Saterland Frisian - Wikilangs Models
Comprehensive Research Report & Full Ablation Study
This repository contains NLP models trained and evaluated by Wikilangs, specifically on Saterland Frisian Wikipedia data. We analyze tokenizers, n-gram models, Markov chains, vocabulary statistics, and word embeddings.
π Repository Contents
Models & Assets
- Tokenizers (8k, 16k, 32k, 64k)
- N-gram models (2, 3, 4, 5-gram)
- Markov chains (context of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5)
- Subword N-gram and Markov chains
- Embeddings in various sizes and dimensions (aligned and unaligned)
- Language Vocabulary
- Language Statistics
Analysis and Evaluation
- 1. Tokenizer Evaluation
- 2. N-gram Model Evaluation
- 3. Markov Chain Evaluation
- 4. Vocabulary Analysis
- 5. Word Embeddings Evaluation
- 6. Morphological Analysis (Experimental)
- 7. Summary & Recommendations
- Metrics Glossary
- Visualizations Index
1. Tokenizer Evaluation
Results
| Vocab Size | Compression | Avg Token Len | UNK Rate | Total Tokens |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 8k | 3.193x | 3.20 | 0.5017% | 475,389 |
| 16k | 3.446x | 3.45 | 0.5415% | 440,474 |
| 32k | 3.679x | 3.68 | 0.5780% | 412,601 |
| 64k | 3.853x π | 3.86 | 0.6055% | 393,914 |
Tokenization Examples
Below are sample sentences tokenized with each vocabulary size:
Sample 1: Gladsaxe Kommune is ne Kommune in ju Region Hovedstaden (deeniske HaudstÀÀdregio...
| Vocab | Tokens | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 8k | βg lad sa xe βkommune βis βne βkommune βin βju ... (+26 more) |
36 |
| 16k | βg lad sa xe βkommune βis βne βkommune βin βju ... (+22 more) |
32 |
| 32k | βglad saxe βkommune βis βne βkommune βin βju βregion βhovedstaden ... (+19 more) |
29 |
| 64k | βgladsaxe βkommune βis βne βkommune βin βju βregion βhovedstaden β( ... (+18 more) |
28 |
Sample 2: Pfaffenhofen an der Ilm is n Loundkring in dΓ€t dΓΌΓΌtske Buundeslound Bayern.
| Vocab | Tokens | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 8k | βp f af fen hof en βan βder βil m ... (+9 more) |
19 |
| 16k | βpf affen hofen βan βder βil m βis βn βloundkring ... (+6 more) |
16 |
| 32k | βpf affen hofen βan βder βilm βis βn βloundkring βin ... (+5 more) |
15 |
| 64k | βpfaffen hofen βan βder βilm βis βn βloundkring βin βdΓ€t ... (+4 more) |
14 |
Sample 3: Fulda is n Loundkring in dΓ€t dΓΌΓΌtske Buundeslound Hessen.
| Vocab | Tokens | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 8k | βful da βis βn βloundkring βin βdΓ€t βdΓΌΓΌtske βbuundeslound βhessen ... (+1 more) |
11 |
| 16k | βfulda βis βn βloundkring βin βdΓ€t βdΓΌΓΌtske βbuundeslound βhessen . |
10 |
| 32k | βfulda βis βn βloundkring βin βdΓ€t βdΓΌΓΌtske βbuundeslound βhessen . |
10 |
| 64k | βfulda βis βn βloundkring βin βdΓ€t βdΓΌΓΌtske βbuundeslound βhessen . |
10 |
Key Findings
- Best Compression: 64k achieves 3.853x compression
- Lowest UNK Rate: 8k with 0.5017% unknown tokens
- Trade-off: Larger vocabularies improve compression but increase model size
- Recommendation: 32k vocabulary provides optimal balance for production use
2. N-gram Model Evaluation
Results
| N-gram | Variant | Perplexity | Entropy | Unique N-grams | Top-100 Coverage | Top-1000 Coverage |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2-gram | Word | 6,044 | 12.56 | 16,081 | 19.7% | 45.7% |
| 2-gram | Subword | 293 π | 8.19 | 2,943 | 65.3% | 99.1% |
| 3-gram | Word | 10,287 | 13.33 | 19,008 | 13.8% | 33.8% |
| 3-gram | Subword | 2,400 | 11.23 | 21,778 | 26.5% | 70.4% |
| 4-gram | Word | 29,669 | 14.86 | 45,315 | 8.7% | 19.7% |
| 4-gram | Subword | 12,622 | 13.62 | 105,664 | 13.6% | 39.4% |
| 5-gram | Word | 24,877 | 14.60 | 35,946 | 9.0% | 19.4% |
| 5-gram | Subword | 39,312 | 15.26 | 231,740 | 8.2% | 25.1% |
Top 5 N-grams by Size
2-grams (Word):
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | fon ju |
3,773 |
| 2 | in ju |
2,873 |
| 3 | in dΓ€t |
2,568 |
| 4 | fon do |
2,539 |
| 5 | fon dΓ€n |
1,901 |
3-grams (Word):
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | k Ξ² 100 |
541 |
| 2 | in do niederlounde |
493 |
| 3 | ne meente in |
439 |
| 4 | un deer woonje |
431 |
| 5 | km un deer |
429 |
4-grams (Word):
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | km un deer woonje |
426 |
| 2 | ne meente in ju |
414 |
| 3 | is ne meente in |
378 |
| 4 | hΓ€d ne flΓ€che fon |
293 |
| 5 | in dΓ€t dΓΌΓΌtske buundeslound |
275 |
5-grams (Word):
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | is ne meente in ju |
359 |
| 2 | ne meente in ju provints |
269 |
| 3 | ju meenteferwaltenge et hΓ€d ne |
268 |
| 4 | et hΓ€d ne flΓ€che fon |
268 |
| 5 | fon ju meenteferwaltenge et hΓ€d |
267 |
2-grams (Subword):
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | n _ |
134,784 |
| 2 | e _ |
118,096 |
| 3 | e r |
90,971 |
| 4 | e n |
90,798 |
| 5 | _ d |
76,474 |
3-grams (Subword):
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | e n _ |
38,276 |
| 2 | _ f o |
30,501 |
| 3 | _ d Γ€ |
29,063 |
| 4 | o n _ |
27,605 |
| 5 | e r _ |
25,671 |
4-grams (Subword):
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | _ f o n |
22,642 |
| 2 | f o n _ |
22,312 |
| 3 | _ j u _ |
21,043 |
| 4 | d Γ€ t _ |
20,655 |
| 5 | _ d Γ€ t |
19,559 |
5-grams (Subword):
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | _ f o n _ |
21,808 |
| 2 | _ d Γ€ t _ |
19,421 |
| 3 | l o u n d |
8,645 |
| 4 | n _ j u _ |
8,338 |
| 5 | _ d Γ€ n _ |
8,296 |
Key Findings
- Best Perplexity: 2-gram (subword) with 293
- Entropy Trend: Decreases with larger n-grams (more predictable)
- Coverage: Top-1000 patterns cover ~25% of corpus
- Recommendation: 4-gram or 5-gram for best predictive performance
3. Markov Chain Evaluation
Results
| Context | Variant | Avg Entropy | Perplexity | Branching Factor | Unique Contexts | Predictability |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Word | 0.7314 | 1.660 | 4.57 | 79,075 | 26.9% |
| 1 | Subword | 1.0897 | 2.128 | 8.47 | 863 | 0.0% |
| 2 | Word | 0.2396 | 1.181 | 1.56 | 359,652 | 76.0% |
| 2 | Subword | 0.9968 | 1.996 | 5.88 | 7,299 | 0.3% |
| 3 | Word | 0.0775 | 1.055 | 1.12 | 559,203 | 92.3% |
| 3 | Subword | 0.8500 | 1.802 | 4.12 | 42,885 | 15.0% |
| 4 | Word | 0.0252 π | 1.018 | 1.04 | 623,968 | 97.5% |
| 4 | Subword | 0.6551 | 1.575 | 2.66 | 176,559 | 34.5% |
Generated Text Samples (Word-based)
Below are text samples generated from each word-based Markov chain model:
Context Size 1:
fon situatione uut düütsklound ju sonaamde liga is dÀt konzil fon elektrizitÀt n grootsten nutsen fo...ju pestolle dÀt religiâse un 30 s k β 3 periplasmatisken ruum in doo sunt dÀtdÀt noch nutsen fon ju provinz outrÀnd dÀt floaks ounbaued hÀÀd 153 ferseerde een griesbruun un
Context Size 2:
fon ju eerste reflektion truch dissen phasenunnerskeed lΓ€skje do sik deer in dΓ€t frΓΆie middeloaler f...in ju provinz overijssel in do fereende stoaten fon amerikoa baalt sunt uk al eer n wrieuweluudin dΓ€t noudelke top fon dΓ€n priester un skriftstaaler stuurwen 11 januoar maria chudnovsky israelisk...
Context Size 3:
k Ξ² 100 2 s 8 830 Ξ² 2 443 Ξ² n 0 Ξ² 100 Ξ² n 0in do niederlounde dΓ€t gebiet fon ju meente is 115 18 km un deer woonje 71 176 moanskenene meente in ju provints utrecht in do niederlounde dongen is n sit fon ju meenteferwaltenge et hΓ€d
Context Size 4:
km un deer woonje moanskene wΓ€lle cbs en dalne meente in ju provinz gelderland in do niederlounde dΓ€t gebiet fon ju meente is in menaam uur stee...is ne meente in ju provints suudhollound in do niederlounde oud beijerland waas n sit fon ju meentef...
Generated Text Samples (Subword-based)
Below are text samples generated from each subword-based Markov chain model:
Context Size 1:
_jun_wΓ€tesΓ€sΓ€ss_erht_s_iz"_ntt_(n_akun_ot_u_arte
Context Size 2:
n_370_meetstouhfee_sowΓ€d_Γ€t_do_s/ner_und._mi_sus_be
Context Size 3:
en_tsch_nit_Γ€tters_fon_wΓ€ch_broome_o_dΓ€t_dΓ€t_die_moorp
Context Size 4:
_fon_chile,_do_bee_fon_do_bedeelengsgr_ju_lien._stuur_sun
Key Findings
- Best Predictability: Context-4 (word) with 97.5% predictability
- Branching Factor: Decreases with context size (more deterministic)
- Memory Trade-off: Larger contexts require more storage (176,559 contexts)
- Recommendation: Context-3 or Context-4 for text generation
4. Vocabulary Analysis
Statistics
| Metric | Value |
|---|---|
| Vocabulary Size | 33,645 |
| Total Tokens | 674,492 |
| Mean Frequency | 20.05 |
| Median Frequency | 3 |
| Frequency Std Dev | 289.08 |
Most Common Words
| Rank | Word | Frequency |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | fon | 22,092 |
| 2 | ju | 21,467 |
| 3 | dΓ€t | 19,882 |
| 4 | in | 19,036 |
| 5 | un | 16,143 |
| 6 | do | 14,444 |
| 7 | is | 9,102 |
| 8 | dΓ€n | 8,312 |
| 9 | n | 7,718 |
| 10 | die | 7,066 |
Least Common Words (from vocabulary)
| Rank | Word | Frequency |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | missionΓ€rswierk | 2 |
| 2 | qark | 2 |
| 3 | rwe | 2 |
| 4 | t4 | 2 |
| 5 | profeeten | 2 |
| 6 | uunheel | 2 |
| 7 | ientreeden | 2 |
| 8 | exilstied | 2 |
| 9 | perserkΓΆΓ€nich | 2 |
| 10 | exilierde | 2 |
Zipf's Law Analysis
| Metric | Value |
|---|---|
| Zipf Coefficient | 1.0486 |
| RΒ² (Goodness of Fit) | 0.998561 |
| Adherence Quality | excellent |
Coverage Analysis
| Top N Words | Coverage |
|---|---|
| Top 100 | 43.5% |
| Top 1,000 | 67.8% |
| Top 5,000 | 83.6% |
| Top 10,000 | 89.8% |
Key Findings
- Zipf Compliance: RΒ²=0.9986 indicates excellent adherence to Zipf's law
- High Frequency Dominance: Top 100 words cover 43.5% of corpus
- Long Tail: 23,645 words needed for remaining 10.2% coverage
5. Word Embeddings Evaluation
5.1 Cross-Lingual Alignment
5.2 Model Comparison
| Model | Dimension | Isotropy | Semantic Density | Alignment R@1 | Alignment R@10 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| mono_32d | 32 | 0.8013 | 0.3873 | N/A | N/A |
| mono_64d | 64 | 0.5138 | 0.3003 | N/A | N/A |
| mono_128d | 128 | 0.1305 | 0.2974 | N/A | N/A |
| aligned_32d | 32 | 0.8013 π | 0.3735 | 0.0440 | 0.2480 |
| aligned_64d | 64 | 0.5138 | 0.3002 | 0.0800 | 0.3040 |
| aligned_128d | 128 | 0.1305 | 0.2977 | 0.1000 | 0.3940 |
Key Findings
- Best Isotropy: aligned_32d with 0.8013 (more uniform distribution)
- Semantic Density: Average pairwise similarity of 0.3261. Lower values indicate better semantic separation.
- Alignment Quality: Aligned models achieve up to 10.0% R@1 in cross-lingual retrieval.
- Recommendation: 128d aligned for best cross-lingual performance
6. Morphological Analysis (Experimental)
This section presents an automated morphological analysis derived from the statistical divergence between word-level and subword-level models. By analyzing where subword predictability spikes and where word-level coverage fails, we can infer linguistic structures without supervised data.
6.1 Productivity & Complexity
| Metric | Value | Interpretation | Recommendation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Productivity Index | 5.000 | High morphological productivity | Reliable analysis |
| Idiomaticity Gap | -0.228 | Low formulaic content | - |
6.2 Affix Inventory (Productive Units)
These are the most productive prefixes and suffixes identified by sampling the vocabulary for global substitutability patterns. A unit is considered an affix if stripping it leaves a valid stem that appears in other contexts.
Productive Prefixes
| Prefix | Examples |
|---|---|
-s |
sprachatlas, strΓ€ite, seine |
-b |
boarnburgum, bilged, bouksteewe |
-a |
ac, alblasserdam, armenien |
-m |
moorsproakich, moalerstiel, mussolini |
-k |
kuuden, katalog, kloai |
-t |
tiedtjuuginne, twÀÀrshÀlgen, taiga |
-h |
harmen, hipposideridae, h166s |
-g |
galapagos, gnassingbe, ghulam |
Productive Suffixes
| Suffix | Examples |
|---|---|
-e |
piktogramme, experience, hipposideridae |
-en |
kuuden, harmen, ummen |
-n |
kuuden, harmen, ummen |
-ke |
elektroniske, warnecke, bruunske |
-d |
bilged, viΕ‘egrad, betjud |
-r |
μr, pèder, basketbaalspieler |
-er |
pèder, basketbaalspieler, brockmeyer |
-t |
krΓ€kt, uurrakt, freesluut |
6.3 Bound Stems (Lexical Roots)
Bound stems are high-frequency subword units that are semantically cohesive but rarely appear as standalone words. These often correspond to the 'core' of a word that requires inflection or derivation to be valid.
| Stem | Cohesion | Substitutability | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
nner |
1.80x | 67 contexts | ΓΌnner, unner, runner |
loun |
1.86x | 51 contexts | lound, ΓΆlound, lounde |
chte |
1.63x | 79 contexts | echte, achte, Γ€chte |
ucht |
1.79x | 52 contexts | lucht, sucht, tucht |
euwe |
1.71x | 62 contexts | wieuwe, heeuwe, nieuwe |
unne |
1.75x | 44 contexts | nunne, unner, unnen |
iske |
1.64x | 52 contexts | niske, fiske, aiske |
iede |
1.57x | 59 contexts | siede, ieder, tiede |
ound |
1.58x | 53 contexts | lound, pound, sound |
iere |
1.62x | 36 contexts | ieren, hiere, jiere |
ansk |
1.90x | 18 contexts | dansk, fransk, moansk |
oans |
1.78x | 22 contexts | moansk, moanske, spoansk |
6.4 Affix Compatibility (Co-occurrence)
This table shows which prefixes and suffixes most frequently co-occur on the same stems, revealing the 'stacking' rules of the language's morphology.
| Prefix | Suffix | Frequency | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
-s |
-e |
209 words | spahnharrenstΓ€tte, senckenbergreihe |
-b |
-e |
173 words | behΓ€rskede, blekinge |
-s |
-n |
134 words | susan, skottisken |
-k |
-e |
121 words | kamperske, kurre |
-s |
-en |
114 words | skottisken, sammelengen |
-a |
-e |
109 words | autolaampe, angèle |
-m |
-e |
109 words | mÀÀlne, muugelke |
-b |
-n |
98 words | bitsken, bummen |
-t |
-e |
91 words | twintichste, technike |
-b |
-en |
84 words | bitsken, bummen |
6.5 Recursive Morpheme Segmentation
Using Recursive Hierarchical Substitutability, we decompose complex words into their constituent morphemes. This approach handles nested affixes (e.g., prefix-prefix-root-suffix).
| Word | Suggested Split | Confidence | Stem |
|---|---|---|---|
| beansprΓΆΓ€kede | beansprΓΆΓ€k-e-de |
7.5 | e |
| franciszek | francisz-e-k |
7.5 | e |
| schwΓ€bisch | schwΓ€bi-s-ch |
7.5 | s |
| Γ€sterweede | Γ€sterwe-e-de |
7.5 | e |
| bilΙsuvar | bilΙsuv-a-r |
7.5 | a |
| ruhrgebiet | ruhrgebi-e-t |
7.5 | e |
| smiddeeges | smiddeeg-e-s |
7.5 | e |
| giganteus | gigant-e-us |
7.5 | e |
| iersentied | iersenti-e-d |
7.5 | e |
| ottenjann | ottenja-n-n |
7.5 | n |
| niederdeutsches | niederdeutsch-e-s |
7.5 | e |
| ferfoulgeden | ferfoulge-d-en |
7.5 | d |
| oarbaidet | oarbaid-e-t |
7.5 | e |
| truchmisked | truchmisk-e-d |
7.5 | e |
| committee | committ-e-e |
7.5 | e |
6.6 Linguistic Interpretation
Automated Insight: The language Saterland Frisian shows high morphological productivity. The subword models are significantly more efficient than word models, suggesting a rich system of affixation or compounding.
7. Summary & Recommendations
Production Recommendations
| Component | Recommended | Rationale |
|---|---|---|
| Tokenizer | 64k BPE | Best compression (3.85x) |
| N-gram | 2-gram | Lowest perplexity (293) |
| Markov | Context-4 | Highest predictability (97.5%) |
| Embeddings | 100d | Balanced semantic capture and isotropy |
Appendix: Metrics Glossary & Interpretation Guide
This section provides definitions, intuitions, and guidance for interpreting the metrics used throughout this report.
Tokenizer Metrics
Compression Ratio
Definition: The ratio of characters to tokens (chars/token). Measures how efficiently the tokenizer represents text.
Intuition: Higher compression means fewer tokens needed to represent the same text, reducing sequence lengths for downstream models. A 3x compression means ~3 characters per token on average.
What to seek: Higher is generally better for efficiency, but extremely high compression may indicate overly aggressive merging that loses morphological information.
Average Token Length (Fertility)
Definition: Mean number of characters per token produced by the tokenizer.
Intuition: Reflects the granularity of tokenization. Longer tokens capture more context but may struggle with rare words; shorter tokens are more flexible but increase sequence length.
What to seek: Balance between 2-5 characters for most languages. Arabic/morphologically-rich languages may benefit from slightly longer tokens.
Unknown Token Rate (OOV Rate)
Definition: Percentage of tokens that map to the unknown/UNK token, indicating words the tokenizer cannot represent.
Intuition: Lower OOV means better vocabulary coverage. High OOV indicates the tokenizer encounters many unseen character sequences.
What to seek: Below 1% is excellent; below 5% is acceptable. BPE tokenizers typically achieve very low OOV due to subword fallback.
N-gram Model Metrics
Perplexity
Definition: Measures how "surprised" the model is by test data. Mathematically: 2^(cross-entropy). Lower values indicate better prediction.
Intuition: If perplexity is 100, the model is as uncertain as if choosing uniformly among 100 options at each step. A perplexity of 10 means effectively choosing among 10 equally likely options.
What to seek: Lower is better. Perplexity decreases with larger n-grams (more context). Values vary widely by language and corpus size.
Entropy
Definition: Average information content (in bits) needed to encode the next token given the context. Related to perplexity: perplexity = 2^entropy.
Intuition: High entropy means high uncertainty/randomness; low entropy means predictable patterns. Natural language typically has entropy between 1-4 bits per character.
What to seek: Lower entropy indicates more predictable text patterns. Entropy should decrease as n-gram size increases.
Coverage (Top-K)
Definition: Percentage of corpus occurrences explained by the top K most frequent n-grams.
Intuition: High coverage with few patterns indicates repetitive/formulaic text; low coverage suggests diverse vocabulary usage.
What to seek: Depends on use case. For language modeling, moderate coverage (40-60% with top-1000) is typical for natural text.
Markov Chain Metrics
Average Entropy
Definition: Mean entropy across all contexts, measuring average uncertainty in next-word prediction.
Intuition: Lower entropy means the model is more confident about what comes next. Context-1 has high entropy (many possible next words); Context-4 has low entropy (few likely continuations).
What to seek: Decreasing entropy with larger context sizes. Very low entropy (<0.1) indicates highly deterministic transitions.
Branching Factor
Definition: Average number of unique next tokens observed for each context.
Intuition: High branching = many possible continuations (flexible but uncertain); low branching = few options (predictable but potentially repetitive).
What to seek: Branching factor should decrease with context size. Values near 1.0 indicate nearly deterministic chains.
Predictability
Definition: Derived metric: (1 - normalized_entropy) Γ 100%. Indicates how deterministic the model's predictions are.
Intuition: 100% predictability means the next word is always certain; 0% means completely random. Real text falls between these extremes.
What to seek: Higher predictability for text generation quality, but too high (>98%) may produce repetitive output.
Vocabulary & Zipf's Law Metrics
Zipf's Coefficient
Definition: The slope of the log-log plot of word frequency vs. rank. Zipf's law predicts this should be approximately -1.
Intuition: A coefficient near -1 indicates the corpus follows natural language patterns where a few words are very common and most words are rare.
What to seek: Values between -0.8 and -1.2 indicate healthy natural language distribution. Deviations may suggest domain-specific or artificial text.
RΒ² (Coefficient of Determination)
Definition: Measures how well the linear fit explains the frequency-rank relationship. Ranges from 0 to 1.
Intuition: RΒ² near 1.0 means the data closely follows Zipf's law; lower values indicate deviation from expected word frequency patterns.
What to seek: RΒ² > 0.95 is excellent; > 0.99 indicates near-perfect Zipf adherence typical of large natural corpora.
Vocabulary Coverage
Definition: Cumulative percentage of corpus tokens accounted for by the top N words.
Intuition: Shows how concentrated word usage is. If top-100 words cover 50% of text, the corpus relies heavily on common words.
What to seek: Top-100 covering 30-50% is typical. Higher coverage indicates more repetitive text; lower suggests richer vocabulary.
Word Embedding Metrics
Isotropy
Definition: Measures how uniformly distributed vectors are in the embedding space. Computed as the ratio of minimum to maximum singular values.
Intuition: High isotropy (near 1.0) means vectors spread evenly in all directions; low isotropy means vectors cluster in certain directions, reducing expressiveness.
What to seek: Higher isotropy generally indicates better-quality embeddings. Values > 0.1 are reasonable; > 0.3 is good. Lower-dimensional embeddings tend to have higher isotropy.
Average Norm
Definition: Mean magnitude (L2 norm) of word vectors in the embedding space.
Intuition: Indicates the typical "length" of vectors. Consistent norms suggest stable training; high variance may indicate some words are undertrained.
What to seek: Relatively consistent norms across models. The absolute value matters less than consistency (low std deviation).
Cosine Similarity
Definition: Measures angular similarity between vectors, ranging from -1 (opposite) to 1 (identical direction).
Intuition: Words with similar meanings should have high cosine similarity. This is the standard metric for semantic relatedness in embeddings.
What to seek: Semantically related words should score > 0.5; unrelated words should be near 0. Synonyms often score > 0.7.
t-SNE Visualization
Definition: t-Distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding - a dimensionality reduction technique that preserves local structure for visualization.
Intuition: Clusters in t-SNE plots indicate groups of semantically related words. Spread indicates vocabulary diversity; tight clusters suggest semantic coherence.
What to seek: Meaningful clusters (e.g., numbers together, verbs together). Avoid over-interpreting distances - t-SNE preserves local, not global, structure.
General Interpretation Guidelines
- Compare within model families: Metrics are most meaningful when comparing models of the same type (e.g., 8k vs 64k tokenizer).
- Consider trade-offs: Better performance on one metric often comes at the cost of another (e.g., compression vs. OOV rate).
- Context matters: Optimal values depend on downstream tasks. Text generation may prioritize different metrics than classification.
- Corpus influence: All metrics are influenced by corpus characteristics. Wikipedia text differs from social media or literature.
- Language-specific patterns: Morphologically rich languages (like Arabic) may show different optimal ranges than analytic languages.
Visualizations Index
| Visualization | Description |
|---|---|
| Tokenizer Compression | Compression ratios by vocabulary size |
| Tokenizer Fertility | Average token length by vocabulary |
| Tokenizer OOV | Unknown token rates |
| Tokenizer Total Tokens | Total tokens by vocabulary |
| N-gram Perplexity | Perplexity by n-gram size |
| N-gram Entropy | Entropy by n-gram size |
| N-gram Coverage | Top pattern coverage |
| N-gram Unique | Unique n-gram counts |
| Markov Entropy | Entropy by context size |
| Markov Branching | Branching factor by context |
| Markov Contexts | Unique context counts |
| Zipf's Law | Frequency-rank distribution with fit |
| Vocab Frequency | Word frequency distribution |
| Top 20 Words | Most frequent words |
| Vocab Coverage | Cumulative coverage curve |
| Embedding Isotropy | Vector space uniformity |
| Embedding Norms | Vector magnitude distribution |
| Embedding Similarity | Word similarity heatmap |
| Nearest Neighbors | Similar words for key terms |
| t-SNE Words | 2D word embedding visualization |
| t-SNE Sentences | 2D sentence embedding visualization |
| Position Encoding | Encoding method comparison |
| Model Sizes | Storage requirements |
| Performance Dashboard | Comprehensive performance overview |
About This Project
Data Source
Models trained on wikipedia-monthly - a monthly snapshot of Wikipedia articles across 300+ languages.
Project
A project by Wikilangs - Open-source NLP models for every Wikipedia language.
Maintainer
Citation
If you use these models in your research, please cite:
@misc{wikilangs2025,
author = {Kamali, Omar},
title = {Wikilangs: Open NLP Models for Wikipedia Languages},
year = {2025},
doi = {10.5281/zenodo.18073153},
publisher = {Zenodo},
url = {https://huggingface.co/wikilangs}
institution = {Omneity Labs}
}
License
MIT License - Free for academic and commercial use.
Links
- π Website: wikilangs.org
- π€ Models: huggingface.co/wikilangs
- π Data: wikipedia-monthly
- π€ Author: Omar Kamali
- π€ Sponsor: Featherless AI
Generated by Wikilangs Models Pipeline
Report Date: 2026-01-10 22:49:08



















