text stringlengths 9 3.55k | source stringlengths 31 280 |
|---|---|
In members of the Asteraceae the fruit is achene-like, and is called a cypsela (plural cypselae). Although there are two fused carpels, there is only one locule, and only one seed per fruit is formed. It may sometimes be winged or spiny because the pappus, which is derived from calyx tissue often remains on the fruit (for example in dandelion). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_flowers |
In some species, however, the pappus falls off (for example in Helianthus). Cypsela morphology is often used to help determine plant relationships at the genus and species level. The mature seeds usually have little endosperm or none. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_flowers |
In membrane biology, fusion is the process by which two initially distinct lipid bilayers merge their hydrophobic cores, resulting in one interconnected structure. If this fusion proceeds completely through both leaflets of both bilayers, an aqueous bridge is formed and the internal contents of the two structures can mix. Alternatively, if only one leaflet from each bilayer is involved in the fusion process, the bilayers are said to be hemifused. In hemifusion, the lipid constituents of the outer leaflet of the two bilayers can mix, but the inner leaflets remain distinct. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid_bilayer_fusion |
The aqueous contents enclosed by each bilayer also remain separated. Fusion is involved in many cellular processes, particularly in eukaryotes since the eukaryotic cell is extensively sub-divided by lipid bilayer membranes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid_bilayer_fusion |
Exocytosis, fertilization of an egg by sperm and transport of waste products to the lysosome are a few of the many eukaryotic processes that rely on some form of fusion. Fusion is also an important mechanism for transport of lipids from their site of synthesis to the membrane where they are needed. Even the entry of pathogens can be governed by fusion, as many bilayer-coated viruses have dedicated fusion proteins to gain entry into the host cell. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid_bilayer_fusion |
In membrane biology, the Hodgkin cycle is a key component of membrane physiology that describes bioelectrical impulses, especially prevalent in neural and muscle tissues. It was identified by British physiologist and biophysicist Sir Alan Lloyd Hodgkin.The Hodgkin cycle represents a positive feedback loop in which an initial membrane depolarization leads to uncontrolled deflection of the membrane potential to near VNa. The initial depolarization must reach or surpass a certain threshold in order to activate voltage-gated Na+ channels. The opening of Na+ channels allows Na+ inflow, which, in turn, further depolarizes the membrane. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodgkin_cycle |
Additional depolarization activates additional Na+ channels. This cycle leads to a very rapid rise in Na+ conductance (gNa), which moves the membrane potential close to VNa. The cycle is broken when the membrane potential reaches to the sodium equilibrium potential and potassium channels open to re-polarize the membrane potential. This positive feedback loop means that the closer these voltage-gated Na+ channels are to each other, the lower the threshold of activation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodgkin_cycle |
In membrane gas separation, membranes act as a permeable barrier which different compounds move across at different rates or do not cross at all. Gas mixtures can be effectively separated by synthetic membranes made from polymers such as polyamide or cellulose acetate, or from ceramic materials. While polymeric membranes are economical and technologically useful, they are bounded by their performance, known as the Robeson limit (permeability must be sacrificed for selectivity and vice versa). This limit affects polymeric membrane use for CO2 separation from flue gas streams, since mass transport becomes limiting and CO2 separation becomes very expensive due to low permeabilities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_concentrator |
Membrane materials have expanded into the realm of silica, zeolites, metal-organic frameworks, and perovskites due to their strong thermal and chemical resistance as well as high tunability (ability to be modified and functionalized), leading to increased permeability and selectivity. Membranes can be used for separating gas mixtures where they act as a permeable barrier through which different compounds move across at different rates or not move at all. The membranes can be nanoporous, polymer, etc. and the gas molecules penetrate according to their size, diffusivity, or solubility. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_concentrator |
Gas separation across a membrane is a pressure-driven process, where the driving force is the difference in pressure between inlet of raw material and outlet of product. The membrane used in the process is a generally non-porous layer, so there will not be a severe leakage of gas through the membrane. The performance of the membrane depends on permeability and selectivity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_concentrator |
Permeability is affected by the penetrant size. Larger gas molecules have a lower diffusion coefficient. The polymer chain flexibility and free volume in the polymer of the membrane material influence the diffusion coefficient, as the space within the permeable membrane must be large enough for the gas molecules to diffuse across. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_concentrator |
The solubility is expressed as the ratio of the concentration of the gas in the polymer to the pressure of the gas in contact with it. Permeability is the ability of the membrane to allow the permeating gas to diffuse through the material of the membrane as a consequence of the pressure difference over the membrane, and can be measured in terms of the permeate flow rate, membrane thickness and area and the pressure difference across the membrane. The selectivity of a membrane is a measure of the ratio of permeability of the relevant gases for the membrane. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_concentrator |
It can be calculated as the ratio of permeability of two gases in binary separation.The membrane gas separation equipment typically pumps gas into the membrane module and the targeted gases are separated based on difference in diffusivity and solubility. For example, oxygen will be separated from the ambient air and collected at the upstream side, and nitrogen at the downstream side. As of 2016, membrane technology was reported as capable of producing 10 to 25 tonnes of 25 to 40% oxygen per day. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_concentrator |
In membrane science and technology, concentration polarization refers to the emergence of concentration gradients at a membrane/solution interface resulted from selective transfer of some species through the membrane under the effect of transmembrane driving forces. Generally, the cause of concentration polarization is the ability of a membrane to transport some species more readily than the other(s) (which is the membrane permselectivity): the retained species are concentrated at the upstream membrane surface while the concentration of transported species decreases. Thus, concentration polarization phenomenon is inherent to all types of membrane separation processes. In the cases of gas separations, pervaporation, membrane distillation, reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, ultrafiltration, and microfiltration separations, the concentration profile has a higher level of solute nearest to the upstream membrane surface compared with the more or less well mixed bulk fluid far from the membrane surface. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_polarization |
In the case of dialysis and electrodialysis, the concentrations of selectively transported dissolved species are reduced at the upstream membrane surface compared to the bulk solution. The emergence of concentration gradients is illustrated in Figs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_polarization |
1a and 1b. Fig. 1a shows the concentration profile near and within a membrane when an external driving force is just applied to an initially equilibrium system. Concentration gradients have not yet formed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_polarization |
If the membrane is selectively permeable to species 1, its flux ( J 1 m {\displaystyle J_{1}^{m}} ) within the membrane is higher than that in the solution ( J 1 s {\displaystyle J_{1}^{s}} ). Higher flux in the membrane causes a decrease in the concentration at the upstream membrane surface ( c 1 ′ {\displaystyle c_{1}'} ) and an increase at the downstream surface ( c 1 ″ {\displaystyle c_{1}''} ), Fig. 1b. Thus, the upstream solution becomes depleted and the downstream solution becomes enriched in regard to species 1. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_polarization |
The concentration gradients cause additional diffusion fluxes, which contribute to an increase of the total flux in the solutions and to a decrease of the flux in the membrane. As a result, the system reaches a steady state where J 1 s = J 1 m {\displaystyle J_{1}^{s}=J_{1}^{m}} . The greater the external force applied, the lower c 1 ′ {\displaystyle c_{1}^{\prime }} . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_polarization |
In electrodialysis, when c 1 ′ {\displaystyle c_{1}'} becomes much lower than the bulk concentration, the resistance of the depleted solution becomes quite elevated. The current density related to this state is known as the limiting current density.Concentration polarization strongly affects the performance of the separation process. First, concentration changes in the solution reduce the driving force within the membrane, hence, the useful flux/rate of separation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_polarization |
In the case of pressure driven processes, this phenomenon causes an increase of the osmotic pressure gradient in the membrane, which reduces the net driving pressure gradient. In the case of dialysis, the driving concentration gradient in the membrane is reduced. In the case of electromembrane processes, the potential drop in the diffusion boundary layers reduces the gradient of electric potential in the membrane. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_polarization |
Lower rate of separation under the same external driving force means increased power consumption. Moreover, concentration polarization leads to: Increased salt leakage through the membrane Increased probability of scale/fouling developmentThus, the selectivity of separation and the membrane lifetime are deteriorated. Generally, to reduce the concentration polarization, increased flow rates of the solutions between the membranes as well as spacers promoting turbulence are applied . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_polarization |
This technique results in better mixing of the solution and in reducing the thickness of the diffusion boundary layer, which is defined as the region in the vicinity of an electrode or a membrane where the concentrations are different from their value in the bulk solution. In electrodialysis, additional mixing of the solution may be obtained by applying an elevated voltage where current-induced convection occurs as gravitational convection or electroconvection. Electroconvection is defined as current-induced volume transport when an electric field is imposed through the charged solution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_polarization |
Several mechanisms of electroconvection are discussed. In dilute solutions, electroconvection allows increasing current density several times higher than the limiting current density. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_polarization |
Electroconvection refers to electrokinetic phenomena, which are important in microfluidic devices. Thus, there is a bridge between membrane science and micro/nanofluidics. Fruitful ideas are transferred from microfluidics: novel conceptions of electro-membrane devices for water desalination in overlimiting current range have been proposed. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_polarization |
In memory addressing for Intel x86 computer architectures, segment descriptors are a part of the segmentation unit, used for translating a logical address to a linear address. Segment descriptors describe the memory segment referred to in the logical address. The segment descriptor (8 bytes long in 80286 and later) contains the following fields: A segment base address The segment limit which specifies the segment size Access rights byte containing the protection mechanism information Control bits | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segment_descriptor |
In memory errors, the faulting program accesses memory that it should not access. Examples include: Attempting to write to a read-only portion of memory Attempting to execute bytes in memory which are not designated as instructions Attempting to read as data bytes in memory which are designated as instructions Other miscellaneous conflicts between the designation of a part of memory and its useHowever, many modern operating systems implement their memory access-control schemes via paging instead of segmentation, so it is often the case that invalid memory references in operating systems such as Windows are reported via page faults instead of general protection faults. Operating systems typically provide an abstraction layer (such as exception handling or signals) that hides whatever internal processor mechanism was used to raise a memory access error from a program, for the purposes of providing a standard interface for handling many different types of processor-generated error conditions. In terms of the x86 architecture, general protection faults are specific to segmentation-based protection when it comes to memory accesses. However, general protection faults are still used to report other protection violations (aside from memory access violations) when paging is used, such as the use of instructions not accessible from the current privilege level (CPL). While it is theoretically possible for an operating system to utilize both paging and segmentation, for the most part, common operating systems typically rely on paging for the bulk of their memory access control needs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Protection_Fault |
In memory of Günter Litfin, as well as all other victims of the Wall, a memorial was established in 1992 on the initiative of Jürgen Litfin (Günter Litfin's younger brother). It is located in the watchtower of the former "Kieler Eck" on the Berlin-Spandauer Schifffahrtskanal. In addition, on 24 August 2000, the Weißensee street formerly named Straße 209 was renamed Günter-Litfin-Straße. Additionally, a street in his home district of Weißensee was named after him. One of the crosses at the White Crosses memorial site next to the Reichstag building is devoted to him.After the fall of the Berlin Wall and the subsequent reunification of East and West Germany, the Berlin Regional Court found the border guard accused of shooting Litfin to be guilty of manslaughter, and sentenced him to 18 months prison, which was suspended. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Günter_Litfin |
In memory of Henry II, Catherine decided to add a new chapel to the basilica of Saint Denis, where the kings of France were traditionally buried. As the centrepiece of this circular chapel, sometimes known as the Valois rotunda, she commissioned a magnificent and innovative tomb for Henry and herself. The design of this tomb should be understood in the context of its planned setting. The plan was to integrate the tomb's effigies of the king and queen with other statues throughout the chapel, creating a vast spatial composition. Catherine's approval would have been essential for such a departure from funerary tradition. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_de'_Medici's_building_projects |
In memory of his mother's entrepreneurial and social commitment, Hubert Burda established the Aenne Burda Award for creative leadership, honoring women with visionary ideas. Past laureates have been: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Life_Design |
In memory of his renowned contribution to the discipline of mechanical engineering, the Department of Mechanical Engineering building at Heriot-Watt University, in his birthplace of Edinburgh, is called the James Nasmyth Building. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Nasmyth |
In memory of the second Commandant of the School, Group Captain JFX McKenna, AFC, killed in a flying accident while serving in that post. Initially the school awarded the McKenna Trophy to the best fixed-wing student, but it is now open to the rotary-wing course as well. To expand the collapsed table, click on "show" in the Year column header; to collapse again, choose "hide". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_Test_Pilots'_School |
In memory of the victims, a black granite memorial was erected in 1994; it stands (surrounded by blue spruce trees) at the top of the hill at Middlebelt Road and I-94, the site of the crash. The memorial has a dove with a ribbon in its beak reading, "Their spirit still lives on ..."; below it are the names of those who perished in the crash. Another monument to the victims (many of whom were from the Phoenix area) stands next to Phoenix City Hall. Also, a marker stone is located at the General Motors Proving Ground in Milford, MI, in memory of the 14 GM employees and seven family members who were killed in the crash. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Airlines_Flight_255 |
Most were traveling to the GM Desert Proving Ground in Mesa, Arizona.On August 16, 2007, the 20th anniversary of the crash, a memorial service was held at the site. For some people affected by the incident, this was their first return to the site since the crash.On August 16, 2012, the 25th anniversary of the crash, another memorial service was held at the crash site. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Airlines_Flight_255 |
Family and friends of the victims and others from across the Metro Detroit area (including local media) attended, and a local priest read each victim's name aloud. Two more memorial services were held there on August 16, 2017, the 30th anniversary, and on August 16, 2022, the 35th anniversary. Annual meet-ups had become a tradition. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Airlines_Flight_255 |
In memory of the visionary engagement of its founding president, the association established the S. Barry Cooper Prize honouring a researcher who has contributed to a broad understanding and foundational study of computability by outstanding results, by seminal and lasting theory building, by exceptional service to the research communities involved, or by a combination of these. The inaugural S. Barry Cooper Prize was awarded in 2020 to Bruno Courcelle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability_in_Europe |
In memristors, under externally-applied electric field, shock waves can be launched across the transition-metal oxides, creating fast and non-volatile resistivity changes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_Wave |
In men aged 55–69 who have been counseled on the known harms and potential benefits of prostate cancer screening, the U.S. Preventive Service Task Force May 2018 statement states, "The use of digital rectal examination as a screening modality is not recommended because there is a lack of evidence on the benefits." The American Academy of Family Physicians states, "Digital Rectal Exam does not improve detection of prostate cancer and should not be performed as a part of screening." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anal_probing |
The American Urological Association 2013 (reviewed and validity confirmed 2018) guideline panel states, "The literature supporting the efficacy of digital rectal exam (DRE) for screening with the goal of reducing prostate cancer mortality provide limited evidence to draw conclusions." "The guideline panel could find no evidence to support the continued use of DRE as a first-line method of screening." Although DRE has long been used to diagnose prostate cancer, no controlled studies have shown a reduction in the morbidity or mortality of prostate cancer when detected by DRE at any age. A meta-analysis published in the Annals of Family Medicine concluded: "Given the considerable lack of evidence supporting its efficacy, we recommend against routine performance of DRE to screen for prostate cancer in the primary care setting." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anal_probing |
In men's major championships the lowest round is 62 which was first recorded by South African golfer Branden Grace in the third round of the 2017 Open Championship. Many players have recorded a score of 63. Johnny Miller was the first golfer to shoot 63 in a major and was the only golfer to shoot 63 in the final round to win a major until Henrik Stenson did so as well during the 2016 Open Championship at Royal Troon Golf Club. Greg Norman, Vijay Singh, Brooks Koepka and Tommy Fleetwood are the only golfers to record two rounds of 63 in the majors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_round |
In men, CTA can produce gynecomastia as a side effect. Conversely, it does not appear to lower testosterone levels in men, and hence does not seem to have a risk of hypogonadism and associated side effects in men. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorotrianisene |
In men, danazol has been found to inhibit gonadotropin secretion and markedly decrease testosterone levels, likely due to its actions as a steroidogenesis inhibitor and antigonadotropin. However, even at the highest dosage assessed (800 mg/day), spermatogenesis remained unaffected. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danazol |
In men, higher levels of testosterone are associated with periods of sexual activity.Men who watch a sexually explicit movie have an average increase of 35% in testosterone, peaking at 60–90 minutes after the end of the film, but no increase is seen in men who watch sexually neutral films. Men who watch sexually explicit films also report increased motivation, competitiveness, and decreased exhaustion. A link has also been found between relaxation following sexual arousal and testosterone levels.Men's levels of testosterone change depending on whether they are exposed to an ovulating or nonovulating woman's body odour. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_testosterone |
Men who are exposed to scents of ovulating women maintained a stable testosterone level that was higher than the testosterone level of men exposed to nonovulation cues. Men are heavily aware of hormone cycles in women. This may be linked to the ovulatory shift hypothesis, where males are adapted to respond to the ovulation cycles of females by sensing when they are most fertile and whereby females look for preferred male mates when they are the most fertile; both actions may be driven by hormones. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_testosterone |
In men, orgasmic function through genitalia depends in part on the healthy functioning of the smooth muscles surrounding the prostate, and of the pelvic floor muscles. Anal masturbation can be especially pleasurable for those with a functioning prostate because it often stimulates the area, which also contains sensitive nerve endings. Some men find the quality of their orgasm to be significantly enhanced by the use of a butt plug or other anally inserted item during sexual activity. It is typical for a man to not reach orgasm as a receptive partner solely from anal sex. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anal_masturbation |
In men, roughly 2-3 cases per 10,000 are treated as outpatients and 1 in 10,000 cases require admission to the hospital. In women, approximately 12–13 in 10,000 cases are treated as outpatients and 3-4 cases are admitted to a hospital. The most common age group affected by Xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis is middle-aged women. Infants and elderly are also at an increased risk because of hormonal and anatomical changes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excretory_system |
In men, the most common way of achieving orgasm is by physical sexual stimulation of the penis. This is usually accompanied by ejaculation, but it is possible, though also rare, for men to orgasm without ejaculation (known as a "dry orgasm"). Prepubescent boys have dry orgasms. Dry orgasms can also occur as a result of retrograde ejaculation, or hypogonadism. Men may also ejaculate without reaching orgasm, which is known as anorgasmic ejaculation. They may also achieve orgasm by stimulation of the prostate (see below). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_orgasm |
In men, the prostate gland lies outside the opening for the urethra. The middle lobe of the prostate causes an elevation in the mucous membrane behind the internal urethral orifice called the uvula of urinary bladder. The uvula can enlarge when the prostate becomes enlarged. The bladder is located below the peritoneal cavity near the pelvic floor and behind the pubic symphysis. In men, it lies in front of the rectum, separated by the recto-vesical pouch, and is supported by fibres of the levator ani and of the prostate gland. In women, it lies in front of the uterus, separated by the vesico-uterine pouch, and is supported by the elevator ani and the upper part of the vagina. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bladder_neck |
In men, those with a chlamydial infection show symptoms of infectious inflammation of the urethra in about 50% of cases. Symptoms that may occur include: a painful or burning sensation when urinating, an unusual discharge from the penis, testicular pain or swelling, or fever. If left untreated, chlamydia in men can spread to the testicles causing epididymitis, which in rare cases can lead to sterility if not treated. Chlamydia is also a potential cause of prostatic inflammation in men, although the exact relevance in prostatitis is difficult to ascertain due to possible contamination from urethritis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydia_infection |
In menopausal hormone therapy, dydrogesterone is administered together with an estrogen. Therefore, the interaction between dydrogesterone and estrogens has been assessed, and no clinically significant interaction has been observed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dydrogesterone |
In mensural notation, diminution of the duration of note shapes is the most common function of coloration. Diminution is most often by one-third of the note-value, so that three colored notes fit into the time of two uncolored notes of the same shape; it is thus often found in notation of triplet or hemiola figures.Diminution may also be achieved by a sign of proportion. Thus a sign such as 3 2 is in proportional notation not a modern time signature, but a proportional signature indicating diminutio sesquialtera, that is, that after the sign each three notes of the basic note value integer valor occupy the time of two such notes elsewhere in the piece, either previously in the same voice, or simultaneously in another voice. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diminished_interval |
In menswear, the exaggerated shoulder pads that had been introduced into high-fashion clothing in 1979 would continue to various degrees throughout the eighties, even becoming mainstream, with many everyday business suits having more pronounced shoulders than had usually been worn in the seventies. High-fashion shoulder pad shapes would vary with the whims of designers, a sharp-edged pad preferred one season, a more rounded pad preferred another. Part of what drove these styles was the increased proliferation of serious working out in the eighties after widespread fitness and health pursuits had emerged in the seventies. Near-bodybuilder physiques became normal sights starting in the eighties for everyday people, both on the streets and in advertising, and jacket shapes seemed to echo this, sometimes by padding the shoulders and shaping the cut even more to a V-shape, other times by leaving out or reducing the pads to allow the newly built-up wearer's own body to give the jacket shape. By the end of the eighties, there was a fad for often brightly colored sport jackets with big shoulders worn over deep-cut, also often brightly colored muscle tank tops or string tank shirts, or even no shirt at all, letting a well-worked-out torso show and sometimes allowing the shoulder-padded jacket to slide off the wearer's own chiseled shoulder, a style that would continue into the early nineties. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoulder_pad_(fashion) |
In mental accounting theory, the framing effect defines that the way a person subjectively frames a transaction in their mind will determine the utility they receive or expect. The concept of framing is adopted in prospect theory, which is commonly used by mental accounting theorists as the value function in their analysis (Richard Thaler Included ). In Prospect Theory, the value function is concave for gains (implying an aversion to risk), indicating decreasing marginal utility with accumulation of gain. The value function is convex for losses (implying a risk-seeking attitude). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_accounting |
A concave value function for gain incentivizes risk-averse behavior because marginal gain decreases relative increase in value. Conversely a convex value function for losses means that the impact of a loss is more detrimental to a person than an equivalent gain, thus incentivizing risk-seeking behavior in order to avoid loss. These proponents of the value function portray the concept of loss aversion, which asserts that people are more likely to make decisions in order to minimize loss than to maximise gain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_accounting |
Given the Prospect Theory framework, how do people interpret, or ‘account for’, multiple transactions/outcomes, of the format ( x , y ) {\displaystyle (x,y)} ? They can either view the outcomes jointly, and receive V a l u e ( x + y ) {\displaystyle Value(x+y)} , in which case the outcomes are integrated, or V a l u e ( x ) + V a l u e ( y ) {\displaystyle Value(x)+Value(y)} , in which case we say that the outcomes are segregated. The choice to integrate or segregate multiple outcomes can be beneficial or detrimental to overall utility depending on correctness of application. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_accounting |
Due to the nature of our value function’s different slopes for gains and losses, our utility is maximized in different ways, depending on how we code the four kinds of transactions x {\displaystyle x} and y {\displaystyle y} (as gains or as losses):1) Multiple gains: x {\displaystyle x} and y {\displaystyle y} are both considered gains. Here, we see that V a l u e ( x ) + V a l u e ( y ) > V a l u e ( x + y ) {\displaystyle Value(x)+Value(y)>Value(x+y)} . Thus, we want to segregate multiple gains. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_accounting |
2) Multiple losses: x {\displaystyle x} and y {\displaystyle y} are both considered losses. Here, we see that V a l u e ( − x ) + V a l u e ( − y ) < V a l u e ( − ( x + y ) ) {\displaystyle Value(-x)+Value(-y) V a l u e ( x − y ) {\displaystyle Value(x)+Value(-y)>Value(x-y)} . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_accounting |
Clearly, we don't want to integrate a mixed loss when the less is significantly larger than the gain. This is often referred to as a "silver lining", a reference to the folk maxim "every cloud has a silver lining". When the loss is just barely larger than the gain, integration may be preferred. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_accounting |
Integration and segregation of outcomes is a means of framing that can impact the overall utility derived from multiple outcomes. Mental accounting interprets the tendency of people to mentally segregate their financial resources into different categories. In the event of financial losses or gains in different mental accounts, people will be impacted differently than if the financial loss was integrated across their entire financial portfolio. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_accounting |
In the event of multiple gain and mixed loss, mental accounting will segregate outcomes resulting in maximised utility. In the event of multiple losses and mixed gain, mental accounting will segregate outcomes resulting in minimized utility. There are two values attached to any transaction - acquisition value and transaction value. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_accounting |
Acquisition value is the money that one is ready to part with for physically acquiring some good. Transaction value is the value one attaches to having a good deal. If the price that one is paying is equal to the mental reference price for the good, the transaction value is zero. If the price is lower than the reference price, the transaction utility is positive. Total utility received from a transaction, then, is the sum of acquisition utility and transaction utility. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_accounting |
In mergers and acquisitions termination fees are often levied in the event that one party fails to consummate a merger—for instance, because it was unsuccessful in getting shareholder approval or because it agreed to a competing offer. For instance, in 2005 Johnson & Johnson agreed to acquire Guidant, but Guidant later accepted a competing offer and was subject to a termination fee of $705 million. These termination fees have been criticized as well. Shareholders in companies being purchased sometimes believe that termination fees are too high, and instead of representing the costs that the purchasing party would suffer should the deal fall through, instead act as a way of forcing shareholders and directors to accede to the deal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termination_fee |
In mesh generation, Delaunay refinements are algorithms for mesh generation based on the principle of adding Steiner points to the geometry of an input to be meshed, in a way that causes the Delaunay triangulation or constrained Delaunay triangulation of the augmented input to meet the quality requirements of the meshing application. Delaunay refinement methods include methods by Chew and by Ruppert. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delaunay_refinement |
In mesh networks, topology events such as failure or recovery can impact data flow even in remote network segments. A side effect of route changes is out-of-order packet delivery. Real-time networks are often based on physical rings with a simple control protocol and two ports per device for redundant paths, though at a cost of increased hop count and latency. DetNet routes are typically explicitly defined and do not change (at least immediately) in response to network topology events, so there are no interruptions from routing or bridging protocol negotiations. Explicit routes can be established with RSVP-TE, Segment Routing, IS-IS, MPLS-TE label-switched path (LSP), or a Software Defined Networking layer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deterministic_Networking |
In mesoscopic physics, a Coulomb blockade (CB), named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb's electrical force, is the decrease in electrical conductance at small bias voltages of a small electronic device comprising at least one low-capacitance tunnel junction. Because of the CB, the conductance of a device may not be constant at low bias voltages, but disappear for biases under a certain threshold, i.e. no current flows. Coulomb blockade can be observed by making a device very small, like a quantum dot. When the device is small enough, electrons inside the device will create a strong Coulomb repulsion preventing other electrons to flow. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb_blockade |
Thus, the device will no longer follow Ohm's law and the current-voltage relation of the Coulomb blockade looks like a staircase.Even though the Coulomb blockade can be used to demonstrate the quantization of the electric charge, it remains a classical effect and its main description does not require quantum mechanics. However, when few electrons are involved and an external static magnetic field is applied, Coulomb blockade provides the ground for a spin blockade (like Pauli spin blockade) and valley blockade, which include quantum mechanical effects due to spin and orbital interactions respectively between the electrons. The devices can comprise either metallic or superconducting electrodes. If the electrodes are superconducting, Cooper pairs (with a charge of minus two elementary charges − 2 e {\displaystyle -2e} ) carry the current. In the case that the electrodes are metallic or normal-conducting, i.e. neither superconducting nor semiconducting, electrons (with a charge of − e {\displaystyle -e} ) carry the current. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb_blockade |
In mesoscopic physics, a quantum wire is an electrically conducting wire in which quantum effects influence the transport properties. Usually such effects appear in the dimension of nanometers, so they are also referred to as nanowires. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_wires |
In mesoscopic physics, ballistic conduction (ballistic transport) is the unimpeded flow (or transport) of charge carriers (usually electrons), or energy-carrying particles, over relatively long distances in a material. In general, the resistivity of a material exists because an electron, while moving inside a medium, is scattered by impurities, defects, thermal fluctuations of ions in a crystalline solid, or, generally, by any freely-moving atom/molecule composing a gas or liquid. Without scattering, electrons simply obey Newton's second law of motion at non-relativistic speeds. The mean free path of a particle can be described as the average length that the particle can travel freely, i.e., before a collision, which could change its momentum. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_conductivity |
The mean free path can be increased by reducing the number of impurities in a crystal or by lowering its temperature. Ballistic transport is observed when the mean free path of the particle is (much) longer than the dimension of the medium through which the particle travels. The particle alters its motion only upon collision with the walls. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_conductivity |
In the case of a wire suspended in air/vacuum the surface of the wire plays the role of the box reflecting the electrons and preventing them from exiting toward the empty space/open air. This is because there is an energy to be paid to extract the electron from the medium (work function). Ballistic conduction is typically observed in quasi-1D structures, such as carbon nanotubes or silicon nanowires, because of extreme size quantization effects in these materials. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_conductivity |
Ballistic conduction is not limited to electrons (or holes) but can also apply to phonons. It is theoretically possible for ballistic conduction to be extended to other quasi-particles, but this has not been experimentally verified. For a specific example, ballistic transport can be observed in a metal nanowire: due to the small size of the wire (nanometer-scale or 10−9 meters scale) and the mean free path which can be longer than that in a metal.Ballistic conduction differs from superconductivity due to the absence of the Meissner effect in the material. A ballistic conductor would stop conducting if the driving force is turned off, whereas in a superconductor current would continue to flow after the driving supply is disconnected. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_conductivity |
In mesothelioma cases in other states, this decision has opened the door to "Rule 2019 Filings" disclosure, and several companies are now seeing confidential records of previously settled suits to see if plaintiffs or legal counsel are involved in further cases of "double dipping." This has reversed a trend started in the early 2000s wherein asbestos lawyers had convinced judges to seal filings that would otherwise have been made public, under the rationale that they contained "commercial information." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_re_Garlock_Sealing_Technologies,_LLC |
In message queueing a dead letter queue (DLQ) is a service implementation to store messages that the messaging system cannot or should not deliver. Although implementation-specific, messages can be routed to the DLQ for the following reasons: The message is sent to a queue that does not exist. The maximum queue length is exceeded. The message exceeds the size limit. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_letter_queue |
The message expires because it reached the TTL (time to live) The message is rejected by another queue exchange. The message has been read and rejected too many times.Routing these messages to a dead letter queue enables analysis of common fault patterns and potential software problems. If a message consumer receives a message that it considers invalid, it can instead forward it an Invalid Message Channel, allowing a separation between application-level faults and delivery failures. Queueing systems that incorporate dead letter queues include Amazon EventBridge, Amazon Simple Queue Service, Apache ActiveMQ, Google Cloud Pub/Sub, HornetQ, Microsoft Message Queuing, Microsoft Azure Event Grid and Azure Service Bus, WebSphere MQ, Solace PubSub+, Rabbit MQ, Apache Kafka and Apache Pulsar. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_letter_queue |
In message-oriented middleware solutions, fan-out is a messaging pattern used to model an information exchange that implies the delivery (or spreading) of a message to one or multiple destinations possibly in parallel, and not halting the process that executes the messaging to wait for any response to that message. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan-out_(software) |
In meta-ethics, expressivism is a theory about the meaning of moral language. According to expressivism, sentences that employ moral terms – for example, "It is wrong to torture an innocent human being" – are not descriptive or fact-stating; moral terms such as "wrong", "good", or "just" do not refer to real, in-the-world properties. The primary function of moral sentences, according to expressivism, is not to assert any matter of fact but rather to express an evaluative attitude toward an object of evaluation. Because the function of moral language is non-descriptive, moral sentences do not have any truth conditions. Hence, expressivists either do not allow that moral sentences to have truth value, or rely on a notion of truth that does not appeal to any descriptive truth conditions being met for moral sentences. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frege–Geach_problem |
In metabolism research, tritium and 14C-labeled glucose are commonly used in glucose clamps to measure rates of glucose uptake, fatty acid synthesis, and other metabolic processes. While radioactive tracers are sometimes still used in human studies, stable isotope tracers such as 13C are more commonly used in current human clamp studies. Radioactive tracers are also used to study lipoprotein metabolism in humans and experimental animals.In medicine, tracers are applied in a number of tests, such as 99mTc in autoradiography and nuclear medicine, including single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET) and scintigraphy. The urea breath test for helicobacter pylori commonly used a dose of 14C labeled urea to detect h. pylori infection. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_label |
If the labeled urea was metabolized by h. pylori in the stomach, the patient's breath would contain labeled carbon dioxide. In recent years, the use of substances enriched in the non-radioactive isotope 13C has become the preferred method, avoiding patient exposure to radioactivity.In hydraulic fracturing, radioactive tracer isotopes are injected with hydraulic fracturing fluid to determine the injection profile and location of created fractures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_label |
Tracers with different half-lives are used for each stage of hydraulic fracturing. In the United States amounts per injection of radionuclide are listed in the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) guidelines. According to the NRC, some of the most commonly used tracers include antimony-124, bromine-82, iodine-125, iodine-131, iridium-192, and scandium-46. A 2003 publication by the International Atomic Energy Agency confirms the frequent use of most of the tracers above, and says that manganese-56, sodium-24, technetium-99m, silver-110m, argon-41, and xenon-133 are also used extensively because they are easily identified and measured. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_label |
In metadata, Annotea is an RDF standard sponsored by the W3C to enhance document-based collaboration via shared document metadata based on tags, bookmarks, and other annotations. In this case document metadata includes: Keywords Comments Notes Explanations Errors CorrectionsIn general, Annotea associates text strings to a web document or selected parts of a web document without actually needing to modify the original document. Users that access any web documents can also load the metadata associated with it from a selected annotation server (or groups of servers) and see a peer group's comments on the document. Similarly shared metadata tags can be attached to web documents to help in future retrieval. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annotea |
Annotea is an extensible standard and is designed to work with other W3C standards when possible. For instance, Annotea uses an RDF Schema for describing annotations as metadata and XPointer for locating the annotations in the annotated document. Similarly a bookmark schema describes the bookmark and topic metadata. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annotea |
Annotea is part of the W3C Semantic Web efforts. An example implementation of Annotea is W3C's Amaya editor/browser. The current Amaya user interface for annotations is presented in the Amaya documentation. Other projects consists of Plugins for Firefox/Mozilla or Annotatio Client which interacts with most browsers per JavaScript. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annotea |
In metadata, Naming and Design Rules are the formal rules associated with how data elements are structured within a process of creating exchange documents between organizations. Naming and Design Rules are a set of guidelines and naming conventions that go beyond what a single data exchange standard specification will permit. The most common standard that Naming and Design Rules are created on is XML Schema. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naming_and_Design_Rules |
For example, the use of upper camel case data element names is a convention used in many standard but is not specified by the XML Schema specification. Naming and Design Rules have become an important aspect of each organizations data exchange standards. Within the United States, Naming and Design Rules standards are recommended for each federal and state agency. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naming_and_Design_Rules |
In metadata, a data element definition is a human readable phrase or sentence associated with a data element within a data dictionary that describes the meaning or semantics of a data element. Data element definitions are critical for external users of any data system. Good definitions can dramatically ease the process of mapping one set of data into another set of data. This is a core feature of distributed computing and intelligent agent development. There are several guidelines that should be followed when creating high-quality data element definitions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_element_definition |
In metadata, a match report is a report that compares two distinct data dictionaries and creates a list of the data elements that have been identified as semantically equivalent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Match_report |
In metadata, a synonym ring or synset, is a group of data elements that are considered semantically equivalent for the purposes of information retrieval. These data elements are frequently found in different metadata registries. Although a group of terms can be considered equivalent, metadata registries store the synonyms at a central location called the preferred data element. According to WordNet, a synset or synonym set is defined as a set of one or more synonyms that are interchangeable in some context without changing the truth value of the proposition in which they are embedded. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synonym_ring |
In metadata, a vocabulary-based transformation (VBT) is a transformation aided by the use of a semantic equivalence statements within a controlled vocabulary. Many organizations today require communication between two or more computers. Although many standards exist to exchange data between computers such as HTML or email, there is still much structured information that needs to be exchanged between computers that is not standardized. The process of mapping one source of data into another is often a slow and labor-intensive process. VBT is a possible way to avoid much of the time and cost of manual data mapping using traditional extract, transform, load technologies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocabulary-based_transformation |
In metadata, an identification scheme is used to identify unique records in a set. If a data element is used to identify a record within a data set, the data element uses the Identifier representation term. An identification scheme should be contrasted with a classification scheme. Classification schemes are used to classify individual records into categories. Many records in a data set may be in a single category. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identification_scheme |
In metadata, an identifier is a language-independent label, sign or token that uniquely identifies an object within an identification scheme. The suffix "identifier" is also used as a representation term when naming a data element. ID codes may inherently carry metadata along with them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identifier |
For example, when you know that the food package in front of you has the identifier "2011-09-25T15:42Z-MFR5-P02-243-45", you not only have that data, you also have the metadata that tells you that it was packaged on September 25, 2011, at 3:42pm UTC, manufactured by Licensed Vendor Number 5, at the Peoria, IL, USA plant, in Building 2, and was the 243rd package off the line in that shift, and was inspected by Inspector Number 45. Arbitrary identifiers might lack metadata. For example, if a food package just says 100054678214, its ID may not tell anything except identity—no date, manufacturer name, production sequence rank, or inspector number. In some cases, arbitrary identifiers such as sequential serial numbers leak information (i.e. the German tank problem). Opaque identifiers—identifiers designed to avoid leaking even that small amount of information—include "really opaque pointers" and Version 4 UUIDs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identifier |
In metadata, an indicator is a Boolean value that may contain only the values true or false. The definition of an Indicator must include the meaning of a true value and should also include the meaning if the value is false. If a data element may take another value to represent e.g. unknown or not applicable, then a Code should be used instead of an Indicator, and the meanings of all possible values should be clearly defined. The suffix Indicator is used in ISO/IEC 11179 metadata registry standard as a representation term. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indicator_(metadata) |
In metadata, dimension is a set of equivalent units of measure, where equivalence between two units of measure is determined by the existence of a quantity preserving one-to-one correspondence between values measured in one unit of measure and values measured in the other unit of measure, independent of context, and where characterizing operations are the same. The equivalence defined here forms an equivalence relation on the set of all units of measure. Each equivalence class corresponds to a dimensionality. The units of measure "temperature in degrees Fahrenheit" and "temperature in degrees Celsius" have the same dimensionality, because given a value measured in degrees Fahrenheit there is a value measured in degrees Celsius with the same quantity, and vice versa. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension_(metadata) |
Quantity preserving one-to-one correspondences are the well-known equations Cº = (5/9)*(Fº − 32) and Fº = (9/5)*(Cº) + 32. Units of measure are not limited to physical categories. Examples of physical categories are: linear measure, area, volume, mass, velocity, time duration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension_(metadata) |
Examples of non-physical categories are: currency, quality indicator, colour intensity. Quantities may be grouped together into categories of quantities which are mutually comparable. Lengths, diameters, distances, heights, wavelengths and so on would constitute such a category. Mutually comparable quantities have the same dimensionality. ISO 31-0 calls these quantities of the same kind. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension_(metadata) |
In metadata, metadata discovery (also metadata harvesting) is the process of using automated tools to discover the semantics of a data element in data sets. This process usually ends with a set of mappings between the data source elements and a centralized metadata registry. Metadata discovery is also known as metadata scanning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadata_discovery |
In metadata, property equivalence is the statement that two properties have the same property extension or values. This usually (but not always) implies that the two properties have the same semantics or meaning. Technically it only implies that the data elements have the same values. Property equivalence is one of the three ways that a metadata registry can store equivalence mappings to other metadata registries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_equivalence |
Note that property equivalence is not the same as property equality. Equivalent properties have the same "values" (i.e., the same property extension), but may have different intensional meaning (i.e., denote different concepts). Property equality should be expressed with the owl:sameAs construct. As this requires that properties are treated as individuals, such axioms are only allowed in OWL Full. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_equivalence |
In metadata, the term data element is an atomic unit of data that has precise meaning or precise semantics. A data element has: An identification such as a data element name A clear data element definition One or more representation terms Optional enumerated values Code (metadata) A list of synonyms to data elements in other metadata registries Synonym ringData elements usage can be discovered by inspection of software applications or application data files through a process of manual or automated Application Discovery and Understanding. Once data elements are discovered they can be registered in a metadata registry. In telecommunication, the term data element has the following components: A named unit of data that, in some contexts, is considered indivisible and in other contexts may consist of data items. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_element |
A named identifier of each of the entities and their attributes that are represented in a database. A basic unit of information built on standard structures having a unique meaning and distinct units or values. In electronic record-keeping, a combination of characters or bytes referring to one separate item of information, such as name, address, or age.In the areas of databases and data systems more generally a data element is a concept forming part of a data model. As an element of data representation, a collection of data elements forms a data structure. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_element |
In metadata, the term date is a representation term used to specify a calendar date in the Gregorian calendar. Many data representation standards such as XML, XML Schema, Web Ontology Language specify that ISO date format ISO 8601 should be used. Note that Date should not be confused with the DateAndTime representation term which requires that both the date and time to be supplied. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Date_(metadata) |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.