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But Rousseau acknowledges that every society "must choose between making a man or a citizen" and that the best "social institutions are those that best know how to denature man, to take his absolute existence from him in order to give him a relative one and transport the I into the common unity". To "denature man" for ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education |
Instead, it is an effort to explain how natural man can live within society. Many of Rousseau's suggestions in this book are restatements of the ideas of other educational reformers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education |
For example, he endorses Locke's program of "harden bodies against the intemperance of season, climates, elements; against hunger, thirst, fatigue". He also emphasizes the perils of swaddling and the benefits of mothers nursing their own infants. Rousseau's enthusiasm for breastfeeding led him to argue: "ut let mothers... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education |
The second book concerns the initial interactions of the child with the world. Rousseau believed that at this phase the education of children should be derived less from books and more from the child's interactions with the world, with an emphasis on developing the senses, and the ability to draw inferences from them. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education |
The father takes the boy out flying kites, and asks the child to infer the position of the kite by looking only at the shadow. This is a task that the child has never specifically been taught, but through inference and understanding of the physical world, the child is able to succeed in his task. In some ways, this app... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education |
The third book concerns the selection of a trade. Rousseau believed it necessary that the child must be taught a manual skill appropriate to his gender and age, and suitable to his inclinations, by worthy role models. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education |
Once Emile is physically strong and learns to carefully observe the world around him, he is ready for the last part of his education—sentiment: "We have made an active and thinking being. It remains for us, in order to complete the man, only to make a loving and feeling being—that is to say, to perfect reason by sentim... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education |
According to Rousseau, children cannot understand abstract concepts such as the soul before the age of about fifteen or sixteen, so to introduce religion to them is dangerous. He writes: "It is a lesser evil to be unaware of the divinity than to offend it". Moreover, because children are incapable of understanding the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education |
Book IV also contains the famous "Profession of Faith of the Savoyard Vicar", the section that was largely responsible for the condemnation of Emile and the one most frequently excerpted and published independently of its parent tome. Rousseau writes at the end of the "Profession": "I have transcribed this writing not ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education |
In Book V, Rousseau turns to the education of Sophie, Emile's wife-to-be. Rousseau begins his description of Sophie, the ideal woman, by describing the inherent differences between men and women in a famous passage: In what they have in common, they are equal. Where they differ, they are not comparable. A perfect woman... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education |
In the union of the sexes each contributes equally to the common aim, but not in the same way. From this diversity arises the first assignable difference in the moral relations of the two sexes. For Rousseau, "everything man and woman have in common belongs to the species, and ... everything which distinguishes them be... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education |
Rousseau states that women should be "passive and weak", "put up little resistance" and are "made specially to please man"; he adds, however, that "man ought to please her in turn", and he explains the dominance of man as a function of "the sole fact of his strength", that is, as a strictly "natural" law, prior to the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education |
When responding to Rousseau's argument in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, Wollstonecraft directly quotes Emile in Chapter IV of her piece: "Educate women like men," says Rousseau , "and the more they resemble our sex the less power will they have over us." This is the very point I aim at. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education |
I do not wish them to have power over men; but over themselves. French writer Louise d'Épinay's Conversations d'Emilie made her disagreement with Rousseau's take on female education clear as well. She believes that females' education affects their role in society, not natural differences as Rousseau argues.Rousseau als... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education |
In the incomplete sequel to Emile, Émile et Sophie (English: Emilius and Sophia), published after Rousseau's death, Sophie is unfaithful (in what is hinted at might be a drugged rape), and Emile, initially furious with her betrayal, remarks "the adulteries of the women of the world are not more than gallantries; but So... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education |
Throughout the agonized internal monologue, represented through letters to his old tutor, he repeatedly comments on all of the affective ties that he has formed in his domestic life—"the chains forged for itself". As he begins to recover from the shock, the reader is led to believe that these "chains" are not worth th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education |
Rousseau's contemporary and philosophical rival Voltaire was critical of Emile as a whole, but admired the section in the book which had led to it being banned (the section titled "Profession of Faith of the Savoyard Vicar"). According to Voltaire, Emile is a hodgepodge of a silly wet nurse in four volumes, with forty ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education |
Edward Lee Thorndike (August 31, 1874 – August 9, 1949) was an American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia University. His work on comparative psychology and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism and helped lay the scientific foundation for educational psycho... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Thorndike as the ninth-most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Edward Thorndike had a powerful impact on reinforcement theory and behavior analysis, providing the basic framework for empirical laws in behavior psychology with his law of effect. Throu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Thorndike, born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts, was the son of Edward R and Abbie B Thorndike, a Methodist minister in Lowell, Massachusetts. Thorndike graduated from The Roxbury Latin School (1891), in West Roxbury, Massachusetts and from Wesleyan University (B.S. 1895). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
He earned an M.A. at Harvard University in 1897. His two brothers (Lynn and Ashley) also became important scholars. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
The younger, Lynn, was a medievalist specializing in the history of science and magic, while the older, Ashley, was an English professor and noted authority on Shakespeare. While at Harvard, he was interested in how animals learn (ethology), and worked with William James. Afterwards, he became interested in the animal ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Edward's thesis is sometimes thought of as the essential document of modern comparative psychology. Upon graduation, Thorndike returned to his initial interest, educational psychology. In 1898 he completed his PhD at Columbia University under the supervision of James McKeen Cattell, one of the founding fathers of psych... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
In 1899, after a year of unhappy initial employment at the College for Women of Case Western Reserve in Cleveland, Ohio, he became an instructor in psychology at Teachers College at Columbia University, where he remained for the rest of his career, studying human learning, education, and mental testing. In 1937 Thorndi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Thorndike was a pioneer not only in behaviorism and in studying learning, but also in using animals in clinical experiments. Thorndike was able to create a theory of learning based on his research with animals. His doctoral dissertation, "Animal Intelligence: An Experimental Study of the Associative Processes in Animal... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Thorndike was interested in whether animals could learn tasks through imitation or observation. To test this, Thorndike created puzzle boxes. The puzzle boxes were approximately 20 inches long, 15 inches wide, and 12 inches tall. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Each box had a door that was pulled open by a weight attached to a string that ran over a pulley and was attached to the door. The string attached to the door led to a lever or button inside the box. When the animal pressed the bar or pulled the lever, the string attached to the door would cause the weight to lift and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Thorndike's puzzle boxes were arranged so that the animal would be required to perform a certain response (pulling a lever or pushing a button), while he measured the amount of time it took them to escape. Once the animal had performed the desired response they were allowed to escape and were also given a reward, usual... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
When the cats were put into the cages they would wander restlessly and meow, but they did not know how to escape. Eventually, the cats would step on the switch on the floor by chance, and the door would open. To see if the cats could learn through observation, he had them observe other animals escaping from the box. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
He would then compare the times of those who got to observe others escaping with those who did not, and he found that there was no difference in their rate of learning. Thorndike saw the same results with other animals, and he observed that there was no improvement even when he placed the animals’ paws on the correct l... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
He found that after accidentally stepping on the switch once, they would press the switch faster in each succeeding trial inside the puzzle box. By observing and recording the animals’ escapes and escape times, Thorndike was able to graph the times it took for the animals in each trial to escape, resulting in a learnin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
The quickened rate of escape results in the s-shape of the learning curve. The learning curve also suggested that different species learned in the same way but at different speeds. From his research with puzzle boxes, Thorndike was able to create his own theory of learning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
The puzzle box experiments were motivated in part by Thorndike's dislike for statements that animals made use of extraordinary faculties such as insight in their problem solving: "In the first place, most of the books do not give us a psychology, but rather a eulogy of animals. They have all been about animal intellige... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Thorndike's instruments in answering this question were learning curves revealed by plotting the time it took for an animal to escape the box each time it was in the box. He reasoned that if the animals were showing insight, then their time to escape would suddenly drop to a negligible period, which would also be shown... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Thorndike put his testing expertise to work for the United States Army during World War I, participating in the development of the Army Beta test used to evaluate illiterate, unschooled, and non-English speaking recruits. Thorndike believed that "Instruction should pursue specified, socially useful goals." Thorndike be... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Thorndike also stated the law of effect, which says behaviors that are followed by good consequences are likely to be repeated in the future. Thorndike identified the three main areas of intellectual development. The first being abstract intelligence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
This is the ability to process and understand different concepts. The second is mechanical intelligence, which is the ability to handle physical objects. Lastly there is social intelligence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
This is the ability to handle human interaction Learning is incremental. Learning occurs automatically. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
All animals learn the same way. Law of effect- if an association is followed by a "satisfying state of affairs" it will be strengthened and if it is followed by an "annoying state of affairs " it will be weakened. Thorndike's law of exercise has two parts; the law of use and the law of disuse. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Law of use- the more often an association is used the stronger it becomes. Law of disuse- the longer an association is unused the weaker it becomes. Law of recency- the most recent response is most likely to reoccur. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Multiple response- problem solving through trial and error. An animal will try multiple responses if the first response does not lead to a specific state of affairs. Set or attitude- animals are predisposed to act in a specific way. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Prepotency of elements- a subject can filter out irrelevant aspects of a problem and focus and respond only to significant elements of a problem. Response by analogy- responses from a related or similar context may be used in a new context. Identical elements theory of transfer- This theory states that the extent to wh... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
The more similar the situations are, the greater the amount of information that will transfer. Similarly, if the situations have nothing in common, information learned in one situation will not be of any value in the other situation. Associative shifting- it is possible to shift any response from occurring with one sti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Associative shift maintains that a response is first made to situation A, then to AB, and then finally to B, thus shifting a response from one condition to another by associating it with that condition. Law of readiness- a quality in responses and connections that results in readiness to act. Thorndike acknowledges tha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
He claims that eating has a higher degree of readiness than vomiting, that weariness detracts from the readiness to play and increases the readiness to sleep. Also, Thorndike argues that a low or negative status in respect to readiness is called unreadiness. Behavior and learning are influenced by the readiness or unre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Identifiability- According to Thorndike, the identification or placement of a situation is a first response of the nervous system, which can recognize it. Then connections may be made to one another or to another response, and these connections depend upon the original identification. Therefore, a large amount of learn... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Thorndike also believed that analysis might turn situations into compounds of features, such as the number of sides on a shape, to help the mind grasp and retain the situation, and increase their identifiability. Availability- The ease of getting a specific response. For example, it would be easier for a person to lear... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Thorndike's research focused on instrumental learning, which means that learning is developed from the organism doing something. For example, he placed a cat inside a wooden box. The cat would use various methods while trying to get out, but nothing would work until it hit the lever. Afterwards, Thorndike tried placing... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
This time, the cat was able to hit the lever quickly and succeeded in getting out from the box. At first, Thorndike emphasized the importance of dissatisfaction stemming from failure as equal to the reward of satisfaction with success, though in his experiments and trials on humans he came to conclude that reward is a ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Thorndike was a proponent of eugenics. He argued that "selective breeding can alter man's capacity to learn, to keep sane, to cherish justice or to be happy. There is no more certain and economical a way to improve man's environment as to improve his nature." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Thorndike's law of effect and puzzle box methodology were subjected to detailed criticism by behaviorists and many other psychologists. The criticisms over the law of effect mostly cover four aspects of the theory: the implied or retroactive working of the effect, the philosophical implication of the law, the identific... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Thorndike's Educational psychology began a trend toward behavioral psychology that sought to use empirical evidence and a scientific approach to problem solving. Thorndike was among some of the first psychologists to combine learning theory, psychometrics, and applied research for school-related subjects to form psycho... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
He instead thought that schooling should improve upon nature. Unlike many other psychologist of his time, Thorndike took a statistical approach to education in his later years by collecting qualitative information intended to help teachers and educators deal with practical educational problems. Thorndike's theory was a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
He believed that the association between stimulus and response was solidified by a reward or confirmation. He also thought that motivation was an important factor in learning. The Law of Effect introduced the relation between reinforcers and punishers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Although Thorndike's description of the relation between reinforcers and punishers was incomplete, his work in this area would later become a catalyst in further research, such as that of B.F. Skinner.Thorndike's Law of Effect states that "responses that produce a desired effect are more likely to occur again whereas r... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Thorndike's contributions to the Behavioral Psychology Society are seen through his influences in the classroom, with a particular focus on praising and ignoring behaviors. Praise is used in the classroom to encourage and support the occurrence of a desired behavior. When used in the classroom, praise has been shown to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Planned ignoring is used to decrease, weaken, or eliminate the occurrence of a target behavior. Planned ignoring is accomplished by removing the reinforcer that is maintaining the behavior. For example, when the teacher does not pay attention to a "whining" behavior of a student, it allows the student to realize that w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Unlike later behaviorists such as John Watson, who placed a very strong emphasis on the impact of environmental influences on behavior, Thorndike believed that differences in the parental behavior of men and women were due to biological, rather than cultural, reasons. While conceding that society could "complicate or d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Watson argued that the very behaviors Thorndike referred to as resulting from a "nursing instinct" stemming from "unreasoning tendencies to pet, coddle, and 'do for' others," were performed with difficulty by new mothers and thus must have been learned, while "instinctive factors are practically nil".Thorndike's belief... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Thorndike composed three different word books to assist teachers with word and reading instruction. After publication of the first book in the series, The Teacher's Word Book (1921), two other books were written and published, each approximately a decade apart from its predecessor. The second book in the series, its fu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Some words require more emphasis than others, and, according to Thorndike, his list informs teachers of the most frequently occurring words that should be reinforced by instruction and thus become "a permanent part of stock of word knowledge" (p. xi). If a word is not on the list but appears in an educational text, it... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Thorndike contributed a great deal to psychology. His influence on animal psychologists, especially those who focused on behavior plasticity, greatly contributed to the future of that field. In addition to helping pave the way towards behaviorism, his contribution to measurement influenced philosophy, the administratio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Thorndike was a contemporary of John B. Watson and Ivan Pavlov. However, unlike Watson, Thorndike introduced the concept of reinforcement. Thorndike was the first to apply psychological principles to the area of learning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
His research led to many theories and laws of learning. His theory of learning, especially the law of effect, is most often considered to be his greatest achievement. In 1929, Thorndike addressed his early theory of learning, and claimed that he had been wrong. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
After further research, he was forced to denounce his law of exercise completely, because he found that practice alone did not strengthen an association, and that time alone did not weaken an association. He also got rid of half of the law of effect, after finding that a satisfying state of affairs strengthens an assoc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
His work represents the transition from the school of functionalism to behaviorism, and enabled psychology to focus on learning theory. Thorndike's work would eventually be a major influence to B.F. Skinner and Clark Hull. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Skinner, like Thorndike, put animals in boxes and observed them to see what they were able to learn. The learning theories of Thorndike and Pavlov were later synthesized by Clark Hull. His work on motivation and attitude formation directly affected studies on human nature as well as social order. Thorndike's research d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
In 1912, Thorndike was elected president for the American Psychological Association. In 1917 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association. He was admitted to the National Academy of Sciences in 1917. He was one of the first psychologists to be admitted to the association. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Thorndike is well known for his experiments on animals supporting the law of effect. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1932 and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1934. That same year, Thorndike was elected president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Because of his "racist, sexist, and antisemitic ideals", amid the George Floyd protests of 2020, the Board of Trustees of Teachers' College in New York voted unanimously to remove his name from Thorndike Hall. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike |
Weak supervision, also called semi-supervised learning, is a paradigm in machine learning, the relevance and notability of which increased with the advent of large language models due to large amount of data required to train them. It is characterized by using a combination of a small amount of human-labeled data (excl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
The remaining data is unlabeled or imprecisely labeled. Intuitively, it can be seen as an exam and labeled data as sample problems that the teacher solves for the class as an aid in solving another set of problems. In the transductive setting, these unsolved problems act as exam questions. In the inductive setting, the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
The acquisition of labeled data for a learning problem often requires a skilled human agent (e.g. to transcribe an audio segment) or a physical experiment (e.g. determining the 3D structure of a protein or determining whether there is oil at a particular location). The cost associated with the labeling process thus may... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
More formally, semi-supervised learning assumes a set of l {\displaystyle l} independently identically distributed examples x 1 , … , x l ∈ X {\displaystyle x_{1},\dots ,x_{l}\in X} with corresponding labels y 1 , … , y l ∈ Y {\displaystyle y_{1},\dots ,y_{l}\in Y} and u {\displaystyle u} unlabeled examples x l + 1 , …... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
The goal of transductive learning is to infer the correct labels for the given unlabeled data x l + 1 , … , x l + u {\displaystyle x_{l+1},\dots ,x_{l+u}} only. The goal of inductive learning is to infer the correct mapping from X {\displaystyle X} to Y {\displaystyle Y} . It is unnecessary (and, according to Vapnik's ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
In order to make any use of unlabeled data, some relationship to the underlying distribution of data must exist. Semi-supervised learning algorithms make use of at least one of the following assumptions: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
Points that are close to each other are more likely to share a label. This is also generally assumed in supervised learning and yields a preference for geometrically simple decision boundaries. In the case of semi-supervised learning, the smoothness assumption additionally yields a preference for decision boundaries in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
The data tend to form discrete clusters, and points in the same cluster are more likely to share a label (although data that shares a label may spread across multiple clusters). This is a special case of the smoothness assumption and gives rise to feature learning with clustering algorithms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
The data lie approximately on a manifold of much lower dimension than the input space. In this case learning the manifold using both the labeled and unlabeled data can avoid the curse of dimensionality. Then learning can proceed using distances and densities defined on the manifold. The manifold assumption is practical... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
The heuristic approach of self-training (also known as self-learning or self-labeling) is historically the oldest approach to semi-supervised learning, with examples of applications starting in the 1960s.The transductive learning framework was formally introduced by Vladimir Vapnik in the 1970s. Interest in inductive l... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
Generative approaches to statistical learning first seek to estimate p ( x | y ) {\displaystyle p(x|y)} , the distribution of data points belonging to each class. The probability p ( y | x ) {\displaystyle p(y|x)} that a given point x {\displaystyle x} has label y {\displaystyle y} is then proportional to p ( x | y ) p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
If these assumptions are incorrect, the unlabeled data may actually decrease the accuracy of the solution relative to what would have been obtained from labeled data alone. However, if the assumptions are correct, then the unlabeled data necessarily improves performance.The unlabeled data are distributed according to a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
Gaussian mixture distributions are identifiable and commonly used for generative models. The parameterized joint distribution can be written as p ( x , y | θ ) = p ( y | θ ) p ( x | y , θ ) {\displaystyle p(x,y|\theta )=p(y|\theta )p(x|y,\theta )} by using the chain rule. Each parameter vector θ {\displaystyle \theta }... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
Laplacian regularization has been historically approached through graph-Laplacian. Graph-based methods for semi-supervised learning use a graph representation of the data, with a node for each labeled and unlabeled example. The graph may be constructed using domain knowledge or similarity of examples; two common method... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
Within the framework of manifold regularization, the graph serves as a proxy for the manifold. A term is added to the standard Tikhonov regularization problem to enforce smoothness of the solution relative to the manifold (in the intrinsic space of the problem) as well as relative to the ambient input space. The minimi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
The regularization parameters λ A {\displaystyle \lambda _{A}} and λ I {\displaystyle \lambda _{I}} control smoothness in the ambient and intrinsic spaces respectively. The graph is used to approximate the intrinsic regularization term. Defining the graph Laplacian L = D − W {\displaystyle L=D-W} where D i i = ∑ j = 1 ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
Some methods for semi-supervised learning are not intrinsically geared to learning from both unlabeled and labeled data, but instead make use of unlabeled data within a supervised learning framework. For instance, the labeled and unlabeled examples x 1 , … , x l + u {\displaystyle x_{1},\dots ,x_{l+u}} may inform a cho... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
In this vein, some methods learn a low-dimensional representation using the supervised data and then apply either low-density separation or graph-based methods to the learned representation. Iteratively refining the representation and then performing semi-supervised learning on said representation may further improve p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
First a supervised learning algorithm is trained based on the labeled data only. This classifier is then applied to the unlabeled data to generate more labeled examples as input for the supervised learning algorithm. Generally only the labels the classifier is most confident in are added at each step. In natural langua... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
Human responses to formal semi-supervised learning problems have yielded varying conclusions about the degree of influence of the unlabeled data. More natural learning problems may also be viewed as instances of semi-supervised learning. Much of human concept learning involves a small amount of direct instruction (e.g.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_supervision |
Spinal Cord Toolbox (SCT) is a suite of analysis tools optimized for spinal cord images acquired with magnetic resonance imaging. Main features include segmentation, registration and calculation of anatomical metrics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_Cord_Toolbox |
Propseg Automatic spinal cord segmentation. The PAM50 template is an anatomical template of the spinal cord that covers the full spinal cord and brainstem and is available for T1-, T2- and T2*-weighted MRI contrasts. The PAM50 template includes probabilistic segmentation of white matter, gray matter, CSF as well as pro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_Cord_Toolbox |
The template also include segmentation of spinal levels for automatic assessment of metrics at specific locations. A White Matter atlas including 29 partial volume masks of which matter tracts. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_Cord_Toolbox |
Data ethnography is a type of qualitative research where the purpose is to explore the life of data and how they are incorporated in everyday activities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_ethnography |
An ethnography is a qualitative research method that involve the observation of discourse and behavior of a community; its aim is to analyze and understand the culture, decision-making, and social dynamics of a group.It is usually conducted in the form of participant observation over an extended period of time, but it ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_ethnography |
There has been a public concern regarding the size data and how it is consumed, especially with the immense spread of technological devices and sensors that produce huge amounts of data about the world, which is then circulated to a variety of users that include people, businesses, and individuals. Furthermore, It beco... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_ethnography |
Researchers Coletta and Kitchin (2017) conducted a data ethnography where they used extended observation and interviews in a traffic control room in Dublin, and that is to examine the capture, processing, and acting of real-time data that is generated by internet of things technologies.Tanweer et al. (2016) took advant... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_ethnography |
Sciousness, a term coined by William James in The Principles of Psychology, refers to consciousness separate from consciousness of self. James wrote: Instead of the stream of thought being one of con-sciousness, 'thinking its own existence along with whatever else it thinks'...it might better be called a stream of Scio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciousness |
He allowed that he might return to a consideration of sciousness at the conclusion of the book, where he would "indulge in some metaphysical reflections," but it was not until two years later in his conclusion to the abridged edition of The Principles that he added: Neither common-sense, nor psychology so far as it has... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciousness |
Everyone assumes that we have direct introspective acquaintance with our thinking activity as such, with our consciousness as something inward and contrasted with the outer objects which it knows. Yet I must confess that for my part I cannot feel sure of this conclusion. Whenever I try to become sensible of thinking ac... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciousness |
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