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Social loafing can have adverse effects on a group or an individual in the workplace. Some individuals can be seen as lazy or not team players. It can have an impact on the motivation of the whole group.
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Individuals within a group can also be affected by social loafing. Instead of focusing on excellence and achieving a goal, they may start to compare their effort with those around them. It can lower their feelings and satisfaction and potentially reduce their performance. If individuals feel that others are doing less work, perhaps relying on them, they might feel exploited and consequently reduce the amount of work they do; they become demotivated.
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On April 14, 1994, two U.S. Air Force F-15 fighters accidentally shot down two U.S. Army Black Hawk helicopters over northern Iraq, killing all 26 soldiers on board. The details of the incident were analyzed by West Point Professor Scott Snook in his book Friendly Fire. In his summary of the fallacy of social redundancy, Snook points to social loafing as a contributor to the failure of the AWACS aircraft team to track the helicopters and prevent the shootdown. Snook asserts that responsibility was "spread so thin by the laws of social impact and confused authority relationships that no one felt compelled to act".
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According to Hwee Hoon Tan and Min-Li Tan, social loafing is an important area of interest in order to understand group work. While the opposite of social loafing, "organizational citizenship behavior", can create significant productivity increases, both of these behaviors can significantly impact the performance of organizations. Social loafing is a behavior that organizations want to eliminate. Understanding how and why people become social loafers is critical to the effective functioning, competitiveness and effectiveness of an organization.
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There are certain examples of social loafing in the workplace that are discussed by James Larsen in his essay "loafing on The Job". For example, builders working vigorously on a construction site while some of their colleagues are lounging on rock walls or leaning on their shovels doing nothing. Another example is a restaurant such as McDonald's where some employees lounge about while others are eager to take an order.
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These scenarios all express the problems that social loafing creates in a workplace, and businesses seek to find a way to counteract these trends. Larsen mentions ways that a business could change its operations in order to fight the negative effects of social loafing. For one, research has shown that if each employee has his performance individually measured, he will put in more effort than if it were not measured.
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Another person interested in the idea of social loafing is Kenneth Price, from the University of Texas. Price conducted a social loafing experiment in order to examine whether two key factors that he suspected played a role in the way social loafing arose in work groups. These two factors were dispensability and fairness.
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The experiment that he conducted involved 514 people who were divided into 144 teams that were set to meet for fourteen weeks. The projects assigned to these people were complex and called for diverse skills from many different individuals in order to be fully completed. The experiments findings did in fact corroborate Price's suspicions in the two factors of dispensability and fairness.
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Dispensability in a group is described by Price as employees who join a work group and quickly begin to gauge their skills vis à vis their co-workers. If they perceive that their skills are inferior to those around them, they tend to sit back and let the more skilled workers carry the workload. Fairness in a group is when some group members feel that their voice is not heard in decision-making because of their ethnicity, gender or other arbitrary factors. Instead of fighting for their voice to be heard many group members will decide to loaf in these circumstances.
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Research regarding social loafing online is currently relatively sparse, but is growing.A 2008 study of 227 undergraduate and graduate students enrolled in web-enabled courses at the Naval War College (NWC) and a public university found that social loafing not only exists, but may also be prevalent in the online learning classroom. Although only 2 percent of NWC and 8 percent of public university students self-reported social loafing, 8 percent of NWC and 77 percent of public university students sensed that others engaged in social loafing. Additional findings generally verify face-to-face social loafing findings from previous studies.
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The researchers concluded that injustice in the distribution of rewards increases social loafing, and suggest that self-perceived dominance negatively affects individual participation in group activities.Social loafing, also known as "lurking", greatly affects the development and growth of online communities. The term social loafing refers to the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually. This phenomenon is much like people's tendency to be part of a group project, but rely heavily on just a few individuals to complete the work.
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Generally, social loafers regularly follow the discussions and content of online communities, but choose not to expand on posts or add to the knowledge of the community. Additionally, participation in online communities is usually voluntary; therefore there is no guarantee that community members will contribute to the knowledge of the website, discussion forum, bulletin board, or other form of online engagement. Lurkers are reported to constitute over 90 percent of several online groups.The main reason people choose not to contribute to online communities surprisingly does not have to do with societal laziness, but in fact the potential contributors belief that their entries will not be taken seriously or given the credit that they deserve. When people assess the risks involved in contributing to online communities, they generally avoid participation because of the uncertainty of who the other contributors and readers are and the fear of their work being undervalued.
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Although studies justify the notion that people often do not contribute to online communities, some research shows that older adults are more likely to participate in online communities than younger people because different generations tend to use the internet differently. For example, "older adults are more likely to seek health information, make purchases, and obtain religious information, but less likely to watch videos, download music, play games, and read blogs online". This is perhaps due in part to the fact that some online communities cater to older generations.
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The content of the website often determines what age group will use or visit the site, and because many forms of online communities appear on sites that focus their attention on older adults, participation is generally higher. Additionally, the ease and availability of operating the websites that host the online community may play a role in the age group that is most likely to participate. For example, some online communities geared toward older adults have simplified the design of their sites in order to enhance their look and usability for older adults.
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According to Dan J. Rothwell, it takes "the three Cs of motivation" to get a group moving: collaboration, content, and choice. Thus, the answer to social loafing may be motivation. A competitive environment may not necessarily motivate group members. Collaboration is a way to get everyone involved in the group by assigning each member special, meaningful tasks.
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It is a way for the group members to share the knowledge and the tasks to be fulfilled unfailingly. For example, if Sally and Paul were loafing because they were not given specific tasks, then giving Paul the note taker duty and Sally the brainstorming duty will make them feel essential to the group. Sally and Paul will be less likely to want to let the group down, because they have specific obligations to complete.
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Content identifies the importance of the individual's specific tasks within the group. If group members see their role as that involved in completing a worthy task, then they are more likely to fulfill it. For example, Sally may enjoy brainstorming, as she knows that she will bring a lot to the group if she fulfills this obligation.
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She feels that her obligation will be valued by the group. Choice gives the group members the opportunity to choose the task they want to fulfill.
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Assigning roles in a group causes complaints and frustration. Allowing group members the freedom to choose their role makes social loafing less significant, and encourages the members to work together as a team.Thompson stresses that ability and motivation are essential, but insufficient for effective team functioning. A team must also coordinate the skills, efforts, and actions of its members in order to effectively achieve its goal. Thompson's recommendations can be separated into motivation strategies and coordination strategies:
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Studies of social loafing suggest that people are less productive when they are working with others, but social facilitation studies have shown that people are more productive when others are present (at least with an easy task). If individuals in a group know one another, feel that their productivity or inputs are not identifiable, then social loafing is likely to occur. Alternatively, if individuals are anonymous and therefore unidentifiable, then social loafing may also be likely to occur.
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Free riding occurs when members do less work because some of the benefits accrue to others. As others contribute ideas, individuals may feel less motivated to work hard themselves. They see their own contributions as less necessary or less likely to have much impact. To eliminate these effects, it is important to make group members feel that their contributions are essential for the group's success. Additionally, it is less likely for someone to free-ride if they are in a small group.
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Loafing is also less likely to occur when people are involved with their work, and when they enjoy working with others in groups. These are people who value both the experience of being part of a group, as well as achieving results. Also, challenging and difficult tasks reduce social loafing. Social loafing is also reduced when individuals are involved in group work and their rewards are received as a team, rather than individually.
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The extent to which group members identify with their group also determines the amount of social loafing. This concept links with social identity theory in that that difference between a hard-working group and one that is loafing is the match between the group's tasks and its members’ self definitions. When individuals derive their sense of self and identity from their membership, social loafing is replaced by social laboring (members will expand extra effort for their group).
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Groups that set clear, challenging goals outperform groups whose members have lost sight of their objectives. The group's goals should be relatively challenging, instead of being too easily accomplished. The advantages of working in a group are often lost when a task is so easy that it can be accomplished even when members of the group socially loaf.
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Thus, groups should set their standards high, but not so high that the goals are unattainable. Latham and Baldes (1975) assessed the practical significance of Locke's theory of goal setting by conducting an experiment with truck drivers who hauled logs from the forest to the mill. When the men were initially told to do their best when loading the logs, they carried only about 60 percent of the weight that they could legally haul.
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When the same drivers were later encouraged to reach a goal of hauling 94 percent of the legal limit, they increased their efficiency and met this specific goal. Thus, the results of this study show that performance improved immediately upon the assignment of a specific, challenging goal. Company cost accounting procedures indicated that this same increase in performance without goal setting would have required an expenditure of a quarter of a million dollars on the purchase of additional trucks alone. So this method of goal setting is extremely effective. Other research has found that clear goals can stimulate a number of other performance-enhancing processes, including increases in effort, better planning, more accurate monitoring of the quality of the groups work, and even an increased commitment to the group.
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In order to reduce social loafing, a company can always focus on assessing each members contribution rather than only examining the teams accomplishments as a whole. It is statistically proven that social loafers will tend to put in less effort because of the lack of external or internal assessment of their contributions. This leads to less self-awareness in the group because the team together is the only body evaluated (Curt. 2007).
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One strategy to avoid social loafing is giving individuals personal tasks and responsibilities. If individuals know they are responsible for certain things or specific charges within the group, they know their eyes are on them and are more likely to complete them. As they see, they are responsible for these tasks.
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Setting deadlines assigning responsibilities and tasks can ensure individuals are more likely to contribute to group efforts. Make sure everyone in a group follows the rules and regulations and everyone works up to the set standards.
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Encouraging team loyalty can improve the performance of everyone in the group. It may be hard to achieve and does require careful handling by the team leader, encouraging everyone to want to be a part of a team and want to be performed as part of a team. For Example: Offering rewards for the whole group if the entire team achieves goals.
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Minimize free-riding by making a group as small as possible. Social loafing occurs less when groups are kept small between three and five people. Social loafing is more evident if someone in the group is not making much effort as the other team members are. If group size is fewer employees, they will need to contribute more as there is no extra help around.
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Peer evaluation is considered a way of reducing social loafing because when group members are able to go over each other's works and criticize or comment on them, it makes group members realize that they will be on the spot if they do not work on their project and that at the same time, there will be repercussions. That will encourage them to engage themselves more deeply into their work. Peer Evaluation can also seen as a productive and an efficient way to give constructive feedback. There are several ways you can incorporate feedback, whether it is to have each member present the results of their work at intervals, conduct regular feedback sessions, or even having group members.
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Piezon and Donaldson argue in a 2005 analysis that special attention should be paid to the physical separation, social isolation, and temporal distance associated with distance education courses, which may induce social loafing. In terms of group size, they assert that there is no significant gain in small groups larger than six unless the group is brainstorming, and that the optimal group size may be five members. Suggestions that they have for online groups include clarifying roles and responsibilities, providing performance data for comparison with other groups, and mandating high levels of participation consisting of attending group meetings, using the discussion board, and participating in chats.In a 2010 analysis of online communities, Kraut and Resnick suggest several ways to elicit contributions from users: Simply asking users, either implicitly through selective presentation of tasks or explicitly through requests that play on the principles of persuasion Changing the composition or activity of the group Using a record-keeping system to reflect member contributions, in addition to awarding privileges or more tangible awards. An example that the authors study is Wikipedia, which runs fundraising campaigns that involve tens of thousands of people and raise millions of dollars by employing large banner ads at the top of the page with deadlines, specific amounts of money set as the goal, and lists of contributors.
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In 2008, Praveen Aggarwal and Connie O'Brien studied several hundred college students assessing what factors can reduce social loafing during group projects. From the results, they concluded that there were three factors that reduce social loafing:Limiting the scope of the project: Instructors can reduce social loafing by either dividing a big project into two or more smaller components or replacing semester-long projects with a smaller project and some other graded work. Also, breaking up a big project into smaller components can be beneficial. For example, allocating responsibility so that each individual is spearheading certain aspects of a larger project ensures accountability and helps prevent social loafing.Smaller group size: Limiting the group size can make it harder for social loafers to hide behind the shield of anonymity provided by a large group. In smaller groups, each member will feel that their contribution will add greater value.Peer evaluations: Peer evaluations send a signal to group members that there will be consequences for non-participation. It has been found that as the number of peer evaluations during a project go up, the incidence of social loafing goes down.
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Socio-analysis is the activity of exploration, consultancy, and action research which combines and synthesises methodologies and theories derived from psychoanalysis, group relations, social systems thinking, organisational behaviour, and social dreaming.Socio-analysis offers a conception of individuals, groups, organisations, and global systems that takes into account conscious and unconscious aspects and potentialities. From this conception are born methods of exploration which can increase capacities through making conscious what was unconscious for individuals, groups, and organisations, and through releasing energy and ideas that help create individual and organizational direction, and meaning. Socio-analysis has at its heart a query as to what is the psychological truth for an individual, group, organisation, or other social system, and how may this best be brought to light as a means for creative transformation and growth?
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Anxiety, its exploration, and understanding are of central concern to psychoanalysis, which was founded to explore the mental problems of medical patients. While socio-analytic exploration frequently uncovers systemic pain, (of which anxiety is a part), the "pain" is a guide to transformation of the system as a whole with all its potentialities for growth. Joshua Bain has suggested that the emphasis on anxiety is limiting, and that a more appropriate paradigm for socio-analysis is wonder. Wonder was regarded by Plato as the beginning of philosophy, and its link to exploration, creativity, and the growth of capacities of human beings, would seem to make it the appropriate starting point for socio-analysis as well. "Wonder is the special affection of a philosopher; for philosophy has no other starting point than this; and it is a happy genealogy which makes Iris the daughter of Thaumas". Theaetetus, 155D The saying "When wonder ceases, knowledge begins", which is attributed to Sir Francis Bacon, is especially apt for socio-analysis with its emphasis on always explore, rather than sit tight on what is supposedly known.
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Socio-analysis has its roots in the first Northfield Experiment carried out by Wilfred Bion and John Rickman, and reported in the Lancet in 1943, and later by Bion in the Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic in 1946. Bion is generally regarded as the father of socio-analysis (although the word was not used in those days).
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Wilfred Bion was born in India in 1897 and educated at Bishop's Stortford College in England. During the First World War he commanded a tank on the Western Front and was decorated for bravery: Distinguished Service Order, and the Legion of Honour. After studying history at Oxford University, and a stint teaching history at his old school, he began medical training at University College Hospital in 1924 and qualified in 1930. He worked at the Tavistock Clinic in London before the Second World War, and started a personal psychoanalysis with John Rickman.
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After the Second World War he contributed to the formation of the Tavistock Institute. He had a second psycho-analysis with Melanie Klein, and trained and qualified as a psychoanalyst. Bion was, and is, regarded by many people as a genius who made fundamental contributions to psychoanalysis, and to the understanding of groups. His stance of always pointing to the unknown, whether with a patient or with a group or in himself, was the realization of his genius.
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Northfield Hospital was a military hospital, situated in Birmingham, in the English Midlands, with the task of treating soldiers who had developed psychiatric problems, in order to get them back into the war. Together with John Rickman, Wilfred Bion introduced group meetings as the principal method of change for these patients. This experiment, together with the Second Northfield Experiment associated with the innovations of S. H. Foulkes, Tom Main and Harold Bridger, contributed the following elements to the emerging discipline of socio-analysis: Attention to, and making hypotheses, and interpretations, about conscious and unconscious functioning at the level of the group. A group was no longer regarded as simply an aggregate of individuals, but as having its own intrinsic dynamics that required understanding and interpretation.
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The concept of working therapeutically with the "institution as a whole", or the "whole community". The idea of the "therapeutic community" which burgeoned after the Second World War, e.g. at the Menninger Clinic in Kansas, and the Cassel Hospital in London has its origins in Main's work at Northfield. The significance of creating "transitional space" for therapy, action projects, and development, so that people, (in this case patients), are enabled to take up their own authority for task. Bridger pioneered this approach at Northfield through his celebrated "Club", a space for patients to make of it what they wished to, without the use of the space being determined by hospital or military staff. Bridger continued to develop this approach to working with groups and organisations of all kinds after the War.
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The Northfield Experiments heralded a socio-analytic consultant role: one of exploration of individual, group, and organisational phenomena which are linked dynamically. The socio-analyst, as exemplified by the role Bion took at Northfield, and after the War in his group explorations at the Tavistock Clinic, works from a stance of "not knowing" with the courage, and fortitude, to pursue psychological truth. The socio-analyst, like the psychoanalyst, uses concepts such as the unconscious, defences, splitting, projection, projective identification, introjection, and transference, but the field for exploration, while including the individual, is wider than the psychoanalytic dyad – e.g. a group, an organisation, a society, global systems. Thus, for example, the socio-analyst uses concepts of group and organisational transference, and pays particular attention to the way he/she is made to feel through client engagements, as a possible indication of unconscious dynamics within the client system.
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Bion's exploration of group dynamics at the Tavistock Clinic in London after the war culminated in a seminal publication "Experiences in Groups", which describes and analyses three basic assumptions that can be observed in group behaviour at different times: basic assumption dependency, basic assumption fight / flight, and basic assumption pairing. Basic assumptions operate unconsciously within groups at the same time a group may be engaged in a conscious work task – that Bion called a W group.These insights of Bion together with theories of Kurt Lewin led to the first Group Relations Conference in 1957 that was sponsored by the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations and Leicester University, and directed by Eric Trist. Group Relations Conferences typically explore the effects of group and organisational dynamics on how individuals take up authority and leadership in this temporary institution, and in their work. The "Leicester" Conference as it came to be known under the leadership of A.K. Rice and colleagues such as Pierre Turquet, Eric Miller, Robert Gosling, and Bruce Reed stimulated similar explorations and enterprises in numerous countries: United States, Canada, Mexico, Peru, France, Éire, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Bulgaria, Finland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, South Africa, Israel, India, and Australia.
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Other influences on the nascent discipline of socio-analysis that emerged from the work of social scientists at the Tavistock Institute in the 1950s were action research; the discovery of socio-technical systems by Eric Trist and Ken Bamforth, its development by Trist and Emery, Rice and Miller; and Elliott Jaques and Isabel Menzies's concept of social systems being structured as a defence against anxiety.
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A recent methodology for the exploration of social phenomena has been the discovery of social dreaming by Gordon Lawrence at the Tavistock Institute in 1982. Social dreaming is the activity of sharing dreams (night dreams), associations to the dreams, and connections between dreams, with others in a Matrix setting. The focus of social dreaming (unlike in psychoanalysis or dreaming groups) is not on the meaning of the dream for the individual dreamer, but regarding the dreams and associations as a way of exploring and making social meaning. Conferences to explore social dreaming have been held in Israel, the United States, Australia, India, and most European countries.
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Up until 1996 the work that has been described in this article went under different labels. There was no one word that described the activities and the role. Alastair Bain suggested that the discipline should be called "Socio-Analysis" in 1996.
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The Australian Institute of Socio-Analysis pioneered a three-year professional training program in socio-analysis in 1999, and began publishing a journal Socioanalysis in 1999. While the Australian Institute of Socio-Analysis no longer exists, the work of socio-analysis continues to be developed by the National Institute of Organisation Dynamics Australia (NIODA). Other organisations which do socio-analytic or closely related work include the William Alanson White Institute in New York, the A.K. Rice Institute (AKRI) in the United States, the Tavistock Institute, Tavistock Clinic, the Grubb Institute and OPUS, all in London, the Centre for Applied Research in Philadelphia, the International Society for the Psychoanalytic Study of Organisations , the University of Wuppertal , and practitioners from many countries who work in the tradition of Wilfred Bion. The journal Socioanalysis is now published by Group Relations Australia.
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Current developments in socio-analysis include Bain's discovery of organisational dreaming, which is based on the observation that dreams are "container sensitive", and that the dreams shared by people within an organisation during a project will reflect organisational realities that are the "unexpressed known" within the organisation.
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The work of the Centre for Socio-Analysis has also led to a formulation of "authority" that is based in wonder and the sangha (Buddhist notion of "people on the path") in contrast to usual understandings that are based on the individual, anxiety, and hierarchy.
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Donald Symons (born 1942) is an American anthropologist best known as one of the founders of evolutionary psychology, and for pioneering the study of human sexuality from an evolutionary perspective. He is one of the most cited researchers in contemporary sex research. His work is referenced by scientists investigating an extremely diverse range of sexual phenomena.
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Harvard psychologist Steven Pinker describes Symons' The Evolution of Human Sexuality (1979) as a "groundbreaking book" and "a landmark in its synthesis of evolutionary biology, anthropology, physiology, psychology, fiction, and cultural analysis, written with a combination of rigor and wit. It was a model for all subsequent books that apply evolution to human affairs, particularly mine." Symons is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Anthropology at the University of California, Santa Barbara. His most recent work, with Catherine Salmon, is Warrior Lovers, an evolutionary analysis of slash fiction.
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Symons, D. (1978) Play and Aggression: A Study of Rhesus Monkeys. Columbia University Press Symons, D. (1979) The Evolution of Human Sexuality.
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New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-502907-0 Symons, D. (1987) "If we're all Darwinians, what's the fuss about?"
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in Crawford, Smith & Krebs, Sociobiology and Psychology, 121–146. Symons, D. (1989) "A critique of Darwinian anthropology," in Ethology and Sociobiology, 10: 131–144.
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Symons, D. (1990) "Adaptiveness and adaptation," in Ethology and Sociobiology, 11: 427–444. Symons, D.
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(1992) "On the use and misuse of Darwinism in the study of human behavior" in Barkow, J., Cosmides, L. & Tooby, J. (eds) (1992) The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture (New York: Oxford University Press) Symons, D.
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(1993) "The stuff that dreams aren't made of: Why wake-state and dream-state sensory experiences differ." Cognition, 47: 181–217. Symons, D.
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(1995) "Beauty is in the adaptations of the beholder: The evolutionary psychology of human female sexual attractiveness" pp. 80–120 in Abramson, P.R. and Pinkerton, S.D.
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(eds.) Sexual Nature/Sexual Culture, The University of Chicago Press. Salmon, C. and Symons, D. (2003) Warrior Lovers. Yale University Press.
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Pseudohermaphroditism is a condition in which an individual has a matching chromosomal and gonadal tissue (ovary or testis) sex, but mismatching external genitalia. Female pseudohermaphroditism refers to an individual with ovaries and external genitalia resembling those of a male. Male pseudohermaphroditism refers to an individual with testes and external genitalia resembling those of a female. In some cases, external sex organs associated with pseudohermaphroditism appear intermediate between a typical clitoris and penis.
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Thus, pseudohermaphroditism is sometimes not identified until puberty or adulthood. The term contrasts with true hermaphroditism, a condition describing an individual with both female and male reproductive organs. Associated conditions include 5-α-reductase deficiency and androgen insensitivity syndrome.
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Sex is determined by chromosomes during fertilization. In the early stages of human development, a human embryo has the precursors of female (paramesonephric or Müllerian ducts) and male (mesonephric ducts or Wolffian) gonads. If a Y chromosome is lacking, or defective as seen in Swyer syndrome, the embryo will reabsorb the mesonephric ducts and proceed with paramesonephric ducts, which give rise to ovaries. The Y chromosome contains a sex-determining region called the SRY gene.
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Thus, the developmental plan of the embryo is altered only if this gene is present and functional.Mutations affecting the androgen receptor (AR) gene may cause either complete or partial androgen insensitivity syndrome. Androgens are a group of hormones which regulate the development and maintenance of male characteristics. Between 8 and 12 weeks, human male fetuses become externally distinct as androgens enlarge the phallus and produce a penis with a urethra and scrotum.Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome is a form of pseudohermaphroditism, developed through Müllerian-inhibiting factor defects. In such instances, duct derivatives are present in males, including the uterus, fallopian tubes, and upper vagina.
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Surgery is sometimes performed to alter the appearance of the genitals. Sex-specific cancers present on the gonads may require surgical removal.
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John Money is perhaps the best-known early researcher in this area. His doctoral thesis was titled Hermaphroditism: An Inquiry into the Nature of a Human Paradox, and awarded by Harvard University in 1952.
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Narave pigs, which are native to Malo Island, Vanuatu, are pseudohermaphrodite male domestic pigs that are kept for ceremonial purposes.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudohermaphroditism
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The term "Pseudohermaphroditimus" (pseudohermaphroditism) was coined in German by Edwin Klebs in 1876. Klebs had included the term as a synonym for the earlier coined, "spurious hermaphroditism" (which he referred to as Schein-Zwitter in German). "Spurious hermaphroditism" was coined in 1836 by J. Y. Simpson.Although "pseudohermaphroditism" persisted in the International Classification of Diseases, Versions 9 (ICD-9) and 10 (ICD-10) as 752.7 (Indeterminate sex and pseudohermaphroditism) and Q56 (Interdeterminate sex and pseudohermaphroditism), it has since been removed in the eleventh version (ICD-11), in favor of LD2A.Y (Other specified malformative disorders of sex development).Some experts have indicated that both pseudohermaphroditism (also called false hermaphroditism) and true hermaphroditism are outdated, confusing, and potentially pejorative, indicating replacement with "disorders of sex development", "disorders of sexual development", "differences of sex development" (all abbreviated as DSD) or "intersex".Additionally, intersex activists have noted that: "The qualifiers 'pseudo' and 'true' are even more harmful , because they imply a sort of authenticity, or lack of same, that carry powerful emotional baggage". Dreger et al had also noted that "division of many intersex types into true hermaphroditism, male pseudohermaphroditism, and female pseudohermaphroditism is scientifically specious and clinically problematic".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudohermaphroditism
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The Maschinelles Austauschformat für Bibliotheken or MAB (literally translating as "machine data exchange format for libraries") is a bibliographic data exchange format. MAB was commonly used as an exchange format for metadata especially in German-speaking countries. Internationally, a comparable widespread exchange format today is MARC.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maschinelles_Austauschformat_für_Bibliotheken
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MAB was mostly used in conjunction with the Regeln für die alphabetische Katalogisierung (RAK). The origins of MAB trace back to 1973, when a national exchange format was initiated in Germany under the leadership of the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek (DNB) together with the Arbeitsstelle für Bibliothekstechnik (ABT). A comprehensive revision of MAB led to the new format version MAB2 in 1995 after two years of development work. Later, four supplements to MAB2 were published.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maschinelles_Austauschformat_für_Bibliotheken
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The DNB neither used MAB as a cataloging format nor internally as a working format, but only for data exchange with other libraries. The use of MAB in the German-speaking library sector has been replaced by a switch to MARC:Since 2009, the DNB started to provide its bibliographic data and authority data also in MARC 21 format. With the introduction of the Gemeinsame Normdatei (GND) in April 2012 the delivery of authority data in MAB format by the DNB was discontinued. In June 2013, the delivery of data in MAB format was finally abandoned.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maschinelles_Austauschformat_für_Bibliotheken
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Similar to its Anglo-American counterpart MARC, MAB consists of five sub-formats that characterize different types of data: MAB format for bibliographic data (MAB-Titel) MAB format for name authority data (MAB-PND) MAB format for corporate bodies (MAB-GKD) MAB format for subject headings (MAB-SWD) MAB format for local data (MAB-Lokal)The MAB format allows a finer granularity when marking bibliographical elements than MARC. The greater diversification can be absorbed by grouping similar elements. Elements that belong together are arranged hierarchically.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maschinelles_Austauschformat_für_Bibliotheken
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Although influenced by MARC, MAB does not represent a strictly congruent equivalent mapping compared to the MARC architecture, but shows some significant conceptual differences. While the MARC formats follow a relatively strict sequence of record headers and secondary entries when recording a title, MAB allows elements that match each other to be arranged in segments. The approach of the MAB is therefore more geared towards the linking of semantically related components than to the comparatively static structure of the MARC formats. Another difference is the assignment between bibliographical elements and fields.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maschinelles_Austauschformat_für_Bibliotheken
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While MARC may combine several bibliographical elements in fields or subfields, MAB generally only assigns one element to each field. For example, field 245 of the MARC bibliographic format records a subject title along with a parallel title, while MAB would define a separate field for the parallel title. Overall, MAB prefers a more finely granulated breakdown and then puts the individual components in a context.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maschinelles_Austauschformat_für_Bibliotheken
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In MARC, information about a multi-volume work would possibly be summarized in one sentence, while MAB in this case forms several sentences that belong together (main clauses, sub-clauses and suffixes). These sentences are in a hierarchical relationship to one another. Furthermore, the MAB format only allows a certain number of field repetitions. In MARC, on the other hand, the (often arbitrary) repetition of a field is possible using the field addition "repeatable".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maschinelles_Austauschformat_für_Bibliotheken
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An XML version of MAB2, named MABxml, exists since the end of 2003. This makes it possible to transport MAB data via XML-based exchange protocols such as OAI-PMH or SRU.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maschinelles_Austauschformat_für_Bibliotheken
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Self-verification is a social psychological theory that asserts people want to be known and understood by others according to their firmly held beliefs and feelings about themselves, that is self-views (including self-concepts and self-esteem). It is one of the motives that drive self-evaluation, along with self-enhancement and self-assessment. Because chronic self-concepts and self-esteem play an important role in understanding the world, providing a sense of coherence, and guiding action, people become motivated to maintain them through self-verification.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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Such strivings provide stability to people’s lives, making their experiences more coherent, orderly, and comprehensible than they would be otherwise. Self-verification processes are also adaptive for groups, groups of diverse backgrounds, and the larger society, in that they make people predictable to one another thus serve to facilitate social interaction. To this end, people engage in a variety of activities that are designed to obtain self-verifying information. Developed by William Swann (1981), the theory grew out of earlier writings which held that people form self-views so that they can understand and predict the responses of others and know how to act toward them.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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There are individual differences in people's views of themselves. Among people with positive self-views, the desire for self-verification works together with another important motive, the desire for positive evaluations or "self enhancement". For example, those who view themselves as "insightful" will find that their motives for both self-verification and self-enhancement encourage them to seek evidence that other people recognize their insightfulness. In contrast, people with negative self-views will find that the desire for self-verification and self-enhancement are competing.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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Consider people who see themselves as disorganized. Whereas their desire for self-enhancement will compel them to seek evidence that others perceive them as organized, their desire for self-verification will compel such individuals to seek evidence that others perceive them as disorganized.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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Self-verification strivings tend to prevail over self-enhancement strivings when people are certain of the self-concept and when they have extremely depressive self-views.Self-verification strivings may have undesirable consequences for people with negative self-views (depressed people and those who suffer from low self-esteem). For example, self-verification strivings may cause people with negative self-views to gravitate toward partners who mistreat them, undermine their feelings of self-worth, or even abuse them. And if people with negative self-views seek therapy, returning home to a self-verifying partner may undo the progress that was made there. Finally, in the workplace, the feelings of worthlessness that plague people with low self-esteem may foster feelings of ambivalence about receiving fair treatment, feelings that may undercut their propensity to insist that they get what they deserve from their employers (see: workplace bullying).These findings and related ones point to the importance of efforts to improve the self-views of those who suffer from low self-esteem and depression.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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In one series of studies, researchers asked participants with positive and negative self-views whether they would prefer to interact with evaluators who had favorable or unfavorable impressions of them. The results showed that those with positive self-views preferred favorable partners and those with negative self-views preferred unfavorable partners. The latter finding revealed that self-verification strivings may sometimes trump positivity strivings.Self-verification motives operate for different dimensions of the self-concept and in many different situations. Men and women are equally inclined to display this tendency, and it does not matter whether the self-views refer to characteristics that are relatively immutable (e.g., intelligence) or changeable (e.g., diligence), or whether the self-views happen to be highly specific (e.g., athletic) or global (e.g., low self-esteem, worthlessness).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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Furthermore, when people chose negative partners over positive ones, it is not merely in an effort to avoid interacting with positive evaluators (that is, out of a concern that they might disappoint such positive evaluators). Rather, people chose self-verifying, negative partners even when the alternative is participating in a different experiment. Finally, recent work has shown that people work to verify self-views associated with group memberships.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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For example, women seek evaluations that confirm their belief that they possess qualities associated with being a woman. Self-verification theory suggests that people may begin to shape others' evaluations of them before they even begin interacting with them. They may, for example, display identity cues (see: impression management).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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The most effective identity cues enable people to signal who they are to potential interaction partners. Physical appearance, such as clothes, body posture, demeanor. For example, the low self-esteem person who evokes reactions that confirm her negative self-views by slumping her shoulders and keeping her eyes fixed on the ground.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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Other cues, such as the car someone buys, the house they live in, the way they decorate their living environment. For example, an SUV evokes reactions that confirm a person's positive self-view.Self-verification strivings may also influence the social contexts that people enter into and remain in.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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People reject those who provide social feedback that does not confirm their self-views, such as married people with negative self-views who reject spouses who see them positively and vice versa. College roommates behave in a similar manner. People are more inclined to divorce partners who perceived them too favorably.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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In each of these instances, people gravitated toward relationships that provided them with evaluations that confirmed their self-views and fled from those that did not. When people fail to gain self-verifying reactions through the display of identity cue or through choosing self-verifying social environments, they may still acquire such evaluations by systematically evoking confirming reactions. For example, depressed people behave in negative ways toward their roommates, thus causing these roommates to reject them.Self-verification theory predicts that when people interact with others, there is a general tendency for them to bring others to see them as they see themselves. This tendency is especially pronounced when they start out believing that the other person has misconstrued them, apparently because people compensate by working especially hard to bring others to confirm their self-views. People will even stop working on tasks to which they have been assigned if they sense that their performance is eliciting non-verifying feedback.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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Self-verification theory predicts that people’s self-views will cause them to see the world as more supportive of these self-views than it really is. That is, individuals process information in a biased manner. These biases may be conscious and deliberate, but are probably more commonly done effortlessly and non-consciously.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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Through the creative use of these processes, people may dramatically increase their chances of attaining self-verification. There are at least three relevant aspects of information processing in self-verification: Attention: People will attend to evaluations that are self-confirming while ignoring non-confirming evaluations. Memory retrieval: self-views bias memory recall to favor self-confirming material over non-confirming elements.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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Interpretation of information: people tend to interpret information in ways that reinforce their self-views.These distinct forms of self-verification may often be implemented sequentially. For example, in one scenario, people may first strive to locate partners who verify one or more self-views. If this fails, they may redouble their efforts to elicit verification for the self-view in question or strive to elicit verification for a different self-view. Failing this, they may strive to "see" more self-verification than actually exists. And, if this strategy is also ineffective, they may withdraw from the relationship, either psychologically or in actuality.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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People seem to prefer modest levels of novelty; they want to experience phenomena that are unfamiliar enough to be interesting, but not so unfamiliar as to be frightening or too familiar as to be boring.The implications of people's preference for novelty for human relationships are not straightforward and obvious. Evidence that people desire novelty comes primarily from studies of people's reactions to art objects and the like. This is different when it concerns human beings and social relationships because people can shift attention away from already familiar novel objects, while doing so in human relationships is difficult or not possible. But novel art objects are very different from people.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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If a piece of art becomes overly stimulating, we can simply shift our attention elsewhere. This is not a viable option should our spouse suddenly begin treating us as if we were someone else, for such treatment would pose serious questions about the integrity of people's belief systems. Consequently, people probably balance competing desires for predictability and novelty by indulging the desire for novelty within contexts in which surprises are not threatening (e.g., leisure activities), while seeking coherence and predictability in contexts in which surprises could be costly—such as in the context of enduring relationships.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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People's self-verification strivings are apt to be most influential when the relevant identities and behaviors matter to them. Thus, for example, the self-view should be firmly held, the relationship should be enduring, and the behavior itself should be consequential. When these conditions are not met, people will be relatively unconcerned with preserving their self-views and they will instead indulge their desire for self-enhancement. In addition, self-reported emotional reactions favor self-enhancement while more thoughtful processes favor self-verification.But if people with firmly held negative self-views seek self-verification, this does not mean that they are masochistic or have no desire to be loved.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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In fact, even people with very low self-esteem want to be loved. What sets people with negative self-views apart is their ambivalence about the evaluations they receive. Just as positive evaluations foster joy and warmth initially, these feelings are later chilled by incredulity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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And although negative evaluations may foster sadness that the "truth" could not be kinder, it will at least reassure them that they know themselves. Happily, people with negative self-views are the exception rather than the rule. That is, on the balance, most people tend to view themselves positively.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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Although this imbalance is adaptive for society at large, it poses a challenge to researchers interested in studying self-verification. That is, for theorists interested in determining if behavior is driven by self-verification or positivity strivings, participants with positive self-views will reveal nothing because both motives compel them to seek positive evaluations. If researchers want to learn if people prefer verification or positivity in a giving setting, they must study people with negative self-views.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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Although self-verification strivings tend to stabilize people's self-views, changes in self-views may still occur. Probably the most common source of change is set in motion when the social environment recognizes a significant change in a person's age (e.g., when adolescents become adults), status (e.g., when students become teachers), or social role (e.g., when someone is convicted of a crime). Suddenly, the community may change the way that it treats the person.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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Eventually the target of such treatment will bring his or her self-view into accord with the new treatment.Alternatively, people may themselves conclude that a given self-view is dysfunctional or obsolete and take steps to change it. Consider, for example, a woman who decides that her negative self-views have led her to tolerate abusive relationship partners. When she realizes that such partners are making her miserable, she may seek therapy. In the hands of a skilled therapist, she may develop more favorable self-views which, in turn, steer her toward more positive relationship partners with whom she may cultivate healthier relationships. Alternatively, when a woman who is uncertain about her negative self-concept enters a relationship with a partner who is certain that she deserves to view herself more positively, that woman will tend to improve the self-concept.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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Critics have argued that self-verification processes are relatively rare, manifesting themselves only among people with terribly negative self views. In support of this viewpoint, critics cite hundreds of studies indicating that people prefer, seek and value positive evaluations more than negative ones. Such skeptical assessments overlook three important points. First, because most people have relatively positive self-views, evidence of a preference for positive evaluations in unselected samples may in reality reflect a preference for evaluations that are self-verifying, because for such individuals self-verification and positivity strivings are indistinguishable.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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No number of studies of participants with positive self-views can determine whether self-verification or self-enhancement strivings are more common. Second, self-verification strivings are not limited to people with globally negative self-views; even people with high self-esteem seek negative evaluations about their flaws. Finally, even people with positive self-views appear to be uncomfortable with overly positive evaluations.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-verification_theory
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