language: nap
language_name: Neapolitan
language_family: romance_galloitalic
tags:
- wikilangs
- nlp
- tokenizer
- embeddings
- n-gram
- markov
- wikipedia
- feature-extraction
- sentence-similarity
- tokenization
- n-grams
- markov-chain
- text-mining
- fasttext
- babelvec
- vocabulous
- vocabulary
- monolingual
- family-romance_galloitalic
license: mit
library_name: wikilangs
pipeline_tag: text-generation
datasets:
- omarkamali/wikipedia-monthly
dataset_info:
name: wikipedia-monthly
description: Monthly snapshots of Wikipedia articles across 300+ languages
metrics:
- name: best_compression_ratio
type: compression
value: 3.92
- name: best_isotropy
type: isotropy
value: 0.8038
- name: vocabulary_size
type: vocab
value: 0
generated: 2026-01-10T00:00:00.000Z
Neapolitan - Wikilangs Models
Comprehensive Research Report & Full Ablation Study
This repository contains NLP models trained and evaluated by Wikilangs, specifically on Neapolitan Wikipedia data. We analyze tokenizers, n-gram models, Markov chains, vocabulary statistics, and word embeddings.
📋 Repository Contents
Models & Assets
- Tokenizers (8k, 16k, 32k, 64k)
- N-gram models (2, 3, 4, 5-gram)
- Markov chains (context of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5)
- Subword N-gram and Markov chains
- Embeddings in various sizes and dimensions (aligned and unaligned)
- Language Vocabulary
- Language Statistics
Analysis and Evaluation
- 1. Tokenizer Evaluation
- 2. N-gram Model Evaluation
- 3. Markov Chain Evaluation
- 4. Vocabulary Analysis
- 5. Word Embeddings Evaluation
- 6. Morphological Analysis (Experimental)
- 7. Summary & Recommendations
- Metrics Glossary
- Visualizations Index
1. Tokenizer Evaluation
Results
| Vocab Size | Compression | Avg Token Len | UNK Rate | Total Tokens |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 8k | 3.334x | 3.34 | 0.0273% | 157,778 |
| 16k | 3.567x | 3.57 | 0.0292% | 147,487 |
| 32k | 3.772x | 3.78 | 0.0308% | 139,478 |
| 64k | 3.920x 🏆 | 3.93 | 0.0320% | 134,201 |
Tokenization Examples
Below are sample sentences tokenized with each vocabulary size:
Sample 1: Roccagorga è nu comune 'e crestiane da pruvincia 'e Latina. da pruvincia 'e Lati...
| Vocab | Tokens | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 8k | ▁rocca gor ga ▁è ▁nu ▁comune ▁' e ▁crestiane ▁da ... (+18 more) |
28 |
| 16k | ▁rocca gor ga ▁è ▁nu ▁comune ▁' e ▁crestiane ▁da ... (+18 more) |
28 |
| 32k | ▁rocca gor ga ▁è ▁nu ▁comune ▁' e ▁crestiane ▁da ... (+18 more) |
28 |
| 64k | ▁rocca gorga ▁è ▁nu ▁comune ▁' e ▁crestiane ▁da ▁pruvincia ... (+17 more) |
27 |
Sample 2: Osini è nu comune 'e 947 crestiane da pruvincia 'e Ogliastra. pruvincia 'e Oglia...
| Vocab | Tokens | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 8k | ▁o sini ▁è ▁nu ▁comune ▁' e ▁ 9 4 ... (+18 more) |
28 |
| 16k | ▁o sini ▁è ▁nu ▁comune ▁' e ▁ 9 4 ... (+18 more) |
28 |
| 32k | ▁o sini ▁è ▁nu ▁comune ▁' e ▁ 9 4 ... (+18 more) |
28 |
| 64k | ▁o sini ▁è ▁nu ▁comune ▁' e ▁ 9 4 ... (+18 more) |
28 |
Sample 3: Cu 'a canzona Mare verde, Mario Trevi e Milva se piazzajeno 'o siconno posto ô G...
| Vocab | Tokens | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 8k | ▁cu ▁' a ▁canzona ▁mare ▁verde , ▁mario ▁trevi ▁e ... (+16 more) |
26 |
| 16k | ▁cu ▁' a ▁canzona ▁mare ▁verde , ▁mario ▁trevi ▁e ... (+16 more) |
26 |
| 32k | ▁cu ▁' a ▁canzona ▁mare ▁verde , ▁mario ▁trevi ▁e ... (+15 more) |
25 |
| 64k | ▁cu ▁' a ▁canzona ▁mare ▁verde , ▁mario ▁trevi ▁e ... (+13 more) |
23 |
Key Findings
- Best Compression: 64k achieves 3.920x compression
- Lowest UNK Rate: 8k with 0.0273% unknown tokens
- Trade-off: Larger vocabularies improve compression but increase model size
- Recommendation: 32k vocabulary provides optimal balance for production use
2. N-gram Model Evaluation
Results
| N-gram | Variant | Perplexity | Entropy | Unique N-grams | Top-100 Coverage | Top-1000 Coverage |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2-gram | Word | 1,553 | 10.60 | 14,483 | 42.3% | 65.9% |
| 2-gram | Subword | 233 🏆 | 7.86 | 2,804 | 70.9% | 99.1% |
| 3-gram | Word | 1,319 | 10.37 | 17,108 | 45.9% | 70.7% |
| 3-gram | Subword | 1,644 | 10.68 | 21,244 | 34.8% | 77.4% |
| 4-gram | Word | 1,944 | 10.93 | 26,074 | 40.9% | 70.8% |
| 4-gram | Subword | 7,694 | 12.91 | 97,053 | 23.1% | 48.2% |
| 5-gram | Word | 2,009 | 10.97 | 18,790 | 35.5% | 73.0% |
| 5-gram | Subword | 22,083 | 14.43 | 219,213 | 19.9% | 35.0% |
Top 5 N-grams by Size
2-grams (Word):
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | categoria comune |
17,776 |
| 2 | pruvincia e |
16,185 |
| 3 | da pruvincia |
14,509 |
| 4 | comune e |
13,766 |
| 5 | comune da |
11,499 |
3-grams (Word):
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | da pruvincia e |
14,465 |
| 2 | categoria comune da |
11,374 |
| 3 | è nu comune |
7,948 |
| 4 | nu comune e |
7,776 |
| 5 | e l italia |
6,831 |
4-grams (Word):
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | è nu comune e |
7,772 |
| 2 | comune da pruvincia e |
5,907 |
| 3 | categoria comune e l |
5,901 |
| 4 | comune e l italia |
5,901 |
| 5 | categoria comune da pruvincia |
5,899 |
5-grams (Word):
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | categoria comune e l italia |
5,901 |
| 2 | categoria comune da pruvincia e |
5,899 |
| 3 | e abitante da pruvincia e |
3,717 |
| 4 | è nu comune e e |
2,507 |
| 5 | nu comune e e abitante |
2,506 |
2-grams (Subword):
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | e _ |
256,791 |
| 2 | a _ |
167,602 |
| 3 | o _ |
102,609 |
| 4 | _ c |
99,915 |
| 5 | _ ' |
94,748 |
3-grams (Subword):
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | ' e _ |
63,827 |
| 2 | _ ' e |
63,192 |
| 3 | n e _ |
60,363 |
| 4 | _ c a |
40,897 |
| 5 | e _ d |
34,274 |
4-grams (Subword):
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | _ ' e _ |
63,082 |
| 2 | u n e _ |
28,433 |
| 3 | m u n e |
27,493 |
| 4 | c o m u |
26,319 |
| 5 | o m u n |
26,310 |
5-grams (Subword):
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | m u n e _ |
27,267 |
| 2 | c o m u n |
26,309 |
| 3 | o m u n e |
26,017 |
| 4 | e _ ' e _ |
25,239 |
| 5 | a _ ' e _ |
21,668 |
Key Findings
- Best Perplexity: 2-gram (subword) with 233
- Entropy Trend: Decreases with larger n-grams (more predictable)
- Coverage: Top-1000 patterns cover ~35% of corpus
- Recommendation: 4-gram or 5-gram for best predictive performance
3. Markov Chain Evaluation
Results
| Context | Variant | Avg Entropy | Perplexity | Branching Factor | Unique Contexts | Predictability |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Word | 0.7129 | 1.639 | 4.16 | 90,826 | 28.7% |
| 1 | Subword | 0.9473 | 1.928 | 7.06 | 1,028 | 5.3% |
| 2 | Word | 0.2155 | 1.161 | 1.48 | 376,611 | 78.5% |
| 2 | Subword | 0.9373 | 1.915 | 5.69 | 7,253 | 6.3% |
| 3 | Word | 0.0686 | 1.049 | 1.11 | 555,576 | 93.1% |
| 3 | Subword | 0.8624 | 1.818 | 4.10 | 41,221 | 13.8% |
| 4 | Word | 0.0236 🏆 | 1.016 | 1.04 | 613,933 | 97.6% |
| 4 | Subword | 0.6629 | 1.583 | 2.73 | 168,878 | 33.7% |
Generated Text Samples (Word-based)
Below are text samples generated from each word-based Markov chain model:
Context Size 1:
e pallone taliano d o salvador grenada o primmo decennio d italia marocco 16 ac 57a suoja se mpara l m giugrafia categoria comune e la štrada rëggiunal 509 e francescocomune da pruvincia e l italia teen angels fall first lady starlight e silenzio cantatore museca
Context Size 2:
categoria comune e crestiane da pruvincia e messina categoria comune da pruvincia e padova categoria...pruvincia e messina categoria comune e 191 e abitante da pruvincia e arrezzo categoria comune da reg...da pruvincia e ancona categoria comune da reggione veneto categoria comune e crestiane da pruvincia ...
Context Size 3:
da pruvincia e teramo è na pruvincia da reggione autonoma da zardegna categoria comune e l italia ocategoria comune da pruvincia e rovigo categoria comune da reggione veneto categoria comune e l ital...è nu comune e e abitante da pruvincia e brescia categoria comune da reggione pùglia categoria comune...
Context Size 4:
è nu comune e e abitante da pruvincia e torino categoria comune da pruvincia e brescia categoria com...comune da pruvincia e cuneo categoria comune da pruvincia e pavia categoria comune da pruvincia e ta...categoria comune e l italia nutarelle
Generated Text Samples (Subword-based)
Below are text samples generated from each subword-based Markov chain model:
Context Size 1:
_d_cionettegggope_'estulliù_25_da_catrtetru_cali
Context Size 2:
e_l_3:21_'ato_'o_a_canno_23_1_cuneo_(quistegordìa_c
Context Size 3:
'e_cano._cano,_and_'e_cchiuvasco_fujne_da_pruvincia_da
Context Size 4:
_'e_se_caglie_nòrd_une_rre_casalermo_cmune_'e_veneto_club
Key Findings
- Best Predictability: Context-4 (word) with 97.6% predictability
- Branching Factor: Decreases with context size (more deterministic)
- Memory Trade-off: Larger contexts require more storage (168,878 contexts)
- Recommendation: Context-3 or Context-4 for text generation
4. Vocabulary Analysis
Statistics
| Metric | Value |
|---|---|
| Vocabulary Size | 36,283 |
| Total Tokens | 817,123 |
| Mean Frequency | 22.52 |
| Median Frequency | 3 |
| Frequency Std Dev | 557.45 |
Most Common Words
| Rank | Word | Frequency |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | e | 82,690 |
| 2 | a | 29,343 |
| 3 | comune | 26,008 |
| 4 | da | 25,087 |
| 5 | o | 21,371 |
| 6 | categoria | 20,079 |
| 7 | pruvincia | 16,344 |
| 8 | è | 16,054 |
| 9 | nu | 12,737 |
| 10 | l | 10,986 |
Least Common Words (from vocabulary)
| Rank | Word | Frequency |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | boo | 2 |
| 2 | horror | 2 |
| 3 | nestate | 2 |
| 4 | accumula | 2 |
| 5 | livelli | 2 |
| 6 | pallòne | 2 |
| 7 | fàtte | 2 |
| 8 | orobica | 2 |
| 9 | dacchessì | 2 |
| 10 | totàle | 2 |
Zipf's Law Analysis
| Metric | Value |
|---|---|
| Zipf Coefficient | 1.0191 |
| R² (Goodness of Fit) | 0.998411 |
| Adherence Quality | excellent |
Coverage Analysis
| Top N Words | Coverage |
|---|---|
| Top 100 | 51.9% |
| Top 1,000 | 71.4% |
| Top 5,000 | 84.8% |
| Top 10,000 | 90.5% |
Key Findings
- Zipf Compliance: R²=0.9984 indicates excellent adherence to Zipf's law
- High Frequency Dominance: Top 100 words cover 51.9% of corpus
- Long Tail: 26,283 words needed for remaining 9.5% coverage
5. Word Embeddings Evaluation
5.1 Cross-Lingual Alignment
5.2 Model Comparison
| Model | Dimension | Isotropy | Semantic Density | Alignment R@1 | Alignment R@10 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| mono_32d | 32 | 0.8038 🏆 | 0.3434 | N/A | N/A |
| mono_64d | 64 | 0.5268 | 0.3001 | N/A | N/A |
| mono_128d | 128 | 0.1336 | 0.3015 | N/A | N/A |
| aligned_32d | 32 | 0.8038 | 0.3363 | 0.0320 | 0.2220 |
| aligned_64d | 64 | 0.5268 | 0.3106 | 0.0660 | 0.2860 |
| aligned_128d | 128 | 0.1336 | 0.2965 | 0.1240 | 0.3880 |
Key Findings
- Best Isotropy: mono_32d with 0.8038 (more uniform distribution)
- Semantic Density: Average pairwise similarity of 0.3147. Lower values indicate better semantic separation.
- Alignment Quality: Aligned models achieve up to 12.4% R@1 in cross-lingual retrieval.
- Recommendation: 128d aligned for best cross-lingual performance
6. Morphological Analysis (Experimental)
This section presents an automated morphological analysis derived from the statistical divergence between word-level and subword-level models. By analyzing where subword predictability spikes and where word-level coverage fails, we can infer linguistic structures without supervised data.
6.1 Productivity & Complexity
| Metric | Value | Interpretation | Recommendation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Productivity Index | 5.000 | High morphological productivity | Reliable analysis |
| Idiomaticity Gap | 1.085 | High formulaic/idiomatic content | - |
6.2 Affix Inventory (Productive Units)
These are the most productive prefixes and suffixes identified by sampling the vocabulary for global substitutability patterns. A unit is considered an affix if stripping it leaves a valid stem that appears in other contexts.
Productive Prefixes
| Prefix | Examples |
|---|---|
-s |
suspira, séa, signure |
-c |
cholesterolo, capeto, cë |
-a |
avetrana, accummenzanno, avvène |
-p |
parla, pajise, porcellana |
-m |
mporta, mètte, musolino |
-ca |
capeto, cacciá, cartiere |
-n |
nucliare, nudo, nsediamiente |
-r |
roncalli, racconti, races |
Productive Suffixes
| Suffix | Examples |
|---|---|
-e |
nucliare, avvène, edifice |
-o |
accummenzanno, nudo, cholesterolo |
-a |
parla, avetrana, porcellana |
-te |
derette, accerette, nsediamiente |
-ne |
avvène, guaglione, tròvene |
-to |
capeto, conquistato, muderato |
-no |
accummenzanno, vomano, musolino |
-i |
aeterni, roncalli, shinji |
6.3 Bound Stems (Lexical Roots)
Bound stems are high-frequency subword units that are semantically cohesive but rarely appear as standalone words. These often correspond to the 'core' of a word that requires inflection or derivation to be valid.
| Stem | Cohesion | Substitutability | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
ette |
1.70x | 114 contexts | mette, iette, rette |
tali |
2.05x | 39 contexts | talia, talian, ëtalia |
zion |
1.92x | 45 contexts | azione, frazion, azziona |
ione |
1.92x | 29 contexts | rione, gione, lione |
ggio |
1.65x | 40 contexts | aggio, ggion, maggio |
gion |
1.78x | 27 contexts | gione, ggion, légion |
uvin |
2.19x | 12 contexts | ruvine, pruvinc, pruvinge |
inci |
1.58x | 26 contexts | incis, vinci, mincio |
eggi |
1.34x | 46 contexts | leggi, reggie, leggia |
itan |
1.40x | 37 contexts | titan, titano, aitanic |
ital |
1.53x | 25 contexts | italy, italo, vitale |
stia |
1.70x | 17 contexts | ostia, bastia, bestia |
6.4 Affix Compatibility (Co-occurrence)
This table shows which prefixes and suffixes most frequently co-occur on the same stems, revealing the 'stacking' rules of the language's morphology.
| Prefix | Suffix | Frequency | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
-c |
-e |
290 words | cunzèrve, cruate |
-c |
-o |
229 words | completo, cattoleco |
-p |
-e |
224 words | perdette, puaése |
-a |
-e |
218 words | arretiraje, agge |
-s |
-e |
212 words | setteciénde, specialmente |
-c |
-a |
177 words | concetta, conca |
-a |
-o |
170 words | aspettando, arvero |
-s |
-o |
158 words | socio, severino |
-p |
-o |
147 words | piccerillo, paleuliteco |
-a |
-a |
142 words | ammerecana, agordina |
6.5 Recursive Morpheme Segmentation
Using Recursive Hierarchical Substitutability, we decompose complex words into their constituent morphemes. This approach handles nested affixes (e.g., prefix-prefix-root-suffix).
| Word | Suggested Split | Confidence | Stem |
|---|---|---|---|
| schiavona | schiav-o-na |
7.5 | o |
| montescheno | montesch-e-no |
7.5 | e |
| piccolomini | piccolom-i-ni |
7.5 | i |
| cuntinuato | cuntinu-a-to |
7.5 | a |
| questione | questi-o-ne |
7.5 | o |
| davisvideo | davisvid-e-o |
7.5 | e |
| tenéssene | tenés-se-ne |
7.5 | se |
| aristofane | aristof-a-ne |
7.5 | a |
| macchiaiole | macchiai-o-le |
7.5 | o |
| possebbeletà | possebbel-e-tà |
7.5 | e |
| ucchiarone | ucchiar-o-ne |
7.5 | o |
| recensione | recensi-o-ne |
7.5 | o |
| accuminciaie | accumincia-i-e |
7.5 | i |
| ascensore | ascens-o-re |
7.5 | o |
| prubbecato | prubbec-a-to |
7.5 | a |
6.6 Linguistic Interpretation
Automated Insight: The language Neapolitan shows high morphological productivity. The subword models are significantly more efficient than word models, suggesting a rich system of affixation or compounding.
Note on Idiomaticity: The high Idiomaticity Gap suggests a large number of frequent multi-word expressions or formulaic sequences that are statistically distinct from their component parts.
7. Summary & Recommendations
Production Recommendations
| Component | Recommended | Rationale |
|---|---|---|
| Tokenizer | 64k BPE | Best compression (3.92x) |
| N-gram | 2-gram | Lowest perplexity (233) |
| Markov | Context-4 | Highest predictability (97.6%) |
| Embeddings | 100d | Balanced semantic capture and isotropy |
Appendix: Metrics Glossary & Interpretation Guide
This section provides definitions, intuitions, and guidance for interpreting the metrics used throughout this report.
Tokenizer Metrics
Compression Ratio
Definition: The ratio of characters to tokens (chars/token). Measures how efficiently the tokenizer represents text.
Intuition: Higher compression means fewer tokens needed to represent the same text, reducing sequence lengths for downstream models. A 3x compression means ~3 characters per token on average.
What to seek: Higher is generally better for efficiency, but extremely high compression may indicate overly aggressive merging that loses morphological information.
Average Token Length (Fertility)
Definition: Mean number of characters per token produced by the tokenizer.
Intuition: Reflects the granularity of tokenization. Longer tokens capture more context but may struggle with rare words; shorter tokens are more flexible but increase sequence length.
What to seek: Balance between 2-5 characters for most languages. Arabic/morphologically-rich languages may benefit from slightly longer tokens.
Unknown Token Rate (OOV Rate)
Definition: Percentage of tokens that map to the unknown/UNK token, indicating words the tokenizer cannot represent.
Intuition: Lower OOV means better vocabulary coverage. High OOV indicates the tokenizer encounters many unseen character sequences.
What to seek: Below 1% is excellent; below 5% is acceptable. BPE tokenizers typically achieve very low OOV due to subword fallback.
N-gram Model Metrics
Perplexity
Definition: Measures how "surprised" the model is by test data. Mathematically: 2^(cross-entropy). Lower values indicate better prediction.
Intuition: If perplexity is 100, the model is as uncertain as if choosing uniformly among 100 options at each step. A perplexity of 10 means effectively choosing among 10 equally likely options.
What to seek: Lower is better. Perplexity decreases with larger n-grams (more context). Values vary widely by language and corpus size.
Entropy
Definition: Average information content (in bits) needed to encode the next token given the context. Related to perplexity: perplexity = 2^entropy.
Intuition: High entropy means high uncertainty/randomness; low entropy means predictable patterns. Natural language typically has entropy between 1-4 bits per character.
What to seek: Lower entropy indicates more predictable text patterns. Entropy should decrease as n-gram size increases.
Coverage (Top-K)
Definition: Percentage of corpus occurrences explained by the top K most frequent n-grams.
Intuition: High coverage with few patterns indicates repetitive/formulaic text; low coverage suggests diverse vocabulary usage.
What to seek: Depends on use case. For language modeling, moderate coverage (40-60% with top-1000) is typical for natural text.
Markov Chain Metrics
Average Entropy
Definition: Mean entropy across all contexts, measuring average uncertainty in next-word prediction.
Intuition: Lower entropy means the model is more confident about what comes next. Context-1 has high entropy (many possible next words); Context-4 has low entropy (few likely continuations).
What to seek: Decreasing entropy with larger context sizes. Very low entropy (<0.1) indicates highly deterministic transitions.
Branching Factor
Definition: Average number of unique next tokens observed for each context.
Intuition: High branching = many possible continuations (flexible but uncertain); low branching = few options (predictable but potentially repetitive).
What to seek: Branching factor should decrease with context size. Values near 1.0 indicate nearly deterministic chains.
Predictability
Definition: Derived metric: (1 - normalized_entropy) × 100%. Indicates how deterministic the model's predictions are.
Intuition: 100% predictability means the next word is always certain; 0% means completely random. Real text falls between these extremes.
What to seek: Higher predictability for text generation quality, but too high (>98%) may produce repetitive output.
Vocabulary & Zipf's Law Metrics
Zipf's Coefficient
Definition: The slope of the log-log plot of word frequency vs. rank. Zipf's law predicts this should be approximately -1.
Intuition: A coefficient near -1 indicates the corpus follows natural language patterns where a few words are very common and most words are rare.
What to seek: Values between -0.8 and -1.2 indicate healthy natural language distribution. Deviations may suggest domain-specific or artificial text.
R² (Coefficient of Determination)
Definition: Measures how well the linear fit explains the frequency-rank relationship. Ranges from 0 to 1.
Intuition: R² near 1.0 means the data closely follows Zipf's law; lower values indicate deviation from expected word frequency patterns.
What to seek: R² > 0.95 is excellent; > 0.99 indicates near-perfect Zipf adherence typical of large natural corpora.
Vocabulary Coverage
Definition: Cumulative percentage of corpus tokens accounted for by the top N words.
Intuition: Shows how concentrated word usage is. If top-100 words cover 50% of text, the corpus relies heavily on common words.
What to seek: Top-100 covering 30-50% is typical. Higher coverage indicates more repetitive text; lower suggests richer vocabulary.
Word Embedding Metrics
Isotropy
Definition: Measures how uniformly distributed vectors are in the embedding space. Computed as the ratio of minimum to maximum singular values.
Intuition: High isotropy (near 1.0) means vectors spread evenly in all directions; low isotropy means vectors cluster in certain directions, reducing expressiveness.
What to seek: Higher isotropy generally indicates better-quality embeddings. Values > 0.1 are reasonable; > 0.3 is good. Lower-dimensional embeddings tend to have higher isotropy.
Average Norm
Definition: Mean magnitude (L2 norm) of word vectors in the embedding space.
Intuition: Indicates the typical "length" of vectors. Consistent norms suggest stable training; high variance may indicate some words are undertrained.
What to seek: Relatively consistent norms across models. The absolute value matters less than consistency (low std deviation).
Cosine Similarity
Definition: Measures angular similarity between vectors, ranging from -1 (opposite) to 1 (identical direction).
Intuition: Words with similar meanings should have high cosine similarity. This is the standard metric for semantic relatedness in embeddings.
What to seek: Semantically related words should score > 0.5; unrelated words should be near 0. Synonyms often score > 0.7.
t-SNE Visualization
Definition: t-Distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding - a dimensionality reduction technique that preserves local structure for visualization.
Intuition: Clusters in t-SNE plots indicate groups of semantically related words. Spread indicates vocabulary diversity; tight clusters suggest semantic coherence.
What to seek: Meaningful clusters (e.g., numbers together, verbs together). Avoid over-interpreting distances - t-SNE preserves local, not global, structure.
General Interpretation Guidelines
- Compare within model families: Metrics are most meaningful when comparing models of the same type (e.g., 8k vs 64k tokenizer).
- Consider trade-offs: Better performance on one metric often comes at the cost of another (e.g., compression vs. OOV rate).
- Context matters: Optimal values depend on downstream tasks. Text generation may prioritize different metrics than classification.
- Corpus influence: All metrics are influenced by corpus characteristics. Wikipedia text differs from social media or literature.
- Language-specific patterns: Morphologically rich languages (like Arabic) may show different optimal ranges than analytic languages.
Visualizations Index
| Visualization | Description |
|---|---|
| Tokenizer Compression | Compression ratios by vocabulary size |
| Tokenizer Fertility | Average token length by vocabulary |
| Tokenizer OOV | Unknown token rates |
| Tokenizer Total Tokens | Total tokens by vocabulary |
| N-gram Perplexity | Perplexity by n-gram size |
| N-gram Entropy | Entropy by n-gram size |
| N-gram Coverage | Top pattern coverage |
| N-gram Unique | Unique n-gram counts |
| Markov Entropy | Entropy by context size |
| Markov Branching | Branching factor by context |
| Markov Contexts | Unique context counts |
| Zipf's Law | Frequency-rank distribution with fit |
| Vocab Frequency | Word frequency distribution |
| Top 20 Words | Most frequent words |
| Vocab Coverage | Cumulative coverage curve |
| Embedding Isotropy | Vector space uniformity |
| Embedding Norms | Vector magnitude distribution |
| Embedding Similarity | Word similarity heatmap |
| Nearest Neighbors | Similar words for key terms |
| t-SNE Words | 2D word embedding visualization |
| t-SNE Sentences | 2D sentence embedding visualization |
| Position Encoding | Encoding method comparison |
| Model Sizes | Storage requirements |
| Performance Dashboard | Comprehensive performance overview |
About This Project
Data Source
Models trained on wikipedia-monthly - a monthly snapshot of Wikipedia articles across 300+ languages.
Project
A project by Wikilangs - Open-source NLP models for every Wikipedia language.
Maintainer
Citation
If you use these models in your research, please cite:
@misc{wikilangs2025,
author = {Kamali, Omar},
title = {Wikilangs: Open NLP Models for Wikipedia Languages},
year = {2025},
doi = {10.5281/zenodo.18073153},
publisher = {Zenodo},
url = {https://huggingface.co/wikilangs}
institution = {Omneity Labs}
}
License
MIT License - Free for academic and commercial use.
Links
- 🌐 Website: wikilangs.org
- 🤗 Models: huggingface.co/wikilangs
- 📊 Data: wikipedia-monthly
- 👤 Author: Omar Kamali
- 🤝 Sponsor: Featherless AI
Generated by Wikilangs Models Pipeline
Report Date: 2026-01-10 14:48:02



















