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In addition to the United States, the key centers of interest in Parsons today are Germany, Japan, Italy, and the United Kingdom.Parsons had a seminal influence and early mentorship of many American and international scholars, such as Ralf Dahrendorf, Alain Touraine, Niklas Luhmann, and Habermas. His best-known pupil w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talcott_Parsons |
1983. The Structure and Change of the Social System Edited by Washio Kurata (lectures from Parsons' second visit to Japan). 1986, Social Science: A Basic National Resource Edited by S.Z. Klausner & Victor Lidz. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talcott_Parsons |
(Written around 1948). 1991, The Early Essays (Essays from the late 1920s and the 1930s). Edited by Charles Camic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talcott_Parsons |
1993, On National Socialism (Essays from the late 1930s and the 1940s). Edited by Uta Gerhardt. 2007, American Society: Toward a Theory of Societal Community Edited by Giuseppe Sciortino. Paradigm ISBN 978-1-59451-227-8. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talcott_Parsons |
Talcott Parsons and Kenneth B. Clark (eds. ), The Negro American. Beacon Press, 1967. Talcott Parsons (ed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talcott_Parsons |
), Knowledge and Society: American Sociology. New York: Basic Books, 1968. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talcott_Parsons |
(collection of essays with an introduction by Talcott Parsons) Talcott Parsons and Victor M. Lidz (eds. ), Readings in Premodern Societies. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, 1972. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talcott_Parsons |
In 1930 Parson's published a translation of Weber's classic work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. (1905) Translated by Parsons in 1930. (It was the book's first English translation.) Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talcott_Parsons |
Contagious equine metritis (CEM) is a type of metritis (uterine inflammation) in horses that is caused by a sexually transmitted infection. It is thus an equine venereal disease of the genital tract of horses, brought on by the Taylorella equigenitalis bacteria and spread through sexual contact. The disease was first r... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagious_equine_metritis |
Signs in mares appear ten to fourteen days after breeding to an infected or carrier stallion. A gray to creamy vulvar discharge mats the hair of the buttocks and tail, although in many cases, the discharge is absent and the infection is not apparent. Most mares recover spontaneously, although many become carriers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagious_equine_metritis |
Infected mares are usually infertile during the acute illness. However, the infertility only lasts a few weeks, after which pregnancy is possible. Stallions do not show signs of infection. The first indication of the carrier state is lack of pregnancy in the mares covered by the stallion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagious_equine_metritis |
Diagnosis is made by taking samples for bacterial culture from all accessible sites. In mares, this includes the endometrium, cervix, clitoral fossa and sinuses. In stallions, samples are taken from the skin folds of the prepuce, urethral fossa, urethra, and the pre-ejaculatory fluid. Samples are refrigerated and trans... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagious_equine_metritis |
Blood tests for mares are available for detecting antibodies to Taylorella equigenitalis. Blood tests are not possible for stallions. These tests become positive 10 or more days after infection. If positive, they only indicate that the mare has had the disease in the past, and do not indicate whether the mare is a carr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagious_equine_metritis |
Taylorella equigenitalis is susceptible to most antibiotics, although the carrier state in mares is difficult to eliminate. Most mares with acute endometritis recover spontaneously. Recommended therapy is to infuse the uterus with an antibiotic such as penicillin, cleansing the clitoral area with 2% chlorhexidine solut... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagious_equine_metritis |
It is relatively easy to eliminate the carrier state in stallions using local disinfectant. With the stallion's penis dropped and the glans extended from the foreskin, the shaft of the penis, including the folds of the prepuce and the urethral fossa, should be cleansed daily for five days with a 2% chlorhexidine soluti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagious_equine_metritis |
The disease was first reported in 1977 on horse breeding farms in England, when an unusually high proportion of mares were not becoming pregnant. CEM was also officially confirmed in Ireland and Australia in 1977. It was found in United States in 1978 in horses imported to Kentucky from Europe. A second American outbre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagious_equine_metritis |
Physical strength is the measure of a human's exertion of force on physical objects. Increasing physical strength is the goal of strength training. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_strength |
An individual's physical strength is determined by two factors: the cross-sectional area of muscle fibers recruited to generate force and the intensity of the recruitment. Individuals with a high proportion of type I slow twitch muscle fibers will be relatively weaker than a similar individual with a high proportion of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_strength |
Other considerations are the ability to recruit muscle fibers for a particular activity, joint angles, and the length of each limb. For a given cross-section, shorter limbs are able to lift more weight. The ability to gain muscle also varies person to person, based mainly upon genes dictating the amounts of hormones se... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_strength |
There are various ways to measure physical strength of a person or population. Strength capability analysis is usually done in the field of ergonomics where a particular task (e.g., lifting a load, pushing a cart, etc.) and/or a posture is evaluated and compared to the capabilities of the section of the population that... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_strength |
Skeletal muscles produce reactive forces and moments at the joints. To avoid injury or fatigue, when person is performing a task, such as pushing or lifting a load, the external moments created at the joints due to the load at the hand and the weight of the body segments must be ideally less than the muscular moment st... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_strength |
Based on this model, the external moments at each joint must not exceed the muscle strength moments at that joint. Where, Sj is the muscle strength moment at joint, j, and Mj/L is the external moment at the joint, j, due to load, L and the body segments preceding the joint in the top-down analysis. Top-down analysis is... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_strength |
In a 6-segment model, the joints considered are elbow, shoulder, L5/S1 disc of the spine, hip, knee and ankle. It is common to ignore the wrist joint in manual calculations. Software intended for such calculation use the wrist joint also, dividing the lower arm into hand and forearm segments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_strength |
Static strength prediction is the method of predicting the strength capabilities of a person or a population (based on anthropometry) for a particular task and/or posture (an isometric contraction). To predict capability, manual calculations are usually performed using the top-down analysis on a six or seven-link model... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_strength |
NEPSY ("A Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment") is a series of neuropsychological tests authored by Marit Korkman, Ursula Kirk and Sally Kemp, that is used in various combinations to assess neuropsychological development in children ages 3–16 years in six functional domains. NEPSY was designed to assess both ba... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEPSY |
Pediatric neuropsychological assessments evolved from knowledge and experience from the assessment of adults with brain damage. Consequently, early tests were not specifically designed with children in mind and were often normed on small samples of children. The development of the NEPSY was revolutionary as it was spec... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEPSY |
The NEPSY is grounded in developmental and neuropsychological theory and practice. The diagnostic approach originated in the Lurian approach to assessment.NEPSY-II is based on a Finnish instrument, NEPS, originally published in 1980. NEPS included two to five tasks, aimed at 5 to 6-year-olds and was then revised in 198... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEPSY |
In 1990, a Swedish version was also developed (NEPSY), which was standardized in Finland and included an even wider age range. In 1998, the English version was published for the age range 3 to 12.The original version of the NEPSY consisted of five theoretically derived domains: Attention and Executive Functioning, Lang... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEPSY |
The NEPSY-II was published in 2007. One of the first changes of note was the increased age range, allowing for testing of children and adolescents from 3 to 16 years of age. The NEPSY-II test battery also added a new domain, Social Perception, and eleven new subtests in addition to removing four of the old subtests. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEPSY |
The test battery thus consists of six domains comprising 32 subtests. The NEPSY-II also exists in two versions: one for ages 3 through 4 and one for ages 5 through 16. The creators also removed the option for domain scoring, a choice which is still hotly debated today. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEPSY |
The six functional domains below are made up of 32 subtests and four delayed tasks. These domains are theoretically, not empirically, derived. The subtests were designed to assess cognitive abilities related to disorders that are typically diagnosed in childhood and that are required for success in an academic environm... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEPSY |
Subtests: Animal Sorting, Auditory Attention, Response Set, Clocks, Design Fluency, Inhibition & Statue. Language and Communication – phonological processing, receptive language, expressive naming, verbal fluency and rhythmic oral motor sequences. Subtests: Body Part Naming and Identification, Comprehension of Instruct... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEPSY |
Sensorimotor Functions – tactile sensory input, fine motor speed, imitative hand functions, rhythmic and sequential movements and visuomotor precision. Subtests: Fingertip Tapping, Imitating Hand Positions, Manual Motor Sequences & Visuomotor Precision. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEPSY |
Visuospatial Functions – the ability to judge position and directionality, copying of 2-dimensional and the reconstruction of 3-dimensional designs. Subtests: Arrows, Block Construction, Design Copying, Geometric Puzzles, Picture Puzzles & Route Finding. Learning and Memory – memory for words, sentences and faces, imme... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEPSY |
Subtests: List Memory, Memory for Designs, Memory for Faces, Memory for Names, Narrative Memory, Sentence Repetition & Word List Interference. Social Perception (added in the NEPSY-II) – the ability to recognize emotions, to guess what another person is thinking and feeling and empathy. Subtests: Affect Recognition & T... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEPSY |
Each NEPSY-II test is freestanding, though the results of all of the tests of the original NEPSY could be normed together to provide an overall standardized score for each of the domains. The overall score for each domain was dropped in NEPSY-II, because the diagnostic information is strongest at the subtest level and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEPSY |
General assessment takes 45 minutes for preschool ages and 1 hour for school ages, while a full assessment takes 90 minutes for preschool and 2 to 3 hours for school ages. Diagnostic and selective assessment time varies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEPSY |
Up-to-date psychometric norms are based on the standardization of over 1,000 children tested throughout the United States, which enables the comparison of a child's performance to others in the appropriate age group. Several special group studies are included in the NEPSY-II. These groups consisted of 260 children meet... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEPSY |
Unlike other similar batteries, including the original NEPSY, NEPSY-II doesn't have index scores. Furthermore, neither NEPSY, nor NEPSY-II memory subtests provide differentiation in standard scores between delayed free recall and delayed recognition, limiting its usability in certain clinical contexts. The complexity a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEPSY |
NEPSY has been translated or adapted into a number of languages including: Dutch/Flemish, Finnish, French, Norwegian, Portuguese (Brazil), Romanian, Swedish and Italian. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEPSY |
Perspectives on Terrorism (PT) is a quarterly peer-reviewed, open-access online academic journal, covering political violence, terrorism and counter-terrorism, It is published jointly by the International Centre for Counter-Terrorism, in collaboration with Leiden University and the Handa Centre for the Study of Terrori... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspectives_on_Terrorism |
Perspectives on Terrorism was first published by the Terrorism Research Initiative (TRI) in 2007, the same year of that the organisation was founded, by Robert Wesley, Alex P. Schmid and James J.F. Forest in 2007. The Center for Terrorism and Security Studies (CTSS) was established in 2012 at University of Massachusett... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspectives_on_Terrorism |
The journal publishes research from a wide variety of academics in many different disciplines, including political science, sociology, economics, and statistical science. The publication includes both qualitative and quantitative research on political violence and terrorism, as well as resources for academics.Perspecti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspectives_on_Terrorism |
The editor-in-chief is James J.F. Forest (of UMass Lowell), and the Co-editors are Joana Cook, Alex P. Schmid (International Centre for Counter-Terrorism), Tim Wilson (Handa Centre for the Study of Terrorism and Political Violence) and Craig Klein (Institute of Security and Global Affairs), as well as an extensive edit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspectives_on_Terrorism |
The journal is abstracted and indexed in Scopus (since 2017), JSTOR, and Google Scholar, where it is ranked third in Terrorism Studies journals as of April 2021.Its CiteScore as of April 2021 is 1.3, ranking on the 65th percentile in both Law and Political Science and International Relations categories, with clear upwa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspectives_on_Terrorism |
Sham surgery (placebo surgery) is a faked surgical intervention that omits the step thought to be therapeutically necessary. In clinical trials of surgical interventions, sham surgery is an important scientific control. This is because it isolates the specific effects of the treatment as opposed to the incidental effec... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sham_surgery |
A number of studies done under Institutional Review Board-approved settings have delivered important and surprising results. With the progress in minimally invasive surgery, sham procedures can be more easily performed as the sham incision can be kept small similarly to the incision in the studied procedure. A review o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sham_surgery |
In 1939 Fieschi introduced internal mammary ligation as a procedure to improve blood flow to the heart. Not until a controlled study was done two decades later could it be demonstrated that the procedure was only as effective as the sham surgery. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sham_surgery |
In neurosurgery, cell-transplant surgical interventions were offered in many centers in the world for patients with Parkinson disease until sham-controlled experiments involving the drilling of burr holes into the skull demonstrated such interventions to be ineffective and possibly harmful. Subsequently, over 90% of su... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sham_surgery |
Moseley and coworkers studied the effect of arthroscopic surgery for osteoarthritis of the knee establishing two treatment groups and a sham-operated control group. They found that patients in the treatment group did no better than those in the control group. The fact that all three groups improved equally points to th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sham_surgery |
In a 2016 study it was found that arthroscopic partial meniscectomy does not offer any benefit over sham surgery in relieving symptoms of knee locking or catching in patients with degenerative meniscal tears.A randomised controlled trial was carried out to investigate the effectiveness of shoulder surgery to remove an ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sham_surgery |
Sham surgery has been widely used in surgical animal models. Historically, studies in animals also allowed the removal or alteration of an organ; using sham-operated animals as control, deductions could be made about the function of the organ. Sham interventions can also be performed as controls when new surgical proce... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sham_surgery |
In finance, an exchange rate is the rate at which one currency will be exchanged for another currency. Currencies are most commonly national currencies, but may be sub-national as in the case of Hong Kong or supra-national as in the case of the euro.The exchange rate is also regarded as the value of one country's curre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Each country determines the exchange rate regime that will apply to its currency. For example, a currency may be floating, pegged (fixed), or a hybrid. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Governments can impose certain limits and controls on exchange rates. Countries can also have a strong or weak currency. There is no agreement in the economic literature on the optimal national exchange rate policy (unlike on the subject of trade where free trade is considered optimal). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Rather, national exchange rate regimes reflect political considerations.In floating exchange rate regimes, exchange rates are determined in the foreign exchange market, which is open to a wide range of different types of buyers and sellers, and where currency trading is continuous: 24 hours a day except weekends (i.e. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Most trades are to or from the local currency. The buying rate is the rate at which money dealers will buy foreign currency, and the selling rate is the rate at which they will sell that currency. The quoted rates will incorporate an allowance for a dealer's margin (or profit) in trading, or else the margin may be reco... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Different rates may also be quoted for cash, a documentary transaction or for electronic transfers. The higher rate on documentary transactions has been justified as compensating for the additional time and cost of clearing the document. On the other hand, cash is available for resale immediately, but incurs security, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Currency for international travel and cross-border payments is predominantly purchased from banks, foreign exchange brokerages and various forms of bureaux de change. These retail outlets source currency from the interbank markets, which are valued by the Bank for International Settlements at US$5.3 trillion per day. T... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
There is a market convention that rules the notation used to communicate the fixed and variable currencies in a quotation. For example, in a conversion from EUR to AUD, EUR is the fixed currency, AUD is the variable currency and the exchange rate indicates how many Australian dollars would be paid or received for 1 eur... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
This reduces rounding issues and the need to use excessive numbers of decimal places. There are some exceptions to this rule: for example, the Japanese often quote their currency as the base to other currencies. Quotation using a country's home currency as the price currency is known as direct quotation or price quotat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Quotation using a country's home currency as the unit currency (for example, US$1.11 = €1.00 in the Eurozone) is known as indirect quotation or quantity quotation and is used in British newspapers; it is also common in Australia, New Zealand and the Eurozone. Using direct quotation, if the home currency is strengthenin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Market convention from the early 1980s to 2006 was that most currency pairs were quoted to four decimal places for spot transactions and up to six decimal places for forward outrights or swaps. (The fourth decimal place is usually referred to as a "pip"). An exception to this was exchange rates with a value of less tha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Although there is no fixed rule, exchange rates numerically greater than around 20 were usually quoted to three decimal places and exchange rates greater than 80 were quoted to two decimal places. Currencies over 5000 were usually quoted with no decimal places (for example, the former Turkish Lira). e.g. (GBPOMR: 0.765... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
In other words, quotes are given with five digits. Where rates are below 1, quotes frequently include five decimal places.In 2005, Barclays Capital broke with convention by quoting spot exchange rates with five or six decimal places on their electronic dealing platform. The contraction of spreads (the difference betwee... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Countries are free to choose which type of exchange rate regime they will apply to their currency. The main types of exchange rate regimes are: free-floating, pegged (fixed), or a hybrid. In free-floating regimes, exchange rates are allowed to vary against each other according to the market forces of supply and demand.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
A movable or adjustable peg system is a system of fixed exchange rates, but with a provision for the revaluation (usually devaluation) of a currency. For example, between 1994 and 2005, the Chinese yuan renminbi (RMB) was pegged to the United States dollar at RMB 8.2768 to $1. China was not the only country to do this;... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
But that system had to be abandoned in favor of floating, market-based regimes due to market pressures and speculation, according to President Richard M. Nixon in a speech on August 15, 1971, in what is known as the Nixon Shock. Still, some governments strive to keep their currency within a narrow range. As a result, c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
From the perspective of bank foreign exchange trading Buying rate: Also known as the purchase price, it is the price used by the foreign exchange bank to buy foreign currency from the customer. In general, the exchange rate where the foreign currency is converted to a smaller number of domestic currencies is the buying... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Middle rate: The average of the bid price and the ask price. Commonly used in newspapers, magazines or economic analysis.According to the length of delivery after foreign exchange transactions Spot exchange rate: Refers to the exchange rate of spot foreign exchange transactions. That is, after the foreign exchange tran... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
The exchange rate that is generally listed on the foreign exchange market is generally referred to as the spot exchange rate unless it specifically indicates the forward exchange rate. Forward exchange rate: To be delivered in a certain period of time in the future, but beforehand, the buyer and the seller will enter i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Forward foreign exchange trading is an appointment-based transaction, which is due to the different time the foreign exchange purchaser needs for foreign exchange funds and the introduction of foreign exchange risk. The forward exchange rate is based on the spot exchange rate, which is represented by the "premium", "di... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
This exchange rate is the basic exchange rate. The key currency generally refers to a world currency, which is widely used for pricing, settlement, reserve currency, freely convertible, and internationally accepted currency. Cross rate: After the basic exchange rate is worked out, the exchange rate of the local currenc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
According to the payment method in foreign exchange transactions Telegraphic exchange rate Mail transfer rate Demand draft rateAccording to the level of foreign exchange controls Official rate: The official exchange rate is the rate of exchange announced by a country's foreign exchange administration. Usually used by c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
It fluctuates with changes in foreign exchange supply and demand conditions.According to the international exchange rate regime Fixed exchange rate: It means that the exchange rate between a country's currency and another country's currency is basically fixed, and the fluctuation of exchange rate is very small. Floatin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Balance of payments: When a country has a large international balance of payments deficit or trade deficit, it means that its foreign exchange earnings are less than foreign exchange expenditures and its demand for foreign exchange exceeds its supply, so its foreign exchange rate rises, and its currency depreciates. In... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Inflation factor: The inflation rate of a country rises, the purchasing power of money declines, the paper currency depreciates internally, and then the foreign currency appreciates. If both countries have inflation, the currencies of countries with high inflation will depreciate against those with low inflation. The l... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Fiscal and monetary policy: Although the influence of monetary policy on the exchange rate changes of a country's government is indirect, it is also very important. In general, the huge fiscal revenue and expenditure deficit caused by expansionary fiscal and monetary policies and inflation will devalue the domestic cur... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Speculation: If speculators expect a certain currency to appreciate, they will buy a large amount of that currency, which will cause the exchange rate of that currency to rise. Conversely, if speculators expect a certain currency to depreciate, they will sell off a large amount of the currency, resulting in speculation... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Speculation is an important factor in the short-term fluctuations in the exchange rate of the foreign exchange market. Government market intervention: When exchange rate fluctuations in the foreign exchange market adversely affect a country's economy, trade, or the government needs to achieve certain policy goals throu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Research on target zones has mainly concentrated on the benefit of stability of exchange rates for industrial countries, but some studies have argued that volatile bilateral exchange rates between industrial countries are in part responsible for financial crisis in emerging markets. According to this view the ability o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
When inflation rose above 20 percent transactions denominated in dollars became commonplace as Argentinians moved away from using the peso. In 2011 the government of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner restricted the purchase of dollars leading to a rise in black market dollar purchases. The controls were rolled back after ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
A market-based exchange rate will change whenever the values of either of the two component currencies change. A currency becomes more valuable whenever demand for it is greater than the available supply. It will become less valuable whenever demand is less than available supply (this does not mean people no longer wan... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
The transaction demand is highly correlated to a country's level of business activity, gross domestic product (GDP), and employment levels. The more people that are unemployed, the less the public as a whole will spend on goods and services. Central banks typically have little difficulty adjusting the available money s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Speculative demand is much harder for central banks to accommodate, which they influence by adjusting interest rates. A speculator may buy a currency if the return (that is the interest rate) is high enough. In general, the higher a country's interest rates, the greater will be the demand for that currency. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
It has been argued that such speculation can undermine real economic growth, in particular since large currency speculators may deliberately create downward pressure on a currency by shorting in order to force that central bank to buy their own currency to keep it stable. (When that happens, the speculator can buy the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
The real exchange rate (RER) is the purchasing power of a currency relative to another at current exchange rates and prices. It is the ratio of the number of units of a given country's currency necessary to buy a market basket of goods in the other country, after acquiring the other country's currency in the foreign ex... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
For example, the purchasing power of the US dollar relative to that of the euro is the dollar price of a euro (dollars per euro) times the euro price of one unit of the market basket (euros/goods unit) divided by the dollar price of the market basket (dollars per goods unit), and hence is dimensionless. This is the exc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
The Real Exchange Rate (RER) represents the nominal exchange rate adjusted by the relative price of domestic and foreign goods and services, thus reflecting the competitiveness of a country with respect to the rest of the world. More in detail, an appreciation of the currency or a high level of domestic inflation reduc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
An overvalued RER means that the current RER is above its equilibrium value, whereas an undervalued RER indicates the contrary. Specifically, a prolonged RER overvaluation is widely considered as an early sign of an upcoming crisis, due to the fact that the country becomes vulnerable to both speculative attacks and cur... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Unfortunately, this variable cannot be observed. The most common method in order to estimate the equilibrium RER is the universally accepted Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) theory, according to which the RER equilibrium level is assumed to remain constant over time. Nevertheless, the equilibrium RER is not a fixed value ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Consequently, the PPP doctrine has been largely debated during the years, given that it may signal a natural RER movement towards its new equilibrium as a RER misalignment. Starting from the 1980s, in order to overcome the limitations of this approach, many researchers tried to find some alternative equilibrium RER mea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
The FEER focuses on long-run determinants of the RER, rather than on short-term cyclical and speculative forces. It represents a RER consistent with macroeconomic balance, characterized by the achievement of internal and external balances at the same time. Internal balance is reached when the level of output is in line... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
On the other hand, external balance holds when actual and future CA balances are compatible with long-term sustainable net capital flows. Nevertheless, the FEER is viewed as a normative measure of the RER since it is based on some "ideal" economic conditions related to internal and external balances. Particularly, sinc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
By contrast, the BEER entails an econometric analysis of the RER behaviour, considering significant RER deviations from its PPP equilibrium level as a consequence of changes in key economic fundamentals. According to this method, the BEER is the RER that results when all the economic fundamentals are at their equilibri... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Bilateral exchange rate involves a currency pair, while an effective exchange rate is a weighted average of a basket of foreign currencies, and it can be viewed as an overall measure of the country's external competitiveness. A nominal effective exchange rate (NEER) is weighted with the inverse of the asymptotic trade ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
In many countries there is a distinction between the official exchange rate for permitted transactions within the country, and a parallel exchange rate (or black market, grey, unregulated, unofficial, etc. exchange rate) that responds to excess demand for foreign currency at the official exchange rate. The degree by wh... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Uncovered interest rate parity (UIRP) states that an appreciation or depreciation of one currency against another currency might be neutralized by a change in the interest rate differential. If US interest rates increase while Japanese interest rates remain unchanged then the US dollar should depreciate against the Jap... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
In our example, the forward exchange rate of the dollar is said to be at a discount because it buys fewer Japanese yen in the forward rate than it does in the spot rate. The yen is said to be at a premium. UIRP showed no proof of working after the 1990s. Contrary to the theory, currencies with high interest rates chara... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
The balance of payments model holds that foreign exchange rates are at an equilibrium level if they produce a stable Current account (balance of payments)current account balance. A nation with a trade deficit will experience a reduction in its foreign exchange reserves, which ultimately lowers (depreciates) the value o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
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