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Counterpart within the framework of ICD-10 (Chapter V) are the culture-specific disorders defined in Annex 2 of the Diagnostic criteria for research.More broadly, an endemic that can be attributed to certain behavior patterns within a specific culture by suggestion may be referred to as a potential behavioral epidemic. As in the cases of drug use, or alcohol and smoking abuses, transmission can be determined by communal reinforcement and person-to-person interactions. On etiological grounds, it can be difficult to distinguish the causal contribution of culture upon disease from other environmental factors such as toxicity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_illness |
In medicine and medical technology, adhesives play an increasingly important role. The simple plaster for example has to have good adhesion to a variety of skin types, but also be as painless as possible to remove. In addition, transdermal patches deliver medication over a longer period of time through the skin into the bloodstream, others are used for the long-term attachment of sensors used for example for the continuous measurement of blood sugar levels. These patches must stick securely for up to 14 days, sometimes under extreme conditions, for example, when showering, swimming, exercising or in a sauna. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhesive_bonding |
It goes without saying that these adhesives must be skin-friendly. The adhesives used are special pressure-sensitive adhesives based on acrylates or synthetic rubber. In surgery, adhesives are used in the treatment of certain surgical wounds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhesive_bonding |
These adhesives are usually based on fibrin, the natural adhesive substance that causes blood to clot when bleeding. Since fibrin occurs naturally in the body, it has the advantage that the adhesive is not rejected by the body. In addition, over time it degrades naturally by itself, which eliminates the need for elaborate after-treatment such as removing stitches. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhesive_bonding |
This property is especially important for surgery on the heart or the gastrointestinal tract. Innovative adhesives are also used in dentistry. They are not only used for the filling of caries and the production of dentures but are also invaluable in orthodontics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhesive_bonding |
The brackets through which the wires of a dental brace are threaded are attached to the teeth by means of special adhesives. On the one hand, the brackets should be held securely in the mouth's moist, warm environment, but later be able to be removed without residue. Adhesives are also now indispensable in medical device technology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhesive_bonding |
For example, needles are usually glued to syringes and stainless-steel cannula must be securely connected to their plastic adapter. Due to the high production volumes, short cycle times are required. Often, light-curing adhesives are used, which attain sufficient strength after a few seconds of irradiation with light of a certain wavelength and are able to survive the subsequent sterilisation process, during which they can be subjected to superheated steam, ethylene oxide or gamma radiation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhesive_bonding |
The manufacture of endoscopes, where tension-free attachment of lenses with smaller and smaller dimensions is required, is another good example of the performance capabilities of modern adhesives. Here, in addition to bond strength, it is important to balance the different thermal expansions of the substrates. In this case, it is also important to prevent voltages, which could affect the image quality, from being transmitted from the lens holder to the lens. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhesive_bonding |
In medicine and occupations concerned with physical fitness, the concept of good posture is referred to as "neutral spine". In this context, proper posture or "neutral spine", is the proper alignment of the body between postural extremes. Deviations from neutral alignment are identified as excessive curvature or reduction in curvature. Rarely do these deviations in curvature occur in only one plane; however, they are typically referred to in this manner. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_spine |
In the anterior/posterior view, deviation from vertical results in abnormal lateral curvature of the spine called scoliosis. In the sagittal view, excessive curvature in the cervical region is cervical lordosis, in the thoracic region thoracic kyphosis, and in the lumbar region lumbar lordosis. Reduction in curvature is typically termed flat back if present in the thoracic region and lumbar kyphosis if present in the lumbar region. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_spine |
In posture analysis, the spine is compared to a plumb line to detect the aforementioned abnormalities. From the anterior/posterior view this plumb line should run vertically down the midline of the body dividing it symmetrically into right and left halves indicating even weight distribution on left and right sides. From the sagittal view the plumb line should bisect the ear, odontoid process of C2, the cervical vertebral bodies, the center of the glenohumeral joint, the lumbar vertebral bodies, the center of the acetabulum, just posterior to the patella, and through the tarsals of the feet. This sagittal line of reference theoretically indicates even distribution of weight between the front and the back of the body. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_spine |
In medicine and pharmacology, a trough level or trough concentration (Ctrough) is the concentration reached by a drug immediately before the next dose is administered, often used in therapeutic drug monitoring. The name comes from the idea that on a graph of concentration versus time, the line forms a U-shaped trough at the lowest region, before a new dose sends it higher again. The usual criterion is concentration in the blood serum, although in some instances local concentration within tissues is relevant. It is pharmacokinetically normal that over time, the drug molecules are being metabolized or cleared by the body, so the concentration of drug that remains available is dropping. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trough_level |
In a medicine that is administered periodically, the trough level should be measured just before the administration of the next dose in order to avoid overdosing. A trough level is contrasted with a "peak level" (Cmax), which is the highest level of the medicine in the body, and the "average level", which is the mean level over time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trough_level |
It is widely used in clinical trials for newer medicines to investigate therapeutic effectiveness and safety. Ctrough is slightly different from Cmin, the minimum concentration during the time interval between administration of two doses. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trough_level |
In medicine and psychology, clinical significance is the practical importance of a treatment effect—whether it has a real genuine, palpable, noticeable effect on daily life. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_significance |
In medicine and psychology, emotional lability is a sign or symptom typified by exaggerated changes in mood or affect in quick succession. Sometimes the emotions expressed outwardly are very different from how the person feels on the inside. These strong emotions can be a disproportionate response to something that happened, but other times there might be no trigger at all. The person experiencing emotional lability usually feels like they do not have control over their emotions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_lability |
For example, someone might cry uncontrollably in response to any strong emotion even if they do not feel sad or unhappy.Emotional lability is seen or reported in various conditions including borderline personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, hypomanic or manic episodes of bipolar disorder, and neurological disorders or brain injury (where it is termed pseudobulbar affect), such as after a stroke. It has sometimes been found to have been a harbinger, or early warning, of certain forms of thyroid disease. Emotional lability also results from intoxication with certain substances, such as alcohol and benzodiazepines. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_lability |
It is also an associated feature of ADHD and autism.Children who display a high degree of emotional lability generally have low frustration tolerance and frequent crying spells or tantrums. During preschool, ADHD with emotional lability is associated with increased impairment and may be a sign of internalizing problems or multiple comorbid disorders. Children who are neglected are more likely to experience emotional dysregulation, including emotional lability.Potential triggers of emotional lability include excessive tiredness, stress or anxiety, overstimulated senses (too much noise, being in large crowds, etc.), being around others exhibiting strong emotions, very sad or funny situations (such as jokes, movies, certain stories or books), death of a loved one, or other situations that elicit stress or strong emotions. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_lability |
In medicine and robotics, diagnostic robots are diagnosis tools in the form of a physical robot or a software expert system. Developed in the 1970s near the height of the AI boom, automatic diagnosis systems are capable of gathering data for medical diagnosis with its knowledge based subsystem, and tools such as a tendon-actuated, anthropomorphic finger, skin-like sensors for tactile perception, etc.In February 2013, IBM announced that Watson software system's first commercial application would be for utilization management decisions in lung cancer treatment at Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center in conjunction with WellPoint (now Anthem). In 2013, IBM Watson's business chief Manoj Saxena says that 90% of nurses in the field who use Watson now follow its guidance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_robot |
In medicine and statistics, the gold standard or criterion standard is the diagnostic test or benchmark that is the best available under reasonable conditions. It is the test against which new tests are compared to gauge their validity, and it is used to evaluate the efficacy of treatments. The gold standard test is usually chosen to be the most accurate test available without restrictions. The meanings may differ in the two fields, because in medicine with some conditions only an autopsy guarantees diagnostic certainty, thus the gold standard test would be the best one that keeps the patient alive instead of the autopsy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_standard_(test) |
In medicine heliox may refer to a mixture of 21% O2 (the same as air) and 79% He, although other combinations are available (70/30 and 60/40). Heliox generates less airway resistance than air and thereby requires less mechanical energy to ventilate the lungs. "Work of breathing" (WOB) is reduced by two mechanisms: increased tendency to laminar flow; reduced resistance in turbulent flow due to lower density.Heliuox 20/80 diffuses 1.8 times faster than oxygen, and the flow of heliox20/80 from an oxygen flowmeter is 1.8 times the normal flow for oxygen.Heliox has a similar viscosity to air but a significantly lower density (0.5 g/L versus 1.25 g/L at STP). Flow of gas through the airway comprises laminar flow, transitional flow and turbulent flow. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliox |
The tendency for each type of flow is described by the Reynolds number. Heliox's low density produces a lower Reynolds number and hence higher probability of laminar flow for any given airway. Laminar flow tends to generate less resistance than turbulent flow. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliox |
In the small airways where flow is laminar, resistance is proportional to gas viscosity and is not related to density and so heliox has little effect. The Hagen–Poiseuille equation describes laminar resistance. In the large airways where flow is turbulent, resistance is proportional to density, so heliox has a significant effect. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliox |
There is also some use of heliox in conditions of the medium airways (croup, asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). A recent trial has suggested that lower fractions of helium (below 40%) – thus allowing a higher fraction of oxygen – might also have the same beneficial effect on upper airway obstruction.Patients with these conditions may develop a range of symptoms including dyspnea (breathlessness), hypoxemia (below-normal oxygen content in the arterial blood) and eventually a weakening of the respiratory muscles due to exhaustion, which can lead to respiratory failure and require intubation and mechanical ventilation. Heliox may reduce all these effects, making it easier for the patient to breathe. Heliox has also found utility in the weaning of patients off mechanical ventilation, and in the nebulization of inhalable drugs, particularly for the elderly. Research has also indicated advantages in using helium–oxygen mixtures in delivery of anaesthesia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliox |
In medicine it is often referred to as the Law of Laplace, used in the context of cardiovascular physiology, and also respiratory physiology, though the latter use is often erroneous. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young–Laplace_equation |
In medicine transillumination generally refers to the transmission of light through tissues of the body. A common example is the transmission of light through fingers, producing a red glow due to red blood cells absorbing other wavelengths of light. Organs analysed include the sinuses, the breasts and the testes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transillumination |
It is widely used by pediatricians to shine light in bodies of infants and observe the amount of scattered light. Since their skeleton is not fully calcified, light can easily penetrate tissues. Common examples of diagnostic applications are: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transillumination |
In medicine, "topographical codes" (or "topography codes") are codes that indicate a specific location in the body. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topographical_code |
In medicine, Breslow's depth was used as a prognostic factor in melanoma of the skin. It is a description of how deeply tumor cells have invaded. Currently, the standard Breslow's depth has been replaced by the AJCC depth, in the AJCC staging system of melanoma. Originally, Breslow's depth was divided into 5 stages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breslow's_depth |
In medicine, EMS is used for rehabilitation purposes, for instance in physical therapy in the prevention muscle atrophy due to inactivity or neuromuscular imbalance, which can occur for example after musculoskeletal injuries (damage to bones, joints, muscles, ligaments and tendons). This is distinct from transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), in which an electric current is used for pain therapy. "The main difference is the desired outcome. TENS unit is a medical device for pain relief. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromuscular_electrical_stimulation |
The desired outcome is to reduce pain by stimulating different nerve signals. EMS fitness is also an FDA-cleared medical device but meant for muscle development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromuscular_electrical_stimulation |
EMS fitness is designed to stimulate all the major muscle groups to elicit strength and endurance adaptations." In the case of TENS, the current is usually sub-threshold, meaning that a muscle contraction is not observed.For people who have progressive diseases such as cancer or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, EMS is used to improve muscle weakness for those unable or unwilling to undertake whole-body exercise. EMS may lead to statistically significant improvement in quadriceps muscle strength, however, further research is needed as this evidence is graded as low certainty. The same study also indicates that EMS may lead to increased muscle mass. Low certainty evidence indicates that adding EMS to an existing exercise programme may help people who are unwell spend fewer days confined to their beds.During EMS training, a set of complementary muscle groups (e.g., biceps and triceps) are often targeted in alternating fashion, for specific training goals, such as improving the ability to reach for an item. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromuscular_electrical_stimulation |
In medicine, Esophageal Doppler or Oesophageal Doppler uses a small ultrasound probe inserted into the esophagus through the nose or mouth to measure blood velocity in the descending aorta. It is minimally invasive (does not break the skin) and is used to derive hemodynamic parameters such as stroke volume (SV) and cardiac output (CO). A properly constructed and calibrated probe is approved for use on adults and children in many parts of the world. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esophogeal_doppler |
In medicine, ICD is the diffusion of gases in different directions that can increase the pressure inside open air spaces of the body and surrounding equipment.An example of this would be a patient breathing nitrous oxide in an operating room (surrounded by air). Cuffs on the endotracheal tubes must be monitored as nitrous oxide will diffuse into the air filled space causing the volume to increase. In laparoscopic surgery, nitrous oxide is avoided since the gas will diffuse into the abdominal or pelvic cavities causing an increase in internal pressure. In the case of a tympanoplasty, the skin flap will not lay down as the nitrous oxide will be diffusing into the middle ear. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isobaric_counterdiffusion |
In medicine, Intermittent Photic Stimulation, or IPS, is a form of visual stimulation used in conjunction with electroencephalography to investigate anomalous brain activity triggered by specific visual stimuli, such as flashing lights or patterns. IPS and EEGs are often used to diagnose conditions such as photosensitive epilepsy. The field is relatively new and the details of use of IPS have not been widely standardized. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermittent_photic_stimulation |
IPS is often used in conjunction with other controllable generators of visual stimuli, such as low-level visual stimulation LLVS. Photic stimulation may also be used to elicit myoclonus, especially cortical reflex myoclonus when present in photo-sensitive forms. IPS may be used to stimulate the visual system for patients with amblyopia. This system uses a visual stimulus that is usually red in color with a frequency of about 4 Hz to stimulate the neural pathway between the retina and the visual cortex. The objective is to improve the visual acuity of an amblyopic (lazy) eye. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermittent_photic_stimulation |
In medicine, Kt/V is a number used to quantify hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis treatment adequacy. K – dialyzer clearance of urea t – dialysis time V – volume of distribution of urea, approximately equal to patient's total body waterIn the context of hemodialysis, Kt/V is a pseudo-dimensionless number; it is dependent on the pre- and post-dialysis concentration (see below). It is not the product of K and t divided by V, as would be the case in a true dimensionless number. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kt/V |
In peritoneal dialysis, it isn't dimensionless at all. It was developed by Frank Gotch and John Sargent as a way for measuring the dose of dialysis when they analyzed the data from the National Cooperative Dialysis Study. In hemodialysis the US National Kidney Foundation Kt/V target is ≥ 1.3, so that one can be sure that the delivered dose is at least 1.2. In peritoneal dialysis the target is ≥ 1.7/week.Despite the name, Kt/V is quite different from standardized Kt/V. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kt/V |
In medicine, LDH is often used as a marker of tissue breakdown as LDH is abundant in red blood cells and can function as a marker for hemolysis. A blood sample that has been handled incorrectly can show false-positively high levels of LDH due to erythrocyte damage. It can also be used as a marker of myocardial infarction. Following a myocardial infarction, levels of LDH peak at 3–4 days and remain elevated for up to 10 days. In this way, elevated levels of LDH (where the level of LDH1 is higher than that of LDH2, i.e. the LDH Flip, as normally, in serum, LDH2 is higher than LDH1) can be useful for determining whether a patient has had a myocardial infarction if they come to doctors several days after an episode of chest pain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic_dehydrogenase |
In medicine, Meigs's syndrome, also Meigs syndrome or Demons–Meigs syndrome, is the triad of ascites, pleural effusion, and benign ovarian tumor (ovarian fibroma, fibrothecoma, Brenner tumour, and occasionally granulosa cell tumour). Meigs syndrome resolves after the resection of the tumor. Because the transdiaphragmatic lymphatic channels are larger in diameter on the right, the pleural effusion is classically on the right side. The causes of the ascites and pleural effusion are poorly understood. Atypical Meigs syndrome, characterized by a benign pelvic mass with right-sided pleural effusion but without ascites, can also occur. As in typical Meigs syndrome, pleural effusion resolves after removal of the pelvic mass. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meigs'_syndrome |
In medicine, Murphy's sign (also known as Sweeney’s sign) is a maneuver during a physical examination as part of the abdominal examination. It is useful for differentiating pain in the right upper quadrant. Typically, it is positive in cholecystitis, but negative in choledocholithiasis, pyelonephritis, and ascending cholangitis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murphy_sign |
In medicine, a biomarker is a measurable indicator of the severity or presence of some disease state. It may be defined as a "cellular, biochemical or molecular alteration in cells, tissues or fluids that can be measured and evaluated to indicate normal biological processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacological responses to a therapeutic intervention." More generally a biomarker is anything that can be used as an indicator of a particular disease state or some other physiological state of an organism. According to the WHO, the indicator may be chemical, physical, or biological in nature - and the measurement may be functional, physiological, biochemical, cellular, or molecular.A biomarker can be a substance that is introduced into an organism as a means to examine organ function or other aspects of health. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_biomarkers |
For example, rubidium chloride is used in isotopic labeling to evaluate perfusion of heart muscle. It can also be a substance whose detection indicates a particular disease state, for example, the presence of an antibody may indicate an infection. More specifically, a biomarker indicates a change in expression or state of a protein that correlates with the risk or progression of a disease, or with the susceptibility of the disease to a given treatment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_biomarkers |
Biomarkers can be characteristic biological properties or molecules that can be detected and measured in parts of the body like the blood or tissue. They may indicate either normal or diseased processes in the body. Biomarkers can be specific cells, molecules, or genes, gene products, enzymes, or hormones. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_biomarkers |
Complex organ functions or general characteristic changes in biological structures can also serve as biomarkers. Although the term biomarker is relatively new, biomarkers have been used in pre-clinical research and clinical diagnosis for a considerable time. For example, body temperature is a well-known biomarker for fever. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_biomarkers |
Blood pressure is used to determine the risk of stroke. It is also widely known that cholesterol values are a biomarker and risk indicator for coronary and vascular disease, and that C-reactive protein (CRP) is a marker for inflammation. Biomarkers are useful in a number of ways, including measuring the progress of disease, evaluating the most effective therapeutic regimes for a particular cancer type, and establishing long-term susceptibility to cancer or its recurrence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_biomarkers |
Biomarkers characterize disease progression starting from the earliest natural history of the disease. Biomarkers assess disease susceptibility and severity, which allows one to predict outcomes, determine interventions and evaluate therapeutic responses. From a forensics and epidemiologic perspective, biomarkers offer unique insight about the relationships between environmental risk factors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_biomarkers |
The parameter can be chemical, physical or biological. In molecular terms biomarker is "the subset of markers that might be discovered using genomics, proteomics technologies or imaging technologies. Biomarkers play major roles in medicinal biology. Biomarkers help in early diagnosis, disease prevention, drug target identification, drug response etc. Several biomarkers have been identified for many diseases such as serum LDL for cholesterol, blood pressure, and P53 gene and MMPs as tumor markers for cancer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_biomarkers |
In medicine, a bolus (from Latin bolus, ball) is the administration of a discrete amount of medication, drug, or other compound within a specific time, generally 1–30 minutes, to raise its concentration in blood to an effective level. The administration can be given by injection: intravenously, intramuscularly, intrathecally, subcutaneously, or by inhalation. The article on routes of administration provides more information, as the preceding list of ROAs is not exhaustive. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolus_dose |
In medicine, a case report is a detailed report of the symptoms, signs, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient. Case reports may contain a demographic profile of the patient, but usually describe an unusual or novel occurrence. Some case reports also contain a literature review of other reported cases. Case reports are professional narratives that provide feedback on clinical practice guidelines and offer a framework for early signals of effectiveness, adverse events, and cost. They can be shared for medical, scientific, or educational purposes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_report |
In medicine, a cathartic is a substance that accelerates defecation. This is similar to a laxative, which is a substance that eases defecation, usually by softening feces. It is possible for a substance to be both a laxative and a cathartic. However, agents such as psyllium seed husks increase the bulk of the feces.Cathartics such as sorbitol, magnesium citrate, magnesium sulfate, or sodium sulfate were previously used as a form of gastrointestinal decontamination following poisoning via ingestion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathartic |
They are no longer routinely recommended for poisonings. High-dose cathartics may be an effective means of ridding the lower gastrointestinal tract of toxins; however, they carry a risk of electrolyte imbalances and dehydration. Catharsis can be an effect of pesticide poisonings, such as with elemental sulfur. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathartic |
In medicine, a catheter (/ˈkæθətər/) is a thin tube made from medical grade materials serving a broad range of functions. Catheters are medical devices that can be inserted in the body to treat diseases or perform a surgical procedure. Catheters are manufactured for specific applications, such as cardiovascular, urological, gastrointestinal, neurovascular and ophthalmic procedures. The process of inserting a catheter is catheterization. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indwelling_catheter |
In most uses, a catheter is a thin, flexible tube (soft catheter) though catheters are available in varying levels of stiffness depending on the application. A catheter left inside the body, either temporarily or permanently, may be referred to as an "indwelling catheter" (for example, a peripherally inserted central catheter). A permanently inserted catheter may be referred to as a "permcath" (originally a trademark). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indwelling_catheter |
Catheters can be inserted into a body cavity, duct, or vessel, brain, skin or adipose tissue. Functionally, they allow drainage, administration of fluids or gases, access by surgical instruments, and also perform a wide variety of other tasks depending on the type of catheter. Special types of catheters, also called probes, are used in preclinical or clinical research for sampling of lipophilic and hydrophilic compounds, protein-bound and unbound drugs, neurotransmitters, peptides and proteins, antibodies, nanoparticles and nanocarriers, enzymes and vesicles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indwelling_catheter |
In medicine, a cohort study is often undertaken to obtain evidence to try to refute the existence of a suspected association between cause and effect; failure to refute a hypothesis often strengthens confidence in it. Crucially, the cohort is identified before the appearance of the disease under investigation. The study groups follow a group of people who do not have the disease for a period of time and see who develops the disease (new incidence). The cohort cannot therefore be defined as a group of people who already have the disease. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohort_study |
Prospective (longitudinal) cohort studies between exposure and disease strongly aid in studying causal associations, though distinguishing true causality usually requires further corroboration from further experimental trials. The advantage of prospective cohort study data is that it can help determine risk factors for contracting a new disease because it is a longitudinal observation of the individual through time, and the collection of data at regular intervals, so recall error is reduced. However, cohort studies are expensive to conduct, are sensitive to attrition and take a long follow-up time to generate useful data. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohort_study |
Nevertheless, the results that are obtained from long-term cohort studies are of substantially superior quality to those obtained from retrospective/cross-sectional studies. Prospective cohort studies are considered to yield the most reliable results in observational epidemiology. They enable a wide range of exposure-disease associations to be studied. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohort_study |
Some cohort studies track groups of children from their birth, and record a wide range of information (exposures) about them. The value of a cohort study depends on the researchers' capacity to stay in touch with all members of the cohort. Some studies have continued for decades. In a cohort study, the population under investigation consists of individuals who are at risk of developing a specific disease or health outcome. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohort_study |
In medicine, a crossover study or crossover trial is a longitudinal study in which subjects receive a sequence of different treatments (or exposures). While crossover studies can be observational studies, many important crossover studies are controlled experiments, which are discussed in this article. Crossover designs are common for experiments in many scientific disciplines, for example psychology, pharmaceutical science, and medicine. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossover_studies |
Randomized, controlled crossover experiments are especially important in health care. In a randomized clinical trial, the subjects are randomly assigned to different arms of the study which receive different treatments. When the trial has a repeated measures design, the same measures are collected multiple times for each subject. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossover_studies |
A crossover trial has a repeated measures design in which each patient is assigned to a sequence of two or more treatments, of which one may be a standard treatment or a placebo. Nearly all crossover are designed to have "balance", whereby all subjects receive the same number of treatments and participate for the same number of periods. In most crossover trials each subject receives all treatments, in a random order. Statisticians suggest that designs should have four periods, which is more efficient than the two-period design, even if the study must be truncated to three periods. However, the two-period design is often taught in non-statistical textbooks, partly because of its simplicity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossover_studies |
In medicine, a desmoplastic fibroma is a benign, but locally aggressive, fibrous and rare tumor of the bone, affecting children and young adults, potentially resulting in cortical bone destruction. It usually affects craniofacial bones, mandible most frequently, long bones (metaphyseal femur, tibia, humerus). The World Health Organization, 2020, reclassified these tumors as specific benign tumors in the category of fibroblastic and myofibroblastic tumors.Although it does not tend to metastatize, it has a high local recurrence and infiltrative growth. Treatment consists in wide local excision to prevent otherwise frequent recurrences. The role of radiotherapy and chemotherapy in this tumor still is unclear.Some cases have been described, in which an osteosarcoma has arisen from a desmoplastic fibroma.A famous occurrence of this particular form of the disease involved Italo-Australian Riccardo Torresan in 2011, with 18 cm of femur needing to be removed with the now widely recognized method of "aggressive curettage" being employed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmoplastic_fibroma |
In medicine, a distal splenorenal shunt procedure (DSRS), also splenorenal shunt procedure and Warren shunt, is a surgical procedure in which the distal splenic vein (a part of the portal venous system) is attached to the left renal vein (a part of the systemic venous system). It is used to treat portal hypertension and its main complication (esophageal varices). It was developed by W. Dean Warren. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distal_splenorenal_shunt_procedure |
In medicine, a drug eruption is an adverse drug reaction of the skin. Most drug-induced cutaneous reactions are mild and disappear when the offending drug is withdrawn. These are called "simple" drug eruptions. However, more serious drug eruptions may be associated with organ injury such as liver or kidney damage and are categorized as "complex". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_eruption |
Drugs can also cause hair and nail changes, affect the mucous membranes, or cause itching without outward skin changes.The use of synthetic pharmaceuticals and biopharmaceuticals in medicine has revolutionized human health, allowing us to live longer lives. Consequently, the average human adult is exposed to many drugs over longer treatment periods throughout a lifetime. This unprecedented rise in pharmaceutical use has led to an increasing number of observed adverse drug reactions.There are two broad categories of adverse drug reactions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_eruption |
Type A reactions are known side effects of a drug that are largely predictable and are called, pharmatoxicologic. Whereas Type B or hypersensitivity reactions, are often immune-mediated and reproducible with repeated exposure to normal dosages of a given drug. Unlike type A reactions, the mechanism of type B or hypersensitivity drug reactions is not fully elucidated. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_eruption |
However, there is a complex interplay between a patient's inherited genetics, the pharmacotoxicology of the drug and the immune response that ultimately give rise to the manifestation of a drug eruption.Because the manifestation of a drug eruption is complex and highly individual, there are many subfields in medicine that are studying this phenomenon. For example, the field of pharmacogenomics aims to prevent the occurrence of severe adverse drug reactions by analyzing a person's inherited genetic risk. As such, there are clinical examples of inherited genetic alleles that are known to predict drug hypersensitivities and for which diagnostic testing is available. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_eruption |
In medicine, a finger tip unit (FTU) is defined as the amount of ointment, cream or other semi-solid dosage form expressed from a tube with a 5 mm diameter nozzle, applied from the distal skin-crease to the tip of the index finger of an adult. The "distal skin-crease" is the skin crease over the joint nearest the end of the finger. One FTU is enough to treat an area of skin twice the size of the flat of an adult's hand with the fingers together, i.e. a "handprint". Two FTUs are approximately equivalent to 1 g of topical steroid. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finger_tip_unit |
One handprint is 0.8% (i.e. approximately 1%) of the total body surface area, and one FTU covers approximately two handprints. As two FTUs are approximately equivalent to 1g of topical application, the "Rule of Hand" states that "4 hand areas = 2 FTU = 1 g".In the original study in the UK, one FTU weighed 0.49 g in men and 0.43 g in women. The area covered by one FTU was 312 cm2 in men and 257 cm2 in women. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finger_tip_unit |
Very similar results were found in a Mexico study. The weight of an FTU has been recalculated in Japan, relating to the use of 5 g tubes of ointment with a much smaller nozzle diameter. The weight of ointment is less if the nozzle diameter is smaller than the standard 5 mm. When a topical drug was used as a foam, the weight of an FTU was 52.5 μg: the area covered by one foam FTU was less than that of an FTU of cream. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finger_tip_unit |
In medicine, a joint injection (intra-articular injection) is a procedure used in the treatment of inflammatory joint conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, gout, tendinitis, bursitis, Carpal Tunnel Syndrome, and occasionally osteoarthritis. A hypodermic needle is injected into the affected joint where it delivers a dose of any one of many anti-inflammatory agents, the most common of which are corticosteroids. Hyaluronic acid, because of its high viscosity, is sometimes used to replace bursa fluids. The technique may be used to also withdraw excess fluid from the joint. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intra-articular_injection |
In medicine, a late effect is a condition that appears after the acute phase of an earlier, causal condition has run its course. A late effect can be caused directly by the earlier condition, or indirectly by the treatment for the earlier condition. Some late effects can occur decades later. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_effect |
Historically, late effects have been very difficult to connect with their causes, but as survivorship and life span has increased and "follow up" has become standard practice, these connections are becoming established. A period, often very long, of health unaffected by both the initial and the late effect conditions distinguishes a late effect from a sequela or a complication. A code for such a condition was present in the ICD-9 but is no longer present in the ICD-10. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_effect |
In medicine, a mass effect is the effect of a growing mass that results in secondary pathological effects by pushing on or displacing surrounding tissue. In oncology, the mass typically refers to a tumor. For example, cancer of the thyroid gland may cause symptoms due to compressions of certain structures of the head and neck; pressure on the laryngeal nerves may cause voice changes, narrowing of the windpipe may cause stridor, pressure on the gullet may cause dysphagia and so on. Surgical removal or debulking is sometimes used to palliate symptoms of the mass effect even if the underlying pathology is not curable. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_effect_(medicine) |
In neurology, a mass effect is the effect exerted by any mass, including, for example, hydrocephalus (cerebrospinal fluid buildup) or an evolving intracranial hemorrhage (bleeding within the skull) presenting with a clinically significant hematoma. The hematoma can exert a mass effect on the brain, increasing intracranial pressure and potentially causing midline shift or deadly brain herniation. In the past this effect held additional diagnostic importance since prior to the invention of modern tomographic soft-tissue imaging utilizing MRI or CT it was not possible to directly image many kinds of primary intracranial lesions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_effect_(medicine) |
Therefore, in those days, the mass effect of these abnormalities on surrounding structures was sometimes used to indirectly infer the existence of the primary abnormalities themselves, for example by using a cerebral angiography to observe the secondary vascular displacement caused by a subdural hematoma pushing on the brain, or by looking for a distortion caused by a tumor on the normal outline of the ventricles as depicted on a pneumoencephalogram. These studies were often invasive and uncomfortable for patients and provided only a partial assessment of the primary condition being evaluated. Nowadays modern diagnostic tools exist which allow physicians to easily locate and visualize all kinds of intracranial lesions without having to rely on indirect effects to make a reliable diagnosis. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_effect_(medicine) |
In medicine, a muscle biopsy is a procedure in which a piece of muscle tissue is removed from an organism and examined microscopically. A muscle biopsy can lead to the discovery of problems with the nervous system, connective tissue, vascular system, or musculoskeletal system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_biopsy |
In medicine, a nasopharyngeal airway, also known as an NPA, nasal trumpet (because of its flared end), or nose hose, is a type of airway adjunct, a tube that is designed to be inserted through the nasal passage down into the posterior pharynx to secure an open airway. It was introduced by Hans Karl Wendl in 1958. When a patient becomes unconscious, the muscles in the jaw commonly relax and can allow the tongue to slide back and obstruct the airway. This makes airway management necessary, and an NPA is one of the available tools. The purpose of the flared end is to prevent the device from becoming lost inside the patient's nose. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_airway |
In medicine, a natural history study is a study that follows a group of people over time who have, or are at risk of developing, a specific medical condition or disease. A natural history study collects health information over time to understand how the medical condition or disease develops and to give insight into how it might be treated. A natural history study is often submitted when applying to the FDA or other regulatory agency as a baseline, to show the disease course for untreated patients. The natural history data is compared to the disease course of patients given a proposed therapy to show the effects of the therapy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_study |
In medicine, a nebulizer (American English) or nebuliser (British English) is a drug delivery device used to administer medication in the form of a mist inhaled into the lungs. Nebulizers are commonly used for the treatment of asthma, cystic fibrosis, COPD and other respiratory diseases or disorders. They use oxygen, compressed air or ultrasonic power to break up solutions and suspensions into small aerosol droplets that are inhaled from the mouthpiece of the device. An aerosol is a mixture of gas and solid or liquid particles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebulizer |
In medicine, a needleless connector connects to the end of vascular catheters and enable catheter access for infusion and aspiration. Needleless connectors (also known as NC's) were developed to reduce needlestick injuries, which occurs when the skin is accidentally punctured by a used needle. Needlestick injuries can be very serious and potentially expose a healthcare professional to bloodborne infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS, Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C.The needless connector should provide safe access to the catheter without the use of needles and enable the following: Minimize catheter occlusion risk. Allow for easy and effective decontamination between each use to prohibit microbial entry e.g. via a flat surface which is flush with the housing.Before utilizing a needleless connector, it is important to properly disinfect the device to help prevent central line–associated bloodstream infection.Various designs for the needless connector and its components have been developed over the years. This includes a patent developed by Karl Leinsing for "needleless connector" which relates generally to connectors of the type used in the handling and administration of parenteral fluids, and more particularly, to a valve mechanism incorporated within such connector for~~enabling a fluid interconnection to be made therewith without the use of a sharp cannula. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needleless_connector |
In medicine, a nerve biopsy is an invasive procedure in which a piece of nerve is removed from an organism and examined under a microscope. A nerve biopsy can lead to the discovery of various necrotizing vasculitis, amyloidosis, sarcoidosis, leprosy, metabolic neuropathies, inflammation of the nerve, loss of axon tissue, and demyelination. Biopsy literally means an examination of tissue removed from a living body to discover the presence, cause, or extent of a disease. A nerve biopsy may be necessary when a patient experiences numbness, pain, or weakness in places such as the fingers or toes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerve_biopsy |
A nerve biopsy can help to determine the cause of such symptoms. The procedure is usually only performed when all other options have failed in determining the cause of a disease. It is an outpatient procedure that is performed under local anesthetic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerve_biopsy |
In medicine, a peripheral venous catheter, peripheral venous line, peripheral venous access catheter, or peripheral intravenous catheter, is a catheter (small, flexible tube) placed into a peripheral vein for venous access to administer intravenous therapy such as medication fluids. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_venous_catheter |
In medicine, a prodrome is an early sign or symptom (or set of signs and symptoms) that often indicates the onset of a disease before more diagnostically specific signs and symptoms develop. It is derived from the Greek word prodromos, meaning "running before". Prodromes may be non-specific symptoms or, in a few instances, may clearly indicate a particular disease, such as the prodromal migraine aura. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodromal_schizophrenia |
For example, fever, malaise, headache and lack of appetite frequently occur in the prodrome of many infective disorders. A prodrome can be the early precursor to an episode of a chronic neurological disorder such as a migraine headache or an epileptic seizure, where prodrome symptoms may include euphoria or other changes in mood, insomnia, abdominal sensations, disorientation, aphasia, or photosensitivity. Such a prodrome occurs on a scale of days to an hour before the episode, where an aura occurs more immediate to it.Prodromal labour, mistakenly called "false labour," refers to the early signs before labour starts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodromal_schizophrenia |
In medicine, a prosthesis (PL: prostheses; from Ancient Greek: πρόσθεσις, romanized: prósthesis, lit. 'addition, application, attachment'), or a prosthetic implant, is an artificial device that replaces a missing body part, which may be lost through trauma, disease, or a condition present at birth (congenital disorder). Prostheses are intended to restore the normal functions of the missing body part. Amputee rehabilitation is primarily coordinated by a physiatrist as part of an inter-disciplinary team consisting of physiatrists, prosthetists, nurses, physical therapists, and occupational therapists. Prostheses can be created by hand or with computer-aided design (CAD), a software interface that helps creators design and analyze the creation with computer-generated 2-D and 3-D graphics as well as analysis and optimization tools. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosthetic_limb |
In medicine, a pulse represents the tactile arterial palpation of the cardiac cycle (heartbeat) by trained fingertips. The pulse may be palpated in any place that allows an artery to be compressed near the surface of the body, such as at the neck (carotid artery), wrist (radial artery), at the groin (femoral artery), behind the knee (popliteal artery), near the ankle joint (posterior tibial artery), and on foot (dorsalis pedis artery). Pulse (or the count of arterial pulse per minute) is equivalent to measuring the heart rate. The heart rate can also be measured by listening to the heart beat by auscultation, traditionally using a stethoscope and counting it for a minute. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse_rate |
The radial pulse is commonly measured using three fingers. This has a reason: the finger closest to the heart is used to occlude the pulse pressure, the middle finger is used get a crude estimate of the blood pressure, and the finger most distal to the heart (usually the ring finger) is used to nullify the effect of the ulnar pulse as the two arteries are connected via the palmar arches (superficial and deep). The study of the pulse is known as sphygmology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse_rate |
In medicine, a sequence is a series of ordered consequences due to a single cause.It differs from a syndrome in that seriality is more predictable: if A causes B, and B causes C, and C causes D, then D would not be seen if C is not seen. However, in less formal contexts, the term "syndrome" is sometimes used instead of sequence. Examples include: oligohydramnios sequence (also known as Potter sequence) Pierre Robin sequence Poland sequence == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_(medicine) |
In medicine, a shagreen patch is a patch of shagreen-like rough skin, often on the lower back, found in some people with the genetic condition tuberous sclerosis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark_leather |
In medicine, a shunt is a hole or a small passage that moves, or allows movement of, fluid from one part of the body to another. The term may describe either congenital or acquired shunts; acquired shunts (sometimes referred to as iatrogenic shunts) may be either biological or mechanical. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunt_(medical) |
In medicine, a side effect is an effect, whether therapeutic or adverse, that is unintended; although the term is predominantly employed to describe adverse effects, it can also apply to beneficial, but unintended, consequences of the use of a drug. Occasionally, drugs are prescribed or procedures are performed for their side effects; in that case, said side effect ceases to be a side effect and is now an intended effect. For instance, X-rays were historically (and are currently) used as an imaging technique; the discovery of their oncolytic capability led to their employ in radiotherapy (ablation of malignant tumours). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_effect |
In medicine, a sound (), also called a sonde (), is an instrument for probing and dilating passages within the body, the best-known examples of which are urethral sounds and uterine sounds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_(medical_instrument) |
In medicine, a stent is a metal or plastic tube inserted into the lumen of an anatomic vessel or duct to keep the passageway open, and stenting is the placement of a stent. A wide variety of stents are used for different purposes, from expandable coronary, vascular and biliary stents, to simple plastic stents that allow urine to flow between kidney and bladder. "Stent" is also used as a verb to describe the placement of such a device, particularly when a disease such as atherosclerosis has pathologically narrowed a structure such as an artery. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endovascular_stent |
A stent is different from a shunt. A shunt is a tube that connects two previously unconnected parts of the body to allow fluid to flow between them. Stents and shunts can be made of similar materials, but perform two different tasks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endovascular_stent |
In medicine, a stent is any device which is inserted into a blood vessel or other internal duct to expand it to prevent or alleviate a blockage. Traditionally, such devices are fabricated from metal mesh and remain in the body permanently or until removed through further surgical intervention. A bioresorbable stent (also called bioresorbable scaffold, biodegradable stent or naturally-dissolving stent) serves the same purpose, but is manufactured from a material that may dissolve or be absorbed in the body. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodegradable_stent |
In medicine, a subcutaneous implant, or subcutaneous pellet, is an implant that is delivered under the skin into the subcutaneous tissue by surgery or injection and is used to deliver a drug for a long period of time. Examples of drugs that can be administered in this way include leuprorelin and the sex steroids estradiol and testosterone. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subcutaneous_implantation |
In medicine, abduction can be seen as a component of clinical evaluation and judgment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abductive_validation |
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