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This may be caused by infection, the catheter itself, or the specific fluids or medication being given. Repeated instances of phlebitis can cause scar tissue to build up along a vein.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenous_therapy
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A peripheral IV line cannot be left in the vein indefinitely out of concern for the risk of infection and phlebitis, among other potential complications. However, recent studies have found that there is no increased risk of complications in those whose IVs were replaced only when clinically indicated versus those whose IVs were replaced routinely. If placed with proper aseptic technique, it is not recommended to change a peripheral IV line more frequently than every 72–96 hours.Phlebitis is particularly common in intravenous drug users, and those undergoing chemotherapy, whose veins can become sclerotic and difficult to access over time, sometimes forming a hard, painful "venous cord". The presence of a cord is a cause of discomfort and pain associated with IV therapy, and makes it more difficult for an IV line to be placed as a line cannot be placed in an area with a cord.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenous_therapy
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Infiltration occurs when a non-vesicant IV fluid or medication enters the surrounding tissue as opposed to the desired vein. It may occur when the vein itself ruptures, when the vein is damaged during insertion of the intravascular access device, or from increased vein porosity. Infiltration may also occur if the puncture of the vein by the needle becomes the path of least resistance—such as a cannula which has been left inserted, causing the vein to scar. It can also occur upon insertion of an IV line if a tourniquet is not promptly removed.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenous_therapy
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Infiltration is characterized by coolness and pallor to the skin as well as localized swelling or edema. It is treated by removing the intravenous line and elevating the affected limb so the collected fluids drain away. Injections of hyaluronidase around the area can be used to speed the dispersal of the fluid/drug. Infiltration is one of the most common adverse effects of IV therapy and is usually not serious unless the infiltrated fluid is a medication damaging to the surrounding tissue, most commonly a vesicant or chemotherapeutic agent. In such cases, the infiltration is termed extravasation, and may cause necrosis.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenous_therapy
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If the solutions administered are colder than the temperature of the body, induced hypothermia can occur. If the temperature change to the heart is rapid, ventricular fibrillation may result. Furthermore, if a solution which is not balanced in concentration is administered, a person's electrolytes may become imbalanced. In hospitals, regular blood tests may be used to proactively monitor electrolyte levels.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenous_therapy
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The first recorded attempt at administering a therapeutic substance via IV injection was in 1492, when Pope Innocent VIII fell ill and was administered blood from healthy individuals. If this occurred, the treatment did not work and resulted in the death of the donors while not healing the pope. This story is disputed by some, who claim that the idea of blood transfusions could not have been considered by the medical professionals at the time, or that a complete description of blood circulation was not published until over 100 years later. The story is attributed to potential errors in translation of documents from the time, as well as potentially an intentional fabrication, whereas others still consider it to be accurate.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenous_therapy
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One of the leading medical history textbooks for medical and nursing students has claimed that the entire story was an anti-semitic fabrication.In 1656 Sir Christopher Wren and Robert Boyle worked on the subject. As stated by Wren, "I Have Injected Wine and Ale in a liveing Dog into the Mass of Blood by a Veine, in good Quantities, till I have made him extremely drunk, but soon after he Pisseth it out." The dog survived, grew fat, and was later stolen from his owner.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenous_therapy
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Boyle attributed authorship to Wren.Richard Lower showed it was possible for blood to be transfused from animal to animal and from animal to man intravenously, a xenotransfusion. He worked with Edmund King to transfuse sheep's blood into a man who was mentally ill. Lower was interested in advancing science but also believed the man could be helped, either by the infusion of fresh blood or by the removal of old blood.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenous_therapy
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It was difficult to find people who would agree to be transfused, but an eccentric scholar, Arthur Coga, consented and the procedure was carried out by Lower and King before the Royal Society on 23 November 1667. Transfusion gathered some popularity in France and Italy, but medical and theological debates arose, resulting in transfusion being prohibited in France.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenous_therapy
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There was virtually no recorded success with any attempts at injection therapy until the 1800s, when in 1831 Thomas Latta studied the use of IV fluid replacements for cholera treatment. The first solutions which saw widespread use for IV injections were simple "saline-like solutions", which were followed by experiments with various other liquids, including milk, sugar, honey, and egg yolk. In the 1830s, James Blundell, an English obstetrician, used intravenous administration of blood to treat women bleeding profusely during or after delivery. This predated the understanding of blood type, leading to unpredictable results.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenous_therapy
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Intravenous therapy was expanded by Italian physician Guido Baccelli in the late 1890s and further developed in the 1930s by Samuel Hirschfeld, Harold T. Hyman and Justine Johnstone Wanger but was not widely available until the 1950s. There was a time, roughly the 1910s-1920s, when fluid replacement that today would be done intravenously was likelier to be done with a Murphy drip, a rectal infusion; and IV therapy took years to increasingly displace that route. In the 1960s, the concept of providing a person's complete nutritional needs through an IV solution began to be seriously considered. The first parenteral nutrition supplementation consisted of hydrolyzed proteins and dextrose. This was followed in 1975 with the introduction of intravenous fat emulsions and vitamins which were added to form "total parenteral nutrition", or that which includes protein, fat, and carbohydrates.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenous_therapy
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In linguistics, an expression is semantically ambiguous when it can have multiple meanings. The higher the amount of synonyms a word has, the higher the degree of ambiguity. Like other kinds of ambiguity, semantic ambiguities are often clarified by context or by prosody. One's comprehension of a sentence in which a semantically ambiguous word is used is strongly influenced by the general structure of the sentence.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_ambiguity
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The language itself is sometimes a contributing factor in the overall effect of semantic ambiguity, in the sense that the level of ambiguity in the context can change depending on whether or not a language boundary is crossed.Lexical ambiguity is a subtype of semantic ambiguity where a word or morpheme is ambiguous. When a lexical ambiguity results from a single word having two senses, it is called polysemy. For instance, the English "foot" is polysemous since in general it refers to the base of an object, but can refer more specifically to the foot of a person or the foot of a pot.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_ambiguity
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When an ambiguity instead results from two separate words which happen to be pronounced the same way, it is called homonymy. For instance, the English word "row" can denote the action of rowing or to an arrangement of objects. In practice, polysemy and homonymy can be difficult to distinguish.Phrases and sentences can also be semantically ambiguous, particularly when there are multiple ways of semantically combining its subparts.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_ambiguity
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For instance, the English sentence "Everybody isn't here" is ambiguous between an interpretation where not everybody is here and another interpretation where nobody is. This ambiguity is an example of scope ambiguity, a phenomenon widely studied in formal semantics.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_ambiguity
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De re/de dicto ambiguity is another notable example of sentence-level ambiguity which has received much attention in linguistics and philosophy. In some analyses, such ambiguities are the semantic reflexes of syntactic ambiguities, though in other approaches they are not. == Notes ==
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_ambiguity
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tripleC: Communication, Capitalism & Critique is a biannual peer-reviewed open access academic journal covering communication studies, media studies, sociology of technology/communication/media/culture, critical digital sociology, information science/studies and political economy of media/communication/culture/Internet from the perspective of critical theory. tripleC is an open access journal focused on the critical study of capitalism and communication. It was established in 2003 as tripleC: Cognition, Communication, Cooperation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TripleC
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Journal for a Global Sustainable Information Society, obtaining its current name in 2013. It is published in the United Kingdom as not-for-profit project The editors-in-chief are Christian Fuchs (University of Westminster) and Marisol Sandoval (City University London). The journal uses the Creative Commons CC-BY-NC-ND licence for its content.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TripleC
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Supplier evaluation and supplier appraisal are terms used in business and refer to the process of evaluating and approving potential suppliers by quantitative assessment. The aim of the process is to ensure a portfolio of best-in-class suppliers is available for use, thus, it can be an effective tool to select suppliers in the awarding stage of an auction. Supplier evaluation can also be applied to current suppliers in order to measure and monitor their performance for the purposes of ensuring contract compliance, reducing costs, mitigating risk and driving continuous improvement.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supplier_evaluation
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Supplier evaluation and take-on is a continual process within purchasing departments, and forms part of the pre-qualification step within the purchasing process, although in many organizations, it includes the participation and input of other departments and stakeholders. Most experts or firms experienced in collecting supplier evaluation information prefer doing so using five-step processes for determining which to approve. Their processes often take the form of either a questionnaire or interview, sometimes even a site visit, and includes appraisals of various aspects of the supplier's business including capacity, financials, quality assurance, organizational structure and processes and performance. Performance generally includes quality and delivery: research by Valerie Stueland published in 2004 found that in her study of supplier evaluation, every example she reviewed used both quality and delivery as evaluation factors.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supplier_evaluation
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Based on the information obtained via the evaluation, a supplier is scored and either approved or not approved as one from whom to procure materials or services. In many organizations, there is an "approved supplier list" (ASL) to which a qualified supplier is then added. If rejected, the supplier is generally not made available to the assessing company's procurement team. Once approved, a supplier may be reevaluated on a periodic, often annual, basis. The ongoing process is defined as supplier performance management.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supplier_evaluation
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There are various benefits associated with an effective supplier evaluation process such as mitigation against poor supplier performance or performance failures. The benefits typically include sourcing from suppliers that provide high standards of product and service levels whilst offering sufficient capacity and business stability. Supplier evaluation can help customers and suppliers identify and remove hidden cost drivers in the supply chain. The process of evaluating performance can motivate suppliers to improve their performance. There are several other challenges according to the supplier evaluation.To mitigate this, large corporations typically have a dedicated department (Procurement Department) that performs cost-benefit analysis to evaluate if the company should engage the vendor or perform the task in-house. Such a department can take a considerable amount of resources, thus management's commitment and support of a supplier evaluation process is essential.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supplier_evaluation
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Some of the challenges associated with supplier evaluation may be mitigated by the use of appropriate tools. For simple projects a spreadsheet can be used. But as evaluations become more complex or more frequent data management and data integrity issues become significant. Web Electronic RFP / Tendering systems are often used for initial selection projects.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supplier_evaluation
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Some products provide functionality for combining both initial selection and ongoing evaluation and benchmarking. Within established procurement teaching, the Carter 10Cs model is one model in use. This model looks at ten aspects which can be evaluated before contracting with a business, to reduce the risks associated with supplier selection and as part of ongoing supplier performance appraisal.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supplier_evaluation
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The ten Cs listed by Ray Carter are: Capacity (does the organization have the capacity to deliver the order?) Competency (are the organization, its people and its process competent?) Consistency Control of process (can the organization control its process and offer flexibility?)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supplier_evaluation
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Commitment to Quality (does the organization effectively monitor and manage quality?) Cash (does the organization have a strong enough financial base?) Cost (is the product or service offered at a competitive price?)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supplier_evaluation
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Culture (are the supplier and buyer cultures compatible?) Clean (is the organization ethical, funded legitimately, does not engage child labor, etc.?) Communication efficiency (does the organization have support technology of information integration to support collaboration and co-ordination in the supply chain? ).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supplier_evaluation
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In the UK financial services sector, the Financial Services Supplier Qualification System (FSQS) is a collaborative due diligence system currently used for supplier evaluation by 29 major UK banks, building societies and insurance companies: Aldermore Bank, Allied Irish Bank, Arbuthnot Latham, Bank of England, Bank of Ireland, BNP Paribas Clydesdale Bank (including Virgin Money), Hastings Group, Lloyds Banking Group, LV=, Masthaven Bank, Metro Bank, Nationwide Building Society, NFU Mutual PCF Bank Royal and Sun Alliance, Rugby and Hinckley Building Society, Santander, Shawbrook Bank, Tokio Marine Kiln, TSB and Weatherbys Bank. The system is operated by Oxford-based company Hellios Information Ltd. == References ==
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supplier_evaluation
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The ideographic approach refers to the idea in psychology proposed by Marc Brysbaert that the conclusions of a study stay limited to the phenomenon under study. It also focuses on the importance of individual traits when determining behavior instead of group norms. It reinforces the position that the study of the individual is the most effective method of understanding behavior.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideographic_approach
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A major tradition in behavioral psychology is concerned with the variables and how one's characteristics are abstracted from other people's. The ideographic approach emerged out of the position among pioneers in personality psychology that focuses on the study of individuality.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideographic_approach
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The ideographic approach often use qualitative methodologies in its study of small number of individuals rather than make generalizations out of information collected from a large quantitative database. The methods operate according to the idea that each person is like no other person.The psychological literature distinguishes ideographic approach from the nomothetic laws, which are concerned with the general perspective. == References ==
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideographic_approach
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45,X/46,XY mosaicism, also known as X0/XY mosaicism and mixed gonadal dysgenesis, is a mutation of sex development in humans associated with sex chromosome aneuploidy and mosaicism of the Y chromosome. This is called a mosaic karyotype because, like tiles in mosaic floors or walls, there is more than one type of cell. It is a fairly rare chromosomal disorder at birth, with an estimated incidence rate of about 1 in 15,000 live births. Mosaic loss of the Y chromosome in previously non-mosaic men grows increasingly common with age.The clinical manifestations are highly variable, ranging from partial virilisation and ambiguous genitalia at birth, to patients with completely male or female gonads.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/45,X/46,XY_mosaicism
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Most individuals with this karyotype have apparently normal male genitalia, and a minority have female genitalia, with a significant number of individuals showing genital abnormalities or intersex characteristics. A significantly higher than normal number of other developmental abnormalities are also found in individuals with X0/XY mosaicism. Psychomotor development is normal.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/45,X/46,XY_mosaicism
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Although similar in some ways to true hermaphroditism, the conditions can be distinguished histologically and by karyotyping. The observable characteristics (phenotype) of this condition are highly variable, ranging from gonadal dysgenesis in males, to Turner-like females and phenotypically normal males. The phenotypical expression may be ambiguous, male or female depending on the extent of the mosaicism. The most common presentation of 45,X/46,XY karyotype is phenotypically normal male, next being genital ambiguity.There is a range of chromosomal anomalies within 45,X/46,XY where the variations are very complex, and the actual result in living individuals is often not a simple picture.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/45,X/46,XY_mosaicism
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Most patients with this karyotype are known to have abnormal gonadal histology and heights considerably below their genetic potential. High gonadotropin levels have been described in both male and female patients, as well as low levels of testosterone in male patients.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/45,X/46,XY_mosaicism
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Dosage loss of SHOX gene is commonly associated with short stature. Psychomotor development is normal. As the gonads may not be symmetrical, the development of the Müllerian duct and Wolffian duct may be asymmetrical, too. Because of the presence of dysgenetic gonadal tissue and Y chromosome material, there is a high risk of the development of a gonadoblastoma.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/45,X/46,XY_mosaicism
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In a normal situation, all the cells in an individual will have 46 chromosomes with one being an X and one a Y or with two Xs. However, sometimes during this complicated early copying process (DNA replication and cell division), one chromosome can be lost. In 45,X/46,XY, most or all of the Y chromosome is lost in one of the newly created cells. All the cells then made from this cell will lack the Y chromosome.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/45,X/46,XY_mosaicism
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All the cells created from the cells that have not lost the Y chromosome will be XY. The 46,XY cells will continue to multiply at the same time as the 45,X cells multiply.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/45,X/46,XY_mosaicism
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The embryo, then the fetus and then the baby will have what is called a 45,X/46,XY constitution. This is called a mosaic karyotype because, like tiles in mosaic floors or walls, there is more than one type of cell.There are many chromosomal variations that cause the 45,X/46,XY karyotype, including malformation (isodicentricism) of the Y chromosomes, deletions of Y chromosome or translocations of Y chromosome segments. These rearrangements of the Y chromosome can lead to partial expression of the SRY gene which may lead to abnormal genitals and testosterone levels.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/45,X/46,XY_mosaicism
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Identification of 45,X/46,XY karyotype has significant clinical implications due to known effects on growth, hormonal balance, gonadal development and histology. 45,X/46,XY is diagnosed by examining the chromosomes in a blood sample. The age of diagnosis varies depending on manifestations of disease prompting reason for cytogenetic testing. Many patients are diagnosed prenatally due to fetal factors (increased nuchal fold, or abnormal levels of serum), maternal age or abnormal ultrasounds, while others will be diagnosed postnatal due to external genital malformation. It is not uncommon for patients to be diagnosed later in life due to short stature or delayed puberty, or a combination of both.45,X/46,XY mosaicism can be detected prenatally through amniocentesis however, it was determined that the proportion of 45,X cells in the amniotic fluid cannot predict any phenotypic outcomes, often making prenatal genetic counselling difficult.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/45,X/46,XY_mosaicism
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The Occupational Personality Questionnaires, OPQ or OPQ32, are widely used occupational personality questionnaires. The authors were Saville et al., including Roger Holdsworth, Gill Nyfield, Lisa Cramp, and Bill Mabey, and they were launched by Saville and Holdsworth Ltd. in 1984. The series included the first commercially available Big Five instrument.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_Personality_Questionnaires
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OPQ32 provides an indication of an individual's preferred behavioural style at work; to help employers gauge how a candidate will fit into certain work environments, how they will work with other people, and how they will cope with different job requirements. It is now available in more than 30 languages and uses item response theory to shorten the questionnaire to under 30 minutes. The OPQ32 is used in selection, development, team building, succession planning , and organisational change.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_Personality_Questionnaires
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Independent reviews are available online. Distribution is done today by SHL Group Limited. == References ==
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_Personality_Questionnaires
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The Principle of Least Interest is the idea in sociology that the person or group that has the least amount of interest in continuing a relationship has the most power over it. In the context of relationship dynamics, it suggests towards which party the balance of power tilts. The principle applies to personal, business, and other types of relationships where more than one party is involved.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_interest
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The term originated in 1938 by the sociologist Willard Waller in his book The Family: A Dynamic Interpretation. Throughout his research Waller found that power in a dating couple is almost never equally distributed between the two participants. One person for any variety of possible reasons will have more power in the relationship. One of the ways Waller proposed for this uneven balance was the Principle of Least Interest.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_interest
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In a relationship with uneven power distribution, one of the partners gets more out of a relationship, be it emotionally, physically, or monetarily than the other. The partner who receives less has less incentive to continue the relationship and therefore at the most extreme can threaten to end the relationship so that the other person bends to their demands. For the person making the demands this is of little consequence to them.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_interest
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For the other party however, it might be a much larger issue. This is the basis for the ideas behind principle of least interest.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_interest
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The first major study to test the principle came in 1972 in a paper by Kenneth Eslinger, Alfred D Clarke and Russell R Dynes. In the paper the researchers interviewed 113 randomly selected college students that were enrolled in sociology courses to find out if a difference in emotional involvement existed in relationships and whether or not the level of involvement was affected by how the person was raised. The methods of raising children that were considered by the study were: bureaucratically or entrepreneurially.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_interest
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The study confirmed that there was a difference in involvement between how you were raised and how involved in a relationship you were. Furthermore, the study showed a large gap in involvement between males and females, with the lowest female mean score four points higher than the highest male mean score.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_interest
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This showed that males as a group were significantly less interested in maintaining their relationship and could use the principle of least interest for their own benefit. These studies were further reinforced in 1984 by a study that focused on the balance of power in lesbian relationships. Nearly 40% of those taking part reported an unequal balance of power.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_interest
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Furthermore, those who reported an unequal balance of power reported that they felt the person who was less dependent on the relationship had more power. In 1994 a study of 413 heterosexual American adults found correlations between the power balance between the partners and the emotional involvement of them to be both negative and significant. The researchers also noted that the perception of being powerless in a relationship grew as the emotional involvements in the relationship grew.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_interest
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39% of the respondents reported that the woman was more emotionally involved compared to only 21% reporting the man to be more emotionally involved. Building on this study in 2006 a study by Susan Sprecher and Diane Felmlee of 101 heterosexual American dating couples found that the partners who perceived themselves as more emotionally involved also perceived themselves as having less power. The most recent study on the principle of least interest took place in 2012. In it 30 in-depth interviews with 15 unmarried African-American couples were performed. The study found that the partner less emotionally involved typically made the decisions about how to handle the couple's birth control.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_interest
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The principle of least interest falls primarily in the Conflict viewpoint of sociology. The principle of least interest dictates how power is distributed in a relationship and how it is almost always unequally balanced. This unequal balance of power can lead the weaker person to struggle to get a grasp on some of the power. This struggle leads to a conflict between the one with the power and the one without.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_interest
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While typically the principle of least interest is used in sociology to describe relationships, it has also been used to explain business deals. It can explain why in marketing an excessively aggressive pitch can be less likely to be accepted. Another example is in negotiations, when one party leaves the negotiation in order to make the other party improve their offer. == References ==
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_interest
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Midline shift is a shift of the brain past its center line. The sign may be evident on neuroimaging such as CT scanning. The sign is considered ominous because it is commonly associated with a distortion of the brain stem that can cause serious dysfunction evidenced by abnormal posturing and failure of the pupils to constrict in response to light. Midline shift is often associated with high intracranial pressure (ICP), which can be deadly.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midline_shift
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In fact, midline shift is a measure of ICP; presence of the former is an indication of the latter. Presence of midline shift is an indication for neurosurgeons to take measures to monitor and control ICP. Immediate surgery may be indicated when there is a midline shift of over 5 mm. The sign can be caused by conditions including traumatic brain injury, stroke, hematoma, or birth deformity that leads to a raised intracranial pressure.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midline_shift
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Doctors detect midline shift using a variety of methods. The most prominent measurement is done by a computed tomography (CT) scan and the CT Gold Standard is the standardized operating procedure for detecting MLS. Since the midline shift is often easily visible with a CT scan, the high precision of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is not necessary, but can be used with equally adequate results. Newer methods such as bedside sonography can be used with neurocritical patients who cannot undergo some scans due to their dependence on ventilators or other care apparatuses.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midline_shift
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Sonography has proven satisfactory in the measurement of MLS, but is not expected to replace CT or MRI. Automated measurement algorithms are used for exact recognition and precision in measurements from an initial CT scan. A major benefit to using the automated recognition tools includes being able to measure even the most deformed brains because the method doesn’t depend on normal brain symmetry. Also, it lessens the chance of human error by detecting MLS from an entire image set compared to selecting the single most important slice, which allows the computer to do the work that was once manually done.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midline_shift
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Three main structures are commonly investigated when measuring midline shift. The most important of these is the septum pellucidum, which is a thin and linear layer of tissue located between the right and left ventricles. It is easily found on CT or MRI images due to its unique hypodensity. The other two important structures of the midline include the third ventricle and the pineal gland, which are both centrally located and caudal to the septum pellucidum. Identifying the location of these structures on a damaged brain compared to an unaffected brain is another way of categorizing the severity of the midline shift. The terms mild, moderate, and severe are associated with the extent of increasing damage.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midline_shift
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Midline shift measurements and imaging has multiple applications. The severity of brain damage is determined by the magnitude of the change in symmetry. Another use is secondary screening to determine deviations in brain trauma at different times after a traumatic injury as well as initial shifts immediately after. The severity of shift is directly proportional to the likeliness of surgery having to be performed. The degree of MLS can also be used to diagnose the pathology that caused it. The MLS measurement can be used to successfully distinguish between a variety of intracranial conditions including acute subdural hematoma, malignant middle cerebral artery infarction, epidural hematoma, subarachnoid hemorrhage, chronic subdural hematoma, infarction, intraventrical hemorrhage, a combination of these symptoms, or the absence of pertinent damage altogether.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midline_shift
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Ceratomyxa gleesoni is a myxosporean parasite that infects gall-bladders of serranid fishes from the Great Barrier Reef. It was first found on Plectropomus leopardus.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceratomyxa_gleesoni
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A promontory fort is a defensive structure located above a steep cliff, often only connected to the mainland by a small neck of land, thus using the topography to reduce the ramparts needed. Although their dating is problematic, most seem to date to the Iron Age. They are mainly found in Brittany, Ireland, the Orkney Islands, the Isle of Man, Devon, the Channel Islands and Cornwall.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promontory_fort
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Only a few Irish promontory forts have been excavated and most date to the Iron Age, though some, like Dunbeg Fort (County Kerry) might have originated in the Bronze Age. Others, like Dalkey Island (County Dublin) contain imported Eastern Mediterranean pottery and have been reoccupied and changed in the early medieval period. Some, like Doonmore (near Dingle, County Kerry) are associated with the Middle Ages. Dunbeg contains an early medieval corbelled stone hut (clochán).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promontory_fort
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On the Isle of Man, promontory forts are found particularly on the rocky slate headlands of the south. Four out of more than twenty have been excavated and several, especially in Santon, can be visited using the Raad ny Foillan coastal footpath. All have a rampart on their vulnerable landward side, and excavations at Cronk ny Merriu have shown that access to the fort was via a strongly built gate. The Scandinavians who arrived in Mann in the eighth and ninth centuries AD sometimes re-used these Iron Age promontory forts, often obliterating the old domestic quarters with their characteristic rectangular houses; the fine example at Cronk ny Merriu has been used as the basis of the reconstruction in the House of Manannan museum in Peel.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promontory_fort
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Cornish promontory forts can be found all along the coast of Penwith. Maen Castle, near to Land's End is one of the oldest, having been dated to around 500 BC. They are also found in other districts, e.g. The Rumps near Padstow and Dodman Point on the southern Cornish coast as well as Rame Head close to Plymouth. In Devon, Burgh Island and Bolt Tail are located on the south coast and Embury Beacon and Hillsborough on the north coast. The famous site at Tintagel may be a rare example of promontory fort whose occupation continued into the post Roman and from there into later periods.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promontory_fort
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Caesar's Commentarii de bello Gallico describes the Veneti in southern Armorica – a powerful sea-faring people allied with the southern British during the war of 56 BC – as living in clifftop oppida. Their capital was Darioritum, on the Gulf of Morbihan, now modern Vannes/Gwened. The Veneti had close trade ties with southwestern Britain. When they were attacked by the Romans in Brittany, Julius Caesar reports that Cornwall sent them military aid.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promontory_fort
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There are a few examples of promontory forts on the Island of Jersey, which includes Le Pinacle, Le Câtel de Rozel, and Le Câtel de Lecq. All of these were located on headlands on the north and north-east of the Island, given the strong natural defences that exist on those parts of the Island. Remains of an Iron Age fort were located on the site of Mont Orgueil Castle to the east of the island as well as materials from the Neolithic and Bronze Age.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promontory_fort
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Many animals, including humans, tend to live in groups, herds, flocks, bands, packs, shoals, or colonies (hereafter: groups) of conspecific individuals. The size of these groups, as expressed by the number of people/etc in a group such as eight groups of nine people in each one, is an important aspect of their social environment. Group size tend to be highly variable even within the same species, thus we often need statistical measures to quantify group size and statistical tests to compare these measures between two or more samples. Group size measures are notoriously hard to handle statistically since groups sizes typically follow an aggregated (right-skewed) distribution: most groups are small, few are large, and a very few are very large. Statistical measures of group size roughly fall into two categories.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_size_measures
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Group size is the number of individuals within a group; Mean group size, the arithmetic mean of group sizes averaged over groups; Confidence interval for mean group size; Median group size, the median of group sizes calculated over groups; Confidence interval for median group size.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_size_measures
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As Jarman (1974) pointed out, average individuals live in groups larger than average. Therefore, when we wish to characterize a typical (average) individual’s social environment, we should apply non-parametric estimations of group size. Reiczigel et al. (2008) proposed the following measures: Crowding is the size (the number of individuals) of a group that a particular individual lives in (equals to group size: one for a solitary individual, two for both individuals in a group of two, etc.). Practically, it describes the social environment of one particular individual. This was called Individual Group Size in Jovani & Mavor's (2011) paper. ; Mean crowding, i.e. the arithmetic mean of crowding measures averaged over individuals (this was called "Typical Group Size" according to Jarman's 1974 terminology); Confidence interval for mean crowding.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_size_measures
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Imagine a sample with three groups, where group sizes are one, two, and six individuals, respectively, then mean group size (group sizes averaged over groups) equals ( 1 + 2 + 6 ) / 3 = 3 {\displaystyle (1+2+6)/3=3} ; mean crowding (group sizes averaged over individuals) equals ( 1 + 2 + 2 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 ) / 9 = 4.555 {\displaystyle (1+2+2+6+6+6+6+6+6)/9=4.555} .Generally speaking, given there are G groups with sizes n1, n2, ..., nG, mean crowding can be calculated as: mean crowding= ∑ i = 1 G n i 2 / ∑ i = 1 G n i {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{G}n_{i}^{2}/\sum _{i=1}^{G}n_{i}}
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_size_measures
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Due to the aggregated (right-skewed) distribution of group members among groups, the application of parametric statistics would be misleading. Another problem arises when analyzing crowding values. Crowding data consist of non-independent values, or ties, which show multiple and simultaneous changes due to a single biological event. (Say, all group members' crowding values change simultaneously whenever an individual joins or leaves.) Reiczigel et al. (2008) discuss the statistical problems associated with group size measures (calculating confidence intervals, two-sample tests, etc.) and offer a free statistical toolset (Flocker 1.1).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_size_measures
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Debout G 2003. Le corbeau freux (Corvus frugilegus) nicheur en Normandie: recensement 1999 & 2000. Cormoran, 13, 115–121. Jarman PJ 1974.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_size_measures
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The social organisation of antelope in relation to their ecology. Behaviour, 48, 215–268. Jovani R, Mavor R 2011.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_size_measures
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Group size versus individual group size frequency distributions: a nontrivial distinction. Animal Behaviour, 82, 1027–1036. Lengyel S, Tar J, Rozsa L 2012.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_size_measures
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Flock size measures of migrating Lesser White-fronted Geese Anser erythropus Acta Zoologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 58, 297–303. (2012) Reiczigel J, Lang Z, Rózsa L, Tóthmérész B 2008. Measures of sociality: two different views of group size.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_size_measures
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Animal Behaviour, 75, 715–721. Reiczigel J, Mejía Salazar MF, Bollinger TK, Rozsa L 2015. Comparing radio-tracking and visual detection methods to quantify group size measures. European Journal of Ecology, 1(2), 1–4.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_size_measures
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In criminology, a calling card is a particular object sometimes left behind by a criminal at a scene of a crime, often as a way of taunting police or claiming responsibility. The name is derived from the cards that people used to leave when they went to visit someone's house and the resident was absent. A calling card can also be used as an individual's way of telling someone they are alive after they have run away or disappeared without revealing themselves or having direct contact with that person. It is often left at a bed side table while the person is asleep, at the living room floor and sometimes even at a grave yard if they know the times someone goes to visit their loved ones. However, some criminals choose not to leave a calling card, as it may be used by authorities or detectives to trace the criminal, and eventually arrest them.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calling_card_(crime)
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Jack the Ripper is believed to have left two calling cards by Goulston Street, London on September 30, 1888, the night he murdered Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes: a scrap of Eddowes' apron and some graffiti reading Juwes are the men That Will not be Blamed for nothing. Some authors believe the graffiti may have already been there prior to the apron piece being dropped and that the two should not be linked. The 1968 Zodiac Killer in San Francisco would mail cryptograms to the San Francisco Chronicle made up of letters and zodiac signs, signed with a sun cross. The Washington, D.C. Beltway sniper attacks in 2002 were linked by a series of Tarot cards left by the snipers, which contained messages for the policemen investigating the crimes.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calling_card_(crime)
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In the 1919–1920 Fritz Lang adventure film series The Spiders a spider was the calling card for the criminal organization known as 'The Spiders'. In the 1963 movie The Pink Panther, the "Phantom" would leave behind a white glove with a monogrammed P on it after every successful theft. In the 1990 film Home Alone, the "Wet Bandits" rob the houses of people on vacation, and leave the water running. One of them, Harry Lyme, is against this, as near the end, this is what leads to their eventual arrest.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calling_card_(crime)
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They return as the "Sticky Bandits" in Home Alone 2: Lost in New York. In the novel, The Red Necklace by Sally Gardner, the villainous Count Kalliovski leaves a necklace of red silk set with garnets upon each of his murder victims, making it appear as though the victim's throat has been slit.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calling_card_(crime)
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In the 2000 book Angels & Demons by Dan Brown, a Hassassin uses brands representing the four classical elements as calling cards in a series of ritualistic murders related to each element (e.g. fire for one victim who had been burned to death.) In the 1905 West End play, the Scarlet Pimpernel leaves a calling card (a scarlet pimpernel) at each of his interventions. In DC Comics, Batman's enemies often leave calling cards.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calling_card_(crime)
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In particular, his arch-enemy, The Joker, uses two types of calling cards, one is a simple joker card from a deck of playing cards, which was used in the end of the film Batman Begins, and its sequel The Dark Knight. The other is by far more sinister—Joker Venom, which causes death while laughing madly and applies a permanent, ear-to-ear, grin. Another Batman villain, The Riddler, leaves behind a riddle or other puzzle, whose solution is a clue to his overall plot.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calling_card_(crime)
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In the 1998 novel Holes, Kate Barlow kisses the corpses of her victims, leaving a lipstick mark at every murder. In the 2004 movie Saw the killer, Jigsaw, cuts a jigsaw piece out of the flesh of the victim, symbolizing the piece that the person was missing. In the 2004 movie Ocean's Twelve, the "Night Fox" leaves behind an onyx fox at every robbery.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calling_card_(crime)
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In the first couple of books in The Executioner series, the main character, Mack Bolan, would leave behind a Marksman's medal on or near his victims. In the Sucker Punch video games Sly Cooper and the Thievious Raccoonus, Sly 2: Band of Thieves, and Sly 3: Honor Among Thieves, the main character, Sly Cooper, always leaves behind a blue calling card in the shape of his raccoon-head logo. In the 2010 game Heavy Rain, the Origami Killer leaves an origami figure and an orchid with his victims' bodies. In the 2007 Jo Nesbø novel The Snowman, as well as its film adaptation, the killer leaves behind a snowman at the scenes of his crimes, which leads to him being christened "the Snowman killer". == References ==
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calling_card_(crime)
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Lesson study (or jugyō kenkyū) is a teaching improvement process that has origins in Japanese elementary education, where it is a widespread professional development practice. Working in a small group, teachers collaborate with one another, meeting to discuss learning goals, planning an actual classroom lesson (called a "research lesson"), observing how their ideas work in a live lessons with students, and then reporting on the results so that other teachers can benefit from it.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesson_study
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In Japan, lesson study is conducted at the school, district, and national levels. Features common to all three levels are: preparation of a detailed lesson plan, providing background research information, lesson goals, connections to state or local learning standards, reasoning behind the design of the lesson, and steps of the lesson along with anticipated student responses; observation of a live lesson conducted with students (the research lesson); and a discussion following the lesson, analyzing its impact on students and implications for future instruction.School-, district-, or national-level lesson study differ with respect to the students they consider. School-based lesson study (discussed in more detail below) aims to address a school-wide research theme. District-level lesson study is often used for schools to share learning with other schools.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesson_study
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A school might have an open house, with research lessons held at every grade, which district leaders and educators from other schools will attend. National-level lesson study is conducted by enthusiastic volunteers who are also very experienced, highly respected teachers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesson_study
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The research lesson is done at a major conference. The objective may be to explore new content or to present a new approach to teaching particular content. National-level research lessons often inform changes in the national Course of Study.Despite differences between Japanese and American educational systems (see Education in Japan and Education in the United States), the practice is gaining in popularity in the United States in K-12 education and teacher training (See Instructional rounds), and more recently it is finding a home in higher education as a form of faculty development. This is a specific example of the ongoing Japanese devotion to the Plan-Do-Check-Act PDCA decision-making discipline pioneered by W. Edwards Deming, which is based upon the Shewhart Cycle (named after Deming's collaborator from Bell Telephone Laboratories, Walter A. Shewhart).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesson_study
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The most common form of lesson study in Japan is school-based. In contrast to the other forms of lesson study, school-based lesson study usually involves a sequence of research lessons, extending through one or more academic years, focused on a common teaching/learning issue referred to as the research theme. A research theme may be content-specific – e.g. "For students to see the connection between science and their everyday lives" – or cross-curricular – e.g. "For students to clearly express their ideas and carefully consider the ideas of their friends" – or affective – e.g. "For students to feel the joy of learning." Another common objective of school-based lesson study is to address changes in the national Course of Study, which in Japan is revised every 9 years or so.Through multiple research lessons at different grade levels, a school faculty works toward a common vision of how to achieve their goals. Since the goal is not to refine individual lessons, it is not considered a normal part of lesson study to revise and reteach a lesson, although that is done on occasion.The median time for the planning of one research lesson in Japan is more than 5 weeks.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesson_study
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Patient advocacy is a process in health care concerned with advocacy for patients, survivors, and caregivers. The patient advocate may be an individual or an organization, concerned with healthcare standards or with one specific group of disorders. The terms patient advocate and patient advocacy can refer both to individual advocates providing services that organizations also provide, and to organizations whose functions extend to individual patients. Some patient advocates are independent (with no conflict-of-loyalty issues) and some work for the organizations that are directly responsible for the patient's care.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_advocacy
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Typical advocacy activities are the following: safeguarding patients from errors, incompetence and misconduct; patient rights, matters of privacy, confidentiality or informed consent, patient representation, awareness-building, support and education of patients, survivors and their carers.Patient advocates give a voice to patients, survivors and their carers on healthcare-related (public) fora, informing the public, the political and regulatory world, health care providers (hospitals, insurers, pharmaceutical companies etc.), organizations of health care professionals, the educational world, and the medical and pharmaceutical research communities. Nurses can perform a de facto role of patient advocacy, though this role may be limited due their position in an organization. Patients can advocate for themselves through self-advocacy and the ability for this self-advocacy can be learnt or improved through training.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_advocacy
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Patient advocacy, as a hospital-based practice, grew out of this patient rights movement: patient advocates (often called patient representatives) were needed to protect and enhance the rights of patients at a time when hospital stays were long and acute conditions—heart disease, stroke and cancer—contributed to the boom in hospital growth. Health care reformers at the time critiqued this growth by quoting Roemer's Law: a built hospital bed is a bed likely to be filled. And more radical health analysts coined the term health empires to refer to the increasing power of these large teaching institutions that linked hospital care with medical education, putting one in the service of the other, arguably losing the patient-centered focus in the process. It was not surprising, then, that patient advocacy, like patient care, focused on the hospital stay, while health advocacy took a more critical perspective of a health care system in which power was concentrated on the top in large medical teaching centers and a dominance of the medical profession.Patient advocacy in the United States emerged in the 1950s in the context of cancer research and treatment.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_advocacy
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In those early days of cancer treatment, patients and their families raised ethical concerns around the tests, treatment practices, and clinical research being conducted. For instance, they expressed concern to the National Institute of Health (NIH) about the cruelty of the repeated collection of blood samples (for blood marrow examination) and raised questions about whether this was more harmful than beneficial to the patient. Sidney Farber, a Harvard physician and cancer researcher, coined the term total care, to describe the treatment of children with leukemia.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_advocacy
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Under total care, a physician "treated the family as a whole, factoring in its psychosocial and economic needs", rather than focusing purely on physical health concerns. Previous researchers had dealt with concerns raised by families, because physicians emphasized patient physical health rather than the inclusion of bedside manners with the families. The practice of patient advocacy emerged to support and represent patients in this medico-legal and ethical discussion.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_advocacy
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The 1970s were also an important time in the US for patient advocacy as the Patient Rights movement grew. As a major advocacy organization during the time, the National Welfare Rights Organization's (NWRO) materials for a patient's bill of rights influenced many additional organizations and writings, including hospital accreditation standards for the Joint Commission in 1970 and the American Hospital Association's Patient Bill of Rights in 1972. The utilization of advocates by individual patients gained momentum in the early 2000s in the US, and Australia 10 years later, and the profession is now perceived as a mainstream option to optimize outcomes in both hospital- and community-based healthcare.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_advocacy
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Communication skills, information-seeking skills and problem-solving skills were found to correlate with measures of a patient's ability to advocate for themselves. : 51 Conceptualizations of the qualities have defined self-knowledge, communication skills, knowledge of rights, and leadership as components of advocacy. : 50 A number of interventions have been tried to improve patients' effectiveness at advocating for themselves.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_advocacy
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Studies have found peer-led programs where an individual with a condition is taught interview skills were effective in improving self-advocacy. Writing interventions, where people with conditions received training and practiced writing essays advocating for themselves, were shown to improve self-advocacy. : 52
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_advocacy
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At a conceptual level patient advocacy consists of three processes: valuing, apprising and interceding. Valuing consists of understanding the patient's unique attributes and desires. : 35 Apprising consists of informing the patient and advising the patient. : 36 Interceding consists of interacting with processes to ensure that the patient's unique attributes and desires are represented in these processes,: 36 and may include interceding in family interactions as well as healthcare processes.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_advocacy
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: 36 Examples of patient advocacy include: Educating and walking patients through the management of their disease or chronic illnesses. The social determinants of health can vary significantly from patient to patient. It is the role of the patient advocate to cater to the patient's needs and assist with these factors, such as where to find treatment to manage their illness, assisting with healthcare access due to socioeconomic barriers, or helping find additional health services.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_advocacy
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