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6,101 | These thermal effects force SoC and other chip designers to apply conservative design margins, creating less performant devices to mitigate the risk of catastrophic failure. Due to increased transistor densities as length scales get smaller, each process generation produces more heat output than the last. Compounding t... |
6,102 | SoCs are optimized to maximize computational and communications throughput. |
6,103 | SoCs are optimized to minimize latency for some or all of their functions. This can be accomplished by laying out elements with proper proximity and locality to each-other to minimize the interconnection delays and maximize the speed at which data is communicated between modules, functional units and memories. In gener... |
6,104 | For tasks running on processor cores, latency and throughput can be improved with task scheduling. Some tasks run in application-specific hardware units, however, and even task scheduling may not be sufficient to optimize all software-based tasks to meet timing and throughput constraints. |
6,105 | Systems on chip are modeled with standard hardware verification and validation techniques, but additional techniques are used to model and optimize SoC design alternatives to make the system optimal with respect to multiple-criteria decision analysis on the above optimization targets. |
6,106 | Task scheduling is an important activity in any computer system with multiple processes or threads sharing a single processor core. It is important to reduce § Latency and increase § Throughput for embedded software running on an SoC's § Processor cores. Not every important computing activity in a SoC is performed in ... |
6,107 | Software running on SoCs often schedules tasks according to network scheduling and randomized scheduling algorithms. |
6,108 | Hardware and software tasks are often pipelined in processor design. Pipelining is an important principle for speedup in computer architecture. They are frequently used in GPUs and RISC processors , but are also applied to application-specific tasks such as digital signal processing and multimedia manipulations in the... |
6,109 | SoCs are often analyzed though probabilistic models, queueing networks, and Markov chains. For instance, Little's law allows SoC states and NoC buffers to be modeled as arrival processes and analyzed through Poisson random variables and Poisson processes. |
6,110 | SoCs are often modeled with Markov chains, both discrete time and continuous time variants. Markov chain modeling allows asymptotic analysis of the SoC's steady state distribution of power, heat, latency and other factors to allow design decisions to be optimized for the common case. |
6,111 | SoC chips are typically fabricated using metal–oxide–semiconductor technology. The netlists described above are used as the basis for the physical design flow to convert the designers' intent into the design of the SoC. Throughout this conversion process, the design is analyzed with static timing modeling, simulation... |
6,112 | When all known bugs have been rectified and these have been re-verified and all physical design checks are done, the physical design files describing each layer of the chip are sent to the foundry's mask shop where a full set of glass lithographic masks will be etched. These are sent to a wafer fabrication plant to cre... |
6,113 | SoCs can be fabricated by several technologies, including: |
6,114 | ASICs consume less power and are faster than FPGAs but cannot be reprogrammed and are expensive to manufacture. FPGA designs are more suitable for lower volume designs, but after enough units of production ASICs reduce the total cost of ownership. |
6,115 | SoC designs consume less power and have a lower cost and higher reliability than the multi-chip systems that they replace. With fewer packages in the system, assembly costs are reduced as well. |
6,116 | However, like most very-large-scale integration designs, the total cost is higher for one large chip than for the same functionality distributed over several smaller chips, because of lower yields and higher non-recurring engineering costs. |
6,117 | When it is not feasible to construct an SoC for a particular application, an alternative is a system in package comprising a number of chips in a single package. When produced in large volumes, SoC is more cost-effective than SiP because its packaging is simpler. Another reason SiP may be preferred is waste heat may b... |
6,118 | Some examples of systems on a chip are: |
6,119 | SoC research and development often compares many options. Benchmarks, such as COSMIC, are developed to help such evaluations. |
6,120 | Computer science is the study of computation, information, and automation. Computer science spans theoretical disciplines to applied disciplines . Though more often considered an academic discipline, computer science is closely related to computer programming. |
6,121 | Algorithms and data structures are central to computer science.
The theory of computation concerns abstract models of computation and general classes of problems that can be solved using them. The fields of cryptography and computer security involve studying the means for secure communication and for preventing securit... |
6,122 | The fundamental concern of computer science is determining what can and cannot be automated. The Turing Award is generally recognized as the highest distinction in computer science. |
6,123 | The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, aiding in computations such as multiplication and division. Algorithms for performing computations have exi... |
6,124 | Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623. In 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. Leibniz may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, because of various reasons, including the fac... |
6,125 | During the 1940s, with the development of new and more powerful computing machines such as the Atanasoff–Berry computer and ENIAC, the term computer came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors. As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field... |
6,126 | Although first proposed in 1956, the term "computer science" appears in a 1959 article in Communications of the ACM,
in which Louis Fein argues for the creation of a Graduate School in Computer Sciences analogous to the creation of Harvard Business School in 1921. Louis justifies the name by arguing that, like manageme... |
6,127 | In the early days of computing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the field of computing were suggested in the Communications of the ACM—turingineer, turologist, flow-charts-man, applied meta-mathematician, and applied epistemologist. Three months later in the same journal, comptologist was suggested, followed... |
6,128 | A folkloric quotation, often attributed to—but almost certainly not first formulated by—Edsger Dijkstra, states that "computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes." The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other tha... |
6,129 | Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with mathematics than many scientific disciplines, with some observers saying that computing is a mathematical science. Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as Kurt Gödel, Alan Turing, John von Neumann... |
6,130 | The relationship between computer science and software engineering is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by disputes over what the term "software engineering" means, and how computer science is defined. David Parnas, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, has cl... |
6,131 | The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on whether a department is formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider alignment with computational science. Both ty... |
6,132 | Despite the word science in its name, there is debate over whether or not computer science is a discipline of science, mathematics, or engineering. Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon argued in 1975, |
6,133 | It has since been argued that computer science can be classified as an empirical science since it makes use of empirical testing to evaluate the correctness of programs, but a problem remains in defining the laws and theorems of computer science and defining the nature of experiments in computer science. Proponents of... |
6,134 | Proponents of classifying computer science as a mathematical discipline argue that computer programs are physical realizations of mathematical entities and programs can be deductively reasoned through mathematical formal methods. Computer scientists Edsger W. Dijkstra and Tony Hoare regard instructions for computer pro... |
6,135 | A number of computer scientists have argued for the distinction of three separate paradigms in computer science. Peter Wegner argued that those paradigms are science, technology, and mathematics. Peter Denning's working group argued that they are theory, abstraction , and design. Amnon H. Eden described them as the "ra... |
6,136 | As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software.
CSAB, formerly called Computing Sciences Accreditation Board—which is made up of representatives of the Assoc... |
6,137 | Theoretical Computer Science is mathematical and abstract in spirit, but it derives its motivation from the practical and everyday computation. Its aim is to understand the nature of computation and, as a consequence of this understanding, provide more efficient methodologies. |
6,138 | According to Peter Denning, the fundamental question underlying computer science is, "What can be automated?" Theory of computation is focused on answering fundamental questions about what can be computed and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In an effort to answer the first question,... |
6,139 | The famous P = NP? problem, one of the Millennium Prize Problems, is an open problem in the theory of computation. |
6,140 | Information theory, closely related to probability and statistics, is related to the quantification of information. This was developed by Claude Shannon to find fundamental limits on signal processing operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data.
Coding theory is the study of the p... |
6,141 | Data structures and algorithms are the studies of commonly used computational methods and their computational efficiency. |
6,142 | Programming language theory is a branch of computer science that deals with the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of programming languages and their individual features. It falls within the discipline of computer science, both depending on and affecting mathematics, software enginee... |
6,143 | Formal methods are a particular kind of mathematically based technique for the specification, development and verification of software and hardware systems. The use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing appropriate mathem... |
6,144 | Computer graphics is the study of digital visual contents and involves the synthesis and manipulation of image data. The study is connected to many other fields in computer science, including computer vision, image processing, and computational geometry, and is heavily applied in the fields of special effects and video... |
6,145 | Information can take the form of images, sound, video or other multimedia. Bits of information can be streamed via signals. Its processing is the central notion of informatics, the European view on computing, which studies information processing algorithms independently of the type of information carrier – whether it i... |
6,146 | Scientific computing is the field of study concerned with constructing mathematical models and quantitative analysis techniques and using computers to analyze and solve scientific problems. A major usage of scientific computing is simulation of various processes, including computational fluid dynamics, physical, elect... |
6,147 | Social computing is an area that is concerned with the intersection of social behavior and computational systems. Human–computer interaction research develops theories, principles, and guidelines for user interface designers. |
6,148 | Software engineering is the study of designing, implementing, and modifying the software in order to ensure it is of high quality, affordable, maintainable, and fast to build. It is a systematic approach to software design, involving the application of engineering practices to software. Software engineering deals with ... |
6,149 | Artificial intelligence aims to or is required to synthesize goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, learning, and communication found in humans and animals. From its origins in cybernetics and in the Dartmouth Conference , artificial intelligence research has been... |
6,150 | Computer architecture, or digital computer organization, is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It focuses largely on the way by which the central processing unit performs internally and accesses addresses in memory. Computer engineers study computational logic and design o... |
6,151 | Concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other. A number of mathematical models have been developed for general concurrent computation including Petri nets, process calculi and the Parallel Random Access Machine model. When mu... |
6,152 | This branch of computer science aims to manage networks between computers worldwide. |
6,153 | Computer security is a branch of computer technology with the objective of protecting information from unauthorized access, disruption, or modification while maintaining the accessibility and usability of the system for its intended users. |
6,154 | Historical cryptography is the art of writing and deciphering secret messages. Modern cryptography is the scientific study of problems relating to distributed computations that can be attacked. Technologies studied in modern cryptography include symmetric and asymmetric encryption, digital signatures, cryptographic has... |
6,155 | A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve large amounts of data easily. Digital databases are managed using database management systems to store, create, maintain, and search data, through database models and query languages. Data mining is a process of discovering patterns in large data sets. |
6,156 | The philosopher of computing Bill Rapaport noted three Great Insights of Computer Science: |
6,157 | Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's, George Boole's, Alan Turing's, Claude Shannon's, and Samuel Morse's insight: there are only two objects that a computer has to deal with in order to represent "anything". |
6,158 | All the information about any computable problem can be represented using only 0 and 1 . |
6,159 | Alan Turing's insight: there are only five actions that a computer has to perform in order to do "anything". |
6,160 | five actions |
6,161 | Every algorithm can be expressed in a language for a computer consisting of only five basic instructions:
move left one location;
move right one location;
read symbol at current location;
print 0 at current location;
print 1 at current location. |
6,162 | Corrado Böhm and Giuseppe Jacopini's insight: there are only three ways of combining these actions that are needed in order for a computer to do "anything". |
6,163 | Only three rules are needed to combine any set of basic instructions into more complex ones:
sequence: first do this, then do that;
selection: IF such-and-such is the case, THEN do this, ELSE do that;
repetition: WHILE such-and-such is the case, DO this. |
6,164 | Programming languages can be used to accomplish different tasks in different ways. Common programming paradigms include: |
6,165 | Functional programming, a style of building the structure and elements of computer programs that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It is a declarative programming paradigm, which means programming is done with expressions or declarations instead of stateme... |
6,166 | Imperative programming, a programming paradigm that uses statements that change a program's state. In much the same way that the imperative mood in natural languages expresses commands, an imperative program consists of commands for the computer to perform. Imperative programming focuses on describing how a program ope... |
6,167 | Object-oriented programming, a programming paradigm based on the concept of "objects", which may contain data, in the form of fields, often known as attributes; and code, in the form of procedures, often known as methods. A feature of objects is that an object's procedures can access and often modify the data fields of... |
6,168 | Service-oriented programming, a programming paradigm that uses "services" as the unit of computer work, to design and implement integrated business applications and mission critical software programs |
6,169 | Many languages offer support for multiple paradigms, making the distinction more a matter of style than of technical capabilities. |
6,170 | Conferences are important events for computer science research. During these conferences, researchers from the public and private sectors present their recent work and meet. Unlike in most other academic fields, in computer science, the prestige of conference papers is greater than that of journal publications. One pro... |
6,171 | Computer Science, known by its near synonyms, Computing, Computer Studies, has been taught in UK schools since the days of batch processing, mark sensitive cards and paper tape but usually to a select few students. In 1981, the BBC produced a micro-computer and classroom network and Computer Studies became common for G... |
6,172 | In the US, with 14,000 school districts deciding the curriculum, provision was fractured. According to a 2010 report by the Association for Computing Machinery and Computer Science Teachers Association , only 14 out of 50 states have adopted significant education standards for high school computer science. According t... |
6,173 | Israel, New Zealand, and South Korea have included computer science in their national secondary education curricula, and several others are following. |
6,174 | DBLP Computer Science Bibliography |
6,175 | Association for Computing Machinery |
6,176 | Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers |
6,177 | CSTA has more than 50 chapters in the United States and international affiliates in Israel, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. |
6,178 | CSTA publishes a monthly newsletter, the CSTA Voice, that highlights issues related to computer science education. |
6,179 | The 2022-23 CSTA Board of Directors consists of: |
6,180 | Dan Blier |
6,181 | Board Chair, School District Representative |
6,182 | Nimmi Arunachalam |
6,183 | At Large Representative, |
6,184 | Greg Bianchi |
6,185 | Partner Representative, Microsoft |
6,186 | Cindi Chang |
6,187 | State Department Representative |
6,188 | Charity Freeman |
6,189 | Board Chair-Elect, Teacher Education Representative |
6,190 | Michelle Friend |
6,191 | At-Large Representative |
6,192 | Abigail Joseph |
6,193 | K-8 Teacher Representative |
6,194 | Audra Kaplan |
6,195 | K-8 Representative |
6,196 | Richard Ladner |
6,197 | University Representative |
6,198 | Art Lopez |
6,199 | 9–12 Representative |
6,200 | Yolanda Lozano |
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