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After an intermediate period, imports will be forced down and exports to rise, thus stabilizing the trade balance and bring the currency towards equilibrium. Like purchasing power parity, the balance of payments model focuses largely on tradeable goods and services, ignoring the increasing role of global capital flows. In other words, money is not only chasing goods and services, but to a larger extent, financial assets such as stocks and bonds. Their flows go into the capital account item of the balance of payments, thus balancing the deficit in the current account. The increase in capital flows has given rise to the asset market model effectively. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
The increasing volume of trading of financial assets (stocks and bonds) has required a rethink of its impact on exchange rates. Economic variables such as economic growth, inflation and productivity are no longer the only drivers of currency movements. The proportion of foreign exchange transactions stemming from cross border-trading of financial assets has dwarfed the extent of currency transactions generated from trading in goods and services.The asset market approach views currencies as asset prices traded in an efficient financial market. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Consequently, currencies are increasingly demonstrating a strong correlation with other markets, particularly equities. Like the stock exchange, money can be made (or lost) on trading by investors and speculators in the foreign exchange market. Currencies can be traded at spot and foreign exchange options markets. The spot market represents current exchange rates, whereas options are derivatives of exchange rates. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
A country may gain an advantage in international trade if it controls the market for its currency to keep its value low, typically by the national central bank engaging in open market operations in the foreign exchange market, or through preventing the exchange of foreign currency for domestic notes. The People's Republic of China has been periodically accused of exchange rate manipulation, notably by Donald Trump during his successful campaign for the US presidency.Other nations, including Iceland, Japan, Brazil, and so on have had a policy of maintaining a low value of their currencies in the hope of reducing the cost of exports and thus bolstering their economies. A lower exchange rate lowers the price of a country's goods for consumers in other countries, but raises the price of imported goods and services for consumers in the low value currency country.In general, exporters of goods and services will prefer a lower value for their currencies, while importers will prefer a higher value. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate |
Working class education is the education of working-class people. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class_education |
Prior to the 19th century, education for most members of society was elementary and only an elite received advanced education. This was intended to provide members of each social class with an education befitting their expected future status—toil or leadership.Children of the working class have a different educational experience than children of the middle and upper classes. Because of this, working class children can start out life at a disadvantage. Their educational experience may be hindered for several reasons, including influences from their parents, the schools they attend, and their expectations and attitudes, all of which are strongly affected by previous generations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class_education |
The interaction between low class learning and more high class used to be identified and only available for the people who weren't of low class. The treatment among the two each was very different and only taken seriously if they were known as being superior. The classrooms were used to make the children from low classes believe that, because they come from low standards they weren't as good as their peers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class_education |
Children who went to school for education weren’t coming out with the proper variety they needed to be successful. The higher class was known as elite and their education was advanced and gifted. They were in charge scholastically and anyone under them was not receiving the same social or academic opportunity. Overall education has been used to keep the social order and academic order for the superior or elite students rather than all students. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class_education |
The schools in the lower income districts are characterized by overcrowding and lack of resources. This is because the funding of American public schools comes mostly from their district's property taxes. Residential segregation occurs when people segregate themselves based on class and race. This leaves schools in the low income school districts with little because those who are capable of paying higher property taxes move to districts where there are higher taxes and schools are receiving more. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class_education |
For example, in New York City, where efforts are being made to level the playing field, students in the wealthiest school districts are given almost twice as much as students in the poorest district, an annual amount of $13,974 compared to $7,457. When schools lack funding, programs such as special education classes and extracurricular activities are cut back. This causes some working class children to not get the attention and help they require. When schools and teachers are not receiving the goods required to fulfill their duty, students cannot be expected to display the motivation to learn in a flawed system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class_education |
The way parents act in the home and raise their children has a large effect on how children will interact in social institutions. Many social scientists claim that middle class parents practice concerted cultivation, meaning a child's life is filled with organized activities and social interactions with adults. Due to the extent of their interactions outside of the home, the children of concerted cultivation develop a greater mastery of language and are instilled with a sense of entitlement, both of which allows them to become more comfortable when interacting with institutions. On the other hand, many working-class parents practice the accomplishment of natural growth, where children have more control over their free time and are exposed to fewer interactions with adults that are outside of the home. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class_education |
These children are usually left to occupy themselves with activities such as watching TV, playing video games, or playing outside. Working-class parents put less emphasis on planned activities, than their middle class counterparts, because they are less likely to have the funds to pay for them.The problem that comes with these differences in parenting practices is that schools, along with other institutions, are more harmonious with concerted cultivation, the parenting practice of the middle class. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class_education |
Teachers want parents and children to engage and be proactive, but parents and children of the working class feel a sense of constraint that leaves them confused on how to "work the system" and often causes them to become hostile towards schooling. Because working-class parents are often uncomfortable around authority figures, they are less likely to communicate with their child's teacher or become involved in the school. As a result of this, low income school districts have lower involvement in parent teacher conferences. This could also be attributed to the fact that working-class parents often have to hold down more than one job and do not have very much time to help their children with homework or attend school functions. As a consequence, working-class children mature in narrow social settings, receive fewer resources, and feel less entitlement. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class_education |
The children of the working class approach school with a different attitude than those of higher class. This is because their sense of entitlement is lower than that of their middle class counterparts. Working-class students sometimes feel unentitled or that they do not belong in affluent high schools or colleges. Instead of viewing education as a way up in the world, the working class views it as valuable but not as a reality for them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class_education |
For working-class parents, they are more consumed with the tasks of simply getting by and providing for their children than they are with good grades and higher education. Parents pass this survival mentality onto their children and cause a cycle where working class children do not have the same aspirations instilled in them that the middle class does. Only 54% of students whose parents only received their high school diploma go on to pursue their bachelor's degree. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class_education |
This statistic is compared to the 82% of students whose parents received their bachelor's degree that go on to college. First generation students who do go to college experience a culture shock once they get there because they are not as comfortable and sure of themselves as those that have come from a family that has received higher education. A 2012 review of the literature has shown that working-class students have a greater risk of being excluded from social life at universities, including formal activities such as campus-based clubs, societies, and organizations and informal activities such as parties and nonclassroom conversations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class_education |
This is an important problem because social integration predicts student retention, and working class students are twice as likely as middle class students to drop out before their second year of college because they lack the persistence they need to face challenges and succeed in college.The attitude of children born into the working class strongly reflects the way their parents raise them. The outlook and importance of education is not the same as families with wealth. Inheritance plays a strong role in the way parents and children view and value education. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class_education |
There are some ways that this may be changed. In order to break this cycle, working class students might be taught the values of the middle class or the schooling system develop programs that help those students that are not receiving the support and guidance they need from home. The middle class values are the same values that are felt by the authority figures at school; therefore, through teaching working class students to value education and be more involved they will be able to navigate social institutions with greater purpose and poise. The problem could be that working-class parents did not have these values instilled in them; therefore, they are less likely to pass these values on to their children. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class_education |
Schools have been left with the responsibility of being the only places for some children to learn the rules and values that are present in most institutions.Solving the problem of racism within these institutions, causing perpetual problems and nearly impossible change, would take large steps towards rectifying problems within the education system. As long as institutionalized racism exists, problems within the educational system will continue to exist. Due to the lack of resources in needy schools, educational facilities are forced to develop support systems that do not have any additional costs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class_education |
Programs that have been introduced into lower income schools include the following: A specified amount of time set aside every day for homework can help the child better understand. Often working-class parents have neither the time nor the knowledge to help their children with their homework. By providing time for homework during the school day, students who are not receiving the help they need at home are able to receive supplemental instruction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class_education |
Keeping the same teachers for a few years or having separate schools within schools can strengthen relationships. This program allows children and parents to become more familiar with teachers and to form stronger bonds. By strengthening the student and teacher relationship, students are able to receive more guidance from their teachers and grow more comfortable, which may be a lacking opportunity in the home. The setting of daily goals can help children learn how to face challenges and deadlines. By setting the goals in writing at the beginning of every day or week, children learn how to manage and prioritize tasks in order to feel a sense of achievement when the goals are met. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class_education |
Asana, Inc. ( or ), is an American software company based in San Francisco whose flagship Asana service is a web and mobile "work management" platform designed to help teams organize, track, and manage their work. Asana, Inc. was founded in 2008 by Dustin Moskovitz and Justin Rosenstein. The product launched commercially in April 2012. In September 2020, the company was valued at $5.5 billion following its direct listing. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asana,_Inc. |
The co-founders met at Facebook, where Moskovitz, Facebook's co-founder and vice president of engineering, and his colleague Rosenstein created a productivity tool called Tasks. In 2008, the co-founders left Facebook to start Asana. Asana officially launched for free out of beta in November 2011 and commercially in April 2012.In 2014, Asana launched its native iOS app and in January 2015, Asana released its native Android app. In 2016, Asana raised $50 million in Series C financing led by Sam Altman, President of Y Combinator. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asana,_Inc. |
In 2017, Asana integrated with Gmail, and launched its app in French and German.By January 2018, more than 35,000 paying customers were using Asana, including CityFibre, AB-InBev, Viessmann, eBay, Uber, Overstock.com, Navy Federal Credit Union, Icelandair, and IBM. That same year, the company raised $75 million in Series D funding led by Generation Investment Management, a firm backed by Al Gore. In November 2018, Asana raised another $50 million in funding in Series E to invest in international and product expansion.In March 2018, Hiten Shah wrote about the history of Asana as "Asana’s Rise to a $1.5 Billion Valuation".In September 2020, Asana went public on the New York Stock Exchange via a direct public offering. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asana,_Inc. |
In August 2021, Asana dual listed on the Long-Term Stock Exchange.By December 2021, Asana's customer count increased to 114,000 with two million paid seats globally and 739 of these were spending $50,000 or more on an annualized basis. In April 2022, Asana released its annual Anatomy of Work Index. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asana,_Inc. |
The report surveyed the behaviors and attitudes of more than 10,000 knowledge workers globally to highlight differences and year-over-year trends in the modern workplace.Asana and Align Technology announced Asana Smiles for Align in May 2022. This partnership offers Invisalign trained doctors in the U.S. a customizable workflow that helps reduce manual processes and tracks tasks throughout the patient's treatment.In September 2022, Asana had 131,000 customers, while the number of customers spending over $5,000 annually increased to 18,040, up 41%. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asana,_Inc. |
Asana is a software-as-a-service platform designed for team collaboration and work management. Teams can create projects, assign tasks, set deadlines, and communicate directly within Asana. It also includes reporting tools, file attachments, calendars, and goal tracking.In 2022, Asana released features for team organization; this included My Goals, Automatic Progress Updates, and integrations for Google Workspace and Figma. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asana,_Inc. |
In April 2012, Asana released its API to third-party developers. Asana's open API provided a means to read and input information and create programmed automation within the app. The Asana API is a RESTful interface, allowing users to update and access much of their data on the platform.In April 2021, Asana launched Asana Partners, which allows for cross platform integration with its project management software.In July 2021, Asana launched an app for Zoom. The Asana app can be opened within the video-conferencing software Zoom. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asana,_Inc. |
Asana twice received a 4.5 out of 5 from PC Magazine. In 2017, it was an Editors' Choice and was called "one of the best collaboration and productivity apps for teams" and went on to note its "thoughtful design, fluid interactive elements, and generous member allotment." In 2020, it received a Best of the Year award, remarking that it "is one of the best apps for managing tasks, workflows, and—yes—certain kinds of projects" despite not being a full-scale project management platform. Asana was named as one of the Best Workplaces for Parents in the US by Great Place to Work in 2020 and 2021.In 2021, Inc. named Asana to its annual Best Workplace list and one of the Best Led companies. Fast Company named Asana #15 most innovative companies and added the company to its Brands That Matter list. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asana,_Inc. |
Soul dualism, also called dualistic pluralism or multiple souls, is a range of beliefs that a person has two or more kinds of souls. In many cases, one of the souls is associated with body functions ("body soul") and the other one can leave the body ("free soul" or "wandering soul"). Sometimes the plethora of soul types can be even more complex. Sometimes, a shaman's "free soul" may be held to be able to undertake a spirit journey. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_dualism |
The belief in soul dualism found throughout most Austronesian shamanistic traditions. The reconstructed Proto-Austronesian word for the "body soul" is *nawa ("breath", "life", or "vital spirit"). It is located somewhere in the abdominal cavity, often in the liver or the heart (Proto-Austronesian *qaCay). The "free soul" is located in the head. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_dualism |
Its names are usually derived from Proto-Austronesian *qaNiCu ("ghost", "spirit "), which also apply to other non-human nature spirits. The "free soul" is also referred to in names that literally mean "twin" or "double", from Proto-Austronesian *duSa ("two"). A virtuous person is said to be one whose souls are in harmony with each other, while an evil person is one whose souls are in conflict.The "free soul" is said to leave the body and journey to the spirit world during trance-like states, sleep, delirium, death, and insanity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_dualism |
The duality is also seen in the healing traditions of Austronesian shamans, where illnesses are regarded as a "soul loss" and thus to heal the sick, one must "return" the "free soul" (which may have been stolen by an evil spirit or got lost in the spirit world) into the body. If the "free soul" can not be returned, the afflicted person dies or goes permanently insane.In some ethnic groups, there can also be more than two souls. Among the Tagbanwa, a person is said to have six souls - the "free soul" (which is regarded as the "true" soul) and five secondary souls with various functions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_dualism |
Traditional Chinese culture differentiates two hun and po spirits or souls, which correlate with yang and yin respectively. Within this soul dualism, every human has both an ethereal hun 魂 "spiritual soul; spirit; mood" that leaves the body after death and a substantive po 魄 "physical soul; spirit; vigor" that remains with the corpse. Chinese traditions differ over the number of hun and po souls in a person, for example, Taoism has the sanhunqipo 三魂七魄 "three hun and seven po". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_dualism |
Several Inuit groups believe that a person has more than one type of soul. One is associated with respiration, the other can accompany the body as a shadow. Soul concepts of different Inuit groups are diverse; they are not alike. In some cases, it is connected to shamanistic beliefs among the various Inuit groups. Also Caribou Inuit groups believed in several types of souls. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_dualism |
In traditional Bakongo religion, every Kongo person has a "dual soul-mind," called mwèla-ngindu that allows them to exist in the physical world (Nseke) and the spiritual world of the ancestors (Mpémba). The rotation of the sun marks the different seasons of a Kongo person's life as they transition between the four moments of life: conception (musoni), birth (kala), maturity (tukula), and death (luvemba). The right side of the body is also believed to be male, while the left side is believed to be female, creating an additional layer to the dual identity of Kongo people. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_dualism |
The concept of more kinds of souls can be found also in Finnish paganism. See notion of shadow-soul (being able to depart freely the body), e.g. íz in Hungarian folk beliefs. The concept of a dualistic shadow-soul called itse, related to the Hungarian conception, is also part of Finnish and general Baltic-Finnic folklore. The Estonian soul concept has been approached by several authors, some of them using rather complex frameworks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_dualism |
The Bibliographie de civilisation médiévale (BCM) is a multidisciplinary bibliographic database covering Europe, North Africa and the Middle East for the entire period from AD 300 to 1500. It aims to provide a comprehensive, current bibliography of monographs and listings of miscellany volumes published worldwide between 1958 and 2009. This way, it is compatible with the International Medieval Bibliography, which focuses on individual articles in journals and miscellany volumes. The database currently comprises over 65,000 records on every aspect of the Middle Ages. The records are based on the bibliographical supplement to the Cahiers de civilisation médiévale, published by the Centre d'Études Supérieures de Civilisation Médiévale (CESCM) at the University of Poitiers.In 2004, the CESCM has joined forces with the IBM and Brepols Publishers. A joint interface enables the user to search simultaneously for articles in the IMB and monographs in the BCM. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliographie_de_civilisation_médiévale |
Secrets of the Tribe is a 2010 Brazilian documentary film by director José Padilha. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secrets_of_the_Tribe |
This documentary explores the allegations, first brought to light in the book Darkness in El Dorado, written by Patrick Tierney, that anthropologists studying the Yanomami Indians in the 1960s and '70s engaged in bizarre and inappropriate interactions with the tribe, including sexual and medical violations. Scientists accused in this film are among others James Neel, Napoleon Chagnon, Kenneth Good and Jacques Lizot. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secrets_of_the_Tribe |
Premiered at the 2010 Sundance Film Festival, the film was nominated for a Grand Jury Prize. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secrets_of_the_Tribe |
Alice Dreger, an historian of medicine and science, and an outsider to the debate, concluded in a peer-reviewed publication that most of Tierney's claims (the movie is based on claims originally made by Tierney) were "baseless and sensationalistic charges".A detailed investigation of these charges by a panel set up by the University of Michigan found the most serious charges to have no foundation and others to have been exaggerated. Almost all of the lengthy allegations made in Darkness in El Dorado were publicly rejected by the Provost's office of the University of Michigan in November 2000.Sponsel and Turner, the two scientists who originally touted the book's claims, admitted that their charge against Neel "remains an inference in the present state of our knowledge: there is no 'smoking gun' in the form of a written text or recorded speech by Neel. "The American Anthropological Association has since rescinded its support of the book and acknowledged fraudulent and improper and unethical conduct by Tierney. The association admitted that "in the course of its investigation, in its publications, in the venues of its national meetings and its web site, condoned a culture of accusation and allowed serious but unevaluated charges to be posted on its website and expressed in its newsletter and annual meetings" and that its "report has damaged the reputations of its targets, distracted public attention from the real sources of the Yanomami tragedy and misleadingly suggested that anthropologists are responsible for Yanomami suffering".Stephen Broomer points out that, "Tierney wrote a polemical, unscientific book that invoked a scandal. Padilha's film is more evenhanded than this, no doubt because it includes that scandal as a subject, allowing Chagnon an opportunity to defend himself". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secrets_of_the_Tribe |
The 15-minute city (FMC or 15mC) is an urban planning concept in which most daily necessities and services, such as work, shopping, education, healthcare, and leisure can be easily reached by a 15-minute walk or bike ride from any point in the city. This approach aims to reduce car dependency, promote healthy and sustainable living, and improve wellbeing and quality of life for city dwellers. Implementing the 15-minute city concept requires a multi-disciplinary approach, involving transportation planning, urban design, and policymaking, to create well-designed public spaces, pedestrian-friendly streets, and mixed-use development. This change in lifestyle may include remote working which reduces daily commuting and is supported by the recent widespread availability of information and communications technology (ICT). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
The concept has been described as a "return to a local way of life".The concept's roots can be traced to pre-modern urban planning traditions where walkability and community living were the primary focus before the advent of street networks and automobiles. In recent times, it builds upon similar pedestrian-centered principles found in New Urbanism, transit-oriented development, and other proposals that promote walkability, mixed-use developments, and compact, livable communities. Numerous models have been proposed about how the concept can be implemented, such as 15-minute cities being built from a series of smaller 5-minute neighborhoods, also known as complete communities or walkable neighborhoods.The concept gained significant traction in recent years after Paris mayor Anne Hidalgo included a plan to implement the 15-minute city concept during her 2020 re-election campaign. Since then, a number of cities worldwide have adopted the same goal and many researchers have used the 15-minute model as a spatial analysis tool to evaluate accessibility levels within the urban fabric. In early 2023, conspiracy theories emerged that described 15-minute cities as instruments of government repression. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
The 15-minute city concept is derived from historical ideas about proximity and walkability, such as Clarence Perry's controversial neighborhood unit. As an inspiration for the 15-minute city, Carlos Moreno, an advisor to Anne Hidalgo, cited Jane Jacobs's model presented in The Death and Life of Great American Cities.The ongoing climate crisis and global COVID-19 pandemic have prompted a heightened focus on the 15-minute city concept. In July 2020, the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group published a framework for cities to "build back better" using the 15-minute concept, referring specifically to plans implemented in Milan, Madrid, Edinburgh, and Seattle after COVID-19 outbreaks. Their report highlights the importance of inclusive community engagement through mechanisms like participatory budgeting and adjusting city plans and infrastructure to encourage dense, complete, overall communities.A manifesto published in Barcelona in April 2020 proposed radical change in the organization of cities in the wake of COVID-19, and was signed by 160 academics and 300 architects. The proposal has four key elements: reorganization of mobility, (re)naturalization of the city, de-commodification of housing, and de-growth. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
The 15-minute city is a proposal for developing a polycentric city, where density is made pleasant, one's proximity is vibrant, and social intensity (a large number of productive, intricately linked social ties) is real. The key element of the model has been described by Carlos Moreno as "chrono-urbanism" or a refocus of interest on time value rather than time cost. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
Urbanist Carlos Moreno's 2021 article introduced the 15-minute city concept as a way to ensure that urban residents can fulfill six essential functions within a 15-minute walk or bike ride from their dwellings: living, working, commerce, healthcare, education and entertainment. The framework of this model has four components; density, proximity, diversity and digitalization.Moreno cites the work of Nikos Salingaros, who theorizes that an optimal density for urban development exists which would encourage local solutions to local problems. The authors discuss proximity in terms of both space and time, arguing that a 15-minute city would reduce the space and time necessary for activity. Diversity in this 15-minute city model refers to mixed-use development and multicultural neighborhoods, both of which Moreno and others argue would improve the urban experience and boost community participation in the planning process. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
Digitalization is a key aspect of the 15-minute city derived from smart cities. Moreno and others argue that a Fourth Industrial Revolution has reduced the need for commuting because of access to technology like virtual communication and online shopping. They conclude by stating that these four components, when implemented at scale, would form an accessible city with a high quality of life. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
Kent Larson described the concept of a 20-minute city in a 2012 TED talk, and his City Science Group at the MIT Media Lab has developed a neighborhood simulation platform to integrate the necessary design, technology, and policy interventions into "compact urban cells". In his "On Cities" masterclass for the Norman Foster Foundation, Larson proposed that the planet is becoming a network of cities, and that successful cities in the future will evolve into a network of high-performance, resilient, entrepreneurial communities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
In 2013, Luca D'Acci (Associate Professor in Urban Studies at the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy) proposed a city model "where each point can reach continuous natural areas, job locations, centralities, shops, amenities (recreational, medical, cultural), usual daily activities by 15/30 minute walking or within 15 minute biking". He called it a "one-mile green city", or "Isobenefit Urbanism". (The term "isobenefit" is a portmanteau word from "iso" meaning equal, and "benefit", which he defines as advantageous amenities, services, workplaces and green space.) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
In a 2019 article using Shanghai as a case study, Weng and his colleagues proposed the 15-minute walkable neighborhood with a focus on health, and specifically non-communicable diseases. The authors suggest that the 15-minute walkable neighborhood is a way to improve the health of residents, and they document existing disparities in walkability within Shanghai. They found that rural areas, on average, are significantly less walkable, and areas with low walkability tend to have a higher proportion of children. Compared to Moreno et al., the authors focused more on the health benefits of walking and differences in walkability and usage across age groups. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
In their 2019 article, Da Silva et al. cite Tempe, Arizona, as a case study of an urban space where all needs could be met within 20 minutes by walking, biking, or transit. The authors found that Tempe is highly accessible, especially by bike, but that accessibility varies with geographic area. Compared to Moreno et al., the authors focused more on accessibility within the built environment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
Lagos, Nigeria, converted schools that were closed due to the COVID-19 into food markets to prevent panic buying. The program also decreased commute times and shored up food supplies within communities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
In 2019, Singapore's Land Transport Authority proposed a master plan that included the goals of "20-minute towns" and a "45-minute city" by 2040.Israel has embraced the concept of a 15-minute city in new residential developments. According to Orli Ronen, the head of the Urban Innovation and Sustainability Lab at the Porter School for Environmental Studies at Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Haifa, Beersheba, and central Jerusalem have been effective in delivering on the concept at least in part in new developments, but only Tel Aviv has been relatively successful.In the Philippine's largest city, the government of Quezon City announced in 2023 its plans to implement the 15-minute city concept to establish a walkable, people-friendly, and sustainable community for its residents. Influenced by the city of Paris, the government aims to make urban development people-centered and to further reach the city's goal of reaching carbon neutrality by 2050. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
The 2016 Master Plan for Shanghai called for "15-minute community life circles", where residents could complete all of their daily activities within 15 minutes of walking. The community life circle has been implemented in other Chinese cities, like Baoding and Guangzhou.The Standard for urban residential area planning and design (GB 50180–2018), a national standard that came into effect in 2018, stipulates four levels of residential areas: 15-min pedestrian-scale neighborhood, 10-min pedestrian-scale neighborhood, 5-min pedestrian-scale neighborhood, and a neighborhood block. Among them, "15-min pedestrian-scale neighborhood" means "residential area divided according to the principle that residents can meet their material, living and cultural demand by walking for 15 minutes; usually surrounded by urban trunk roads or site boundaries, with a population of 50,000 to 100,000 people (about 17,000 to 32,000 households) and complete supporting facilities." Chengdu, to combat urban sprawl, commissioned the "Great City" plan, where development on the edges of the city would be dense enough to support all necessary services within a 15-minute walk. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
Paris Mayor Anne Hidalgo introduced the 15-minute city concept in her 2020 re-election campaign and began implementing it during the COVID-19 pandemic. For example, school playgrounds were converted to parks after hours, while the Place de la Bastille and other squares have been revamped with trees and bicycle lanes.Cagliari, a city on the Italian island of Sardinia, began a strategic plan to revitalize the city and improve walkability. The city actively solicited public feedback through a participatory planning process, as described in the Moreno model. A unique aspect of the plan calls for re-purposing public spaces and buildings that were no longer being used, relating to the general model of urban intensification.In Utrecht, the fourth-largest city in the Netherlands, 100% of people can reach all city necessities in a 15-minute bike ride, and 94% in a 10-minute bike ride. The local municipality has plans to improve this further by 2040. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
In 2012, Portland, Oregon, developed a plan for complete neighborhoods within the city, which are aimed at supporting youth, providing affordable housing, and promoting community-driven development and commerce in historically under-served neighborhoods. Similar to the Weng et al. model, the Portland plan emphasizes walking and cycling as ways to increase overall health and stresses the importance of the availability of affordable healthy food. The Portland plan calls for a high degree of transparency and community engagement during the planning process, which is similar to the diversity component of the Moreno et al. model. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
In March 2021, Bogotá, Colombia, implemented 84 kilometers of bike lanes to encourage social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic. This expansion complemented the Ciclovía practice that originated in Colombia in 1974, where bicycles are given primary control of the streets. The resulting bicycle lane network is the largest of its kind in the world. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
The city of Melbourne, Australia, developed Plan Melbourne 2017–2050 to accommodate growth and combat sprawl. The plan contains multiple elements of the 15-minute city concept, including new bike lanes and the construction of "20-minute neighborhoods". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
The 15-minute city, with its emphasis on walkability and accessibility, has been put forward as a way to better serve groups of people that have historically been left out of planning, such as women, children, people with disabilities, people with lived experience of mental illness, and the elderly.Social infrastructure is also emphasized to maximize urban functions such as schools, parks, and complementary activities for residents. There is also a large focus on access to green space, which may promote positive environmental impacts such as increasing urban biodiversity and helping to protect the city from invasive species. Studies have found that increased access to green spaces can also have a positive impact on the mental and physical health of a city's inhabitants, reducing stress and negative emotions, increasing happiness, improving sleep, and promoting positive social interactions. Urban residents living near green spaces have also been found to exercise more, improving their physical and mental health. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
While the theory has many potential benefits, including reducing car dependence and promoting walkability in urban areas, it also has limitations. One limitation is the difficulty or impracticality of implementing the 15-minute city concept in established urban areas, where land use patterns and infrastructure are already in place. Additionally, the concept may not be feasible in areas with low population density or in low-income communities where transportation options are limited.Another limitation is that the model is not universal – it is easier to implement in cities with less urban sprawl, like those in Europe, than in cities with extensive sprawl, like those in Asia and North America. Noted exceptions include Chengdu, which used the 15-minute city concept to curb sprawl, and Melbourne, where Sally Capp, the Lord Mayor of Melbourne, stressed the importance of public transit in expanding the radius of the 15-minute city.Furthermore, when the concept is applied as a literal spatial analysis research tool, it then refers to the use of an isochrone to express the radius of an area considered local. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
Isochrones have a long history of use in transportation planning and are constructed primarily using two variables: time and speed. However, the reliance on population-wide conventions, such as gait speed, to estimate the buffer zones of accessible areas may not accurately reflect the mobility capabilities of specific population groups, like the elderly. This may result in potential inaccuracies and fallacies in research models.Georgia Pozoukidou and Zoi Chatziyiannaki write in the journal Sustainability that the creation of dense, walkable urban cores often leads to gentrification or displacement of lower-income residents to outlying neighborhoods due to rising property values; to counteract this, Pozoukidou and Chatziyiannaki argue for affordable housing provisions to be integral to FMC policies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
In 2023, unfounded conspiracy theories about the 15-minute concept began to flourish, which described the model as an instrument of government oppression. These claims are often part of or linked to other conspiracy theories that assert that Western governments seek to oppress their populations, such as QAnon, anti-vaccine theories or anti-5G misinformation. Proponents of the 15-minute concept, including Carlos Moreno, have received death threats.Some conspiracy theorists conflate the 15-minute concept with the British low-traffic neighbourhood approach, which includes license plate scanners in some implementations. This has led conspiracy theorists to assert that the 15-minute model would fine residents for leaving their home districts, or that it would confine people in "open-air prisons". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
Supporters of the conspiracy believe the World Economic Forum (WEF) will take away people's freedom and lock them in their homes using the pretext of climate change. Such beliefs fall within a larger network of conspiracy theories surrounding the concept of a "Great Reset".In a 2023 protest by some 2,000 demonstrators in Oxford, signs described 15-minute cities as "ghettos" and an instrument of "tyrannical control" by the WEF. British Conservative Party MP Nick Fletcher called 15-minute cities an "international socialist concept" during a February 2023 debate in the UK Parliament. Canadian media commentator Jordan Peterson has described 15-minute cities as a "perversion". QAnon supporters have claimed a February 2023 derailment of a train carrying hazardous chemicals in East Palestine, Ohio was part of a deliberate plot to force rural residents into 15-minute cities to restrict their personal freedom. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15-minute_city |
The Global Heritage Stone Resource (GHSR) designation seeks international recognition of natural stone resources that have achieved widespread utilisation in human culture. Details of the “Global Heritage Stone Resource” proposal were first provided publicly at the 33rd International Geological Congress in Oslo in August 2008. However, this initiative was suggested in 2007 to enrich an international acknowledgment of famous dimension stones. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Heritage_Stone_Resource |
At the same conference it was agreed to advance the GHSR proposal under the auspices of “Commission C-10 Building Stones and Ornamental Rocks” of the International Association for Engineering Geology and the Environment (IAEG). Since the Oslo conference the designation has also gained support from the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). As of February 2019, the following had been designated as 'GHSR's: Portland stone Larvikite Petit Granit Hallandia gneiss Podpeč limestone Carrara marble Estremoz marble Lede stone Welsh slate Piedra Mar del Plata Kolmarden serpentine marble Lioz Stone Jacobsville Sandstone Maltese Lower Globigerina limestoneIn July 2019, the following were designated: Lioz limestone Alpedrete granite Bath stone Macael marble Makrana marble Pietra serena Rosa Beta granite Tennessee MarbleIn 2023, the following were designated: Tezoantla tuff Tyndall stone | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Heritage_Stone_Resource |
British wildwood, or simply the wildwood, is the wholly natural forested landscape that developed across major parts of Prehistoric Britain after the last ice age. It existed as the main climax vegetation in Britain for several millennia as the result of the relatively warm and moist post-glacial climate and had not yet been destroyed or modified by human intervention. From the start of the Neolithic period, this wildwood gradually gave way to open plains and fields as human populations increased and began to significantly shape and exploit the land to their advantage. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
The wildwood concept has been especially popularized by ecologist and countryside historian Oliver Rackham in his various worksMost of the modern woodlands that remain in England descend from the original wildwood, but are now in a semi-natural state through management, rotational felling, and exploitation for products such as timber. Where these woodlands have remained ecologically continuous since at least 1600 AD, they are known as ancient woodland. True wildwood is thought to be no longer extant in the UK. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
The history of the British wildwood begins during the Holocene in about 11,000 – 8,000 BC, at the end of the last (Weichselian) glaciation. Although forests have in fact grown in Britain for millions of years, earlier prehistoric forest assemblages were eradicated by glaciations during previous Ice Ages. However, the last glacial retreat was followed by a period of prolonged climatic moderation unbroken by further glacial activity, which eventually gave rise to forests in the form that would probably be broadly familiar to people of Britain today. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
As Britain lost its ice-cover and gradually ceased to be an arctic land, the warming postglacial climate favoured the reestablishment and growth of northward dispersing trees that had previously retreated southwards during the last glacial stage. Since eastern Britain was still connected to the European continent at this time, dry land extended across the English Channel, Irish Sea and North Sea. These were passages via which plants and animals could rapidly disperse to Britain to establish native populations in the more hospitable climate. Because there are no written records or even folk legends of what the prehistoric wildwood might have looked like, analyses of pollen and seeds preserved in stratified mineral deposits as well as radiocarbon dating of macrofossils have been necessary to reconstruct in detail the post-glacial history and floristic composition of these forests. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
Trees were relatively slow to arrive in Britain compared to other early colonizing taxa such as beetles. This may in part be because the distribution of trees in Europe during the last glacial maximum was largely remote from Britain, and the only trees persisting north of the Alps were a few Boreal species such as birch, aspen and Scots pine. During the pre-Boreal period, birch (Betula pubescens and ) was one of the first trees to recolonize the initially barren, disturbed and largely treeless tundra landscape of Britain. This tree probably advanced freely and rapidly from the continent owing to its fast dispersal of seeds by wind and ability to thrive in harsh climates, invading mainly via the land-locked North Sea. Birch formed the earliest wildwood as it spread over almost all of Britain except at high altitudes, with its range extending northwards as least as far as Aberdeenshire. Other less dominant trees and shrubs composing this pre-Boreal wildwood, especially in the North, were aspen, willows and juniper. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
The pre-Boreal period was followed by the Boreal period, which started about 7,500 BC and during which the climate became appreciably warmer and drier. Correspondingly, the composition of the wildwood began to change with the invasion from continental Europe of tree species able to thrive under the new conditions. The next tree after birch to invade Britain was Scots pine, which spread prolifically throughout the country thanks to the efficient and long-range dispersal of its seeds by wind, allowing the tree to colonise even the remotest areas. The success of Scots pine is also attributable to its tolerance of a wide range of soil and climatic conditions, even where these are extreme, so that it was able to maintain large monospecific stands over wide areas of Britain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
It could also out-compete birch by casting a deep shade suppressing growth of birch saplings. By the mid-Boreal period, pine had probably largely replaced birch as the dominant forest species, although these species did temporarily coexist in mixed forests of birch, Scots pine and hazel throughout large parts of Northern England.Pine was followed sequentially by hazel, elm (particularly wych elm), oak, and alder; all of which spread readily throughout Britain except the far North of Scotland. However, the newly arrived species did not suddenly roll up from the south in successive waves of mass invasion, nor did they completely replace the tree species already present. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
Rather, each newly arrived species would have remained relatively rare and advanced in small numbers long before becoming widespread and increasing to its maximum abundance. Moreover, the tree species and floristic composition of the wildwood would have varied across the country in accordance with the local climate, soil type and underlying topography. For example, hazel expanded into Scotland in areas occupied only by birch to form birch-hazel forests, while forests comprising assemblages of oak, elm, and hazel rapidly occupied large parts of lowland England. These specific Boreal tree assemblages were apparently unique to prehistoric Britain, with no modern analogues existing in Europe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
During the Atlantic period, the climate became persistently warmer, wetter and more stable, and the development of the British wildwood culminated with the invasion of new deciduous species from southern Europe such as small-leaved lime. Small-leaved lime arrived in Britain around 5500 – 3000 BC, and it eventually spread to form extensive areas of continuous limewood in the English lowlands, reaching its maximum during the Holocene climatic optimum. Under the moister conditions, alder was also able to thrive, and it became increasingly common and widespread on the fringes of lakes and peat basins.Since the start of this prolonged Atlantic period of apparent climate stability, there was a progressive rise in sea levels that eventually cut off Ireland, then Britain off from the European continent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
Consequently, the newly formed English Channel, Irish Sea and North Sea presented barriers to invasion of more new species, so that natural succession of pre-established species was allowed to take its course over several thousand years. As a result, the landscape of Britain developed into a patchwork of 5 broad wildwood provinces determined largely by local geography. These provinces were (1) pine in the eastern Scottish Highlands; (2) birch in the western Scottish Highlands; (3) oak-hazel in southern Scotland, northern England, most of Wales, and parts of Ireland; (4) hazel-elm across most of Ireland and southwest Wales; and (5) lime in lowland England. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
Lime, elm, and oak were the commonest wildwood trees of the Atlantic period, whilst Scots pine became increasingly rare, being restricted to the Scottish Highlands and dominating nowhere. The wildwood provinces were not strictly subdivided, since they would also have contained small numbers of trees that were commoner in other provinces. The subdivision of the prehistoric British wildwood into several different provinces, each with their own distinct tree assemblage, stands in contrast to the popular preconception that the dominant natural climax vegetation would have consisted entirely of uniform stands of oak. Although oak was widespread in Britain during the Atlantic period and would have been present in the various wildwoods, it would rarely have been the most dominant tree. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
The end of the Atlantic period was characterized by a relatively brief but significant return to cooler and drier conditions, which marks the start of sub-Boreal period. Many changes to the wildwood character occurred during this renewed climatic shift. The most distinctive of these changes was a widespread decline of elm across the country, which is associated with a sudden increase in agricultural weeds such as Plantago species and nettle, as well as early Neolithic settlement. Lime also declined and hazel became more abundant through the impacts of Neolithic peoples on the landscape. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
Pine and birch temporarily spread and became dominant again owing to the cooler and drier conditions. However, in about 700 – 750 BC, the climate became wetter and much colder again, resulting in the extension of peat bogs over much of Ireland, Scotland, and northern England, and destroying large areas of sub-Boreal pine and birch forest.The sub-Boreal period also saw the invasion of even later arrivals to Britain such as beech, hornbeam, and field maple. Beech first appeared in southeast England in about 1,000 BC, and its dispersal from northwest France would have required it to cross the English Channel that had now fully formed. It has been hypothesized that the most likely agents for the dispersal of beech propagules were birds such as jays and ravens. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
From about 8000 BC to about between 4300 and 3100 BC ran the Atlantic climatic period. The wildwood developed under this relatively stable Holocene Atlantic climate, although there were minor temperature fluctuations over the millennia. Conditions were initially cold and dry during the pre-Boreal, which favoured relatively arctic species with wider northerly distributions such as birch, willow, and juniper. Progression towards the climatic optimum during the relatively warm and wet Atlantic period favoured species with more southerly distributions in Europe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
The British Wildwood housed many animals that are now considered extinct or very rare. Such animals include the Aurochs, Beaver, Brown Bear, Wild Boar, Water Voles, Goshawk, Pine Marten, Dormouse, Roe Deer, Red Kite, Turtle Dove, Wolf, Red Squirrel, Osprey, Pearl-Bordered Fritillary, Lynx, White-tailed Eagle, and Wild Horses. Of these animals, the White-Tailed Eagle and the Goshawk has been reintroduced in southern Britain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
There have been animals that existed during the Wildwood period and still exist to this day throughout Britain. Such animals include: Bees, Black Grouse, Curlew, Hedgehog, Lapwing, Mountain Hare, Natterjack Toad, Red Fox, Red Deer, Ring Ouzel, Salmon. Since the eradication of natural British Wildwood, none of the animals that still exist today are naturally from natural wildwood. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
The dynamics governing the structure of the prehistoric climax wildwood have been the subject of strong debate. Given the absence of direct observational evidence, there are two opposing views regarding the structure of the wildwood landscape. The traditional view is that the wildwood was a uniformly tall, static climax forest with an almost completely closed canopy. On the other hand, Dutch ecologist Frans Vera argued that the structure of the prehistoric woodland in western and central Europe comprised a dynamic mosaic of woodland groves, scrub and open grassland regulated by large herbivores and would have reassembled modern wood-pasture, an assumption known as the wood-pasture hypothesis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
Fossil records of closed canopy and open land beetle assemblages now suggest that the structure of the UK wildwood was intermediate between these extremes.During the Mesolithic, the British wildwood ecosystem comprised a relatively closed canopy interspersed with small but significant gaps. The relatively closed state of the canopy is evidenced by the preponderance of shade-tolerant species at this time such as elm and lime. Although impacts of herbivore grazing are acknowledged to have played an appreciable role in shaping the wildwood landscape of Mesolithic Britain, other disturbance factors such as forest fires, insect attacks, flooding, windthrow from storms and natural death of trees are thought to have been more important in creating these woodland gaps. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
During the Neolithic period around 6000 BC, the British wildwood began to decline as the impacts of agriculture became more widespread and persistent, agricultural practices became more sedentary, and farming technology improved with the advent of metal tools. Although Mesolithic peoples had previously cleared forests to create open areas for hunting and gathering, the impacts they exerted would have been minimal and localized.In the English lowlands, lime initially was extensively grubbed up to make way for agriculture, since this tree typically grew on the most fertile, well-drained soils. By the Bronze Age, civilization had proceeded to encroach on much of the wildwood in the remoter upland places such as the Scottish Highlands, northern England, and Wales. It is estimated that by the Iron Age, over 50% of the original wildwood covering Britain had been cleared. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_wildwood |
Michael J. Saks is a professor of law at the Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law at Arizona State University; he holds a secondary appointment in the department of psychology.Saks served as president of the American Psychology-Law Society and as editor of the scientific journal, Law and Human Behavior. For his early work on jury research, he earned the Award for Distinguished Contribution to Psychology in the Public Interest from the American Psychological Association.Saks's primary area of expertise is in the Law and Social Science field, in which he is the fourth most cited current scholar. He has authored over 200 articles and book chapters, and is co-editor of the book series, Modern Scientific Evidence.Saks holds a B.A. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_J._Saks |
from Pennsylvania State University, a M.S.L. from Yale Law School, and a Ph.D. in Social Psychology from Ohio State University. Prior to his appointment at Arizona State, he was on the faculty at the University of Iowa, Georgetown University, and Boston College.Saks got together with Barbara Spellman in 2016 to write a book called "The Psychological Foundations of Evidence Law". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_J._Saks |
Michael J. Saks has been an influential figure in the field of social psychology and has been recognized for his contributions to improving jury functioning. In 1976, the Supreme Court considered the monumental case (Williams v. Florida) in which Williams attempted to have his conviction overturned on the grounds that the jury consisted of only six individuals. The Supreme Court ruled that a jury of six individuals is large enough to fulfill the roles and duties of a jury while representing the community accurately. It was presumed that a jury of six was sufficient to protect its members and promote adequate group deliberation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_J._Saks |
Saks suggested that the Supreme Court should have considered aspects of Group dynamics when making this decision. He explained that modifying jury size is likely to influence: 1. Group Structure: Smaller Juries are more cohesive and individuals tend to participate at more equal rates. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_J._Saks |
Members of larger juries on the other hand, exchange more information. 2. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_J._Saks |
Representativeness: Saks concluded that smaller juries were not as representative as larger juries. That is, if a community was 10% Latino and 90% Anglo, it is probable that approximately 80% of 12 member juries would include at least one Latino member, while only 40% of 6 member juries would consist of any Latinos. 3. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_J._Saks |
Majority Influence: The influence of a majority is more likely in smaller juries, while the influence of a minority would be more likely in a larger group as dissenters are more likely to find at least one other who shares their opinion. Saks disputed that a common error inferred by the Court was the assumption that a 5 to 1 vote in a 6-person jury was equivalent to a 10–2 split in a 12-person jury. In the situation of the 10 to 2 vote, the dissenting individual would be accompanied by a partner while in the 5 to 1 vote he or she faces the majority alone. Considering this phenomenon, Saks concluded that likelihood of a hung jury is more likely in larger-sized juries. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_J._Saks |
SPUR is a nonprofit public policy organization focused on regional planning, housing, transportation, sustainability and resilience, economic justice, good government, and food and agriculture in the San Francisco Bay Area. Its full name is the San Francisco Bay Area Planning and Urban Research Association. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPUR_(San_Francisco_organization) |
SPUR's history dates back to 1910, when a group of city leaders came together to improve the quality of housing after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire. That group, the San Francisco Housing Association, authored a report which led to the State Tenement House Act of 1911. In the 1930s, the SFHA continued to advocate for housing concerns. In the 1940s, the SFHA merged with Telesis, a group of professors and urban planners from UC Berkeley's city planning program led by William Wurster, to become the San Francisco Planning and Housing Association. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPUR_(San_Francisco_organization) |
In 1942, the association landed a major success with the creation of San Francisco's Department of City Planning. Starting in the 1950s, SFPHA advocated for urban renewal projects in San Francisco's largely Black Fillmore neighborhood that would ultimately displace at least 4,000 people and remove 4,700 homes. In 1959, the San Francisco Planning and Housing Association was reorganized into the San Francisco Planning and Urban Renewal Association. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPUR_(San_Francisco_organization) |
The organization served as community advisors for urban renewal projects in San Francisco's Western Addition and Fillmore neighborhoods as part of the federal urban redevelopment program. Under the guise of revitalization of San Francisco as the Bay Area's central city, and a supposed effort to curb suburban sprawl and channel growth back into the urban core, their projects would ultimately displace residents and provide less housing units. Urban renewal also had a strong cultural impact, destroying San Francisco's thriving Black creative community and world-famous jazz scene.Ultimately, 883 businesses and 4,729 households were displaced and 2,500 Victorians were demolished during the Western Addition project that SPUR spearheaded. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPUR_(San_Francisco_organization) |
Today it is widely acknowledged that these projects, and others like them across the country, were detrimental to cities as they resulted in the destruction of tight-knit communities and the displacement of people of color, especially African Americans. In 1977, reflecting a growing focus on fiscal policy and an awareness of the failures of Modernist planning practices, the organization was renamed to the San Francisco Planning and Urban Research Association.The group has helped shape some of the most important planning decisions in the region, from the founding of the Bay Area Rapid Transit system to the preservation of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area. In addition to shaping policy at the local level, SPUR has developed state legislation to advance affordable housing, sustainable transportation and renewable energy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPUR_(San_Francisco_organization) |
Over the years, the organization has grown to more than 6,000 members and has diversified its focus, analyzing subjects from sea-level rise and renewable energy to food security and guaranteed income programs. SPUR also provides annual analysis and voting recommendations on California, San Francisco San José and Oakland ballot measures. In June 2009, SPUR moved into new headquarters at 654 Mission Street. This location houses the majority of SPUR's staff, as well as a gallery and meeting space for SPUR's regular hosted talks.In 2012, SPUR initiated a long-range plan to work in all three of the Bay Area's central cities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPUR_(San_Francisco_organization) |
The organization began work in San José in 2012 and Oakland in 2015, adding "Bay Area" to its name to reflect its broader scope. In 2020, recognizing the role that planning, housing and transportation policies of the past have played in systemic racial injustice, SPUR made a shift to center equity in its work, publishing an equity platform and adding a policy area focused on economic justice. A year later, the organization published the SPUR Regional Strategy, a vision for the Bay Area of 2070 as an "equitable, sustainable and prosperous region where all people thrive". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPUR_(San_Francisco_organization) |
The legacy of urban renewal continues today. Residents displaced through redevelopment moved into public housing, many of which have now fallen into dangerous disrepair. A 2012 report said, "A number of the black San Franciscans...shared a belief that they could be moved and shifted around at the whim of the city or the SFRA. Fillmore...community residents often view current redevelopment projects in their neighborhoods through a similar lens." SPUR has not materially addressed its legacy of what James Baldwin called "Negro removal” and the period of Urban Renewal is not acknowledged in their website's timeline of events. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPUR_(San_Francisco_organization) |
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