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In media, which includes textual, audio, and visual content, free licensing schemes such as some of the licenses made by Creative Commons have allowed for the dissemination of works under a clear set of legal permissions. Not all Creative Commons licenses are entirely free; their permissions may range from very liberal general redistribution and modification of the work to a more restrictive redistribution-only licensing. Since February 2008, Creative Commons licenses which are entirely free carry a badge indicating that they are "approved for free cultural works". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_content |
Repositories exist which exclusively feature free material and provide content such as photographs, clip art, music, and literature. While extensive reuse of free content from one website in another website is legal, it is usually not sensible because of the duplicate content problem. Wikipedia is amongst the most well-known databases of user-uploaded free content on the web. While the vast majority of content on Wikipedia is free content, some copyrighted material is hosted under fair-use criteria. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_content |
In mediated device pass-through or full GPU virtualization, the GPU hardware provides contexts with virtual memory ranges for each guest through IOMMU and the hypervisor sends graphical commands from guests directly to the GPU. This technique is a form of hardware-assisted virtualization and achieves near-native performance and high fidelity. If the hardware exposes contexts as full logical devices, then guests can use any API. Otherwise, APIs and drivers must manage the additional complexity of GPU contexts. As a disadvantage, there may be little isolation between virtual machines when accessing GPU resources.The following software and hardware technologies implement mediated pass-through: VMware Virtual Shared Pass-Through Graphics Acceleration with Nvidia vGPU or AMD MxGPU Citrix XenServer shared GPU with Nvidia vGPU, AMD MxGPU or Intel GVT-g Xen and KVM with Intel GVT-g Thincast Workstation - Virtual 3D feature (Direct X 12 & Vulkan 3D API)While API remoting is generally available for current and older GPUs, mediated pass-through requires hardware support available only on specific devices. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPU_virtualization |
In mediation, there is a third party, a mediator, who facilitates the resolution process (and may even suggest a resolution, typically known as a "mediator's proposal"), but does not impose a resolution on the parties. In some countries (for example, the United Kingdom), ADR is synonymous with what is generally referred to as mediation in other countries. Structured transformative mediation as used by the U.S. Postal Service is a formal process. Traditional people's mediation has always involved the parties remaining in contact for most or all of the mediation session. The innovation of separating the parties after (or sometimes before) a joint session and conducting the rest of the process without the parties in the same area was a major innovation and one that dramatically improved mediation's success rate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_dispute_resolution |
In medical and surgical therapy, revascularization is the restoration of perfusion to a body part or organ that has had ischemia. It is typically accomplished by surgical means. Vascular bypass and angioplasty are the two primary means of revascularization. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arterial_revascularization |
The term derives from the prefix re-, in this case meaning "restoration" and vasculature, which refers to the circulatory structures of an organ. It is often combined with "urgent" to form urgent vascularization. Revascularization involves a thorough analysis and diagnosis and treatment of the existing diseased vasculature of the affected organ, and can be aided by the use of different imaging modalities such as magnetic resonance imaging, PET scan, CT scan, and X-ray fluoroscopy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arterial_revascularization |
In medical application, e.g. with complete paraplegia after spinal cord injury, an exoskeleton can be an additional option for the supply of aids if the structural and functional properties of the neuromuscular and skeletal system are too limited to be able to achieve mobilization with an orthosis. In patients with complete paraplegia (ASIA A), exoskeletons are interesting as an alternative to an orthosis under this criterion for lesion heights above the thoracic vertebra (T12). In patients with incomplete paraplegia (ASIA B-D), orthotics are even suitable for lesion heights above T12 in order to promote the patient's own activity to such an extent that the therapeutical mobilization can be successful. In contrast to an orthosis, an exoskeleton takes over a large part of the active muscle work, while an orthosis is intended to activate the recovery of muscle work. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_powered_exoskeleton |
In addition powered exoskeletons can improve the quality of life of individuals who have lost the use of their legs by enabling system-assisted walking. Exoskeletons—that may be called "step rehabilitation robots"—may also help with the rehabilitation from stroke, spinal cord injury or during aging. Several prototype exoskeletons are under development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_powered_exoskeleton |
The Ekso GT, made by Ekso Bionics, is the first exoskeleton to be approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for stroke patients. The German Research Centre for Artificial Intelligence has developed two general purpose powered exoskeletons, CAPIO and VI-Bot. These are primarily being used for teleoperation. Exoskeleton technology is also being developed to enhance precision during surgery, and to help nurses move and carry heavy patients. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_powered_exoskeleton |
In medical applications, "face shield" refers to a variety of devices used to protect a medical professional during a procedure that might expose them to blood or other potentially infectious fluids. An example is the use of a CPR mask while performing rescue breathing or CPR. Another example is the use of personal protective equipment to guard the face against exposure to potentially infectious materials. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_shield |
In medical applications, spray cans containing dimethyl ether or tetrafluoroethane may also be used to freeze and destroy tissue, for removal of warts and skin tags, or other uses in cryosurgery. Liquified petroleum gas including propane and butane is sometimes used. These all may also be used as a topical anesthetic, due to the numbing effect of cold, though there is risk of frostbite. Chloroethane may be used as a topical pain reliever, and an alternative to ice pack therapy to reduce inflammation and swelling. Since its boiling point is well above the freezing point of water, there is less risk of freezing the skin, though it can still be dangerous if misused. It may be used to treat sports injuries, where it is sometimes known as ice spray or magic spray. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeze_spray |
In medical contexts, a facies is a distinctive facial expression or appearance associated with a specific medical condition. The term comes from Latin for "face". As a fifth declension noun, facies can be both singular and plural. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndromic_facies |
In medical diagnosis, models of muscle tissue, based on Voronoi diagrams, can be used to detect neuromuscular diseases. In epidemiology, Voronoi diagrams can be used to correlate sources of infections in epidemics. One of the early applications of Voronoi diagrams was implemented by John Snow to study the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak in Soho, England. He showed the correlation between residential areas on the map of Central London whose residents had been using a specific water pump, and the areas with the most deaths due to the outbreak. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voronoi_cell |
In medical diagnosis, test sensitivity is the ability of a test to correctly identify those with the disease (true positive rate), whereas test specificity is the ability of the test to correctly identify those without the disease (true negative rate). If 100 patients known to have a disease were tested, and 43 test positive, then the test has 43% sensitivity. If 100 with no disease are tested and 96 return a completely negative result, then the test has 96% specificity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specificity_and_sensitivity |
Sensitivity and specificity are prevalence-independent test characteristics, as their values are intrinsic to the test and do not depend on the disease prevalence in the population of interest. Positive and negative predictive values, but not sensitivity or specificity, are values influenced by the prevalence of disease in the population that is being tested. These concepts are illustrated graphically in this applet Bayesian clinical diagnostic model which show the positive and negative predictive values as a function of the prevalence, sensitivity and specificity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specificity_and_sensitivity |
In medical dictionaries, definitions should to the greatest extent possible be: Simple and easy to understand, preferably even by the general public Useful clinically or in related areas where the definition will be used. Specific, that is, by reading the definition only, it should ideally not be possible to refer to any other entity than the one being defined. Measurable Reflecting current scientific knowledge | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_dictionaries |
In medical dictionaries, guidelines and other consensus statements and classifications, definitions should as far as possible be: simple and easy to understand, preferably even by the general public; useful clinically or in related areas where the definition will be used; specific (that is, by reading the definition only, it should ideally not be possible to refer to any other entity than that being defined); measurable; a reflection of current scientific knowledge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition |
In medical education, a clerkship, or rotation, refers to the practice of medicine by medical students (M.D., D.O., D.P.M) during their final year(s) of study. Traditionally, the first half of medical school trains students in the classroom setting, and the second half takes place in a teaching hospital. Clerkships give students experience in all parts of the hospital setting, including the operating room, emergency department, and various other departments that allow learning by viewing and doing. Students are required to undergo a pre-clerkship course, which include introduction to clinical medicine, clinical skills, and clinical reasoning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_clerkship |
A performance assessment such as the Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE) is conducted at the end of this period. During the clerkship training, students are required to rotate through different medical specialties and treat patients under the supervision of physicians. Students elicit patient histories, complete physical examinations, write progress notes, and assist in surgeries and medical procedures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_clerkship |
They are also actively involved in the diagnoses and treatment of patients under the supervision of a resident or faculty.Students undergoing two-year clerkships spend their first year in patient care environment in month-long rotations with limited patient workloads. In their final year, when they are sometimes referred to as sub-interns or externs, they are given more patient care responsibilities in a variety or elective rotations. The work hours are that of a full-time job, generally similar to that of residents. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_clerkship |
Students may also be required to work on weekends and to be on call. For medical students, clerkships occur after the basic science curriculum, and are supervised by medical specialists at a teaching hospital or medical school. Typically, certain clerkships are required to obtain the Doctor of Medicine degree or the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree in the United States (e.g., internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics), while others are elective (e.g., dermatology, pathology, and neurology). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_clerkship |
The intent of the clinical clerkship is to teach the medical student the fundamentals of clinical examination, evaluation, and care provision, and to enable the student to select the course of further study. Another purpose of the clerkship is for the student to determine if they really want to pursue a career in the field of medicine. During the clinical clerkship, the medical student will interact with real patients much as a physician does, but their evaluation and recommendations will be reviewed and approved by more senior physicians. The expectation is that the students will not only master the knowledge in successfully treating patients but they are also expected to assume the physician's role. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_clerkship |
In medical electrophysiological monitoring, artifacts are anomalous (interfering) signals that originate from some source other than the electrophysiological structure being studied. These artifact signals may stem from, but are not limited to: light sources; monitoring equipment issues; utility frequency (50 Hz and 60 Hz); or undesired electrophysiological signals such as EMG presenting on an EEG-, EP-, ECG-, or EOG- signal. Offending artifacts may obscure, distort, or completely misrepresent the true underlying electrophysiological signal sought. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artifact_(error) |
In medical ethics, involuntary treatment is conceptualized as a form of parens patriae whereby the state takes on the responsibilities of incompetent adults on the basis of the duty to protect and the duty of beneficence (the duty of the state to repair the random harms of nature). The duty to protect is reflected in utilitarianism and communitarianism philosophy, though psychiatrist Paul Chodoff asserted a responsibility to "chasten" this responsibility in light of the political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union. : 82 This duty to protect has been criticized on the grounds that psychiatrists are not effective at predicting violence, and tend to overestimate the risk. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involuntary_treatment |
: 89 The obligatory dangerousness criterion is a principle that has been applied to some mental health law that holds that parens patriae should only be applied if an individual is a danger to themselves or others.Paul Ricœur distinguishes two forms of self, the idem, a short term experience of the self, and the ipse, a longer term persistent experience of the self. In mental illness, the autonomy of the ipse can be undermined by the autonomy of the idem, so involuntary mental health treatment can trade one form of autonomy for another. : 90 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involuntary_treatment |
In medical genetics, compound heterozygosity is the condition of having two or more heterogeneous recessive alleles at a particular locus that can cause genetic disease in a heterozygous state; that is, an organism is a compound heterozygote when it has two recessive alleles for the same gene, but with those two alleles being different from each other (for example, both alleles might be mutated but at different locations). Compound heterozygosity reflects the diversity of the mutation base for many autosomal recessive genetic disorders; mutations in most disease-causing genes have arisen many times. This means that many cases of disease arise in individuals who have two unrelated alleles, who technically are heterozygotes, but both the alleles are defective. These disorders are often best known in some classic form, such as the homozygous recessive case of a particular mutation that is widespread in some population. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_heterozygous |
In its compound heterozygous forms, the disease may have lower penetrance, because the mutations involved are often less deleterious in combination than for a homozygous individual with the classic symptoms of the disease. As a result, compound heterozygotes often become ill later in life, with less severe symptoms. Although compound heterozygosity as a cause of genetic disease had been suspected much earlier, widespread confirmation of the phenomenon was not feasible until the 1980s, when polymerase chain reaction techniques for amplification of DNA made it cost-effective to sequence genes and identify polymorphic alleles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_heterozygous |
Computing the flow v 0 {\displaystyle v_{0}} onto coordinates Riemannian logarithm, mapping L o g i d ( ⋅ ): D i f f V → V {\displaystyle Log_{\rm {id}}(\cdot ):Diff_{V}\to V} at identity from φ {\displaystyle \varphi } to vector field v 0 ∈ V {\displaystyle v_{0}\in V} ; L o g i d ( φ ) = v 0 initial condition of EL geodesic ϕ ˙ 0 = v 0 , ϕ 0 = i d , ϕ 1 = φ . {\displaystyle Log_{id}(\varphi )=v_{0}\ {\text{initial condition of EL geodesic }}{\dot {\phi }}_{0}=v_{0},\phi _{0}=id,\phi _{1}=\varphi \ .} Extended to the entire group they become ϕ = E x p φ ( v 0 ∘ φ ) ≐ E x p i d ( v 0 ) ∘ φ {\displaystyle \phi =Exp_{\varphi }(v_{0}\circ \varphi )\doteq Exp_{id}(v_{0})\circ \varphi } ; L o g φ ( ϕ ) ≐ L o g i d ( ϕ ∘ φ − 1 ) ∘ φ {\displaystyle Log_{\varphi }(\phi )\doteq Log_{id}(\phi \circ \varphi ^{-1})\circ \varphi } . These are inverses of each other for unique solutions of Logarithm; the first is called geodesic positioning, the latter geodesic coordinates (see exponential map, Riemannian geometry for the finite dimensional version).The geodesic metric is a local flattening of the Riemannian coordinate system (see figure). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_Anatomy |
In medical imaging applications, an X-ray machine has a control console that is used by a radiologic technologist to select X-ray techniques suitable for the specific exam, a power supply that creates and produces the desired kVp (peak kilovoltage), mA (milliamperes, sometimes referred to as mAs which is actually mA multiplied by the desired exposure length) for the X-ray tube, and the X-ray tube itself. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_generator |
In medical imaging, a time-activity curve is a curve of radioactivity (in terms of concentration) plotted on the y-axis against the time plotted on the x-axis. It shows the concentration of a radiotracer within a region of interest in an image, measured over time from a dynamic scan. Generally, when a time-activity curve is obtained within a tissue, it is called as a tissue time-activity curve, which represents the concentration of tracer within a region of interest inside a tissue over time. Modern kinetic analysis is performed in various medical imaging techniques, which requires a tissue time-activity curve as one of the inputs to the mathematical model, for example, in dynamic positron emission tomography (PET) imaging, or perfusion CT, or dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI) using a dynamic scan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-activity_curve |
A dynamic scan is a scan where two dimensional (2D) or three dimensional (3D) images are acquired again and again over a time-period forming a time-series of 2D/3D image datasets. For example, a dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging scan acquired over ten minutes contains short image frames acquired for 30 seconds duration to capture the fast dynamics of gadolinium tracer. Each data-point in the time-activity curve represents a measurement of tracer-concentration from the region segmented on each of these image time-frame acquired over time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-activity_curve |
In medical imaging, an anti-scatter grid (also known as a Bucky-Potter grid) is a device for limiting the amount of scattered radiation reaching the detector, thereby improving the quality of diagnostic medical x-ray images. The grid is positioned on the opposite side of the patient from the x-ray source, and between the patient and the X-ray detector or film. Reducing the amount of scattered x-rays increases the image's contrast resolution, and consequently the visibility of soft tissues. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-scatter_grid |
In medical imaging, artifacts are misrepresentations of tissue structures produced by imaging techniques such as ultrasound, X-ray, CT scan, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). These artifacts may be caused by a variety of phenomena such as the underlying physics of the energy-tissue interaction as between ultrasound and air, susceptibility artifacts, data acquisition errors (such as patient motion), or a reconstruction algorithm's inability to represent the anatomy. Physicians typically learn to recognize some of these artifacts to avoid mistaking them for actual pathology. In ultrasound imaging, several assumptions are made from the computer system to interpret the returning echoes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artifact_(error) |
These are: echoes originate only from the main ultrasound beam (while there are side lobes and grating lobes apart from the main ultrasound beam); echoes returns to transducer after a single reflection (while an echo can be reflected several times before reaching the transducer); depth of an object relates directly to the amount of time for an echo to reach the transducer (while an echo may reflect several times, delaying the time for the echo return to the transducer); speed of ultrasound in human tissue is constant, echoes travel in a straight path. and acoustic energy of an echo is uniformly attenuated. When these assumptions are not maintained, artifacts occur. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artifact_(error) |
In medical imaging, fluorine-18-labelled sodium fluoride (USP, sodium fluoride F18) is one of the oldest tracers used in positron emission tomography (PET), having been in use since the 1960s. Relative to conventional bone scintigraphy carried out with gamma cameras or SPECT systems, PET offers more sensitivity and spatial resolution. Fluorine-18 has a half-life of 110 min, which requires it to be used promptly once produced; this logistical limitation hampered its adoption in the face of the more convenient technetium-99m-labelled radiopharmaceuticals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_Fluoride |
However fluorine-18 is generally considered to be a superior radiopharmaceutical for skeletal imaging. In particular it has a high and rapid bone uptake accompanied by very rapid blood clearance, which results in a high bone-to-background ratio in a short time. Additionally the annihilation photons produced by decay of 18F have a high energy of 511 keV compared to the 140 keV photons of 99mTc. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_Fluoride |
In medical lab reports, this quantity often appears as "Osmo, Calc" or "Osmo (Calc)." According to the international SI unit use the following equation: Calculated osmolarity = 2 Na + Glucose + Urea (all in mmol/L) As Na+ is the major extracellular cation, the sum of osmolarity of all other anions can be assumed to be equal to natremia, hence x2 ≈ + To calculate plasma osmolality use the following equation (typical in the US): = 2 + /18 + /2.8 where and are measured in mg/dL.If the patient has ingested ethanol, the ethanol level should be included in the calculated osmolarity: = 2 + /18 + /2.8 + /3.7Based on the molecular weight of ethanol the divisor should be 4.6 but empiric data shows that ethanol does not behave as an ideal osmole. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_osmolality |
In medical law, consent is important to protect a medical practitioner from liability for harm to a patient arising from a procedure. There are exemptions, such as when the patient is unable to give consent.Also, a medical practitioner must explain the significant risks of a procedure or medication (those that might change the patient's mind about whether or not to proceed with the treatment) before the patient can give a binding consent. This was explored in Australia in Rogers v Whitaker. If a practitioner does not explain a material risk that subsequently eventuates, then that is considered negligent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consent |
These material risks include the loss of chance of a better result if a more experienced surgeon had performed the procedure. In the UK, a Supreme Court judgment modernized the law on consent and introduced a patient-focused test to UK law: allowing the patient rather than the medical professionals to decide upon the level of risk they wish to take in terms of a particular course of action, given all the information available. This change reflects the Guidance of the General Medical Council on the requirement to consent patients, and removes the rule of medical paternalism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consent |
In medical literature, Robert James Graves, in 1835, was the first to describe the association of a thyroid goitre with exophthalmos (proptosis) of the eye. Graves' ophthalmopathy may occur before, with, or after the onset of overt thyroid disease and usually has a slow onset over many months. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graves'_ophthalmopathy |
In medical mycology, these memory aids help students remember that among human pathogens, dimorphism largely reflects temperature: Mold in the Cold, Yeast in the Heat (Beast) Body Heat Probably (Changes) Shape Blastomyces dermatitidis, Histoplasma capsulatum, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, (Coccidioides immitis) is in parentheses because it changes to a spherule of endospores, not yeast, in the heat), Sporothrix schenckii. This phrase says "Probably" because there is always an exception (in this case fungi like Candida albicans) which change in the opposite direction: to mold in the heat! | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimorphic_fungi |
In medical or research imaging, an incidental imaging finding (also called an incidentaloma) is an unanticipated finding which is not related to the original diagnostic inquiry. As with other types of incidental medical findings, they may represent a diagnostic, ethical, and philosophical dilemma because their significance is unclear. While some coincidental findings may lead to beneficial diagnoses, others may lead to overdiagnosis that results in unnecessary testing and treatment, sometimes called the "cascade effect".Incidental findings are common in imaging. For instance, around 1 in every 3 cardiac MRIs result in an incidental finding. Incidence is similar for chest CT scans (~30%).As the use of medical imaging increases, the number of incidental findings also increases. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidental_imaging_finding |
In medical parlance, cardiac arrest is referred to as a "code" or a "crash". This typically refers to "code blue" on the hospital emergency codes. A dramatic drop in vital sign measurements is referred to as "coding" or "crashing", though coding is usually used when it results in cardiac arrest, while crashing might not. Treatment for cardiac arrest is sometimes referred to as "calling a code". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_death |
Patients in general wards often deteriorate for several hours or even days before a cardiac arrest occurs. This has been attributed to a lack of knowledge and skill amongst ward-based staff, in particular, a failure to measure the respiratory rate, which is often the major predictor of a deterioration and can often change up to 48 hours prior to a cardiac arrest. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_death |
In response, many hospitals now have increased training for ward-based staff. A number of "early warning" systems also exist that aim to quantify the person's risk of deterioration based on their vital signs and thus provide a guide to staff. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_death |
In addition, specialist staff are being used more effectively to augment the work already being done at the ward level. These include: Crash teams (or code teams) – These are designated staff members with particular expertise in resuscitation who are called to the scene of all arrests within the hospital. This usually involves a specialized cart of equipment (including a defibrillator) and drugs called a "crash cart" or "crash trolley". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_death |
Medical emergency teams – These teams respond to all emergencies with the aim of treating people in the acute phase of their illness in order to prevent a cardiac arrest. These teams have been found to decrease the rates of in-hospital cardiac arrest (IHCA) and improve survival. Critical care outreach – In addition to providing the services of the other two types of teams, these teams are responsible for educating non-specialist staff. In addition, they help to facilitate transfers between intensive care/high dependency units and the general hospital wards. This is particularly important as many studies have shown that a significant percentage of patients discharged from critical care environments quickly deteriorate and are re-admitted; the outreach team offers support to ward staff to prevent this from happening. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_death |
In medical physics and radiotherapy, ionization chambers are used to ensure that the dose delivered from a therapy unit or radiopharmaceutical is what is intended. The devices used for radiotherapy are called "reference dosimeters", while those used for radiopharmaceuticals are called radioisotope dose calibrators - an inexact name for radionuclide radioactivity calibrators, which are used for measurement of radioactivity but not absorbed dose. A chamber will have a calibration factor established by a national standards laboratory such as ARPANSA in Australia or the NPL in the UK, or will have a factor determined by comparison against a transfer standard chamber traceable to national standards at the user's site. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_chamber |
In medical practice, a blood test for 25-hydroxy-vitamin D, 25(OH)D, is used to determine an individual's vitamin D status. The name 25(OH)D refers to any combination of calcifediol (25-hydroxy-cholecalciferol), derived from vitamin D3, and ercalcidiol (25-hydroxy-ergocalciferol), derived from vitamin D2. The first of these (also known as 25-hydroxy vitamin D3) is made by the body, or is sourced from certain animal foods or cholecalciferol supplements. The second (25-hydroxy vitamin D2) is from certain vegetable foods or ergocalciferol supplements. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/25-hydroxyvitamin_D |
Clinical tests for 25(OH)D often measure the total level of both of these two compounds together, generally without differentiating.This measurement is considered the best indicator of overall vitamin D status. US labs generally report 25(OH)D levels as ng/mL. Other countries use nmol/L. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/25-hydroxyvitamin_D |
Multiply ng/mL by 2.5 to convert to nmol/L.This test can be used to diagnose vitamin D deficiency, and is performed in people with high risk for vitamin D deficiency, when the results of the test can be used to support beginning replacement therapy with vitamin D supplements. Patients with osteoporosis, chronic kidney disease, malabsorption, obesity, and some other infections may be at greater risk for being vitamin D-deficient and so are more likely to have this test. Although vitamin D deficiency is common in some populations including those living at higher latitudes or with limited sun exposure, the 25(OH)D test is not usually requested for the entire population. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/25-hydroxyvitamin_D |
Physicians may advise low risk patients to take over-the-counter vitamin D supplements in place of having screening.It is the most sensitive measure, though experts have called for improved standardization and reproducibility across different laboratories. According to MedlinePlus, the recommended range of 25(OH)D is 20 to 40 ng/mL (50 to 100 nmol/L) though they recognize many experts recommend 30 to 50 ng/mL (75 to 125 nmol/L). The normal range varies widely depending on several factors, including age and geographic location. A broad reference range of 20 to 150 nmol/L (8-60 ng/mL) has also been suggested, while other studies have defined levels below 80 nmol/L (32 ng/mL) as indicative of vitamin D deficiency.Increasing calcifediol levels up to levels of 80 nmol/L (32 ng/mL) are associated with increasing the fraction of calcium that is absorbed from the gut. Urinary calcium excretion balances intestinal calcium absorption and does not increase with calcifediol levels up to ~400 nmol/L (160 ng/mL). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/25-hydroxyvitamin_D |
In medical research, an umbrella review is a review of systematic reviews or meta-analyses. They may also be called overviews of reviews, reviews of reviews, summaries of systematic reviews, or syntheses of reviews. Umbrella reviews are among the highest levels of evidence currently available in medicine.By summarizing information from multiple overview articles, umbrella reviews make it easier to review the evidence and allow for comparison of results between each of the individual reviews. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbrella_review |
Umbrella reviews may address a broader question than a typical review, such as discussing multiple different treatment comparisons instead of only one. They are especially useful for developing guidelines and clinical practice, and when comparing competing interventions. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbrella_review |
In medical research, social science, and biology, a cross-sectional study (also known as a cross-sectional analysis, transverse study, prevalence study) is a type of observational study that analyzes data from a population, or a representative subset, at a specific point in time—that is, cross-sectional data. In economics, cross-sectional studies typically involve the use of cross-sectional regression, in order to sort out the existence and magnitude of causal effects of one independent variable upon a dependent variable of interest at a given point in time. They differ from time series analysis, in which the behavior of one or more economic aggregates is traced through time. In medical research, cross-sectional studies differ from case-control studies in that they aim to provide data on the entire population under study, whereas case-control studies typically include only individuals who have developed a specific condition and compare them with a matched sample, often a tiny minority, of the rest of the population. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-sectional_study |
Cross-sectional studies are descriptive studies (neither longitudinal nor experimental). Unlike case-control studies, they can be used to describe, not only the odds ratio, but also absolute risks and relative risks from prevalences (sometimes called prevalence risk ratio, or PRR). They may be used to describe some feature of the population, such as prevalence of an illness, but cannot prove cause and effect. Longitudinal studies differ from both in making a series of observations more than once on members of the study population over a period of time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-sectional_study |
In medical research, the terms single-blind, double-blind and triple-blind are commonly used to describe blinding. These terms describe experiments in which (respectively) one, two, or three parties are blinded to some information. Most often, single-blind studies blind patients to their treatment allocation, double-blind studies blind both patients and researchers to treatment allocations, and triple-blinded studies blind patients, researcher, and some other third party (such as a monitoring committee) to treatment allocations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind_experiment |
However, the meaning of these terms can vary from study to study.CONSORT guidelines state that these terms should no longer be used because they are ambiguous. For instance, "double-blind" could mean that the data analysts and patients were blinded; or the patients and outcome assessors were blinded; or the patients and people offering the intervention were blinded, etc. The terms also fail to convey the information that was masked and the amount of unblinding that occurred. It is not sufficient to specify the number of parties that have been blinded. To describe an experiment's blinding, it is necessary to report who has been blinded to what information, and how well each blind succeeded. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind_experiment |
In medical simulation games, the player takes the role of a surgeon. Examples include the Trauma Center and LifeSigns series. In photography simulation games, players take photographs of animals or people. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation_games |
This includes games such as Pokémon Snap and Afrika. Military simulation games are wargames with higher degrees of realism than other wargames set in a fantasy or science fiction environment. These attempt to simulate real warfare at either a tactical or strategic level.Some simulators, like GeoCommander by Intelligence Gaming, are designed for the US military to help new officers learn how to handle situations in a game setting before taking command in the field. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation_games |
Certain tactical shooters have higher degrees of realism than other shooters. Sometimes called "soldier sims", these games try to simulate the feeling of being in combat. This includes games such as Arma.Vehicle simulation game Flight simulators, including amateur flight simulators, combat flight simulators and space flight simulators Racing video games, including sim racing Submarine simulator games Train simulator games Truck simulator games Immersive sims are typically played from the first-person perspective in a simulates a consistent lived-in world, and include elements of numerous gameplay systems that the player can use to complete objectives in many different manners, creating a sense of player agency and emergent gameplay. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation_games |
"Blue collar" games that include both realistic and hyper-realistic presentation of blue collar jobs in a game setting. These can include some of the vehicle simulation games including the flight, train and truck simulator titles, hunting games like TheHunter series, other job simulation games like House Flipper or PowerWash Simulator, and games themed around these types of jobs like Overcooked. Digital card games simulating blackjack and poker (including video poker) Video games designed to simulate mechanical or other real-world games. These may include simulations of pinball games and casino games such as slot machines, pachinko, and roulette. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation_games |
In medical terminology, a temporal encroachment has to do with bones in the skull pressing tightly against the brain after an injury to the head. In computer science, a temporal key that is improperly validatated is considered a temporal encroachment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_encroachment |
In medical terminology, the term photopigment is applied to opsin-type photoreceptor proteins, specifically rhodopsin and photopsins, the photoreceptor proteins in the retinal rods and cones of vertebrates that are responsible for visual perception, but also melanopsin and others. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photopigment |
In medical testing applications and industrial samples with high concentrations or interfering material, there is often a dialyzer module in the instrument in which the analyte permeates through a dialysis membrane into a separate flow path going on to further analysis. The purpose of a dialyzer is to separate the analyte from interfering substances such as protein, whose large molecules do not go through the dialysis membrane but go to a separate waste stream. The reagents, sample and reagent volumes, flow rates, and other aspects of the instrument analysis depend on which analyte is being measured. The autoanalyzer is also a very small machine | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AutoAnalyzer |
In medical testing with binary classification, the diagnostic odds ratio (DOR) is a measure of the effectiveness of a diagnostic test. It is defined as the ratio of the odds of the test being positive if the subject has a disease relative to the odds of the test being positive if the subject does not have the disease. The rationale for the diagnostic odds ratio is that it is a single indicator of test performance (like accuracy and Youden's J statistic) but which is independent of prevalence (unlike accuracy) and is presented as an odds ratio, which is familiar to medical practitioners. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_odds_ratio |
In medical tests, including rapid diagnostic tests, cross-reactivity can be either confounding or helpful, depending on the instance. An example of confounding that yields a false positive error is in a latex fixation test when agglutination occurs with another antigen rather than the antigen of interest. An example of helpful cross-reactivity is in heterophile antibody tests, which detect Epstein-Barr virus using antibodies with specificity for other antigens. Cross-reactivity is also a commonly evaluated parameter for the validation of immune and protein binding based assays such as ELISA and RIA. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-reactivity |
In this case it is normally quantified by comparing the assay's response to a range of similar analytes and expressed as a percentage. In practice, calibration curves are produced using fixed concentration ranges for a selection of related compounds and the midpoints (IC50) of the calibration curves are calculated and compared. The figure then provides an estimate of the response of the assay to possible interfering compounds relative to the target analyte. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-reactivity |
In medical theories prevalent in the West from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages, the body's health depended on the equilibrium of four "humors", or vital fluids, two of which related to bile: blood, phlegm, "yellow bile" (choler), and "black bile". These "humors" are believed to have their roots in the appearance of a blood sedimentation test made in open air, which exhibits a dark clot at the bottom ("black bile"), a layer of unclotted erythrocytes ("blood"), a layer of white blood cells ("phlegm") and a layer of clear yellow serum ("yellow bile").Excesses of black bile and yellow bile were thought to produce depression and aggression, respectively, and the Greek names for them gave rise to the English words cholera (from Greek χολή kholē, "bile") and melancholia. In the former of those senses, the same theories explain the derivation of the English word bilious from bile, the meaning of gall in English as "exasperation" or "impudence", and the Latin word cholera, derived from the Greek kholé, which was passed along into some Romance languages as words connoting anger, such as colère (French) and cólera (Spanish). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bile |
In medical writing, plain language serves to meet patients at their level of health literacy. As defined by the Institute of Medicine's report, health literacy is "the degree to which individuals have the capacity to obtain, process, and understand basic health information and services needed to make appropriate health decisions." In April 2004, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) and the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) released health literacy reports citing the 1992 National Adult Literacy Survey (NALS) results as a cause for concern. The 1992 NALS indicated that nearly half of Americans demonstrated limited literacy skills. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain_English |
The NALS did not explicitly look at health literacy, but it did cover health-related tasks. In response, researchers developed methods to measure health literacy, such as the Health Activities Literacy Scale (HALS). Many governmental organizations, such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), continue to research methods and produce materials for implementing plain language and meeting health literacy needs.Using plain language in addition to, or in place of, medical terminology can help patients make informed health decisions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain_English |
Potential obstacles to high health literacy can stem from socioeconomic factors, such as race and poverty. Research continues to develop on best practices for plain language in the medical field. Meanwhile, various organizations have resources available, such as the AHRQ's Health Literacy Improvement Tools, the United States National Library of Medicine's MedlinePlus website, and the CDC's Plain Language Materials and Resources page. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain_English |
In medicinal chemistry and molecular biology, a pharmacophore is an abstract description of molecular features that are necessary for molecular recognition of a ligand by a biological macromolecule. IUPAC defines a pharmacophore to be "an ensemble of steric and electronic features that is necessary to ensure the optimal supramolecular interactions with a specific biological target and to trigger (or block) its biological response". A pharmacophore model explains how structurally diverse ligands can bind to a common receptor site. Furthermore, pharmacophore models can be used to identify through de novo design or virtual screening novel ligands that will bind to the same receptor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacophore |
In medicinal chemistry and pharmacology, a binding coefficient is a quantity representing the extent to which a chemical compound will bind to a macromolecule. The preferential binding coefficient can be derived from the Kirkwood-Buff solution theory of solutions. Preferential binding is defined as a thermodynamic expression that describes the binding of the cosolvent over the solvent. This is in a system that is open to both the solvent and cosolvent. Consequently, preferential interaction coefficients are measures of interactions that involve “solutes that participate in a reaction in solution.” | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_coefficient |
In medicinal chemistry, bioisosteres are chemical substituents or groups with similar physical or chemical properties which produce broadly similar biological properties in the same chemical compound. In drug design, the purpose of exchanging one bioisostere for another is to enhance the desired biological or physical properties of a compound without making significant changes in chemical structure. The main use of this term and its techniques are related to pharmaceutical sciences. Bioisosterism is used to reduce toxicity, change bioavailability, or modify the activity of the lead compound, and may alter the metabolism of the lead. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioisostere |
In medicinal chemistry, parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA) is a method which determines the permeability of substances from a donor compartment, through a lipid-infused artificial membrane into an acceptor compartment. A multi-well microtitre plate is used for the donor and a membrane/acceptor compartment is placed on top; the whole assembly is commonly referred to as a “sandwich”. At the beginning of the test, the drug is added to the donor compartment, and the acceptor compartment is drug-free. After an incubation period which may include stirring, the sandwich is separated and the amount of drug is measured in each compartment. Mass balance allows calculation of drug that remains in the membrane. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_artificial_membrane_permeability_assay |
In medicinal chemistry, the incorporation of alkyl chains into some chemical compounds increases their lipophilicity. This strategy has been used to increase the antimicrobial activity of flavanones and chalcones. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkyl_chain |
In medicinal chemistry, the term "contamination" is used to describe harmful intrusions, such as the presence of toxins or pathogens in pharmaceutical drugs.The following list encompasses notable medicine contamination and adulteration incidents. 1937 Elixir sulfanilamide incident: S. E. Massengill Company used diethylene glycol as the solvent for the antibacterial sulfanilamide, leading to the 1938 passage of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. 1942, Nose droppers were found to be contaminated by users to the detriment of subsequent users. Bacterial growth was found in all ephedrine and neosynephrin solutions that were examined. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medicine_contamination_incidents |
1970s-1985 Treatments for hemophilia derived from human blood were contaminated with HIV and hepatitis C and infected over 10,000 patients worldwide. The manufacturers of the affected products became aware of the contamination but continued to sell it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medicine_contamination_incidents |
After the contaminated products were banned in many developed countries, sales were shifted to developing markets. 1982 Chicago Tylenol murders: Tylenol pain-relief capsules were laced with potassium cyanide, leading to seven deaths. 2007 Panamanian Eduardo Arias discovered that toothpaste sold in his country was labeled as containing diethylene glycol, the same ingredient that had tainted cough syrup and killed 138 Panamanians in 2006. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medicine_contamination_incidents |
Panamanian officials discovered that the toothpaste had come from China and initiated a global response. Also in May 2007, the same toothpaste was found in some Costa Rican stores. Fast action by the Ministry of Health, and notification through the media, prevented poisonings due to this product. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medicine_contamination_incidents |
This event was linked to the death sentence of a former pharmaceuticals control officer in China, as the Costa Rican newspaper La Nación reported on its issue of May 30. On June 4, 2007, a press release by the Chinese Foreign Ministry cited an earlier study in China which concluded that up to 15.6% diethylene glycol in toothpaste is safe. In June 2007, counterfeit Colgate toothpaste imported from China was found to be contaminated with DEG, and several people in the eastern US reported experiencing headaches and pain after using the product. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medicine_contamination_incidents |
The same occurred in Spain with a false Colgate toothpaste, which contained 6% DEG. The tainted products could be identified by the claim to be manufactured in South Africa by Colgate-Palmolive South Africa LTD; they were 5 oz/100 ml tubes (a size which Colgate does not sell in the United States) and their packaging contained numerous misspellings on the labels. Colgate-Palmolive claimed it does not import products from South Africa into the United States or Canada and that DEG is never and was never used in any of its products anywhere in the world. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medicine_contamination_incidents |
These counterfeit products were found in smaller mom and pop stores, dollar stores, and discount stores in at least four states. In July 2007, diethylene glycol was found in counterfeit Sensodyne toothpaste, on sale at a car boot sale in Derbyshire, England. 2007 Toxic cough syrup in Panama: Pharmaceutical manufacturers used diethylene glycol, which they believed to be glycerine, to make cough syrup. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medicine_contamination_incidents |
2008 Chinese heparin adulteration 2009, 84 Nigerian children were reported to have died after being given "My Pikin", a teething syrup contaminated with diethylene glycol. 2012: As of 2 November 2012 in the New England Compounding Center meningitis outbreak, 753 cases of fungal infection occurred with 64 deaths due to contaminated injectable medication. 2012: 2012 Pakistan fake medicine crisis 2017: medical cannabis in California found to contain dangerous bacteria and fungi, causing at least one fatality. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medicine_contamination_incidents |
2012-2018: From 2012 to 2018 massive amounts of generic versions of an entire class of angiotensin II inhibitor blood pressure medications (collectively called "sartans") were made with contaminated ingredients. Patients receiving these drugs were exposed to genotoxic and carcinogenic N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) and N-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA) from 2012 until the drugs were recalled from the world drug market in 2018. The problem began in 2012, when the process for making tetrazole, a chemical intermediate in the production of various angiotensin II inhibitor medications for hypertension (popularly known by their common drug name suffix "sartan") was changed by generic drug manufacturers in favor of several cheaper and more efficient processes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medicine_contamination_incidents |
These changes caused drugs made with tetrazole to be contaminated with N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) and N-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA), which cause genetic damage and cancer. This contamination was not detected until 2018. The incident, according to medicinal chemist and pharmaceutical industry blogger Dr. Derek Lowe, points to a greater problem. Generic drug manufacturers often change the way in which prescription drug ingredients are made in order to lower costs of making them, so this kind of contamination may be more widespread and undetected in generic drugs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medicine_contamination_incidents |
In medicinal chemistry, the term defines either imaginable, virtual molecular fragments or chemical reagents from which drugs or drug candidates might be constructed or synthetically prepared. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_building_blocks |
In medicine (hematology), bleeding diathesis is an unusual susceptibility to bleed (hemorrhage) mostly due to hypocoagulability (a condition of irregular and slow blood clotting), in turn caused by a coagulopathy (a defect in the system of coagulation). Therefore, this may result in the reduction of platelets being produced and leads to excessive bleeding. Several types of coagulopathy are distinguished, ranging from mild to lethal. Coagulopathy can be caused by thinning of the skin (Cushing's syndrome), such that the skin is weakened and is bruised easily and frequently without any trauma or injury to the body. Also, coagulopathy can be contributed by impaired wound healing or impaired clot formation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleeding_diathesis |
In medicine (oncology and other fields), performance status is an attempt to quantify cancer patients' general well-being and activities of daily life. This measure is used to determine whether they can receive chemotherapy, whether dose adjustment is necessary, and as a measure for the required intensity of palliative care. It is also used in oncological randomized controlled trials as a measure of quality of life. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnofsky_score |
In medicine Enteroenteric circulation is the secretion back into the intestines of substances previously taken up from it. It occurs when there is a negative relative concentration of substance in the intestines, making it passively diffuse from the mesenteric circulation into the intestinal lumen and is trapped.Examples of toxins that exhibit enteroenteric circulation include theophylline, phenobarbital, and phenytoin. Administration of activated charcoal inhibits the enteroenteric circulation of such substances, and is therefore useful in overdose or intoxication. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enteroenteric_circulation |
In medicine an intention-to-treat (ITT) analysis of the results of a randomized controlled trial is based on the initial treatment assignment and not on the treatment eventually received. ITT analysis is intended to avoid various misleading artifacts that can arise in intervention research such as non-random attrition of participants from the study or crossover. ITT is also simpler than other forms of study design and analysis, because it does not require observation of compliance status for units assigned to different treatments or incorporation of compliance into the analysis. Although ITT analysis is widely employed in published clinical trials, it can be incorrectly described and there are some issues with its application. Furthermore, there is no consensus on how to carry out an ITT analysis in the presence of missing outcome data. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intention-to-treat_analysis |
In medicine and anatomy, the general senses are the senses which are perceived due to receptors scattered throughout the body such as touch, temperature, and hunger, rather than tied to a specific structure, as the special senses vision or hearing are. Often, the general senses are associated with a specific drive; that is, the sensation will cause a change in behavior meant to reduce the sensation. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_sense_(anatomy) |
In medicine and biology, scatology or coprology is the study of faeces. Scatological studies allow one to determine a wide range of biological information about a creature, including its diet (and thus where it has been), health and diseases such as tapeworms. A comprehensive study of scatology was documented by John Gregory Bourke under the title Scatalogic Rites of All Nations (1891), with a 1913 German translation including a foreword by Sigmund Freud. An abbreviated version of the work was published as The Portable Scatalog in 1994. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scatology |
In medicine and genetics, a genetic or allelic heterogeneous condition is one where the same disease or condition can be caused, or contributed to, by several factors, or in genetic terms, by varying or different genes or alleles. In cancer research, cancer cell heterogeneity is thought to be one of the underlying reasons that make treatment of cancer difficult. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterogeneous_Reaction |
In medicine and health-related fields, a reference range or reference interval is the range or the interval of values that is deemed normal for a physiological measurement in healthy persons (for example, the amount of creatinine in the blood, or the partial pressure of oxygen). It is a basis for comparison for a physician or other health professional to interpret a set of test results for a particular patient. Some important reference ranges in medicine are reference ranges for blood tests and reference ranges for urine tests. The standard definition of a reference range (usually referred to if not otherwise specified) originates in what is most prevalent in a reference group taken from the general (i.e. total) population. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_ranges |
This is the general reference range. However, there are also optimal health ranges (ranges that appear to have the optimal health impact) and ranges for particular conditions or statuses (such as pregnancy reference ranges for hormone levels). Values within the reference range (WRR) are those within normal limits (WNL). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_ranges |
The limits are called the upper reference limit (URL) or upper limit of normal (ULN) and the lower reference limit (LRL) or lower limit of normal (LLN). In health care–related publishing, style sheets sometimes prefer the word reference over the word normal to prevent the nontechnical senses of normal from being conflated with the statistical sense. Values outside a reference range are not necessarily pathologic, and they are not necessarily abnormal in any sense other than statistically. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_ranges |
Nonetheless, they are indicators of probable pathosis. Sometimes the underlying cause is obvious; in other cases, challenging differential diagnosis is required to determine what is wrong and thus how to treat it. A cutoff or threshold is a limit used for binary classification, mainly between normal versus pathological (or probably pathological). Establishment methods for cutoffs include using an upper or a lower limit of a reference range. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_ranges |
In medicine and medical anthropology, a culture-bound syndrome, culture-specific syndrome, or folk illness is a combination of psychiatric and somatic symptoms that are considered to be a recognizable disease only within a specific society or culture. There are no objective biochemical or structural alterations of body organs or functions, and the disease is not recognized in other cultures. The term culture-bound syndrome was included in the fourth version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) which also includes a list of the most common culture-bound conditions (DSM-IV: Appendix I). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_illness |
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