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4298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptism | Baptism | lls": the custom of 'dolly dunking' was once a common practice in parts of the United Kingdom, particularly in Cornwall where it has been revived in recent years.
Mandaean Baptism
Mandaeans revere John the Baptist and practice frequent baptism (Masbuta) as a ritual of purification, not of initiation. They are possibly the earliest people to practice baptism. Mandaeans undergo baptism on Sundays (Habshaba), wearing a white sacral robe (Rasta). Baptism for Mandaeans consists of a triple full immersion in wa | [
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4298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptism | Baptism | ter, a triple signing of the forehead with water and a triple drinking of water. The priest (Rabbi) then removes a ring made of myrtle worn by the baptized and places it on their forehead. This is then followed by a handshake (Kushta, "hand of truth") with the priest. The final blessing involves the priest laying his right hand on the baptized person's head. Living water (fresh, natural, flowing water) is a requirement for baptism, therefore can only take place in rivers. All rivers are named Jordan (Yarden | [
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4298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptism | Baptism | a) and are believed to be nourished by the World of Light. By the river bank, a Mandaean's forehead is anointed with sesame oil and partakes in a communion of bread and water. Baptism for Mandaeans allows for salvation by connecting with the World of Light and for forgiveness of sins.
Yazidi Baptism
Yazidi baptism is called mor kirin (literally: "to seal"). Traditionally, Yazidi children are baptised at birth with water from the Kaniya Sipî ("White Spring") at Lalish. It essentially consists of pouring ho | [
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4298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptism | Baptism | ly water from the spring on the child’s head three times.
Islamic practice of wudu
Many Islamic scholars such as Shaikh Bawa Muhaiyaddeen have compared the Islamic practice of wudu to a baptism. Wudu is a practice that Muslims practice in order to go from ritual impurity to ritual purity. This is mandatory for a Muslim to do before each of the five daily prayers, as well as following sexual intercourse, using the restroom, and other acts.
Wudu, which is done at least five times a day, by practicing Muslim | [
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4298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptism | Baptism | s, results in the purification of a person and the removal of their sins.
In a famous hadith, the Prophet Muhammad says "Whenever a man performs his ablution intending to pray and he washes his hands, the sins of his hands fall down with the first drop. When he rinses his mouth and nose, the sins of his tongue and lips fall down with the first drop. When he washes his face, the sins of his hearing and sight fall down with the first drop. When he washes his arms to his elbows and his feet to his ankles, he | [
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4298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptism | Baptism | is purified from every sin and fault like the day he was born from his mother. If he stands for prayer, Allah will raise his status by a degree. If he sits, he will sit in peace.”
See also
Amrit Sanchar, in Sikhism
Baptism by fire
Baptistery
Chrism
Christifideles
Consolamentum
Disciple (Christianity)
Divine filiation
Ghusl
Holy water in Eastern Christianity
Mikvah
Misogi
Prevenient grace
Ritual purification
Theophany
Water and religion
Notes
References
Further reading
. 26 pp. N.B | [
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4298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptism | Baptism | .: States the Evangelical Anglican position of the Reformed Episcopal Church.
External links
"Writings of the Early Church Fathers on Baptism"
"Baptism." Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Christian terminology
Conversion to Christianity
Rites of passage
Ritual purity in Christianity
Sacraments
Mandaean rituals | [
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4300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocce | Bocce | (, or , ), sometimes anglicized as bocce ball, bocci or boccie, is a ball sport belonging to the boules family. Developed into its present form in Italy, it is closely related to British bowls and French , with a common ancestry from ancient games played in the Roman Empire. Bocce is played around western, southern and southeastern Europe, as well as in overseas areas with historical Italian immigrant population, including Australia, North America, and South America, principally Argentina and the southern B | [
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4300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocce | Bocce | razilian state of Rio Grande do Sul. Initially played just by the Italian immigrants, the game has slowly become more popular with their descendants and more broadly.
History
Having developed from games played in the Roman Empire, Bocce developed into its present form in Italy (where it is called , the plural of the Italian word which means 'to bowl' in the general sporting sense), it spread around Europe and also in regions to which Italians have migrated. In South America it is known as , or ('Criollo | [
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4300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocce | Bocce | balls') in Venezuela, and in south Brazil. The accessibility of bocce to people of all ages and abilities has seen it grow in popularity among Special Olympics programmes globally and it is now the third most played sport among Special Olympics athletes.
Geographical spread
The sport is also very popular on the eastern side of the Adriatic, especially in Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bosnia and Herzegovina, where the sport is known in Serbo-Croatian as ('playing ') or (colloquially also ). In Sloveni | [
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4300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocce | Bocce | a the sport is known as or colloquially 'playing ', or (from Italian and Venetian , meaning 'balls'). There are numerous bocce leagues in the United States. Most have been founded by Italian Americans but contain members of all groups.
Rules and play
Bocce is traditionally played on natural soil and asphalt courts up to in length and wide. While the court walls are traditionally made of wood or stone, many social leagues and Special Olympics programs now use inflatable 'Packabocce' PVC courts due to t | [
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4300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocce | Bocce | heir portability and ease of storage. Bocce balls can be made of wood (traditional), metal, baked clay, or various kinds of plastic. Unlike lawn bowls, bocce balls are spherical and have no inbuilt bias.
A game can be conducted between two players, or two teams of two, three, or four. A match is started by a randomly chosen side being given the opportunity to throw a smaller ball, the jack (called a ('little bocce') or ('bullet' or 'little ball') in Italian, depending on local custom), from one end of | [
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4300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocce | Bocce | the court into a zone in length, ending from the far end of the court. If the first team misses twice, the other team is awarded the opportunity to place the jack anywhere they choose within the prescribed zone. Casual play is common in reasonably flat areas of parks and yards lacking a Bocce court, but players should agree to the minimum and maximum distance the jack may be thrown before play begins.
The side that first attempted to place the jack is given the opportunity to bowl first. Once the first b | [
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4300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocce | Bocce | owl has taken place, the other side has the opportunity to bowl. From then on, the side which does not have the ball closest to the jack has a chance to bowl, up until one side or the other has used their four balls. At that point, the other side bowls its remaining balls. The object of the game is for a team to get as many of its balls as possible closer to the target ball (jack, boccino, pallino) than the opposing team. The team with the closest ball to the jack is the only team that can score points in | [
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4300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocce | Bocce | any frame. The scoring team receives one point for each of their balls that is closer to the jack than the closest ball of the other team. The length of a game varies by region but is typically from 7 to 13 points.
Players are permitted to throw the ball in the air using an underarm action. This is generally used to knock either the jack or another ball away to attain a more favorable position. Tactics can get quite complex when players have sufficient control over the ball to throw or roll it accurately.
| [
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4300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocce | Bocce |
Variants
Bocce volo
A variation called uses a metal ball, which is thrown overhand (palm down), after a run-up to the throwing line. In that latter respect, it is similar to the French boules game also known as . A French variant of the game is called , and (lacking the run-up) is more similar in some respects to traditional .
Boccia
Another development, for persons with disabilities, is called . It is a shorter-range game, played with leather balls on an indoor, smooth surface. Boccia was first int | [
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4300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocce | Bocce | roduced to the Paralympics at the 1984 New York/Stoke Mandeville Summer Games, and is one of the only two Paralympic sports that do not have an Olympic counterpart (the other being goalball).
See also
Fédération Internationale de Boules
References
External links
Confederation Mondiale des Sports de Boules
International Bocce Federation (FIB)
Boules
Lawn games
Sports originating in Italy
Articles containing video clips | [
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4301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatmatching | Beatmatching | Beatmatching or pitch cue is a disc jockey technique of pitch shifting or timestretching an upcoming track to match its tempo to that of the currently playing track, and to adjust them such that the beats (and, usually, the bars) are synchronised — e.g. the kicks and snares in two house records hit at the same time when both records are played simultaneously. Beatmatching is a component of beatmixing which employs beatmatching combined with equalization, attention to phrasing and track selection in an atte | [
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4301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatmatching | Beatmatching | mpt to make a single mix that flows together and has a good structure.
The technique was developed to keep the people from leaving the dancefloor at the end of the song. These days it is considered basic among disc jockeys (DJs) in electronic dance music genres, and it is standard practice in clubs to keep the constant beat through the night, even if DJs change in the middle.
Beatmatching is no longer considered a novelty, and new digital software has made the technique much easier to master.
Technique
T | [
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4301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatmatching | Beatmatching | he beatmatching technique consists of the following steps:
While a record is playing, start a second record playing, but only monitored through headphones, not being fed to the main PA system. Use gain (or trim) control on the mixer to match the levels of the two records.
Restart and slip-cue the new record at the right time, on beat with the record currently playing.
If the beat on the new record hits before the beat on the current record then the new record is too fast; reduce the pitch and manually s | [
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4301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatmatching | Beatmatching | low the speed of the new record to bring the beats back in sync.
If the beat on the new record hits after the beat on the current record then the new record is too slow; increase the pitch and manually increase the speed of the new record to bring the beats back in sync.
Continue this process until the two records are in sync with each other. It can be difficult to sync the two records perfectly, so manual adjustment of the records is necessary to maintain the beat synchronization.
Gradually fade in part | [
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4301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatmatching | Beatmatching | s of the new track while fading out the old track. While in the mix, ensure that the tracks are still synchronized, adjusting the records if needed.
The fade can be repeated several times, for example, from the first track, fade to the second track, then back to first, then to second again.
One of the key things to consider when beatmatching is the tempo of both songs, and the musical theory behind the songs. Attempting to beatmatch songs with completely different beats per minute (BPM) will result in one | [
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4301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatmatching | Beatmatching | of the songs sounding too fast or too slow.
When beatmatching, a popular technique is to vary the equalization of both tracks. For example, when the kicks are occurring on the same beat, a more seamless transition can occur if the lower frequencies are taken out of one of the songs, and the lower frequencies of the other song is boosted. Doing so creates a smoother transition.
Pitch and tempo
The pitch and tempo of a track are normally linked together: spin a disc 5% faster and both pitch and tempo will | [
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4301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatmatching | Beatmatching | be 5% higher. However, some modern DJ software can change pitch and tempo independently using time-stretching and pitch-shifting, allowing harmonic mixing. There is also a feature in modern DJ software which may be called "master tempo" or "key adjust" which changes the tempo while keeping the original pitch.
History
Beatmatching was invented by Francis Grasso in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Initially he was counting the tempo with a metronome and looking for records with the same tempo. Later a mixer w | [
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4301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatmatching | Beatmatching | as built for him by Alex Rosner which let him listen to any channel in the headphones independently of what was playing on the speakers; this became the defining feature of DJ mixers. That and turntables with pitch control enabled him to mix tracks with different tempo by changing the pitch of the cued (redirected to headphones) track to match its tempo with the track being played by ear. Essentially, the technique he originated hasn't changed since.
These days beat-matching is considered central to DJing, | [
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4301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatmatching | Beatmatching | and features making it possible are a requirement for DJ-oriented players. In 1978, the Technics SL-1200MK2 turntable was released, whose comfortable and precise sliding pitch control and high torque direct drive motor made beat-matching easier and it became the standard among DJs. With the advent of the compact disc, DJ-oriented Compact Disc players with pitch control and other features enabling beat-matching (and sometimes scratching), dubbed CDJs, were introduced by various companies. More recently, so | [
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4301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatmatching | Beatmatching | ftware with similar capabilities has been developed to allow manipulation of digital audio files stored on computers using turntables with special vinyl records (e.g. Final Scratch, M-Audio Torq, Serato Scratch Live) or computer interface (e.g. Traktor DJ Studio, Mixxx, Virtual DJ). Other software including algorithmic beat-matching is Ableton Live, which allows for realtime music manipulation and deconstruction, or Mixmeister, a DJ Mixset creation tool. Freeware software such as Rapid Evolution can detect | [
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4301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatmatching | Beatmatching | the beats per minute and determine the percent BPM difference between songs.
The change from pure hardware to software is on the rise, and big DJs are introducing new equipment to their kits such as the laptop, and dropping the difficulty of carrying hundreds of CDs with them. The creation of the mp3-player allowed DJs to have an alternative tool for DJIng. Limitations with mp3-player DJing equipment has meant that only second generation equipment such as the IDJ2 or the Cortex Dmix-300 have the pitch co | [
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4301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatmatching | Beatmatching | ntrol that alters tempo and allows for beat-matching on a digital music player. However, recent additions to the Pioneer CDJ family, such as the CDJ-2000, allow mp3-player and other digital storage devices (such as external hard drives, SD cards and USB memory sticks) to be connected to the CDJ device via USB. This allows the DJ to make use of the beat-matching capabilities of the CDJ unit whilst playing digital music files from the mp3-player or other storage device.
Most modern DJ hardware and software n | [
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4301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatmatching | Beatmatching | ow offers a "Sync" feature which automatically adjusts the tempo between tracks being mixed so the DJ no longer needs to spend time and effort matching beats. This has caused some controversy in the DJ industry since almost anyone can beat-match thanks to the new function.
See also
Clubdjpro
DJ mix
Harmonic mixing
Segue
Mashup
References
Audio mixing
Disco
DJing | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | Beltane () is the Gaelic May Day festival. Most commonly it is held on 1 May, or about halfway between the spring equinox and summer solstice. Historically, it was widely observed throughout Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man. In Irish the name for the festival day is (), in Scottish Gaelic () and in Manx Gaelic /. It is one of the four Gaelic seasonal festivals—along with Samhain, Imbolc and Lughnasadh—and is similar to the Welsh .
Beltane is mentioned in some of the earliest Irish literature and is | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | associated with important events in Irish mythology. Also known as ("first of summer"), it marked the beginning of summer and it was when cattle were driven out to the summer pastures. Rituals were performed to protect the cattle, crops and people, and to encourage growth. Special bonfires were kindled, and their flames, smoke and ashes were deemed to have protective powers. The people and their cattle would walk around or between bonfires, and sometimes leap over the flames or embers. All household fires | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | would be doused and then re-lit from the Beltane bonfire. These gatherings would be accompanied by a feast, and some of the food and drink would be offered to the . Doors, windows, byres and livestock would be decorated with white or yellow May flowers, perhaps because they evoked fire. In parts of Ireland, people would make a May Bush: typically a thorn bush or branch decorated with flowers, ribbons, bright shells and rushlights. Holy wells were also visited, while Beltane dew was thought to bring beauty | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | and maintain youthfulness. Many of these customs were part of May Day or Midsummer festivals in other parts of Great Britain and Europe.
Beltane celebrations had largely died out by the mid-20th century, although some of its customs continued and in some places it has been revived as a cultural event. Since the late 20th century, Celtic neopagans and Wiccans have observed Beltane or a related festival as a religious holiday. Neopagans in the Southern Hemisphere celebrate Beltane on or around 1 November.
H | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | istoric Beltane customs
Beltane was one of four Gaelic seasonal festivals: Samhain (~1 November), Imbolc (~1 February), Beltane (~1 May), and Lughnasadh (~1 August). Beltane marked the beginning of the pastoral summer season, when livestock were driven out to the summer pastures. Rituals were held at that time to protect them from harm, both natural and supernatural, and this mainly involved the "symbolic use of fire". There were also rituals to protect crops, dairy products and people, and to encourage gro | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | wth. The (often referred to as spirits or fairies) were thought to be especially active at Beltane (as at Samhain) and the goal of many Beltane rituals was to appease them. Most scholars see the as remnants of the pagan gods and nature spirits. Beltane was a "spring time festival of optimism" during which "fertility ritual again was important, perhaps connecting with the waxing power of the sun".
Before the modern era
Beltane (the beginning of summer) and Samhain (the beginning of winter) are thought to | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | have been the most important of the four Gaelic festivals. Sir James George Frazer wrote in The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion that the times of Beltane and Samhain are of little importance to European crop-growers, but of great importance to herdsmen. Thus, he suggests that halving the year at 1 May and 1 November dates from a time when the Celts were mainly a pastoral people, dependent on their herds.
The earliest mention of Beltane is in Old Irish literature from Gaelic Ireland. According t | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | o the early medieval texts (written by Cormac mac Cuilennáin) and , Beltane was held on 1 May and marked the beginning of summer. The texts say that, to protect cattle from disease, the druids would make two fires "with great incantations" and drive the cattle between them.
According to 17th-century historian Geoffrey Keating, there was a great gathering at the hill of Uisneach each Beltane in medieval Ireland, where a sacrifice was made to a god named Beil. Keating wrote that two bonfires would be lit in | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | every district of Ireland, and cattle would be driven between them to protect them from disease. There is no reference to such a gathering in the annals, but the medieval Dindsenchas includes a tale of a hero lighting a holy fire on Uisneach that blazed for seven years. Ronald Hutton writes that this may "preserve a tradition of Beltane ceremonies there", but adds "Keating or his source may simply have conflated this legend with the information in Sanas Chormaic to produce a piece of pseudo-history." Never | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | theless, excavations at Uisneach in the 20th century found evidence of large fires and charred bones, showing it to have been ritually significant.
Beltane is also mentioned in medieval Scottish literature. An early reference is found in the poem 'Peblis to the Play', contained in the Maitland Manuscripts of 15th- and 16th-century Scots poetry, which describes the celebration in the town of Peebles.
Modern era
From the late 18th century to the mid 20th century, many accounts of Beltane customs were record | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | ed by folklorists and other writers. For example John Jamieson, in his Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language (1808) describes some of the Beltane customs which persisted in the 18th and early 19th centuries in parts of Scotland, which he noted were beginning to die out. In the 19th century, folklorist Alexander Carmichael (1832–1912), collected the Gaellic song Am Beannachadh Bealltain (The Beltane Blessing) in his Carmina Gadelica, which he heard from a crofter in South Uist. The first two verse | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | s were sung as follows:
Beannaich, a Thrianailt fhioir nach gann, (Bless, O Threefold true and bountiful,)
Mi fein, mo cheile agus mo chlann, (Myself, my spouse and my children,)
Mo chlann mhaoth's am mathair chaomh 'n an ceann, (My tender children and their beloved mother at their head,)
Air chlar chubhr nan raon, air airidh chaon nam beann, (On the fragrant plain, at the gay mountain sheiling,)
Air chlar chubhr nan raon, air airidh chaon nam beam. (On the fragrant plain, at the gay mountain sheiling.)
G | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | ach ni na m' fhardaich, no ta 'na m' shealbh, (Everything within my dwelling or in my possession,)
Gach buar is barr, gach tan is tealbh, (All kine and crops, all flocks and corn,)
Bho Oidhche Shamhna chon Oidhche Bheallt, (From Hallow Eve to Beltane Eve,)
Piseach maith, agus beannachd mallt, (With goodly progress and gentle blessing,)
Bho mhuir, gu muir, agus bun gach allt, (From sea to sea, and every river mouth,)
Bho thonn gu tonn, agus bonn gach steallt. (From wave to wave, and base of waterfall.)
The | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | 1970 recording 'Ride a White Swan', written and performed by Marc Bolan and his band Tyrannosaurus Rex (later shortened to T.Rex) contains the line "Ride a white Swan like the people of the Beltane".
Bonfires
Bonfires continued to be a key part of the festival in the modern era. All hearth fires and candles would be doused before the bonfire was lit, generally on a mountain or hill. Ronald Hutton writes that "To increase the potency of the holy flames, in Britain at least they were often kindled by the mo | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | st primitive of all means, of friction between wood." In the 19th century, for example, John Ramsay described Scottish Highlanders kindling a need-fire or force-fire at Beltane. Such a fire was deemed sacred. In the 19th century, the ritual of driving cattle between two fires—as described in Sanas Cormaic almost 1000 years before—was still practised across most of Ireland and in parts of Scotland. Sometimes the cattle would be driven "around" a bonfire or be made to leap over flames or embers. The people th | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | emselves would do likewise. In the Isle of Man, people ensured that the smoke blew over them and their cattle. When the bonfire had died down, people would daub themselves with its ashes and sprinkle it over their crops and livestock. Burning torches from the bonfire would be taken home, where they would be carried around the house or boundary of the farmstead and would be used to re-light the hearth. From these rituals, it is clear that the fire was seen as having protective powers. Similar rituals were pa | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | rt of May Day, Midsummer or Easter customs in other parts of the British Isles and mainland Europe. According to Frazer, the fire rituals are a kind of imitative or sympathetic magic. According to one theory, they were meant to mimic the Sun and to "ensure a needful supply of sunshine for men, animals, and plants". According to another, they were meant to symbolically "burn up and destroy all harmful influences".
Food was also cooked at the bonfire and there were rituals involving it. Alexander Carmichael | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | wrote that there was a feast featuring lamb, and that formerly this lamb was sacrificed. In 1769, Thomas Pennant wrote that, in Perthshire, a caudle made from eggs, butter, oatmeal and milk was cooked on the bonfire. Some of the mixture was poured on the ground as a libation. Everyone present would then take an oatmeal cake, called the bannoch Bealltainn or "Beltane bannock". A bit of it was offered to the spirits to protect their livestock (one bit to protect the horses, one bit to protect the sheep, and s | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | o forth) and a bit was offered to each of the animals that might harm their livestock (one to the fox, one to the eagle, and so forth). Afterwards, they would drink the caudle.
According to 18th century writers, in parts of Scotland there was another ritual involving the oatmeal cake. The cake would be cut and one of the slices marked with charcoal. The slices would then be put in a bonnet and everyone would take one out while blindfolded. According to one writer, whoever got the marked piece would have to | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | leap through the fire three times. According to another, those present would pretend to throw them into the fire and, for some time afterwards, they would speak of them as if they were dead. This "may embody a memory of actual human sacrifice", or it may have always been symbolic. A similar ritual (i.e. of pretending to burn someone in the fire) was practised at spring and summer bonfire festivals in other parts of Europe.
Flowers and May Bushes
White and yellow flowers such as primrose, rowan, hawthorn, | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | gorse, hazel, and marsh marigold are traditionally placed at doorways and windows; this is documented in 19th century Ireland, Scotland and Mann. Sometimes loose flowers were strewn at the doors and windows and sometimes they were made into bouquets, garlands or crosses and fastened to them. They would also be fastened to cows and equipment for milking and butter making. It is likely that such flowers were used because they evoked fire. Similar May Day customs are found across Europe.
The May Bush or May | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | Bough was popular in parts of Ireland until the late 19th century. This was a small tree or branch—typically hawthorn, rowan, holly or sycamore—decorated with bright flowers, ribbons, painted shells, eggshells from Easter Sunday and so forth. The tree would either be decorated where it stood, or branches would be decorated and placed inside or outside the house (particularly above windows and doors, on the roof, and on barns). It was generally the responsibility of the oldest person of the house to decorate | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | the May Bush, and the tree would remain up until May 31st. The tree may also be decorated with candles or rushlights. Sometimes a May Bush would be paraded through the town. In parts of southern Ireland, gold and silver hurling balls known as May Balls would be hung on these May Bushes and handed out to children or given to the winners of a hurling match. In Dublin and Belfast, May Bushes were brought into town from the countryside and decorated by the whole neighbourhood. Each neighbourhood vied for the m | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | ost handsome tree and, sometimes, residents of one would try to steal the May Bush of another. This led to the May Bush being outlawed in Victorian times. In some places, it was customary to sing and dance around the May Bush, and at the end of the festivities it may be burnt in the bonfire. In some areas the May Bush or Bough has also been called the "May Pole", but it is the bush or tree described above, and not the more commonly-known European maypole.
Thorn trees are traditionally seen as special trees | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | , associated with the aos sí. Frazer believes the customs of decorating trees or poles in the springtime are a relic of tree worship and writes: "The intention of these customs is to bring home to the village, and to each house, the blessings which the tree-spirit has in its power to bestow." Emyr Estyn Evans suggests that the May Bush custom may have come to Ireland from England, because it seemed to be found in areas with strong English influence and because the Irish saw it as unlucky to damage certain t | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | horn trees. However, "lucky" and "unlucky" trees varied by region, and it has been suggested that Beltane was the only time when cutting thorn trees was allowed. The practice of bedecking a May Bush with flowers, ribbons, garlands and bright shells is found among the Gaelic diaspora, most notably in Newfoundland, and in some Easter traditions on the East Coast of the United States.
Appeasing the fairies
Many Beltane practices were designed to ward off or appease the fairies and prevent them from stealing | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | dairy products. For example, three black coals were placed under a butter churn to ensure the fairies did not steal the butter, and may poles were tied to milk pails, the tails of cattle or hung in the barns to ensure the cattle's milk was not stolen. Flowers were also used to decorate the horns of cattle, which was believed to bring good fortune. Food was left or milk poured at the doorstep or places associated with the , such as 'fairy trees', as an offering. However, milk was never given to a neighbor on | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | May Day because it was feared that the milk would be transferred to the neighbor's cow. In Ireland, cattle would be brought to 'fairy forts', where a small amount of their blood would be collected. The owners would then pour it into the earth with prayers for the herd's safety. Sometimes the blood would be left to dry and then be burnt. It was thought that dairy products were especially at risk from harmful spirits. To protect farm produce and encourage fertility, farmers would lead a procession around the | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | boundaries of their farm. They would "carry with them seeds of grain, implements of husbandry, the first well water, and the herb vervain (or rowan as a substitute). The procession generally stopped at the four cardinal points of the compass, beginning in the east, and rituals were performed in each of the four directions". People made the sign of the cross with milk for good luck on Beltane, and the sign of the cross was also made on the back sides of cattle.
Other customs
Holy wells were often visited a | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | t Beltane, and at the other Gaelic festivals of Imbolc and Lughnasadh. Visitors to holy wells would pray for health while walking sunwise (moving from east to west) around the well. They would then leave offerings; typically coins or clooties (see clootie well). The first water drawn from a well on Beltane was seen as being especially potent, and would bring good luck to person who drew it. Beltane morning dew was also a source of good luck and health. At dawn or before sunrise on Beltane, maidens would rol | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | l in the dew or wash their faces with it. The dew was collected in a jar, left in the sunlight, and then filtered. The dew was thought to increase sexual attractiveness, maintain youthfulness, protect from sun damage (particularly freckles and sunburn) and help with skin ailments for the ensuing year. Additionally, a man who washes his face with soap and water on Beltane will grow a long whisker on his face.
It was widely believed that no one should light a fire on May Day morning until she saw smoke risin | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | g from a neighbor's house. It was also believed to be bad luck to put out ashes or clothes on May Day, and to give away a coal or ashes would cause the giver difficulty in lighting a fire for the next year. Also, if the family owned a white horse, it should remain in the barn all day, and if any other horse was owned, a red rag should be tied to its tail. Additionally, any foal born on May Day was fated to kill a man, and any cow that calved on May Day would die. Any birth or marriage on May Day was general | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | ly believed to be ill-fated. On May Night a cake and a jug were left on the table, because it was believed that the Irish who had died abroad would return on May Day to their ancestral homes, and it was also a general belief that the dead returned on May Day to visit their friends. A robin that flew into the house on Beltane was believed to portend the death of a household member.
The festival persisted widely up until the 1950s, and in some places the celebration of Beltane continues today.
Revival
As a | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | festival, Beltane had largely died out by the mid-20th century, although some of its customs continued and in some places it has been revived as a cultural event. In Ireland, Beltane fires were common until the mid-20th century, but the custom seems to have lasted to the present day only in County Limerick (especially in Limerick itself) and in Arklow, County Wicklow. However, the custom has been revived in some parts of the country. Some cultural groups have sought to revive the custom at Uisneach and per | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | haps at the Hill of Tara. The lighting of a community Beltane fire from which each hearth fire is then relit is observed today in some parts of the Gaelic diaspora, though in most of these cases it is a cultural revival rather than an unbroken survival of the ancient tradition. In some areas of Newfoundland, the custom of decorating the May Bush is also still extant. The town of Peebles in the Scottish Borders holds a traditional week-long Beltane Fair every year in June, when a local girl is crowned Beltan | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | e Queen on the steps of the parish church. Like other Borders festivals, it incorporates a Common Riding.
Since 1988, a Beltane Fire Festival has been held every year during the night of 30 April on Calton Hill in Edinburgh, Scotland. While inspired by traditional Beltane, this festival is a modern arts and cultural event which incorporates myth and drama from a variety of world cultures and diverse literary sources. Two central figures of the Bel Fire procession and performance are the May Queen and the G | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | reen Man.
Neo-Paganism
Beltane and Beltane-based festivals are held by some Neopagans. As there are many kinds of Neopaganism, their Beltane celebrations can be very different despite the shared name. Some try to emulate the historic festival as much as possible. Other Neopagans base their celebrations on many sources, the Gaelic festival being only one of them.
Neopagans usually celebrate Beltane on 30 April – 1 May in the Northern Hemisphere and 31 October – 1 November in the Southern Hemisphere, beginn | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | ing and ending at sunset. Some Neopagans celebrate it at the astronomical midpoint between the spring equinox and summer solstice (or the full moon nearest this point). In the Northern Hemisphere, this midpoint is when the ecliptic longitude of the Sun reaches 45 degrees. In 2014, this was on 5 May.
Celtic Reconstructionist
Celtic Reconstructionists strive to reconstruct the pre-Christian religions of the Celts. Their religious practices are based on research and historical accounts, but may be modified sl | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | ightly to suit modern life. They avoid modern syncretism and eclecticism (i.e. combining practises from unrelated cultures).
Celtic Reconstructionists usually celebrate when the local hawthorn trees are in bloom. Many observe the traditional bonfire rites, to whatever extent this is feasible where they live. This may involve passing themselves and their pets or livestock between two bonfires, and bringing home a candle lit from the bonfire. If they are unable to make a bonfire or attend a bonfire ceremony | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | , torches or candles may be used instead. They may decorate their homes with a May Bush, branches from blooming thorn trees, or equal-armed rowan crosses. Holy wells may be visited and offerings made to the spirits or deities of the wells. Traditional festival foods may also be prepared.
Wicca
Wiccans use the name Beltane or Beltain for their May Day celebrations. It is one of the yearly Sabbats of the Wheel of the Year, following Ostara and preceding Midsummer. Unlike Celtic Reconstructionism, Wicca is sy | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | ncretic and melds practices from many different cultures. In general, the Wiccan Beltane is more akin to the Germanic/English May Day festival, both in its significance (focusing on fertility) and its rituals (such as maypole dancing). Some Wiccans enact a ritual union of the May Lord and May Lady.
Name
In Irish, the festival is usually called ('day of Beltane') while the month of May is ("month of Beltane"). In Scottish Gaelic, the festival is and the month is or . Sometimes the older Scottish Gaelic | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | spelling is used. The word comes from ('first of summer'), an old alternative name for the festival. The term (Scottish) or (Irish), 'the bright or yellow day of Beltane', means the first of May. In Ireland it is referred to in a common folk tale as ; the first day of the week (Monday/) is added to emphasise the first day of summer.
The name is anglicized as Beltane, Beltain, Beltaine, Beltine and Beltany.
Etymology
Two modern etymologies have been proposed. Beltaine could derive from a Common Celtic | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | , meaning 'bright fire'. The element might be cognate with the English word bale (as in ) meaning 'white' or 'shining'; compare Old English , and Lithuanian/Latvian /, found in the name of the Baltic; in Slavic languages or also means 'white', as in ('White Rus′' or Belarus) or ('White Sea'). Alternatively, Beltaine might stem from a Common Celtic form reconstructed as , which would be cognate with the name of the Lithuanian goddess of death , both from an earlier *gʷel-tiōn-, formed with the Proto-In | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | do-European root * ('suffering, death'). The absence of syncope (Irish sound laws rather predict a **Beltne form) can be explained by the popular belief that Beltaine was a compound of the word for 'fire', tene.
In Ó Duinnín's Irish dictionary (1904), Beltane is referred to as which it explains is short for meaning 'first (of) summer'. The dictionary also states that is May Day and is the month of May.
Toponymy
There are a number of place names in Ireland containing the word , indicating places where | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | Bealtaine festivities were once held. It is often anglicised as Beltany. There are three Beltanys in County Donegal, including the Beltany stone circle, and two in County Tyrone. In County Armagh there is a place called Tamnaghvelton/ ('the Beltane field'). Lisbalting/ ('the Beltane ringfort') is in County Tipperary, while Glasheennabaultina/ ('the Beltane stream') is the name of a stream joining the River Galey in County Limerick.
See also
Calendars
Celtic calendar
Coligny calendar
Irish calendar
Ot | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | her
Walpurgis Night
Welsh Holidays
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Carmichael, Alexander (1992). Carmina Gadelica. Lindisfarne Press.
Chadwick, Nora (1970) The Celts. London, Penguin
Danaher, Kevin (1972) The Year in Ireland. Dublin, Mercier
Evans-Wentz, W. Y. (1966, 1990) The Fairy-Faith in Celtic Countries. New York, Citadel
MacKillop, James (1998). Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. Oxford University Press
McNeill, F. Marian (1959) The Silver Bough, Vol. 1–4. William MacLellan, Glas | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | gow
Simpson, Eve Blantyre (1908), Folk Lore in Lowland Scotland, London: J.M. Dent.
External links
Edinburgh's Beltane Fire Society
Extract on The Beltane Fires from Sir James George Frazer's book The Golden Bough – 1922; from bartleby.com
April observances
Cross-quarter days
Gaelic culture
Holidays in Scotland
Irish culture
Irish folklore
Irish mythology
Irish words and phrases
Galician culture
Manx culture
May observances
Modern Pagan holidays
November observances
Scottish culture
Scottish folklore
S | [
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4306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane | Beltane | cottish mythology | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | Bethlehem (; , "House of Meat"; , , "House of Bread"; ; ; initially named after Canaanite fertility god Laḫmu) is a city in the central West Bank, Palestine, about south of Jerusalem. Its population is approximately 25,000, and it is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate. The economy is primarily tourist-driven, peaking during the Christmas season, when Christians make pilgrimage to the Church of the Nativity. The important holy site of Rachel's Tomb is at the northern entrance of Bethlehem, though n | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | ot freely accessible to the city's own inhabitants and in general Palestinians living in the occupied West Bank due to the Israeli West Bank barrier.
The earliest known mention of Bethlehem was in the Amarna correspondence of 1350–1330 BCE when the town was inhabited by the Canaanites. The Hebrew Bible, which says that the city of Bethlehem was built up as a fortified city by Rehoboam, identifies it as the city David was from and where he was anointed as the king of Israel. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | identify Bethlehem as the birthplace of Jesus. Bethlehem was destroyed by the Emperor Hadrian during the second-century Bar Kokhba revolt; its rebuilding was promoted by Empress Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, who commissioned the building of its great Church of the Nativity in 327 CE. The church was badly damaged by the Samaritans, who sacked it during a revolt in 529, but was rebuilt a century later by Emperor Justinian I.
Bethlehem became part of Jund Filastin following the Muslim conquest in 6 | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | 37. Muslim rule continued in Bethlehem until its conquest in 1099 by a crusading army, who replaced the town's Greek Orthodox clergy with a Latin one. In the mid-13th century, the Mamluks demolished the city's walls, which were subsequently rebuilt under the Ottomans in the early 16th century. Control of Bethlehem passed from the Ottomans to the British at the end of World War I. Bethlehem came under Jordanian rule during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and was later captured by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War. Si | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | nce the 1995 Oslo Accords, Bethlehem has been administered by the Palestinian Authority.
Following an influx of refugees as a result of Israeli advances in the 1967 war, Bethlehem has a Muslim majority, but is still home to a significant Palestinian Christian community. It is now encircled and encroached upon by dozens of Israeli settlements and the Israeli West Bank barrier, which separates both Muslim and Christian communities from their land and livelihoods, and sees a steady exodus from both communitie | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | s.
History
Canaanite period
The earliest reference to Bethlehem appears in the Amarna correspondence (c. 1400 BCE). In one of his six letters to Pharaoh, Abdi-Heba, the Egyptian-appointed governor of Jerusalem, appeals for aid in retaking Bit-Laḫmi in the wake of disturbances by Apiru mercenaries: "Now even a town near Jerusalem, Bit-Lahmi by name, a village which once belonged to the king, has fallen to the enemy... Let the king hear the words of your servant Abdi-Heba, and send archers to restore the im | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | perial lands of the king!"
It is thought that the similarity of this name to its modern forms indicates that it was originally a settlement of Canaanites who shared a Semitic cultural and linguistic heritage with the later arrivals. Laḫmu was the Akkadian god of fertility, worshipped by the Canaanites as Leḥem. Some time in the third millennium BCE, Canaanites erected a temple on the hill now known as the Hill of the Nativity, probably dedicated to Lehem. The temple, and subsequently the town that formed a | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | round it, would then have been known as Beyt Leḥem, "House (Temple) of Lehem". The Philistines later established a garrison there.
Biblical scholar William F. Albright noted that the pronunciation of the name remained essentially the same for 3,500 years, but has meant different things: "'Temple of the God Lakhmu' in Canaanite, 'House of Bread' in Hebrew and Aramaic, 'House of Meat' in Arabic."
A burial ground discovered in spring 2013, and surveyed in 2015 by a joint Italian-Palestinian team found that t | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | he necropolis covered 3 hectares (more than 7 acres) and originally contained more than 100 tombs in use between roughly 2200 BCE and 650 BCE. The archaeologists were able to identify at least 30 tombs.
Israelite and Judean period
Archaeological confirmation of Bethlehem as a city in the Kingdom of Judah was uncovered in 2012 at the archaeological dig at the City of David in the form of a bulla (seal impression in dried clay) in ancient Hebrew script that reads "From the town of Bethlehem to the King." Acc | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | ording to the excavators, it was used to seal the string closing a shipment of grain, wine, or other goods sent as a tax payment in the 8th or 7th century BCE.
Biblical scholars believe Bethlehem, located in the "hill country" of Judea, may be the same as the Biblical Ephrath, which means "fertile", as there is a reference to it in the Book of Micah as Bethlehem Ephratah. The Hebrew Bible also calls it Beth-Lehem Judah, and the New Testament describes it as the "City of David". It is first mentioned in the | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | Bible as the place where the matriarch Rachel died and was buried "by the wayside" (). Rachel's Tomb, the traditional grave site, stands at the entrance to Bethlehem. According to the Book of Ruth, the valley to the east is where Ruth of Moab gleaned the fields and returned to town with Naomi. In the Books of Samuel, Bethlehem is mentioned as the home of Jesse, father of King David of Israel, and the site of David's anointment by the prophet Samuel. It was from the well of Bethlehem that three of his warri | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | ors brought him water when he was hiding in the cave of Adullam.
Writing in the 4th century, the Pilgrim of Bordeaux reported that the sepulchers of David, Ezekiel, Asaph, Job, Jesse, and Solomon were located near Bethlehem. There has been no corroboration of this.
Classical period
The Gospel of Matthew Matthew 1:18-2:23 and the Gospel of Luke Luke 2:1-39 represent Jesus as having been born in Bethlehem. Modern scholars, however, regard the two accounts as contradictory and the Gospel of Mark, the earlie | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | st gospel, mentions nothing about Jesus having been born in Bethlehem, saying only that he came from Nazareth. Current scholars are divided on the actual birthplace of Jesus: some believe he was actually born in Nazareth, while others still hold that he was born in Bethlehem.
Nonetheless, the tradition that Jesus was born in Bethlehem was prominent in the early church. In around 155, the apologist Justin Martyr recommended that those who doubted Jesus was really born in Bethlehem could go there and visit t | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | he very cave where he was supposed to have been born. The same cave is also referenced by the apocryphal Gospel of James and the fourth-century church historian Eusebius. After the Bar Kokhba revolt ( 132–136 CE) was crushed, the Roman emperor Hadrian converted the Christian site above the Grotto into a shrine dedicated to the Greek god Adonis, to honour his favourite, the Greek youth Antinous.
In around 395 CE, the Church Father Jerome wrote in a letter: "Bethlehem... belonging now to us... was overshadow | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | ed by a grove of Tammuz, that is to say, Adonis, and in the cave where once the infant Christ cried, the lover of Venus was lamented." Many scholars have taken this letter as evidence that the cave of the nativity over which the Church of the Nativity was later built had at one point been a shrine to the ancient Near Eastern fertility god Tammuz. Eusebius, however, mentions nothing about the cave having been associated with Tammuz and there are no other Patristic sources that suggest Tammuz had a shrine in | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | Bethlehem. Peter Welten has argued that the cave was never dedicated to Tammuz and that Jerome misinterpreted Christian mourning over the Massacre of the Innocents as a pagan ritual over Tammuz's death. Joan E. Taylor has countered this contention by arguing that Jerome, as an educated man, could not have been so naïve as to mistake Christian mourning over the Massacre of the Innocents as a pagan ritual for Tammuz.
In 326–328, the empress Helena, consort of the emperor Constantius Chlorus, and mother of th | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | e emperor Constantine the Great, made a pilgrimage to Syra-Palaestina, in the course of which she visited the ruins of Bethlehem. The Church of the Nativity was built at her initiative over the cave where Jesus was purported to have been born. During the Samaritan revolt of 529, Bethlehem was sacked and its walls and the Church of the Nativity destroyed; they were rebuilt on the orders of the Emperor Justinian I. In 614, the Persian Sassanid Empire, supported by Jewish rebels, invaded Palestina Prima and ca | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | ptured Bethlehem. A story recounted in later sources holds that they refrained from destroying the church on seeing the magi depicted in Persian clothing in a mosaic.
Middle Ages
In 637, shortly after Jerusalem was captured by the Muslim armies, 'Umar ibn al-Khattāb, the second Caliph, promised that the Church of the Nativity would be preserved for Christian use. A mosque dedicated to Umar was built upon the place in the city where he prayed, next to the church. Bethlehem then passed through the control o | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | f the Islamic caliphates of the Umayyads in the 8th century, then the Abbasids in the 9th century. A Persian geographer recorded in the mid-9th century that a well preserved and much venerated church existed in the town. In 985, the Arab geographer al-Muqaddasi visited Bethlehem, and referred to its church as the "Basilica of Constantine, the equal of which does not exist anywhere in the country-round." In 1009, during the reign of the sixth Fatimid Caliph, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, the Church of the Nativity | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | was ordered to be demolished, but was spared by local Muslims, because they had been permitted to worship in the structure's southern transept.
In 1099, Bethlehem was captured by the Crusaders, who fortified it and built a new monastery and cloister on the north side of the Church of the Nativity. The Greek Orthodox clergy were removed from their sees and replaced with Latin clerics. Up until that point the official Christian presence in the region was Greek Orthodox. On Christmas Day 1100, Baldwin I, firs | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | t king of the Frankish Kingdom of Jerusalem, was crowned in Bethlehem, and that year a Latin episcopate was also established in the town.
In 1187, Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt and Syria who led the Muslim Ayyubids, captured Bethlehem from the Crusaders. The Latin clerics were forced to leave, allowing the Greek Orthodox clergy to return. Saladin agreed to the return of two Latin priests and two deacons in 1192. However, Bethlehem suffered from the loss of the pilgrim trade, as there was a sharp decrease of | [
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4312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem | Bethlehem | European pilgrims. William IV, Count of Nevers had promised the Christian bishops of Bethlehem that if Bethlehem should fall under Muslim control, he would welcome them in the small town of Clamecy in present-day Burgundy, France. As a result, the Bishop of Bethlehem duly took up residence in the hospital of Panthenor, Clamecy, in 1223. Clamecy remained the continuous 'in partibus infidelium' seat of the Bishopric of Bethlehem for almost 600 years, until the French Revolution in 1789.
Bethlehem, along wit | [
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