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In most jurisdictions, passing a cheque for an amount of money the writer knows is not in the account at the time of negotiation (or available for overdraft protection) is usually considered a violation of criminal law. However, the general practice followed by banks has been to refrain from prosecuting cheque writers if the cheque reaches the bank after sufficient funds have been deposited, thereby allowing it to clear. But the account holder is normally held fully liable for all bank penalties, civil penalties, and criminal charges allowable by law in the event the cheque does not clear the bank. Only when the successful clearance of a cheque is due to a kiting scheme does the bank traditionally take action. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheque_fraud |
Banks have always had various methods of detecting kiting schemes and stopping them in the act. Computer systems in place will alert bank officials when a customer engages in various suspicious activities, including frequently depositing cheques bearing the same, large monthly total deposits accompanied by near-zero average daily balances, or avoidance of tellers by frequent use of ATMs for deposits. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheque_fraud |
New technology in place today may make most forms of cheque kiting and paper hanging a thing of the past. As new software rapidly catches illegal activity at the teller/branch level instead of waiting for the nightly runs to the back office, schemes are not only easier to detect, but may be prevented by tellers who deny customers illegal transactions before they are even started. Part of how banks are combating cheque fraud is to offer their clients fraud protection services. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheque_fraud |
Because it is impossible for banks to know every cheque that a customer writes and which may or may not be fraudulent, the onus is on the clients to make the bank aware of what cheques they write. These systems allow customers to upload their cheque files to the bank including the cheque number, the amount of money, and in some cases, the payee name. Now, when a cheque is presented for payment, the bank scrubs it against the information on file. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheque_fraud |
If one of the variables does not match, then the cheque would be flagged as a potentially fraudulent item. These services help with external fraud but they do not help if there is internal fraud. If an employee sends information to the bank with fraudulent items, then the bank would not know to deny payment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheque_fraud |
A system of dual controls should be put into place in order to not allocate all capabilities to one person. Before the passage of the Check Clearing for the 21st Century Act, when cheques could take three or more days to clear, playing the float was fairly common practice in the US in otherwise-honest individuals who encountered emergencies right before payday.Circular and abandonment frauds are gradually being eliminated as cheques will clear in Bank B the same day they are deposited into Bank A, giving no time at all for non-existent funds to become available for withdrawal. With image-sharing technology, the funds that temporarily become available in Bank A's account are wiped out the same day. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheque_fraud |
While there may still be some room for retail kiting, security measures taken by retail chains are helping reduce such incidents. Increasingly, more chains are limiting the amount of cash back received, the number of times cash back can be offered in a week or a given period of time, and obtaining transactional account balances before offering cash back, thereby denying it to those with low balances. For example, Walmart's policy is to determine account balances of those obtaining cash back, and some Safeway locations will not offer cash back on any accounts with balances under $250, even when funds are sufficient to cover the amount on the cheque. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheque_fraud |
Customers who are noted to obtain cash back frequently are also investigated by the corporation to observe patterns. Some businesses will also use the cheque strictly as an informational device to automatically debit funds from the account, and will return the item to the customer thereafter. However, in the United States this is done through the ACH Network; though faster than traditional cheque clearing, contrary to popular belief the ACH Network is not instantaneous. Though this practice reduces the room for kiting (by reducing float), it does not always eliminate it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheque_fraud |
In most jurisdictions, physicians (in either sense of the word) need government permission to practice. Such permission is intended to promote public safety, and often to protect government spending, as medical care is commonly subsidized by national governments. In some jurisdictions such as in Singapore, it is common for physicians to inflate their qualifications with the title "Dr" in correspondence or namecards, even if their qualifications are limited to a basic (e.g., bachelor level) degree. In other countries such as Germany, only physicians holding an academic doctorate may call themselves doctor – on the other hand, the European Research Council has decided that the German medical doctorate does not meet the international standards of a PhD research degree. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_practitioner |
In most jurisdictions, prison inmates are forbidden from possessing mobile phones due to their ability to communicate with the outside world and other security issues. Mobile phones are one of the most smuggled items into prisons. They provide inmates the ability to make and receive unauthorized phone calls, send email and text messages, use social media, and follow news pertaining to their case, among other forbidden uses. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phones_in_prison |
In most jurisdictions, the pink ribbon is considered public domain. However, in Canada, the Canadian Breast Cancer Foundation claimed ownership of the ribbon as a trademark until it was voluntarily abandoned. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink_ribbon |
In most jurisdictions, there are ways for third parties to challenge the validity of an allowed or issued patent at the national patent office; these are called opposition proceedings. It is also possible to challenge the validity of a patent in court. In either case, the challenging party tries to prove that the patent should never have been granted. There are several grounds for challenges: the claimed subject matter is not patentable subject matter at all; the claimed subject matter was actually not new, or was obvious to the person skilled in the art, at the time the application was filed; or that some kind of fraud was committed during prosecution with regard to listing of inventors, representations about when discoveries were made, etc. Patents can be found to be invalid in whole or in part for any of these reasons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_right |
In most jurisdictions, to qualify as an underlying offense for a felony murder charge, the underlying offense must present a foreseeable danger to life, and the link between the offense and the death must not be too remote. For example, if the recipient of a forged check has a fatal allergic reaction to the ink, most courts will not hold the forger guilty of murder, as the cause of death is too remote from the criminal act. There are two schools of thought concerning whose actions can cause the defendant to be guilty of felony murder. Jurisdictions that hold to the "agency theory" admit only deaths caused by the agents of the crime. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felony_murder_rule |
Jurisdictions that use the "proximate cause theory" include any death, even if caused by a bystander or the police, provided that it meets one of several proximate cause tests to determine if the chain of events between the offence and the death was short enough to have legally caused the death.The merger doctrine excludes from the offenses that qualify as underlying offenses any felony that is presupposed by a murder charge. For example, nearly all murders involve some type of assault, but so do many cases of manslaughter. To count any death that occurred during the course of an assault as felony murder would obliterate a distinction that is carefully set by the legislature. However, merger may not apply when an assault against one person results in the death of a different person.Felony murder is typically the same grade of murder as premeditated murder and carries the same sentence as is used for premeditated murder in the jurisdiction in question. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felony_murder_rule |
In most laboratory situations, the difference in behaviour between a real gas and an ideal gas is dependent only on the pressure and the temperature, not on the presence of any other gases. At a given temperature, the "effective" pressure of a gas i is given by its fugacity fi: this may be higher or lower than its mechanical pressure. By historical convention, fugacities have the dimension of pressure, so the dimensionless activity is given by: a i = f i p ⊖ = φ i y i p p ⊖ {\displaystyle a_{i}={\frac {f_{i}}{p^{\ominus }}}=\varphi _{i}y_{i}{\frac {p}{p^{\ominus }}}} where φi is the dimensionless fugacity coefficient of the species, yi is its mole fraction in the gaseous mixture (y = 1 for a pure gas) and p is the total pressure. The value po is the standard pressure: it may be equal to 1 atm (101.325 kPa) or 1 bar (100 kPa) depending on the source of data, and should always be quoted. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_activity |
In most languages that provide this feature, a procedural parameter f of a subroutine P can be called inside the body of P as if it were an ordinary procedure: procedure P(f): return f(6,3) * f(2,1) When calling the subroutine P, one must give it one argument, that must be some previously defined function compatible with the way P uses its parameter f. For example, if we define procedure plus(x, y): return x + y then we may call P (plus), and the result will be plus(6,3) * plus(2,1) = (6 + 3)*(2 + 1) = 27. On the other hand, if we define procedure quot(u, v): return u/v then the call P (quot) will return quot(6,3)*quot(2,1) = (6/3)*(2/1) = 4. Finally, if we define procedure evil(z) return z + 100 then the call P (evil) will not make much sense, and may be flagged as an error. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_parameter |
In most languages that use diacritics, these are treated the same way in uppercase whether the text is capitalized or all-uppercase. They may be always preserved (as in German) or always omitted (as in Greek) or often omitted (as in French). Some attribute this to the fact that diacritics on capital letters were not available earlier on typewriters, and it is now becoming more common to preserve them in French and Spanish (in both languages the rule is to preserve them, although in France and Mexico, for instance, schoolchildren are often erroneously taught that they should not add diacritics on capital letters). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_case |
However, in the polytonic orthography used for Greek prior to 1982, accents were omitted in all-uppercase words, but kept as part of an uppercase initial (written before rather than above the letter). The latter situation is provided for by title-case characters in Unicode. When Greek is written with the present day monotonic orthography, where only the acute accent is used, the same rule is applied. The accent is omitted in all-uppercase words but it is kept as part of an uppercase initial (written before the letter rather than above it). The dialytika (diaeresis) should also always be used in all-uppercase words (even in cases where they are not needed when writing in lowercase, e.g. ΑΫΛΟΣ — άυλος). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_case |
In most languages the piece is known as "queen" or "lady" (e.g. Italian regina or Spanish dama). Asian and Eastern European languages tend to refer to it as vizier, minister or advisor (e.g. Arabic/Persian وزیر wazir (vazir), Russian/Persian ферзь/فرز ferz). In Polish it is known as the hetman, the name of a major historical military-political office, while in Estonian it is called lipp ("flag", "standard"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_queen |
In most languages with grammatical number, nouns, and sometimes other parts of speech, have two forms, the singular, for one instance of a concept, and the plural, for more than one instance. Usually, the singular is the unmarked form of a word, and the plural is obtained by inflecting the singular. This is the case in English: car/cars, box/boxes, man/men. There may be exceptional nouns whose plural form is identical to the singular form: one sheep/two sheep (which is not the same as nouns that have only one number). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_number |
In most languages written in any variety of the Latin alphabet except English, the use of diacritics to signify a sound mutation is common. For example, the grapheme ⟨à⟩ requires two glyphs: the basic a and the grave accent `. In general, a diacritic is regarded as a glyph, even if it is contiguous with the rest of the character like a cedilla in French, Catalan or Portuguese, the ogonek in several languages, or the stroke on a Polish "Ł". Although these marks originally had no independent meaning, they have since acquired meaning in the field of mathematics and computing, for instance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyph |
Conversely, in the languages of Western Europe, the dot on a lower-case ⟨i⟩ is not a glyph in because it does not convey any distinction, and an ⟨ı⟩ in which the dot has been accidentally omitted is still likely to be recognized correctly. However, in Turkish and adjacent languages, this dot is a glyph because that language has two distinct versions of the letter i, with and without a dot. In Japanese syllabaries, some of the characters are made up of more than one separate mark, but in general these separate marks are not glyphs because they have no meaning by themselves. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyph |
However, in some cases, additional marks fulfil the role of diacritics, to differentiate distinct characters. Such additional marks constitute glyphs. Some characters such as "æ" in Icelandic and the "ß" in German may be regarded as glyphs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyph |
They were originally typographic ligatures, but over time have become characters in their own right; these languages treat them as unique letters. However, a ligature such as "fi", that is treated in some typefaces as a single unit, is arguably not a glyph as this is just a design choice of that typeface, essentially an allographic feature, and includes more than one grapheme. In normal handwriting, even long words are often written "joined up", without the pen leaving the paper, and the form of each written letter will often vary depending on which letters precede and follow it, but that does not make the whole word into a single glyph. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyph |
Older models of typewriters required the use of multiple glyphs to depict a single character, as an overstruck apostrophe and period to create an exclamation mark. If there is more than one allograph of a unit of writing, and the choice between them depends on context or on the preference of the author, they now have to be treated as separate glyphs, because mechanical arrangements have to be available to differentiate between them and to print whichever of them is required. In computing as well as typography, the term "character" refers to a grapheme or grapheme-like unit of text, as found in natural language writing systems (scripts). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyph |
In typography and computing, the range of graphemes is broader than in a written language in other ways too: a typeface often has to cope with a range of different languages each of which contribute their own graphemes, and it may also be required to print non-linguistic symbols such as dingbats. The range of glyphs required increases correspondingly. In summary, in typography and computing, a glyph is a graphical unit. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyph |
In most languages, programmers write a switch statement across many individual lines using one or two keywords. A typical syntax involves: the first select, followed by an expression which is often referred to as the control expression or control variable of the switch statement subsequent lines defining the actual cases (the values), with corresponding sequences of statements for execution when a match occurs In languages with fallthrough behaviour, a break statement typically follows a case statement to end said statement. In some languages, e.g., PL/I, the control expression is optional; if there is no control expression then each alternative begins with a WHEN clause containing a boolean expression and a match occurs for the first case for which that expression evaluates to true. This usage is similar to the if/then/elseif/else structures in some other languages, e.g., Perl. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switch_statement |
In some languages, e.g., Rexx, no control expression is allowed and each alternative begins with a WHEN clause containing a boolean expression and a match occurs for the first case for which that expression evaluates to true.Each alternative begins with the particular value, or list of values (see below), that the control variable may match and which will cause the control to goto the corresponding sequence of statements. The value (or list/range of values) is usually separated from the corresponding statement sequence by a colon or by an implication arrow. In many languages, every case must also be preceded by a keyword such as case or when. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switch_statement |
An optional default case is typically also allowed, specified by a default, otherwise, or else keyword. This executes when none of the other cases match the control expression. In some languages, such as C, if no case matches and the default is omitted the switch statement simply exits. In others, like PL/I, an error is raised. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switch_statement |
In most lasers, lasing begins with spontaneous emission into the lasing mode. This initial light is then amplified by stimulated emission in the gain medium. Stimulated emission produces light that matches the input signal in direction, wavelength, and polarization, whereas the phase of the emitted light is 90 degrees in lead of the stimulating light. This, combined with the filtering effect of the optical resonator gives laser light its characteristic coherence, and may give it uniform polarization and monochromaticity, depending on the resonator's design. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_wave_laser |
The fundamental laser linewidth of light emitted from the lasing resonator can be orders of magnitude narrower than the linewidth of light emitted from the passive resonator. Some lasers use a separate injection seeder to start the process off with a beam that is already highly coherent. This can produce beams with a narrower spectrum than would otherwise be possible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_wave_laser |
In 1963, Roy J. Glauber showed that coherent states are formed from combinations of photon number states, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics. A coherent beam of light is formed by single-frequency quantum photon states distributed according to a Poisson distribution. As a result, the arrival rate of photons in a laser beam is described by Poisson statistics.Many lasers produce a beam that can be approximated as a Gaussian beam; such beams have the minimum divergence possible for a given beam diameter. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_wave_laser |
Some lasers, particularly high-power ones, produce multimode beams, with the transverse modes often approximated using Hermite–Gaussian or Laguerre-Gaussian functions. Some high-power lasers use a flat-topped profile known as a "tophat beam". Unstable laser resonators (not used in most lasers) produce fractal-shaped beams. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_wave_laser |
Specialized optical systems can produce more complex beam geometries, such as Bessel beams and optical vortexes. Near the "waist" (or focal region) of a laser beam, it is highly collimated: the wavefronts are planar, normal to the direction of propagation, with no beam divergence at that point. However, due to diffraction, that can only remain true well within the Rayleigh range. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_wave_laser |
The beam of a single transverse mode (gaussian beam) laser eventually diverges at an angle that varies inversely with the beam diameter, as required by diffraction theory. Thus, the "pencil beam" directly generated by a common helium–neon laser would spread out to a size of perhaps 500 kilometers when shone on the Moon (from the distance of the earth). On the other hand, the light from a semiconductor laser typically exits the tiny crystal with a large divergence: up to 50°. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_wave_laser |
However even such a divergent beam can be transformed into a similarly collimated beam employing a lens system, as is always included, for instance, in a laser pointer whose light originates from a laser diode. That is possible due to the light being of a single spatial mode. This unique property of laser light, spatial coherence, cannot be replicated using standard light sources (except by discarding most of the light) as can be appreciated by comparing the beam from a flashlight (torch) or spotlight to that of almost any laser. A laser beam profiler is used to measure the intensity profile, width, and divergence of laser beams. Diffuse reflection of a laser beam from a matte surface produces a speckle pattern with interesting properties. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_wave_laser |
In most legal jurisdictions, doctors are allowed to give evidence only in regard to whether the child is being harmed. They are not allowed to give evidence in regard to the motive. Australia and the UK have established the legal precedent that FDIA does not exist as a medico-legal entity. In a June 2004 appeal hearing, the Supreme Court of Queensland, Australia, stated: As the term factitious disorder (Munchausen's Syndrome) by proxy is merely descriptive of a behavior, not a psychiatrically identifiable illness or condition, it does not relate to an organized or recognized reliable body of knowledge or experience. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Münchausen_syndrome_by_proxy |
Dr. Reddan's evidence was inadmissible. The Queensland Supreme Court further ruled that the determination of whether or not a defendant had caused intentional harm to a child was a matter for the jury to decide and not for the determination by expert witnesses: The diagnosis of Doctors Pincus, Withers, and O'Loughlin that the appellant intentionally caused her children to receive unnecessary treatment through her own acts and the false reporting of symptoms of the factitious disorder (Munchausen Syndrome) by proxy is not a diagnosis of a recognized medical condition, disorder, or syndrome. It is simply placing her within the medical term used in the category of people exhibiting such behavior. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Münchausen_syndrome_by_proxy |
In that sense, their opinions were not expert evidence because they related to matters that could be decided on the evidence by ordinary jurors. The essential issue as to whether the appellant reported or fabricated false symptoms or did acts to intentionally cause unnecessary medical procedures to injure her children was a matter for the jury's determination. The evidence of Doctors Pincus, Withers, and O'Loughlin that the appellant was exhibiting the behavior of factitious disorder (Munchausen syndrome by proxy) should have been excluded. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Münchausen_syndrome_by_proxy |
Principles of law and implications for legal processes that may be deduced from these findings are that: Any matters brought before a Court of Law should be determined by the facts, not by suppositions attached to a label describing a behavior, i.e., MSBP/FII/FDBP; MSBP/FII/FDBP is not a mental disorder (i.e., not defined as such in DSM IV), and the evidence of a psychiatrist should not therefore be admissible; MSBP/FII/FDBP has been stated to be a behavior describing a form of child abuse and not a medical diagnosis of either a parent or a child. A medical practitioner cannot therefore state that a person "suffers" from MSBP/FII/FDBP, and such evidence should also therefore be inadmissible. The evidence of a medical practitioner should be confined to what they observed and heard and what forensic information was found by recognized medical investigative procedures; A label used to describe a behavior is not helpful in determining guilt and is prejudicial. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Münchausen_syndrome_by_proxy |
By applying an ambiguous label of MSBP/FII to a woman is implying guilt without factual supportive and corroborative evidence; The assertion that other people may behave in this way, i.e., fabricate and/or induce illness in children to gain attention for themselves (FII/MSBP/FDBY), contained within the label is not factual evidence that this individual has behaved in this way. Again therefore, the application of the label is prejudicial to fairness and a finding based on fact.The Queensland Judgment was adopted into English law in the High Court of Justice by Mr. Justice Ryder. In his final conclusions regarding Factitious Disorder, Ryder states that: I have considered and respectfully adopt the dicta of the Supreme Court of Queensland in R v. LM QCA 192 at paragraph 62 and 66. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Münchausen_syndrome_by_proxy |
I take full account of the criminal law and foreign jurisdictional contexts of that decision but I am persuaded by the following argument upon its face that it is valid to the English law of evidence as applied to children proceedings.The terms "Munchausen syndrome by proxy" and "factitious (and induced) illness (by proxy)" are child protection labels that are merely descriptions of a range of behaviors, not a pediatric, psychiatric or psychological disease that is identifiable. The terms do not relate to an organized or universally recognized body of knowledge or experience that has identified a medical disease (i.e. an illness or condition) and there are no internationally accepted medical criteria for the use of either label.In reality, the use of the label is intended to connote that in the individual case there are materials susceptible of analysis by pediatricians and of findings of fact by a court concerning fabrication, exaggeration, minimization or omission in the reporting of symptoms and evidence of harm by act, omission or suggestion (induction). Where such facts exist the context and assessments can provide an insight into the degree of risk that a child may face and the court is likely to be assisted as to that aspect by psychiatric and/or psychological expert evidence.All of the above ought to be self evident and has in any event been the established teaching of leading pediatricians, psychiatrists and psychologists for some while. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Münchausen_syndrome_by_proxy |
That is not to minimize the nature and extent of professional debate about this issue which remains significant, nor to minimize the extreme nature of the risk that is identified in a small number of cases.In these circumstances, evidence as to the existence of MSBP or FII in any individual case is as likely to be evidence of mere propensity which would be inadmissible at the fact finding stage (see Re CB and JB supra). For my part, I would consign the label MSBP to the history books and however useful FII may apparently be to the child protection practitioner I would caution against its use other than as a factual description of a series of incidents or behaviors that should then be accurately set out (and even then only in the hands of the pediatrician or psychiatrist/psychologist). I cannot emphasis too strongly that my conclusion cannot be used as a reason to re-open the many cases where facts have been found against a carer and the label MSBP or FII has been attached to that carer's behavior. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Münchausen_syndrome_by_proxy |
What I seek to caution against is the use of the label as a substitute for factual analysis and risk assessment. In his book Playing Sick (2004), Marc Feldman notes that such findings have been in the minority among U.S. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Münchausen_syndrome_by_proxy |
and even Australian courts. Pediatricians and other physicians have banded together to oppose limitations on child-abuse professionals whose work includes FII detection. The April 2007 issue of the journal Pediatrics specifically mentions Meadow as an individual who has been inappropriately maligned. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Münchausen_syndrome_by_proxy |
In the context of child protection (a child being removed from the custody of a parent), the Australian state of New South Wales uses a "on the balance of probabilities" test, rather than a "beyond reasonable doubt" test. Therefore, in the case "The Secretary, Department of Family and Community Services and the Harper Children NSWChC 3", the expert testimony of Professor David Isaacs that a certain blood test result was "highly unlikely" to occur naturally or accidentally (without any speculation about motive), was sufficient to refuse the return of the affected child and his younger siblings to the mother. The children had initially been removed from the mother's custody after the blood test results became known. The fact that the affected child quickly improved both medically and behaviourly after being removed was also a factor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Münchausen_syndrome_by_proxy |
In most legal proceedings, one party has a burden of proof, which requires it to present prima facie evidence for all of the essential facts in its case. If it cannot, its claim may be dismissed without any need for a response by other parties. A prima facie case might not stand or fall on its own; if an opposing party introduces other evidence or asserts an affirmative defense, it can be reconciled only with a full trial. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prima_facie_duties |
Sometimes the introduction of prima facie evidence is informally called making a case or building a case. For example, in a trial under criminal law, the prosecution has the burden of presenting prima facie evidence of each element of the crime charged against the defendant. In a murder case, this would include evidence that the victim was in fact dead, that the defendant's act caused the death, and that the defendant acted with malice aforethought. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prima_facie_duties |
If no party introduces new evidence, the case stands or falls just by the prima facie evidence or lack thereof, respectively. Prima facie evidence does not need to be conclusive or irrefutable: at this stage, evidence rebutting the case is not considered, only whether any party's case has enough merit to take it to a full trial. In common law jurisdictions such as the United Kingdom and the United States, the prosecution in a criminal trial must disclose all evidence to the defense. This includes the prima facie evidence. An aim of the doctrine of prima facie is to prevent litigants from bringing spurious charges which simply waste all other parties' time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prima_facie_duties |
In most legal systems the parties are free to specify in what circumstances the appointment of an arbitrator may be revoked. In default, most legal systems provide either that (i) the parties to the dispute must act jointly to remove an arbitrator, or (ii) the other members of the arbitral tribunal must act to remove the arbitrator, and/or (iii) the court must act to remove an arbitrator. Most legal systems reserve a power to the court to remove arbitrators who are unfit to act, or are not impartial. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitral_tribunal |
In most legal systems, a bank deposit is not a bailment. In other words, the funds deposited are no longer the property of the customer. The funds become the property of the bank, and the customer in turn receives an asset called a deposit account (a checking or savings account). That deposit account is a liability on the balance sheet of the bank.Each bank is legally authorized to issue credit up to a specified multiple of its reserves, so reserves available to satisfy payment of deposit liabilities are less than the total amount which the bank is obligated to pay in satisfaction of demand deposits. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_reserve_banking |
Largely, fractional-reserve banking functions smoothly, as relatively few depositors demand payment at any given time, and banks maintain enough of a buffer of reserves to cover depositors' cash withdrawals and other demands for funds. However, during a bank run or a generalized financial crisis, demands for withdrawal can exceed the bank's funding buffer, and the bank will be forced to raise additional reserves to avoid defaulting on its obligations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_reserve_banking |
A bank can raise funds from additional borrowings (e.g., by borrowing in the interbank lending market or from the central bank), by selling assets, or by calling in short-term loans. If creditors are afraid that the bank is running out of reserves or is insolvent, they have an incentive to redeem their deposits as soon as possible before other depositors access the remaining reserves. Thus the fear of a bank run can actually precipitate the crisis.Many of the practices of contemporary bank regulation and central banking—including centralized clearing of payments, central bank lending to member banks, regulatory auditing, and government-administered deposit insurance—are designed to prevent the occurrence of such bank runs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_reserve_banking |
In most legal systems, a deposit of funds in a bank is not a bailment - that is, the actual funds deposited by a person in a bank cease to be the property of the depositor and become the property of the bank. The depositor acquires a claim against the bank for the sum deposited but not to the actual cash handed over to the bank. In accounting terms, the bank creates ("opens") an account in the name of the depositor or a name directed by the depositor in which the amount received by it is recorded as a transaction. The deposit account is a liability of the bank and an asset of the depositor (the account holder). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_accounts |
On the other hand, a bank can lend some or all of the money it has on deposit to a third party/s. Such accounts, generally called loan or credit accounts, are subject to similar but reverse principles of a deposit account. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_accounts |
In accounting terms, a loan account is an asset of the bank and a liability of the borrower. Loan accounts may be unsecured or secured by the borrower, and they may be guaranteed by a third person, with or without security.Each financial institution sets the terms and conditions for each type of account it offers, and when a customer applies for the opening of an account, and accepted by the institution, they form the contract between the financial institution and the customer in relation to the account. The laws of each country specify how bank accounts may be opened and operated. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_accounts |
They may specify who may open an account, for example, how the signatories can identify themselves, deposit, withdrawal limits among other specifications. The minimum age for opening a bank account is most commonly 18 years of age. However, in some countries, the minimum age to open a bank account can be 16 years, and accounts may be opened in the name of minors but operated by their parent or guardian. In general, it is unlawful to open an account in a false name. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_accounts |
In most legal systems, the arbitral tribunal is able to rule upon its own jurisdiction (often referred to as the doctrine of "Kompetenz-Kompetenz" in international law). This enables the arbitral tribunal to determine for itself whether: an arbitration agreement is valid, whether the tribunal has been properly constituted under applicable law, and what matters are to be determined by the arbitration under the agreement.The doctrine, although European in origin, has been recognised at common law, and has now been widely codified into national law. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitral_tribunal |
In most liberal democracies, advocacy groups tend to use the bureaucracy as the main channel of influence – because, in liberal democracies, this is where the decision-making power lies. The aim of advocacy groups here is to attempt to influence a member of the legislature to support their cause by voting a certain way in the legislature. Access to this channel is generally restricted to groups with insider status such as large corporations and trade unions – groups with outsider status are unlikely to be able to meet with ministers or other members of the bureaucracy to discuss policy. What must be understood about groups exerting influence in the bureaucracy is; "the crucial relationship here is usually that between the senior bureaucrats and leading business or industrial interests". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_lobby |
This supports the view that groups with greater financial resources at their disposal will generally be better able to influence the decision-making process of government. The advantages that large businesses have is mainly due to the fact that they are key producers within their countries economy and, therefore, their interests are important to the government as their contributions are important to the economy. According to George Monbiot, the influence of big business has been strengthened by "the greater ease with which corporations can relocate production and investment in a global economy". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_lobby |
This suggests that in the ever modernising world, big business has an increasing role in influencing the bureaucracy and in turn, the decision-making process of government. Advocacy groups can also exert influence through the assembly by lobbying. Groups with greater economic resources at their disposal can employ professional lobbyists to try and exert influence in the assembly. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_lobby |
An example of such a group is the environmentalist group Greenpeace; Greenpeace (an organisation with income upward of $50,000,000) use lobbying to gain political support for their campaigns. They raise issues about the environment with the aim of having their issues translated into policy such as the government encouraging alternative energy and recycling. The judicial branch of government can also be used by advocacy groups to exert influence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_lobby |
In states where legislation cannot be challenged by the courts, like the UK, advocacy groups are limited in the amount of influence they have. In states that have codified constitutions, like the US, however, advocacy group influence is much more significant. For example, in 1954 the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) lobbied against the Topeka Board of education, arguing that segregation of education based on race was unconstitutional. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_lobby |
As a result of group pressure from the NAACP, the supreme court unanimously ruled that racial segregation in education was indeed unconstitutional and such practices were banned. This is a novel example of how advocacy groups can exert influence in the judicial branch of government. Advocacy groups can also exert influence on political parties. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_lobby |
The main way groups do this is through campaign finance. For instance; in the UK, the conservative parties campaigns are often funded by large corporations, as many of the conservative parties campaigns reflect the interests of businesses. For example, George W. Bush's re-election campaign in 2004 was the most expensive in American history and was financed mainly by large corporations and industrial interests that the Bush administration represented in government. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_lobby |
Conversely, left-wing parties are often funded by organised labour – when the British Labour Party was formed, it was largely funded by trade unions. Often, political parties are actually formed as a result of group pressure, for example, the Labour Party in the UK was formed out of the new trade union movement which lobbied for the rights of workers. Advocacy groups also exert influence through channels that are separate from the government or the political structure such as the mass media and through public opinion campaigning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_lobby |
Advocacy groups will use methods such as protesting, petitioning and civil disobedience to attempt to exert influence in Liberal Democracies. Groups will generally use two distinct styles when attempting to manipulate the media – they will either put across their outsider status and use their inability to access the other channels of influence to gain sympathy or they may put across a more ideological agenda. Traditionally, a prime example of such a group were the trade-unions who were the so-called "industrial" muscle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_lobby |
Trade-unions would campaign in the forms of industrial action and marches for workers rights, these gained much media attention and sympathy for their cause. In the United States, the Civil Rights Movement gained much of its publicity through civil disobedience; African Americans would simply disobey the racist segregation laws to get the violent, racist reaction from the police and white Americans. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_lobby |
This violence and racism was then broadcast all over the world, showing the world just how one sided the race 'war' in America actually was. Advocacy group influence has also manifested itself in supranational bodies that have arisen through globalisation. Groups that already had a global structure such as Greenpeace were better able to adapt to globalisation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_lobby |
Greenpeace, for example, has offices in over 30 countries and has an income of $50 million annually. Groups such as these have secured the nature of their influence by gaining status as nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), many of which oversee the work of the UN and the EU from their permanent offices in America and Europe. Group pressure by supranational industries can be exerted in a number of ways: "through direct lobbying by large corporations, national trade bodies and 'peak' associations such as the European Round Table of Industrialists". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_lobby |
In most localities, the Rite of Betrothal (also known as 'blessing an engaged couple' or 'declaration of intention') as a precursor to Holy Matrimony is an optional practice in traditional forms of Christianity today that blesses and ratifies the intention of two Christians to marry one another. Many Christian denominations provide liturgies for Christian betrothal, which often feature prayer, Bible readings, a blessing of the engagement rings (in cultures in which rings are used), and a blessing of the couple. A betrothal makes what a couple promises to one another sanctified by God and the Church. A Christian engagement (betrothal) ceremony, which may be followed with a party, is normative in certain parts of the world, as with the Christians of India and Pakistan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_marriage |
In most localities, the prime mover is required to have a backup drive; this is usually provided by a Diesel engine that can operate during power outages. The purpose of the backup is to permit clearing the rope to ensure the safety of passengers; it usually is much less powerful and is not used for normal operation. The secondary drive connects with the drive shaft before the gear box, usually with a chain coupling. Some chairlifts are also equipped with an auxiliary drive, to be used to continue regular operation in the event of a problem with the prime mover. Some lifts even have a hydrostatic coupling so the driveshaft of a snowcat can drive the chairlift. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chair_lifts |
In most locations, the largest constituent is the principal lunar semi-diurnal, also known as the M2 tidal constituent or M2 tidal constituent. Its period is about 12 hours and 25.2 minutes, exactly half a tidal lunar day, which is the average time separating one lunar zenith from the next, and thus is the time required for the Earth to rotate once relative to the Moon. Simple tide clocks track this constituent. The lunar day is longer than the Earth day because the Moon orbits in the same direction the Earth spins. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_phase |
This is analogous to the minute hand on a watch crossing the hour hand at 12:00 and then again at about 1:05½ (not at 1:00). The Moon orbits the Earth in the same direction as the Earth rotates on its axis, so it takes slightly more than a day—about 24 hours and 50 minutes—for the Moon to return to the same location in the sky. During this time, it has passed overhead (culmination) once and underfoot once (at an hour angle of 00:00 and 12:00 respectively), so in many places the period of strongest tidal forcing is the above-mentioned, about 12 hours and 25 minutes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_phase |
The moment of highest tide is not necessarily when the Moon is nearest to zenith or nadir, but the period of the forcing still determines the time between high tides. Because the gravitational field created by the Moon weakens with distance from the Moon, it exerts a slightly stronger than average force on the side of the Earth facing the Moon, and a slightly weaker force on the opposite side. The Moon thus tends to "stretch" the Earth slightly along the line connecting the two bodies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_phase |
The solid Earth deforms a bit, but ocean water, being fluid, is free to move much more in response to the tidal force, particularly horizontally (see equilibrium tide). As the Earth rotates, the magnitude and direction of the tidal force at any particular point on the Earth's surface change constantly; although the ocean never reaches equilibrium—there is never time for the fluid to "catch up" to the state it would eventually reach if the tidal force were constant—the changing tidal force nonetheless causes rhythmic changes in sea surface height. When there are two high tides each day with different heights (and two low tides also of different heights), the pattern is called a mixed semi-diurnal tide. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_phase |
In most logical systems, negation, material conditional and false are related as: ¬p ⇔ (p → ⊥)In fact, this is the definition of negation in some systems, such as intuitionistic logic, and can be proven in propositional calculi where negation is a fundamental connective. Because p → p is usually a theorem or axiom, a consequence is that the negation of false (¬ ⊥) is true. A contradiction is the situation that arises when a statement that is assumed to be true is shown to entail false (i.e., φ ⊢ ⊥). Using the equivalence above, the fact that φ is a contradiction may be derived, for example, from ⊢ ¬φ. A statement that entails false itself is sometimes called a contradiction, and contradictions and false are sometimes not distinguished, especially due to the Latin term falsum being used in English to denote either, but false is one specific proposition. Logical systems may or may not contain the principle of explosion (ex falso quodlibet in Latin), ⊥ ⊢ φ for all φ. By that principle, contradictions and false are equivalent, since each entails the other. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_(logic) |
In most logical systems, one proves a statement of the form "P iff Q" by proving either "if P, then Q" and "if Q, then P", or "if P, then Q" and "if not-P, then not-Q". Proving these pairs of statements sometimes leads to a more natural proof, since there are not obvious conditions in which one would infer a biconditional directly. An alternative is to prove the disjunction "(P and Q) or (not-P and not-Q)", which itself can be inferred directly from either of its disjuncts—that is, because "iff" is truth-functional, "P iff Q" follows if P and Q have been shown to be both true, or both false. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_and_only_if |
In most logics, weakening is either an inference rule or a metatheorem if the logic doesn't have an explicit rule. Notable exceptions are: Relevance logic, where every premise is necessary for the conclusion. Linear logic, which lacks monotonicity and idempotency of entailment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotonic_logic |
In most longarms, the barrel is firmly attached to the receiver and does not move relative to the receiver during operations. Most semiautomatic pistols firing the higher powered pistol cartridges use a locked-breech design. The action is manually cycled by moving the slide rearward. The slide contains the breechblock and is initially locked to the barrel so that the combined assembly move together. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breech_block |
A short movement trips the mechanism to unlock the barrel from the slide assembly, allowing the breech to open. When fired, recoil results in the same action. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breech_block |
In many instances, the barrel and breechblock remain in-line. In the Browning Hi-Power and Colt's M1911 pistol, the barrel is tilted slightly to release it from interlocking ribs, so in this respect, it may be likened to a tilting breechblock, even though it is the barrel and not the breechblock that tilts. This type of floating configuration and recoil operation is not confined to pistols and may be found in machine guns and auto-firing cannons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breech_block |
In most low-speed and low-pressure cases, rotating stall comes prior to compressor surge; however, a general cause-effect relation between rotating stall and compressor surge has not been determined yet. On a constant speed line of a compressor, the mass flow rate decreases as the pressure delivered by the compressor gets higher. Internal flows of the compressor are in a very large adverse pressure gradient which tends to destabilize the flow and cause flow separation. A fully developed compressor surge can be modeled as a one-dimensional global instability of a compression system which typically consists of inlet ducts, compressors, exit ducts, gas reservoir, and throttle valve. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surge_in_compressors |
A cycle of compressor surge can be divided into several phases. If the throttle valve is turned to be a very small opening, the gas reservoir would have a positive net flux. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surge_in_compressors |
The pressure in the reservoir keeps increasing and then exceeds the pressure at compressor exit, thus resulting in an adverse pressure gradient in exit ducts. This adverse pressure gradient naturally decelerates flows in the whole system and reduces the mass flow rate. The slope of a constant speed line near surge line is usually zero or even positive, which implies that the compressor cannot provide a much higher pressure as lowering the mass flow rate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surge_in_compressors |
Thus, the adverse pressure gradient could not be suppressed by the compressor and the system would rapidly involve an overshoot of adverse pressure gradient which would dramatically reduce the mass flow rate or even cause flows to reverse. On the other hand, the pressure in the reservoir would gradually drop due to less flux delivered by the compressor, thus rebuilding a favorable pressure gradient in exit ducts. And then the mass flow rate would be recovered, and the compressor is back to work on a constant speed line again, which would eventually trigger the next surge cycle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surge_in_compressors |
Therefore, compressor surge is a process which keeps breaking the flow path of a compression system down and rebuilding it. Several rules of thumb can be inferred from the interpretation above. Compressor surge in a system with a small gas reservoir is high-frequency and low-amplitude whereas a large gas reservoir leads to low-frequency and high-amplitude compressor surge; another rule of thumb is that compressor surge happens in a compressor with a large external volume and compressor stall tends to show up in a system with a short exit duct. It is also worth noting that the surge line of a compressor can have small variations in different systems, such as a test bench or an engine. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surge_in_compressors |
In most macOS applications, the key works differently than on other platforms. When the key is pressed, the window scrolls to the bottom, while the cursor position does not change at all; that is, the End key is tied to the window, not the text box being edited. On Apple keyboards that do not have an End key, one can press ⌥ Option+→ for the End key functionality described above. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_key |
To get the same result as the Windows platform (that is, going to the end of the current line of text), press ⌘ Command+→. In most single-line text fields, you can also instead press the down arrow key. An application can be used to change this behaviour. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_key |
In most major countries, the expectation is that escalator users wishing to stand keep to one side to allow others to climb past them on the other. Due to historical design purposes, riders in Canada, Germany, Hong Kong, Taiwan, the United Kingdom, France and the United States are expected to stand on the right and walk on the left. However, in Australia and New Zealand, the opposite is the case. Practice may differ from city to city within countries: in Osaka, riders stand on the right, whereas in Tokyo (and most other Japanese cities), riders stand on the left.In certain high-traffic systems, including the East Japan Railway Company and the Prague metro, escalator users are encouraged to stand on whichever side they choose, with the aim of preventing wear and tear and asymmetrical burdening. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escalator |
All Tokyo metro stations also have posters next to the escalators that ask users not to walk but instead to stand on either side. The practice of standing on one side and walking on the other may cause uneven wear on escalator mechanisms.Transport for London trialed standing on both sides (no walking) for a period of several months in 2016. This increased capacity and eliminated queues approaching the escalator during peak travel times. A follow-up report was released several months later with no recommendation to continue the practice. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escalator |
In most major handicapping systems, a golfer does not use their exact handicap (or handicap index) directly, but use it to produce their playing or course handicap. For some systems, this means simply rounding the exact handicap to the nearest whole number; however, systems that use slope ratings require a more complex calculation to produce a course handicap with some also factoring in the course rating: Course handicap = ( handicap index × slope rating ) 113 {\displaystyle {\mbox{Course handicap}}={\frac {({\mbox{handicap index}}\times {\mbox{slope rating}})}{\mbox{113}}}} or Course handicap = ( handicap index × slope rating ) 113 + ( course rating − par ) {\displaystyle {\mbox{Course handicap}}={\frac {({\mbox{handicap index}}\times {\mbox{slope rating}})}{\mbox{113}}}+({\mbox{course rating}}-{\mbox{par}})} The USGA and Golf Australia systems use the first calculation; the WHS, EGA, and Golf RSA systems use the second. Under CONGU's Unified Handicapping System the exact handicap is rounded to the nearest whole number to produce the playing handicap, and in the Argentinian system the exact handicap is used directly. A playing handicap may also refer to the stroke allowance for a given competition dependent on playing format, and is generally calculated as a percentage of the course handicap. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golf_handicap |
In most major religions, backbiting is considered a sin. Leaders of the Baháʼí Faith condemned it as the worst of sins as it destroyed the 'life of the soul' and provoked divine wrath. In Buddhism, backbiting goes against the ideal of right speech. Saint Thomas Aquinas classified it as a mortal sin, given that, as with other mortal sins, the act attains its perfection, that is, the act is committed with full knowledge and full consent of the will. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backbiting |
Islam considers it to be a major sin and the Qur'an compares it to the abhorrent act of eating the flesh of one's dead brother. Additionally, it is not permissible for one to keep quiet and listen to backbiting. In Judaism, backbiting is known as hotzaat shem ra (spreading a bad name) and is considered a severe sin. in the 19th century, Charlotte Elizabeth wrote an account of backbiting for the moral education of children in places such as Sunday school. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backbiting |
In most mammalian species, the mother bites through the cord and consumes the placenta, primarily for the benefit of prostaglandin on the uterus after birth. This is known as placentophagy. However, it has been observed in zoology that chimpanzees apply themselves to nurturing their offspring, and keep the fetus, cord, and placenta intact until the cord dries and detaches the next day. The placenta exists in most mammals and some reptiles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placental_expulsion |
It is probably polyphyletic, having arisen separately in evolution rather than being inherited from one distant common ancestor. Studies on pigs indicate that the duration of placenta expulsion increases significantly with increased duration of farrowing. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placental_expulsion |
In most mammals (excluding primates and species that have a cloaca), the urogenital sinus refers to the sinus in which the openings to the female's urethra and vagina are found. The urogenital sinus of non-primates is homologous to the vulval vestibule of primates. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urogenital_sinus |
In most mammals, sex is determined by presence of the Y chromosome. This makes individuals with XXY and XYY karyotypes males, and individuals with X and XXX karyotypes females.In the 1930s, Alfred Jost determined that the presence of testosterone was required for Wolffian duct development in the male rabbit.SRY is a sex-determining gene on the Y chromosome in the therians (placental mammals and marsupials). Non-human mammals use several genes on the Y chromosome.Not all male-specific genes are located on the Y chromosome. Platypus, a monotreme, use five pairs of different XY chromosomes with six groups of male-linked genes, AMH being the master switch. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XY_male |
In most mammals, the axons of retinal ganglion cells are not myelinated where they pass through the retina. However, the parts of axons that are beyond the retina, are myelinated. This myelination pattern is functionally explained by the relatively high opacity of myelin—myelinated axons passing over the retina would absorb some of the light before it reaches the photoreceptor layer, reducing the quality of vision. There are human eye diseases where this does, in fact, happen. In some vertebrates, such as the chicken, the ganglion cell axons are myelinated inside the retina. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell |
In most mathematical work beyond practical geometry, angles are typically measured in radians rather than degrees. This is for a variety of reasons; for example, the trigonometric functions have simpler and more "natural" properties when their arguments are expressed in radians. These considerations outweigh the convenient divisibility of the number 360. One complete turn (360°) is equal to 2π radians, so 180° is equal to π radians, or equivalently, the degree is a mathematical constant: 1° = π⁄180. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_(geometry) |
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