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In medieval counting houses, the tables were covered with a piece of checkered cloth, to count money.Exchequer is an archaic term for the English institution which accounted for money owed to the monarch. Thus the checkerboard tables of stacks of coins are a concrete realization of this information. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_(information) |
In medieval fortification, a bretèche or brattice is a small balcony with machicolations, usually built over a gate and sometimes in the corners of the fortress' wall, with the purpose of enabling defenders to shoot or throw objects at the attackers huddled under the wall. Depending on whether they have a roof, bretèches are classified in two types: open and closed. The open ones were accessed from the battlement's wall walk, or from a crenel.Medieval latrines (called garderobes) were fairly similar in construction, but they were not placed over doors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bretèche |
In Catalan (lladronera) and Portuguese (ladroneira) the word for bretèche was in fact derived from the Byzantine latreys (latrine), but this regionalism did not carry over to other languages. Because the places protected by bretèches were usually vital, they were usually manned by professional soldiers, often mercenaries in the Middle Ages. As a result of these circumstances, the word for latrine even denoted a mercenary in some regions. A bretèche is pictured in Bellifortis, Livro das Fortalezas, and in several other medieval military texts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bretèche |
In medieval fortification, a trou de loup (French for "wolf hole"; plural trous de loup, also commonly referred to as a tiger pit in the East) was a type of booby trap or defensive obstacle. Each trou de loup consisted of a conical pit about 2 m (6 ft 7 in) deep and 1.2 to 2 m (3.9 to 6.6 ft) wide at the top. At the bottom of the pit, a sharpened punji stick (wooden stake) would be hammered in. In some cases, the pit was concealed by light cover of wicker and a layer of soil. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trou_de_loup |
Trous de loup might be found singly as a trap (in which case they were always concealed), or in a dense pattern with no gaps between pits, used as an obstacle in front of a defended position. A field of trous de loup could be made more effective if subsequently flooded to a shallow depth, which would conceal the pits, make their sides slippery, and add the risk of drowning. Sometimes rotting meat or feces would be smeared onto the points to cause serious infection or death. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trou_de_loup |
In medieval households, the word "larder" referred both to an office responsible for fish, jams, and meat, as well as to the room in which these commodities were kept. It was headed by a larderer. The Scots term for larder was spence, This referred specifically to a place from which stores or food were distributed. And so in Scotland larderers (also pantlers and cellarers) were known as spencers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larder |
The office generally was subordinated to the kitchen and existed as a separate office only in larger households. It was closely connected to other offices of the kitchen, such as the saucery and the scullery.Larders were used by the Indus Valley civilization to store bones of goats, oxen, and sheep. These larders were made of large clay pots. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larder |
In medieval mensural notation, the brevis was one of the shortest note lengths in use, hence its name, which is the Latin etymon of "brief". In "perfect" rhythmic mode, the brevis was a third of a longa, or in "imperfect" mode, half a longa. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_whole_note |
In medieval military engineering, a berm (or berme) was a level space between a parapet or defensive wall and an adjacent steep-walled ditch or moat. It was intended to reduce soil pressure on the walls of the excavated part to prevent its collapse. It also meant that debris dislodged from fortifications would not fall into (and fill) a ditch or moat. In the trench warfare of World War I, the name was applied to a similar feature at the lip of a trench, which served mainly as an elbow-rest for riflemen. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berm |
In medieval music, such as that of Machaut, neither major nor minor thirds were considered stable intervals, and so cadences were typically on open fifths. As a harmonic device, the Picardy third originated in Western music in the Renaissance era. By the early seventeenth century, its use had become established in practice in music that was both sacred (as in the Schütz example above) and secular: Examples of the Picardy third can be found throughout the works of J. S. Bach and his contemporaries, as well as earlier composers such as Thoinot Arbeau and John Blow. Many of Bach's minor key chorales end with a cadence featuring a final chord in the major: In his book Music and Sentiment, Charles Rosen shows how Bach makes use of the fluctuations between minor and major to convey feeling in his music. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picardy_third |
Rosen singles out the Allemande from the keyboard Partita No. 1 in B-flat, BWV 825 to exemplify "the range of expression then possible, the subtle variety of inflections of sentiment contained with a well-defined framework". The following passage from the first half of the piece starts in F major, but then, in bar 15, "Turning to the minor mode with a chromatic bass and then back to the major for the cadence adds still new intensity." Many passages in Bach's religious works follow a similar expressive trajectory involving major and minor keys that may sometimes take on a symbolic significance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picardy_third |
For example, David Humphreys (1983, p. 23) sees the "languishing chromatic inflections, syncopations and appoggiaturas" of the following episode from the St Anne Prelude for organ, BWV 552 from Clavier-Übung III as "showing Christ in his human aspect. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picardy_third |
Moreover the poignant angularity of the melody, and in particular the sudden turn to the minor, are obvious expressions of pathos, introduced as a portrayal of his Passion and crucifixion": Notably, Bach's two books of The Well-Tempered Clavier, composed in 1722 and 1744 respectively, differ considerably in their application of Picardy thirds, which occur unambiguously at the end of all of the minor-mode preludes and all but one of the minor-mode fugues in the first book. In the second book, however, fourteen of the minor-mode movements end on a minor chord, or occasionally, on a unison. Manuscripts vary in many of these cases. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picardy_third |
While the device was used less frequently during the Classical era, examples can be found in works by Haydn and Mozart, such as the slow movement of Mozart's Piano Concerto 21, K. 467: Philip Radcliffe says that the dissonant harmonies here "have a vivid foretaste of Schumann and the way they gently melt into the major key is equally prophetic of Schubert". At the end of his opera Don Giovanni, Mozart uses the switch from minor to major to considerable dramatic effect: "As the Don disappears, screaming in agony, the orchestra settles in on a chord of D major. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picardy_third |
The change of mode offers no consolation, though: it is more like the tierce de Picardie, the 'Picardy third' (a famous misnomer derived from tierce picarte, 'sharp third'), the major chord that was used to end solemn organ preludes and toccatas in the minor keys in days of old. "The fierce C minor drama that pervades the Allegro con brio ed appassionato movement from Beethoven's last Piano Sonata, Op. 111, dissipates as the prevailing tonality turns to the major in its closing bars "in conjunction with a concluding diminuendo to end the movement, somewhat unexpectedly, on a note of alleviation or relief". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picardy_third |
The switch from minor to major was a device used frequently and to great expressive effect by Schubert in both his songs and instrumental works. In his book on the song cycle Winterreise, singer Ian Bostridge speaks of the "quintessentially Schubertian effect in the final verse" of the opening song "Gute Nacht", "as the key shifts magically from minor to major". Susan Wollenberg describes how the first movement of Schubert's Fantasia in F minor for piano four-hands, D 940, "ends in an extended Tierce de Picardie". The subtle change from minor to major occurs in the bass at the beginning of bar 103: In the Romantic era, those of Chopin's nocturnes that are in a minor key almost always end with a Picardy third. A notable structural employment of this device occurs with the finale of the Tchaikovsky Fifth Symphony, where the motto theme makes its first appearance in the major mode. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picardy_third |
In medieval music, the rhythmic modes were set patterns of long and short durations (or rhythms). The value of each note is not determined by the form of the written note (as is the case with more recent European musical notation), but rather by its position within a group of notes written as a single figure called a ligature, and by the position of the ligature relative to other ligatures. Modal notation was developed by the composers of the Notre Dame school from 1170 to 1250, replacing the even and unmeasured rhythm of early polyphony and plainchant with patterns based on the metric feet of classical poetry, and was the first step towards the development of modern mensural notation. The rhythmic modes of Notre Dame Polyphony were the first coherent system of rhythmic notation developed in Western music since antiquity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythmic_modes |
In medieval music, the tonality of the common practice period had not yet developed, and many examples may be found with harmonic structures that are built on fourths and fifths. The Musica enchiriadis of the mid-10th century, a guidebook for musical practice of the time, described singing in parallel fourths, fifths, and octaves. This development continued, and the music of the Notre Dame school may be considered the apex of a coherent harmony in this style. For instance, in one "Alleluia" (Listen) by Pérotin, the fourth is favoured. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_fourths |
Elsewhere, in parallel organum at the fourth, the upper line would be accompanied a fourth below. Also important was the practice of Fauxbourdon, which is a three-voice technique (not infrequently improvisatory) in which the two lower voices proceed parallel to the upper voice at a fourth and sixth below. Fauxbourdon, while making extensive use of fourths, is also an important step towards the later triadic harmony of tonality, as it may be seen as a first inversion (or 6/3) triad. This parallel 6/3 triad was incorporated into the contrapuntal style at the time, in which parallel fourths were sometimes considered problematic, and written around with ornaments or other modifications to the Fauxbourdon style. An example of this is the start of the Marian-Antiphon Ave Maris Stella (Listen) by Guillaume Dufay, a master of Fauxbourdon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_fourths |
In medieval philosophy, the French philosopher and theologian Roscellinus (c. 1050 – c. 1125) was an early, prominent proponent of nominalism. Nominalist ideas can be found in the work of Peter Abelard and reached their flowering in William of Ockham, who was the most influential and thorough nominalist. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_nominalism |
Abelard's and Ockham's version of nominalism is sometimes called conceptualism, which presents itself as a middle way between nominalism and realism, asserting that there is something in common among like individuals, but that it is a concept in the mind, rather than a real entity existing independently of the mind. Ockham argued that only individuals existed and that universals were only mental ways of referring to sets of individuals. "I maintain", he wrote, "that a universal is not something real that exists in a subject ... but that it has a being only as a thought-object in the mind ". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_nominalism |
As a general rule, Ockham argued against assuming any entities that were not necessary for explanations. Accordingly, he wrote, there is no reason to believe that there is an entity called "humanity" that resides inside, say, Socrates, and nothing further is explained by making this claim. This is in accord with the analytical method that has since come to be called Ockham's razor, the principle that the explanation of any phenomenon should make as few assumptions as possible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_nominalism |
Critics argue that conceptualist approaches answer only the psychological question of universals. If the same concept is correctly and non-arbitrarily applied to two individuals, there must be some resemblance or shared property between the two individuals that justifies their falling under the same concept and that is just the metaphysical problem that universals were brought in to address, the starting-point of the whole problem (MacLeod & Rubenstein, 2006, §3d). If resemblances between individuals are asserted, conceptualism becomes moderate realism; if they are denied, it collapses into nominalism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_nominalism |
In medieval philosophy, the active intellect (Latin: intellectus agens; also translated as agent intellect, active intelligence, active reason, or productive intellect) is the formal (morphe) aspect of the intellect (nous), according to the Aristotelian theory of hylomorphism. The nature of the active intellect was a major theme of late classical and medieval philosophy. Various thinkers sought to reconcile their commitment to Aristotle's account of the body and soul to their own theological commitments. At stake in particular was in what way Aristotle's account of an incorporeal soul might contribute to understanding of deity and creation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent_intellect |
In medieval philosophy, there was much debate over whether the universe had a finite or infinite past (see Temporal finitism). The philosophy of Aristotle held that the universe had an infinite past, which caused problems for past Jewish and Islamic philosophers who were unable to reconcile the Aristotelian conception of the eternal with the Abrahamic view of creation. As a result, a variety of logical arguments for the universe having a finite past were developed by John Philoponus, Al-Kindi, Saadia Gaon, Al-Ghazali and Immanuel Kant, among others.In his 1225 treatise De Luce (On Light), English theologian Robert Grosseteste explored the nature of matter and the cosmos. He described the birth of the universe in an explosion and the crystallization of matter to form stars and planets in a set of nested spheres around Earth. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Big_Bang_theory |
De Luce is the first attempt to describe the heavens and Earth using a single set of physical laws.In 1610, Johannes Kepler used the dark night sky to argue for a finite universe. Seventy-seven years later, Isaac Newton described large-scale motion throughout the universe. The description of a universe that expanded and contracted in a cyclic manner was first put forward in a poem published in 1791 by Erasmus Darwin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Big_Bang_theory |
Edgar Allan Poe presented a similar cyclic system in his 1848 essay titled Eureka: A Prose Poem; it is obviously not a scientific work, but Poe, while starting from metaphysical principles, tried to explain the universe using contemporary physical and mental knowledge. Ignored by the scientific community and often misunderstood by literary critics, its scientific implications have been reevaluated in recent times. According to Poe, the initial state of matter was a single "Primordial Particle". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Big_Bang_theory |
"Divine Volition", manifesting itself as a repulsive force, fragmented the Primordial Particle into atoms. Atoms spread evenly throughout space, until the repulsive force stops, and attraction appears as a reaction: then matter begins to clump together forming stars and star systems, while the material universe is drawn back together by gravity, finally collapsing and ending eventually returning to the Primordial Particle stage in order to begin the process of repulsion and attraction once again. This part of Eureka describes a Newtonian evolving universe which shares a number of properties with relativistic models, and for this reason Poe anticipates some themes of modern cosmology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Big_Bang_theory |
In medieval textbooks, the all-important Arbor porphyriana ("Porphyrian Tree") illustrates his logical classification of substance. To this day, taxonomy benefits from concepts in Porphyry's Tree, in classifying living organisms: see cladistics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isagoge |
In medieval times before the canalisation of the Thames, Staines, was the highest point at which the high tide was perceivable for a few minutes every semi-diurnal tide (twice a day), adding some millimetres to the water depth compared to more upstream parishes. This London Stone marked the upstream limit of the City's rights. The official role of a Corporation of London stone of 1285 beside Staines Bridge was set out with a grant of associated privileges in a charter of Edward I. Its use by the river is indicated by the indentations (on the right-hand face in the photo), caused by tow ropes of horse-drawn boats rubbing against the stone. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Stone_(riparian) |
In medieval times until the early 18th century, ducking was a way used to establish whether a suspect was a witch. The ducking stools were first used for this purpose but ducking was later inflicted without the chair. In this instance the subject's right thumb was bound to her left big toe. A rope was tied around the waist of the accused and she was thrown into a river or deep pond. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cucking_stool |
If she floated, it was deemed that she was in league with the devil, rejecting the baptismal water. If she sank, she was "cleared. And dead". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cucking_stool |
In medieval times, "humble pie" (originally "umble pie") made from animal innards (especially deer) was a peasant food and is the source of the commonly used idiom "eating humble pie", although it has lost its original meaning as meat pies made from offal are no longer referred to by this name. The traditional Scottish haggis consists of a sheep's stomach stuffed with a boiled mix of liver, heart, lungs, rolled oats, and other ingredients. In the English Midlands and South Wales, faggots are made from ground or minced pig offal (mainly liver and cheek), bread, herbs, and onion wrapped in pig's caul fat. Only two offal-based dishes are still routinely served nationwide at home and in restaurants and are available as pre-cooked package meals in supermarket chains: steak and kidney pie (typically featuring veal or beef kidneys) is still widely known and enjoyed in Britain as is the liver (of lamb, calf, pig or cow) and onions served in a rich sauce (gravy). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beef_entrails |
Brawn (the British English term for 'head cheese') is the collection of meat and tissue found on an animal's skull (typically a pig) that is cooked, chilled and set in gelatin. Another British food is black pudding, consisting of congealed pig's blood with oatmeal made into sausage-like links with pig intestine as a casing, then boiled and usually fried on preparation. "Luncheon tongue" refers to reformed pork tongue pieces. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beef_entrails |
"Ox tongue" made from the pressed complete tongue, is more expensive. Both kinds of tongue are found in tinned form and in slices in supermarkets and local butchers. Home cooking and pressing of tongue have become less common over the last fifty years. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beef_entrails |
Bleached tripe was a popular dish in Northern England (especially in South Lancashire), with many specialist tripe shops in industrial areas. Today, in South Lancashire certain markets (for example in Wigan) may still sell tripe; but all the specialist tripe shops have now closed. "Elder" is the name given to cooked cow's udder - another Lancashire offal dish rarely seen today. Offal connoisseurs such as Ben Greenwood OBE have frequently campaigned to bring Elder back on the menu of restaurants across Yorkshire and Lancashire. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beef_entrails |
In medieval times, Ebisu's ancestry was linked to that of "Hiruko", the first child of Izanagi and Izanami, born without bones (or, in some legends, arms and legs) due to his mother's transgression throughout the marriage rite. Hiruko managed to survive, but because he could not stand, he was thrown into the sea in a reed boat before his third birthday. According to the legend, Hiruko washed ashore—possibly in Ezo (蝦夷, ancient Hokkaidō)—and was cared for by the Ainu Ebisu Saburo (戎三郎). However, it is thought that Ebisu began as a god of fishermen, and that his transformation into Hiruko came far later, after his religion had extended to merchants and farmers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whale_worship |
It is also possible that he was born as "Kotoshironushi no Mikoto", the son of Ōkuninushi. He became one of the shichifukujin or the seven gods of fortune, which include Daikokuten, Bishamonten, Benzaiten, Fukurokuju, Jurojin, and Hotei. Ebisu, together with Daikokuten, was considered the most popular of these seven and was venerated in almost every Japanese home. In certain cultures, Ebisu is often synonymous with artifacts that can float ashore from the sea, such as logs and even bodies, in addition to being a god of fishing, prosperity, and fortune. Ebisu was also connected with marine megafauna such as whales and whale sharks (hence the latter's name "Ebisu-Shark") that carry in large amounts of fish and shield fishermen as a form of animal worship.Ainu mythology contains cetacean-shaped deities such as Rep-un-riri-kata-inao-uk-kamuy (レプンリリカナイナウウクカムイ), the primal ocean deity and the chief of whales, and orca-shaped deities such as Rep-un-kamuy, and Rep-un-sokki-koro-kamuy (レプンソッキコロカムイ). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whale_worship |
In medieval times, a person's diet varied depending on their social class. However cereal grains made up a lot of a medieval person's diet, regardless of social class. Bread was common to both classes; it was taken as a lunch for the working man, and thick slices of it were used as plates called trenchers. People of the noble class had access to finely ground flours for their breads and other baked goods. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_cuisine |
Noblemen were allowed to hunt for deer, boar, rabbits, birds, and other animals, giving them access to fresh meat and fish for their meals. Dishes for people of these classes were often heavily spiced. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_cuisine |
Spices at that time were very expensive, and the more spices used in dishes, the more wealth the person needed to purchase such ingredients. Common spices used were cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, pepper, cumin, cloves, turmeric, anise, and saffron. Other ingredients used in dishes for the nobility and clergy included sugar, almonds and dried fruits like raisins. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_cuisine |
These imported ingredients would have been very expensive and nearly impossible for commoners to obtain. When banquets were held, the dishes served would be very spectacular: another way for the noblemen to show how rich they were. Sugar sculptures would be placed on the tables as decoration and to eat, and foods would be dyed vibrant colors with imported spices.The diet of a commoner would have been much simpler. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_cuisine |
Strict poaching laws prevented them from hunting, and if they did hunt and were caught, they could have parts of their limbs cut off or they could be killed. Much of the commoners' food would have been preserved in some way, such as through pickling or by being salted. Breads would have been made using rye or barley, and any vegetables would likely have been grown by the commoners themselves. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_cuisine |
Peasants would have likely been able to keep cows, and so would have access to milk, which then allowed them to make butter or cheese. When meat was eaten, it would have been beef, pork, or lamb. Commoners also ate a dish called pottage, a thick stew of vegetables, grains, and meat. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_cuisine |
In medieval times, blue glass was made by adding cobalt blue, which at a concentration of 0.025% to 0.1% in soda-lime glass achieves the brilliant blue characteristic of Chartres Cathedral. The addition of sulphur to boron-rich borosilicate glasses imparts a blue colour. The addition of copper oxide at 2–3% produces a turquoise colour. The addition of nickel, at different concentrations, produces blue, violet, or black glass. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stained_Glass |
In medieval times, ethnic identity was a social construct, defined in terms of culture rather than race; and Christians considered all of humanity common descendants of Adam and Eve. Chroniclers used the ethno-cultural terms "barbarians" or barbarae nations, which were inherited from the Greeks of antiquity, for "others" or "aliens", which were thus differentiated from the self-descriptive term "Latins" that the crusaders used for themselves.Although there are no specific references to crusading in the 11th century chanson de geste Chanson de Roland, the author, for propaganda purposes, represented Muslims as monsters and idolators. Christian writers repeated this image elsewhere. Visual cues were used to represent Muslims as evil, dehumanized, and monstrous aliens with black complexions and diabolical physiognomies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusading_movement |
This portrayal remained in western literature long after the territorial conflict of the crusades had faded into history. The term "Saracen" designated a religious community rather than a racial group, while the word "Muslim" is absent from the chronicles. Instead, various terms are used – such as infidels, gentiles, enemies of God, and pagans. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusading_movement |
The conflict was seen as a Manichean contest between good and evil. Historians have been shocked by the inaccuracy and hostility involved in such representations, which included crude insults to Mohammad, caricatures of Islamic rituals, and the representation of Muslims as libidinous gluttons, blood-thirsty savages, and semi-human. Historian Jean Flori argues that to self-justify Christianity's move from pacifism to warfare, their enemies needed to be ideologically destroyed.Despite the negative representations, the Turks were respected as opponents in the Gesta Francorum, which considered only the Turks and the Franks as having a knightly lineage. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusading_movement |
Some, such as the character Aumont in the Chanson d’Aspremont, were represented as equals, even as far as being seen as following the chivalric code. By the Third Crusade, there is evidence of a class division within the nobility in both camps who shared a chivalric identity that overcame religious and political differences. This differentiated the two elites from their common co-religionists who had other loyalties. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusading_movement |
Increasingly, epics involved instances of conversion to Christianity, which promised a solution to the conflict in favour of the Franks at a time they were being defeated militarily. Poets often relied on the patronage of leading crusaders, so they extolled the values of the nobility, the feudal status quo, chivalry, martial prowess, and the idea of the Holy Land being God's territory usurped and despoiled. Writers designed works encouraging revenge on Muslims, who deserved punishment and were God's enemies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusading_movement |
The artists addressed their works to the patrons, often beginning with Chevalier or Seigneur, based on dialectical understanding of rhetoric in terms of praise or blame. Works praised those who answered the call to crusade, writers vilified those who did not. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusading_movement |
The reformist Church's identity-interest complex framed Islam as a particular form of heresy. Muslim rule in formerly Christian territory was an "unjust" confiscation of Christian property, and this persecution of Christians required repayment. The view was that these injustices demanded Christian action. Islamic polities' own identity-interest complexes led them to be equally violently opposed to the restoration of Christian rule. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusading_movement |
In medieval times, it occurred in a wider area, including the Romance languages spoken in most or all of France and Iberia (Old Spanish, Galician-Portuguese, Catalan, French, etc.), as well as in the Old and Middle High German of central and southern Germany, and most likely Northern Germany as well. In all of these languages, the retracted "apico-alveolar" sibilant was opposed to a non-retracted sibilant much like modern English , and in many of them, both voiceless and voiced versions of both sounds occurred. A solid type of evidence consists of different spellings used for two different sibilants: in general, the retracted "apico-alveolar" variants were written ⟨s⟩ or ⟨ss⟩, while the non-retracted variants were written ⟨z⟩, ⟨c⟩ or ⟨ç⟩. In the Romance languages, the retracted sibilants derived from Latin /s/, /ss/ or /ns/, while the non-retracted sibilants derived from earlier affricates and , which in turn derived from palatalized /k/ or /t/. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_non-sibilant_fricative |
The situation was similar in High German, where the retracted sibilants derived largely from Proto-Germanic /s/, while the non-retracted sibilants derived from instances of Proto-Germanic /t/ that were shifted by the High German sound shift. Minimal pairs were common in all languages. Examples in Middle High German, for example, were wizzen "to know" (Old English witan, cf. "to wit") vs. wissen "known" (Old English wissen), and wīz "white" (Old English wīt) vs. wīs(e) "way" (Old English wīs, cf. "-wise"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_non-sibilant_fricative |
In medieval times, it was customary in Continental Europe for a sovereign to grant almost regal powers of government to the feudal lords of his border districts to prevent foreign invasion. Those districts or manors were often called palatinates or counties palatine because the lord wielded the power of the king in his palace. His power was regal in kind but inferior in degree to that of the king.That type of arrangement had caused many problems in Norman times for certain English border counties. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_colony |
Those territories were known as counties palatine and lasted at least in part to 1830 for good reason: remoteness, poor communications, governance carried out under difficult circumstances. The monarch and the government retained their usual right to separate head and body, figuratively or literally, at any time. (See also the hereditary title marquess.) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_colony |
In medieval times, medicinal herbs were generally referred to by the apothecaries (physicians or doctors) as "simples" or "officinals". Before 1542, the works principally used by apothecaries were the treatises on simples by Avicenna and Serapion’s Liber De Simplici Medicina. The De Synonymis and other publications of Simon Januensis, the Liber Servitoris of Bulchasim Ben Aberazerim, which described the preparations made from plants, animals and minerals, provided a model for the chemical treatment of modern pharmacopoeias. There was also the Antidotarium Nicolai of Nicolaus de Salerno, which contained Galenical compounds arranged in alphabetical order. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbal |
In medieval times, the main canal was divided into three sections, described in detail by the 13th-century geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi, in his Mu'jam al-Buldan. The initial feeder canal drawing water from the Tigris at Dur al-Arabaya near Samarra and carrying it to the Diyala at Ba'quba was called al-katul al-Kisrawi ('the Cut of Khosrau'). During its course, it was joined by three smaller canals taken from the Tigris, the Yahudi ('of the Jews'), the al-Ma'muni, named after Caliph al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833), and the largest of the three, the Abu'l-Jund ('father of the army'), built under Harun al-Rashid (r. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahrawan_Canal |
786–809).Some 20 km south of the inflow of the Abu'l-Jund stood the town of Salwa or Bab Salwa (Basalwa), and a little further on the town of Ba'quba, the capital of the Upper Nahrawan district, some 50 km north-northeast of Baghdad. From there, the main canal, now known as the Tamarra, turned south to the towns of Bajisra (originally Bayt al-Jisr, 'bridge-house') and finally Jisr al-Nahrawan, from where it was known as the Nahrawan proper. From Bajisra a canal, the Nahr al-Khalis, connected the main canal with the Tigris at Baradan and supplied the eastern suburbs of Baghdad with water, while another, the Nahr Bin, connected Jisr al-Nahrawan with Kalwadha south of Baghdad. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahrawan_Canal |
Just south of Jisr al-Nahrawan there was another canal, the Diyala canal—the present course of the namesake river—which joined the Tigris some 5 km south of Baghdad. Jisr al-Nahrawan itself was a wealthy place, as there the Khurasan Road connecting Baghdad with Central Asia crossed the canal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahrawan_Canal |
Surviving descriptions record that it was extended on both sides of the canal, each with its own mosques, markets and hostels for travellers and pilgrims. It was abandoned by the 14th century, as the road to Khurasan was diverted north, through Ba'quba.Below Jisr al-Nahrawan came a large Sassanid-era weir (Shadhurwan), followed by the towns of Jisr Buran/Puran (named after Ma'mun's wife), Yarzatiya, 'Abarta, another weir, and the city of Iskaf Bani Junayd, divided by the canal in upper and lower towns. From Iskaf, the canal went on for another 100 km amidst a heavily cultivated landscape to rejoin the Tigris at Madharaya, near modern Kut. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahrawan_Canal |
In medieval times, when it was used by English kings and the nobility as a hunting ground for deer, Ashdown Forest probably contained large areas of heathland. This would not have been unusual, as many of England's medieval forests consisted predominantly of heathland, including some of the best-known ones. For example, Sherwood Forest, in the Midlands, which was first described as a forest in 1154, had at most one-third of its area recorded as woodland in Domesday Book, and by the end of the 13th century was a vast heath incorporating a number of woods and parks with no more than a quarter of it being woodland. But unlike other heathlands in England, which have largely disappeared in the last 200 years, Ashdown's has largely survived. It now represents one of England's most extensive and important areas of lowland heathland, with the associated distinctive, often rare, heathland flora and fauna. Ashdown Forest's 1,500 ha of lowland heathland make it the largest area of this threatened habitat in south-east England. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_of_Ashdown_Forest |
In medieval warfare, sturdy stakes were stuck into the ground at the bottom of long lines of ditches, positioned with a sharp end pointing up diagonally, in order to prevent cavalry charges in a given area. Even if the stakes were spotted, horsemen would be forced to dismount and effectively give up their advantage as cavalry, and become easier targets. The correct layout of these extensive lines of ditches and the control of stake size, form and placement were part of the craft of war. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area_denial_weapons |
An alternative cavalry deterrent, allowing quicker dispersal and providing the advantage of being hidden more easily, was the deployment of, for example, small balls with spikes, used during most of antiquity. Many variants were used, such as boards with metal hooks, as described as used by Julius Caesar. A more modern version of this are caltrops. Passive fortification—ditches and obstacles such as dragon's teeth and Czech hedgehogs—were used as anti-tank measures during World War II. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area_denial_weapons |
In medieval weaponry, the breastplate is the front portion of plate armour covering the torso. It has been a military mainstay since ancient times and was usually made of leather, bronze or iron in antiquity. By around 1000 AD, solid plates had fallen out of use in Europe and knights of the period were wearing mail in the form of a hauberk over a padded tunic. Plates protecting the torso reappeared in the 1220s as plates directly attached to a knightly garment known as the surcoat. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_plate |
Around 1250 this developed into the coat of plates which continued to be in use for about a century. True breastplates reappear in Europe in 1340 first composed of wrought iron and later of steel. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_plate |
These early breastplates were made of several plates and only covered the upper torso with the lower torso not being protected by plate until the development of the fauld around 1370. They were between 1–2.5 mm (0.039–0.098 in) in thickness. In order to prevent the wearer from being cut by their own armour, the design featured outward turned edges that also increased stiffness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_plate |
In some cases, further strength was added by a ridge running down through the centre of the plate. The first evidence for one-piece breastplates is from an altarpiece in the Pistoia cathedral dated to 1365. Complete, lightweight, one or two-piece breastplates were readily used by the first decade of the 15th century. The French term pancier, which became English pauncher and German panzer, was also used. Bullet-proof vests are the modern descendant of the breastplate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_plate |
In medieval western Europe, any efforts to halt or prevent pregnancy were deemed immoral by the Catholic Church. Women of the time still used a number of birth control measures such as coitus interruptus, inserting lily root and rue into the vagina, and infanticide after birth.Historian John M. Riddle has advanced the hypothesis that women in classical antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Early Modern period used herbs to control fertility. Historian Etienne van de Walle has quoted Riddle as stating that "most women" in the Middle Ages knew that certain herbs and herbal products could be taken to induce an abortion in the early stages of pregnancy and that this knowledge was primarily shared amongst women, thus affording them "more control over their lives than we thought possible". Riddle has further hypothesized that "these drugs were perfected over centuries in a female culture of which males—who were doing the writing—had only a partial and imperfect understanding" and it is this shared folk wisdom amongst women that explains the relatively static population size in the West before the 18th century, rather than the high rate of infant mortality. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_birth_control |
Several historians have taken issue with this hypothesis: Gary Ferngren has noted the circumstantial nature of Riddle's evidence and concluded that the ideas remained "unproved and unlikely," while Helen King has written that Riddle makes claims about modern pharmacology that are not supported by his source materials. Demographer Gigi Santow also takes issue with the proposition, writing that it overemphasizes the role of herbs and stating that Riddle seeks "not so much to persuade as to convert. "On December 5, 1484, Pope Innocent VIII issued the Summis desiderantes affectibus, a papal bull in which he recognized the existence of witches and gave full papal approval for the Inquisition to proceed "correcting, imprisoning, punishing and chastising" witches "according to their deserts". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_birth_control |
In the bull, which is sometimes referred to as the "Witch-Bull of 1484", the witches were explicitly accused of having "slain infants yet in the mother's womb" (abortion) and of "hindering men from performing the sexual act and women from conceiving" (contraception). Famous texts that served to guide the witch hunt and instruct magistrates on how to find and convict so-called "witches" include the Malleus Maleficarum, and Jean Bodin's De la Demonomanie des Sorciers. The Malleus Maleficarum was written by the priest J. Sprenger (born in Rheinfelden, today Switzerland), who was appointed by Pope Innocent VIII as the General Inquisitor for Germany around 1475, and H. Institoris, who at the time was inquisitor for Tyrol, Salzburg, Bohemia and Moravia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_birth_control |
The authors accused witches, among other things, of infanticide and having the power to steal men's penises.Barrier methods such as the condom have been around much longer, but were seen primarily as a means of preventing sexually transmitted diseases, not pregnancy. Casanova in the 18th century was one of the first reported using "assurance caps" to prevent impregnating his mistresses. In 1909, Richard Richter developed the first intrauterine device made from silkworm gut which was further developed and marketed in Germany by Ernst Gräfenberg in the late 1920s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_birth_control |
In medieval world maps, the land of Gog and Magog is generally shown as a region in the far north, northeast, or east of Asia, enclosed by mountains or fortifications and often featuring a gate. It is depicted in this way on Arabian world maps starting from the 10th century, as also on the Tabula Rogeriana, an influential map drawn in 1154 by Muhammad al-Idrisi for Roger II of Sicily. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander's_Wall |
In medium and large tenders for weapons systems the bid can be very complex, involving one or more than one company as bidder. The main offer is guided by a prime contractor that may have other companies associated to the bid as partners or as subcontractors. However, in regards to the agreed offset proposal only the prime contractor is liable toward the final client for its fulfillment. Since offsets are increasingly complex, the prime contractor may hire subcontractors to fulfill its contractual obligations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offset_agreement |
While the liability for the offsets stays with the prime contractor, the job can be executed by a subcontractor, or an offset fulfiller. One of the collateral benefits of offsets in U.S. (probably not offsetting the adverse effects of defense offsets on economy and jobs) is the proliferation of legal and economic jobs in the "offsets sector," that goes from international legal companies to the fully staffed international offices of U.S. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offset_agreement |
defense companies. In addition, the establishment of new companies in "offset" venture capital, in "offset" marketing assistance: offset fulfillers that provide their support services to the defense and aerospace industry. While many offset programs originally evolved as a result of defense and aerospace sales, today many new offset / Industrial Partnership programs have developed as a result of nations wanting to improve their industrial base, level of technology and desire to become more self-sufficient across a broad range of industry sectors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offset_agreement |
As a result of this new interest and demand for Industrial Partnership, there has been both a growth and establishment of new offset associations. There are both Global and Domestic "Offset" / Industrial Partnership organizations. The largest and most widely attended global association is GOCA, the Global Offset and Countertrade Association, whose purpose is to promote trade and commerce between companies around the world and their foreign customers through a greater understanding of countertrade and offset. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offset_agreement |
Each year GOCA hosts several industry meetings in partnership with other European and American offset organizations such as the ADS, Aerospace Defence Security and DIOA, the U.S. Defense Industry Offset Association. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offset_agreement |
DIOA was established in 1985 by members of the U.S. Defense Industry to foster education, networking and guidelines for professionalism in offsets implementations. The industry meetings referenced above are attended by leading global industrial companies, companies that specialize in providing support services for Industrial Partnership fulfillment, and by various government and military authorities, mostly from national ministries of defense and economy, who oversee and monitor offset and Industrial Partnership programs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offset_agreement |
The purpose of these industry meetings is to educate, and to foster relationships between the various offset obligors and beneficiaries so that real and sustainable economic benefits can be delivered to nations who are seeking to improve their respective economies. Offsets and Industrial Partnership programs have been evolving for over three decades and there are dozens of articles that describe various successes and challenges that have resulted from implementing offset programs. The most widely read publication that deals with the developments in the Offset and Industrial Participation arena is Countertrade and Offset ("CTO").Offset fulfillers /service providers may perform various support services: including marketing assistance, sourcing and structuring venture capital or other forms of corporate credit for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), or more complex things, such as a joint ventures to produce shrimp (Devcorp, Bahrain), a sugar factory, or, recently, environment and renewable energy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offset_agreement |
In mediumwave broadcasting, a mush zone is a region where the ground wave and sky wave from a transmitter are received at approximately equal signal strength, resulting in interference between the two, which will typically cause fading and distorted audio. The effect can reduce the coverage area of a transmission at night, even in the absence of interfering signals from any other source. It can be mitigated to some extent by the use of a tall mast radiator of up to about 0.6 wavelengths height, which increases the ground wave field strength while reducing high-angle sky wave radiation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mush_zone |
In meetings with the prime minister Moshe Sharett, minister of defense Pinhas Lavon denied any knowledge of the operation. When intelligence chief Gibli contradicted Lavon, Sharett commissioned a board of inquiry consisting of Israeli Supreme Court Justice Isaac Olshan and the first chief of staff of the Israel Defense Forces, Yaakov Dori that was unable to find conclusive evidence that Lavon had authorized the operation. Lavon tried to fix the blame on Shimon Peres, who was the secretary general of the defense ministry, and on Gibli for insubordination and criminal negligence.Sharett resolved the dilemma by siding with Peres (who had, along with Moshe Dayan, testified against Lavon), after which Lavon resigned on 17 February 1955. Former prime minister David Ben-Gurion succeeded Lavon as minister of defense. On 3 November 1955, Sharett (who had not known about the operation in advance, and had therefore strongly denied Israel's involvement) resigned as Prime Minister and was replaced by Ben-Gurion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavon_Affair |
In megalithic archaeology a port-hole slab is the name of an orthostat with a hole in it sometimes found forming the entrance to a chamber tomb. The hole is usually circular but square examples or those made from two adjoining slabs each with a notch cut in it are known. They are common in the gallery graves of the Seine-Oise-Marne culture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megalithic_architectural_elements |
In melanocytes, melanosomes (vesicles containing the pigment melanin) are transported on microtubules. They are then bound by Rab27A which recruits Slac2-a and myosin Va. This complex then transfers the melanosomes from the microtubules to actin filaments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griscelli_syndrome |
This transfer is necessary for the transport of melanosomes from the perinuclear area to the cell periphery. The loss of any one of these proteins interrupts melanosome transport and results in the hypopigmentation.However, these three proteins do not work together in other cells and RAB27A effectors may be 'mix and match.' For example, the knockout of Rab27 causes the hypopigmentation but also immunodeficiency due to deficiencies in cytotoxic killing activity in cytotoxic T cells (something that also depends on vesicle transport). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griscelli_syndrome |
While, the knockout of myosin Va does not cause immunodeficiency, but it does cause neural defects. Though some neural problems (i.e. brain damage) can be seen in Rab27A deficient children, this is thought to be a secondary effect of the immune problems, and not directly due to the lack of Rab27A. Munc13-4 has also drawn attention based on its involvement in causing bleeding manifestations in Griscelli syndrome.Munc13-4 through its interactions with Rab27a appears to be important for the dense granule release from platelets. The mutated Rab27a interaction with Munc13-4 is the cause of bleeding in type 2 Griscelli Syndrome. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griscelli_syndrome |
In melanocytic cell types, expression of the CDK2 gene is regulated by the Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclin-dependent_kinase_2 |
In melanocytic cells GM2A gene expression may be regulated by MITF. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganglioside_GM2_activator_protein |
In melanocytic cells the EDNRB gene is regulated by the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor. Mutations in either gene are links to Waardenburg syndrome. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endothelin_B_receptor |
In melanocytic cells the IRF4 gene may be regulated by MITF. IRF4 is a transcription factor that has been implicated in acute leukemia. This gene is strongly associated with pigmentation: sensitivity of skin to sun exposure, freckles, blue eyes, and brown hair color. A variant has been implicated in greying of hair.The World Health Organization (2016) provisionally defined large B-cell lymphoma with IRF4 rearrangement as a rare indolent large B-cell lymphoma of children and adolescents. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRF4 |
This indolent lymphoma mimics, and must be distinguished from, pediatric-type follicular lymphoma. The hallmark of large B-cell lymphoma with IRF4 rearrangement is the overexpression of the IRF4 gene by the disease's malignant cells. This overexpression is forced by the acquisition in these cells of a translocation of IRF4 from its site on the short (i.e. p) arm of chromosome 6 at position 25.3 to a site near the IGH@ immunoglobulin heavy locus on the long (i.e. q) arm of chromosome 14 at position 32.33 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRF4 |
In melanoma The anti-melanoma activity of dinaciclib is dependent on p53 signaling. In chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) Dinaciclib promotes apoptosis and abrogates microenvironmental cytokine protection in chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells. In pancreatic cancer Dinaciclib inhibits pancreatic cancer growth and progression in murine xenograft models. In osteosarcoma Dinacliclib induces the apoptosis of osteosarcoma cells. Apoptosis of osteosarcoma cultures can be induced by the combination of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor SCH727965 and a heat shock protein 90 inhibitor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinaciclib |
In melanoma, a resected melanoma specimen is digested into a single-cell suspension or divided into multiple tumor fragments. The result is individually grown in IL-2. Lymphocytes overgrow. They destroy the tumors in the sample within 2 to 3 weeks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_checkpoint_blockade |
They then produce pure cultures of lymphocytes that can be tested for reactivity against other tumors, in coculture assays. Individual cultures are then expanded in the presence of IL-2 and excess irradiated anti-CD3 antibodies. The latter targets the epsilon subunit within the human CD3 complex of the TCR. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_checkpoint_blockade |
5–6 weeks after resecting the tumor, up to 1011 lymphocytes can be obtained.Prior to infusion, a lymphodepleting preparative regimen is undergone, typically 60 mg/kg cyclophosphamide for 2 days and 25 mg/m2 fludarabine administered for 5 days. This substantially increases infused cell persistence and the incidence and duration of clinical responses. Then cells and IL-2 at 720,000 IU/kg to tolerance are infused.Interleukin-21 may play an important role in enhancing the efficacy of T cell based in vitro therapies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_checkpoint_blockade |
In early trials, preparing engineered T cells cost $75,000 to manufacture cells for each patient.Interleukin-2 is normally added to the extracted T cells to boost their effectiveness, but in high doses it can have a toxic effect. The reduced number of injected T cells is accompanied by reduced IL-2, thereby reducing side effects. In vitro tests on melanoma and kidney cancer models met expectations.In 2016 Strep-tag II sequences were introduced into synthetic CAR or natural T-cell receptors to serve as a marker for identification, rapid purification, tailoring spacer length for optimal function and selective, antibody-coated, microbead-driven, large-scale expansion. This facilitates cGMP manufacturing of pure populations of engineered T cells and enables in vivo tracking and retrieval of transferred cells for downstream research applications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_checkpoint_blockade |
In melt spinning, the alloy or metal is first melted in a crucible. Then, an inert gas, usually argon, is used to jet the molten material out of a nozzle located on the underside of the crucible. The resulting stream of liquid is directed onto the outer circumferential surface of a rotating wheel or drum which is cooled internally. The drum's outer surface is located extremely close to the nozzle but does not touch it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melt_spinning |
Generally, the velocity of the drum's surface must be between 10 m/s and 60 m/s in order to avoid the formation of globules (droplets) or breaking the ribbon respectively. Once the stream contacts the drum's surface, a small puddle of melt (molten material) is formed. Due to the low viscosity of the melt, the shear forces generated by the relative movement of the drum's surface underneath the melt only extend a few microns into the puddle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melt_spinning |
In other words, only a small amount of the puddle is affected by the friction from the rotation of the drum. Consequently, as the drum spins, most of the melt puddle remains held between the nozzle and the drum by surface tension. However, the melt on the very bottom of the puddle, which is in direct contact with the drum, rapidly solidifies into a thin ribbon. The solidified ribbon is carried away from under the nozzle on the drum's surface for up to 10° of rotation before centrifugal force from the drum's rotation ejects it.This process occurs continuously, so as solidified material is removed from underneath the puddle of melt, more liquid material is added to the puddle from the nozzle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melt_spinning |
In members of Asteraceae, a ligule is the elongated tongue of the corolla of a ray flower or ligulate flower. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligule |
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