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Some models of a camera may have a dedicated AF-ON button, and menu options to disable the focus via shutter button half-press. When photographing at golden hour and fighting off sun flare, the back button focus can become an essential tool to use. Back button focus gives the benefit of being able to work with the three main possible focusing modes: manual focus, single focus, and continuous focus. It is a technique favored by many wildlife photographers due to the unpredictability of animal subjects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camera_modes |
In most divisions of Judaism boys prior to bar mitzvah cannot act as a Chazzen for prayer services that contain devarim sheb'kidusha, i.e. Kaddish, Barechu, the amida, etc., or receive an aliya or chant the Torah for the congregation. Since Kabbalat Shabbat and Pesukei D'zimra do not technically require a chazzan at all, it is possible for a boy prior to bar mitzvah to lead these services. The conclusion of the service on Shabbat and chagim may also be led by children. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_prayer_services |
Under the Moroccan, Yemenite, and Mizrachi customs, a boy prior to bar mitzvah may lead certain prayers, read the Torah, and have an aliyah. It is customary among many Ashkenazim to have children sing "Adon 'Olam" after Mussaf and "Yigdal" after Shabbat and Holiday Maariv. Among Sefardim, Mizrachim, Yemenites, and some Askenazim, a child leads the congregation in Kiryat Shema. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_prayer_services |
In most doctoral programs, students must take a series of written cumulative examinations on the subject of their study in the first year or two of the PhD program. These cumulative exams are often given on a pass/fail basis and a graduate student who seeks to continue in the PhD program must pass a minimum number of these cumulative exams. After this minimum number of cumulative exams is passed, this degree requirement is considered to be met, and the PhD student no longer takes these exams but continues work on other PhD requirements. In some fields, such as history, the student must pass the comprehensive examinations before submitting a dissertation proposal.Typically, comprehensive exams consist of either a written or an oral exam, but some programs require both. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_examination |
In others, a written exam is taken, and depending on the grade, the student may or may not have to continue with an oral exam. In some fields, the level of detailed knowledge required is relatively limited, while in others such as economics the level of detail is similar to a final exam.Comprehensive examinations are often based on a reading list agreed upon by the student and his or her committee, which is staffed by the primary supervisor and several advisors, normally professors at the university, but not necessarily in the same faculty. They also frequently have a standardized component for all students in the discipline, or may be entirely standardized. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_examination |
This reading list may comprise dozens or hundreds of books and other works. For some social science and many humanities disciplines, graduate students might not have studied the discipline at the undergraduate level. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_examination |
These examinations will be the first set of comprehensive exams, and be based either on graduate coursework or on specific preparatory reading (sometimes up to a year's work in reading). Preparing for comprehensive exams is normally both stressful and time consuming. Passing them allows the student to stay, begin doctoral research, and rise to the status of a doctoral candidate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_examination |
Failing usually results in the student leaving the program or re-taking the test after some time has passed. A second failure normally guarantees dismissal from the graduate program, though progress on previous attempts may convince the student's program to grant a third, final attempt. Some schools have an intermediate category, passing at the master's level, which does not permit the student to continue doctoral study, but does allow the student to leave with a master's degree despite not having completed a thesis.In some U.S. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_examination |
graduate programs, particularly in the natural sciences, the majority of students do not have master's degrees when they begin doctoral work, and the successful students will earn doctorates without getting master's degrees on the way. In these programs, a student who does not pass "comps" or "prelims" on the second attempt will generally be allowed to earn a terminal master's degree but is not permitted to become a candidate for a doctoral degree. At some institutions, students who pass the exam and are formally accepted as PhD candidates are technically entitled to a Master of Arts or Master of Sciences degree, but submitting an application is required, so no master's degree will be awarded unless the student specifically requests it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_examination |
Other institutions issue an All But Dissertation certificate after a student has passed the comprehensive exams.PhD students at some Canadian universities must complete their comprehensive exams by the end of their second year; those who fail to pass with a sufficiently high mark may retake the examination usually only once. Failure to pass a second time will normally result in expulsion from the program. Students who pass are distinguished with the title "PhD candidate." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_examination |
In most drum kits and drum/percussion kits, cymbals are as prominent as the drums themselves. The oldest idiophones in music are cymbals, a version of which were used throughout the ancient Near East very early in the Bronze Age period. Cymbals are mostly associated with Turkey and Turkish craftsmanship, where Zildjian has made them since 1623.While most drummers purchase cymbals individually, beginner cymbal packs were brought to market to provide entry-level cymbals for the novice drummer. The kits normally contain four cymbals: one ride, one crash, and a pair of hi-hats. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_kits |
Some contain only three cymbals, using a crash/ride instead of the separate ride and crash. The sizes closely follow those given in Common configurations below. Most drummers extend the normal configuration by adding another crash, a splash, and/or a china/effects cymbal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_kits |
In most dynamically-typed languages, the list of methods on an object can be altered at runtime. This requires late binding. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_binding |
In most earthquakes, the isoseismals define a single clear area of maximum intensity, which is known as the epicentral or meizoseismal area. In some earthquakes, more than one maximum exists because of the effect of ground conditions or complexities in the rupture propagation, and other information is, therefore, required to identify the area that contains the epicenter. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoseismal_map |
In most elderly people, presence of severe WMH and medial temporal lobe atrophy (MTA) was linked with an increase in frequency of mild cognitive deficits. Studies suggest that a combination of MTA and severe WMH showed more than a fourfold increase in the frequency of mild cognitive deficits. Severe WMH is consistently shown to be associated with gait disorders, impaired balance and cognitive disturbances. Certain features of gait pattern associated with WMH are: slight widening of the base, slowing and shortening of stride length and turning en bloc. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_matter_lesion |
Speed of cognitive processes and frontal skills may also be impaired in people with WMH. Pathological signs of oligodendritic apoptosis and damage to axonal projections have been evident. Sufficient damage to the axons that course through WMH can cause adequate interference with normal neuronal functions.It is also thought that WMH have a negative impact on cognition in people with Alzheimer's disease. In people with Alzheimer's, higher WMH are associated with higher amyloid beta deposits, possibly associated with small vessel disease and reduced amyloid beta clearance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_matter_lesion |
In most electric fish, the electric organs are oriented to fire along the length of the body, usually lying along the length of the tail and within the fish's musculature, as in the elephantnose fish and other Mormyridae. However, in two marine groups, the stargazers and the torpedo rays, the electric organs are oriented along the dorso-ventral (up-down) axis. In the torpedo ray, the organ is near the pectoral muscles and gills. The stargazer's electric organs lie behind the eyes. In the electric catfish, the organs are located just below the skin and encase most of the body like a sheath. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_organ_discharge |
In most electric power systems, some or all consumers pay a fixed price per unit of electricity independent of the cost of production at the time of consumption. The consumer price may be established by the government or a regulator, and typically represents an average cost per unit of production over a given timeframe (for example, a year). Consumption therefore is not sensitive to the cost of production in the short term (e.g. on an hourly basis). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand-side_technology |
In economic terms, consumers' usage of electricity is inelastic in short time frames since the consumers do not face the actual price of production; if consumers were to face the short run costs of production they would be more inclined to change their use of electricity in reaction to those price signals. A pure economist might extrapolate the concept to hypothesize that consumers served under these fixed-rate tariffs are endowed with theoretical "call options" on electricity, though in reality, like any other business, the customer is simply buying what is on offer at the agreed price. A customer in a department store buying a $10 item at 9.00 am might notice 10 sales staff on the floor but only one occupied serving him or her, while at 3.00 pm the customer could buy the same $10 article and notice all 10 sales staff occupied. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand-side_technology |
In a similar manner, the department store cost of sales at 9.00 am might therefore be 5-10 times that of its cost of sales at 3.00 pm, but it would be far-fetched to claim that the customer, by not paying significantly more for the article at 9.00 am than at 3.00 pm, had a 'call option' on the $10 article. In virtually all power systems electricity is produced by generators that are dispatched in merit order, i.e., generators with the lowest marginal cost (lowest variable cost of production) are used first, followed by the next cheapest, etc., until the instantaneous electricity demand is satisfied. In most power systems the wholesale price of electricity will be equal to the marginal cost of the highest cost generator that is injecting energy, which will vary with the level of demand. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand-side_technology |
Thus the variation in pricing can be significant: for example, in Ontario between August and September 2006, wholesale prices (in Canadian Dollars) paid to producers ranged from a peak of $318 per MW·h to a minimum of - (negative) $3.10 per MW·h. It is not unusual for the price to vary by a factor of two to five due to the daily demand cycle. A negative price indicates that producers were being charged to provide electricity to the grid (and consumers paying real-time pricing may have actually received a rebate for consuming electricity during this period). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand-side_technology |
This generally occurs at night when demand falls to a level where all generators are operating at their minimum output levels and some of them must be shut down. The negative price is the inducement to bring about these shutdowns in a least-cost manner.Two Carnegie Mellon studies in 2006 looked at the importance of demand response for the electricity industry in general terms and with specific application of real-time pricing for consumers for the PJM Interconnection Regional Transmission authority, serving 65 million customers in the US with 180 gigawatts of generating capacity. The latter study found that even small shifts in peak demand would have a large effect on savings to consumers and avoided costs for additional peak capacity: a 1% shift in peak demand would result in savings of 3.9%, billions of dollars at the system level. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand-side_technology |
An approximately 10% reduction in peak demand (achievable depending on the elasticity of demand) would result in systems savings of between $8 and $28 billion. In a discussion paper, Ahmad Faruqui, a principal with the Brattle Group, estimates that a 5 percent reduction in US peak electricity demand could produce approximately $35 billion in cost savings over a 20-year period, exclusive of the cost of the metering and communications needed to implement the dynamic pricing needed to achieve these reductions. While the net benefits would be significantly less than the claimed $35 billion, they would still be quite substantial. In Ontario, Canada, the Independent Electricity System Operator has noted that in 2006, peak demand exceeded 25,000 megawatts during only 32 system hours (less than 0.4% of the time), while maximum demand during the year was just over 27,000 megawatts. The ability to "shave" peak demand based on reliable commitments would therefore allow the province to reduce built capacity by approximately 2,000 megawatts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand-side_technology |
In most engines, each connecting rod is attached a single crankshaft, which results in the angle of the connecting rod varying as the piston moves through its stroke. This variation in angle pushes the pistons against the cylinder wall, which causes friction between the piston and cylinder wall. To prevent this, some early engines - such as the 1900-1904 Lanchester Engine Company flat-twin engines - connected each piston to two crankshafts that are rotating in opposite directions. This arrangement cancels out the lateral forces and reduces the requirement for counterweights. This design is rarely used, however a similar principle applies to balance shafts, which are occasionally used. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankshaft |
In most entries, the year when the supernova was seen is part of the designation (1st column). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_supernovae |
In most environmental situations the presence or absence of an organism is determined by a complex web of interactions only some of which will be related to measurable chemical or biological parameters. Flow rate, turbulence, inter and intra specific competition, feeding behaviour, disease, parasitism, commensalism and symbiosis are just a few of the pressures and opportunities facing any organism or population. Most chemical constituents favour some organisms and are less favourable to others. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_chemistry |
However, there are some cases where a chemical constituent exerts a toxic effect. i.e. where the concentration can kill or severely inhibit the normal functioning of the organism. Where a toxic effect has been demonstrated this may be noted in the sections below dealing with the individual parameters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_chemistry |
In most eukaryotes, a cell carries two versions of each gene, each referred to as an allele. Each parent passes on one allele to each offspring. An individual gamete inherits a complete haploid complement of alleles on chromosomes that are independently selected from each pair of chromatids lined up on the metaphase plate. Without recombination, all alleles for those genes linked together on the same chromosome would be inherited together. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomal_crossover |
Meiotic recombination allows a more independent segregation between the two alleles that occupy the positions of single genes, as recombination shuffles the allele content between homologous chromosomes. Recombination results in a new arrangement of maternal and paternal alleles on the same chromosome. Although the same genes appear in the same order, some alleles are different. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomal_crossover |
In this way, it is theoretically possible to have any combination of parental alleles in an offspring, and the fact that two alleles appear together in one offspring does not have any influence on the statistical probability that another offspring will have the same combination. This principle of "independent assortment" of genes is fundamental to genetic inheritance. However, the frequency of recombination is actually not the same for all gene combinations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomal_crossover |
This leads to the notion of "genetic distance", which is a measure of recombination frequency averaged over a (suitably large) sample of pedigrees. Loosely speaking, one may say that this is because recombination is greatly influenced by the proximity of one gene to another. If two genes are located close together on a chromosome, the likelihood that a recombination event will separate these two genes is less than if they were farther apart. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomal_crossover |
Genetic linkage describes the tendency of genes to be inherited together as a result of their location on the same chromosome. Linkage disequilibrium describes a situation in which some combinations of genes or genetic markers occur more or less frequently in a population than would be expected from their distances apart. This concept is applied when searching for a gene that may cause a particular disease. This is done by comparing the occurrence of a specific DNA sequence with the appearance of a disease. When a high correlation between the two is found, it is likely that the appropriate gene sequence is really closer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomal_crossover |
In most eukaryotes, the Golgi apparatus is made up of a series of compartments and is a collection of fused, flattened membrane-enclosed disks known as cisternae (singular: cisterna, also called "dictyosomes"), originating from vesicular clusters that bud off the endoplasmic reticulum. A mammalian cell typically contains 40 to 100 stacks of cisternae. Between four and eight cisternae are usually present in a stack; however, in some protists as many as sixty cisternae have been observed. This collection of cisternae is broken down into cis, medial, and trans compartments, making up two main networks: the cis Golgi network (CGN) and the trans Golgi network (TGN). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golgi_membrane |
The CGN is the first cisternal structure, and the TGN is the final, from which proteins are packaged into vesicles destined to lysosomes, secretory vesicles, or the cell surface. The TGN is usually positioned adjacent to the stack, but can also be separate from it. The TGN may act as an early endosome in yeast and plants.There are structural and organizational differences in the Golgi apparatus among eukaryotes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golgi_membrane |
In some yeasts, Golgi stacking is not observed. Pichia pastoris does have stacked Golgi, while Saccharomyces cerevisiae does not. In plants, the individual stacks of the Golgi apparatus seem to operate independently.The Golgi apparatus tends to be larger and more numerous in cells that synthesize and secrete large amounts of substances; for example, the antibody-secreting plasma B cells of the immune system have prominent Golgi complexes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golgi_membrane |
In all eukaryotes, each cisternal stack has a cis entry face and a trans exit face. These faces are characterized by unique morphology and biochemistry. Within individual stacks are assortments of enzymes responsible for selectively modifying protein cargo. These modifications influence the fate of the protein. The compartmentalization of the Golgi apparatus is advantageous for separating enzymes, thereby maintaining consecutive and selective processing steps: enzymes catalyzing early modifications are gathered in the cis face cisternae, and enzymes catalyzing later modifications are found in trans face cisternae of the Golgi stacks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golgi_membrane |
In most eukaryotic cells, Kinesin-5 is thought to form cross-bridges between pairs of oppositely oriented microtubules in prophase and prometaphase and drives apart duplicated centrosomes during the formation of the mitotic spindle. This permits the establishment of a steady-state bipolar microtubule spindle structure. Loss of Kinesin-5 function from the onset of mitosis in most eukaryotic organisms examined, including animals, plants, and fungi, results in catastrophic failure of mitosis. This motor's function is crucial during the onset of mitosis, wherein its loss of function results in the collapse, or inversion, of the spindle poles leaving centrally positioned centrosome pairs flanked by a radial array of microtubules with peripheral condensed chromosomes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesin_5 |
The one exception to this effect is mitosis within the nematode, C. elegans, in which Kinesin-5 is not strictly essential for mitosis, but nonetheless has considerable impact on the overall fidelity of cell division.The discovery of small chemical inhibitors of human Kinesin-5 through a pioneering in vitro phenotypic screening on cancer cell lines has led to both the development of new anticancer therapeutic agents, and to novel tools to probe the mechanism of microtubule motor proteins. This toolkit of allosteric inhibitors has been used to probe the specific role of Kinesin-5 in mitotic spindle assembly as well as fine dissection of motor domain function. Through this work it was found that, in mammalian cells, Kinesin-5 is required for the initial assembly of the mitotic spindle during prophase and prometaphase, but is dispensable to traverse subsequent anaphase during a round of mitosis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesin_5 |
Also, the binding of the Kinesin-5 inhibitors to an allosteric site on the motor interrupts the mechanism by which this enzyme converts the chemical energy of ATP hydrolysis into the mechanical work of moving microtubules, thus providing insight on how this enzyme works. There are many models that attempt to explain the self-assembly of the mitotic spindle based upon microtubules as a structural element, and a set of microtubule motors, including Kinesin-5 to move and order them. Many of these models attempt to explain the steady state of the spindle at metaphase based on a predicted balance of motor forces acting in opposition within the spindle microtubules. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesin_5 |
Still, it is not clear whether all the structural elements required for spindle assembly are known, or how the motors, including Kinesin-5, might be regulated in space and time. Such caveats make assessment of such models difficult. Recent data, however, finds that aspects of the 'force balance' model that posit spindle length and stability to be mediated by a balance between the minus-end directed microtubule sliding and plus-end directed microtubule sliding by opposing motors in insect cells, seems not to be the case in mammalian cells. The process of self-assembly of the mitotic spindle remains a major unsolved question in cell biology, and a robust model awaits further details of the regulation and behavior of various microtubule motors and structural elements that compose this machinery. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesin_5 |
In most experiments, measurements are repeatedly made at the same two locations. A local hidden variable theory could exploit the memory of past measurement settings and outcomes in order to increase the violation of a Bell inequality. Moreover, physical parameters might be varying in time. It has been shown that, provided each new pair of measurements is done with a new random pair of measurement settings, that neither memory nor time inhomogeneity have a serious effect on the experiment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_test_experiments |
In most export control regimes, legislation lists the items which are deemed 'controlled', and lists the destinations to which exports are restricted in some way. The lists of what is controlled often arise from some harmonised regime. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Export_control |
In most ferns, for example, in the leptosporangiate fern Dryopteris, the gametophyte is a photosynthetic free living autotrophic organism called a prothallus that produces gametes and maintains the sporophyte during its early multicellular development. However, in some groups, notably the clade that includes Ophioglossaceae and Psilotaceae, the gametophytes are subterranean and subsist by forming mycotrophic relationships with fungi. Homosporous ferns secrete a chemical called antheridiogen. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gametophyte |
In most fields of astronomy, the ellipticity is defined as 1 − q {\displaystyle 1-q~} , where q = b a {\displaystyle q={\frac {b}{a}}} is the axis ratio of the ellipse. In weak gravitational lensing, two different definitions are commonly used, and both are complex quantities which specify both the axis ratio and the position angle ϕ {\displaystyle \phi ~}: χ = 1 − q 2 1 + q 2 e 2 i ϕ = a 2 − b 2 a 2 + b 2 e 2 i ϕ {\displaystyle \chi ={\frac {1-q^{2}}{1+q^{2}}}e^{2i\phi }={\frac {a^{2}-b^{2}}{a^{2}+b^{2}}}e^{2i\phi }} ϵ = 1 − q 1 + q e 2 i ϕ = a − b a + b e 2 i ϕ {\displaystyle \epsilon ={\frac {1-q}{1+q}}e^{2i\phi }={\frac {a-b}{a+b}}e^{2i\phi }} Like the traditional ellipticity, the magnitudes of both of these quantities range from 0 (circular) to 1 (a line segment). The position angle is encoded in the complex phase, but because of the factor of 2 in the trigonometric arguments, ellipticity is invariant under a rotation of 180 degrees. This is to be expected; an ellipse is unchanged by a 180° rotation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_Lensing_Formalism |
In most fighting games, players may select from a variety of playable characters with unique fighting styles, special moves, and personalities. This became a strong convention for the genre with the release of Street Fighter II, and these character choices have led to deeper game strategy and replay value.Custom character creation, or "create–a–fighter", is a feature of some fighting games that allows a player to customize the appearance and move set of their own character. Super Fire Pro Wrestling X Premium was the first game to include such a feature. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighting_game |
In most films, time portals are used to take a group of people or a single person back in time. The most popular of all time travels would be traveling back to the time of the dinosaurs. In some films time portals can also be set as a hazard, for example, they can begin to go haywire which makes them accidentally transport something or someone from a different time to the present; again the most popular is a dinosaur being accidentally brought into the present world. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_vortex |
In most flowering plants, the pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle opening in the integuments for fertilization (porogamy). In chalazogamous fertilization, the pollen tubes penetrate the ovule through the chalaza rather than the micropyle opening. Chalazogamy was first discovered in monoecious plant species of the family Casuarinaceae by Melchior Treub, but has since then also been observed in others, for example in pistachio and walnut. == Notes == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalaza |
In most flows of liquids, and of gases at low Mach number, the density of a fluid parcel can be considered to be constant, regardless of pressure variations in the flow. Therefore, the fluid can be considered to be incompressible, and these flows are called incompressible flows. Bernoulli performed his experiments on liquids, so his equation in its original form is valid only for incompressible flow. A common form of Bernoulli's equation is: where: v {\displaystyle v} is the fluid flow speed at a point, g {\displaystyle g} is the acceleration due to gravity, z {\displaystyle z} is the elevation of the point above a reference plane, with the positive z {\displaystyle z} -direction pointing upward—so in the direction opposite to the gravitational acceleration, p {\displaystyle p} is the pressure at the chosen point, and ρ {\displaystyle \rho } is the density of the fluid at all points in the fluid.Bernoulli's equation and the Bernoulli constant are applicable throughout any region of flow where the energy per unit of mass is uniform. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli's_equation |
The energy per unit of mass of liquid in a reservoir is uniform throughout the reservoir so if the reservoir feeds liquid into a pipe or a flow field, Bernoulli's equation and the Bernoulli constant can be used to analyse the fluid flow everywhere except where viscous forces exist and erode the energy per unit mass. : Example 3.5 and p.116 The following assumptions must be met for this Bernoulli equation to apply:: 265 the flow must be steady, that is, the flow parameters (velocity, density, etc.) at any point cannot change with time, the flow must be incompressible—even though pressure varies, the density must remain constant along a streamline; friction by viscous forces must be negligible.For conservative force fields (not limited to the gravitational field), Bernoulli's equation can be generalized as:: 265 where Ψ is the force potential at the point considered. For example, for the Earth's gravity Ψ = gz. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli's_equation |
By multiplying with the fluid density ρ, equation (A) can be rewritten as: or: where q = 1/2ρv2 is dynamic pressure, h = z + p/ρg is the piezometric head or hydraulic head (the sum of the elevation z and the pressure head) and p0 = p + q is the stagnation pressure (the sum of the static pressure p and dynamic pressure q).The constant in the Bernoulli equation can be normalized. A common approach is in terms of total head or energy head H: The above equations suggest there is a flow speed at which pressure is zero, and at even higher speeds the pressure is negative. Most often, gases and liquids are not capable of negative absolute pressure, or even zero pressure, so clearly Bernoulli's equation ceases to be valid before zero pressure is reached. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli's_equation |
In liquids—when the pressure becomes too low—cavitation occurs. The above equations use a linear relationship between flow speed squared and pressure. At higher flow speeds in gases, or for sound waves in liquid, the changes in mass density become significant so that the assumption of constant density is invalid. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli's_equation |
In most forces a layered approach is used to deliver a defense in depth. Peacetime doctrine is to maintain the integrity of the perimeter through the use of watch posts and/or remote sensors, and if deemed necessary patrols within the perimeter. In the event of the perimeter being penetrated, heavily armed and mobile fast response units, often using armored vehicles, will attempt to intercept, identify and if necessary suppress the incursion. If attackers manage to gain entry into the working areas of the airbase, by subterfuge or other means, then the role of air force ground forces is to remove them using close quarter battle. Wartime doctrine, in for example the RAF Regiment and USAF Security Forces, sees the addition of another layer through the use of aggressive patrolling outside the perimeter to deter, detect and destroy would be attackers. The area around the airbase is mapped and prearranged fire plans are put in place to allow patrols to call down rapid and accurate indirect fire from attached mortars and other crew served weapons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_force_ground_forces_and_special_forces |
In most formalisms that use syntactic predicates, the syntax of the predicate is noncommutative, which is to say that the operation of predication is ordered. For instance, using the above example, consider the following pseudo-grammar, where X ::= Y PRED Z is understood to mean: "Y produces X if and only if Y also satisfies predicate Z": S ::= a X X ::= Y PRED Z Y ::= a+ BNCN Z ::= ANBN c+ BNCN ::= b c ANBN ::= a b Given the string aaaabbbccc, in the case where Y must be satisfied first (and assuming a greedy implementation), S will generate aX and X in turn will generate aaabbbccc, thereby generating aaaabbbccc. In the case where Z must be satisfied first, ANBN will fail to generate aaaabbb, and thus aaaabbbccc is not generated by the grammar. Moreover, if either Y or Z (or both) specify any action to be taken upon reduction (as would be the case in many parsers), the order that these productions match determines the order in which those side-effects occur. Formalisms that vary over time (such as adaptive grammars) may rely on these side effects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_predicate |
In most forms of English, percent is usually written as two words (per cent), although percentage and percentile are written as one word. In American English, percent is the most common variant (but per mille is written as two words). In the early 20th century, there was a dotted abbreviation form "per cent. ", as opposed to "per cent". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percentage |
The form "per cent." is still in use in the highly formal language found in certain documents like commercial loan agreements (particularly those subject to, or inspired by, common law), as well as in the Hansard transcripts of British Parliamentary proceedings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percentage |
The term has been attributed to Latin per centum. The concept of considering values as parts of a hundred is originally Greek. The symbol for percent (%) evolved from a symbol abbreviating the Italian per cento. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percentage |
In some other languages, the form procent or prosent is used instead. Some languages use both a word derived from percent and an expression in that language meaning the same thing, e.g. Romanian procent and la sută (thus, 10% can be read or sometimes written ten for hundred, similarly with the English one out of ten). Other abbreviations are rarer, but sometimes seen. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percentage |
Grammar and style guides often differ as to how percentages are to be written. For instance, it is commonly suggested that the word percent (or per cent) be spelled out in all texts, as in "1 percent" and not "1%". Other guides prefer the word to be written out in humanistic texts, but the symbol to be used in scientific texts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percentage |
Most guides agree that they always be written with a numeral, as in "5 percent" and not "five percent", the only exception being at the beginning of a sentence: "Ten percent of all writers love style guides." Decimals are also to be used instead of fractions, as in "3.5 percent of the gain" and not "3+1⁄2 percent of the gain". However the titles of bonds issued by governments and other issuers use the fractional form, e.g. "3+1⁄2% Unsecured Loan Stock 2032 Series 2". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percentage |
(When interest rates are very low, the number 0 is included if the interest rate is less than 1%, e.g. "0+3⁄4% Treasury Stock", not "3⁄4% Treasury Stock".) It is also widely accepted to use the percent symbol (%) in tabular and graphic material. In line with common English practice, style guides—such as The Chicago Manual of Style—generally state that the number and percent sign are written without any space in between. However, the International System of Units and the ISO 31-0 standard require a space. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percentage |
In most forms of Latin scribal abbreviation, an overline or macron indicates omitted letters similar to use of apostrophes in English contractions. Letters with macrons or overlines continue to be used in medical abbreviations in various European languages, particularly for prescriptions. Common examples include a, a̅, or ā for ante ("before") c, c̅, or c̄ for cum ("with") p, p̅, or p̄ for post ("after") q, q̅, or q̄ for quisque and its inflections ("every", "each") s, s̅, or s̄ for sine ("without") x, x̅, or x̄ for exceptus and its inflections ("except")Note, however, that abbreviations involving the letter h take their macron halfway up the ascending line rather than at the normal height for Unicode overlines and macrons: ħ. This is separately encoded in Unicode with the symbols using bar diacritics and appears shorter than other overlines in many fonts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overhead_bar |
In most full-term infant boys with cryptorchidism but no other genital abnormalities, a cause cannot be found, making this a common, sporadic, unexplained (idiopathic) birth defect. A combination of genetics, maternal health, and other environmental factors may disrupt the hormones and physical changes that influence the development of the testicles. Severely premature infants can be born before descent of testes. Low birth weight is also a known factor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undescended_testes |
A contributing role of environmental chemicals called endocrine disruptors that interfere with normal fetal hormone balance has been proposed. The Mayo Clinic lists "parents' exposure to some pesticides" as a known risk factor. Risk factors may include exposure to regular alcohol consumption during pregnancy (five or more drinks per week, associated with a three-fold increase in cryptorchidism when compared to nondrinking mothers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undescended_testes |
Cigarette smoking is also a known risk factor. Family history of undescended testicles or other problems of genital development Cryptorchidism occurs at a much higher rate in a large number of congenital malformation syndromes. Among the more common are Down syndrome, Prader–Willi syndrome, and Noonan syndrome. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undescended_testes |
In vitro fertilization, use of cosmetics by the mother, and pre-eclampsia have also been recognized as risk factors for development of cryptorchidism. Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome generally manifests itself in Cryptorchidism. In CAIS the testis are generally located completely undescended where the ovaries usually are, in PAIS the testis are generally partially undescended. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undescended_testes |
This also occurs with 5α-Reductase 2 deficiency (DHT insensitivity) however the testis generally descend during puberty.In 2008, a study was published that investigated the possible relationship between cryptorchidism and prenatal exposure to a chemical called phthalate (DEHP), which is used in the manufacture of plastics. The researchers found a significant association between higher levels of DEHP metabolites in pregnant mothers and several sex-related changes, including incomplete descent of the testes in their sons. According to the lead author of the study, a national survey found that 25% of U.S. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undescended_testes |
women had phthalate levels similar to the levels that were found to be associated with sexual abnormalities.A 2010 study examined the prevalence of congenital cryptorchidism among offspring whose mothers had taken mild analgesics, primarily over-the-counter pain medications including ibuprofen (e.g. Advil) and paracetamol (acetaminophen). Combining the results from a survey of pregnant women prior to their due date in correlation with the health of their children and an ex vivo rat model, the study found that pregnant women who had been exposed to mild analgesics had a higher prevalence of baby boys born with congenital cryptorchidism.New insight into the testicular descent mechanism has been hypothesized by the concept of a male programming window derived from animal studies. According to this concept, testicular descent status is "set" during the period from 8 to 14 weeks of gestation in humans. Undescended testis is a result of disruption in androgen levels only during this programming window. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undescended_testes |
In most functional programming languages, such as Scheme, nested functions are a common way of implementing algorithms with loops in them. A simple (tail) recursive inner function is created, which behaves as the algorithm's main loop, while the outer function performs startup actions that only need to be done once. In more complex cases, a number of mutually recursive functions may be created as inner functions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nested_function |
In most games, a specially designated player typically called the game master (GM) purchases or prepares a set of rules and a fictional setting in which each player acts out the role of a single character. The GM describes the game world and its inhabitants; the other players describe the intended actions of their characters, and the GM describes the outcomes. Some outcomes are determined by the game system, and some are chosen by the GM. This pattern was established by the first published role-playing game, Dungeons & Dragons, but is not universal across all tabletop RPGs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabletop_role-playing_game |
In most games, it's considered bad manners to quit before the game has ended.However, in other games, such as FIFA 21, the opposite is somewhat true: it is sometimes considered a good thing for a losing player to quit a game after it is clear that it is not feasible for them to win, in an effort to save both players’ time. However, in games where leaving early is encouraged, the player is often still expected to say 'gg' or 'good game' before leaving; failure to do so can be considered bad manners. However, the winning player saying 'gg' on behalf of a losing opponent is impolite, as it presumes that the game has already been won and the other player should quit (this is known as an "offensive gg"). "Rage-quitting", in which a player logs out if they find themselves in a losing situation is also frowned upon, particularly if doing puts their team at a disadvantage or prevents statistics from being updated.In games involving circumstances where many players need to meet at an agreed-upon time, such as in a raid in World of Warcraft, it is considered bad etiquette to show up late. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaming_etiquette |
In most genres of popular music, including jazz, pop, and rock, a chord name and the corresponding symbol are typically composed of one or more parts. In these genres, chord-playing musicians in the rhythm section (e.g., electric guitar, acoustic guitar, piano, Hammond organ, etc.) typically improvise the specific "voicing" of each chord from a song's chord progression by interpreting the written chord symbols appearing in the lead sheet or fake book. Normally, these chord symbols include: A (big) letter indicating the root note (e.g., C). A symbol or abbreviation indicating the chord quality (e.g., minor, aug or o ). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_symbol |
If no chord quality is specified, the chord is assumed to be a major triad by default. Number(s) indicating the stacked intervals above the root note (e.g., 7 or 13). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_symbol |
Additional musical symbols or abbreviations for special alterations (e.g., ♭5, ♯5 or add13). An added slash "/" and an upper case letter indicates that a bass note other than the root should be played. These are called slash chords. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_symbol |
For instance, C/F indicates that a C major triad should be played with an added F in the bass. In some genres of modern jazz, two chords with a slash between them may indicate an advanced chord type called a polychord, which is the playing of two chords simultaneously. The correct notation of this should be F/C, which sometimes get mixed up with slash chords.Chord qualities are related with the qualities of the component intervals that define the chord. The main chord qualities are: Major and minor (a chord is "Major" by default and altered with added info: "C" = C major, "Cm" = c minor). augmented, diminished, and half-diminished, dominant seventh. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_symbol |
In most girls, menarche does not mean that ovulation has occurred. In postmenarchal girls, about 80% of the cycles were anovulatory in the first year after menarche, 50% in the third and 10% in the sixth year. Regular ovulation is usually indicated by predictable and consistent intervals between menses, predictable and consistent durations of menses, and predictable and consistent patterns of flow (e.g., heaviness or cramping). Continuing ovulation typically requires a body fat content of at least 22%. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menarche |
An anthropological term for this state of potential fertility is nubility.On the other hand, not every girl follows the typical pattern, and some girls ovulate before the first menstruation. Although unlikely, it is possible for a girl who has engaged in sexual intercourse shortly before her menarche to conceive and become pregnant, which would delay her menarche until after the end of the pregnancy. This goes against the widely held assumption that a woman cannot become pregnant until after menarche. A young age at menarche is not correlated with a young age at first sexual intercourse. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menarche |
In most glossaries, begin each glossary term with a lower-case letter, unless it is a proper name or an acronym/initialism. While capitalizing the first letter of each term would produce a more uniform, outline-like result (which is why this is the standard for ordered and unordered lists on Wikipedia), natural capitalization produces fewer ambiguities in a glossary. The use of leading capitals on all entries is recommended only if all of the following apply simultaneously: No term in the glossary is a lower-case form of something that in other contexts is usually capitalized There is no difference between the capitalized and uncapitalized form of any term in the glossary The terms do not contain a mixture of proper names and common nouns Capitalizing all entries is otherwise unlikely to produce any form of ambiguity or confusion. The glossary is unlikely to ever expand in a way that will break one of the above cases (i.e., it is either already exhaustive, is strictly limited by narrow inclusion criteria, or exclusively contains proper names).Begin each definition with a capital letter, even if it is a sentence fragment. The above does not apply to the use of description lists (with or without glossary templates) for material that does not form a glossary, such as list of characters, or an index of different models in a series of products. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Glossaries |
In most gram-positive bacteria, certain proteins are targeted for export across the plasma membrane and subsequent covalent attachment to the bacterial cell wall. A specialized enzyme, sortase, cleaves the target protein at a characteristic recognition site near the protein C-terminus, such as an LPXTG motif (where X can be any amino acid), then transfers the protein onto the cell wall. Several analogous systems are found that likewise feature a signature motif on the extra-cytoplasmic face, a C-terminal transmembrane domain, and cluster of basic residues on the cytosolic face at the protein's extreme C-terminus. The PEP-CTERM/exosortase system, found in many Gram-negative bacteria, seems to be related to extracellular polymeric substance production. The PGF-CTERM/archaeosortase A system in archaea is related to S-layer production. The GlyGly-CTERM/rhombosortase system, found in the Shewanella, Vibrio, and a few other genera, seems involved in the release of proteases, nucleases, and other enzymes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_translocation |
In most hang gliders, the pilot is ensconced in a harness suspended from the airframe, and exercises control by shifting body weight in opposition to a stationary control frame, also known as a triangle control frame, or an A-frame. The control frame normally consists of 2 "down-tubes" and a control bar/base bar/base-tube. Either end of the control bar is attached to an upright tube or a more aerodynamic strut (a "down-tube"), where both extend from the base-tube and are connected to the apex of the control frame/ the keel of the glider. This creates the shape of a triangle or 'A-frame'. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hang_gliders |
In many of these configurations additional wheels or other equipment can be suspended from the bottom bar or rod ends. Images showing a triangle control frame on Otto Lilienthal's 1892 hang glider shows that the technology of such frames has existed since the early design of gliders, but he did not mention it in his patents. A control frame for body weight shift was also shown in Octave Chanute's designs. It was a major part of the now common design of hang gliders by George A. Spratt from 1929. The most simple A-frame that is cable-stayed was demonstrated in a Breslau gliding club hang gliding meet in a battened wing foot-launchable hang glider in the year 1908 by W. Simon; hang glider historian Stephan Nitsch has collected instances also of the U control frame used in the first decade of the 1900s; the U is variant of the A-frame. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hang_gliders |
In most high-power Stirling engines, both the minimum pressure and mean pressure of the working fluid are above atmospheric pressure. This initial engine pressurization can be realized by a pump, or by filling the engine from a compressed gas tank, or even just by sealing the engine when the mean temperature is lower than the mean operating temperature. All of these methods increase the mass of working fluid in the thermodynamic cycle. All of the heat exchangers must be sized appropriately to supply the necessary heat transfer rates. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirling_Cryocooler |
If the heat exchangers are well designed and can supply the heat flux needed for convective heat transfer, then the engine, in a first approximation, produces power in proportion to the mean pressure, as predicted by the West number, and Beale number. In practice, the maximum pressure is also limited to the safe pressure of the pressure vessel. Like most aspects of Stirling engine design, optimization is multivariate, and often has conflicting requirements. A difficulty of pressurization is that while it improves the power, the heat required increases proportionately to the increased power. This heat transfer is made increasingly difficult with pressurization since increased pressure also demands increased thicknesses of the walls of the engine, which, in turn, increase the resistance to heat transfer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirling_Cryocooler |
In most homes, sewer gas may have an unpleasant odor, but does not often pose a significant health hazard. Residential sewer pipes primarily contain the gases found in air (nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc.). Often, methane is the gas of next highest concentration, but typically remains at nontoxic levels, especially in properly vented systems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewer_gas |
However, if sewer gas has a distinct “rotten egg” smell, especially in sewage mains, septic tanks, or other sewage treatment facilities, it may be due to hydrogen sulfide content, which can be detected by human olfactory senses in concentrations as low as parts per billion. Exposure to low levels of this chemical can irritate the eyes, cause a cough or sore throat, shortness of breath, and fluid accumulation in the lungs. Prolonged low-level exposure may cause fatigue, pneumonia, loss of appetite, headaches, irritability, poor memory, and dizziness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewer_gas |
High concentrations of hydrogen sulfide (>150 ppm) can produce olfactory fatigue, whereby the scent becomes undetectable. At higher concentrations (>300 ppm), hydrogen sulfide can cause loss of consciousness and death. Very high concentrations (>1000 ppm) can result in immediate collapse, occurring after a single breath. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewer_gas |
In most horse races, entry is restricted to certain breeds; that is, the horse must have a sire (father) and a dam (mother) who are studbook-approved individuals of whatever breed is racing. For example, in a normal harness race, the horse's sire and dam must both be pure Standardbreds. The exception to this is in Quarter Horse racing, where an Appendix Quarter Horse may be considered eligible to race against (standard) Quarter Horses. The designation of "Appendix" refers to the addendum section, or Appendix, of the Official Quarter Horse registry. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse_racing |
An Appendix Quarter Horse is a horse that has either one Quarter Horse parent and one parent of any other eligible breed (such as Thoroughbred, the most common Appendix cross), two parents that are registered Appendix Quarter Horses, or one parent that is a Quarter Horse and one parent that is an Appendix Quarter Horse. AQHA also issues a "Racing Register of Merit", which allows a horse to race on Quarter Horse tracks, but not be considered a Quarter Horse for breeding purposes (unless other requirements are met).A stallion who has won many races may be put up to stud when he is retired. Artificial insemination and embryo transfer technology (allowed only in some breeds) have brought changes to the traditions and ease of breeding. Pedigrees of stallions are recorded in various books and websites, such as Weatherbys Stallion Book, the Australian Stud Book and Thoroughbred Heritage. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse_racing |
In most households, cooking was done on an open hearth in the middle of the main living area, to make efficient use of the heat. This was the most common arrangement, even in wealthy households, for most of the Middle Ages, where the kitchen was combined with the dining hall. Towards the Late Middle Ages a separate kitchen area began to evolve. The first step was to move the fireplaces towards the walls of the main hall, and later to build a separate building or wing that contained a dedicated kitchen area, often separated from the main building by a covered arcade. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_cuisine |
This way, the smoke, odors and bustle of the kitchen could be kept out of sight of guests, and the fire risk lessened. Few medieval kitchens survive as they were "notoriously ephemeral structures".Many basic variations of cooking utensils available today, such as frying pans, pots, kettles, and waffle irons, already existed, although they were often too expensive for poorer households. Other tools more specific to cooking over an open fire were spits of various sizes, and material for skewering anything from delicate quails to whole oxen. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_cuisine |
There were also cranes with adjustable hooks so that pots and cauldrons could easily be swung away from the fire to keep them from burning or boiling over. Utensils were often held directly over the fire or placed into embers on tripods. To assist the cook there were also assorted knives, stirring spoons, ladles and graters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_cuisine |
In wealthy households one of the most common tools was the mortar and sieve cloth, since many medieval recipes called for food to be finely chopped, mashed, strained and seasoned either before or after cooking. This was based on a belief among physicians that the finer the consistency of food, the more effectively the body would absorb the nourishment. It also gave skilled cooks the opportunity to elaborately shape the results. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_cuisine |
Fine-textured food was also associated with wealth; for example, finely milled flour was expensive, while the bread of commoners was typically brown and coarse. A typical procedure was farcing (from the Latin farcio 'to cram'), to skin and dress an animal, grind up the meat and mix it with spices and other ingredients and then return it into its own skin, or mold it into the shape of a completely different animal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_cuisine |
The kitchen staff of huge noble or royal courts occasionally numbered in the hundreds: pantlers, bakers, waferers, sauciers, larderers, butchers, carvers, page boys, milkmaids, butlers, and numerous scullions. While an average peasant household often made do with firewood collected from the surrounding woodlands, the major kitchens of households had to cope with the logistics of daily providing at least two meals for several hundred people. Guidelines on how to prepare for a two-day banquet can be found in the cookbook Du fait de cuisine ('On cookery') written in 1420 in part to compete with the court of Burgundy by Maistre Chiquart, master chef of Amadeus VIII, Duke of Savoy. Chiquart recommends that the chief cook should have at hand at least 1,000 cartloads of "good, dry firewood" and a large barnful of coal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_cuisine |
In most human cultures, feces elicits varying degrees of disgust. Disgust is experienced primarily in relation to the sense of taste (either perceived or imagined) and, secondarily to anything that causes a similar feeling by sense of smell, touch, or vision. As such, human feces is regarded as something to be avoided diligently: expelled in private and disposed of immediately and without a trace. It often is considered an unacceptable topic in polite conversation and its mere mention may cause offence in certain contexts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_fecal_matter |
An example of repulsion by feces from the ancient world is found in the writings called Deuteronomy used by Jews and Christians:Designate a place outside the camp where you can go to relieve yourself. As part of your equipment have something to dig with, and when you relieve yourself, dig a hole and cover up your excrement. For the LORD your God moves about in your camp to protect you and to deliver your enemies to you. Your camp must be holy, so that he will not see among you anything indecent and turn away from you. Evolution can explain this disgust since feces are a significant disease vector, carrying many kinds of microorganisms that can sicken humans, including E. coli. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_fecal_matter |
In most human tissues, TMEM104 has a modest expression level (25–50th percentile), relative to all human proteins, according to RNA-seq data. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TMEM104 |
In most hydrogen-fusing stars, including the Sun, a chemical cycle involved in stellar nucleosynthesis occurs which is known as a carbon-nitrogen-oxygen or (CNO cycle). In addition to this cycle, stars also have a helium cycle. Various cycles involving gas and dust have been found to occur in galaxies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_cycling |
In most illustrations of the gambler's fallacy and the reverse gambler's fallacy, the trial (e.g. flipping a coin) is assumed to be fair. In practice, this assumption may not hold. For example, if a coin is flipped 21 times, the probability of 21 heads with a fair coin is 1 in 2,097,152. Since this probability is so small, if it happens, it may well be that the coin is somehow biased towards landing on heads, or that it is being controlled by hidden magnets, or similar. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D'Alembert_system |
In this case, the smart bet is "heads" because Bayesian inference from the empirical evidence — 21 heads in a row — suggests that the coin is likely to be biased toward heads. Bayesian inference can be used to show that when the long-run proportion of different outcomes is unknown but exchangeable (meaning that the random process from which the outcomes are generated may be biased but is equally likely to be biased in any direction) and that previous observations demonstrate the likely direction of the bias, the outcome which has occurred the most in the observed data is the most likely to occur again.For example, if the a priori probability of a biased coin is say 1%, and assuming that such a biased coin would come down heads say 60% of the time, then after 21 heads the probability of a biased coin has increased to about 32%. The opening scene of the play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead by Tom Stoppard discusses these issues as one man continually flips heads and the other considers various possible explanations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D'Alembert_system |
In most implementations, a cell, or group of cells in a column or row, can be "named" enabling the user to refer to those cells by a name rather than by a grid reference. Names must be unique within the spreadsheet, but when using multiple sheets in a spreadsheet file, an identically named cell range on each sheet can be used if it is distinguished by adding the sheet name. One reason for this usage is for creating or running macros that repeat a command across many sheets. Another reason is that formulas with named variables are readily checked against the algebra they are intended to implement (they resemble Fortran expressions). The use of named variables and named functions also makes the spreadsheet structure more transparent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadsheet_software |
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