical model from logged bandit feedback. To solve the problem, we propose a hierarchical off-policy optimization algorithm (HierOPO), which estimates the parameters of the hierarchical model and then acts pessimistically with respect to them. We instantiate HierOPO in linear Gaussian models, for which we also provide an efficient implementation and analysis. We prove per-task bounds on the suboptimality of the learned policies, which show a clear improvement over not using the hierarchical model. We also evaluate the policies empirically. Our theoretical and empirical results show a clear advantage of using the hierarchy over solving each task independently.

Hierarchical reinforcement learning (RL) can accelerate long-horizon decision-making by temporally abstracting a policy into multiple levels. Promising results in sparse reward environments have been seen with skills, i.e. sequences of primitive actions. Typically, a skill latent space and policy are discovered from offline data, but the resulting low-level policy can be unreliable due to low-coverage demonstrations or distribution shifts. As a solution, we propose fine-tuning the low-level policy in conjunction with high-level skill selection. Our Skill-Critic algorithm optimizes both the low and high-level policies; these policies are also initialized and regularized by the latent space learned from offline demonstrations to guide the joint policy optimization. We validate our approach in multiple sparse RL environments, including a new sparse reward autonomous racing task in Gran Turismo Sport. The experiments show that Skill-Critic's low-level policy fine-tuning and demonstration-guided regularization are essential for optimal performance. Images and videos are available at https://sites.google.com/view/skill-critic. We plan to open source the code with the final version.

Smartphones have become indispensable in modern life, yet navigating complex tasks on mobile devices often remains frustrating. Recent advancements in large multimodal model (LMM)-based mobile agents have demonstrated the ability to perceive and act in mobile environments. However, current approaches face significant limitations: they fall short in addressing real-world human needs, struggle with reasoning-intensive and long-horizon tasks, and lack mechanisms to learn and improve from prior experiences. To overcome these challenges, we introduce Mobile-Agent-E, a hierarchical multi-agent framework capable of self-evolution through past experience. By hierarchical, we mean an explicit separation of high-level planning and low-level action execution. The framework comprises a Manager, responsible for devising overall plans by breaking down complex tasks into subgoals, and four subordinate agents--Perceptor, Operator, Action Reflector, and Notetaker--which handle fine-grained visual perception, immediate action execution, error verification, and information aggregation, respectively. Mobile-Agent-E also features a novel self-evolution module which maintains a persistent long-term memory comprising Tips and Shortcuts. Tips are general guidance and lessons learned from prior tasks on how to effectively interact with the environment. Shortcuts are reusable, executable sequences of atomic operations tailored for specific subroutines. The inclusion of Tips and Shortcuts facilitates continuous refinement in performance and efficiency. Alongside this framework, we introduce Mobile-Eval-E, a new benchmark featuring complex mobile tasks requiring long-horizon, multi-app interactions. Empirical results show that Mobile-Agent-E achieves a 22% absolute improvement over previous state-of-the-art approaches across three foundation model backbones. Project page: https://x-plug.github.io/MobileAgent.

Leveraging large language models (LLMs), autonomous agents have significantly improved, gaining the ability to handle a variety of tasks. In open-ended settings, optimizing collaboration for efficiency and effectiveness demands flexible adjustments. Despite this, current research mainly emphasizes fixed, task-oriented workflows and overlooks agent-centric organizational structures. Drawing inspiration from human organizational behavior, we introduce a self-organizing agent system (S-Agents) with a "tree of agents" structure for dynamic workflow, an "hourglass agent architecture" for balancing information priorities, and a "non-obstructive collaboration" method to allow asynchronous task execution among agents. This structure can autonomously coordinate a group of agents, efficiently addressing the challenges of an open and dynamic environment without human intervention. Our experiments demonstrate that S-Agents proficiently execute collaborative building tasks and resource collection in the Minecraft environment, validating their effectiveness.

Hierarchical reinforcement learning has been a compelling approach for achieving goal directed behavior over long sequences of actions. However, it has been challenging to implement in realistic or open-ended environments. A main challenge has been to find the right space of sub-goals over which to instantiate a hierarchy. We present a novel approach where we use data from humans solving these tasks to softly supervise the goal space for a set of long range tasks in a 3D embodied environment. In particular, we use unconstrained natural language to parameterize this space. This has two advantages: first, it is easy to generate this data from naive human participants; second, it is flexible enough to represent a vast range of sub-goals in human-relevant tasks. Our approach outperforms agents that clone expert behavior on these tasks, as well as HRL from scratch without this supervised sub-goal space. Our work presents a novel approach to combining human expert supervision with the benefits and flexibility of reinforcement learning.

Multi-agent large language model systems can tackle complex multi-step tasks by decomposing work and coordinating specialized behaviors. However, current coordination mechanisms typically rely on statically assigned roles and centralized controllers. As agent pools and task distributions evolve, these design choices lead to inefficient routing, poor adaptability, and fragile fault recovery capabilities. We introduce Symphony-Coord, a decentralized multi-agent framework that transforms agent selection into an online multi-armed bandit problem, enabling roles to emerge organically through interaction. The framework employs a two-stage dynamic beacon protocol: (i) a lightweight candidate screening mechanism to limit communication and computational overhead; (ii) an adaptive LinUCB selector that routes subtasks based on context features derived from task requirements and agent states, continuously optimized through delayed end-to-end feedback. Under standard linear realizability assumptions, we provide sublinear regret bounds, indicating the system converges toward near-optimal allocation schemes. Validation through simulation experiments and real-world large language model benchmarks demonstrates that Symphony-Coord not only enhances task routing efficiency but also exhibits robust self-healing capabilities in scenarios involving distribution shifts and agent failures, achieving a scalable coordination mechanism without predefined roles.

MoltBook is a large-scale multi-agent coordination environment where over 770,000 autonomous LLM agents interact without human participation, offering the first opportunity we are aware of to observe emergent multi-agent coordination dynamics at this population scale. We introduce Molt Dynamics: the emergent agent coordination behaviors, inter-agent communication dynamics, and role specialization patterns arising when autonomous agents operate as decentralized decision-makers in an unconstrained multi-agent environment. Through longitudinal observation of 90,704 active agents over three weeks, we characterize three aspects. First, spontaneous role specialization: network-based clustering reveals six structural roles (silhouette 0.91), though the result primarily reflects core-periphery organization -- 93.5\% of agents occupy a homogeneous peripheral cluster, with meaningful differentiation confined to the active minority. Second, decentralized information dissemination: cascade analysis of 10,323 inter-agent propagation events reveals power-law distributed cascade sizes (α= 2.57 pm 0.02) and saturating adoption dynamics where adoption probability shows diminishing returns with repeated exposures (Cox hazard ratio 0.53, concordance 0.78). Third, distributed cooperative task resolution: 164 multi-agent collaborative events show detectable coordination patterns, but success rates are low (6.7\%, p = 0.057) and cooperative outcomes are significantly worse than a matched single-agent baseline (Cohen's d = -0.88), indicating emergent cooperative behavior is nascent. These findings establish an empirical baseline for coordination dynamics in decentralized autonomous agent systems, with implications for multi-agent system design, agent communication protocol engineering, and AI safety.

Large Language Models (LLMs) show potential for complex reasoning, yet their capacity for emergent coordination in Multi-Agent Systems (MAS) when operating under strict constraints-such as limited local perception and communication, characteristic of natural swarms-remains largely unexplored, particularly concerning the nuances of swarm intelligence. Existing benchmarks often do not fully capture the unique challenges of decentralized coordination that arise when agents operate with incomplete spatio-temporal information. To bridge this gap, we introduce SwarmBench, a novel benchmark designed to systematically evaluate the swarm intelligence capabilities of LLMs acting as decentralized agents. SwarmBench features five foundational MAS coordination tasks within a configurable 2D grid environment, forcing agents to rely primarily on local sensory input (k x k view) and local communication. We propose metrics for coordination effectiveness and analyze emergent group dynamics. Evaluating several leading LLMs in a zero-shot setting, we find significant performance variations across tasks, highlighting the difficulties posed by local information constraints. While some coordination emerges, results indicate limitations in robust planning and strategy formation under uncertainty in these decentralized scenarios. Assessing LLMs under swarm-like conditions is crucial for realizing their potential in future decentralized systems. We release SwarmBench as an open, extensible toolkit-built upon a customizable and scalable physical system with defined mechanical properties. It provides environments, prompts, evaluation scripts, and the comprehensive experimental datasets generated, aiming to foster reproducible research into LLM-based MAS coordination and the theoretical underpinnings of Embodied MAS. Our code repository is available at https://github.com/x66ccff/swarmbench.

Training LLMs as interactive agents for multi-turn decision-making remains challenging, particularly in long-horizon tasks with sparse and delayed rewards, where agents must execute extended sequences of actions before receiving meaningful feedback. Most existing reinforcement learning (RL) approaches model LLM agents as flat policies operating at a single time scale, selecting one action at each turn. In sparse-reward settings, such flat policies must propagate credit across the entire trajectory without explicit temporal abstraction, which often leads to unstable optimization and inefficient credit assignment. We propose HiPER, a novel Hierarchical Plan-Execute RL framework that explicitly separates high-level planning from low-level execution. HiPER factorizes the policy into a high-level planner that proposes subgoals and a low-level executor that carries them out over multiple action steps. To align optimization with this structure, we introduce a key technique called hierarchical advantage estimation (HAE), which carefully assigns credit at both the planning and execution levels. By aggregating returns over the execution of each subgoal and coordinating updates across the two levels, HAE provides an unbiased gradient estimator and provably reduces variance compared to flat generalized advantage estimation. Empirically, HiPER achieves state-of-the-art performance on challenging interactive benchmarks, reaching 97.4\% success on ALFWorld and 83.3\% on WebShop with Qwen2.5-7B-Instruct (+6.6\% and +8.3\% over the best prior method), with especially large gains on long-horizon tasks requiring multiple dependent subtasks. These results highlight the importance of explicit hierarchical decomposition for scalable RL training of multi-turn LLM agents.

Large language model (LLM) agents have recently demonstrated strong capabilities in interactive decision-making, yet they remain fundamentally limited in long-horizon tasks that require structured planning and reliable execution. Existing approaches predominantly rely on flat autoregressive policies, where high-level reasoning and low-level actions are generated within a single token sequence, leading to inefficient exploration and severe error propagation over extended trajectories. In this work, we propose HiMAC, a hierarchical agentic RL framework that explicitly decomposes long-horizon decision-making into macro-level planning and micro-level execution. HiMAC models reasoning as a structured blueprint generation process followed by goal-conditioned action execution, enabling robust long-horizon planning within LLM-based agents. To train this hierarchy efficiently, we introduce a critic-free hierarchical policy optimization paradigm that extends group-based reinforcement learning to bi-level structures through hierarchical relative advantage estimation. Furthermore, we propose an iterative co-evolution training strategy that alternates between planner exploration and executor adaptation, mitigating the non-stationarity inherent in hierarchical learning. Extensive experiments on ALFWorld, WebShop, and Sokoban demonstrate that HiMAC consistently outperforms strong prompting and reinforcement learning baselines, achieving state-of-the-art performance and substantially improved sample efficiency across both text-based and visually grounded environments. Our results show that introducing structured hierarchy, rather than increasing model scale alone, is a key factor for enabling robust long-horizon agentic intelligence.

Literature review requires researchers to synthesize a large amount of information and is increasingly challenging as the scientific literature expands. In this work, we investigate the potential of LLMs for producing hierarchical organizations of scientific studies to assist researchers with literature review. We define hierarchical organizations as tree structures where nodes refer to topical categories and every node is linked to the studies assigned to that category. Our naive LLM-based pipeline for hierarchy generation from a set of studies produces promising yet imperfect hierarchies, motivating us to collect CHIME, an expert-curated dataset for this task focused on biomedicine. Given the challenging and time-consuming nature of building hierarchies from scratch, we use a human-in-the-loop process in which experts correct errors (both links between categories and study assignment) in LLM-generated hierarchies. CHIME contains 2,174 LLM-generated hierarchies covering 472 topics, and expert-corrected hierarchies for a subset of 100 topics. Expert corrections allow us to quantify LLM performance, and we find that while they are quite good at generating and organizing categories, their assignment of studies to categories could be improved. We attempt to train a corrector model with human feedback which improves study assignment by 12.6 F1 points. We release our dataset and models to encourage research on developing better assistive tools for literature review.

Agents, language model (LM)-based systems that are capable of reasoning, planning, and acting are becoming the dominant paradigm for real-world AI applications. Despite this widespread adoption, the principles that determine their performance remain underexplored, leaving practitioners to rely on heuristics rather than principled design choices. We address this gap by deriving quantitative scaling principles for agent systems. We evaluate this across four diverse benchmarks: Finance-Agent, BrowseComp-Plus, PlanCraft, and Workbench. Using five canonical architectures (Single, Independent, Centralized, Decentralized, Hybrid) instantiated across three LLM families, we perform a controlled evaluation spanning 180 configurations with standardized tools and token budgets. We derive a predictive model using empirical coordination metrics, including efficiency, overhead, error amplification, and redundancy, that achieves cross-validated R^2=0.513. We identify three dominant effects: (1) a tool-coordination trade-off: under fixed computational budgets, tool-heavy tasks suffer disproportionately from multi-agent overhead. (2) a capability saturation: coordination yields diminishing or negative returns (beta=-0.408, p<0.001) once single-agent baselines exceed ~45%. (3) topology-dependent error amplification: independent agents amplify errors 17.2x through unchecked propagation, while centralized coordination contains this to 4.4x. Centralized coordination improves performance by 80.9% on parallelizable tasks like financial reasoning, while decentralized coordination excels on dynamic web navigation (+9.2% vs. +0.2%). Yet for sequential reasoning tasks, all multi-agent variants degraded performance by 39-70%. The framework predicts the optimal coordination strategy for 87% of held-out configurations, providing a predictive principle of agentic scaling based on measurable task properties.

Visuomotor policy learning has witnessed substantial progress in robotic manipulation, with recent approaches predominantly relying on generative models to model the action distribution. However, these methods often overlook the critical coupling between visual perception and action prediction. In this work, we introduce Triply-Hierarchical Diffusion Policy~(H^{\mathbf{3}DP}), a novel visuomotor learning framework that explicitly incorporates hierarchical structures to strengthen the integration between visual features and action generation. H^{3}DP contains 3 levels of hierarchy: (1) depth-aware input layering that organizes RGB-D observations based on depth information; (2) multi-scale visual representations that encode semantic features at varying levels of granularity; and (3) a hierarchically conditioned diffusion process that aligns the generation of coarse-to-fine actions with corresponding visual features. Extensive experiments demonstrate that H^{3}DP yields a +27.5% average relative improvement over baselines across 44 simulation tasks and achieves superior performance in 4 challenging bimanual real-world manipulation tasks. Project Page: https://lyy-iiis.github.io/h3dp/.

To make effective decisions in novel environments with long-horizon goals, it is crucial to engage in hierarchical reasoning across spatial and temporal scales. This entails planning abstract subgoal sequences, visually reasoning about the underlying plans, and executing actions in accordance with the devised plan through visual-motor control. We propose Compositional Foundation Models for Hierarchical Planning (HiP), a foundation model which leverages multiple expert foundation model trained on language, vision and action data individually jointly together to solve long-horizon tasks. We use a large language model to construct symbolic plans that are grounded in the environment through a large video diffusion model. Generated video plans are then grounded to visual-motor control, through an inverse dynamics model that infers actions from generated videos. To enable effective reasoning within this hierarchy, we enforce consistency between the models via iterative refinement. We illustrate the efficacy and adaptability of our approach in three different long-horizon table-top manipulation tasks.

Performing tasks on the web presents fundamental challenges to large language models (LLMs), including combinatorially large open-world tasks and variations across web interfaces. Simply specifying a large prompt to handle all possible behaviors and states is extremely complex, and results in behavior leaks between unrelated behaviors. Decomposition to distinct policies can address this challenge, but requires carefully handing off control between policies. We propose Stacked LLM Policies for Web Actions (SteP), an approach to dynamically compose policies to solve a diverse set of web tasks. SteP defines a Markov Decision Process where the state is a stack of policies representing the control state, i.e., the chain of policy calls. Unlike traditional methods that are restricted to static hierarchies, SteP enables dynamic control that adapts to the complexity of the task. We evaluate SteP against multiple baselines and web environments including WebArena, MiniWoB++, and a CRM. On WebArena, SteP improves (14.9\% to 33.5\%) over SOTA that use GPT-4 policies, while on MiniWob++, SteP is competitive with prior works while using significantly less data. Our code and data are available at https://asappresearch.github.io/webagents-step.

Humans can ground natural language commands to tasks at both abstract and fine-grained levels of specificity. For instance, a human forklift operator can be instructed to perform a high-level action, like "grab a pallet" or a low-level action like "tilt back a little bit." While robots are also capable of grounding language commands to tasks, previous methods implicitly assume that all commands and tasks reside at a single, fixed level of abstraction. Additionally, methods that do not use multiple levels of abstraction encounter inefficient planning and execution times as they solve tasks at a single level of abstraction with large, intractable state-action spaces closely resembling real world complexity. In this work, by grounding commands to all the tasks or subtasks available in a hierarchical planning framework, we arrive at a model capable of interpreting language at multiple levels of specificity ranging from coarse to more granular. We show that the accuracy of the grounding procedure is improved when simultaneously inferring the degree of abstraction in language used to communicate the task. Leveraging hierarchy also improves efficiency: our proposed approach enables a robot to respond to a command within one second on 90% of our tasks, while baselines take over twenty seconds on half the tasks. Finally, we demonstrate that a real, physical robot can ground commands at multiple levels of abstraction allowing it to efficiently plan different subtasks within the same planning hierarchy.

The task of layout-to-image generation involves synthesizing images based on the captions of objects and their spatial positions. Existing methods still struggle in complex layout generation, where common bad cases include object missing, inconsistent lighting, conflicting view angles, etc. To effectively address these issues, we propose a Hierarchical Controllable (HiCo) diffusion model for layout-to-image generation, featuring object seperable conditioning branch structure. Our key insight is to achieve spatial disentanglement through hierarchical modeling of layouts. We use a multi branch structure to represent hierarchy and aggregate them in fusion module. To evaluate the performance of multi-objective controllable layout generation in natural scenes, we introduce the HiCo-7K benchmark, derived from the GRIT-20M dataset and manually cleaned. https://github.com/360CVGroup/HiCo_T2I.

Hierarchical control for robotics has long been plagued by the need to have a well defined interface layer to communicate between high-level task planners and low-level policies. With the advent of LLMs, language has been emerging as a prospective interface layer. However, this has several limitations. Not all tasks can be decomposed into steps that are easily expressible in natural language (e.g. performing a dance routine). Further, it makes end-to-end finetuning on embodied data challenging due to domain shift and catastrophic forgetting. We introduce our method -- Learnable Latent Codes as Bridges (LCB) -- as an alternate architecture to overcome these limitations. \method~uses a learnable latent code to act as a bridge between LLMs and low-level policies. This enables LLMs to flexibly communicate goals in the task plan without being entirely constrained by language limitations. Additionally, it enables end-to-end finetuning without destroying the embedding space of word tokens learned during pre-training. Through experiments on Language Table and Calvin, two common language based benchmarks for embodied agents, we find that \method~outperforms baselines (including those w/ GPT-4V) that leverage pure language as the interface layer on tasks that require reasoning and multi-step behaviors.

Large Language Model (LLM) agents trained with reinforcement learning (RL) show great promise for solving complex, multi-step tasks. However, their performance is often crippled by "Context Explosion", where the accumulation of long text outputs overwhelms the model's context window and leads to reasoning failures. To address this, we introduce CoDA, a Context-Decoupled hierarchical Agent, a simple but effective reinforcement learning framework that decouples high-level planning from low-level execution. It employs a single, shared LLM backbone that learns to operate in two distinct, contextually isolated roles: a high-level Planner that decomposes tasks within a concise strategic context, and a low-level Executor that handles tool interactions in an ephemeral, isolated workspace. We train this unified agent end-to-end using PECO (Planner-Executor Co-Optimization), a reinforcement learning methodology that applies a trajectory-level reward to jointly optimize both roles, fostering seamless collaboration through context-dependent policy updates. Extensive experiments demonstrate that CoDA achieves significant performance improvements over state-of-the-art baselines on complex multi-hop question-answering benchmarks, and it exhibits strong robustness in long-context scenarios, maintaining stable performance while all other baselines suffer severe degradation, thus further validating the effectiveness of our hierarchical design in mitigating context overload.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have recently demonstrated impressive action sequence prediction capabilities but often struggle with dynamic, long-horizon tasks such as real-time strategic games. In a game such as StarCraftII (SC2), agents need to manage resource constraints and adapt to evolving battlefield situations in a partially observable environment. This often overwhelms exisiting LLM-based approaches. To address these challenges, we propose a hierarchical multi-agent framework that employs specialized imitation learning agents under a meta-controller called Strategic Planner (SP). By expert demonstrations, each specialized agent learns a distinctive strategy, such as aerial support or defensive maneuvers, and produces coherent, structured multistep action sequences. The SP then orchestrates these proposals into a single, environmentally adaptive plan that ensures local decisions aligning with long-term strategies. We call this HIMA (Hierarchical Imitation Multi-Agent). We also present TEXTSCII-ALL, a comprehensive SC2 testbed that encompasses all race match combinations in SC2. Our empirical results show that HIMA outperforms state of the arts in strategic clarity, adaptability, and computational efficiency, underscoring the potential of combining specialized imitation modules with meta-level orchestration to develop more robust, general-purpose AI agents.

Goal-conditioned hierarchical reinforcement learning (HRL) is a promising approach for scaling up reinforcement learning (RL) techniques. However, it often suffers from training inefficiency as the action space of the high-level, i.e., the goal space, is often large. Searching in a large goal space poses difficulties for both high-level subgoal generation and low-level policy learning. In this paper, we show that this problem can be effectively alleviated by restricting the high-level action space from the whole goal space to a k-step adjacent region of the current state using an adjacency constraint. We theoretically prove that the proposed adjacency constraint preserves the optimal hierarchical policy in deterministic MDPs, and show that this constraint can be practically implemented by training an adjacency network that can discriminate between adjacent and non-adjacent subgoals. Experimental results on discrete and continuous control tasks show that incorporating the adjacency constraint improves the performance of state-of-the-art HRL approaches in both deterministic and stochastic environments.

Goal representation affects the performance of Hierarchical Reinforcement Learning (HRL) algorithms by decomposing the complex learning problem into easier subtasks. Recent studies show that representations that preserve temporally abstract environment dynamics are successful in solving difficult problems and provide theoretical guarantees for optimality. These methods however cannot scale to tasks where environment dynamics increase in complexity i.e. the temporally abstract transition relations depend on larger number of variables. On the other hand, other efforts have tried to use spatial abstraction to mitigate the previous issues. Their limitations include scalability to high dimensional environments and dependency on prior knowledge. In this paper, we propose a novel three-layer HRL algorithm that introduces, at different levels of the hierarchy, both a spatial and a temporal goal abstraction. We provide a theoretical study of the regret bounds of the learned policies. We evaluate the approach on complex continuous control tasks, demonstrating the effectiveness of spatial and temporal abstractions learned by this approach.

AI agents have become increasingly capable at isolated software engineering (SWE) tasks such as resolving issues on Github. Yet long-horizon tasks involving multiple interdependent subtasks still pose challenges both with respect to accuracy, and with respect to timely completion. A natural approach to solving these long-horizon tasks in a timely manner is asynchronous multi-agent collaboration, where multiple agents work on different parts of the task at the same time. But effective application of multi-agent systems has proven surprisingly difficult: concurrent edits by multiple agents interfere with each other, dependencies are difficult to synchronize, and combining partial progress into a coherent whole is challenging. On the other hand, human developers have long relied on mature collaboration infrastructure to manage these challenges in large software projects. Inspired by these collaboration primitives, we introduce Centralized Asynchronous Isolated Delegation (CAID), a structured multi-agent coordination paradigm grounded in three core SWE primitives: centralized task delegation, asynchronous execution, and isolated workspaces. CAID constructs dependency-aware task plans through a central manager, executes subtasks concurrently in isolated workspaces, and consolidates progress via structured integration with executable test-based verification. In empirical evaluation, we find that CAID improves accuracy over single-agent baselines by 26.7% absolute on paper reproduction tasks (PaperBench) and 14.3% on Python library development tasks (Commit0). Through systematic analysis, we find that branch-and-merge is a central coordination mechanism for multi-agent collaboration, and that SWE primitives such as git worktree, git commit, and git merge enable it to be realized in a reliable and executable manner.

Learning sparse coordination graphs adaptive to the coordination dynamics among agents is a long-standing problem in cooperative multi-agent learning. This paper studies this problem and proposes a novel method using the variance of payoff functions to construct context-aware sparse coordination topologies. We theoretically consolidate our method by proving that the smaller the variance of payoff functions is, the less likely action selection will change after removing the corresponding edge. Moreover, we propose to learn action representations to effectively reduce the influence of payoff functions' estimation errors on graph construction. To empirically evaluate our method, we present the Multi-Agent COordination (MACO) benchmark by collecting classic coordination problems in the literature, increasing their difficulty, and classifying them into different types. We carry out a case study and experiments on the MACO and StarCraft II micromanagement benchmark to demonstrate the dynamics of sparse graph learning, the influence of graph sparseness, and the learning performance of our method. (The MACO benchmark and codes are publicly available at https://github.com/TonghanWang/CASEC-MACO-benchmark.)

In numerous artificial intelligence applications, the collaborative efforts of multiple intelligent agents are imperative for the successful attainment of target objectives. To enhance coordination among these agents, a distributed communication framework is often employed. However, indiscriminate information sharing among all agents can be resource-intensive, and the adoption of manually pre-defined communication architectures imposes constraints on inter-agent communication, thus limiting the potential for effective collaboration. Moreover, the communication framework often remains static during inference, which may result in sustained high resource consumption, as in most cases, only key decisions necessitate information sharing among agents. In this study, we introduce a novel approach wherein we conceptualize the communication architecture among agents as a learnable graph. We formulate this problem as the task of determining the communication graph while enabling the architecture parameters to update normally, thus necessitating a bi-level optimization process. Utilizing continuous relaxation of the graph representation and incorporating attention units, our proposed approach, CommFormer, efficiently optimizes the communication graph and concurrently refines architectural parameters through gradient descent in an end-to-end manner. Additionally, we introduce a temporal gating mechanism for each agent, enabling dynamic decisions on whether to receive shared information at a given time, based on current observations, thus improving decision-making efficiency. Extensive experiments on a variety of cooperative tasks substantiate the robustness of our model across diverse cooperative scenarios, where agents are able to develop more coordinated and sophisticated strategies regardless of changes in the number of agents.

Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models are promising for generalist robot manipulation but remain brittle in out-of-distribution (OOD) settings, especially with limited real-robot data. To resolve the generalization bottleneck, we introduce a hierarchical Vision-Language-Action framework that leverages the generalization of large-scale pre-trained world model for robust and generalizable VIsual Subgoal TAsk decomposition VISTA. Our hierarchical framework consists of a world model as the high-level planner and a VLA as the low-level executor. The high-level world model first divides manipulation tasks into subtask sequences with goal images, and the low-level policy follows the textual and visual guidance to generate action sequences. Compared to raw textual goal specification, these synthesized goal images provide visually and physically grounded details for low-level policies, making it feasible to generalize across unseen objects and novel scenarios. We validate both visual goal synthesis and our hierarchical VLA policies in massive out-of-distribution scenarios, and the performance of the same-structured VLA in novel scenarios could boost from 14% to 69% with the guidance generated by the world model. Results demonstrate that our method outperforms previous baselines with a clear margin, particularly in out-of-distribution scenarios. Project page: https://vista-wm.github.io/{https://vista-wm.github.io}

The partial observability and stochasticity in multi-agent settings can be mitigated by accessing more information about others via communication. However, the coordination problem still exists since agents cannot communicate actual actions with each other at the same time due to the circular dependencies. In this paper, we propose a novel multi-level communication scheme, Sequential Communication (SeqComm). SeqComm treats agents asynchronously (the upper-level agents make decisions before the lower-level ones) and has two communication phases. In the negotiation phase, agents determine the priority of decision-making by communicating hidden states of observations and comparing the value of intention, obtained by modeling the environment dynamics. In the launching phase, the upper-level agents take the lead in making decisions and then communicate their actions with the lower-level agents. Theoretically, we prove the policies learned by SeqComm are guaranteed to improve monotonically and converge. Empirically, we show that SeqComm outperforms existing methods in various cooperative multi-agent tasks.

In this work, we address the cooperation problem among large language model (LLM) based embodied agents, where agents must cooperate to achieve a common goal. Previous methods often execute actions extemporaneously and incoherently, without long-term strategic and cooperative planning, leading to redundant steps, failures, and even serious repercussions in complex tasks like search-and-rescue missions where discussion and cooperative plan are crucial. To solve this issue, we propose Cooperative Plan Optimization (CaPo) to enhance the cooperation efficiency of LLM-based embodied agents. Inspired by human cooperation schemes, CaPo improves cooperation efficiency with two phases: 1) meta-plan generation, and 2) progress-adaptive meta-plan and execution. In the first phase, all agents analyze the task, discuss, and cooperatively create a meta-plan that decomposes the task into subtasks with detailed steps, ensuring a long-term strategic and coherent plan for efficient coordination. In the second phase, agents execute tasks according to the meta-plan and dynamically adjust it based on their latest progress (e.g., discovering a target object) through multi-turn discussions. This progress-based adaptation eliminates redundant actions, improving the overall cooperation efficiency of agents. Experimental results on the ThreeDworld Multi-Agent Transport and Communicative Watch-And-Help tasks demonstrate that CaPo achieves much higher task completion rate and efficiency compared with state-of-the-arts.The code is released at https://github.com/jliu4ai/CaPo.

Large language models (LLMs) often struggle when performing agentic tasks without substantial tool support, prom-pt engineering, or fine tuning. Despite research showing that domain-dependent, procedural knowledge can dramatically increase planning efficiency, little work evaluates its potential for improving LLM performance on agentic tasks that may require implicit planning. We formalize, implement, and evaluate an agentic LLM workflow that leverages procedural knowledge in the form of a hierarchical task network (HTN). Empirical results of our implementation show that hand-coded HTNs can dramatically improve LLM performance on agentic tasks, and using HTNs can boost a 20b or 70b parameter LLM to outperform a much larger 120b parameter LLM baseline. Furthermore, LLM-created HTNs improve overall performance, though less so. The results suggest that leveraging expertise--from humans, documents, or LLMs--to curate procedural knowledge will become another important tool for improving LLM workflows.

This work presents MAC-Flow, a simple yet expressive framework for multi-agent coordination. We argue that requirements of effective coordination are twofold: (i) a rich representation of the diverse joint behaviors present in offline data and (ii) the ability to act efficiently in real time. However, prior approaches often sacrifice one for the other, i.e., denoising diffusion-based solutions capture complex coordination but are computationally slow, while Gaussian policy-based solutions are fast but brittle in handling multi-agent interaction. MAC-Flow addresses this trade-off by first learning a flow-based representation of joint behaviors, and then distilling it into decentralized one-step policies that preserve coordination while enabling fast execution. Across four different benchmarks, including 12 environments and 34 datasets, MAC-Flow alleviates the trade-off between performance and computational cost, specifically achieving about times14.5 faster inference compared to diffusion-based MARL methods, while maintaining good performance. At the same time, its inference speed is similar to that of prior Gaussian policy-based offline multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL) methods.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown remarkable capabilities as autonomous agents, yet existing benchmarks either focus on single-agent tasks or are confined to narrow domains, failing to capture the dynamics of multi-agent coordination and competition. In this paper, we introduce MultiAgentBench, a comprehensive benchmark designed to evaluate LLM-based multi-agent systems across diverse, interactive scenarios. Our framework measures not only task completion but also the quality of collaboration and competition using novel, milestone-based key performance indicators. Moreover, we evaluate various coordination protocols (including star, chain, tree, and graph topologies) and innovative strategies such as group discussion and cognitive planning. Notably, gpt-4o-mini reaches the average highest task score, graph structure performs the best among coordination protocols in the research scenario, and cognitive planning improves milestone achievement rates by 3%. Code and datasets are public available at https://github.com/MultiagentBench/MARBLE.

Recent advancements in large language models (LLMs) have enabled significant progress in decision-making and task planning for embodied autonomous agents. However, most existing methods struggle with complex, long-horizon tasks because they rely on a monolithic trajectory that entangles all past decisions and observations to solve the entire task in a single unified process. To address this limitation, we propose ReAcTree, a hierarchical task-planning method that decomposes a complex goal into manageable subgoals within a dynamically constructed agent tree. Each subgoal is handled by an LLM agent node capable of reasoning, acting, and further expanding the tree, while control flow nodes coordinate the execution strategies of agent nodes. In addition, we integrate two complementary memory systems: each agent node retrieves goal-specific, subgoal-level examples from episodic memory and shares environment-specific observations through working memory. Experiments on the WAH-NL and ALFRED show ReAcTree consistently outperforms strong task-planning baselines such as ReAct across diverse LLMs. Notably, on WAH-NL, ReAcTree achieves a 61% goal success rate with Qwen 2.5 72B, nearly doubling ReAct's 31%. The code is available at https://github.com/Choi-JaeWoo/ReAcTree.git.

Intelligent agents need to select long sequences of actions to solve complex tasks. While humans easily break down tasks into subgoals and reach them through millions of muscle commands, current artificial intelligence is limited to tasks with horizons of a few hundred decisions, despite large compute budgets. Research on hierarchical reinforcement learning aims to overcome this limitation but has proven to be challenging, current methods rely on manually specified goal spaces or subtasks, and no general solution exists. We introduce Director, a practical method for learning hierarchical behaviors directly from pixels by planning inside the latent space of a learned world model. The high-level policy maximizes task and exploration rewards by selecting latent goals and the low-level policy learns to achieve the goals. Despite operating in latent space, the decisions are interpretable because the world model can decode goals into images for visualization. Director outperforms exploration methods on tasks with sparse rewards, including 3D maze traversal with a quadruped robot from an egocentric camera and proprioception, without access to the global position or top-down view that was used by prior work. Director also learns successful behaviors across a wide range of environments, including visual control, Atari games, and DMLab levels.

Hierarchical Imitation Learning (HIL) is a promising approach for tackling long-horizon decision-making tasks. While it is a challenging task due to the lack of detailed supervisory labels for sub-goal learning, and reliance on hundreds to thousands of expert demonstrations. In this work, we introduce SEAL, a novel framework that leverages Large Language Models (LLMs)'s powerful semantic and world knowledge for both specifying sub-goal space and pre-labeling states to semantically meaningful sub-goal representations without prior knowledge of task hierarchies. SEAL employs a dual-encoder structure, combining supervised LLM-guided sub-goal learning with unsupervised Vector Quantization (VQ) for more robust sub-goal representations. Additionally, SEAL incorporates a transition-augmented low-level planner for improved adaptation to sub-goal transitions. Our experiments demonstrate that SEAL outperforms state-of-the-art HIL methods and LLM-based planning approaches, particularly in settings with small expert datasets and complex long-horizon tasks.

Large language model (LLM)-based multi-agent systems (MAS) have demonstrated exceptional capabilities in solving complex tasks, yet their effectiveness depends heavily on the underlying communication topology that coordinates agent interactions. Within these systems, successful problem-solving often necessitates task-specific group structures to divide and conquer subtasks. However, most existing approaches generate communication topologies in a node-centric manner, leaving group structures to emerge implicitly from local connectivity decisions rather than modeling them explicitly, often leading to suboptimal coordination and unnecessary communication overhead. To address this limitation, we propose GoAgent (Group-of-Agents), a communication topology generation method that explicitly treats collaborative groups as the atomic units of MAS construction. Specifically, GoAgent first enumerates task-relevant candidate groups through an LLM and then autoregressively selects and connects these groups as atomic units to construct the final communication graph, jointly capturing intra-group cohesion and inter-group coordination. To mitigate communication redundancy and noise propagation inherent in expanding topologies, we further introduce a conditional information bottleneck (CIB) objective that compresses inter-group communication, preserving task-relevant signals while filtering out redundant historical noise. Extensive experiments on six benchmarks demonstrate the state-of-the-art performance of GoAgent with 93.84% average accuracy while reducing token consumption by about 17%.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated proficiency in utilizing various tools by coding, yet they face limitations in handling intricate logic and precise control. In embodied tasks, high-level planning is amenable to direct coding, while low-level actions often necessitate task-specific refinement, such as Reinforcement Learning (RL). To seamlessly integrate both modalities, we introduce a two-level hierarchical framework, RL-GPT, comprising a slow agent and a fast agent. The slow agent analyzes actions suitable for coding, while the fast agent executes coding tasks. This decomposition effectively focuses each agent on specific tasks, proving highly efficient within our pipeline. Our approach outperforms traditional RL methods and existing GPT agents, demonstrating superior efficiency. In the Minecraft game, it rapidly obtains diamonds within a single day on an RTX3090. Additionally, it achieves SOTA performance across all designated MineDojo tasks.

AI agents have become increasingly adept at complex tasks such as coding, reasoning, and multimodal understanding. However, building generalist systems requires moving beyond individual agents to collective inference -- a paradigm where multi-agent systems with diverse, task-specialized agents complement one another through structured communication and collaboration. Today, coordination is usually handled with imprecise, ad-hoc natural language, which limits complex interaction and hinders interoperability with domain-specific agents. We introduce Agent context protocols (ACPs): a domain- and agent-agnostic family of structured protocols for agent-agent communication, coordination, and error handling. ACPs combine (i) persistent execution blueprints -- explicit dependency graphs that store intermediate agent outputs -- with (ii) standardized message schemas, enabling robust and fault-tolerant multi-agent collective inference. ACP-powered generalist systems reach state-of-the-art performance: 28.3 % accuracy on AssistantBench for long-horizon web assistance and best-in-class multimodal technical reports, outperforming commercial AI systems in human evaluation. ACPs are highly modular and extensible, allowing practitioners to build top-tier generalist agents quickly.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown remarkable advancements in tackling agent-oriented tasks. Despite their potential, existing work faces challenges when deploying LLMs in agent-based environments. The widely adopted agent paradigm ReAct centers on integrating single-step reasoning with immediate action execution, which limits its effectiveness in complex tasks requiring long-term strategic planning. Furthermore, the coordination between the planner and executor during problem-solving is also a critical factor to consider in agent design. Additionally, current approaches predominantly rely on supervised fine-tuning, which often leads models to memorize established task completion trajectories, thereby restricting their generalization ability when confronted with novel problem contexts. To address these challenges, we introduce an adaptive global plan-based agent paradigm AdaPlan, aiming to synergize high-level explicit guidance with execution to support effective long-horizon decision-making. Based on the proposed paradigm, we further put forward PilotRL, a global planning-guided training framework for LLM agents driven by progressive reinforcement learning. We first develop the model's ability to follow explicit guidance from global plans when addressing agent tasks. Subsequently, based on this foundation, we focus on optimizing the quality of generated plans. Finally, we conduct joint optimization of the model's planning and execution coordination. Experiments indicate that PilotRL could achieve state-of-the-art performances, with LLaMA3.1-8B-Instruct + PilotRL surpassing closed-sourced GPT-4o by 3.60%, while showing a more substantial gain of 55.78% comparing to GPT-4o-mini at a comparable parameter scale.

Multi-task learning by robots poses the challenge of the domain knowledge: complexity of tasks, complexity of the actions required, relationship between tasks for transfer learning. We demonstrate that this domain knowledge can be learned to address the challenges in life-long learning. Specifically, the hierarchy between tasks of various complexities is key to infer a curriculum from simple to composite tasks. We propose a framework for robots to learn sequences of actions of unbounded complexity in order to achieve multiple control tasks of various complexity. Our hierarchical reinforcement learning framework, named SGIM-SAHT, offers a new direction of research, and tries to unify partial implementations on robot arms and mobile robots. We outline our contributions to enable robots to map multiple control tasks to sequences of actions: representations of task dependencies, an intrinsically motivated exploration to learn task hierarchies, and active imitation learning. While learning the hierarchy of tasks, it infers its curriculum by deciding which tasks to explore first, how to transfer knowledge, and when, how and whom to imitate.

Long-horizon planning is hindered by challenges such as uncertainty accumulation, computational complexity, delayed rewards and incomplete information. This work proposes an approach to exploit the task hierarchy from human instructions to facilitate multi-robot planning. Using Large Language Models (LLMs), we propose a two-step approach to translate multi-sentence instructions into a structured language, Hierarchical Linear Temporal Logic (LTL), which serves as a formal representation for planning. Initially, LLMs transform the instructions into a hierarchical representation defined as Hierarchical Task Tree, capturing the logical and temporal relations among tasks. Following this, a domain-specific fine-tuning of LLM translates sub-tasks of each task into flat LTL formulas, aggregating them to form hierarchical LTL specifications. These specifications are then leveraged for planning using off-the-shelf planners. Our framework not only bridges the gap between instructions and algorithmic planning but also showcases the potential of LLMs in harnessing hierarchical reasoning to automate multi-robot task planning. Through evaluations in both simulation and real-world experiments involving human participants, we demonstrate that our method can handle more complex instructions compared to existing methods. The results indicate that our approach achieves higher success rates and lower costs in multi-robot task allocation and plan generation. Demos videos are available at https://youtu.be/7WOrDKxIMIs .

Despite advances in indoor 3D scene layout generation, synthesizing scenes with dense object arrangements remains challenging. Existing methods primarily focus on large furniture while neglecting smaller objects, resulting in unrealistically empty scenes. Those that place small objects typically do not honor arrangement specifications, resulting in largely random placement not following the text description. We present HSM, a hierarchical framework for indoor scene generation with dense object arrangements across spatial scales. Indoor scenes are inherently hierarchical, with surfaces supporting objects at different scales, from large furniture on floors to smaller objects on tables and shelves. HSM embraces this hierarchy and exploits recurring cross-scale spatial patterns to generate complex and realistic indoor scenes in a unified manner. Our experiments show that HSM outperforms existing methods by generating scenes that are more realistic and better conform to user input across room types and spatial configurations.

This paper presents a safety-critical approach to the coordination of robots in dynamic environments. To this end, we leverage control barrier functions (CBFs) with the forward reachable set to guarantee the safe coordination of the robots while preserving a desired trajectory via a layered controller. The top-level planner generates a safety-ensured trajectory for each agent, accounting for the dynamic constraints in the environment. This planner leverages high-order CBFs based on the forward reachable set to ensure safety-critical coordination control, i.e., guarantee the safe coordination of the robots during locomotion. The middle-level trajectory planner employs single rigid body (SRB) dynamics to generate optimal ground reaction forces (GRFs) to track the safety-ensured trajectories from the top-level planner. The whole-body motions to adhere to the optimal GRFs while ensuring the friction cone condition at the end of each stance leg are generated from the low-level controller. The effectiveness of the approach is demonstrated through simulation and hardware experiments.

Recently, there has been increasing interest in using Large Language Models (LLMs) to construct complex multi-agent systems to perform tasks such as compiling literature reviews, drafting consumer reports, and planning vacations. Many tools and libraries exist for helping create such systems, however none support recursive multi-agent systems -- where the models themselves flexibly decide when to delegate tasks and how to organize their delegation structure. In this work, we introduce ReDel: a toolkit for recursive multi-agent systems that supports custom tool-use, delegation schemes, event-based logging, and interactive replay in an easy-to-use web interface. We show that, using ReDel, we are able to achieve significant performance gains on agentic benchmarks and easily identify potential areas of improvements through the visualization and debugging tools. Our code, documentation, and PyPI package are open-source and free to use under the MIT license.

Goal-conditioned Hierarchical Reinforcement Learning (HRL) is a promising approach for scaling up reinforcement learning (RL) techniques. However, it often suffers from training inefficiency as the action space of the high-level, i.e., the goal space, is large. Searching in a large goal space poses difficulty for both high-level subgoal generation and low-level policy learning. In this paper, we show that this problem can be effectively alleviated by restricting the high-level action space from the whole goal space to a k-step adjacent region of the current state using an adjacency constraint. We theoretically prove that in a deterministic Markov Decision Process (MDP), the proposed adjacency constraint preserves the optimal hierarchical policy, while in a stochastic MDP the adjacency constraint induces a bounded state-value suboptimality determined by the MDP's transition structure. We further show that this constraint can be practically implemented by training an adjacency network that can discriminate between adjacent and non-adjacent subgoals. Experimental results on discrete and continuous control tasks including challenging simulated robot locomotion and manipulation tasks show that incorporating the adjacency constraint significantly boosts the performance of state-of-the-art goal-conditioned HRL approaches.

Robust coordination is critical for effective decision-making in multi-agent systems, especially under partial observability. A central question in Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning (MARL) is whether to engineer communication protocols or learn them end-to-end. We investigate this dichotomy using embodied world models. We propose and compare two communication strategies for a cooperative task-allocation problem. The first, Learned Direct Communication (LDC), learns a protocol end-to-end, with agents generating messages and actions concurrently. The second, Intention Communication, uses an engineered inductive bias: a compact, learned world model, the Imagined Trajectory Generation Module (ITGM), to simulate future states. Agents then communicate a summary of this plan. We evaluate these approaches on goal-directed interaction in a grid world, a canonical abstraction for embodied AI problems. Our experiments reveal that while emergent communication is viable in simple settings, the engineered, world model-based approach shows superior performance, sample efficiency, and scalability as complexity increases. These findings advocate for integrating structured, predictive models into MARL agents to enable active, goal-driven coordination.

The rapid advancement of large language models (LLMs) has enabled the development of multi-agent systems where multiple LLM-based agents collaborate on complex tasks. However, existing systems often rely on centralized coordination, leading to scalability bottlenecks, reduced adaptability, and single points of failure. Privacy and proprietary knowledge concerns further hinder cross-organizational collaboration, resulting in siloed expertise. We propose AgentNet, a decentralized, Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG)-based framework that enables LLM-based agents to specialize, evolve, and collaborate autonomously in a dynamically structured Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG). Unlike prior approaches with static roles or centralized control, AgentNet allows agents to adjust connectivity and route tasks based on local expertise and context. AgentNet introduces three key innovations: (1) a fully decentralized coordination mechanism that eliminates the need for a central orchestrator, enhancing robustness and emergent intelligence; (2) dynamic agent graph topology that adapts in real time to task demands, ensuring scalability and resilience; and (3) a retrieval-based memory system for agents that supports continual skill refinement and specialization. By minimizing centralized control and data exchange, AgentNet enables fault-tolerant, privacy-preserving collaboration across organizations. Experiments show that AgentNet achieves higher task accuracy than both single-agent and centralized multi-agent baselines.

Realistic 3D indoor scene generation is crucial for virtual reality, interior design, embodied intelligence, and scene understanding. While existing methods have made progress in coarse-scale furniture arrangement, they struggle to capture fine-grained object placements, limiting the realism and utility of generated environments. This gap hinders immersive virtual experiences and detailed scene comprehension for embodied AI applications. To address these issues, we propose Hierarchical Layout Generation (HLG), a novel method for fine-grained 3D scene generation. HLG is the first to adopt a coarse-to-fine hierarchical approach, refining scene layouts from large-scale furniture placement to intricate object arrangements. Specifically, our fine-grained layout alignment module constructs a hierarchical layout through vertical and horizontal decoupling, effectively decomposing complex 3D indoor scenes into multiple levels of granularity. Additionally, our trainable layout optimization network addresses placement issues, such as incorrect positioning, orientation errors, and object intersections, ensuring structurally coherent and physically plausible scene generation. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach through extensive experiments, showing superior performance in generating realistic indoor scenes compared to existing methods. This work advances the field of scene generation and opens new possibilities for applications requiring detailed 3D environments. We will release our code upon publication to encourage future research.

Resolving team conflicts requires not only task-specific competence, but also social intelligence to find common ground and build consensus. As AI agents increasingly collaborate on complex work, they must develop coordination capabilities to function as effective teammates. Yet we hypothesize that current agents lack these capabilities. To test this, we introduce CooperBench, a benchmark of over 600 collaborative coding tasks across 12 libraries in 4 programming languages. Each task assigns two agents different features that can be implemented independently but may conflict without proper coordination. Tasks are grounded in real open-source repositories with expert-written tests. Evaluating state-of-the-art coding agents, we observe the curse of coordination: agents achieve on average 30% lower success rates when working together compared to performing both tasks individually. This contrasts sharply with human teams, where adding teammates typically improves productivity. Our analysis reveals three key issues: (1) communication channels become jammed with vague, ill-timed, and inaccurate messages; (2) even with effective communication, agents deviate from their commitments; and (3) agents often hold incorrect expectations about others' plans and communication. Through large-scale simulation, we also observe rare but interesting emergent coordination behavior including role division, resource division, and negotiation. Our research presents a novel benchmark for collaborative coding and calls for a shift from pursuing individual agent capability to developing social intelligence.

Brain-body co-evolution enables animals to develop complex behaviors in their environments. Inspired by this biological synergy, embodied co-design (ECD) has emerged as a transformative paradigm for creating intelligent agents-from virtual creatures to physical robots-by jointly optimizing their morphologies and controllers rather than treating control in isolation. This integrated approach facilitates richer environmental interactions and robust task performance. In this survey, we provide a systematic overview of recent advances in ECD. We first formalize the concept of ECD and position it within related fields. We then introduce a hierarchical taxonomy: a lower layer that breaks down agent design into three fundamental components-controlling brain, body morphology, and task environment-and an upper layer that integrates these components into four major ECD frameworks: bi-level, single-level, generative, and open-ended. This taxonomy allows us to synthesize insights from more than one hundred recent studies. We further review notable benchmarks, datasets, and applications in both simulated and real-world scenarios. Finally, we identify significant challenges and offer insights into promising future research directions. A project associated with this survey has been created at https://github.com/Yuxing-Wang-THU/SurveyBrainBody.

Controlling human motion based on text presents an important challenge in computer vision. Traditional approaches often rely on holistic action descriptions for motion synthesis, which struggle to capture subtle movements of local body parts. This limitation restricts the ability to isolate and manipulate specific movements. To address this, we propose a novel motion representation that decomposes motion into distinct body joint group movements and interactions from a kinematic perspective. We design an automatic dataset collection pipeline that enhances the existing text-motion benchmark by incorporating fine-grained local joint-group motion and interaction descriptions. To bridge the gap between text and motion domains, we introduce a hierarchical motion semantics approach that progressively fuses joint-level interaction information into the global action-level semantics for modality alignment. With this hierarchy, we introduce a coarse-to-fine motion synthesis procedure for various generation and editing downstream applications. Our quantitative and qualitative experiments demonstrate that the proposed formulation enhances text-motion retrieval by improving joint-spatial understanding, and enables more precise joint-motion generation and control. Project Page: {\smallhttps://andypinxinliu.github.io/KinMo/}

Scaling laws for inference compute in multi-agent systems remain under-explored compared to single-agent scenarios. This work aims to bridge this gap by investigating the problem of data synthesis through multi-agent sampling, where synthetic responses are generated by sampling from multiple distinct language models. Effective model coordination is crucial for successful multi-agent collaboration. Unlike previous approaches that rely on fixed workflows, we treat model coordination as a multi-step decision-making process, optimizing generation structures dynamically for each input question. We introduce Tree Search-based Orchestrated Agents~(TOA), where the workflow evolves iteratively during the sequential sampling process. To achieve this, we leverage Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS), integrating a reward model to provide real-time feedback and accelerate exploration. Our experiments on alignment, machine translation, and mathematical reasoning demonstrate that multi-agent sampling significantly outperforms single-agent sampling as inference compute scales. TOA is the most compute-efficient approach, achieving SOTA performance on WMT and a 71.8\% LC win rate on AlpacaEval. Moreover, fine-tuning with our synthesized alignment data surpasses strong preference learning methods on challenging benchmarks such as Arena-Hard and AlpacaEval.

We study a challenging task: text-to-motion synthesis, aiming to generate motions that align with textual descriptions and exhibit coordinated movements. Currently, the part-based methods introduce part partition into the motion synthesis process to achieve finer-grained generation. However, these methods encounter challenges such as the lack of coordination between different part motions and difficulties for networks to understand part concepts. Moreover, introducing finer-grained part concepts poses computational complexity challenges. In this paper, we propose Part-Coordinating Text-to-Motion Synthesis (ParCo), endowed with enhanced capabilities for understanding part motions and communication among different part motion generators, ensuring a coordinated and fined-grained motion synthesis. Specifically, we discretize whole-body motion into multiple part motions to establish the prior concept of different parts. Afterward, we employ multiple lightweight generators designed to synthesize different part motions and coordinate them through our part coordination module. Our approach demonstrates superior performance on common benchmarks with economic computations, including HumanML3D and KIT-ML, providing substantial evidence of its effectiveness. Code is available at https://github.com/qrzou/ParCo .

The rapid evolution of Large Language Models (LLM) and subsequent Agentic AI technologies requires systematic architectural guidance for building sophisticated, production-grade systems. This paper presents an approach for architecting such systems using design patterns derived from enterprise distributed systems standards, formal methods, and industry practice. We classify these patterns into three tiers: LLM Agents (task-specific automation), Agentic AI (adaptive goal-seekers), and Agentic Communities (organizational frameworks where AI agents and human participants coordinate through formal roles, protocols, and governance structures). We focus on Agentic Communities - coordination frameworks encompassing LLM Agents, Agentic AI entities, and humans - most relevant for enterprise and industrial applications. Drawing on established coordination principles from distributed systems, we ground these patterns in a formal framework that specifies collaboration agreements where AI agents and humans fill roles within governed ecosystems. This approach provides both practical guidance and formal verification capabilities, enabling expression of organizational, legal, and ethical rules through accountability mechanisms that ensure operational and verifiable governance of inter-agent communication, negotiation, and intent modeling. We validate this framework through a clinical trial matching case study. Our goal is to provide actionable guidance to practitioners while maintaining the formal rigor essential for enterprise deployment in dynamic, multi-agent ecosystems.

Multi-robot coordination has traditionally relied on a mission-specific and expert-driven pipeline, where natural language mission descriptions are manually translated by domain experts into mathematical formulation, algorithm design, and executable code. This conventional process is labor-intensive, inaccessible to non-experts, and inflexible to changes in mission requirements. Here, we propose LAN2CB (Language to Collective Behavior), a novel framework that leverages large language models (LLMs) to streamline and generalize the multi-robot coordination pipeline. LAN2CB transforms natural language (NL) mission descriptions into executable Python code for multi-robot systems through two core modules: (1) Mission Analysis, which parses mission descriptions into behavior trees, and (2) Code Generation, which leverages the behavior tree and a structured knowledge base to generate robot control code. We further introduce a dataset of natural language mission descriptions to support development and benchmarking. Experiments in both simulation and real-world environments demonstrate that LAN2CB enables robust and flexible multi-robot coordination from natural language, significantly reducing manual engineering effort and supporting broad generalization across diverse mission types. Website: https://sites.google.com/view/lan-cb

Large language model (LLM)-based agents have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in decision-making tasks, but struggle significantly with complex, long-horizon planning scenarios. This arises from their lack of macroscopic guidance, causing disorientation and failures in complex tasks, as well as insufficient continuous oversight during execution, rendering them unresponsive to environmental changes and prone to deviations. To tackle these challenges, we introduce HiPlan, a hierarchical planning framework that provides adaptive global-local guidance to boost LLM-based agents'decision-making. HiPlan decomposes complex tasks into milestone action guides for general direction and step-wise hints for detailed actions. During the offline phase, we construct a milestone library from expert demonstrations, enabling structured experience reuse by retrieving semantically similar tasks and milestones. In the execution phase, trajectory segments from past milestones are dynamically adapted to generate step-wise hints that align current observations with the milestone objectives, bridging gaps and correcting deviations. Extensive experiments across two challenging benchmarks demonstrate that HiPlan substantially outperforms strong baselines, and ablation studies validate the complementary benefits of its hierarchical components.

With the development of LLMs as agents, there is a growing interest in connecting multiple agents into multi-agent systems to solve tasks concurrently, focusing on their role in task assignment and coordination. This paper explores how LLMs can effectively allocate computational tasks among multiple agents, considering factors such as cost, efficiency, and performance. In this work, we address key questions, including the effectiveness of LLMs as orchestrators and planners, comparing their effectiveness in task assignment and coordination. Our experiments demonstrate that LLMs can achieve high validity and accuracy in resource allocation tasks. We find that the planner method outperforms the orchestrator method in handling concurrent actions, resulting in improved efficiency and better utilization of agents. Additionally, we show that providing explicit information about worker capabilities enhances the allocation strategies of planners, particularly when dealing with suboptimal workers.

Powerful large language models (LLMs) from different providers have been expensively trained and finetuned to specialize across varying domains. In this work, we introduce a new kind of Conductor model trained with reinforcement learning to automatically discover powerful coordination strategies among LLMs. Our Conductor learns not only to design targeted communication topologies for effective agent-to-agent collaboration, but also to prompt engineer focused instructions to the LLMs to maximally leverage their individual capabilities. We show that, by learning optimal coordination strategies over pools of powerful worker LLMs, a 7B Conductor achieves significant performance gains beyond any individual worker, attaining state-of-the-art results in challenging reasoning benchmarks, such as LiveCodeBench and GPQA. By training with randomized agent pools, our conductor effectively adapts to arbitrary sets of open- and closed-source agents, meeting any user requirements. Furthermore, allowing the Conductor to select itself as a worker gives rise to recursive topologies, elevating performance with a new form of dynamic test-time scaling through online iterative adaptation. More broadly, ours is among the early work demonstrating language model coordination can be unlocked through RL, where powerful coordination strategies emerge naturally in LLMs through pure end-to-end reward maximization.

Existing LLMs exhibit remarkable performance on various NLP tasks, but still struggle with complex real-world tasks, even equipped with advanced strategies like CoT and ReAct. In this work, we propose the CoAct framework, which transfers the hierarchical planning and collaboration patterns in human society to LLM systems. Specifically, our CoAct framework involves two agents: (1) A global planning agent, to comprehend the problem scope, formulate macro-level plans and provide detailed sub-task descriptions to local execution agents, which serves as the initial rendition of a global plan. (2) A local execution agent, to operate within the multi-tier task execution structure, focusing on detailed execution and implementation of specific tasks within the global plan. Experimental results on the WebArena benchmark show that CoAct can re-arrange the process trajectory when facing failures, and achieves superior performance over baseline methods on long-horizon web tasks. Code is available at https://github.com/xmhou2002/CoAct.

Large Language Model (LLM)-driven Multi-agent systems (Mas) have recently emerged as a powerful paradigm for tackling complex real-world tasks. However, existing Mas construction methods typically rely on manually crafted interaction mechanisms or heuristic rules, introducing human biases and constraining the autonomous ability. Even with recent advances in adaptive Mas construction, existing systems largely remain within the paradigm of semi-autonomous patterns. In this work, we propose MasHost, a Reinforcement Learning (RL)-based framework for autonomous and query-adaptive Mas design. By formulating Mas construction as a graph search problem, our proposed MasHost jointly samples agent roles and their interactions through a unified probabilistic sampling mechanism. Beyond the accuracy and efficiency objectives pursued in prior works, we introduce component rationality as an additional and novel design principle in Mas. To achieve this multi-objective optimization, we propose Hierarchical Relative Policy Optimization (HRPO), a novel RL strategy that collaboratively integrates group-relative advantages and action-wise rewards. To our knowledge, our proposed MasHost is the first RL-driven framework for autonomous Mas graph construction. Extensive experiments on six benchmarks demonstrate that MasHost consistently outperforms most competitive baselines, validating its effectiveness, efficiency, and structure rationality.

This work presents a novel representation learning framework, interactive world latent (IWoL), to facilitate team coordination in multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL). Building effective representation for team coordination is a challenging problem, due to the intricate dynamics emerging from multi-agent interaction and incomplete information induced by local observations. Our key insight is to construct a learnable representation space that jointly captures inter-agent relations and task-specific world information by directly modeling communication protocols. This representation, we maintain fully decentralized execution with implicit coordination, all while avoiding the inherent drawbacks of explicit message passing, e.g., slower decision-making, vulnerability to malicious attackers, and sensitivity to bandwidth constraints. In practice, our representation can be used not only as an implicit latent for each agent, but also as an explicit message for communication. Across four challenging MARL benchmarks, we evaluate both variants and show that IWoL provides a simple yet powerful key for team coordination. Moreover, we demonstrate that our representation can be combined with existing MARL algorithms to further enhance their performance.

In the field of graphic design, automating the integration of design elements into a cohesive multi-layered artwork not only boosts productivity but also paves the way for the democratization of graphic design. One existing practice is Graphic Layout Generation (GLG), which aims to layout sequential design elements. It has been constrained by the necessity for a predefined correct sequence of layers, thus limiting creative potential and increasing user workload. In this paper, we present Hierarchical Layout Generation (HLG) as a more flexible and pragmatic setup, which creates graphic composition from unordered sets of design elements. To tackle the HLG task, we introduce Graphist, the first layout generation model based on large multimodal models. Graphist efficiently reframes the HLG as a sequence generation problem, utilizing RGB-A images as input, outputs a JSON draft protocol, indicating the coordinates, size, and order of each element. We develop new evaluation metrics for HLG. Graphist outperforms prior arts and establishes a strong baseline for this field. Project homepage: https://github.com/graphic-design-ai/graphist

Learning cooperative multi-agent policy from offline multi-task data that can generalize to unseen tasks with varying numbers of agents and targets is an attractive problem in many scenarios. Although aggregating general behavior patterns among multiple tasks as skills to improve policy transfer is a promising approach, two primary challenges hinder the further advancement of skill learning in offline multi-task MARL. Firstly, extracting general cooperative behaviors from various action sequences as common skills lacks bringing cooperative temporal knowledge into them. Secondly, existing works only involve common skills and can not adaptively choose independent knowledge as task-specific skills in each task for fine-grained action execution. To tackle these challenges, we propose Hierarchical and Separate Skill Discovery (HiSSD), a novel approach for generalizable offline multi-task MARL through skill learning. HiSSD leverages a hierarchical framework that jointly learns common and task-specific skills. The common skills learn cooperative temporal knowledge and enable in-sample exploitation for offline multi-task MARL. The task-specific skills represent the priors of each task and achieve a task-guided fine-grained action execution. To verify the advancement of our method, we conduct experiments on multi-agent MuJoCo and SMAC benchmarks. After training the policy using HiSSD on offline multi-task data, the empirical results show that HiSSD assigns effective cooperative behaviors and obtains superior performance in unseen tasks.

Knowledge graphs are useful tools to organize, recommend and sort data. Hierarchies in knowledge graphs provide significant benefit in improving understanding and compartmentalization of the data within a knowledge graph. This work leverages large language models to generate and augment hierarchies in an existing knowledge graph. For small (<100,000 node) domain-specific KGs, we find that a combination of few-shot prompting with one-shot generation works well, while larger KG may require cyclical generation. We present techniques for augmenting hierarchies, which led to coverage increase by 98% for intents and 99% for colors in our knowledge graph.

Hierarchical policies that combine language and low-level control have been shown to perform impressively long-horizon robotic tasks, by leveraging either zero-shot high-level planners like pretrained language and vision-language models (LLMs/VLMs) or models trained on annotated robotic demonstrations. However, for complex and dexterous skills, attaining high success rates on long-horizon tasks still represents a major challenge -- the longer the task is, the more likely it is that some stage will fail. Can humans help the robot to continuously improve its long-horizon task performance through intuitive and natural feedback? In this paper, we make the following observation: high-level policies that index into sufficiently rich and expressive low-level language-conditioned skills can be readily supervised with human feedback in the form of language corrections. We show that even fine-grained corrections, such as small movements ("move a bit to the left"), can be effectively incorporated into high-level policies, and that such corrections can be readily obtained from humans observing the robot and making occasional suggestions. This framework enables robots not only to rapidly adapt to real-time language feedback, but also incorporate this feedback into an iterative training scheme that improves the high-level policy's ability to correct errors in both low-level execution and high-level decision-making purely from verbal feedback. Our evaluation on real hardware shows that this leads to significant performance improvement in long-horizon, dexterous manipulation tasks without the need for any additional teleoperation. Videos and code are available at https://yay-robot.github.io/.

Achieving scalable coordination in large robotic swarms is often constrained by reliance on inter-agent communication, which introduces latency, bandwidth limitations, and vulnerability to failure. To address this gap, a decentralized approach for outer-loop control of large multi-agent systems based on the paradigm of how a fluid moves through a volume is proposed and evaluated. A relationship between fundamental fluidic element properties and individual robotic agent states is developed such that the corresponding swarm "flows" through a space, akin to a fluid when forced via a pressure boundary condition. By ascribing fluid-like properties to subsets of agents, the swarm evolves collectively while maintaining desirable structure and coherence without explicit communication of agent states within or outside of the swarm. The approach is evaluated using simulations involving O(10^3) quadcopter agents and compared against Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) solutions for a converging-diverging domain. Quantitative agreement between swarm-derived and CFD fields is assessed using Root-Mean-Square Error (RMSE), yielding normalized errors of 0.15-0.9 for velocity, 0.61-0.98 for density, 0-0.937 for pressure. These results demonstrate the feasibility of treating large robotic swarms as continuum systems that retain the macroscopic structure derived from first principles, providing a basis for scalable and decentralized control.

Multi-agent coordination is crucial for reliable multi-robot navigation in shared spaces such as automated warehouses. In regions of dense robot traffic, local coordination methods may fail to find a deadlock-free solution. In these scenarios, it is appropriate to let a central unit generate a global schedule that decides the passing order of robots. However, the runtime of such centralized coordination methods increases significantly with the problem scale. In this paper, we propose to leverage Graph Neural Network Variational Autoencoders (GNN-VAE) to solve the multi-agent coordination problem at scale faster than through centralized optimization. We formulate the coordination problem as a graph problem and collect ground truth data using a Mixed-Integer Linear Program (MILP) solver. During training, our learning framework encodes good quality solutions of the graph problem into a latent space. At inference time, solution samples are decoded from the sampled latent variables, and the lowest-cost sample is selected for coordination. Finally, the feasible proposal with the highest performance index is selected for the deployment. By construction, our GNN-VAE framework returns solutions that always respect the constraints of the considered coordination problem. Numerical results show that our approach trained on small-scale problems can achieve high-quality solutions even for large-scale problems with 250 robots, being much faster than other baselines. Project page: https://mengyuest.github.io/gnn-vae-coord

Cooperation enables teams to solve complex problems that one individual alone cannot address. In science, collaborative teams have become the predominant way through which progress is achieved. These scientific collaborations arise though various mechanisms, among which interactions at conferences. The Scialog conferences, which comprise a series of small, interdisciplinary scientific workshops held over several years, are an ideal laboratory to study the network mechanisms leading to team formation. Building on existing work studying team formation from a pairwise perspective, we present a higher-order network perspective generalizing this framework. We provide a formalization for the notion of group interaction over time by defining a taxonomy of synchronous and asynchronous group interactions. We apply this framework to the Scialog case study using a stepwise selection logistic model and find evidence that all interaction types described in our taxonomy are highly significant for team formation. This higher-order network perspective provides a new framework for the study of collective behavior and group formation.

An unaddressed challenge in multi-agent coordination is to enable AI agents to exploit the semantic relationships between the features of actions and the features of observations. Humans take advantage of these relationships in highly intuitive ways. For instance, in the absence of a shared language, we might point to the object we desire or hold up our fingers to indicate how many objects we want. To address this challenge, we investigate the effect of network architecture on the propensity of learning algorithms to exploit these semantic relationships. Across a procedurally generated coordination task, we find that attention-based architectures that jointly process a featurized representation of observations and actions have a better inductive bias for learning intuitive policies. Through fine-grained evaluation and scenario analysis, we show that the resulting policies are human-interpretable. Moreover, such agents coordinate with people without training on any human data.

Large Language Models (LLMs) and agent-based systems often struggle with compositional generalization due to a data bottleneck in which complex skill combinations follow a long-tailed, power-law distribution, limiting both instruction-following performance and generalization in agent-centric tasks. To address this challenge, we propose STEPS, a Skill Taxonomy guided Entropy-based Post-training data Synthesis framework for generating compositionally challenging data. STEPS explicitly targets compositional generalization by uncovering latent relationships among skills and organizing them into an interpretable, hierarchical skill taxonomy using structural information theory. Building on this taxonomy, we formulate data synthesis as a constrained information maximization problem, selecting skill combinations that maximize marginal structural information within the hierarchy while preserving semantic coherence. Experiments on challenging instruction-following benchmarks show that STEPS outperforms existing data synthesis baselines, while also yielding improved compositional generalization in downstream agent-based evaluations.

This technical brief introduces Deep Agent, an advanced autonomous AI system designed to manage complex multi-phase tasks through a novel hierarchical task management architecture. The system's foundation is built on our Hierarchical Task DAG (HTDAG) framework, which dynamically decomposes high-level objectives into manageable sub-tasks while rigorously maintaining dependencies and execution coherence. Deep Agent advances beyond traditional agent systems through three key innovations: First, it implements a recursive two-stage planner-executor architecture that enables continuous task refinement and adaptation as circumstances change. Second, it features an Autonomous API & Tool Creation (AATC) system that automatically generates reusable components from UI interactions, substantially reducing operational costs for similar tasks. Third, it incorporates Prompt Tweaking Engine and Autonomous Prompt Feedback Learning components that optimize Large Language Model prompts for specific scenarios, enhancing both inference accuracy and operational stability. These components are integrated to form a service infrastructure that manages user contexts, handles complex task dependencies, and orchestrates end-to-end agentic workflow execution. Through this sophisticated architecture, Deep Agent establishes a novel paradigm in self-governing AI systems, demonstrating robust capability to independently handle intricate, multi-step tasks while maintaining consistent efficiency and reliability through continuous self-optimization.

Recent multi-agent frameworks built upon large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in complex task planning. However, in real-world enterprise environments, business workflows are typically composed through modularization and reuse of numerous subprocesses, resulting in intricate workflows characterized by lengthy and deeply nested execution paths. Such complexity poses significant challenges for LLM-driven orchestration, as extended reasoning chains and state-space explosions severely impact planning effectiveness and the proper sequencing of tool invocations. Therefore, developing an orchestration method with controllable structures capable of handling multi-layer nesting becomes a critical issue. To address this, we propose a novel structure-driven orchestration framework Self-Organizing Agent Network (SOAN). SOAN incrementally builds a formalized agent network by identifying and encapsulating structural units as independent agents, enhancing modularity and clarity in orchestration. Extensive evaluations were performed using multiple benchmarks as well as a real-world enterprise workflow dataset. Experimental results demonstrate that SOAN significantly outperforms state-of-the-art methods in terms of adaptability, fault tolerance, and execution efficiency.

We present the task of "Social Rearrangement", consisting of cooperative everyday tasks like setting up the dinner table, tidying a house or unpacking groceries in a simulated multi-agent environment. In Social Rearrangement, two robots coordinate to complete a long-horizon task, using onboard sensing and egocentric observations, and no privileged information about the environment. We study zero-shot coordination (ZSC) in this task, where an agent collaborates with a new partner, emulating a scenario where a robot collaborates with a new human partner. Prior ZSC approaches struggle to generalize in our complex and visually rich setting, and on further analysis, we find that they fail to generate diverse coordination behaviors at training time. To counter this, we propose Behavior Diversity Play (BDP), a novel ZSC approach that encourages diversity through a discriminability objective. Our results demonstrate that BDP learns adaptive agents that can tackle visual coordination, and zero-shot generalize to new partners in unseen environments, achieving 35% higher success and 32% higher efficiency compared to baselines.

The rapid advancement of Large Language Models (LLMs) has opened new possibilities in Multi-Robot Systems (MRS), enabling enhanced communication, task planning, and human-robot interaction. Unlike traditional single-robot and multi-agent systems, MRS poses unique challenges, including coordination, scalability, and real-world adaptability. This survey provides the first comprehensive exploration of LLM integration into MRS. It systematically categorizes their applications across high-level task allocation, mid-level motion planning, low-level action generation, and human intervention. We highlight key applications in diverse domains, such as household robotics, construction, formation control, target tracking, and robot games, showcasing the versatility and transformative potential of LLMs in MRS. Furthermore, we examine the challenges that limit adapting LLMs in MRS, including mathematical reasoning limitations, hallucination, latency issues, and the need for robust benchmarking systems. Finally, we outline opportunities for future research, emphasizing advancements in fine-tuning, reasoning techniques, and task-specific models. This survey aims to guide researchers in the intelligence and real-world deployment of MRS powered by LLMs. Based on the fast-evolving nature of research in the field, we keep updating the papers in the open-source Github repository.

In this work, from a theoretical lens, we aim to understand why large language model (LLM) empowered agents are able to solve decision-making problems in the physical world. To this end, consider a hierarchical reinforcement learning (RL) model where the LLM Planner and the Actor perform high-level task planning and low-level execution, respectively. Under this model, the LLM Planner navigates a partially observable Markov decision process (POMDP) by iteratively generating language-based subgoals via prompting. Under proper assumptions on the pretraining data, we prove that the pretrained LLM Planner effectively performs Bayesian aggregated imitation learning (BAIL) through in-context learning. Additionally, we highlight the necessity for exploration beyond the subgoals derived from BAIL by proving that naively executing the subgoals returned by LLM leads to a linear regret. As a remedy, we introduce an ε-greedy exploration strategy to BAIL, which is proven to incur sublinear regret when the pretraining error is small. Finally, we extend our theoretical framework to include scenarios where the LLM Planner serves as a world model for inferring the transition model of the environment and to multi-agent settings, enabling coordination among multiple Actors.

Large language model agents receive instructions from many sources-system messages, user prompts, tool outputs, and more-each carrying different levels of trust and authority. When these instructions conflict, models must reliably follow the highest-privilege instruction to remain safe and effective. The dominant paradigm, instruction hierarchy (IH), assumes a fixed, small set of privilege levels (typically fewer than five) defined by rigid role labels (e.g., system > user). This is inadequate for real-world agentic settings, where conflicts can arise across far more sources and contexts. In this work, we propose Many-Tier Instruction Hierarchy (ManyIH), a paradigm for resolving instruction conflicts among instructions with arbitrarily many privilege levels. We introduce ManyIH-Bench, the first benchmark for ManyIH. ManyIH-Bench requires models to navigate up to 12 levels of conflicting instructions with varying privileges, comprising 853 agentic tasks (427 coding and 426 instruction-following). ManyIH-Bench composes constraints developed by LLMs and verified by humans to create realistic and difficult test cases spanning 46 real-world agents. Our experiments show that even the current frontier models perform poorly (~40% accuracy) when instruction conflict scales. This work underscores the urgent need for methods that explicitly target fine-grained, scalable instruction conflict resolution in agentic settings.

The integration of Large Language Models (LLMs) into robotics has revolutionized human-robot interactions and autonomous task planning. However, these systems are often unable to self-correct during the task execution, which hinders their adaptability in dynamic real-world environments. To address this issue, we present a Hierarchical Closed-loop Robotic Intelligent Self-correction Planner (HiCRISP), an innovative framework that enables robots to correct errors within individual steps during the task execution. HiCRISP actively monitors and adapts the task execution process, addressing both high-level planning and low-level action errors. Extensive benchmark experiments, encompassing virtual and real-world scenarios, showcase HiCRISP's exceptional performance, positioning it as a promising solution for robotic task planning with LLMs.

Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly being used for interactive decision-making tasks requiring planning and adapting to the environment. Recent works employ LLMs-as-agents in broadly two ways: iteratively determining the next action (iterative executors) or generating plans and executing sub-tasks using LLMs (plan-and-execute). However, these methods struggle with task complexity, as the inability to execute any sub-task may lead to task failure. To address these shortcomings, we introduce As-Needed Decomposition and Planning for complex Tasks (ADaPT), an approach that explicitly plans and decomposes complex sub-tasks as-needed, i.e., when the LLM is unable to execute them. ADaPT recursively decomposes sub-tasks to adapt to both task complexity and LLM capability. Our results demonstrate that ADaPT substantially outperforms established strong baselines, achieving success rates up to 28.3% higher in ALFWorld, 27% in WebShop, and 33% in TextCraft -- a novel compositional dataset that we introduce. Through extensive analysis, we illustrate the importance of multilevel decomposition and establish that ADaPT dynamically adjusts to the capabilities of the executor LLM as well as to task complexity.

Scientific knowledge is growing rapidly, making it challenging to track progress and high-level conceptual links across broad disciplines. While existing tools like citation networks and search engines make it easy to access a few related papers, they fundamentally lack the flexible abstraction needed to represent the density of activity in various scientific subfields. We motivate SCIENCE HIERARCHOGRAPHY, the goal of organizing scientific literature into a high-quality hierarchical structure that allows for the categorization of scientific work across varying levels of abstraction, from very broad fields to very specific studies. Such a representation can provide insights into which fields are well-explored and which are under-explored. To achieve the goals of SCIENCE HIERARCHOGRAPHY, we develop a range of algorithms. Our primary approach combines fast embedding-based clustering with LLM-based prompting to balance the computational efficiency of embedding methods with the semantic precision offered by LLM prompting. We demonstrate that this approach offers the best trade-off between quality and speed compared to methods that heavily rely on LLM prompting, such as iterative tree construction with LLMs. To better reflect the interdisciplinary and multifaceted nature of research papers, our hierarchy captures multiple dimensions of categorization beyond simple topic labels. We evaluate the utility of our framework by assessing how effectively an LLM-based agent can locate target papers using the hierarchy. Results show that this structured approach enhances interpretability, supports trend discovery, and offers an alternative pathway for exploring scientific literature beyond traditional search methods. Code, data and demo: https://github.com/JHU-CLSP/science-hierarchography{https://github.com/JHU-CLSP/science-hierarchography}

Gait recognition has achieved promising advances in controlled settings, yet it significantly struggles in unconstrained environments due to challenges such as view changes, occlusions, and varying walking speeds. Additionally, efforts to fuse multiple modalities often face limited improvements because of cross-modality incompatibility, particularly in outdoor scenarios. To address these issues, we present a multi-modal Hierarchy in Hierarchy network (HiH) that integrates silhouette and pose sequences for robust gait recognition. HiH features a main branch that utilizes Hierarchical Gait Decomposer (HGD) modules for depth-wise and intra-module hierarchical examination of general gait patterns from silhouette data. This approach captures motion hierarchies from overall body dynamics to detailed limb movements, facilitating the representation of gait attributes across multiple spatial resolutions. Complementing this, an auxiliary branch, based on 2D joint sequences, enriches the spatial and temporal aspects of gait analysis. It employs a Deformable Spatial Enhancement (DSE) module for pose-guided spatial attention and a Deformable Temporal Alignment (DTA) module for aligning motion dynamics through learned temporal offsets. Extensive evaluations across diverse indoor and outdoor datasets demonstrate HiH's state-of-the-art performance, affirming a well-balanced trade-off between accuracy and efficiency.

Unsupervised skill discovery drives intelligent agents to explore the unknown environment without task-specific reward signal, and the agents acquire various skills which may be useful when the agents adapt to new tasks. In this paper, we propose "Multi-agent Skill Discovery"(MASD), a method for discovering skills for coordination patterns of multiple agents. The proposed method aims to maximize the mutual information between a latent code Z representing skills and the combination of the states of all agents. Meanwhile it suppresses the empowerment of Z on the state of any single agent by adversarial training. In another word, it sets an information bottleneck to avoid empowerment degeneracy. First we show the emergence of various skills on the level of coordination in a general particle multi-agent environment. Second, we reveal that the "bottleneck" prevents skills from collapsing to a single agent and enhances the diversity of learned skills. Finally, we show the pretrained policies have better performance on supervised RL tasks.

Discovering achievements with a hierarchical structure in procedurally generated environments presents a significant challenge. This requires an agent to possess a broad range of abilities, including generalization and long-term reasoning. Many prior methods have been built upon model-based or hierarchical approaches, with the belief that an explicit module for long-term planning would be advantageous for learning hierarchical dependencies. However, these methods demand an excessive number of environment interactions or large model sizes, limiting their practicality. In this work, we demonstrate that proximal policy optimization (PPO), a simple yet versatile model-free algorithm, outperforms previous methods when optimized with recent implementation practices. Moreover, we find that the PPO agent can predict the next achievement to be unlocked to some extent, albeit with limited confidence. Based on this observation, we introduce a novel contrastive learning method, called achievement distillation, which strengthens the agent's ability to predict the next achievement. Our method exhibits a strong capacity for discovering hierarchical achievements and shows state-of-the-art performance on the challenging Crafter environment in a sample-efficient manner while utilizing fewer model parameters.

Recent agentic search systems have made substantial progress by emphasising deep, multi-step reasoning. However, this focus often overlooks the challenges of wide-scale information synthesis, where agents must aggregate large volumes of heterogeneous evidence across many sources. As a result, most existing large language model agent systems face severe limitations in data-intensive settings, including context saturation, cascading error propagation, and high end-to-end latency. To address these challenges, we present \framework, a hierarchical framework based on principle of near-decomposability, containing a strategic Host, multiple Managers and parallel Workers. By leveraging aggregation and reflection mechanisms at the Manager layer, our framework enforces strict context isolation to prevent saturation and error propagation. Simultaneously, the parallelism in worker layer accelerates the speed of overall task execution, mitigating the significant latency. Our evaluation on two complementary benchmarks demonstrates both efficiency ( 3-5 times speed-up) and effectiveness, achieving a 8.4% success rate on WideSearch-en and 52.9% accuracy on BrowseComp-zh. The code is released at https://github.com/agent-on-the-fly/InfoSeeker

Human activities are particularly complex and variable, and this makes challenging for deep learning models to reason about them. However, we note that such variability does have an underlying structure, composed of a hierarchy of patterns of related actions. We argue that such structure can emerge naturally from unscripted videos of human activities, and can be leveraged to better reason about their content. We present HiERO, a weakly-supervised method to enrich video segments features with the corresponding hierarchical activity threads. By aligning video clips with their narrated descriptions, HiERO infers contextual, semantic and temporal reasoning with an hierarchical architecture. We prove the potential of our enriched features with multiple video-text alignment benchmarks (EgoMCQ, EgoNLQ) with minimal additional training, and in zero-shot for procedure learning tasks (EgoProceL and Ego4D Goal-Step). Notably, HiERO achieves state-of-the-art performance in all the benchmarks, and for procedure learning tasks it outperforms fully-supervised methods by a large margin (+12.5% F1 on EgoProceL) in zero shot. Our results prove the relevance of using knowledge of the hierarchy of human activities for multiple reasoning tasks in egocentric vision.

Whole-body control for humanoids is challenging due to the high-dimensional nature of the problem, coupled with the inherent instability of a bipedal morphology. Learning from visual observations further exacerbates this difficulty. In this work, we explore highly data-driven approaches to visual whole-body humanoid control based on reinforcement learning, without any simplifying assumptions, reward design, or skill primitives. Specifically, we propose a hierarchical world model in which a high-level agent generates commands based on visual observations for a low-level agent to execute, both of which are trained with rewards. Our approach produces highly performant control policies in 8 tasks with a simulated 56-DoF humanoid, while synthesizing motions that are broadly preferred by humans. Code and videos: https://nicklashansen.com/rlpuppeteer

Manipulating objects to achieve desired goal states is a basic but important skill for dexterous manipulation. Human hand motions demonstrate proficient manipulation capability, providing valuable data for training robots with multi-finger hands. Despite this potential, substantial challenges arise due to the embodiment gap between human and robot hands. In this work, we introduce a hierarchical policy learning framework that uses human hand motion data for training object-centric dexterous robot manipulation. At the core of our method is a high-level trajectory generative model, learned with a large-scale human hand motion capture dataset, to synthesize human-like wrist motions conditioned on the desired object goal states. Guided by the generated wrist motions, deep reinforcement learning is further used to train a low-level finger controller that is grounded in the robot's embodiment to physically interact with the object to achieve the goal. Through extensive evaluation across 10 household objects, our approach not only demonstrates superior performance but also showcases generalization capability to novel object geometries and goal states. Furthermore, we transfer the learned policies from simulation to a real-world bimanual dexterous robot system, further demonstrating its applicability in real-world scenarios. Project website: https://cypypccpy.github.io/obj-dex.github.io/.

Synthesizing whole-body manipulation of articulated objects, including body motion, hand motion, and object motion, is a critical yet challenging task with broad applications in virtual humans and robotics. The core challenges are twofold. First, achieving realistic whole-body motion requires tight coordination between the hands and the rest of the body, as their movements are interdependent during manipulation. Second, articulated object manipulation typically involves high degrees of freedom and demands higher precision, often requiring the fingers to be placed at specific regions to actuate movable parts. To address these challenges, we propose a novel coordinated diffusion noise optimization framework. Specifically, we perform noise-space optimization over three specialized diffusion models for the body, left hand, and right hand, each trained on its own motion dataset to improve generalization. Coordination naturally emerges through gradient flow along the human kinematic chain, allowing the global body posture to adapt in response to hand motion objectives with high fidelity. To further enhance precision in hand-object interaction, we adopt a unified representation based on basis point sets (BPS), where end-effector positions are encoded as distances to the same BPS used for object geometry. This unified representation captures fine-grained spatial relationships between the hand and articulated object parts, and the resulting trajectories serve as targets to guide the optimization of diffusion noise, producing highly accurate interaction motion. We conduct extensive experiments demonstrating that our method outperforms existing approaches in motion quality and physical plausibility, and enables various capabilities such as object pose control, simultaneous walking and manipulation, and whole-body generation from hand-only data.

Existing policy learning methods predominantly adopt the task-centric paradigm, necessitating the collection of task data in an end-to-end manner. Consequently, the learned policy tends to fail to tackle novel tasks. Moreover, it is hard to localize the errors for a complex task with multiple stages due to end-to-end learning. To address these challenges, we propose RoboMatrix, a skill-centric and hierarchical framework for scalable task planning and execution. We first introduce a novel skill-centric paradigm that extracts the common meta-skills from different complex tasks. This allows for the capture of embodied demonstrations through a kill-centric approach, enabling the completion of open-world tasks by combining learned meta-skills. To fully leverage meta-skills, we further develop a hierarchical framework that decouples complex robot tasks into three interconnected layers: (1) a high-level modular scheduling layer; (2) a middle-level skill layer; and (3) a low-level hardware layer. Experimental results illustrate that our skill-centric and hierarchical framework achieves remarkable generalization performance across novel objects, scenes, tasks, and embodiments. This framework offers a novel solution for robot task planning and execution in open-world scenarios. Our software and hardware are available at https://github.com/WayneMao/RoboMatrix.

We tackle real-world long-horizon robot manipulation tasks through skill discovery. We present a bottom-up approach to learning a library of reusable skills from unsegmented demonstrations and use these skills to synthesize prolonged robot behaviors. Our method starts with constructing a hierarchical task structure from each demonstration through agglomerative clustering. From the task structures of multi-task demonstrations, we identify skills based on the recurring patterns and train goal-conditioned sensorimotor policies with hierarchical imitation learning. Finally, we train a meta controller to compose these skills to solve long-horizon manipulation tasks. The entire model can be trained on a small set of human demonstrations collected within 30 minutes without further annotations, making it amendable to real-world deployment. We systematically evaluated our method in simulation environments and on a real robot. Our method has shown superior performance over state-of-the-art imitation learning methods in multi-stage manipulation tasks. Furthermore, skills discovered from multi-task demonstrations boost the average task success by 8% compared to those discovered from individual tasks.

Reinforcement Learning (RL) has proven highly effective at enhancing the complex reasoning abilities of Large Language Models (LLMs), yet underlying mechanisms driving this success remain largely opaque. Our analysis reveals that puzzling phenomena like ``aha moments", ``length-scaling'' and entropy dynamics are not disparate occurrences but hallmarks of an emergent reasoning hierarchy, akin to the separation of high-level strategic planning from low-level procedural execution in human cognition. We uncover a compelling two-phase dynamic: initially, a model is constrained by procedural correctness and must improve its low-level skills. The learning bottleneck then decisively shifts, with performance gains being driven by the exploration and mastery of high-level strategic planning. This insight exposes a core inefficiency in prevailing RL algorithms like GRPO, which apply optimization pressure agnostically and dilute the learning signal across all tokens. To address this, we propose HIerarchy-Aware Credit Assignment (HICRA), an algorithm that concentrates optimization efforts on high-impact planning tokens. HICRA significantly outperforms strong baselines, demonstrating that focusing on this strategic bottleneck is key to unlocking advanced reasoning. Furthermore, we validate semantic entropy as a superior compass for measuring strategic exploration over misleading metrics such as token-level entropy.

Large language models (LLMs) and LLM-based agents are increasingly deployed as assistants in planning and decision making, yet most existing systems are implicitly optimized for a single-principal interaction paradigm, in which the model is designed to satisfy the objectives of one dominant user whose instructions are treated as the sole source of authority and utility. However, as they are integrated into team workflows and organizational tools, they are increasingly required to serve multiple users simultaneously, each with distinct roles, preferences, and authority levels, leading to multi-user, multi-principal settings with unavoidable conflicts, information asymmetry, and privacy constraints. In this work, we present the first systematic study of multi-user LLM agents. We begin by formalizing multi-user interaction with LLM agents as a multi-principal decision problem, where a single agent must account for multiple users with potentially conflicting interests and associated challenges. We then introduce a unified multi-user interaction protocol and design three targeted stress-testing scenarios to evaluate current LLMs' capabilities in instruction following, privacy preservation, and coordination. Our results reveal systematic gaps: frontier LLMs frequently fail to maintain stable prioritization under conflicting user objectives, exhibit increasing privacy violations over multi-turn interactions, and suffer from efficiency bottlenecks when coordination requires iterative information gathering.

Learning a universal policy across different robot morphologies can significantly improve learning efficiency and generalization in continuous control. However, it poses a challenging multi-task reinforcement learning problem, as the optimal policy may be quite different across robots and critically depend on the morphology. Existing methods utilize graph neural networks or transformers to handle heterogeneous state and action spaces across different morphologies, but pay little attention to the dependency of a robot's control policy on its morphology context. In this paper, we propose a hierarchical architecture to better model this dependency via contextual modulation, which includes two key submodules: (1) Instead of enforcing hard parameter sharing across robots, we use hypernetworks to generate morphology-dependent control parameters; (2) We propose a morphology-dependent attention mechanism to modulate the interactions between different limbs in a robot. Experimental results show that our method not only improves learning performance on a diverse set of training robots, but also generalizes better to unseen morphologies in a zero-shot fashion.

We consider multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL) for cooperative communication and coordination tasks. MARL agents can be brittle because they can overfit their training partners' policies. This overfitting can produce agents that adopt policies that act under the expectation that other agents will act in a certain way rather than react to their actions. Our objective is to bias the learning process towards finding reactive strategies towards other agents' behaviors. Our method, transfer empowerment, measures the potential influence between agents' actions. Results from three simulated cooperation scenarios support our hypothesis that transfer empowerment improves MARL performance. We discuss how transfer empowerment could be a useful principle to guide multi-agent coordination by ensuring reactiveness to one's partner.

Enabling embodied agents to complete complex human instructions from natural language is crucial to autonomous systems in household services. Conventional methods can only accomplish human instructions in the known environment where all interactive objects are provided to the embodied agent, and directly deploying the existing approaches for the unknown environment usually generates infeasible plans that manipulate non-existing objects. On the contrary, we propose an embodied instruction following (EIF) method for complex tasks in the unknown environment, where the agent efficiently explores the unknown environment to generate feasible plans with existing objects to accomplish abstract instructions. Specifically, we build a hierarchical embodied instruction following framework including the high-level task planner and the low-level exploration controller with multimodal large language models. We then construct a semantic representation map of the scene with dynamic region attention to demonstrate the known visual clues, where the goal of task planning and scene exploration is aligned for human instruction. For the task planner, we generate the feasible step-by-step plans for human goal accomplishment according to the task completion process and the known visual clues. For the exploration controller, the optimal navigation or object interaction policy is predicted based on the generated step-wise plans and the known visual clues. The experimental results demonstrate that our method can achieve 45.09% success rate in 204 complex human instructions such as making breakfast and tidying rooms in large house-level scenes. Code and supplementary are available at https://gary3410.github.io/eif_unknown.

Traditional agentic workflows rely on external prompts to manage interactions with tools and the environment, which limits the autonomy of reasoning models. We position Large Agent Models (LAMs) that internalize the generation of Chain-of-Action (CoA), enabling the model to autonomously decide when and how to use external tools. Our proposed AutoCoA framework combines supervised fine-tuning (SFT) and reinforcement learning (RL), allowing the model to seamlessly switch between reasoning and action while efficiently managing environment interactions. Main components include step-level action triggering, trajectory-level CoA optimization, and an internal world model to reduce real-environment interaction costs. Evaluations on open-domain QA tasks demonstrate that AutoCoA-trained agent models significantly outperform ReAct-based workflows in task completion, especially in tasks that require long-term reasoning and multi-step actions. Code and dataset are available at https://github.com/ADaM-BJTU/AutoCoA

Human-Scene Interaction (HSI) is a vital component of fields like embodied AI and virtual reality. Despite advancements in motion quality and physical plausibility, two pivotal factors, versatile interaction control and the development of a user-friendly interface, require further exploration before the practical application of HSI. This paper presents a unified HSI framework, UniHSI, which supports unified control of diverse interactions through language commands. This framework is built upon the definition of interaction as Chain of Contacts (CoC): steps of human joint-object part pairs, which is inspired by the strong correlation between interaction types and human-object contact regions. Based on the definition, UniHSI constitutes a Large Language Model (LLM) Planner to translate language prompts into task plans in the form of CoC, and a Unified Controller that turns CoC into uniform task execution. To facilitate training and evaluation, we collect a new dataset named ScenePlan that encompasses thousands of task plans generated by LLMs based on diverse scenarios. Comprehensive experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of our framework in versatile task execution and generalizability to real scanned scenes. The project page is at https://github.com/OpenRobotLab/UniHSI .

AI agents are able to tackle increasingly complex tasks. To achieve more ambitious goals, AI agents need to be able to meaningfully decompose problems into manageable sub-components, and safely delegate their completion across to other AI agents and humans alike. Yet, existing task decomposition and delegation methods rely on simple heuristics, and are not able to dynamically adapt to environmental changes and robustly handle unexpected failures. Here we propose an adaptive framework for intelligent AI delegation - a sequence of decisions involving task allocation, that also incorporates transfer of authority, responsibility, accountability, clear specifications regarding roles and boundaries, clarity of intent, and mechanisms for establishing trust between the two (or more) parties. The proposed framework is applicable to both human and AI delegators and delegatees in complex delegation networks, aiming to inform the development of protocols in the emerging agentic web.

Game environments provide rich, controllable settings that stimulate many aspects of real-world complexity. As such, game agents offer a valuable testbed for exploring capabilities relevant to Artificial General Intelligence. Recently, the emergence of Large Language Models (LLMs) provides new opportunities to endow these agents with generalizable reasoning, memory, and adaptability in complex game environments. This survey offers an up-to-date review of LLM-based game agents (LLMGAs) through a unified reference architecture. At the single-agent level, we synthesize existing studies around three core components: memory, reasoning, and perception-action interfaces, which jointly characterize how language enables agents to perceive, think, and act. At the multi-agent level, we outline how communication protocols and organizational models support coordination, role differentiation, and large-scale social behaviors. To contextualize these designs, we introduce a challenge-centered taxonomy linking six major game genres to their dominant agent requirements, from low-latency control in action games to open-ended goal formation in sandbox worlds. A curated list of related papers is available at https://github.com/git-disl/awesome-LLM-game-agent-papers

Recently, remarkable progress has been made in automated task-solving through the use of multi-agent driven by large language models (LLMs). However, existing LLM-based multi-agent works primarily focus on solving simple dialogue tasks, and complex tasks are rarely studied, mainly due to the LLM hallucination problem. This type of hallucination becomes cascading when naively chaining multiple intelligent agents, resulting in a failure to effectively address complex problems. Therefore, we introduce MetaGPT, an innovative framework that incorporates efficient human workflows as a meta programming approach into LLM-based multi-agent collaboration. Specifically, MetaGPT encodes Standardized Operating Procedures (SOPs) into prompts to enhance structured coordination. Subsequently, it mandates modular outputs, empowering agents with domain expertise comparable to human professionals, to validate outputs and minimize compounded errors. In this way, MetaGPT leverages the assembly line paradigm to assign diverse roles to various agents, thereby establishing a framework that can effectively and cohesively deconstruct complex multi-agent collaborative problems. Our experiments on collaborative software engineering benchmarks demonstrate that MetaGPT generates more coherent and correct solutions compared to existing chat-based multi-agent systems. This highlights the potential of integrating human domain knowledge into multi-agent systems, thereby creating new opportunities to tackle complex real-world challenges. The GitHub repository of this project is publicly available on:https://github.com/geekan/MetaGPT.

Online display advertising platforms service numerous advertisers by providing real-time bidding (RTB) for the scale of billions of ad requests every day. The bidding strategy handles ad requests cross multiple channels to maximize the number of clicks under the set financial constraints, i.e., total budget and cost-per-click (CPC), etc. Different from existing works mainly focusing on single channel bidding, we explicitly consider cross-channel constrained bidding with budget allocation. Specifically, we propose a hierarchical offline deep reinforcement learning (DRL) framework called ``HiBid'', consisted of a high-level planner equipped with auxiliary loss for non-competitive budget allocation, and a data augmentation enhanced low-level executor for adaptive bidding strategy in response to allocated budgets. Additionally, a CPC-guided action selection mechanism is introduced to satisfy the cross-channel CPC constraint. Through extensive experiments on both the large-scale log data and online A/B testing, we confirm that HiBid outperforms six baselines in terms of the number of clicks, CPC satisfactory ratio, and return-on-investment (ROI). We also deploy HiBid on Meituan advertising platform to already service tens of thousands of advertisers every day.

A flurry of recent work has demonstrated that pre-trained large language models (LLMs) can be effective task planners for a variety of single-robot tasks. The planning performance of LLMs is significantly improved via prompting techniques, such as in-context learning or re-prompting with state feedback, placing new importance on the token budget for the context window. An under-explored but natural next direction is to investigate LLMs as multi-robot task planners. However, long-horizon, heterogeneous multi-robot planning introduces new challenges of coordination while also pushing up against the limits of context window length. It is therefore critical to find token-efficient LLM planning frameworks that are also able to reason about the complexities of multi-robot coordination. In this work, we compare the task success rate and token efficiency of four multi-agent communication frameworks (centralized, decentralized, and two hybrid) as applied to four coordination-dependent multi-agent 2D task scenarios for increasing numbers of agents. We find that a hybrid framework achieves better task success rates across all four tasks and scales better to more agents. We further demonstrate the hybrid frameworks in 3D simulations where the vision-to-text problem and dynamical errors are considered. See our project website https://yongchao98.github.io/MIT-REALM-Multi-Robot/ for prompts, videos, and code.