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Perizoma affinitata. Perizoma affinitata, the rivulet, is a species of moth of the family Geometridae. It was first described by James Francis Stephens in 1831 and it is found in most of Europe. Its wingspan is 24–30 mm and is characterized by the narrow white postmedian band of the forewing and especially by the dark hindwing, with only a narrow, divided white or whitish band. Northern and western Germany, and rather less extreme from England and according to Otto Staudinger it is distributed in central and northern Europe and Romania. - rivinata Fisch.-Rossl. has the white on the forewing much extended and the hindwing broadly or almost wholly white. It belongs chiefly to northern or mountain districts, but sometimes occurs as an aberration with the type England, N. Norway, the Alps, Carpathians. - magistraria Trti. and Verity is larger, the forewing grey, not brown, but darker than in hydrata and with broader white band; hindwing greyish with double whitish band; underside like that of rivinata. Terme di Valdieri, Maritime Alps.[2] The larva is rather powerful, pale pink with a dark head capsule and the dorsal side of the first body joint. The species is found in forest edges, hedges and on flower meadows. The larvae feed on Silene species, including Silene dioica. The larvae can be found from June to September. The species overwinters as a pupa.
Hu Di. Hu Di (Chinese: 胡底; 1905 – September 1935) was a Chinese filmmaker and Communist secret agent during the Republic of China era. After the Kuomintang (KMT) began the Shanghai massacre in 1927, Hu worked as a mole in the Kuomintang secret service, together with Qian Zhuangfei and Li Kenong. Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai called them the three most distinguished intelligence workers of the Party. Hu was executed in September 1935 by renegade Chinese Communist Party commander Zhang Guotao during the Long March. Hu was born Hu Baichang (Chinese: 胡百昌) in 1905 in Shucheng County, Anhui Province. He also used the names Hu Beifeng (Chinese: 胡北风) and Hu Ma (Chinese: 胡马).[1] In 1923, he was admitted to China University in Beijing, where he befriended Qian Zhuangfei and his wife Zhang Wenhua.[2][1] In 1925, the three secretly joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), and they worked closely together.[3] They established the Guanghua Film Company, using filmmaking as a cover for their underground activities.[3][1] After the KMTs April 1927 massacre of the Communists in Shanghai, and the execution of CCP leader Li Dazhao by Fengtian clique leader Zhang Zuolin in Beijing, the three moved to Shanghai, where Hu found work at the Shanghai Film Company.[3][1] He met the experienced Communist underground worker Li Kenong and introduced him to Qian.[3] In 1929, Qian successfully infiltrated the KMTs secret service and was appointed the chief coordinator of the central intelligence headquarters in Nanjing,[3] in charge of recruiting more special agents.[4] This created opportunities for Hu Di and Li Kenong to join the KMT secret service as moles.[4] Hu was made the chief of the KMTs Tianjin secret service unit, disguised as the Great Wall News Agency, while Li ran the Shanghai unit, ostensibly the Broadcast News Service.[3] Their intelligence reports helped the Red Army in the Jiangxi Soviet thwart the first two of Chiang Kai-sheks Encirclement Campaigns.[4] On 24 April 1931, Gu Shunzhang, Zhou Enlais security chief and head of the CCPs dreaded Red Brigade, was arrested in Wuhan while on a mission to assassinate Chiang Kai-shek.[5][4] To save himself, Gu defected to the KMT, and disclosed his extensive knowledge about CCP organizations. Qian Zhuangfei intercepted a telegram sent by the Wuhan police to the Nanjing headquarters, and delivered the message to Li Kenong in Shanghai, who in turned informed Zhou Enlai[5][4] and telegraphed Hu Di, who immediately boarded a foreign ship and left Tianjin for Shanghai. In August 1931, Hu Di and Qian Zhuangfei left Shanghai for the Jiangxi Soviet, the CCP revolutionary base area in Jiangxi Province.[1]
Pori. Pori (Finnish: [ˈpori]; Swedish: Björneborg [bjœːrneˈborj] ⓘ; Latin: Arctopolis)[8] is a city in Finland and the regional capital of Satakunta. It is located on the west coast of the country, on the Gulf of Bothnia. The population of Pori is approximately 83,000, while the sub-region has a population of approximately 128,000. It is the 10th most populous municipality in Finland, and the eighth most populous urban area in the country. Pori is located some 10 kilometres (6 mi) from the Gulf of Bothnia, on the estuary of the Kokemäki River, 110 kilometres (68 mi) west of Tampere, 140 kilometres (87 mi) north of Turku and 241 kilometres (150 mi) north-west of Helsinki, the capital of Finland. Pori covers an area of 2,062.00 square kilometres (796.14 sq mi) of which 870.01 km2 (335.91 sq mi) is water.[3] The population density is 71.93/km2 (186.3/sq mi). Pori was established in 1558 by Duke John, who later became King John III of Sweden.[1][2] The municipality is unilingually Finnish. Pori was also once one of the main cities with Turku in the former Turku and Pori Province (1634–1997). The neighboring municipalities are Eurajoki, Kankaanpää, Kokemäki, Merikarvia, Nakkila, Pomarkku, Sastamala, Siikainen and Ulvila. Pori is especially known nationwide for its Jazz Festival, Yyteris sandy beaches, Kirjurinluoto, Porin Ässät ice hockey club, FC Jazz football club, which won two championships in the Veikkausliiga in the 1990s, and Pori Theater, which is the first Finnish-language theater in Finnish history.[9] Pori is also known for its local street food called porilainen.[10] During its history, the city of Pori has burned down nine times; only Oulu has burned more often, as many as ten times.[11][12][13][14][15] The current coat of arms of Pori was confirmed for use by President P. E. Svinhufvud on December 11, 1931,[16] and was later redrawn by Olof Eriksson. The city council reaffirmed the use of the redrawn version on October 27, 1959. The bear motif of the coat of arms comes from a 17th century seal and the motto, deus protector noster or God is our protector, is also on the coat of arms of the citys founder, Duke John.[1] The Finnish name Pori comes from the -borg part (meaning citadel, fortress or castle) of the original name in Swedish with a Fennicised pronunciation.[17] The whole Swedish name Björneborg literally means Bear Fortress or Bear Castle (Finnish: Karhulinna), and the Latin-Greek Arctopolis means Bear City (Finnish: Karhukaupunki).[18][19][20]
Hu Die (TV host). Hu Die (Chinese: 胡蝶; pinyin: Hú Dié; born February 16, 1983), also known as Fang Yuan, is a Chinese television hostess for China Central Television. She is from Hanzhong, Shaanxi, China.[1] In December 2007, she became the winner of CCTVs 5th host contest.[2] In 2005, Hu Die became a hostess. She hosted program Acting Arama [clarification needed] and Golden Days in CCTV-3. [1] In December 2007, she became the winner of CCTVs 5th host contest.[2] In 2008, she hosted Asia Today and China News in CCTV-4.[1] On July 27, 2009, she began to host Morning News.[1][3] In March 2009, she hosted the interactive program I have questions to the Premier on CCTV-4 during the NPC and CPPCC.[4] In December 2012, Hu Die hosted 2012 CCTV Champtionship of Internet Motels and Awards Ceremory.[5] In July 2014, she served as a guest of a special program of World Cup of CCTV-5.[6] In September 2016, she attended CCTV Mid-Autumn Festival Gala.[7] In May 2025, Hu Die referred to the Peoples Republic of China and Taiwan as separate countries during a live newscast, the footage of which was widely censored.[8]
Order of the British Empire. The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is a British order of chivalry, rewarding valuable service in a wide range of useful activities.[2] It comprises five classes of awards across both civil and military divisions, the most senior two of which make the recipient either a knight if male or a dame if female.[3] There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with the order, but are not members of it. The order was established on 4 June 1917 by King George V, who created the order to recognise such persons, male or female, as may have rendered or shall hereafter render important services to Our Empire.[3] Equal recognition was to be given for services rendered in the UK and overseas.[4] Today, the majority of recipients are UK citizens, though a number of Commonwealth realms outside the UK continue to make appointments to the order.[5] Honorary awards may be made to citizens of other nations of which the orders sovereign is not the head of state. The five classes of appointment to the Order are, from highest grade to lowest grade: The senior two ranks of Knight or Dame Grand Cross and Knight or Dame Commander entitle their members to use the titles Sir for men and Dame for women before their forenames, except with honorary awards.[6]
Concord Music Group. Concord Music Group was an American independent music company based in Beverly Hills, California, with worldwide (including the U.S.) distribution through Universal Music Group.[2][3] The company specialized in recordings and music publishing. On April 1, 2015, Concord Music Group merged with Bicycle Music Company to become Concord Bicycle Music.[4] In 2004, Concord Records acquired Fantasy, Inc., owner of the Prestige, Fantasy, Milestone, Riverside, Specialty, and the post-Atlantic Stax catalog. Concord then combined with Fantasy to form the independent Concord Music Group (CMG).[5] Also in 2004, CMG partnered with Starbucks to release the Ray Charles album Genius Loves Company,[6] which won eight GRAMMY Awards, including Album of the Year.[7] In 2005, CMG bought Telarc.[8] On December 18, 2006, CMG announced the re-launch of the soul label Stax; rights to the name were formerly held by Fantasy. New singers included Isaac Hayes and Angie Stone.[9] On March 12, 2007, Concord Music Group and Starbucks jointly founded the Hear Music label.[10] Paul McCartneys album Memory Almost Full was released in June 2007.[11] Hear Music went on to release albums by Joni Mitchell, James Taylor, Alanis Morissette, Carly Simon and John Mellencamp. In 2008, Village Roadshow Pictures Group (VRPG) and CMG completed their merger resulting in the creation of the new diversified entertainment group, Village Roadshow Entertainment Group.[12] In April 2010 it was announced that Paul McCartney transferred the distribution rights of his post-Beatles output to Concord from EMI.[13]
Samuel French. Samuel French (1821–1898) was an American entrepreneur who, together with British actor, playwright and theatrical manager Thomas Hailes Lacy, pioneered in the field of theatrical publishing and the licensing of plays.[1] French founded his publishing business in New York City in 1854. In 1859, he visited London, where he met Lacy, who had given up the stage and been active as a theatrical bookseller since the mid-1840s. Lacy, who had removed his shop from Wellington Street, Covent Garden to 89 Strand in 1857, had also started publishing acting editions of dramas. Lacys Acting Edition of Plays, published between 1848 and 1873, would eventually run to 99 volumes containing 1,485 individual pieces. French and Lacy became partners, each acting as the others agent across the Atlantic. In 1872, French decided to take up permanent residence in London, leaving his son Thomas Henry French in charge of the New York business. When Lacy retired in 1873, he sold out to French for £5,000. Lacy died in the same year, and French finally established his name as the most important theatrical publisher in England. At the time of his own death in 1898, almost all renowned English playwrights of the present and recent past had been represented by his company.
King Street, St Jamess. King Street is a street in the St Jamess district of the City of Westminster. It runs south-west to north-east from St Jamess Street to St Jamess Square. King Street was probably named after Charles II, and is first mentioned in ratebooks in 1673, having been known before as Charles Street.[1] The 1200-seat St Jamess Theatre on the corner with Duke Street opened in 1835, but was demolished in 1957, despite widespread protests. Notable occupiers include the principal London premises of the auctioneers Christies,[2] and Palamon Capital Partners.[3]
Hu (surname). Hu (胡) is a Chinese surname. In 2006, it was the 15th most common surname in China.[1][2] In 2013, it was the 13th most common in China, with 13.7 million Chinese sharing this surname.[3] In 2019, Hu dropped to 15th most common surname in mainland China.[4] Some other, less common surnames pronounced Hu include 瓠, 護, 戶, 扈, 虎, 呼, 忽, 斛 and 壶. In Cantonese, “胡” is also pronounced as Wu or Woo. In Classical Chinese, hú 胡 meant: dewlap; wattle and was a variant Chinese character for how; why; what (he 何), long-lasting; far-reaching (xia 遐), part of a dagger-axe, hu- in butterfly (hudie 蝴蝶), or possibly Northern Barbarians.[5] According to tradition, the Hu (胡) surname has several historical origins. First, Hu could derive from the family of Duke Hu of Chen. King Wu of Zhou (r. 1046-043 BCE) enfeoffed his son-in-law Gui Man 媯滿 (supposedly a descendant of the legendary sage king Emperor Shun) with the state of Chen (in modern Henan Province). His posthumous name was Duke Hu, and his descendants adopted Hu as their surname. Second, Hu could derive from two Zhou vassal states named Hu 胡, one located near Luohe (Henan Province) or another near Fuyang (Anhui Province). Third, Hu could derive from non-Chinese people adopting it as their surname. For example, in the 496 Change of Xianbei names to Han names, Hegu/Gegu 紇骨 was changed to Hu 胡. Fourth, Hu could derive from the clan name of the ancient Tiele people within the Xiongnu confederation.[citation needed] Non-Chinese peoples and ethnic minorities in China sometimes took the Chinese exonym for their ethnic group as their surname. The best example is Hu 胡, which was anciently used to refer to barbarian groups on the northern and western frontiers of China.
Montriond. Montriond (French pronunciation: [mɔ̃tʁijɔ̃]; Arpitan: Meûryan) is a commune in the Haute-Savoie department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in south-eastern France. It is just north of the ski resorts of Morzine and Avoriaz in the Portes du Soleil ski resorts area. Just east lies Lac de Montriond, a small lake. Montrionds village centre features a small supermarket, ski/outdoors retailer and several restaurants as well as a tourist information office and a Mairie. This Haute-Savoie geographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Chart of Standard Forms of Common National Characters. The Chart of Standard Forms of Common National Characters[1] or the Table of Standard Typefaces for Frequently-Used Chinese Characters[2] (Chinese: 常用國字標準字體表; pinyin: Chángyòng Guózì Biāozhǔn Zìtǐ Biǎo) is a list of 4,808 commonly used Chinese characters. The standard typefaces were prescribed by Taiwans Ministry of Education, and have been adopted in the textbooks for primary and junior high schools in Taiwan since September 1982. The project to standardize frequently used Chinese characters started in 1973. This work was undertaken by a task force consisting from the Graduate Institute of Chinese of the National Taiwan Normal University. The Chart was completed in 1978 and published in June 1979.[3] On September 1, 1982, the Ministry of Education promulgated the Chart of Standard Forms of Common National Characters, which contained 4,808 characters. In December of the same year, it publicized the Chart of Standard Forms of Less-Than-Common National Characters (Chinese: 次常用國字標準字體表; pinyin: Cì Chángyòng Guózì Biāozhǔn Zìtǐ Biǎo), which included 6,341 characters.[3] In addition, 18,388 characters in the Chart of Rarely-Used National Characters (Chinese: 罕用國字標準字體表; pinyin: Hǎnyòng Guózì Biāozhǔn Zìtǐ Biǎo) and 18,588 characters in the Chart of Variant Characters (Chinese: 異體國字字表; pinyin: Yìtǐ Guózì Zìbiǎo) were established later.[3] These four charts include a total of 48,125 characters. On August 4, 1986, Chinese Standard Interchange Code (CNS 11643) was announced as a national standard. Its character encoding plane order is set based on the frequency of usage. The characters set and typeface of CNS 11643 were established on the basis of the Chart of Standard Forms of Common National Characters.[1]
Cinema of China. The cinema of China is the filmmaking and film industry of mainland China, one of three distinct historical threads of Chinese-language cinema together with the cinema of Hong Kong and the cinema of Taiwan. China is the home of the largest movie and drama production complex and film studios in the world, the Oriental Movie Metropolis[6][7] and Hengdian World Studios. In 2012 the country became the second-largest market in the world by box office receipts behind only the United States. In 2016, the gross box office in China was CN¥45.71 billion (US$6.58 billion). China has also become a major hub of business for Hollywood studios. In November 2016, China passed a film law banning content deemed harmful to the dignity, honor and interests of the Peoples Republic and encouraging the promotion of core socialist values, approved by the National Peoples Congress Standing Committee.[8] Motion pictures were introduced to China in 1896. They were introduced through foreign film exhibitors in treaty ports like Shanghai and Hong Kong.[9]: 68 China was one of the earliest countries to be exposed to the medium of film, due to Louis Lumière sending his cameraman to Shanghai a year after inventing cinematography.[10] The first recorded screening of a motion picture in China took place in Shanghai on 11 August 1896 as an act on a variety bill.[11] The first Chinese film, a recording of the Peking opera, Dingjun Mountain, was made in November 1905 in Beijing.[12] For the next decade the production companies were mainly foreign-owned, and the domestic film industry was centered on Shanghai, a thriving entrepot and the largest city in the Far East.[13]
St Jamess. St Jamess is a district of Westminster, and a central district in the City of Westminster, London, forming part of the West End. The area was once part of the northwestern gardens and parks of St. Jamess Palace and much of it is still owned by the Crown Estate. During the Restoration in the 17th century, the area was developed as a residential location for the British aristocracy, and around the 19th century was the focus of the development of their gentlemens clubs. Once part of the parish of St Martin in the Fields, much of it formed the parish of St James from 1685 to 1922. Since the Second World War the area has transitioned from residential to commercial use. St Jamess is bounded to the north by Piccadilly and Mayfair, to the west by Green Park, to the south by The Mall and St. Jamess Park, and to the east by Haymarket. The areas name is derived from the dedication of a 12th-century leper hospital to Saint James the Less.[2][3] The hospital site is now occupied by St Jamess Palace.[4] The area became known as Clubland because of the historic presence of gentlemens clubs.[5][5] The section of Regent Street (colloquially known as Lower Regent Street) that runs between Waterloo Place and Piccadilly Circus has been officially renamed Regent Street St Jamess.
John Hare (actor). Sir John Hare (16 May 1844 – 28 December 1921), born John Joseph Fairs, was an English actor and theatre manager of the later 19th– and early 20th centuries. Born and brought up in London, with frequent visits to the West End, Hare had a passion for the theatre from his childhood. After acting as an amateur as a young man he joined a professional company in Liverpool, before making his London debut in 1865 at the age of 21 with Marie Wiltons company. Wilton was a pioneer of naturalistic theatre, with which Hare was greatly in sympathy, and he quickly gained a reputation in character roles, particularly in comedies. Within a decade Hare was well enough established to go into management. He was in partnership with the actor W. H. Kendal at the Court Theatre from 1875 to 1879, and from 1879 to 1888 at the St Jamess Theatre with Kendal and the latters wife, Madge. They presented, mostly successfully, a succession of new British plays, adaptations of French works, and revivals. At the Garrick Theatre from 1888 to 1895 Hare had a solo managerial career, after which he concentrated on acting – in the US, on tour in the British provinces, and in the West End. Among the playwrights with whom Hare was closely associated were T. W. Robertson, W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Wing Pinero. Hare was admired for his carefully observed characterisations, his comedic flair and his handsomely-mounted productions. He was knighted in 1907, and died in London in 1921 at the age of 77, four years after his last stage appearance.
St. James Theatre (disambiguation). St. James Theatre is a Broadway theatre in New York City. St. James Theatre may also refer to:
John Braham (tenor). John Braham (c. 1774 – 17 February 1856) was an English tenor opera singer born in London. His long career led him to become one of Europes leading opera stars. He also wrote a number of songs, of minor importance, although The Death of Nelson is still remembered. His success, and that of his offspring in marrying into the British aristocracy, are also notable examples of Jewish social mobility in the early 19th century. Brahams precise origins are uncertain. The favoured (but specious) present account in contemporary sources of reference is that he was possibly a son of John Abraham or Abrahams, who was possibly an operative at the Drury Lane Theatre who died in 1779 and his wife, who may have been Esther, who may have been a sister of the hazzan at the Great Synagogue of London, Myer Lyon. Braham has also been held to be related to various other London musicians with the surname of Abrahams. There is however no documentary evidence for any of these supposed connections.[1] It is however fairly certain that Braham was left an orphan at an early age. There are stories of his selling pencils in the street as an urchin (a common trade for the Jewish poor at the time). Braham was a meshorrer (descant singer) at the Great Synagogue, and here his abilities were noted by Lyon, who led a double life as an operatic tenor at the theatre at Covent Garden (under the name of Michaele Leoni). Brahams first stage appearance was in fact at Leonis Covent Garden 1787 benefit, when he sang Thomas Arnes The soldier tir’d of war’s alarms. He next appeared in June at the Royalty Theatre, again with Leoni.[2]
List of Graphemes of Commonly-Used Chinese Characters. The List of Graphemes of Commonly-Used Chinese Characters (Chinese: 常用字字形表; Jyutping: soeng4 jung6 zi6 zi6 jing4 biu2) is a list of 4762 commonly used Chinese characters and their standardized forms prescribed by the Hong Kong Education Bureau. The list is meant to be taught in primary and middle schools in Hong Kong, but does not place restrictions on typefaces used for printing such as Ming, gothic, or rounded gothic typeface styles. Research and compilation work on the list began in July 1984. The work was undertaken by Professor Lei Hok-ming (李學銘) of the Department of Chinese of the Education Bureau Institute of Language in Education (ILE) (語文教育學院) and other scholars within the department. A Committee for the Research of Commonly-Used Chinese Character Graphemes, composed of scholars from various academic institutions, also participated in the examination and approval process for each character. The list was completed in September 1985 and published in September 1986. The list was revised more thoroughly upon republications in 1990, 1997, and 2000. The 1990 revision was undertaken by three professors in the Chinese department of the ILE. In 2000, the ILE had become a part of the Education University of Hong Kong, so the editing process was undertaken by three professors (Ze Gaa-hou 謝家浩, Lou Hing-kiu 盧興翹, and Sitou Sau-mei 司徒秀薇) of the Education University, along with Lei Hok-ming, who was at Hong Kong Polytechnic University at the time.
Toyotomi clan. The Toyotomi clan (Japanese: shinjitai: 豊臣氏 / kyujitai: 豐臣氏, Hepburn: Toyotomi-shi) was a Japanese clan that ruled over the Japanese before the Edo period. The most influential figure within the Toyotomi was Toyotomi Hideyoshi, one of the three unifiers of Japan. Oda Nobunaga was another primary unifier and the ruler of the Oda clan at the time. Hideyoshi joined Nobunaga at a young age, but was not highly regarded because of his peasant background. Nevertheless, Hideyoshis increasing influence allowed him to seize a significant degree of power from the Oda clan following Oda Nobunagas death in 1582. As the virtual ruler of most of Japan, Hideyoshi received the new clan name Toyotomi in 1585 from the emperor, and achieved the unification of Japan in 1590.[1] When Hideyoshi died in 1598, his son Toyotomi Hideyori was only five years old. Five regents were appointed to rule until his maturity, and conflicts among them began quickly. In 1600, Tokugawa Ieyasu deposed Hideyori and took power after winning the Battle of Sekigahara. In 1614, Hideyori came into conflict with the Tokugawa shogunate, leading to Tokugawa Ieyasus Siege of Osaka from 1614 to 1615. As a result of the siege, Hideyori and his mother, Yodo-dono, committed seppuku in the flames of Osaka castle. After their death, the Toyotomi clan dissolved, leaving the Tokugawa clan to solidify their rule of Japan and the last member of the Toyotomi clan was Tenshuni [ja] (1609–1645). A rumor said that Toyotomi Hideyoris son Toyotomi Kunimatsu escaped execution, and another rumor said that Hideyori had an illegitimate son named Amakusa Shirō. This Japanese clan article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Imperial Court in Kyoto. The Imperial Court in Kyoto was the nominal ruling government of Japan from 794 AD until the Meiji period (1868–1912), after which the court was moved from Kyoto (formerly Heian-kyō) to Tokyo (formerly Edo) and integrated into the Meiji government.[1] Upon the court being moved to Kyoto from Nagaoka by Emperor Kanmu (737–806),[2] the struggles for power regarding the throne that had characterized the Nara period diminished.[1] Kyoto was selected as the location for the court because of its proper amount of rivers and mountains which were believed to be the most auspicious surroundings for the new capital.[1] The capital itself was built in imitation of Changan, the Chinese capital of the Tang dynasty, closely following the theories of yin-yang.[1] The most prominent group of people within the court was the civil aristocracy (kuge) which was the ruling class of society that exercised power on behalf of the emperor.[3] Kyotos identity as a political, economic, and cultural centre started to be challenged in the post-1185 era with the rise of the shogunate system which gradually seized governance from the emperor.[2] Minamoto no Yoritomo was the first to establish the post of the shōgun as hereditary, receiving the title in 1192.[4] After Yoritomo launched the shogunate, true political power was in the hand of the shōguns, who were mistaken several times for the emperors of Japan by representatives of Western countries. The Kamakura shogunate (or Kamakura bakufu) would go on to last for almost 150 years, from 1185 to 1333.[4]
Capital of Japan. The capital of Japan is Tokyo.[1][2][3] Throughout history, the national capital of Japan has been in locations other than Tokyo. The oldest capital is Nara. While no laws have designated Tokyo as the Japanese capital, many laws have defined a capital area (首都圏, shuto-ken) that incorporates Tokyo. Article 2 of the Metropolitan Area Readjustment Act (首都圏整備法) of 1956 states: In this Act, the term capital area shall denote a broad region comprising both the territory of the Tokyo Metropolis as well as outlying regions designated by cabinet order. This implies that the government has designated Tokyo as the capital of Japan, although (again) it is not explicitly stated, and the definition of the capital area is purposely restricted to the terms of that specific law.[4] Other laws referring to the capital area include the Capital Expressway Public Corporation Law (首都高速道路公団法),[5] the Capital Area Greenbelt Preservation Law (首都圏近郊緑地保全法), the Act on Arrangement of Suburban Development and Redevelopment Areas and Urban Development Areas in Metropolitan Area (首都圏の近郊整備地帯及び都市開発区域の整備に関する法律), the Act on States Special Financial Measures on Arrangement of Suburban Development and Redevelopment Areas, etc. in Tokyo Metropolitan Area, Kinki Area and Chubu Area (首都圏、近畿圏及び中部圏の近郊整備地帯等の整備のための国の財政上の特別措置に関する法律), and the Special Measurements for Greater Tokyo Area earthquakes Law (首都直下地震対策特別措置法).[6][7] In February 2018, Seiji Osaka, a member of the House of Representatives, asked the government where the capital of Japan is. In response, Shinzo Abe stated that while no laws define the capital of Japan, they believed that the capital of Japan is Tokyo is widely accepted by the people.[8][9] Traditionally, the home of the Emperor is considered the capital. From 794 through 1868, the Emperor lived in Heian-kyō, modern-day Kyoto.[10][11] After 1868, the seat of the Government of Japan and the location of the Emperors home was moved to Edo, which it renamed Tokyo.[12] This term for capital was never used to refer to Kyoto. Indeed, shuto came into use during the 1860s as a gloss of the English term capital.
Paulownia. Six to 17 species, including: Paulownia catalpifolia Paulownia elongata Paulownia fargesii Paulownia fortunei Paulownia kawakamii Paulownia taiwaniana Paulownia tomentosa Paulownia (/pɔːˈloʊniə/ paw-LOH-nee-ə) is a genus of seven to 17 species of hardwood trees (depending on taxonomic authority) in the family Paulowniaceae, the order Lamiales. The genus and family are native to east Asia and are widespread across China.[1] The genus, originally Pavlovnia but now usually spelled Paulownia, was named in honour of Anna Pavlovna, queen consort of The Netherlands (1795–1865), daughter of Tsar Paul I of Russia. It is also called princess tree for the same reason.[2] It was originally sought after as an exotic ornamental tree in Europe and Asia, and later introduced to North America in 1844. Its fruits (botanically capsules) were also used as packaging material for goods shipped from East Asia to North America, leading to Paulownia groves where they were dumped near major ports. The tree has not persisted prominently in US gardens, in part due to its overwintering brown fruits that some consider ugly.[3] In some areas it has escaped cultivation and is found in disturbed plots. Some US authorities consider the genus an invasive species,[4] but in Europe, where it is also grown in gardens, it is not regarded as invasive. Paulownia trees produce as many as 20 million tiny seeds per year. However, the seeds are very susceptible to soil biota and only colonize well on sterile soils (such as after a high temperature wildfire). Well-drained soil is also essential. Successful plantations usually purchase plants that have been professionally propagated from root cuttings or seedlings.[5] Although seeds, seedlings, and roots of even mature trees are susceptible to rot, the wood is not and is used for boat building and surfboards.
Nitta clan. The Nitta clan (新田氏, Nitta-shi; Japanese pronunciation: [ɲiꜜt.ta(.ɕi)][1]) was one of several major families descended from the Seiwa Genji, and numbered among the chief enemies of the Hōjō clan regents, and later the Ashikaga shogunate. The common ancestor of the Nitta, Minamoto no Yoshishige (1135–1202), was the elder brother of Minamoto no Yoshiyasu, the common ancestor of the Ashikaga clan. Yoshishige was a landowner in the Nitta District of Kōzuke Province in present-day Gunma Prefecture. Yoshishige supported Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147–1199) in the Battle of Ishibashiyama of 1180 against the Taira clan.[2] The Nitta clan rose to importance in the early 13th century; they controlled Kozuke Province, and had little influence in Kamakura, the capital of the Kamakura shogunate, because their ancestor, Minamoto no Yoshishige had not joined his fellow clansmen in the Genpei War a century earlier. In the 1330s, Nitta Yoshisada led the clan and a number of other Minamoto vassals against the Hōjō clan regents. They succeeded, in June 1333, in destroying the Bakufus buildings in Kamakura. The Nitta clan played an important role once again, allying with the Date clan and the Southern Courts, during the Nanboku-cho wars of the late 14th century.
Mikawa Province. Mikawa Province (三河国, Mikawa no Kuni; Japanese pronunciation: [mʲiꜜ.ka.wa (no kɯ.ɲi), mʲi.ka.waꜜ-][1]) was an old province in the area that today forms the eastern half of Aichi Prefecture.[2] Its abbreviated form name was Sanshū (三州 or 参州). Mikawa bordered on Owari, Mino, Shinano, and Tōtōmi Provinces. Mikawa is classified as one of the provinces of the Tōkaidō. Under the Engishiki classification system, Mikawa was ranked as a superior country (上国) and a near country (近国) in terms of its distance from the capital. Mikawa is mentioned in records of the Taika Reform dated 645, as well as various Nara period chronicles, including the Kujiki, although the area has been settled since at least the Japanese Paleolithic period, as evidenced by numerous remains found by archaeologists. Early records mention a Nishi-Mikawa no kuni and a Higashi-Mikawa no kuni, also known as Ho Province (穂国, Ho no kuni). Although considered one administrative unit under the Engishiki classification system, this division (roughly based at the Yasaku River) persisted informally into the Edo period. The exact location of the provincial capital is not known. Traditionally considered to have been located in the Ko-machi (国府町) area of the modern city of Toyokawa because of the place name, archaeological investigations at the Hakuho-machi area of Toyota from 1991 to 1997 have revealed extensive ruins and ceramic shards indicating the possibility that the provincial capital was located there. Furthermore, the ruins of the Kokubun-ji of Mikawa Province was located in 1999 a short distance away from the Toyota site. On the other hand, the Ichinomiya of the province, Toga jinja is located in what is now part of Toyokawa, as well as a temple which claims to be a successor to the original provincial temple. During the Heian period, the province was divided into numerous shōen controlled by local samurai clans. During the Kamakura period but it came under the control of Adachi Morinaga, followed by the Ashikaga clan. For much of the Muromachi period it was controlled by the Isshiki clan. However, by the Sengoku period, the province had fragmented into many small territories largely dominated by the Matsudaira clan, and contested by the Imagawa clan to the east and the Oda clan to the west. It was united under Tokugawa Ieyasu after the power of the Imagawa had been destroyed at the Battle of Okehazama. After the creation of the Tokugawa shogunate, parts of the province were assigned as feudal domains to trusted hereditary retainers as fudai daimyōs, with large portions retained as shihaisho territory administered by various hatamoto directly under the shogunate. During the Edo period, Mikawa was the only area permitted by the shogunate to produce gunpowder, which led to its modern fireworks industry.
Matsudaira clan. The Matsudaira clan (松平氏, Matsudaira-shi) was a Japanese samurai clan that descended from the Minamoto clan. It originated in and took its name from Matsudaira village, in Mikawa Province (modern-day Aichi Prefecture). During the Sengoku period, the chieftain of the main line of the Matsudaira clan, Matsudaira Motoyasu became a powerful regional daimyo under Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi and changed his name to Tokugawa Ieyasu. He subsequently seized power as the first shōgun of the Tokugawa shogunate which ruled Japan during the Edo period until the Meiji Restoration of 1868. Under the Tokugawa shogunate, many cadet branches of the clan retained the Matsudaira surname, and numerous new branches were formed in the decades after Ieyasu. Some of those branches were also of daimyō status. After the Meiji Restoration and the abolition of the han system, the Tokugawa and Matsudaira clans became part of the new kazoku nobility.[1] The Matsudaira clan originated in Mikawa Province.[2] Its origins are uncertain, but in the Sengoku era, the clan claimed descent from the medieval Seiwa Genji branch of the Minamoto clan. According to this claim, the founder of the Matsudaira line was Matsudaira Chikauji, who lived in the 14th century and established himself in Mikawa Province, at Matsudaira village. The location of Matsudaira village is within the borders of the modern city of Toyota, Aichi. A number of locations associated with the early history of the clan were collectively designated a National Historic Site of Japan in the year 2000.[3] These include: In its territory in Mikawa Province, the Matsudaira clan was surrounded by much more powerful neighbors. To the west was the territory of the Oda clan of Owari Province; to the east, the Imagawa clan of Suruga. Each generation of Matsudaira family head had to carefully negotiate his relationship with these neighbors.
Minamoto clan. Minamoto (源; Japanese pronunciation: [mʲi.na.mo.to][1]) was a noble surname bestowed by the Emperors of Japan upon members of the imperial family who were excluded from the line of succession and demoted into the ranks of the nobility since 814.[2][3][4] Several noble lines were bestowed the surname, the most notable of which was the Seiwa Genji, whose descendants established the Kamakura and Ashikaga shogunates following the Heian era. The Minamoto was one of the four great clans that dominated Japanese politics during the Heian period in Japanese history—the other three were the Fujiwara, the Taira, and the Tachibana.[5][6] In the late Heian period, Minamoto rivalry with the Taira culminated in the Genpei War (1180–1185 AD). The Minamoto emerged victorious and established Japans first shogunate in Kamakura under Minamoto no Yoritomo, who appointed himself as shōgun in 1192, ushering in the Kamakura period (1192–1333 AD) of Japanese history. The name Genpei comes from alternate readings of the kanji Minamoto (源 Gen) and Taira (平 Hei). The Kamakura Shogunate was overthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo in the Kenmu Restoration of 1333. Three years later the Kenmu government would then itself be overthrown by the Ashikaga clan, descendants of the Seiwa Genji who established the Ashikaga shogunate (1333 to 1573). The Minamoto clan is also called the Genji (源氏; [ɡeɲ.dʑi],[1] lit. Minamoto clan), or less frequently, the Genke (源家; House of Minamoto), using the onyomi readings of gen (源) for Minamoto, while shi or ji (氏) means clan, and ke (家) is used as a suffix for extended family.[7] The Emperors of Japan bestowed noble surnames upon members of the imperial family who were excluded from the line of succession and demoted into the ranks of the nobility.[2][3][4] In May 814, the first emperor to grant the surname Minamoto was Emperor Saga, to his seventh son—Minamoto no Makoto, in Heian-Kyō (modern Kyōto).[8][3]: 18 [4] The practice was most prevalent during the Heian period (794–1185 AD), although its last occurrence was during the Sengoku period. The Taira were another such offshoot of the imperial dynasty, making both clans distant relatives.[9]
Wake no Kiyomaro. Wake no Kiyomaro (和気清麻呂; 733–799) was a high-ranking Japanese official during the Nara period. He was born in Bizen Province (now Wake, Okayama) to a family of politically important, devoted Buddhists who hoped to keep Buddhism and politics separate through religious reform. He became a trusted advisor to Emperor Kanmu, a position which he used to encourage the development of Buddhism in a direction which would prevent it from posing a threat to the government.[1][2] According to the Shoku Nihongi, he was sent to the Usa Shrine to receive a divine message; stating that only those of descent from Amaterasu could become emperor, it refuted the previous divine message claiming Dōkyō was to be the next emperor after Empress Kōken (later Empress Shōtoku).[3] This report angered Dōkyō, who used his influence with the Empress to have an edict issued sending Kiyomaro into exile; he also had the sinews of Kiyomaros legs cut, and only the protection of the Fujiwara clan saved him from being killed outright.[4] The following year, however, Empress Shōtoku died. She was succeeded by Emperor Kōnin, who in turn exiled Dōkyō to Shimotsuke Province and not only recalled Wake no Kiyomaro from exile, but also appointed him as both kami (governor) of Bizen Province and Udaijin (junior minister of state).[4][5] The following year, he petitioned the governor of Dazaifu to send officials to Usa to investigate allegations of fraudulent oracles; in his later report, Wake no Kiyomaro stated that out of five oracles checked, two were found to be fabricated. This resulted in the government relieving Usa no Ikemori of his position as head priest and replacing him with the previously-disgraced Ōga no Tamaro. Following this, Wake no Kiyomaro returned to Yamato.[5] He remained a trusted advisor to Emperor Kammu; in the spring of 793, he convinced the emperor to abandon the delay-plagued construction of a capital at Nagaoka and instead seek another location to the northeast, at Heian-kyō (modern-day Kyōto.[3] His face appeared on 10-yen notes issued from 1888.[6]
Hong Kong. Hong Kong[e] is a special administrative region of China. Situated on Chinas southern coast just south of Shenzhen, it consists of Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, and the New Territories. With 7.5 million residents in a 1,114-square-kilometre (430 sq mi) territory, Hong Kong is the fourth most densely populated region in the world. Hong Kong was established as a colony of the British Empire after the Qing dynasty ceded Hong Kong Island in 1841–1842 as a consequence of losing the First Opium War. The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and was further extended when the United Kingdom obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories in 1898. Hong Kong was occupied by Japan from 1941 to 1945 during World War II. The territory was handed over from the United Kingdom to China in 1997. Hong Kong maintains separate governing and economic systems from that of mainland China under the principle of one country, two systems.[f] Originally a sparsely populated area of farming and fishing villages,[17][18] Hong Kong is now one of the worlds most significant financial centres and commercial ports. Hong Kong is the worlds third-ranked global financial centre behind New York City and London, ninth-largest exporter, and eighth-largest importer. Its currency, the Hong Kong dollar, is the ninth most traded currency in the world. Home to the second-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world, Hong Kong has the second largest number of ultra high-net-worth individuals.[19][20] The city has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, while severe income inequality still exists among the population. Hong Kong is the city with the most skyscrapers in the world, even though its housing is consistently in high demand. Hong Kong is a highly developed territory and has a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.955, ranking eighth in the world and currently the only place in Asia to be in the top ten. The city has the highest life expectancy in the world, and a public transport usage exceeding 90 per cent.
Government Seal of Japan. The Government Seal of Japan, one of the countrys national seals, is the emblem (mon) of paulownia used by the Prime Minister, the Cabinet and the executive branch of the Government of Japan on official documents. It is generally known as the 5-7 Paulownia (五七桐, Go-shichi (no) Kiri), used by those in power and is the official emblem of the Japanese government today. It resembles a stylized paulownia with 5-7-5 flowers. It is one of various paulownia mon, collectively known as the Paulownia Seals (桐紋, kirimon) or the Paulownia Flower Seals (桐花紋, tōkamon).[1][2] Before the Chrysanthemum Seal was used extensively, the Paulownia Seal originally was the private symbol of the Japanese Imperial Family, from as early as the sixteenth century. The Toyotomi clan, led by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, later adopted the Paulownia Seal for use as the crest of his clan. After the Meiji Restoration, the seal was eventually adopted as the emblem of the Japanese government.[3][4] It is now mainly used by the Japanese government, as a contrast to the Chrysanthemum Seal which represents the Emperor as the symbol of the sovereignty of the State, and members of the Imperial Family. More than 140 designs exist. The most common one is the 5–3 Paulownia (五三桐, Go-san no Kiri), consisting of three leaves and an inflorescence of 3–5–3 flowers.[1][2] It is found in the emblems of the Ministry of Justice, the Imperial Guard Headquarters, and the University of Tsukuba. The 5-7 Paulownia and 5-3 Paulownia are also called Go-shichi Giri and Go-san Giri without the particle no respectively, due to consonant mutation (Kiri → Giri) known as rendaku in the Japanese language. The Paulownia Seals contain the leaves and flowers of Paulownia tomentosa (princess tree), which is called kiri (桐) or shirogiri (白桐) in Japanese.
Nagaoka-kyō. Nagaoka-kyō (長岡京) was the capital of Japan from 784 to 794. Its location was in Otokuni District, Yamashiro Province, corresponding to a 4.3 x 5.3 kilometer area spanning the borders of modern cities of Mukō and Nagaokakyō, Kyoto, the town of Ōyamazaki, and the Nishikyō-ku ward of the city of Kyoto. The ruins of the palace have been found in the Kaidecho neighbourhood of the city of Mukō and have been designated as a National Historic Site since 1964, with the area under protection expanded in 2016. [1] Nagaoka-kyō was built by order of Emperor Kanmu, who instructed that the new capital be established 40 kilometers north of Heijō-kyō in an attempt to overcome Heijō-kyōs various geographical weaknesses. Nagaoka-kyō, was situated at the confluence point of three major rivers, where the Katsura River and the Uji River, formed the Yodo River. A port called Yamazakitsu was established to unload goods from all over the country, where they were transferred to small ships. This made it easy to transport supplies efficiently by boat to Nagaoka-kyō, whereas Heijō-kyō could only be reached by land routes. In addition, Ogura Pond which existed at the time to the southeast of Nagaoka-kyō expected to be used as a logistics base. Archaeological excavations have revealed that almost every house in Nagaoka-kyō had a well, and measures were also taken to deal with sewage, both of which had been problems in Heijō-kyō. Running water from the side of the road was drawn into houses to flush away excrement. The natural spring water from the northwest of Nagaoka-kyō naturally flowed southeast through the city, which was built on a gentle slope, and this washed away filth into the river, keeping the city clean. The imperial palace was situated on a minor plateau 15 meters higher than the city, visually demonstrating the authority of the emperor, whereas Heijō-kyō was completely flat. Furthermore, the main seaport of Naniwa-tsu on the Seto Inland Sea has silted up and was increasingly unusable. The location of Nagaoka-kyō facilities the development of a new route via the Kanzaki River towards Lake Biwa an Omi Province.[2] The new capital was also intended to rectify Heijō-kyōs various political weaknesses. Per the Shoku Nihongi, Emperor Kanmu consulted closely with Fujiwara no Tanetsugu on the location of the new capital. Nagaoka happened to be Tanetsugus family home, and a strong support base for the Fujiwara clan. Other reasons included a desire for distance from the increasingly politicized clergy of the great Buddhist establishments in Heijō-kyō, and a desire to improve relations with the economically powerful toraijin immigrant clans of southern Yamashiro Province from whom his mother was descended. New Years ceremonies were held at the Nagaoka-kyō palace on New Years Day in 785, which means that the palace was completed only six months after construction of the capital began. The construction of the palace was undertaken over with consideration to opposition from the people of Heijō-kyō to the relocation of the capital. At that time, it was common for palaces to be built by demolishing the original structures and relocating the buildings to the new site; however, in the case of Nagaoka-kyō, the structures of Heijō-kyō were left intact in situ, and the Naniwa-kyō palace was relocated instead. Nonetheless, in September of the same year, Fujiwara no Tanetsugu was assassinated, and several officials associated with the great state temple of Tōdai-ji were implicated. Emperor Kanmus younger brother, Imperial Prince Sawara, was also imprisoned and exiled because of his strong opposition to the move of the capital. The prince died while en route to his exile, still harboring a grudge. After his death, various incidents occurred in 792, such as famine and epidemics due to drought, the successive deaths of the Empress and other close relatives of Emperor Kanmu, arson of the main hall of Ise Grand Shrine, and the onset of illness of the Crown Prince. The following year, an onmyōji declared that these disasters were caused by the onryō, or vengeful spirit of Prince Sawara. Despite efforts at appeasing the princes spirit, heavy rains followed by floods caused great damage to Nagaoka-kyō. Wake no Kiyomaro, the aristocrat in charge of flood control proposed relocation of the capital. A new site was selected to the northeast in 793 and the capital officially relocated to Heian-kyō in 794.[2] After the transfer of the capital, the former Nagaoka-kyō area became the domain of Sugawara no Michizane, and the Nagaoka Tenman-gu Shinto shrine was constructed after his exile in 901. Although the name of Nagaoka survived as a place name, the actual site of the palace was lost for many centuries. The site of the palace was only re-discovered in 1954 and extensive archaeological excavations have been conducted since.[2]
Heraldic badge. A heraldic badge, emblem, impresa, device, or personal device worn as a badge indicates allegiance to, or the property of, an individual, family or corporate body. Medieval forms are usually called a livery badge, and also a cognizance. They are para-heraldic, not necessarily using elements from the coat of arms of the person or family they represent, though many do, often taking the crest or supporters. Their use is more flexible than that of arms proper. Badges worn on clothing were common in the late Middle Ages, particularly in England. They could be made of base metal, cloth or other materials and worn on the clothing of the followers of the person in question; grander forms would be worn by important persons, with the Dunstable Swan Jewel in enamelled gold a rare survivor. Livery collars were also given to important persons, often with the badge as a pendant. The badge would also be embroidered or appliqued on standards, horse trappings, livery uniforms, and other belongings. Many medieval badges survive in English pub names. Badges with a distinctly heraldic character in England date to about the reign (1327–1377) of King Edward III.[1] In the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, the followers, retainers, dependants, and partisans of famous and powerful personages and houses bore well-known badges – precisely because they were known and recognised. (In contrast, the coat of arms was used exclusively by the individual to whom it belonged.) Badges occasionally imitated a charge in the bearers coat of arms, or had a more or less direct reference to such a charge. More often, badges commemorated some remarkable exploit, illustrated a family or feudal alliance, or indicated some territorial rights or pretensions. Some badges are rebuses, making a pun or play-on-words of the owners name. It was not uncommon for the same personage or family to use more than one badge; and, on the other hand, two or more badges were often borne in combination, to form a single compound device. Livery badges were especially common in England from the mid-fourteenth century until about the end of the fifteenth century, a period of intense factional conflict which saw the deposition of Richard II and the Wars of the Roses. A lavish badge like the Dunstable Swan Jewel would only have been worn by the person whose device was represented, members of his family or important supporters, and possibly servants who were in regular very close contact with him. However the jewel lacks the ultimate luxury of being set with gems, for example having ruby eyes, like the lion pendants worn by Sir John Donne and his wife[2] and several examples listed on the 1397 treasure roll of King Richard II. In the Wilton Diptych, Richards own badge has pearls on the antler tips, which the angels badges lack. The white hart in the badge on the Treasury Roll, which the painted one may have copied, had pearls and sat on a grass bed made of emeralds,[3] and a hart badge of Richards inventoried in the possession of Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy in 1435 was set with 22 pearls, two spinels, two sapphires, a ruby and a huge diamond.[4]
Emblem. An emblem is an abstract or representational pictorial image that represents a concept, like a moral truth, or an allegory, or a person, like a monarch or saint.[1] Although the words emblem and symbol are often used interchangeably, an emblem is a pattern that is used to represent an idea or an individual. An emblem develops in concrete, visual terms some abstraction: a deity, a tribe or nation, or a virtue or vice.[clarification needed] An emblem may be worn or otherwise used as an identifying badge or patch. For example, in America, police officers badges refer to their personal metal emblem whereas their woven emblems on uniforms identify members of a particular unit. A real or metal cockle shell, the emblem of James the Great, sewn onto the hat or clothes, identified a medieval pilgrim to his shrine at Santiago de Compostela. In the Middle Ages, many saints were given emblems, which served to identify them in paintings and other images: St. Catherine of Alexandria had a wheel, or a sword, St. Anthony the Abbot, a pig and a small bell. These are also called attributes, especially when shown carried by or close to the saint in art. Monarchs and other grand persons increasingly adopted personal devices or emblems that were distinct from their family heraldry. The most famous include Louis XIV of Frances sun, the salamander of Francis I of France, the boar of Richard III of England and the armillary sphere of Manuel I of Portugal. In the fifteenth and sixteenth century, there was a fashion, started in Italy, for making large medals with a portrait head on the obverse and the emblem on the reverse; these would be given to friends and as diplomatic gifts. Pisanello produced many of the earliest and finest of these. A symbol, on the other hand, substitutes one thing for another, in a more concrete fashion:[1] A totem is specifically an animal emblem that expresses the spirit of a clan. Emblems in heraldry are known as charges. The lion passant serves as the emblem of England, the lion rampant as the emblem of Scotland.
Public security. Public security or public safety is the prevention of and protection from events that could endanger the safety and security of the public from significant danger, injury, or property damage. It is often conducted by a state government to ensure the protection of citizens, persons in their territory, organizations, and institutions against threats to their well-being, survival, and prosperity.[1] The public safety issues that a municipality, county, regional, or federal jurisdiction may handle include crimes (ranging from misdemeanors to felonies), structure fires, conflagrations, medical emergencies, mass-casualty incidents, disasters, terrorism, and other concerns. Public safety organizations are organizations that conduct public safety. They generally consist of emergency services and first responders such as law enforcement, fire services, emergency medical services, security forces, and military forces. They are often operated by a government, though some private public safety organizations exist where possible. Organized crime and international terrorism are hardly deterred by geographical, linguistic, or financial barriers. The latter has largely contributed to public security becoming an important political and economic issue, nationally as well as internationally. Politics, public organizations and businesses closely collaborate to guarantee public security and maintain a stable environment for economic prosperity. Although public security significantly contributes to the attractiveness of a location, the productivity of its people, and hence the overall success of an economy, the sector frequently suffers from low budgets, limited resources, and inadequate information systems. Large events, pandemics, severe accidents, environmental disasters, and terrorist attacks pose additional threats to public security and order.
Chinese Character Simplification Scheme. The Chinese Character Simplification Scheme is a list of simplified Chinese characters promulgated in 1956 by the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China. It contains the vast majority of simplified characters in use today. To distinguish it from the second round of simplified Chinese characters published in 1977, the 1956 list is also known as the First Chinese Character Simplification Scheme. In 1952, the Language Reform Research Committee of China first drafted the List of Frequently Used Simplification of Chinese Characters (常用漢字簡化表草案), affirming the principle of only describing and stating the concepts of the ancient [Han] people, not creating [new characters].[1] The Chinese Character Simplification Scheme (Draft) was published on 7 January 1955 for public consultation. It consists of three sections: List of simplification of 798 characters (draft) (798個漢字簡化表草案), List of 400 Variant Characters Intended to Be Abolished (Draft) (擬廢除的400個異體字表草案) and List of Simplification in Handwriting of Character Components (Draft) (漢字偏旁手寫簡化表草案). The second and third sections were deleted in the modification process. The modified Chinese Character Simplification Scheme (Draft) was passed by the National Language Reform Meeting after discussion in October 1955, followed by modifications by the Language Reform Committee of China in accordance to the outcome of the discussions. The modified draft was reviewed by the State Councils Committee for the Application of the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme.
Community service. Community service is unpaid work performed by a person or group of people for the benefit and betterment of their community.[1] In many cases, people doing community service are compensated in other ways, such as getting a lunch for free. In many countries, there are programs to incite people to do community service. In some cases, it is possible to replace a criminal justice sanctions with community service. There may also be school or class requirements. Obtaining certain benefits may be linked to doing some form of community service. For all these reasons, it is distinct from volunteering. (Community) service is a non-paying job performed by one person or a group of people for the benefit of their community or its institutions. Community service is distinct from volunteering, since it is not always performed on a voluntary basis and may be performed for a variety of reasons, including: Community service and volunteerism are supported and encouraged across the world, influenced by a mix of personal, societal, and cultural factors. Research shows that individual traits like personality and religiosity, combined with organizational settings, play a significant role in fostering long-term volunteerism.[5] Different methods to encourage volunteering can result in volunteers motivated by their own interests or a desire to help others, suggesting the importance of promoting community engagement and altruism for sustained involvement.[6] A study spanning 21 countries linked economic development, education, cultural values, and political systems to higher rates of formal volunteering, indicating a global perspective on volunteer engagement.[7] Student volunteering, particularly in Western English-speaking countries, is driven by altruistic and career-oriented motivations, highlighting a strong culture of volunteerism among young people.[8] Moreover, the motivation to volunteer varies with cultural values across different regions, and is shaped by societal expectations and cultural norms.[9] Some educational jurisdictions in the United States require students to perform community service hours to graduate from high school. In some high schools in Washington, for example, students must finish 200 hours of community service to get a diploma. Some school districts in Washington, including Seattle Public Schools, differentiate between community service and service learning, requiring students to demonstrate that their work has contributed to their education.[10] If a student in high school is taking an Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) course, community service is often needed. Whether American public schools could require volunteer hours for high school graduation was challenged in Immediato v. Rye Neck School District, but the court found no violation. Many other high schools do not require community service hours for graduation, but still see an impressive number of students get involved in their communities. For example, in Palo Alto, California, students at Palo Alto High School log about 45,000 hours of community service every year.[11] As a result, the schools College and Career Center awards 250–300 students the Presidents Volunteer Service Award every year for their hard work.
Human geography. Human geography, also known as anthropogeography, is a branch of geography that studies how people interact with places. It focuses on the spatial relationships between human communities, cultures, economies, and their environments. Examples include patterns like urban sprawl and urban redevelopment.[1] It looks at how social interactions connect with the environment using both qualitative (descriptive) and quantitative (numerical) methods.[2][3] This multidisciplinary field draws from sociology, anthropology, economics, and environmental science, helping build a more complete understanding of how human activity shapes the spaces we live in.[4] The Royal Geographical Society was founded in England in 1830.[5] The first professor of geography in the United Kingdom was appointed in 1883,[6] and the first major geographical intellect to emerge in the UK was Halford John Mackinder, appointed professor of geography at the London School of Economics in 1922.[6] The National Geographic Society was founded in the United States in 1888 and began publication of the National Geographic magazine which became, and continues to be, a great popularizer of geographic information. The society has long supported geographic research and education on geographical topics. The Association of American Geographers was founded in 1904 and was renamed the American Association of Geographers in 2016 to better reflect the increasingly international character of its membership.
Health care. Health care, or healthcare, is the improvement or maintenance of health via the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, amelioration or cure of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in people. Health care is delivered by health professionals and allied health fields. Medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, midwifery, nursing, optometry, audiology, psychology, occupational therapy, physical therapy, athletic training, and other health professions all constitute health care. The term includes work done in providing primary care, secondary care, tertiary care, and public health. Access to health care may vary across countries, communities, and individuals, influenced by social and economic conditions and health policies. Providing health care services means the timely use of personal health services to achieve the best possible health outcomes.[3] Factors to consider in terms of health care access include financial limitations (such as insurance coverage), geographical and logistical barriers (such as additional transportation costs and the ability to take paid time off work to use such services), sociocultural expectations, and personal limitations (lack of ability to communicate with health care providers, poor health literacy, low income).[4] Limitations to health care services affect negatively the use of medical services, the efficacy of treatments, and overall outcome (well-being, mortality rates). Health systems are the organizations established to meet the health needs of targeted populations. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a well-functioning health care system requires a financing mechanism, a well-trained and adequately paid workforce, reliable information on which to base decisions and policies, and well-maintained health facilities to deliver quality medicines and technologies.
List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters. The List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters is the current standard list of 8,105 Chinese characters published by the government of the Peoples Republic of China and promulgated in June 2013. The project began in 2001, originally named the Table of Standard Chinese Characters. This table integrates the First Batch of Simplified Characters (1955), the Complete List of Simplified Characters (initially published in 1964, last revised in 1986), and the List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese (1988), while also refining and improving it based on the current usage of characters in mainland China. After 8 years of development, a draft for public comment was released on August 12, 2009. It was officially promulgated on June 5, 2013, becoming the standard for the use of Chinese characters in general societal applications, and all previously related character lists were discontinued from that date. Of the characters included, 3,500 are in Tier 1 and designated as frequently used characters; Tier 2 includes 3,000 characters that are designated as commonly used characters but less frequently used than those in Tier 1; Tier 3 includes characters commonly used as names and terminology. The list also offers a table of correspondences between 2,546 Simplified Chinese characters and 2,574 Traditional Chinese characters, along with other selected variant forms. This table replaced all previous related standards, and provides the authoritative list of characters and glyph shapes for Simplified Chinese in China. The Table eliminates 500 characters that were in the previous version. This project was led by Professor Wan Ning from the Beijing Normal Universitys School of Chinese Language and Literature. Contributing to the project were Professor Wang Lijun, Associate Professor Bu Shixia, and Professor Ling Lijun, also from the School of Chinese Language and Literature. The Table underwent over 90 revisions over a span of 10 years before its release. In Unicode, some characters in the List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters are located outside of the Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP).
List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese. The List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese (simplified Chinese: 现代汉语通用字表; traditional Chinese: 現代漢語通用字表; pinyin: Xiàndài Hànyǔ Tōngyòngzì Biǎo) is a list of 7,000 commonly used Chinese characters in Chinese. It was created in 1988 in the Peoples Republic of China.[1] In 2013, the List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters has replaced the List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese as the standard for Chinese characters in the Peoples Republic of China.[2] This Chinese character-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Pejorative. A pejorative word, phrase, slur, or derogatory term is a word or grammatical form expressing a negative or disrespectful connotation, a low opinion, or a lack of respect toward someone or something.[1] It is also used to express criticism, hostility, or disregard. Sometimes, a term is regarded as pejorative in some social or ethnic groups but not in others or may be originally pejorative but later adopt a non-pejorative sense (or vice versa) in some or all contexts. The word pejorative is derived from a Late Latin past participle stem of peiorare, meaning to make worse, from peior worse.[2] In historical linguistics, the process of an inoffensive word becoming pejorative is a form of semantic drift known as pejoration. An example of pejoration is the shift in meaning of the word silly from meaning that a person was happy and fortunate to meaning that they are foolish and unsophisticated.[3] The process of pejoration can repeat itself around a single concept, leaping from word to word in a phenomenon known as the euphemism treadmill, for example as in the successive pejoration of the terms bog-house, privy-house, latrine, water closet, toilet, bathroom, and restroom (US English).[4][5] When a term begins as pejorative and eventually is adopted in a non-pejorative sense, this is called melioration or amelioration. One example is the shift in meaning of the word nice from meaning a person was foolish to meaning that a person is pleasant.[6] When performed deliberately, it is described as reclamation or reappropriation.[7] An example of a word that has been reclaimed by portions of the community that it targets is queer, which began being re-appropriated as a positive descriptor in the early 1990s by activist groups.[8] However, due to its history and – in some regions – continued use as a pejorative, there remain LGBT individuals who are uncomfortable with having this term applied to them.[9] The use of the racial slur nigger (specifically the -a variant) by African Americans is often viewed as another act of reclamation, though some people of sub-Saharan African descent object to the use of the word under any circumstances.[10]
Public health. Public health is the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals.[1][2] Analyzing the determinants of health of a population and the threats it faces is the basis for public health.[3] The public can be as small as a handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city; in the case of a pandemic it may encompass several continents. The concept of health takes into account physical, psychological, and social well-being, among other factors.[4] Public health is an interdisciplinary field. For example, epidemiology, biostatistics, social sciences and management of health services are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health, health education, health politics, occupational safety, disability, oral health, gender issues in health, and sexual and reproductive health.[5] Public health, together with primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, is part of a countrys overall healthcare system. Public health is implemented through the surveillance of cases and health indicators, and through the promotion of healthy behaviors. Common public health initiatives include promotion of hand-washing and breastfeeding, delivery of vaccinations, promoting ventilation and improved air quality both indoors and outdoors, suicide prevention, smoking cessation, obesity education, increasing healthcare accessibility and distribution of condoms to control the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. There is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed countries and developing countries, as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained healthcare workers, monetary resources, or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even a basic level of medical care and disease prevention.[6][7] A major public health concern in developing countries is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty and limited implementation of comprehensive public health policies. Developed nations are at greater risk of certain public health crises, including childhood obesity, although overweight populations in low- and middle-income countries are catching up.[8]
Penny dreadful (disambiguation). A penny dreadful is a 19th-century British fiction publication that cost a penny. Penny Dreadful or Penny Dreadfuls may also refer to:
Serial (literature). In literature, a serial is a printing or publishing format by which a single larger work, often a work of narrative fiction, is published in smaller, sequential instalments. The instalments are also known as numbers, parts, fascicules or fascicles, and may be released either as separate publications or within sequential issues of a periodical publication, such as a magazine or newspaper.[1] Serialisation can also begin with a single short story that is subsequently turned into a series. Historically, such series have been published in periodicals. Popular short-story series are often published together in book form as collections. The growth of moveable type in the 17th century prompted episodic and often disconnected narratives such as LAstrée and Le Grand Cyrus. At that time, books remained a premium item, so to reduce the price and expand the market, publishers produced large works in lower-cost instalments called fascicles.[2] These had the added attraction of allowing a publisher to gauge the popularity of a work without incurring the expense of a substantial print run of bound volumes: if the work was not a success, no bound volumes needed to be prepared. If, on the other hand, the serialised book sold well, it was a good bet that bound volumes would sell well, too. Serialised fiction surged in popularity during Britains Victorian era, due to a combination of the rise of literacy, technological advances in printing, and improved economics of distribution.[3]: 34 Most Victorian novels first appeared as instalments in monthly or weekly periodicals.[3]: 13 The wild success of Charles Dickenss The Pickwick Papers, first published in 1836, is widely considered to have established the viability and appeal of the serialised format within periodical literature. During that era, the line between quality and commercial literature was not distinct.[3]: 31 Other famous writers who wrote serial literature for popular magazines were Wilkie Collins, inventor of the detective novel with The Moonstone; Anthony Trollope, many of whose novels were published in serial form in Cornhill magazine; and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who created the Sherlock Holmes stories originally for serialisation in The Strand magazine.
General List of Simplified Chinese Characters. The General List of Simplified Chinese Characters (simplified Chinese: 简化字总表; traditional Chinese: 簡化字總表; pinyin: Jiǎnhuàzì zǒngbiǎo) was the standard list of simplified Chinese characters published in China in 1964. It largely ratified and revised the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme promulgated in 1956, and served as the main reference for the List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters published in 2013.[1][2] The General List of Simplified Chinese Characters was released again in 1986 with some revision, alongside the rescission of the second round of simplified Chinese characters that had been announced in 1977. The General List of Simplified Chinese Characters includes three sub-lists with a total of 2274 simplified characters and 14 simplified components.[1][3] On 7 January 1964, the Chinese Character Reform Committee submitted a Request for Instructions on the Simplification of Chinese Characters to the State Council, mentioning that due to the lack of clarity on analogy simplification in the original Chinese Character Simplification Scheme (汉字简化方案), there is some disagreement and confusion in the application field of publication”.[4] On 24 February 1964, the State Council instructed: The simplified characters listed in the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme should be similarly simplified when used as pianpang components in other characters; the components listed in the scheme, except for 讠、饣、糸、钅, should also be simplified when used as independent characters. In May 1964, based on this instruction and on the basis of the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme, the Chinese Character Reform Committee edited and published the General List of Simplified Chinese Characters.[1][5] In December 1977, the Chinese Character Reform Committee issued the Second Chinese Character Simplification Scheme (Draft). The draft was not discussed by members of the Chinese Character Reform Committee before it was released. After it was released, all parties in the society expressed many opinions. It was generally believed that the number of simplified characters was too large and that some simplified characters were not mature enough. The Chinese Character Reform Committee made many revisions, but never satisfactory.[5] On 25 February 1986, the State Language Commission submitted to the State Council the Request for Instructions on Abolition of the Second Chinese Character Simplification Plan (Draft) and Correcting the Confusion of Chinese Characters in Society. In June 1986, the State Council approved the abolition of this draft and instructed: In the future, we should be cautious about the simplification of Chinese characters, so that the forms of Chinese characters can remain relatively stable for a period of time, so as to facilitate social application.[6][3]
Penny (British pre-decimal coin). The British pre-decimal penny was a denomination of sterling coinage worth 1⁄240 of one pound or 1⁄12 of one shilling. Its symbol was d, from the Roman denarius. It was a continuation of the earlier English penny, and in Scotland it had the same monetary value as one pre-1707 Scottish shilling, thus the English penny was called sgillin in Scottish Gaelic. The penny was originally minted in silver, but from the late 18th century it was minted in copper, and then after 1860 in bronze. The plural of penny is pence (often added as an unstressed suffix) when referring to an amount of money, and pennies when referring to a number of coins.[1] Thus 8d is eightpence or eight pence, but eight pennies means specifically eight individual penny coins. Before Decimal Day in 1971, sterling used the Carolingian monetary system (£sd), under which the largest unit was a pound (£) divisible into 20 shillings (s), each of 12 pence (d). The pre-decimal penny was demonetised on 1 September 1971, just over six months after decimalisation, and replaced (in effect) by the decimal half new penny, with +1⁄2p being worth 1.2d.
Inca (disambiguation). The Inca Empire was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. Inca, Inka, or İncə may also refer to:
Seal (emblem). A seal is a device for making an impression in wax, clay, paper, or some other medium, including an embossment on paper, and is also the impression thus made. The original purpose was to authenticate a document, or to prevent interference with a package or envelope by applying a seal which had to be broken to open the container (hence the modern English verb to seal, which implies secure closing without an actual wax seal). The seal-making device is also referred to as the seal matrix or die; the imprint it creates as the seal impression (or, more rarely, the sealing).[1] If the impression is made purely as a relief resulting from the greater pressure on the paper where the high parts of the matrix touch, the seal is known as a dry seal; in other cases ink or another liquid or liquefied medium is used, in another color than the paper. In most traditional forms of dry seal the design on the seal matrix is in intaglio (cut below the flat surface) and therefore the design on the impressions made is in relief (raised above the surface). The design on the impression will reverse (be a mirror-image of) that of the matrix, which is especially important when script is included in the design, as it very often is. This will not be the case if paper is embossed from behind, where the matrix and impression read the same way, and both matrix and impression are in relief. However engraved gems were often carved in relief, called cameo in this context, giving a counter-relief or intaglio impression when used as seals. The process is essentially that of a mould. Most seals have always given a single impression on an essentially flat surface, but in medieval Europe two-sided seals with two matrices were often used by institutions or rulers (such as towns, bishops and kings) to make two-sided or fully three-dimensional impressions in wax, with a tag, a piece of ribbon or strip of parchment, running through them. These pendent seal impressions dangled below the documents they authenticated, to which the attachment tag was sewn or otherwise attached (single-sided seals were treated in the same way). In the United States, the word seal is sometimes assigned to a facsimile of the seal design (in monochrome or color), which may be used in a variety of contexts including architectural settings, on flags, or on official letterheads. Thus, for example, the Great Seal of the United States, among other uses, appears on the reverse of the one-dollar bill; and several of the seals of the U.S. states appear on their respective state flags. In Europe, although coats of arms and heraldic badges may well feature in such contexts as well as on seals, the seal design in its entirety rarely appears as a graphical emblem and is used mainly as originally intended: as an impression on documents.
Short Story (Gershwin). Short Story is a piece for violin and piano composed by George Gershwin in 1925.[1] Gershwin composed the duet from two other short works that premiered at the same time as his Three Preludes. He combined a section of the Novelette in Fourths and another slower work (the forgotten Rubato prelude) to create this piece.[1] The 1940s two-piano, four-hands arrangement by the duo-pianists Al and Lee Reiser was published by Associated Music Publishers.[2] This article about a composition for a chamber music group is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Mingxing, Shanxi. Mingxing (Chinese: 明星; pinyin: Míngxīng) (formerly Taigu or Taiku) is a town and township-level division and seat of Taigu County, Shanxi, China. It is a seat of a third order administration division.[1] It lies southwest of Jinzhong and comprises nine administrative villages, eleven communities, with a total area of 22 square kilometres (8.5 sq mi). It has a total population of 60,500 people, of which 43,988 are urban dwellers.[2] The language spoken by a majority of inhabitants is Standard Mandarin. The town is called Mingxing which means “Ming Star (Town)” or literally Bright Star (Town). There are numerous temples in the city dated to the Ming dynasty, such as the Dacheng Hall of the Temple of Confucius of Taigu. Its Wubian White Tower is also of note. This Shanxi location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Incan (disambiguation). Incan is of or pertaining to the Incas, their culture or empire, the Inca Empire. Incan may also refer to:
Second round of simplified Chinese characters. The second round of Chinese character simplification[b] was an aborted script reform promulgated on 20 December 1977 by the Peoples Republic of China (PRC). It was intended to replace the first round of simplified characters already in use. The complete proposal contained two lists: the first list consisted of 248 characters to be simplified, and the second list consisted of 605 characters to be evaluated and discussed. Of these characters, 21 from the first list and 40 from the second served as components, which modified some 4,500 characters. Following widespread confusion and opposition, the second round of simplification was officially rescinded on 24 June 1986 by the State Council. Since then, the PRC has used the first-round simplified characters as its official script. Rather than ruling out further simplification, however, the retraction declared that further reform of the Chinese characters should be done with caution. Today, some second-round simplified characters, while considered non-standard, continue to survive in informal usage. The traditional relationship between written Chinese and vernacular Chinese varieties has been compared to that of Latin with the Romance languages in the Renaissance era.[1] The modern simplification movement grew out of efforts to make the written language more accessible, which culminated in the replacement of Classical Chinese with written vernacular Chinese in the early 20th century.[2] The fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 and subsequent loss of prestige associated with classical writing helped facilitate this shift, but a series of further reforms aided by the efforts of reformers like Qian Xuantong were ultimately thwarted by conservative elements in the new government and the intellectual class.[3][4] Continuing the work of previous reformers, in 1956 the Peoples Republic of China promulgated the Scheme of Simplified Chinese Characters, later referred to as the First Round or First Scheme. The plan was adjusted slightly in the following years, eventually stabilizing in 1964 with a definitive list of character simplifications. These are the simplified Chinese characters that are used today in mainland China and Singapore.[5] Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau did not adopt the simplifications, and the characters used in those places are known as traditional Chinese characters.[6] Also released in 1964 was a directive for further simplification in order to improve literacy, with the goal of eventually reducing the number of strokes in commonly used characters to ten or fewer. This was to take place gradually, with consideration for both ease of production [writing] and ease of recognition [reading]. In 1975, a second round of simplifications, the Second Scheme, was submitted by the Script Reform Committee of China to the State Council for approval. Like the First Scheme, it contained two lists, where the first table (comprising 248 characters) was for immediate use, and the second table (comprising 605 characters) for evaluation and discussion.[8] Of these characters, 21 from the first list and 40 from the second also served as components of other characters, which caused the Second Scheme to modify some 4,500 characters.[9] On 20 December 1977, major newspapers such as the Peoples Daily and the Guangming Daily published the second-round simplifications along with editorials and articles endorsing the changes. Both newspapers began to use the characters from the first list the following day.[10]
Dick Turpin. Richard Turpin (bapt. 21 September 1705 – 7 April 1739) was an English highwayman whose exploits were romanticised following his execution in York for horse theft. Turpin may have followed his fathers trade as a butcher early in his life but, by the early 1730s, he had joined a gang of deer thieves and, later, became a poacher, burglar, horse thief, and killer. He is also known for a fictional 200-mile (320 km) overnight ride from London to York on his horse Black Bess, a story that was made famous by the Victorian novelist William Harrison Ainsworth almost 100 years after Turpins death. Turpins involvement in the crime with which he is most closely associated—highway robbery—followed the arrest of the other members of his gang in 1735. He then disappeared from public view towards the end of that year, only to resurface in 1737 with two new accomplices, one of whom Turpin may have accidentally shot and killed. Turpin fled from the scene and shortly afterwards killed a man who attempted his capture. Later that year, he moved to Yorkshire and assumed the alias of John Palmer. While he was staying at an inn, local magistrates became suspicious of Palmer and made enquiries as to how he funded his lifestyle. Suspected of being a horse thief, Palmer was imprisoned in York Castle, to be tried at the next assizes. Turpins true identity was revealed by a letter he wrote to his brother-in-law from his prison cell, which fell into the hands of the authorities. On 22 March 1739, Turpin was found guilty on two charges of horse theft and sentenced to death. He was hanged at Knavesmire on 7 April 1739. Turpin became the subject of legend after his execution, romanticised as dashing and heroic in English ballads and popular theatre of the 18th and 19th centuries and in film and television of the 20th century.
Wade–Giles. Wade–Giles (/weɪd ˈdʒaɪlz/ wayd JYLZ) is a romanization system for Mandarin Chinese. It developed from the system produced by Thomas Francis Wade during the mid-19th century, and was given completed form with Herbert Giless A Chinese–English Dictionary (1892). The romanization systems in common use until the late 19th century were based on the Nanjing dialect, but Wade–Giles was based on the Beijing dialect and was the system of transcription familiar in the English-speaking world for most of the 20th century. Both of these kinds of transcription were used in postal romanizations (romanized place-names standardized for postal uses). In mainland China, Wade–Giles has been mostly replaced by Hanyu Pinyin, which was officially adopted in 1958, with exceptions for the romanized forms of some of the most commonly used names of locations and persons, and other proper nouns. The romanized name for most locations, persons and other proper nouns in Taiwan is based on the Wade–Giles derived romanized form, for example Kaohsiung, the Matsu Islands and Chiang Ching-kuo. Wade–Giles was developed by Thomas Francis Wade, a scholar of Chinese and a British ambassador in China who was the first professor of Chinese at the University of Cambridge. Wade published Yü-yen Tzŭ-erh Chi (語言自邇集; 语言自迩集)[2] in 1867, the first textbook on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin in English,[3] which became the basis for the system later known as Wade–Giles. The system, designed to transcribe Chinese terms for Chinese specialists, was further refined in 1892 by Herbert Giles (in A Chinese–English Dictionary), a British diplomat in China, and his son Lionel Giles,[citation needed] a curator at the British Museum.[4] Taiwan used Wade–Giles for decades as the de facto standard, co-existing with several official romanizations in succession, namely, Gwoyeu Romatzyh (1928), Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II (1986), and Tongyong Pinyin (2000). The Kuomintang (KMT) has previously promoted pinyin with Ma Ying-jeous successful presidential bid in 2008 and in a number of cities with Kuomintang mayors.[citation needed] However, the Tsai Ing-wen administration and Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) along with the majority of the people in Taiwan, both native and overseas, use spelling and transcribe their legal names based on the Wade–Giles system, as well as the other aforementioned systems.[citation needed]
Story paper. A story paper is a periodical publication similar to a literary magazine, but featuring illustrations and text stories, and aimed towards children and teenagers. Also known in Britain as boys weeklies, story papers were phenomenally popular before the outbreak of the Second World War. Among the most well-known British story papers was Boys Own Paper, which ran from 1879 to 1967. The first known edition of what would later become known as a story paper was The Young Gentlemans Magazine, published in 1777. The first story paper to really take off was The Boys and Girls Penny Magazine, first published in September 1832. In 1866, Charles Stephens began selling Boys of England on the English streets for a penny—the first penny dreadful. Story papers in this style minimized the expense of writing in order to produce an extremely cheap product. Strictly speaking, the penny dreadful died off by the turn of the century, but this term was still used to refer to story papers throughout their history. The Halfpenny Marvel, first published in 1893, was founded to counteract the pernicious influences of the Penny Dreadfuls, according to its title page. A book about these weeklies (also called bloods because of their savage contents) was created in 1948 by E. S. Turner, called Boys Will be Boys.
List of Even Stevens episodes. The following is a list of episodes for the Disney Channel Original Series, Even Stevens. The series ran from June 17, 2000, to June 2, 2003 with 65 episodes produced spanning 3 seasons. Ren hosts a slumber party, but Louis plans to sell tickets to watch the party in order to buy a suit of armor. Louis and Twitty soon realize a younger boy has been spying on them. They catch him and demand to know what he wants, but he admits that hes new to town and only wants to make friends. When they are on the verge of turning him away, Louis takes kindly to the boys nerve, and nicknames him Beans, ultimately using him in his slumber party spying scheme. Ren and Louis show their animosity on a local reality game show. Meanwhile, Donnie asks Nelson to help him talk to his French-speaking date Sandrine (Danica McKellar). Ren contracts influenza and her parents insist she stay in bed, but she is unwilling to forfeit her perfect attendance record. Once at school, everyone, including herself, starts singing and dancing in musical numbers. Unfortunately, she ends up unprepared for a major school project which she must present that day. Louis gives his all to getting out of Coach Tugnuts physical endurance test, rallying his fellow students to overpower Tugnut. At the end of the day, Ren sings a song about going to the moon in 1969 to compensate for her lack of a full report and ultimately gets an F. She suddenly wakes up in bed again, having recovered from her condition, and realizes the days events were all a dream.
List of Casualty specials. Casualty is a British medical drama television series that premiered in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 6 September 1986.[1] It is the longest-running emergency medical drama television series in the world,[2] and the most enduring medical drama broadcast on primetime television in the world.[3] Casualty is set in the fictional Holby City Hospital and focuses on the staff and patients of the hospitals emergency department (ED).[4] The drama was created by Jeremy Brock and Paul Unwin, while Geraint Morris produced the first three series.[5] The drama has aired for 38 series and a 39th series currently airs. Over 1,000 episodes have aired in total.[6] Holby City, a spin-off of Casualty, was commissioned in 1998 and began airing on 12 January 1999.[7][8] The two shows are closely related with several crossover events occurring between them. Some crossovers broadcast between December 2004 and December 2005 are styled as episodes of Casualty@Holby City.[9] A British police procedural drama and spin-off to Casualty, HolbyBlue was announced on 27 April 2006.[10] It began on 8 May 2007 and was cancelled in August 2008 after 2 series and 20 episodes were broadcast.[11][12] Casualty has produced 19 special episodes, including the first webisode commissioned for a BBC continuing drama.[13] Belinda Campbell, who executively produced the drama between 2007 and 2011, thought that webisodes would be a new [way] to add value for our loyal fans, something which the team constantly look to do.[13] Casualty filmed a sketch for charity telethon Children in Need in 2009, featuring charity mascot Pudsey Bear. In 2010, cast members on the show filmed a tribute to BBC soap opera EastEnders and Blue Peter presenter Joel Defries presented a segment of the show from the Casualty set. To celebrate Casualtys thirtieth anniversary, original cast members Derek Thompson and Cathy Shipton filmed a special episode, Back to Ours, showing moments from their careers on the show. Webisodes have been created to explore characters in more detail: The Parting of the Ways focuses on Alistair (Joe McFadden); Under Fire details Sam Nicholls (Charlotte Salt) backstory; and Scars and Nightmares explores the backstory of Iain Dean (Michael Stevenson). Other webisodes are designed to help progress storylines on the main show: Short Story explores Ruth Winters (Georgia Taylor) stay at the hospitals psychiatric ward; Mistletoe and Rum follows the secret relationship between Tess Bateman (Suzanne Packer) and Adrian Fletch Fletcher (Alex Walkinshaw); Nurse Factor supports the introduction of four new student nurse characters; Gone in Sixty Seconds gives an insight into a bus crash; Mrs Walker-To-Be explores the night before Zoe Hanna (Sunetra Sarker) and Max Walkers (Jamie Davis) wedding; and On Call starts a storyline featuring Caleb Knight (Richard Winsor) being told he has a daughter. Some webisodes have been standalone and not followed in the main show: The Kids Arent Alright focuses on Jeff Colliers (Matt Bardock) estrangement from his children; The Spirit of Christmas and The First Noel are Christmas specials; and Radio Holby sees Noel Garcia (Tony Marshall) become the hospitals radio DJ. The Parting of the Ways is an eight-minute webisode and the first webisode to be produced for BBC continuing dramas.[13] The webisode was announced on 7 October 2009 and was released on 31 October.[13] It is written by David Roden, directed by Simon Meyers and produced by Rebecca Hedderly.[30] As Polly Emmerson (Sophia Di Martino) continues to be stalked by homeless man Alistair (Joe McFadden), the webisode follows the events between the series 24 episodes Regrets and Every Breath You Take.[13] The webisode, which is from the viewpoint of Alistair, focuses on the gritty world of life on the streets and Alistairs struggle with his mental well-being as Polly reports him to the police.[13][30] Executive producer Belinda Campbell praised Di Martino, McFadden and Roden, and described the webisode as a really special viewing opportunity for die-hard Casualty lovers.[13] She thought that The Parting of the Ways would be a good alternative method of exploring a a hitherto unseen world.[13] She also described the special as innovative.[13] McFadden liked the alternative method of filming and enjoyed exploring his character in more detail. He also liked being able to portray a grittier version of the drama.[13] Short Story is a two-part webisode focusing on Ruth Winters (Georgia Taylor) stay at the hospitals psychiatric ward.[31] The first part of the webisode was released on 12 March 2011,[17] and the second part of the webisode was released on 2 April 2011.[18] The special is directed by Reza Moradi and produced by Nicola Larder.[31] Part 1 of the webisode features physciatrist Andrew Brookfield (Matthew Kelly) trying to bond with Ruth, while dealing with an upset patient and a delivery of a horse from an unstable patient.[17] Taylor found herself not heavily involved in the first part of Short Story and is featured in the back of several scenes. Moradi was unsure about filming with a horse and wanted to use an alternative animal.[31] Initially, Taylor wondered how they would include a horse in the scene, suggesting that they might use computer-generated imagery (CGI) or a robotic horse.[31] Kelly, who had equinophobia, received a phone call from his agent, before he had read the script, and she informed him of the use of a horse. However, after meeting Billy, the horse used in filming, he called him one of the most gorgeous creatures I have ever seen in my entire life.[31] The horse was only used for one morning.[31] Due to the use of a horse in filming, there were several health and safety procedures. Taylor stated that whenever she approached the horse, a health and safety officer would ask her to move away. Larder enjoyed the filming of Short Story.[31]
Short Story (horse). Short Story (1923 – 1939) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse and broodmare. After showing considerable promise as a two-year-old, Short Story finished third in the 1000 Guineas in the following spring and then won the Epsom Oaks by four lengths. She never won again but was placed in the Nassau Stakes, Yorkshire Oaks and Park Hill Stakes. As a broodmare she produced one good racehorse, but otherwise made little impact as a dam of winners. The stable lad that took care of Short Story and rode her on work mornings was Ernest Sparrowhawk. Sir Alfred Munnings painted Short Story together with Alec Taylor and Ernest Sparrowhawk. The painting is in the National gallery. Short Story was a bay mare bred in the United Kingdom by her owner Waldorf Astor, 2nd Viscount Astor. She was sent into training with Alec Taylor, Jr. at his stable at Manton, Wiltshire.[2] She was sired by Buchan, who won the Eclipse Stakes, Champion Stakes and Doncaster Cup as well as finishing second in the 2000 Guineas and the Epsom Derby. As a breeding stallion he made his mark as a sire of fillies including Book Law and the dams of Airborne and Sun Castle.[2] Her dam, Long Suit, finished third in the Oaks in 1921 and was a half sister to the influential broodmare Pinprick.[3]
North Pacific (sidewheeler). North Pacific was an early steamboat operating in Puget Sound, on the Columbia River, and in British Columbia and Alaska. The vessels nickname was the White Schooner which was not based on the vessels rig, but rather on speed, as to schoon in nautical parlance originally meant to go fast.[1] North Pacific was built in San Francisco for E.A. and L.M. Starr.[1] The Starrs were pioneer businessmen in Portland. The Starrs had been unsuccessfully trying to compete with Finch and Wright, first with the sidewheeler Alida and then with the small steamer Isabel. The Starrs brought North Pacific to Puget Sound in 1871 to compete with the firm of D.B. Finch and Capt. Tom Wright (1828–1906). Finch and Wright had run the pioneer sidewheeler Eliza Anderson on the Sound, and had recently replaced the Anderson with the faster sidewheeler Olympia (later known as the Princess Louise). North Pacific was 166.8 ft (50.84 m) long, with a beam of 29 ft (8.84 m) and 10.3 ft (3.14 m) depth of hold.[2][3] North Pacific was assessed at 488.73 gross register tons, with tons in this instance being a measure of volume and not weight.[2] The official merchant vessel registry number was 18685.[2] North Pacific was driven by a single-cylinder walking beam engine, 40-inch-diameter (1,000 mm) piston, 120-inch (3,000 mm) stroke[1] When North Pacific arrived at Puget Sound in June 1871, the vessel was considered to be the finest (and was certainly one of the largest) vessels yet to operate in the area.[1] On June 27, 1871, North Pacific raced Olympia across the Strait of Juan de Fuca from Victoria, British Columbia to Port Townsend, Washington, beating Olympia by three minutes. A lot of money was wagered on the outcome, and the bets were paid off at Port Townsend. Newell described the scene:
Edward S. Ellis. Edward Sylvester Ellis (April 11, 1840 – June 20, 1916) was an American author.[1][2] Ellis was a teacher, school administrator, journalist, and the author of hundreds of books and magazine articles[3] that he produced by his name and by a number of pen names. Notable fiction stories by Ellis include The Steam Man of the Prairies[4] and Seth Jones, or the Captives of the Frontier.[5] Internationally, Edward S. Ellis is probably known best for his Deerfoot novels read widely by young boys until the 1950s. Seth Jones was a prototypical early dime novel published by Beadle and Adams.[6] It is said that Seth Jones was one of Abraham Lincolns favorite stories.[7] During the mid-1880s, after a fiction-writing career of some thirty years, Ellis eventually began composing more serious works of biography, history, and persuasive writing. Of note was The Life of Colonel David Crockett, which had the story of Davy Crockett giving a speech usually called Not Yours To Give. It was a speech in opposition to awarding money to a Navy widow on the grounds that Congress had no Constitutional mandate to give charity. It was said to have been inspired by Crocketts meeting with a Horatio Bunce, a much quoted man in Libertarian circles, but one for whom historical evidence is non-existent. Besides the one hundred fifty-nine books published by his own name, Ellis work was published under various pseudonyms, including:[1]
North Pacific Airlines. North Pacific Airlines (NPA) was a commuter air carrier formed in 1987 which operated scheduled passenger service on behalf of United Airlines via a code sharing agreement as a United Express carrier initially from the Seattle–Tacoma International Airport (SEA) to three destinations in Washington state and also to Portland, Oregon. By 1989, the airline had expanded its route network and was serving fifteen destinations located in Idaho, Montana, Oregon and Washington state (see destination list below). In 1991, the airline, which was owned by WestAir Holding, Inc., was merged with WestAir Commuter Airlines which operated flights in California and other states as a United Express carrier. WestAir Commuter Airlines was also owned by the WestAir Holding corporation.[2] Another commuter air carrier which used the North Pacific Airlines name operated in Alaska as NPA from the early to mid-1980s.[4] According to the Official Airline Guide (OAG), North Pacific Airlines was operating United Express service with British Aerospace BAe Jetstream 31 and Embraer EMB-120 Brasilia propjets to the following destinations in late 1989:[5]
North Pacific Steamship Company. The North Pacific Steamship Company was a shipping company operating along the west coast of the United States and to South America during the late 19th century and early 20th century. The North Pacific Steamship Company was chartered in March 1869 in Oregon, with a capital of $5,000,000. The company was the successor to the California, Oregon and Mexican Steamship Company.[1] In 1906, the company purchased the George W. Elder, which had been launched in 1874. The company also operated the steamship Roanoke, launched in 1882. Both boats had been built as nightboats for the Old Dominion Steamship Company. On July 21, 1907, the former running mate to the George W. Elder, the Columbia collided with the lumber schooner San Pedro off Shelter Cove, California, causing the Columbia to sink, killing 88 people. Among the dead was Captain Peter A. Doran, a former commander of the George W. Elder. Both the George W. Elder and Roanoke arrived at the site of the disaster and picked up Columbias survivors from the badly damaged San Pedro. The George W. Elder returned some of the survivors to Astoria, Oregon.[2] The George W. Elder also towed the San Pedro to shore, following the disaster.[3] During World War I, the George W. Elder was leased by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, which was at the time owned by the Grace Line. The George W. Elder was used during this time as part of a four ship feeder service for Central American and Mexican ports.
Northern Pacific Railway. The Northern Pacific Railway (reporting mark NP) was an important American transcontinental railroad that operated across the northern tier of the Western United States, from Minnesota to the Pacific Northwest between 1864 and 1970. It was approved and chartered by the 38th Congress of the United States in the national / federal capital of Washington, D.C., during the last years of the American Civil War (1861–1865), and received nearly 40 million acres (62,000 sq mi; 160,000 km2) of adjacent land grants, which it used to raise additional money in Europe (especially in President Henry Villards home country of the new German Empire), for construction funding. Construction began in 1870 and the main line opened all the way from the Great Lakes to the Pacific Ocean, just south of the United States-Canada border when Ulysses S. Grant, drove in the final golden spike completing the line in western Montana Territory (future State of Montana in 1889), on September 8, 1883. The railroad had about 6,800 miles (10,900 km) of track and served a large area, including extensive trackage in the western Federal territories and later states of Idaho, Minnesota, Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, Washington, and Wisconsin. In addition, the N.P. had an international branch, Northern Pacific and Manitoba Railway (formed 1888), running north to Winnipeg, capital of the province of Manitoba, in the newly organized Canada. The main activities were shipping wheat and other farm products, cattle, timber, and minerals; bringing in consumer goods, transporting passengers; and selling land. This joint venture ended in 1899 and remaining Canadian trackage and Winnipeg East Yard acquired by the Canadian Northern Railway in 1901.[1] The Northern Pacific was headquartered in Minnesota, first in Brainerd, then in the state capital of Saint Paul. It had a tumultuous financial history; the N.P. merged with other lines over a century later in 1970 to form the modern Burlington Northern Railroad, which in turn merged with the famous Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway to become the renamed BNSF Railway in 1996, operating in the western U.S. The 38th United States Congress chartered the Northern Pacific Railway Company on July 2, 1864, with the goals of connecting the Great Lakes with Puget Sound on the northwestern coast of the United States on the Pacific Ocean, opening vast new lands for farming, ranching, lumbering and mining, and linking the federal territory of Washington and state of Oregon to the rest of the country (plus connecting the northern Great Plains of central Canada to the northern states of the U.S. and especially its Midwestern big cities, manufacturing centers and markets.[2] The U.S. Congress granted the Northern Pacific Railroad a generous potential bonanza of 60 million acres (94,000 sq mi; 240,000 km2) of land adjacent to the line in exchange for building rail transportation to an undeveloped western territory. Josiah Perham was elected its first president on December 7, 1864.[2] It could not use all the land and in the end accepted just under 40 million acres of the allotment.[3]
Magazine (disambiguation). A magazine is a kind of periodical publication. Magazine may also refer to:
Paper mill. A paper mill is a factory devoted to making paper from vegetable fibres such as wood pulp, old rags, and other ingredients. Prior to the invention and adoption of the Fourdrinier machine and other types of paper machine that use an endless belt, all paper in a paper mill was made by hand, one sheet at a time, by specialized laborers. Historical investigations into the origin of the paper mill are complicated by differing definitions and loose terminology from modern authors: Many modern scholars use the term to refer indiscriminately to all kinds of mills, whether powered by humans, by animals or by water. Their propensity to refer to any ancient paper manufacturing center as a mill, without further specifying its exact power source, has increased the difficulty of identifying the particularly efficient and historically important water-powered type.[1] The use of human and animal powered mills was known to Muslim and Chinese papermakers. However, evidence for water-powered paper mills is elusive among both prior to the 11th century.[2][3][4][5] The general absence of the use of water-powered paper mills in Muslim papermaking prior to the 11th century is suggested by the habit of Muslim authors at the time to call a production center not a mill, but a paper manufactory.[6] Scholars have identified paper mills in Abbasid-era Baghdad in 794–795. The evidence that waterpower was applied to papermaking at this time is a matter of scholarly debate.[7] In the Moroccan city of Fez, Ibn Battuta speaks of 400 mill stones for paper.[8] Since Ibn Battuta does not mention the use of water-power and such a number of water-mills would be grotesquely high, the passage is generally taken to refer to human or animal force.[4][8] An exhaustive survey of milling in Al-Andalus did not uncover water-powered paper mills, nor do the Spanish books of property distribution (Repartimientos) after the Christian reconquest refer to any.[9] Arabic texts never use the term mill in connection with papermaking, and the most thorough account of Muslim papermaking at the time, the one by the Zirid Sultan Al-Muizz ibn Badis, describes the art purely in terms of a handcraft.[9] Donald Hill has identified a possible reference to a water-powered paper mill in Samarkand, in the 11th-century work of the Persian scholar Abu Rayhan Biruni, but concludes that the passage is too brief to enable us to say with certainty that it refers to a water-powered paper mill.[10][11] This is seen by Leor Halevi as evidence of Samarkand first harnessing waterpower in the production of paper, but notes that it is not known if waterpower was applied to papermaking elsewhere across the Islamic world at the time.[12] Robert I. Burns remains sceptical, given the isolated occurrence of the reference and the prevalence of manual labour in Islamic papermaking elsewhere prior to the 13th century.[1]
Cellulose fiber. Cellulose fibers (/ˈsɛljʊloʊs, -loʊz/)[1] are fibers made with ethers or esters of cellulose, which can be obtained from the bark, wood or leaves of plants, or from other plant-based material. In addition to cellulose, the fibers may also contain hemicellulose and lignin, with different percentages of these components altering the mechanical properties of the fibers. The main applications of cellulose fibers are in the textile industry, as chemical filters, and as fiber-reinforcement composites,[2] due to their similar properties to engineered fibers, being another option for biocomposites and polymer composites. Cellulose was discovered in 1838 by the French chemist Anselme Payen, who isolated it from plant matter and determined its chemical formula.[3] Cellulose was used to produce the first successful thermoplastic polymer, celluloid, by Hyatt Manufacturing Company in 1870. Production of rayon (artificial silk) from cellulose began in the 1890s, and cellophane was invented in 1912. In 1893, Arthur D. Little of Boston, invented yet another cellulosic product, acetate, and developed it as a film. The first commercial textile uses for acetate in fiber form were developed by the Celanese Company in 1924. Hermann Staudinger determined the polymer structure of cellulose in 1920. The compound was first chemically synthesized (without the use of any biologically derived enzymes) in 1992, by Kobayashi and Shoda. Cellulose is a polymer made of repeating glucose molecules attached end to end.[4] A cellulose molecule may be from several hundred to over 10,000 glucose units long. Cellulose is similar in form to complex carbohydrates like starch and glycogen. These polysaccharides are also made from multiple subunits of glucose. The difference between cellulose and other complex carbohydrate molecules is how the glucose molecules are linked together. In addition, cellulose is a straight chain polymer, and each cellulose molecule is long and rod-like. This differs from starch, which is a coiled molecule. A result of these differences in structure is that, compared to starch and other carbohydrates, cellulose cannot be broken down into its glucose subunits by any enzymes produced by animals.
Short Stories (The Statler Brothers album). Short Stories is the seventeenth studio album by American country music group The Statler Brothers. It was released in 1977 via Mercury Records.[1] The album peaked at number 21 on the Billboard Top Country Albums chart.
Lignocellulosic biomass. Lignocellulose refers to plant dry matter (biomass), so called lignocellulosic biomass. It is the most abundantly available raw material on the Earth for the production of biofuels.[1] It is composed of two kinds of carbohydrate polymers, cellulose and hemicellulose, and an aromatic-rich polymer called lignin.[1] Any biomass rich in cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin are commonly referred to as lignocellulosic biomass.[2] Each component has a distinct chemical behavior. Being a composite of three very different components makes the processing of lignocellulose challenging. The evolved resistance to degradation or even separation is referred to as recalcitrance. Overcoming this recalcitrance to produce useful, high value products requires a combination of heat, chemicals, enzymes, and microorganisms.[3][4][5][6] These carbohydrate-containing polymers contain different sugar monomers (six and five carbon sugars) and they are covalently bound to lignin. Lignocellulosic biomass can be broadly classified as virgin biomass, waste biomass, and energy crops. Virgin biomass includes plants. Waste biomass is produced as a low value byproduct of various industrial sectors such as agriculture (corn stover, sugarcane bagasse, straw etc.) and forestry (saw mill and paper mill discards). Energy crops are crops with a high yield of lignocellulosic biomass produced as a raw material for the production of second-generation biofuel; examples include switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) and elephant grass. The biofuels generated from these energy crops are sources of sustainable energy.[7][8] Lignocellulose consists of three components, each with properties that pose challenges to commercial applications.[10] Many crops are of interest for their ability to provide high yields of biomass. Some can be harvested multiple times each year. These include poplar trees and Miscanthus giganteus. The premier energy crop is sugarcane, which is a source of the readily fermentable sucrose and the lignocellulosic by-product bagasse. Lignocellulosic biomass is the feedstock for the pulp and paper industry. In this process lignin and hemicellulose are typically separated from the plant material leaving the fibrous cellulose component to be processed for paper production, or chemical cellulose.[13] Through the pulp process most of the lignin is removed and discharged as waste material in the form of effluent/wastewater before then being used as low-value fuel to generate electricity and heat.[13] In principle, the world’s current sugar demand could be fulfilled by repurposing pulp and paper mills for lignocellulosic sugar production, making it a promising resilient food.[14]
Short Stories (Jon and Vangelis album). Short Stories is the debut album by Jon and Vangelis, the collaboration between Jon Anderson of the progressive rock band Yes and electronic music pioneer Vangelis. This was not the first time that the two had worked together: Vangelis had auditioned to be Rick Wakemans replacement in Yes in 1974, but the role was given to Patrick Moraz. In 1975, Anderson sang on So Long Ago So Clear from Heaven and Hell. Putting overdubs aside, the cuts on Short Stories were all improvised one-take tape recordings tracked in 1979, with the albums working title Spont. [Spontaneous] Music based on this process.[2] Vangelis said that the album may have taken a total of only two and a half non-consecutive weeks to produce, and just four days to start with.[2] Both Anderson and Vangelis wanted to work together just to have a fun time, the former explaining, I wont say effortless, but the enjoyment of making music without prior conceptions, without deciding what its going to be. Just do it.[2] Sounds writer John Gill, who interviewed the pair for an article regarding how Short Stories was made, said that the two apparently wanted to make an album that would be out of the styles they had commonly been labeled under by both the press and consumers with past releases.[2] Short Stories garners numerous elements of classical, pop, rock and folk.[3] Critical response to Short Stories, both upon release and in retrospect, has been mixed. A Smash Hits journalist put the blame entirely on Anderson for making the album entirely unlistenable; he jokingly described his lyrics as the kind of cosmic drivel that gets hippies a bad name, and felt that the tuneless melodies were written by just coming up with notes and pitches at random.[6] Billboard Magazine observer said that Andersons clear voice and his lyrics fit well with the structure of the compositions based on swirling keyboard work.[7] In a retrospective review, AllMusic reviewer Dave Connolly called the record underwhelming, saying that it had very few nearly memorable moments. He criticised it for being more focused on melody than making the arrangements less amorphous and paper-thin, an issue also present on the last Yes album Anderson sang on before working on Short Stories, Tormato.[4] Gary Graff, who wrote a mixed review for The Beaver County Times, mainly criticised Vangelis musical work on the record, feeling it was much more of a Vangelis album than a collaborative LP between him and Anderson, although superior to Vangeliss previous releases. He praised Andersons vocal performance, calling it far better than how he sang on Tormato, but opined that his lyrics use word play and imagery that are inaccessible for average listeners. Graff also found the songs overlong, writing that listeners could lose interest in a track after only three minutes. He wrote that it would garner fans of the works of bands such as Pink Floyd and King Crimson but lose the interest of the Yes fan base.[8] In a more favourable reviews, The Sydney Morning Heralds Madeleine dHaeye called Short Stories an innovative, pleasing combination of two highly talented musicians exploring new horizons, highlighting Andersons beautiful clarity of tone when singing high pitches and Vangeliss finely matched accompaniments.[9] In 1982, R. S. Murthi reviewed the album for the New Straits Times as one of the Aesthetes of electronics, spotlighting Andersons spirited energy and Vangelis skillful musical arrangements.[3]
Short Stories (magazine). Short Stories was an American fiction magazine published between 1890 and 1959. Short Stories began its existence as a literary periodical, carrying work by Rudyard Kipling, Émile Zola, Bret Harte, Ivan Turgenev and Anna Katharine Green.[1] The magazine advertised itself with the slogan Twenty-Five Stories for Twenty-Five Cents. After a few years, Short Stories became dominated by reprinted fiction. The magazine was sold in 1904 and eventually purchased by Doubleday, Page and Company, which in 1910 transformed Short Stories into a quality pulp. The magazines new editor, Harry E. Maule (1886-1971) placed an emphasis on Short Stories carrying well-written fiction; pulp magazine historian Robert Sampson states For Short Stories, like Adventure and Blue Book to follow, rose above the expedient prose of rival magazines like ivory towers thrusting up from swampland.[1] By 1916, Maules Short Stories was selling 95,000 copies a month.[2] Short Stories was initially known for publishing crime fiction by authors including Max Pemberton, Thomas W. Hanshew and Hugh Pendexter.[1] In the 1920s and 1930s, however, Short Stories was best known as a publisher of Western stories, with many of the best-known Western fiction writers such as Clarence E. Mulford, Max Brand, Luke Short, Ernest Haycox, W. C. Tuttle, James B. Hendryx, Barry Scobee,[3] Bertrand William Sinclair and B. M. Bower appearing in its pages.[4] Short Stories also carried adventure fiction, such as Northern tales set in the Yukon, and adventures in the South Seas or Sub-Saharan Africa. The magazines writers in the adventure genre included George Allan England, H. Bedford-Jones, Gordon MacCreagh, J. Allan Dunn, L. Patrick Greene (stories set in Africa), William Wirt (who chronicled the exploits of a mercenary, Jimmie Cordie), and George F. Worts and Captain Frederick Moore (who wrote about South Sea adventures).[5] Thriller writers Edgar Wallace, Sax Rohmer and Dornford Yates had stories in the magazine in this period, as did Vincent Starrett, who wrote about private investigator Jimmie Lavender for Short Stories.[6] Albert Richard Wetjen contributed sea stories to the magazine.[7] Short Stories also published a large number of adventure stories featuring the Foreign Legion. The magazines practitioners in this sub-genre included J.D. Newsom (with humorous stories about Legionnaires Mike Curialo and Albert Withers), Georges Surdez, Robert Carse and Bob Du Soe.[7] Some of the serials published in Short Stories were later published in hardback by Doubleday. These included Jimmie Dale and the Blue Envelope Murder, by Frank L. Packard.[7]
North Pacific Coast Railroad. The North Pacific Coast Railroad (NPC) was a common carrier 3 ft (914 mm) narrow-gauge steam railroad begun in 1874 and sold in 1902 to new owners who renamed it the North Shore Railroad (California) (NSR) and rebuilt the southern section into a standard-gauge electric railway.[1] The NPC operated in the northern California counties of Marin and Sonoma that carried redwood lumber, local dairy and agricultural products, express and passengers. The NPC operated almost 93 mi (150 km) of track that extended from a pier at Sausalito (which connected the line via ferry to San Francisco) and operated northwest to Duncans Mills and Cazadero (also known as Ingrams). The NPC became the North Shore Railroad (California) (NSR) on March 7, 1902. In 1907 the North Shore Railroad became part of the Northwestern Pacific Railroad (NWP). Southern portions of the line were standard gauged and electrified by the North Shore for suburban passenger service, though tracks north of Point Reyes Station remained 3 ft (914 mm) narrow gauge until abandonment in the late 1930s. Mileposts conform to Southern Pacific Railroad convention of distance from San Francisco:[2]
Quartering (heraldry). Quartering is a method of joining several different coats of arms together in one shield by dividing the shield into equal parts and placing different coats of arms in each division.[1] Typically, a quartering consists of a division into four equal parts, two above and two below (party per cross). Occasionally the division is instead along both diagonals (party per saltire) again creating four parts but now at top, bottom, left, and right. An example of party per cross is the coat of arms of the United Kingdom, as used outside Scotland, which consists of four quarters, displaying the Arms of England, Scotland and Ireland, with the coat for England repeated at the end. (In the royal arms as used in Scotland, the Scottish coat appears in the first and fourth quarters and the English one second.). An example of party per saltire is the arms of the medieval Kingdom of Sicily which also consists of four sections, with top and bottom displaying the coat of the Crown of Aragon, and left and right the coat of the Sicily branch of the Hohenstaufen dynasty during their reign as Holy Roman Emperors. In most traditions, there is no limit on the number of divisions allowed. For example, the records of the College of Arms include a shield of 323 quarterings for the family of Lloyd of Stockton. These 323 quarterings include numerous repeated attributed arms assigned to Welsh chieftains from the 9th century or earlier.[2] Another example of a shield of many quarterings is the coat of arms of the Powys-Lybbe family, which contains 64 quarterings. Different rules apply in Scottish heraldry, and may well apply in other jurisdictions like Canada and South Africa.
Fiber crop. Fiber crops are field crops grown for their fibers, which are traditionally used to make paper, cloth, or rope.[1] Fiber crops are characterized by having a large concentration of cellulose, which is what gives them their strength. The fibers may be chemically modified, like in viscose (used to make rayon and cellophane). In recent years, materials scientists have begun exploring further use of these fibers in composite materials. Due to cellulose being the main factor of a plant fibers strength, this is what scientists are looking to manipulate to create different types of fibers. Fiber crops are generally harvestable after a single growing season, as distinct from trees, which are typically grown for many years before being harvested for such materials as wood pulp fiber or lacebark. In specific circumstances, fiber crops can be superior to wood pulp fiber in terms of technical performance, environmental impact or cost.[2] There are a number of issues regarding the use of fiber crops to make pulp.[3] One of these is seasonal availability. While trees can be harvested continuously, many field crops are harvested once during the year and must be stored such that the crop doesnt rot over a period of many months. Considering that many pulp mills require several thousand tonnes of fiber source per day, storage of the fiber source can be a major issue.
O. E. Middleton. O.E. (Osman Edward or Ted) Middleton (born 25 March 1925 in Christchurch, died 14 August 2010 in Dunedin) was a New Zealand writer of short stories, described as belonging to the vernacular critical realist tradition of Frank Sargeson.[1] He was the brother of noted New Zealand novelist Ian Middleton, and like him also blind from middle age.[2] Mentored by Frank Sargeson in Auckland in the late 1950s, he moved to Dunedin to take up the Robert Burns Fellowship (1970) at the University of Otago. Prominent New Zealand author Janet Frame once said, O. E. Middleton is a fine writer ... Hes the only NZ writer who has made me weep over a story — one called The Stone in a volume of that title.[3] Middleton was the recipient of several awards, including the Hubert Church Award and the 2006 Janet Frame Literary Award. His Selected Stories shared first prize for Fiction in the New Zealand Book Awards in 1976. A plaque featuring a quote from Middletons 1970 Notebook was unveiled in February 2022 as part of the Dunedin Writers Walk.[4]
Short Stories (Harry Chapin album). Short Stories is the third studio album by the American singer-songwriter Harry Chapin, released in 1973. (see 1973 in music). W.O.L.D., Mr Tanner and Mail Order Annie remained amongst his most popular works for the rest of his life.[citation needed] W.O.L.D. went to number 36 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and had commercial success in the top 10 in other countries such as Canada.
Drug. A drug is any chemical substance other than a nutrient or an essential dietary ingredient, which, when administered to a living organism, produces a biological effect.[1][2] Consumption of drugs can be via inhalation, injection, smoking, ingestion, absorption via a patch on the skin, suppository, or dissolution under the tongue. A pharmaceutical drug, also called a medication or medicine, is a chemical substance used to treat, cure, prevent, or diagnose a disease or to promote well-being.[3] Traditionally drugs were obtained through extraction from medicinal plants, but more recently also by organic synthesis.[4] Pharmaceutical drugs may be used for a limited duration, or on a regular basis for chronic disorders.[3] Pharmaceutical drugs are often classified into drug classes—groups of related drugs that have similar chemical structures, the same mechanism of action (binding to the same biological target), a related mode of action, and that are used to treat the same disease.[5][6] The Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System (ATC), the most widely used drug classification system, assigns drugs a unique ATC code, which is an alphanumeric code that assigns it to specific drug classes within the ATC system. Another major classification system is the Biopharmaceutics Classification System. This classifies drugs according to their solubility and permeability or absorption properties.[7] Psychoactive drugs are substances that affect the function of the central nervous system, altering perception, mood or consciousness.[8] These drugs are divided into different groups such as: stimulants, depressants, antidepressants, anxiolytics, antipsychotics, and hallucinogens. These psychoactive drugs have been proven useful in treating a wide range of medical conditions including mental disorders around the world. The most widely used drugs in the world include caffeine, nicotine and alcohol,[9] which are also considered recreational drugs, since they are used for pleasure rather than medicinal purposes.[10] All drugs can have potential side effects.[11] Abuse of several psychoactive drugs can cause addiction or physical dependence.[12] Excessive use of stimulants can promote stimulant psychosis. Many recreational drugs are illicit; international treaties such as the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs exist for the purpose of their prohibition.
Violence. Violence is characterized as the use of physical force by humans to cause harm to other living beings, such as pain, injury, disablement, death, damage and destruction. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines violence as the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, which either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation;[1] it recognizes the need to include violence not resulting in injury or death.[2] The World Health Organization (WHO) divides violence into three broad categories: self-directed, interpersonal, and collective.[3] This categorization differentiates between violence inflicted to and by oneself, by another individual or a small group, and by larger groups such as states. Alternatively, violence can primarily be classified as either instrumental or hostile.[4] Self-inflicted violence comes in two forms. The first is suicidal behaviour, which includes suicidal thoughts and suicide attempts. The second is self-harm, which includes acts such as self-mutilation. According to WHO, collective violence refers to the instrumental use of violence by people who identify themselves as members of a group – whether this group is transitory or has a more permanent identity – against another group or set of individuals in order to achieve political, economic or social objectives.[5]: 82 Collective violence may be targeted[6][7][8][9][10][11] or stochastic.
Libido. In psychology, libido (/lɪˈbiːdoʊ/ lih-BEE-doh; from Latin libīdō) is a desiring energy, usually conceived of as sexual in nature, but sometimes also encompasses other forms of needs.[1] The term was originally developed by Sigmund Freud, the pioneer of psychoanalysis. Initially it referred only to specific sexual needs, but he later expanded the concept to a universal desire, with the id being its great reservoir.[2][3] As driving energy behind all life processes, libido became the source of the social engagement (maternal love instinct, for example), sexual behaviour, pursuit for nutrition, skin pleasure, knowledge and victory in all areas of self- and species preservation.[4][5] Equated the libido with the Eros of Platonic philosophy,[6] Freud further differentiated two inherent operators: the life drive and the death drive.[7] Both aspects are working complementary to each other: While the death drive, also called Destrudo or Thanatos, embodies the principle of analytical decomposition of complex phenomenon, the effect of life drive (Greek Bios) is to reassemble or synthesise the parts of the decomposition in a way that serves the organisms regeneration and reproduction. Freuds most abstract description of libido represents an energetic potential that begins like a bow to tense up unpleasantly (noticeable hunger) in order to pleasantly relax again (noticeable satisfaction); its nature is both physical and psychological.[8] Starting from the id in the fertilised egg, libido initiates also the emergence of two further instances: the ego (function of conscious perception), and the superego, which specialises in retrievable storage of experiences (long-term memory). Together with libido as their source, these three instances represent the common core of all branches of psychoanalysis. From a neurobiological point of view, the inner perception and regulation of the various innate needs are mediated through the nucleus accumbens by neurotransmitters and hormones; in relation to sexuality, these are mainly testosterone, oestrogen and dopamine.[9] Each of the needs can be influenced by the others (e.g. baby feeding is inextricably connected with sociality); but above all, their fulfilment requires the libidinal satisfaction of curiosity. Without this research instinct of mind, the control of bodily motoric would be impossible, the arrow from the bow called life [10] wouldnt do its work (death). Just as happiness is anchored in the fulfilment of all innate needs, disturbances through social stress resulting from lifestyle, traumatisation in early childhood or during war, mental and bodily illness lead to suffering that is inwardly noticeable and conscious to the ego. Through the capacity of empathy, linguistic and facial expressions of emotion ultimately also affect the human environment. Influential figures applying psychoanalysis Influential works applying psychoanalysis
Wood. Wood is a structural tissue/material found as xylem in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic material – a natural composite of cellulosic fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin that resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees,[1] or more broadly to include the same type of tissue elsewhere, such as in the roots of trees or shrubs. In a living tree, it performs a mechanical-support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients among the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots. Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, woodchips, or fibers. Wood has been used for thousands of years for fuel, as a construction material, for making tools and weapons, furniture and paper. More recently it emerged as a feedstock for the production of purified cellulose and its derivatives, such as cellophane and cellulose acetate. As of 2020, the growing stock of forests worldwide was about 557 billion cubic meters.[2] As an abundant, carbon-neutral[3] renewable resource, woody materials have been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy. In 2008, approximately 3.97 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested.[2] Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction.[4]
Periodical literature. Periodical literature (singularly called a periodical publication or simply a periodical) consists of published works that appear in new releases on a regular schedule (issues or numbers, often numerically divided into annual volumes). The most familiar example of periodical literature is the newspaper, but the magazine and the academic journal are also periodicals, as are some modern websites, e-journals, and other electronic-only publications produced recurrently on a schedule. Periodical publications cover a wide variety of topics, from academic, technical, and trade, to general-interest subjects such as leisure and entertainment. Articles within a periodical are usually organized around a single main subject or theme and include a title, date of publication, author(s), and brief summary of the article. A periodical typically contains an editorial section that comments on subjects of interest to its readers. Other common features are reviews of recently published books and films, columns that express the authors opinions about various topics, and advertisements. A periodical is a serial publication. A book series is also a serial publication, but is not typically called a periodical. An encyclopedia or dictionary is also a book, and might be called a serial publication if it is published in many different editions over time. A periodical series, such as a journal series, is a sequence of journals having certain characteristics in common that are formally identified together as a group (see academic journal series). Periodicals are typically published and referenced by volume and issue (also known as issue number or number). Volume typically refers to the number of years the publication has been circulated, and issue refers to how many times that periodical has been published during that year. For example, the April 2011 publication of a monthly magazine first published in 2002 would be listed as, volume 10, issue 4. Roman numerals are sometimes used in reference to the volume number.[1]
Harpers Magazine. Harpers Magazine is a monthly magazine of literature, politics, culture, finance, and the arts. Launched in New York City in June 1850, it is the oldest continuously published monthly magazine in the United States.[a] Harpers Magazine has won 22 National Magazine Awards.[1] The magazine has published works of prominent authors and political figures, including Herman Melville, Woodrow Wilson, and Winston Churchill. Willie Morriss resignation as editor in 1971 was considered a major event, and many other employees of the magazine resigned with him. The magazine has developed into the 21st century, adding several blogs. It is related under the same publisher to Harpers Bazaar magazine, focused on fashion, and several other Harpers titles but each publication is independently produced. Although it shares historically ties to the publishing house Harper, it is not currently unaffiliated as it merged with William Collins, Sons to become HarperCollins. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center study, Harpers Magazine, along with The Atlantic, and The New Yorker, ranked highest in college-educated readership among major American media outlets.[2] Harpers Magazine began as Harpers New Monthly Magazine in New York City in June 1850, by publisher Harper & Brothers. The company also founded the magazines Harpers Weekly and Harpers Bazaar, and grew to become HarperCollins. The first press run of Harpers Magazine included 7,500 copies and sold out almost immediately. Six months later, the magazines circulation had grown to 50,000.[3] The early issues reprinted material pirated from English authors such as Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, and the Brontë sisters.[4] The magazine soon was publishing the work of American artists and writers, and in time commentary by the likes of Winston Churchill and Woodrow Wilson. Portions of Herman Melvilles novel Moby-Dick were first published in the October 1851 issue of Harpers under the title, The Town-Hos Story, named after Chapter 54 of Moby-Dick.[5]
Means of communication. Means of communication or media are used by people to communicate and exchange information with each other as an information sender and a receiver. Diverse arrays of media that reach a large audience via mass communication are called mass media. Many different materials are used in communication. Maps, for example, save tedious explanations on how to get to a destination. A means of communication is therefore a means to an end to make communication between people easier, more understandable and, above all, clearer. In everyday language, the term means of communication is often equated with the medium. However, the term medium is used in media studies to refer to a large number of concepts, some of which do not correspond to everyday usage.[1][2] Means of communication are used for communication between sender and recipient and thus for the transmission of information. Elements of communication include a communication-triggering event, sender and recipient, a means of communication, a path of communication and contents of communication.[3] The path of communication is the path that a message travels between sender and recipient; in hierarchies the vertical line of communication is identical to command hierarchies.[4] Paths of communication can be physical (e.g. the road as transportation route) or non-physical (e.g. networks like a computer network). Contents of communication can be for example photography, data, graphics, language, or texts. Means of communication in the narrower sense refer to technical devices that transmit information.[5] They are the manifestations of contents of communication that can be perceived through the senses and replace the communication that originally ran from person to person and make them reproducible.[6] Up until the 19th century the term means of communication was primarily applied to traffic and couriers and to means of transport and transportation routes, such as railways, roads and canals,[7] but also used to include post riders and stagecoachs. In 1861, the national economist Albert Schäffle defined a means of communication as an aid to the circulation of goods and financial services, which included, among other things, newspapers, telegraphy, mail, courier services, remittance advice, invoices, and bills of lading.[8]
Obscenity. An obscenity is any utterance or act that strongly offends the prevalent morality of the time.[1] It is derived from the Latin obscēnus, obscaenus, boding ill; disgusting; indecent, of uncertain etymology.[2] Generally, the term can be used to indicate strong moral repugnance and outrage in expressions such as obscene profits and the obscenity of war. As a legal term, it usually refers to descriptions and depictions of people engaged in sexual and excretory activity. In the United States, issues of obscenity raise issues of limitations on the freedom of speech and of the press, which are otherwise protected by the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Federal obscenity law in the U.S. is unusual in that there is no uniform national standard. Former Justice Potter Stewart of the Supreme Court of the United States, in attempting to classify what material constituted exactly what is obscene, famously wrote, I shall not today attempt further to define the kinds of material I understand to be embraced ... [b]ut I know it when I see it....[3] In the U.S., the 1973 ruling of the U.S. Supreme Court in Miller v. California established a three-tiered test to determine what was obscene—and thus not protected, versus what was merely erotic and thus protected by the First Amendment. Delivering the opinion of the court, Chief Justice Warren Burger wrote: The basic guidelines for the trier of fact must be: (a) whether the average person, applying contemporary community standards, would find that the work, taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest, (b) whether the work depicts or describes, in a patently offensive way, sexual conduct specifically defined by the applicable state law; and (c) whether the work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.[4]
Dead zone. Dead zone may refer to:
Hypoxia (environmental). Hypoxia refers to low oxygen conditions. Hypoxia is problematic for air-breathing organisms, yet it is essential for many anaerobic organisms. Hypoxia applies to many situations, but usually refers to the atmosphere and natural waters.[3] Atmospheric hypoxia occurs naturally at high altitudes. Total atmospheric pressure decreases as altitude increases, causing a lower partial pressure of oxygen, which is defined as hypobaric hypoxia. Oxygen remains at 20.9% of the total gas mixture, differing from hypoxic hypoxia, where the percentage of oxygen in the air (or blood) is decreased. This is common in the sealed burrows of some subterranean animals, such as blesmols.[4] Atmospheric hypoxia is also the basis of altitude training, which is a standard part of training for elite athletes. Several companies mimic hypoxia using normobaric artificial atmosphere. An aquatic system lacking dissolved oxygen (0% saturation) is termed anaerobic, reducing, or anoxic. In water, oxygen levels are approximately 7 ppm or 0.0007% in good quality water, but fluctuate.[5] Many organisms require hypoxic conditions. Oxygen is poisonous to anaerobic bacteria for example.[3] Oxygen depletion is typically expressed as a percentage of the oxygen that would dissolve in the water at the prevailing temperature and salinity. A system with low concentration—in the range between 1 and 30% saturation—is called hypoxic or dysoxic. Most fish cannot live below 30% saturation since they rely on oxygen to derive energy from their nutrients. Hypoxia leads to impaired reproduction of remaining fish via endocrine disruption.[6] A healthy aquatic environment should seldom experience less than 80% saturation. The exaerobic zone is found at the boundary of anoxic and hypoxic zones.
Anoxic waters. Anoxic waters are areas of sea water, fresh water, or groundwater that are depleted of dissolved oxygen. The US Geological Survey defines anoxic groundwater as those with dissolved oxygen concentration of less than 0.5 milligrams per litre.[1] Anoxic waters can be contrasted with hypoxic waters, which are low (but not lacking) in dissolved oxygen. Often, hypoxia is defined as waters that have less than 2 milligrams per litre of dissolved oxygen.[2] This condition is generally found in areas that have restricted water exchange. In most cases, oxygen is prevented from reaching the deeper levels by a physical barrier,[3] as well as by a pronounced density stratification, in which, for instance, denser, colder or hypersaline waters rest at the bottom of a basin. Anoxic conditions will occur if the rate of oxidation of organic matter by bacteria is greater than the supply of dissolved oxygen. Anoxic waters are a natural phenomenon,[4] and have occurred throughout geological history. The Permian–Triassic extinction event, a mass extinction of species from the worlds oceans, may have resulted from widespread anoxic conditions combined with ocean acidification driven by a massive release of carbon dioxide into Earths atmosphere.[5] Many lakes have a permanent or temporary anoxic layer created by respiration depleting oxygen at depth and thermal stratification preventing its resupply.[6] Anoxic basins exist in the Baltic Sea,[7] the Black Sea, the Cariaco Trench, various fjord valleys, and elsewhere.[8] Eutrophication has likely increased the extent of anoxic zones in areas including the Baltic Sea, the Gulf of Mexico,[9] and Hood Canal in Washington State.[10] Anoxic conditions result from a combination of environmental conditions including density stratification,[11] inputs of organic material or other reducing agents, and physical barriers to water circulation. In fjords, shallow sills at the entrance may prevent circulation, while at continental boundaries, circulation may be especially low while organic material input from production at upper levels is exceptionally high.[12] In wastewater treatment, the absence of oxygen alone is indicated anoxic while the term anaerobic is used to indicate the absence of any common electron acceptor such as nitrate, sulfate or oxygen.
South Pacific (novel). South Pacific (1992) is a book by American author James A. Michener. As retold by Michener, the book is based on Rodgers and Hammersteins award-winning musical, South Pacific based on Micheners 1947 book Tales of the South Pacific, about the lives of officers, nurses, a French expatriate, and natives on the islands of the South Pacific during World War II. Includes discussion of the original Broadway production and its cast. Unpaginated glossy pages with some beautiful full-page color illustrations.[1] This article about a World War II novel first published in the 1940s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Tales of the South Pacific. Tales of the South Pacific is a Pulitzer Prize-winning collection of sequentially related short stories by James A. Michener about the Pacific campaign in World War II. The stories are based on observations and anecdotes he collected while stationed as a lieutenant commander in the US Navy at the Espiritu Santo Naval Base on the island of Espiritu Santo in the New Hebrides Islands (now known as Vanuatu). Written in 1946 and published in 1947, the book was loosely adapted in 1949 as the Broadway musical South Pacific, which itself formed the basis of two films dating from 1958 and 2001. The stories take place in the environs of the Coral Sea and the Solomon Islands. Michener as narrator gives a first-person voice to several of the stories as an unnamed Commander, performing duties similar to those that he himself performed during World War II. Two stories are narrated by a named Navy pilot. The stories are interconnected by recurring characters and several loose plot lines. One plot line in particular is the preparation for and execution of a fictitious amphibious invasion, code-named Alligator. The focus of the stories is, however, the interactions between Americans and a variety of colonial, immigrant, and indigenous characters.
Ocean deoxygenation. Ocean deoxygenation is the reduction of the oxygen content in different parts of the ocean due to human activities.[2][3] There are two areas where this occurs. Firstly, it occurs in coastal zones where eutrophication has driven some quite rapid (in a few decades) declines in oxygen to very low levels.[2] This type of ocean deoxygenation is also called dead zones. Secondly, ocean deoxygenation occurs also in the open ocean. In that part of the ocean, there is nowadays an ongoing reduction in oxygen levels. As a result, the naturally occurring low oxygen areas (so called oxygen minimum zones (OMZs)) are now expanding slowly.[4] This expansion is happening as a consequence of human caused climate change.[5][6] The resulting decrease in oxygen content of the oceans poses a threat to marine life, as well as to people who depend on marine life for nutrition or livelihood.[7][8][9] A decrease in ocean oxygen levels affects how productive the ocean is, how nutrients and carbon move around, and how marine habitats function.[10][11] As the oceans become warmer this increases the loss of oxygen in the oceans. This is because the warmer temperatures increase ocean stratification. The reason for this lies in the multiple connections between density and solubility effects that result from warming.[12][13] As a side effect, the availability of nutrients for marine life is reduced, therefore adding further stress to marine organisms. The rising temperatures in the oceans also cause a reduced solubility of oxygen in the water, which can explain about 50% of oxygen loss in the upper level of the ocean (>1000 m). Warmer ocean water holds less oxygen and is more buoyant than cooler water. This leads to reduced mixing of oxygenated water near the surface with deeper water, which naturally contains less oxygen. Warmer water also raises oxygen demand from living organisms; as a result, less oxygen is available for marine life.[14] Studies have shown that oceans have already lost 1-2% of their oxygen since the middle of the 20th century,[15][16] and model simulations predict a decline of up to 7% in the global ocean O2 content over the next hundred years. The decline of oxygen is projected to continue for a thousand years or more.[17] The term ocean deoxygenation has been used increasingly by international scientific bodies because it captures the decreasing trend of the world oceans oxygen inventory.[2] Oceanographers and others have discussed what phrase best describes the phenomenon to non-specialists. Among the options considered have been ocean suffocation[18], marine deoxygenation, ocean oxygen depletion and ocean hypoxia.
Teppanyaki. Teppanyaki (鉄板焼き, teppan-yaki), often called hibachi (火鉢, fire bowl) in the Western world,[1] is a post-World War II style[2] of Japanese cuisine that uses an iron griddle to cook food. The word teppanyaki is derived from teppan (鉄板), the metal plate on which it is cooked, and yaki (焼き), which means grilled, broiled, or pan-fried. In Japan, teppanyaki refers to dishes cooked using a teppan, including steak, shrimp, okonomiyaki, yakisoba, and monjayaki. Teppan are typically propane-heated, flat-surfaced, and are widely used to cook food in front of guests at restaurants. They are commonly confused with the hibachi barbecue grill, which is called shichirin in Japanese, and has a charcoal or gas flame and is made with an open grate design. With a solid griddle-type cook surface, the teppan is capable of cooking small or semisolid ingredients such as rice, egg and finely chopped vegetables.[1] The originator of the teppanyaki-style steakhouse is believed to be Shigeji Fujioka of the Japanese restaurant chain Misono.[3] The restaurant claims to be the first to introduce the concept of cooking Western-influenced food on a teppan in Japan, in 1945.[4][5] They soon found the cuisine was less popular with the Japanese than it was with foreigners, who enjoyed both watching the skilled maneuvers of the chefs preparing the food and the cuisine itself, which is somewhat more familiar than more traditional Japanese dishes. As the restaurants became more popular with tourists, the chain increased the performance aspect of the chefs preparation, such as stacking onion slices to produce a flaming onion volcano.[citation needed] Another piece of equipment in the same family is a flattop grill, consisting of a flat piece of steel over circular burners and typically smaller and round, like a Mongolian barbecue.[6][better source needed]
South Pacific (1958 film). South Pacific is a 1958 American romantic musical film based on the 1949 Rodgers and Hammerstein musical South Pacific, which in turn is loosely based on James A. Micheners 1947 short-story collection Tales of the South Pacific. The film, directed by Joshua Logan, stars Rossano Brazzi, Mitzi Gaynor, John Kerr and Ray Walston in the leading roles with Juanita Hall as Bloody Mary, the part that she had played in the original stage production. The film was nominated for three Academy Awards, winning the Academy Award for Best Sound for Fred Hynes. It is set in 1943, during World War II, on an island in the South Pacific. During World War II, the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marines are preparing a counteroffensive against the Imperial Japanese Navy in the islands of the South Pacific. Lieutenant Joe Cable, a Marine officer, asks a local French planter, Emile de Becque, to assist with a reconnaissance mission behind Japanese lines, but de Becque declines; he has fallen in love with U.S. Navy nurse Nellie Forbush and does not want to get involved. Luther Billis, a Navy Construction Battalion sailor (Seabee), persuades Cable to visit the nearby island of Bali Hai, where Cable falls in love with a local girl, Liat. Nellie, although in love with de Becque, is tormented by the revelation that he had children with a Polynesian woman (who has since died) and runs away, while Cable says he will not marry Liat; he is distressed by the thought of bringing her back to his family, fearing their reaction. Distraught by his separation from Nellie and with nothing to lose, de Becque volunteers to go with Cable, who wishes to complete the mission and live the rest of his life on Bali Hai with Liat. The two men fly to a local fishing boat in order to secretly access a Japanese-held island, to provide vital intelligence for the U.S. Navy. The group comes under heavy fire from a Japanese plane and Cable is killed, but the mission is a success and the Navy gains knowledge that allows it to move on the Japanese forces.
Privately held company. A privately held company (or simply a private company) is a company whose shares and related rights or obligations are not offered for public subscription or publicly negotiated in their respective listed markets. Instead, the companys stock is offered, owned, traded or exchanged privately, also known as over-the-counter. Related terms are unlisted organisation, unquoted company and private equity. Private companies are often less well-known than their publicly traded counterparts but still have major importance in the worlds economy. For example, in 2008, the 441 largest private companies in the United States accounted for $1.8 trillion in revenues and employed 6.2 million people, according to Forbes.[1] In general, all companies that are not owned by the government are classified as private enterprises. This definition encompasses both publicly traded and privately held companies, as their investors are individuals. Private ownership of productive assets differs from state ownership or collective ownership (as in worker-owned companies). This usage is often found in former Eastern Bloc countries to differentiate from former state-owned enterprises,[citation needed] but it may be used anywhere in contrast to a state-owned or a collectively owned company. In the United States, a privately held company refers to a business entity owned by private stakeholders, investors, or company founders, and its shares are not available for public purchase on stock exchanges. That contrasts with public companies, whose shares are publicly traded, which allows investing by the general public.
Pornography. Pornography (colloquially called porn or porno) is sexually suggestive material, such as a picture, video, text, or audio, intended for sexual arousal.[a] Made for consumption by adults, pornographic depictions have evolved from cave paintings, some forty millennia ago, to modern-day virtual reality presentations. A general distinction of adults-only sexual content is made, classifying it as pornography or erotica. The oldest artifacts considered pornographic were discovered in Germany in 2008 and are dated to be at least 35,000 years old.[b] Human enchantment with sexual imagery representations has been a constant throughout history. However, the reception of such imagery varied according to the historical, cultural, and national contexts. The Indian Sanskrit text Kama Sutra (3rd century CE) contained prose, poetry, and illustrations regarding sexual behavior, and the book was celebrated; while the British English text Fanny Hill (1748), considered the first original English prose pornography, has been one of the most prosecuted and banned books. In the late 19th century, a film by Thomas Edison that depicted a kiss was denounced as obscene in the United States, whereas Eugène Pirous 1896 film Bedtime for the Bride was received very favorably in France. Starting from the mid-twentieth century on, societal attitudes towards sexuality became lenient in the Western world where legal definitions of obscenity were made limited. In 1969, Blue Movie by Andy Warhol became the first film to depict unsimulated sex that received a wide theatrical release in the United States. This was followed by the Golden Age of Porn (1969–1984). The introduction of home video and the World Wide Web in the late 20th century led to global growth in the pornography business. Beginning in the 21st century, greater access to the Internet and affordable smartphones made pornography more mainstream. Pornography has been vouched to provision a safe outlet for sexual desires that may not be satisfied within relationships and be a facilitator of sexual fulfillment in people who do not have a partner. Pornography consumption is found to induce psychological moods and emotions similar to those evoked during sexual intercourse and casual sex. Pornography usage is considered a widespread recreational activity in-line with other digitally mediated activities such as use of social media or video games.[c] People who regard porn as sex education material were identified as more likely not to use condoms in their own sex life, thereby assuming a higher risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections (STIs); performers working for pornographic studios undergo regular testing for STIs unlike much of the general public. Comparative studies indicate higher tolerance and consumption of pornography among adults tends to be associated with their greater support for gender equality. Among feminist groups, some seek to abolish pornography believing it to be harmful, while others oppose censorship efforts insisting it is benign. A longitudinal study ascertained pornography use is not a predictive factor in intimate partner violence.[d] Porn Studies, started in 2014, is the first international peer-reviewed, academic journal dedicated to critical study of pornographic products and services. Currently, the production of pornographic films featuring male and female actors is often linked to prostitution in that women are filmed during paid sex, with or without their consent. In many cases, they are also pressured or coerced into performing certain sexual acts that they would not do of their own accord.[1][2][3] In most pornographic films, footage is edited together and viewers are presented with sequencies of sexual acts that do not exist in real sexual relationships between people. Preparatory acts that satisfy real needs are omitted. What viewers see is the result of acting performances.[4]
Pacific–Farallon Ridge. The Pacific-Farallon Ridge was a spreading ridge during the Late Cretaceous that extended 10,000 km in length and separated the Pacific Plate to the west and the Farallon Plate to the east. It ran south from the Pacific-Farallon-Kula triple junction at 51°N to the Pacific-Farallon-Antarctic triple junction at 43°S.[1] As the Farallon Plate subducted obliquely under the North American Plate, the Pacific-Farallon Ridge approached and eventually made contact with the North American Plate about 30 million years ago.[2] On average, this ridge had an equatorial spreading rate of 13.5 cm per year until its eventual collision with the North American Plate. In present day, the Pacific-Farallon Ridge no longer formally exists since the Farallon Plate has been broken up or subducted beneath the North American Plate, and the ridge has segmented, having been mostly subducted as well. The most notable remnant of the Pacific-Farallon Ridge is the 4000 km Pacific-Nazca segment of the East Pacific Rise.[3] As a spreading ridge, the Pacific-Farallon Ridge was a divergent plate boundary, which is where the two plates are moving away from each other. Partial mantle melting occurs beneath such ridges, which forms new oceanic crust. The Pacific-Farallon Ridge was thought to be a particularly productive spreading ridge, and there are estimates that the ridge and its remnants have formed up to 45% of all oceanic lithosphere since 83 million years ago.[4] The spreading rate of the Pacific-Farallon Ridge has varied throughout its lifetime with an acceleration of its spreading rate occurring 55 to 48 million years ago, around the same time that a significant portion of the Farallon Plate broke to form the Vancouver Plate.[5] The spreading rate decreased once the ridge made contact with the North American Plate 16 million years ago.[6] As the Farallon Plate made contact with the North American Plate and began subducting beneath it, it fragmented into the Juan de Fuca Plate and Cocos Plate, and then later fragmented further to form the Rivera Plate.[7] Once the Pacific-Farallon Ridge began subducting beneath the North American Plate, the remains of the Farallon Plate broke apart to form the Monterey, Arguello, Magdalena, and Guadelupe Microplates, and the southern portion of the ridge rotated in a clockwise manner.[8] The contact of the ridge with North America marked a transition of the Pacific-Farallon Ridge from being a globally oriented spreading ridge system to a locally oriented one. The distinction between these systems is that slab pull and gravitational gliding forces determine the characteristics of the globally oriented whereas those of the locally oriented are influenced by the contact of the ridge with the North American Plate.[9] As the Pacific-Farallon Ridge began its subduction underneath the North American plate 30 million years ago, its southern segment, the East Pacific Rise continued spreading. The East Pacific Rise did not begin its subduction under the North American Plate until 20 million years ago, and the presently surviving portion of the East Pacific Rise is the Pacific-Nazca segment. The present-day spreading from the East Pacific Rise dominates the spreading regime in the Central and South Pacific.[10]
Pacific Rim. The Pacific Rim comprises the lands around the rim of the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Basin includes the Pacific Rim and the islands in the Pacific Ocean.[1] The Pacific Rim roughly overlaps with the geological Pacific Ring of Fire. This is a list of countries that are generally considered to be a part of the Pacific Rim, since they lie along the Pacific Ocean.[2] Arranging from north to south, west to east in directional order. The Pacific has much international shipping. The top 10 busiest container ports, with the exception of Dubais Port of Jebel Ali (9th), are in the Rim nations. They are home to 29 of the worlds 50 busiest container shipping ports:
Pacific, California. 38°45′37″N 120°30′26″W / 38.76028°N 120.50722°W / 38.76028; -120.50722 Pacific is a small unincorporated community in El Dorado County, California.[1] It is located 3.25 miles (5 km) east of Pollock Pines,[2] at an elevation of 3396 feet (1035 m).[1] It lies along U.S. Highway 50. The ZIP code is 95726. The community is inside area code 530. A post office operated in Pacific from 1880 to 1893 and from 1894 to 1958, when it was transferred to the nearby community of Pacific House.[2]
South Pacific (musical). South Pacific is a musical composed by Richard Rodgers, with lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II and book by Hammerstein and Joshua Logan. The work premiered in 1949 on Broadway and was an immediate hit, running for 1,925 performances. The plot is based on James A. Micheners Pulitzer Prize–winning 1947 book Tales of the South Pacific and combines elements of several of those stories. Rodgers and Hammerstein believed they could write a musical based on Micheners work that would be financially successful and, at the same time, send a strong progressive message on racism. The plot centers on an American nurse stationed on a South Pacific island during World War II, who falls in love with a middle-aged expatriate French plantation owner but struggles to accept his mixed-race children. A secondary romance, between a U.S. Marine lieutenant and a young Tonkinese woman, explores his fears of the social consequences should he marry his Asian sweetheart. The issue of racial prejudice is candidly explored throughout the musical, most controversially in the lieutenants song, Youve Got to Be Carefully Taught. Supporting characters, including a comic petty officer and the Tonkinese girls mother, help to tie the stories together. Because he lacked military knowledge, Hammerstein had difficulty writing that part of the script. The director of the original production, Logan, assisted him and received credit as co-writer of the book. The original Broadway production enjoyed immense critical and box-office success, became the second-longest running Broadway musical to that point (behind Rodgers and Hammersteins earlier Oklahoma! (1943)), and has remained popular ever since. After they signed Ezio Pinza and Mary Martin as the leads, Rodgers and Hammerstein wrote several of the songs with the particular talents of their stars in mind. The piece won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1950. Especially in the Southern U.S., its racial theme provoked controversy, for which its authors were unapologetic. Several of its songs, including Bali Hai, Im Gonna Wash That Man Right Outa My Hair, Some Enchanted Evening, There Is Nothing Like a Dame, Happy Talk, Younger Than Springtime, and Im in Love with a Wonderful Guy, have become popular standards. The production won ten Tony Awards, including Best Musical, Best Score, and Best Libretto, and it is the only musical production to win Tony Awards in all four acting categories. Its original cast album was the bestselling record of the 1940s, and other recordings of the show have also been popular. The show has enjoyed many successful revivals and tours, spawning a 1958 film and television adaptations. The 2008 Broadway revival, a critical success, ran for 996 performances and won seven Tonys, including Best Musical Revival.
Pacific–Kula Ridge. The Pacific-Kula Ridge is a former mid-ocean ridge that existed between the Pacific and Kula plates in the Pacific Ocean during the Paleogene period. Its appearance was in an east–west direction and the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain had its attribution with the ridge.[1] The Pacific-Kula Ridge lay south of the Hawaii hotspot around 80 million years ago, moving northward relative to the hotspot.[2] This tectonics article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Oxygen. Oxygen is a chemical element; it has symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group in the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal, and a potent oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as well as with other compounds. Oxygen is the most abundant element in Earths crust, making up almost half of the Earths crust in the form of various oxides such as water, carbon dioxide, iron oxides and silicates.[7] It is the third-most abundant element in the universe after hydrogen and helium. At standard temperature and pressure, two oxygen atoms will bind covalently to form dioxygen, a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the chemical formula O2. Dioxygen gas currently constitutes approximately 20.95% molar fraction of the Earths atmosphere, though this has changed considerably over long periods of time in Earths history. A much rarer triatomic allotrope of oxygen, ozone (O3), strongly absorbs the UVB and UVC wavelengths and forms a protective ozone layer at the lower stratosphere, which shields the biosphere from ionizing ultraviolet radiation. However, ozone present at the surface is a corrosive byproduct of smog and thus an air pollutant. All eukaryotic organisms, including plants, animals, fungi, algae and most protists, need oxygen for cellular respiration, a process that extracts chemical energy by the reaction of oxygen with organic molecules derived from food and releases carbon dioxide as a waste product. Many major classes of organic molecules in living organisms contain oxygen atoms, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and fats, as do the major constituent inorganic compounds of animal shells, teeth, and bone. Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water, the major constituent of lifeforms. Oxygen in Earths atmosphere is produced by biotic photosynthesis, in which photon energy in sunlight is captured by chlorophyll to split water molecules and then react with carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates and oxygen is released as a byproduct. Oxygen is too chemically reactive to remain a free element in air without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic activities of autotroph such as cyanobacteria, chloroplast-bearing algae and plants. Oxygen was isolated by Michael Sendivogius before 1604, but it is commonly believed that the element was discovered independently by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, in Uppsala, in 1773 or earlier, and Joseph Priestley in Wiltshire, in 1774. Priority is often given for Priestley because his work was published first. Priestley, however, called oxygen dephlogisticated air, and did not recognize it as a chemical element. In 1777, Antoine Lavoisier first recognized oxygen as a chemical element and correctly characterized the role it plays in combustion.
Pacific Ocean. Main five oceans division: Further subdivision: The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earths five oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean, or, depending on the definition, to Antarctica in the south, and is bounded by the continents of Asia and Australia in the west and the Americas in the east. At 165,250,000 square kilometers (63,800,000 square miles) in area (as defined with a southern Antarctic border), the Pacific Ocean is the largest division of the World Ocean and the hydrosphere and covers approximately 46% of Earths water surface and about 32% of the planets total surface area, larger than its entire land area (148,000,000 km2 (57,000,000 sq mi)).[1] The centers of both the water hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere, as well as the oceanic pole of inaccessibility, are in the Pacific Ocean. Ocean circulation (caused by the Coriolis effect) subdivides it[2] into two largely independent volumes of water that meet at the equator, the North Pacific Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean (or more loosely the South Seas). The Pacific Ocean can also be informally divided by the International Date Line into the East Pacific and the West Pacific, which allows it to be further divided into four quadrants, namely the Northeast Pacific off the coasts of North America, the Southeast Pacific off South America, the Northwest Pacific off Far Eastern/Pacific Asia, and the Southwest Pacific around Oceania.
Western Pacific Airlines. Western Pacific Airlines, or WestPac, was an airline which operated in the United States from 1995 to 1998. A low-cost carrier, it was formed in 1994 under the name Commercial Air, later changed to Western Pacific, and began operating scheduled passenger flights on April 28, 1995, with eight Boeing 737-300s. Edward Gaylord of Gaylord Entertainment Company was involved in the formation and management of the airline. Its headquarters were in unincorporated El Paso County, Colorado, near Colorado Springs.[1][2] Originally based at Colorado Springs Airport, Western Pacific routes were mainly west of the Mississippi River. Routes were extended to the eastern U.S. and on the west coast as new Boeing 737-300 aircraft were acquired. At one point the airline operated leased Boeing 727-200 jetliners as well. The airline declared bankruptcy in February 1998 and ceased operations. The WestPac livery could be encountered in variations on the basic Western Pacific livery, but most aircraft were painted in logojet schemes. They included advertisements for: The company also had other schemes with no corporate affiliations or advertising. They were: In 1995, a marketing promotion with Rupert Murdoch’s American Fox network led to one of the airlines Boing 737-300 being painted with characters from The Simpsons. According to Fox, this was because it would give people a chuckle and that people at the airport will notice it. [3]
Pacific–Antarctic Ridge. The Pacific-Antarctic Ridge (PAR, Antarctic Pacific Ridge, South Pacific Rise, South Pacific Ridge)[4] is a divergent tectonic plate boundary located on the seafloor of the South Pacific Ocean, separating the Pacific plate from the Antarctic plate. It is regarded as the southern section of the East Pacific Rise in some usages, generally south of the Challenger fracture zone which is associated with a triple junction between the Juan Fernández microplate, the Pacific plate and the Antarctic plate. It stretches from there in a general southwesterly direction to the Macquarie Triple Junction south of New Zealand.[5] The divergence rate between the two plates along the ridge is believed to vary from about 5.4 centimetres per year (2.1 in/year) near 65°S to 7.4 centimetres per year (2.9 in/year) near the Udintsev fracture zone at 55°S.[6]: 1281 This area of transition in sea floor spreading rate has been mapped by multiple techniques and occurs near the Heirtzler fracture zone.[1] The ridge is related to the Late Cretaceous breakup of Gondwana. To the southeast the historic Bellingshausen plate separated the Pacific and Antarctic plates between about 84 to 61 million years ago.[7]: Fig 9. Until about 33 million years ago, the Proto-Antipodes fracture zone well to the south separated two independent spreading centers, now merged, being the Antarctic–Pacific Ridge and that of the Antarctic–Campbell Plateau.[7]: 14 Fracture zones are generally areas of low gravity on the seafloor parallel to a spreading center.[1] The named fracture zones going southwest along the rise, include: Stretching for 4,300 km (2,700 mi) north-west from the Eltanin fault system which intersects the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge to the Osbourn Seamount at Tonga and Kermadec Junction[9] is a long line of seamounts called the Louisville Ridge – the longest such chain in the Pacific[10] – thought to have formed from the Pacific Plate sliding over a long-lived center of upwelling magma called the Louisville hotspot.

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