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and 1451 and executed, at least in part, by Bernardo Rossellino; the Palazzo Davanzati, which houses the museum of the Old Florentine House; the Palazzo delle Assicurazioni Generali, designed in the Neo- Renaissance style in 1871; the Palazzo Spini Feroni, in Piazza Santa Trinita,ahistoric13th- century private palace,ownedsincethe1920s by shoe- designer Salvatore Ferragamo; as well as various others, including the Palazzo Borghese, the Palazzo di Bianca Cappello, the Palazzo Antinori, and the Royal building of Santa Maria Novella. Florence contains numerous museums and art galleries where some of the world' s most important works of art are held. The city is one of the best preserved Renaissance centres of art and architecture in the world and has a high concentration of art, architecture and culture. In the ranking list of the 15 most visited Italian art museums,⅔ are represented by Florentine museums. The Uffizi is one of these, having a very large collection of international and Florentine art. The gallery is articulated in many halls, catalogued by schools and chronological order. Engendered by the Medici family' s artistic collections through the centuries, it houses works of art by various painters and artists. The Vasari Corridor is another gallery, built connecting the Palazzo Vecchio with the Pitti Palace passing by the Uffizi and over the Ponte Vecchio. The Galleria dell' Accademia houses a Michelangelo collection, including the David. It has a collection of Russian icons and works by various artists and painters. Other museums and galleries include the Bargello, which concentrates on sculpture works by artists including Donatello, Giambologna and Michelangelo; the Palazzo Pitti, containing part of the Medici family' s former private collection. In addition to the Medici collection, the palace' s galleries contain many Renaissance works, including several by Raphael and Titian, large collections of costumes, ceremonial carriages, silver, porcelain and a gallery ofmodernartdatingfromthe18th century. Adjoining the palace are the Boboli Gardens, elaborately landscaped and with numerous sculptures. There are several different churches and religious buildings in Florence. The cathedral is Santa Maria del Fiore. The San Giovanni Baptistery located in front of the cathedral, is decorated by numerous artists, notably by Lorenzo Ghiberti with the" Gates of Paradise". Other churches in Florence include the Basilica of Santa Maria Novella, located in Santa Maria Novella square( near the Firenze Santa Maria Novella railway station) which contains works by Masaccio, Paolo Uccello, Filippino Lippi and Domenico Ghirlandaio; the Basilica of Santa Croce, the principal Franciscan church in the city, which is situated on the Piazza di Santa Croce, about southeast of the Duomo, and is the burial place of some of the most illustrious Italians, such as Michelangelo, Galileo, Machiavelli, Foscolo, Rossini, thus it is known also as the Temple of the Italian Glories( Tempio dell' Itale Glorie); the Basilica of San Lorenzo, which is one of the largest churches in the city, situated at the centre of Florence' s main market district, and the burial place of all the principal members of the Medici family from Cosimo il Vecchio to Cosimo III; Santo Spirito, in the Oltrarno quarter, facing the square with | the same name; Orsanmichele, whose |
building was constructed on the site of the kitchen garden of the monastery of San Michele, now demolished; Santissima Annunziata, a Roman Catholic basilica and the mother church of the Servite order; Ognissanti, which was founded by the lay order of the Umiliati, and is among the first examples of Baroque architecture built in the city; the Santa Maria del Carmine, in the Oltrarno district of Florence, which is the location of the Brancacci Chapel, housing outstanding Renaissance frescoes by Masaccio and Masolino da Panicale, later finished by Filippino Lippi; the Medici Chapel with statues by Michelangelo, in the San Lorenzo; as well as several others, including Santa Trinita, San Marco, Santa Felicita, Badia Fiorentina, San Gaetano, San Miniato al Monte, Florence Charterhouse, and Santa Maria del Carmine. The city additionally contains the Orthodox Russian church of Nativity, and the Great Synagogue of Florence,builtinthe19th century. Florence contains various theatres and cinemas. The Odeon Cinema of the Palazzo dello Strozzino is one of the oldest cinemas in the city. Established from 1920 to 1922 in a wing of the Palazzo dello Strozzino, it used to be called the" Cinema Teatro Savoia"( Savoy Cinema- Theatre), yet was later called" Odeon". The Teatro della Pergola, located in the centre of the city on the eponymous street,isanoperahousebuiltinthe17th century. Another theatre is the Teatro Comunale( or" Teatro del Maggio Musicale Fiorentino"), originally built as the open- air amphitheatre, the" Politeama Fiorentino Vittorio Emanuele", which was inaugurated on 17 May 1862 with a production of Donizetti' s" Lucia di Lammermoor" and which seated 6, 000 people. There are several other theatres, such as the Saloncino Castinelli, the Teatro Puccini, the Teatro Verdi, the Teatro Goldoni and the Teatro Niccolini. Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. Florence Cathedral, formally the Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore, is the cathedral of Florence, Italy. It was begun in 1296 in the Gothic style to a design of Arnolfo di Cambio and was structurally completed by 1436, with the dome designed by Filippo Brunelleschi. Squares, streets and parks. Aside from such monuments, Florence contains numerous major squares(" piazze") and streets. The Piazza della Repubblica is a square in the city centre, location of the cultural cafés and bourgeois palaces. Among the square' s cafés( like Caffè Gilli, Paszkowski or the Hard Rock Cafè), the Giubbe Rosse café has long been a meeting place for artists and writers, notably those of Futurism. The Piazza Santa Croce is another; dominated by the Basilica of Santa Croce, it is a rectangular square in the centre of the city where the Calcio Fiorentino is played every year. Furthermore, there is the Piazza Santa Trinita, a square near the Arno that mark the end of the Via de' Tornabuoni street. Other squares include the Piazza San Marco, the Piazza Santa Maria Novella, the Piazza Beccaria and the Piazza della Libertà. The centre additionally contains several streets. Such include the Via Camillo Cavour, one of the main roads of the northern area of the historic centre; the Via Ghibellina, one of central Florence' s longest streets; the Via | dei Calzaiuoli, one of the |
most central streets of the historic centre which links" Piazza del Duomo" to Piazza della Signoria, winding parallel to via Roma and" Piazza della Repubblica"; the Via de' Tornabuoni, a luxurious street in the city centre that goes from Antinori square to ponte Santa Trinita, across Piazza Santa Trinita, characterised by the presence of fashion boutiques; the Viali di Circonvallazione, 6- lane boulevards surrounding the northern part of the historic centre; as well as others, such as Via Roma, Via degli Speziali, Via de' Cerretani, and the Viale dei Colli. Florence also contains various parks and gardens. Such include the Boboli Gardens, the Parco delle Cascine, the Giardino Bardini and the Giardino dei Semplici, amongst others. Demographics. In 1200 the city was home to 50, 000 people. By 1300 the population of the city proper was 120, 000, with an additional 300, 000 living in the Contado. Between 1500 and 1650 the population was around 70, 000., the population of the city proper is 370, 702, while Eurostat estimates that 696, 767 people live in the urban area of Florence. The Metropolitan Area of Florence, Prato and Pistoia, constituted in 2000 over an area of roughly, is home to 1. 5 million people. Within Florence proper, 46. 8% of the population was male in 2007 and 53. 2% were female. Minors( children aged 18 and less) totalled 14. 10 percent of the population compared to pensioners, who numbered 25. 95 percent. This compares with the Italian average of 18. 06 percent( minors) and 19. 94 percent( pensioners). The average age of Florence resident is 49 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Florence grew by 3. 22 percent, while Italy as a whole grew by 3. 56 percent. The birth rate of Florence is 7. 66 births per 1, 000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9. 45 births., 87. 46% of the population was Italian. An estimated 6, 000 Chinese live in the city. The largest immigrant group came from other European countries( mostly Romanians and Albanians): 3. 52%, East Asia( mostly Chinese and Filipino): 2. 17%, the Americas: 1. 41%, and North Africa( mostly Moroccan): 0. 9%. Much like the rest of Italy most of the people in Florence are Roman Catholic, with more than 90% of the population belonging to the Archdiocese of Florence. Economy. Tourism is, by far, the most important of all industries and most of the Florentine economy relies on the money generated by international arrivals and students studying in the city. The value tourism to the city totalled some€ 2. 5 billion in 2015 and the number of visitors had increased by 5. 5% from the previous year. In 2013, Florence was listed as the second best world city by" Condé Nast Traveler". Manufacturing and commerce, however, still remain highly important. Florence is also Italy's17th richest city in terms of average workers' earnings, with the figure being€ 23, 265( the overall city' s income is€ 6, 531, 204, 473), coming after Mantua, yet | surpassing Bolzano. Industry, commerce and |
services. Florence is a major production and commercial centre in Italy, where the Florentine industrial complexes in the suburbs produce all sorts of goods, from furniture, rubber goods, chemicals, and food. However, traditional and local products, such as antiques, handicrafts, glassware, leatherwork, art reproductions, jewellery, souvenirs, elaborate metal and iron- work, shoes, accessories and high fashion clothes also dominate a fair sector of Florence' s economy. The city' s income relies partially on services and commercial and cultural interests, such as annual fairs, theatrical and lyrical productions, art exhibitions, festivals and fashion shows, such as the Calcio Fiorentino. Heavy industry and machinery also take their part in providing an income. In Nuovo Pignone, numerous factories are still present, and small- to medium industrial businesses are dominant. The Florence- Prato- Pistoia industrial districts and areas were known as the' Third Italy'inthe1990s, due to the exports of high- quality goods and automobile( especially the Vespa) and the prosperity and productivity of the Florentine entrepreneurs. Some of these industries even rivalled the traditional industrial districts in Emilia- Romagna and Veneto due to high profits and productivity. In the fourth quarter of 2015, manufacturing increased by 2. 4% and exports increased by 7. 2%. Leading sectors included mechanical engineering, fashion, pharmaceutics, food and wine. During 2015, permanent employment contracts increased by 48. 8 percent, boosted by nationwide tax break. Tourism. Tourism is the most significant industry in central Florence. From April to October, tourists outnumber local population. Tickets to the Uffizi and Accademia museums are regularly sold out and large groups regularly fill the basilicas of Santa Croce and Santa Maria Novella, both of which charge for entry. Tickets for The Uffizi and Accademia can be purchased online prior to visiting. In 2010, readers of" Travel+ Leisure" magazine ranked the city as their third favourite tourist destination. In 2015, Condé Nast Travel readers voted Florence as the best city in Europe. Studies by Euromonitor International have concluded that cultural and history- oriented tourism is generating significantly increased spending throughout Europe. Florence is believed to have the greatest concentration of art( in proportion to its size) in the world. Thus, cultural tourism is particularly strong, with world- renowned museums such as the Uffizi selling over 1. 93 million tickets in 2014. The city' sconventioncentrefacilitieswererestructuredduringthe1990s and host exhibitions, conferences, meetings, social forums, concerts and other events all year. In 2016, Florence had 20, 588 hotel rooms in 570 facilities. International visitors use 75% of the rooms; some 18% of those were from the U. S. In 2014, the city had 8. 5 million overnight stays. A Euromonitor report indicates that in 2015 the city ranked as the world's36th most visited in the world, with over 4. 95 million arrivals for the year. Tourism brings revenue to Florence, but also creates certain problems. The Ponte Vecchio, The San Lorenzo Market and Santa Maria Novella are plagued by pickpockets. The province of Florence receives roughly 13 million visitors per year and in peak seasons, popular locations may become overcrowded as a result. In 2015, Mayor Dario Nardella expressed concern over | visitors who arrive on buses, |
stay only a few hours, spend little money but contribute significantly to overcrowding." No museum visit, just a photo from the square, the bus back and then on to Venice... We don’ t want tourists like that," he said. Some tourists are less than respectful of the city' s cultural heritage, according to Nardella. In June 2017, he instituted a programme of spraying church steps with water to prevent tourists from using such areas as picnic spots. While he values the benefits of tourism, he claims that there has been" an increase among those who sit down on church steps, eat their food and leave rubbish strewn on them," he explained. To boost the sale of traditional foods, the mayor had introduced legislation( enacted in 2016) that requires restaurants to use typical Tuscan products and rejected McDonald' s application to open a location in the Piazza del Duomo. In October 2021, Florence was shortlisted for the European Commission' s 2022 European Capital of Smart Tourism award along with Bordeaux, Copenhagen, Dublin, Ljubljana, Palma de Mallorca and Valencia. Food and wine production. Food and wine have long been an important staple of the economy. The Chianti region is just south of the city, and its Sangiovese grapes figure prominently not only in its Chianti Classico wines but also in many of the more recently developed Supertuscan blends. Within to the west is the Carmignano area, also home to flavourful sangiovese- based reds. The celebrated Chianti Rufina district, geographically and historically separated from the main Chianti region, is also few kilometres east of Florence. More recently, the Bolgheri region( about southwest of Florence) has become celebrated for its" Super Tuscan" reds such as Sassicaia and Ornellaia. Culture. Art. Florence was the birthplace of High Renaissance art, which lasted from 1450 to 1527. While Medieval art focused on basic story telling of the Bible, Renaissance art focused on naturalism and human emotion. Medieval art was abstract, formulaic, and largely produced by monks whereas Renaissance art was rational, mathematical, individualistic, consisted of linear perspective and shading( Chiaroscuro) and produced by specialists( Leonardo da Vinci, Donatello, Michelangelo, and Raphael). Religion was important, but with this new age came the humanization of religious figures in art, such as Expulsion from the Garden of Eden, Ecce Homo( Bosch,1470s), and Madonna Della Seggiola; People of this age began to understand themselves as human beings, which reflected in art. The Renaissance marked the rebirth of classical values in art and society as people studied the ancient masters of the Greco- Roman world; Art became focused on realism as opposed to idealism. Cimabue and Giotto, the fathers of Italian painting, lived in Florence as well as Arnolfo and Andrea Pisano, renewers of architecture and sculpture; Brunelleschi, Donatello and Masaccio, forefathers of the Renaissance, Ghiberti and the Della Robbias, Filippo Lippi and Angelico; Botticelli, Paolo Uccello and the universal genius of Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. Their works, together with those of many other generations of artists, are gathered in the several museums of the town: the Uffizi Gallery, the Palatina gallery with | the paintings of the" Golden |
Ages", the Bargello with the sculptures of the Renaissance, the museum of San Marco with Fra Angelico' s works, the Academy, the chapels of the Medicis Buonarroti' s house with the sculptures of Michelangelo, the following museums: Bardini, Horne, Stibbert, Romano, Corsini, The Gallery of Modern Art, the Museo dell' Opera del Duomo, the museum of Silverware and the museum of Precious Stones. Several monuments are located in Florence: the Florence Baptistery with its mosaics; the cathedral with its sculptures, the medieval churches with bands of frescoes; public as well as private palaces: Palazzo Vecchio, Palazzo Pitti, Palazzo Medici Riccardi, Palazzo Davanzati; monasteries, cloisters, refectories; the" Certosa". In the archaeological museum includes documents of Etruscan civilisation. In fact the city is so rich in art that some first time visitors experience the Stendhal syndrome as they encounter its art for the first time. Florentine architects such as Filippo Brunelleschi( 1377– 1466) and Leon Battista Alberti( 1404– 1472) were among the fathers of both Renaissance and Neoclassical architecture. The cathedral, topped by Brunelleschi' s dome, dominates the Florentine skyline. The Florentines decided to start building it–lateinthe13th century, without a design for the dome.TheprojectproposedbyBrunelleschiinthe14th century was the largest ever built at the time, and the first major dome built in Europe since the two great domes of Roman times– the Pantheon in Rome, and Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. The dome of Santa Maria del Fiore remains the largest brick construction of its kind in the world. In front of it is the medieval Baptistery. The two buildings incorporate in their decoration the transition from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance. In recent years, most of the important works of art from the two buildings– and from the nearby Giotto' s Campanile, have been removed and replaced by copies. The originals are now housed in the Museum dell' Opera del Duomo, just to the east of the cathedral. Florence has large numbers of art- filled churches, such as San Miniato al Monte, San Lorenzo, Santa Maria Novella, Santa Trinita, Santa Maria del Carmine, Santa Croce, Santo Spirito, the Annunziata, Ognissanti and numerous others. Artists associated with Florence range from Arnolfo di Cambio and Cimabue to Giotto, Nanni di Banco, and Paolo Uccello; through Lorenzo Ghiberti, and Donatello and Massaccio and the della Robbia family; through Fra Angelico and Botticelli and Piero della Francesca, and on to Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. Others include Benvenuto Cellini, Andrea del Sarto, Benozzo Gozzoli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Filippo Lippi, Bernardo Buontalenti, Orcagna, Pollaiuolo, Filippino Lippi, Verrocchio, Bronzino, Desiderio da Settignano, Michelozzo, the Rossellis, the Sangallos, and Pontormo. Artists from other regions who worked in Florence include Raphael, Andrea Pisano, Giambologna, Il Sodoma and Peter Paul Rubens. Picture galleries in Florence include the Uffizi and the Pitti Palace. Two superb collections of sculpture are in the Bargello and the Museum of the Works of the Duomo. They are filled with the creations of Donatello, Verrochio, Desiderio da Settignano, Michelangelo and others. The Galleria dell' Accademia has Michelangelo' s David– perhaps the best- known work of art anywhere, plus the unfinished statues | of the slaves Michelangelo created |
for the tomb of Pope Julius II. Other sights include the medieval city hall, the Palazzo della Signoria( also known as the Palazzo Vecchio), the Archeological Museum, the Museum of the History of Science, the Garden of Archimedes, the Palazzo Davanzatti, the Stibbert Museum, St. Marks, the Medici Chapels, the Museum of the Works of Santa Croce, the Museum of the Cloister of Santa Maria Novella, the Zoological Museum(" La Specola"), the Bardini, and the Museo Horne. There is also a collection of works by the modern sculptor, Marino Marini, in a museum named after him. The Strozzi Palace is the site of special exhibits. Language. Florentine(" fiorentino"), spoken by inhabitants of Florence and its environs, is a Tuscan dialect and the immediate parent language to modern Italian. Although its vocabulary and pronunciation are largely identical to standard Italian, differences do exist. The" Vocabolario del fiorentino contemporaneo"( Dictionary of Modern Florentine) reveals lexical distinctions from all walks of life. Florentines have a highly recognisable accent in phonetic terms due to the so- called gorgia toscana):" hard" c"" between two vowels is pronounced as a fricative similar to an English" h", so that" dico"' I say' is phonetically," i cani"' the dogs' is. Similarly," t" between vowels is pronounced as in English" thin", and" p" in the same position is the bilabial fricative. Other traits include using a form of the subjunctive mood last commonly used in medieval times, a frequent usage in everyday speech of the modern subjunctive, and a shortened pronunciation of the definite article, instead of" il", causing doubling of the consonant that follows, so that" il cane"' the dog', for example, is pronounced. Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio pioneered the use of the vernacular instead of the Latin used for most literary works at the time. Literature. Despite Latin being the main language of the courts and the Church in the Middle Ages, writers such as Dante Alighieri and many others used their own language, the Florentine vernacular descended from Latin, in composing their greatest works. The oldest literary pieces writteninFlorentinegoasfarbackasthe13th century. Florence'sliteraturefullyblossomedinthe14th century, when not only Dante with his" Divine Comedy"( 1306– 1321) and Petrarch, but also poets such as Guido Cavalcanti and Lapo Gianni composed their most important works. Dante' s masterpiece is the" Divine Comedy", which mainly deals with the poet himself taking an allegoric and moral tour of Hell, Purgatory and finally Heaven, during which he meets numerous mythological or real characters of his age or before. He is first guided by the Roman poet Virgil, whose non- Christian beliefs damned him to Hell. Later on he is joined by Beatrice, who guides him through Heaven.Inthe14th century, Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio led the literary scene in Florence after Dante' s death in 1321. Petrarch was an all- rounder writer, author and poet, but was particularly known for his" Canzoniere", or the Book of Songs, where he conveyed his unremitting love for Laura. His style of writing has since become known as" Petrarchism". Boccaccio was better known for his" Decameron", a slightly grim story of Florence during | the1350s bubonic plague, known as |
the Black Death, when some people fled the ravaged city to an isolated country mansion, and spent their time there recounting stories and novellas taken from the medieval and contemporary tradition. All of this is written in a series of 100 distinct novellas.Inthe16th century, during the Renaissance, Florence was the home town of political writer and philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli, whose ideas on how rulers should govern the land, detailed in" The Prince", spread across European courts and enjoyed enduring popularity for centuries. These principles became known as" Machiavellianism". Music. Florence became a musical centre during the Middle Ages and music and the performing arts remain an important part of its culture.ThegrowthofNorthernItalianCitiesinthe1500s likely contributed to its increased prominence. During the Renaissance, there were four kinds of musical patronage in the city with respect to both sacred and secular music: state, corporate, church, and private. It was here that the Florentine Camerata convened in the mid-16th century and experimented with setting tales of Greek mythology to music and staging the result— in other words, the first operas, setting the wheels in motion not just for the further development of the operatic form, but for later developments of separate" classical" forms such as the symphony and concerto. After the year 1600, Italian trends prevailed across Europe, by 1750 it was the primary musical language. The genre of the Madrigal, born in Italy, gained popularity in Britain and elsewhere. Several Italian cities were" larger on the musical map than their real- size for power suggested. Florence, was once such city which experienced a fantastic period in the early seventeenth Century of musico- theatrical innovation, including the beginning and flourishing of opera.OperawasinventedinFlorenceinthelate16th century when Jacobo Peri' s" Dafne" an opera in the style of monody, was premiered. Opera spread from Florence throughout Italy and eventually Europe. Vocal Music in the choir setting was also taking new identity at this time.Atthebeginningofthe17th century, two practices for writing music were devised, one the first practice or" Stile Antico/ Prima Prattica" the other the" Stile Moderno/ Seconda Prattica". The Stile Antico was more prevalent in Northern Europe and Stile Moderno was practiced more by the Italian Composers of the time. The piano was invented in Florence in 1709 by Bartolomeo Cristofori. Composers and musicians who have lived in Florence include Piero Strozzi( 1550– after 1608), Giulio Caccini( 1551– 1618) and Mike Francis( 1961– 2009). Giulio Caccini' s book" Le Nuove Musiche" was significant in performance practice technique instruction at the time. The book specified a new term, inusebythe1630s, called monody which indicated the combination of voice and basso continuo and connoted a practice of stating text in a free, lyrical, yet speech- like manner. This would occur while an instrument, usually a keyboard type such as harpsichord, played and held chords while the singer sang/ spoke the monodic line. Cinema. Florence has been a setting for numerous works of fiction and movies, including the novels and associated films, such as" Light in the Piazza"," The Girl Who Couldn' t Say No"," Calmi Cuori Appassionati"," Hannibal"," A Room with a View"," Tea | with Mussolini"," Virgin Territory" and" |
Inferno". The city is home to renowned Italian actors and actresses, such as Roberto Benigni, Leonardo Pieraccioni and Vittoria Puccini. Video games. Florence has appeared as a location in video games such as" Assassins Creed II." The Republic of Florence also appears as a playable nation in Paradox Interactive' s grand strategy game" Europa Universalis IV." Other Media.16th century Florence is the setting of the Japanese manga and anime series" Arte". Cuisine. Florentine food grows out of a tradition of peasant eating rather than rarefied high cooking. The majority of dishes are based on meat. The whole animal was traditionally eaten; tripe(" trippa") and stomach(" lampredotto") were once regularly on the menu and still are sold at the food carts stationed throughout the city. Antipasti include" crostini toscani", sliced bread rounds topped with a chicken liver- based pâté, and sliced meats( mainly prosciutto and salame, often served with melon when in season). The typically saltless Tuscan bread, obtained with natural levain frequently features in Florentine courses, especially in its soups," ribollita" and" pappa al pomodoro", or in the salad of bread and fresh vegetables called" panzanella" that is served in summer. The" bistecca alla fiorentina" is a large( the customary size should weigh around)– the" date" steak– T- bone steak of Chianina beef cooked over hot charcoal and served very rare with its more recently derived version, the" tagliata", sliced rare beef served on a bed of arugula, often with slices of Parmesan cheese on top. Most of these courses are generally served with local olive oil, also a prime product enjoying a worldwide reputation. Among the desserts," schiacciata alla fiorentina", a white flatbread cake, is one of the most popular; it is a very soft cake, prepared with extremely simple ingredients, typical of Florentine cuisine, and is especially eaten at Carnival. Research activity. Research institutes and university departments are located within the Florence area and within two campuses atPolo di Novoli and Polo Scientifico di Sesto Fiorentino as well as in the Research Area of Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche. Science and discovery. Florence has been an important scientific centre for centuries, notably during the Renaissance with scientists such as Leonardo da Vinci. Florentines were one of the driving forces behind the Age of Discovery. Florentine bankers financed Henry the Navigator and the Portuguese explorers who pioneered the route around Africa to India and the Far East. It was a map drawn by the Florentine Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli, a student of Brunelleschi, that Christopher Columbus used to sell his" enterprise" to the Spanish monarchs, and which he used on his first voyage. Mercator' s" Projection" is a refined version of Toscanelli' s, taking the Americas into account. Galileo and other scientists pioneered the study of optics, ballistics, astronomy, anatomy, and other scientific disciplines. Pico della Mirandola, Leonardo Bruni, Machiavelli, and many others laid the groundwork for modern scientific understanding. Fashion. By the year 1300 Florence had become a centre of textile production in Europe. Many of the rich families in Renaissance Florence were major purchasers of locally produced fine clothing, and | the specialists of fashion in |
the economy and culture of Florence during that period is often underestimated. Florence is regarded by some as the birthplace and earliest centre of the modern( post World War Two) fashion industry in Italy. The Florentine" soirées"oftheearly1950s organised by Giovanni Battista Giorgini were events where several Italian designers participated in group shows and first garnered international attention. Florence has served as the home of the Italian fashion company Salvatore Ferragamo since 1928. Gucci, Roberto Cavalli, and Emilio Pucci are also headquartered in Florence. Other major players in the fashion industry such as Prada and Chanel have large offices and stores in Florence or its outskirts. Florence' s main upscale shopping street is Via de' Tornabuoni, where major luxury fashion houses and jewellery labels, such as Armani and Bulgari, have their elegant boutiques. Via del Parione and Via Roma are other streets that are also well known for their high- end fashion stores. Historical evocations." Scoppio del Carro". The" Scoppio del Carro"(" Explosion of the Cart") is a celebration of the First Crusade. During the day of Easter, a cart, which the Florentines call the" Brindellone" and which is led by four white oxen, is taken to the Piazza del Duomo between the Baptistery of St. John the Baptist(" Battistero di San Giovanni") and the Florence Cathedral(" Santa Maria del Fiore"). The cart is connected by a rope to the interior of the church. Near the cart there is a model of a dove, which, according to legend, is a symbol of good luck for the city: at the end of the Easter mass, the dove emerges from the nave of the Duomo and ignites the fireworks on the cart." Calcio Storico"." Calcio Storico Fiorentino"(" Historic Florentine Football"), sometimes called" Calcio in costume", is a traditional sport, regarded as a forerunner of soccer, though the actual gameplay most closely resembles rugby. The event originates from the Middle Ages, when the most important Florentine nobles amused themselves playing while wearing bright costumes. The most important match was played on 17 February 1530, during the siege of Florence. That day Papal troops besieged the city while the Florentines, with contempt of the enemies, decided to play the game notwithstanding the situation. The game is played in the Piazza di Santa Croce. A temporary arena is constructed, with bleachers and a sand- covered playing field. A series of matches are held between four teams representing each" quartiere"( quarter) of Florence during late June and early July. There are four teams: Azzurri( light blue), Bianchi( white), Rossi( red) and Verdi( green). The Azzurri are from the quarter of Santa Croce, Bianchi from the quarter of Santo Spirito, Verdi are from San Giovanni and Rossi from Santa Maria Novella. Sport. In association football Florence is represented by ACF Fiorentina, which plays in Serie A, the top league of Italian league system. ACF Fiorentina has won two Italian Championships, in 1956 and 1969, and 6 Italian cups, since their formation in 1926. They play their games at the Stadio Artemio Franchi, which holds 47, 282. The female squad of | ACF Fiorentina have won the |
women' s association football Italian Championship of the 2016– 17 season. The city is home of the Centro Tecnico Federale di Coverciano, in Coverciano, Florence, the main training ground of the Italian national team, and the technical department of the Italian Football Federation. Florence was one of the host cities for cycling' s 2013 UCI Road World Championships. The city has also hosted stages of the Giro d' Italia, most recently in 2017. Since 2017 Florence is also represented in Eccellenza, the top tier of rugby union league system in Italy, by I Medicei, which is a club established in 2015 by the merging of the senior squads of I Cavalieri( of Prato) and Firenze Rugby 1931. I Medicei won the Serie A Championship in 2016– 17 and were promoted to Eccellenza for the 2017– 18 season. Rari Nantes Florentia is a successful water polo club based in Florence; both its male and female squads have won several Italian championships and the female squad has also European titles in their palmarès. Education. The University of Florence was first founded in 1321, and was recognized by Pope Clement VI in 1349. In 2019, over 50, 000 students were enrolled at the university. The European University Institute has been based in the suburb of Fiesole since 1976. Several American universities host a campus in Florence. Including New York University, Marist College, Pepperdine, Stanford, Florida State and James Madison. Another center of crucial importance is Villa I Tatti, the Harvard University Center for Italian Renaissance Studies. The center for arts and humanities advanced research is located on the border of Florence, Fiesole and Settignano since 1961. Over 8, 000 American students are enrolled for study in Florence. The private school, Centro Machiavelli which teaches Italian language and culture to foreigners, is located in Piazza Santo Spirito in Florence. Transportation. Cars. The centre of Florence is closed to through- traffic, although buses, taxis and residents with appropriate permits are allowed in. This area is commonly referred to as the ZTL(" Zona Traffico Limitato"), which is divided into several subsections. Residents of one section, therefore, will only be able to drive in their district and perhaps some surrounding ones. Cars without permits are allowed to enter after 7. 30 pm, or before 7. 30 am. The rules shift during the tourist- filled summers, putting more restrictions on where one can get in and out. Buses. The principal public transit network in the city is run by the" ATAF" and" Li- nea" bus company. Individual tickets, or a pass called Carta Agile with multiple rides, are purchased in advance and must be validated once on board. These tickets may be used on ATAF and Li- nea buses, Tramvia and second- class local trains only within city railway stations. Train tickets must be validated before boarding. The main bus station is next to Santa Maria Novella railway station. Trenitalia runs trains between the railway stations within the city, and to other destinations around Italy and Europe. The central railway station, Santa Maria Novella, is about northwest of the Piazza | del Duomo. There are two |
other important stations: Campo di Marte and Rifredi. Most bundled routes are Firenze— Pisa, Firenze— Viareggio and Firenze- Arezzo( along the main line to Rome). Other local railways connect Florence with Borgo San Lorenzo in the Mugello area( Faentina railway) and Siena. Long distance buses are run by the SITA, Copit, and CAP companies. The transit companies also accommodate travellers from the Amerigo Vespucci Airport, which is west of the city centre, and which has scheduled services run by major European carriers. Trams. In an effort to reduce air pollution and car traffic in the city, a multi- line tram network called" Tramvia" is under construction. The first line began operation on 14 February 2010 and connects Florence' s primary intercity railway station( Santa Maria Novella) with the southwestern suburb of Scandicci. This line is long and has 14 stops. The construction of a second line began on 5 November 2011, construction was stopped due to contractors' difficulties and restarted in 2014 with the new line opening on 11 February 2019. This second line connects Florence' s airport with the city centre. A third line( from Santa Maria Novella to the Careggi area, where the most important hospitals of Florence are located) is also under construction. Florence public transport statistics. The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Firenze, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 59 min. 13% of public transit riders ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 14 min, while 22% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 4. 1 km, while 3% travel for over 12 km in a single direction. Railway station. Firenze Santa Maria Novella railway station is the main national and international railway station in Florence and is used by 59 million people every year. The building, designed by Giovanni Michelucci, was built in the" Italian Rationalism" style and it is one of the major rationalist buildings in Italy. It is located in" Piazza della Stazione", near the Fortezza da Basso( a masterpiece of the military Renaissance architecture) and the Viali di Circonvallazione, and in front of the Basilica of Santa Maria Novella' s apse from which it takes its name. As well as numerous high speed trains to major Italian cities Florence is served by international overnight sleeper services to Munich and Vienna operated by Austrian railways ÖBB. A new high- speed rail station is under construction and is contracted to be operational by 2015. It is planned to be connected to Vespucci airport, Santa Maria Novella railway station, and to the city centre by the second line of Tramvia. The architectural firms Foster+ Partners and Lancietti Passaleva Giordo and Associates designed this new rail station. Airport. The Florence Airport, Peretola, is one of two main airports in the Tuscany region though it is not widely used by popular airlines. The other | airport in the Tuscany region |
is the Galileo Galilei International Airport in Pisa. Mobike( bike- sharing). Mobike, a Chinese dockless bike sharing company, has been operating in Florence since July 2017. As of 2019, the company operates 4, 000 bikes in Florence. The users scan the QR code on the bike using the Mobike app, and end the ride by parking curbside. The bikes have a fixed rate of€ 1 every 20 minutes. Since Mobike is a dock- less bike- sharing system, it does not provide stations, therefore the bikes can be left almost anywhere. International relations. Twin towns and sister cities. Florence is twinned with: A quotient group or factor group is a mathematical group obtained by aggregating similar elements of a larger group using an equivalence relation that preserves some of the group structure( the rest of the structure is" factored" out). For example, the cyclic group of addition modulo" n" can be obtained from the group of integers under addition by identifying elements that differ by a multiple of" n" and defining a group structure that operates on each such class( known as a congruence class) as a single entity. It is part of the mathematical field known as group theory. For a congruence relation on a group, the equivalence class of the identity element is always a normal subgroup of the original group, and the other equivalence classes are precisely the cosets of that normal subgroup. The resulting quotient is written, where" G" is the original group and" N" is the normal subgroup.( This is pronounced"" G" mod" N"", where" mod" is short for modulo.) Much of the importance of quotient groups is derived from their relation to homomorphisms. The first isomorphism theorem states that the image of any group" G" under a homomorphism is always isomorphic to a quotient of" G". Specifically, the image of" G" under a homomorphism is isomorphic to where ker(" φ") denotes the kernel of" φ". The dual notion of a quotient group is a subgroup, these being the two primary ways of forming a smaller group from a larger one. Any normal subgroup has a corresponding quotient group, formed from the larger group by eliminating the distinction between elements of the subgroup. In category theory, quotient groups are examples of quotient objects, which are dual to subobjects. Definition and illustration. Given a group" G" and a subgroup" H", and an element" a"∈" G", one can consider the corresponding left coset:" aH":={" ah":" h"∈" H"}. Cosets are a natural class of subsets of a group; for example consider the abelian group" G" of integers, with operation defined by the usual addition, and the subgroup" H" of even integers. Then there are exactly two cosets: 0+" H", which are the even integers, and 1+" H", which are the odd integers( here we are using additive notation for the binary operation instead of multiplicative notation). For a general subgroup" H", it is desirable to define a compatible group operation on the set of all possible cosets,{" aH":" a"∈" G"}. This is possible exactly when" H" is a normal subgroup, see | below. A subgroup" N" of |
a group" G" is normal if and only if the coset equality" aN"=" Na" holds for all" a"∈" G". A normal subgroup of" G" is denoted. Definition. Let" N" be a normal subgroup of a group" G". Define the set" G"/" N" to be the set of all left cosets of" N" in" G". That is,. Since the identity element" e"∈" N"," a"∈" aN". Define a binary operation on the set of cosets," G"/" N", as follows. For each" aN" and" bN" in" G"/" N", the product of" aN" and" bN",(" aN")(" bN"), is(" ab")" N". This works only because(" ab")" N" does not depend on the choice of the representatives," a" and" b", of each left coset," aN" and" bN". To prove this, suppose" xN"=" aN" and" yN"=" bN" for some" x"," y"," a"," b"∈" G". ThenThis depends on the fact that" N" is a normal subgroup. It still remains to be shown that this condition is not only sufficient but necessary to define the operation on" G"/" N". To show that it is necessary, consider that for a subgroup" N" of" G", we have been given that the operation is well defined. That is, for all" xN"=" aN" and" yN"=" bN," for" x"," y"," a"," b"∈" G",(" ab")" N"=(" xy")" N." Let" n"∈" N" and" g"∈" G". Since" eN"=" nN," we have," gN"=(" eg")" N"=(" ng")" N." Now," gN"=(" ng")" N"⇔" N"=" g"− 1(" ng")" N"⇔" g"− 1" ng"∈" N"∀" n"∈" N" and" g"∈" G". Hence" N" is a normal subgroup of" G". It can also be checked that this operation on" G"/" N" is always associative." G"/" N" has identity element" N" and the inverse of element" aN" can always be represented by" a"− 1" N". Therefore, the set" G"/" N" together with the operation defined by(" aN")(" bN")=(" ab")" N" forms a group, the quotient group of" G" by" N". Due to the normality of" N", the left cosets and right cosets of" N" in" G" are the same, and so," G"/" N" could have been defined to be the set of right cosets of" N" in" G". Example: Addition modulo 6. For example, consider the group with addition modulo 6:" G"={ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Consider the subgroup" N"={ 0, 3}, which is normal because" G" is abelian. Then the set of( left) cosets is of size three: The binary operation defined above makes this set into a group, known as the quotient group, which in this case is isomorphic to the cyclic group of order 3. Motivation for the name" quotient". The reason" G"/" N" is called a quotient group comes from division of integers. When dividing 12 by 3 one obtains the answer 4 because one can regroup 12 objects into 4 subcollections of 3 objects. The quotient group is the same idea, although we end up with a group for a final answer instead of a number because groups have more structure than an arbitrary collection of objects. To elaborate, when looking at" G"/" N" with" N" a normal subgroup of" G", | the group structure is used |
to form a natural" regrouping". These are the cosets of" N" in" G". Because we started with a group and normal subgroup, the final quotient contains more information than just the number of cosets( which is what regular division yields), but instead has a group structure itself. Examples. Even and odd integers. Consider the group of integers Z( under addition)andthesubgroup2Z consisting of all even integers. This is a normal subgroup, because Z is abelian. There are only two cosets: the set of even integers and the set of odd integers, and therefore the quotient group Z/2Z is the cyclic group with two elements. This quotient group is isomorphic with the set with addition modulo 2; informally, it is sometimes said that Z/2Z" equals" the set with addition modulo 2. Example further explained... Remainders of integer division. A slight generalization of the last example. Once again consider the group of integers Z under addition. Let" n" be any positive integer. We will consider the subgroup" nZ of Z consisting of all multiples of" n". Once again" nZ is normal in Z because Z is abelian. The cosets are the collection{" nZ, 1+" nZ,...,(" n"− 2)+" nZ,(" n"− 1)+" nZ}. An integer" k" belongs to the coset" r"+" nZ, where" r" is the remainder when dividing" k" by" n". The quotient Z/" nZ can be thought of as the group of" remainders" modulo" n". This is a cyclic group of order" n". Complex integer roots of 1. The twelfth roots of unity, which are points on the complex unit circle, form a multiplicative abelian group" G", shown on the picture on the right as colored balls with the number at each point giving its complex argument. Consider its subgroup" N" made of the fourth roots of unity, shown as red balls. This normal subgroup splits the group into three cosets, shown in red, green and blue. One can check that the cosets form a group of three elements( the product of a red element with a blue element is blue, the inverse of a blue element is green, etc.). Thus, the quotient group" G"/" N" is the group of three colors, which turns out to be the cyclic group with three elements. The real numbers modulo the integers. Consider the group of real numbers R under addition, and the subgroup Z of integers. Each coset of Z in R is a set of the form" a"+ Z, where" a" is a real number. Since"a1"+ Z and"a2"+ Z are identical sets when the non- integer parts of"a1" and"a2" are equal, one may impose the restriction without change of meaning. Adding such cosets is done by adding the corresponding real numbers, and subtracting 1 if the result is greater than or equal to 1. The quotient group R/ Z is isomorphic to the circle group, the group of complex numbers of absolute value 1 under multiplication, or correspondingly, the groupofrotationsin2D about the origin, that is, the special orthogonal group SO( 2). An isomorphism is given by( see Euler' s identity). Matrices of real numbers. If" G" | is the group of invertible |
3× 3 real matrices, and" N" is the subgroup of 3× 3 real matrices with determinant 1, then" N" is normal in" G"( since it is the kernel of the determinant homomorphism). The cosets of" N" are the sets of matrices with a given determinant, and hence" G"/" N" is isomorphic to the multiplicative group of non- zero real numbers. The group" N" is known as the special linear group SL( 3). Integer modular arithmetic. Consider the abelian group( that is, the set with addition modulo 4), and its subgroup. The quotient group is. This is a group with identity element, and group operations such as.BoththesubgroupandthequotientgroupareisomorphicwithZ2. Integer multiplication.Considerthemultiplicativegroupformula_39. The set" N" of" n"thresiduesisamultiplicativesubgroupisomorphictoformula_40. Then" N" is normal in" G" and the factor group" G"/" N" has the cosets" N",( 1+" n")" N",( 1+" n")2N,...,( 1+" n")" n"−1N. The Paillier cryptosystem is based on the conjecture that it is difficult to determine the coset of a random element of" G" without knowing the factorization of" n". Properties. The quotient group is isomorphic to the trivial group( the group with one element), and is isomorphic to" G". The order of, by definition the number of elements, is equal to, the index of" N" in" G". If" G" is finite, the index is also equal to the order of" G" divided by the order of" N". The set may be finite, although both" G" and" N" are infinite( for example,). There is a" natural" surjective group homomorphism, sending each element" g" of" G" to the coset of" N" to which" g" belongs, that is:. The mapping" π" is sometimes called the" canonical projection of G onto". Its kernel is" N". There is a bijective correspondence between the subgroups of" G" that contain" N" and the subgroups of; if" H" is a subgroup of" G" containing" N", then the corresponding subgroup of is" π"(" H"). This correspondence holds for normal subgroups of" G" and as well, and is formalized in the lattice theorem. Several important properties of quotient groups are recorded in the fundamental theorem on homomorphisms and the isomorphism theorems. If" G" is abelian, nilpotent, solvable, cyclic or finitely generated, then so is. If" H" is a subgroup in a finite group" G", and the order of" H" is one half of the order of" G", then" H" is guaranteed to be a normal subgroup, so exists and is isomorphic to" C" 2. This result can also be stated as" any subgroup of index 2 is normal", and in this form it applies also to infinite groups. Furthermore, if" p" is the smallest prime number dividing the order of a finite group," G", then if has order" p"," H" must be a normal subgroup of" G". Given" G" and a normal subgroup" N", then" G" is a group extension of by" N". One could ask whether this extension is trivial or split; in other words, one could ask whether" G" is a direct product or semidirect product of" N" and. This is a special case of the extension problem. An example where the extension is | not split is as follows: |
Let" G"=Z4={ 0, 1, 2, 3}, and" N"={ 0, 2},whichisisomorphictoZ2.ThenisalsoisomorphictoZ2.ButZ2 has only the trivial automorphism, so the only semi- direct product of" N" and is the direct product.SinceZ4 is different from, we conclude that" G" is not a semi- direct product of" N" and. Quotients of Lie groups. If"formula_41" is a Lie group and"formula_42" is a normal and closed( in the topological rather than the algebraic sense of the word) Lie subgroup of"formula_41", the quotient is also a Lie group. In this case, the original group"formula_41" has the structure of a fiber bundle( specifically, a principal"formula_42"- bundle), with base space and fiber"formula_42".Thedimensionofequalsformula_47. Note that the condition that"formula_42" is closed is necessary. Indeed, if"formula_42"isnotclosedthenthequotientspaceisnotaT1- space( since there is a coset in the quotient which cannot be separated from the identity by an open set), and thus not a Hausdorff space. For a non- normal Lie subgroup"formula_42", the space of left cosets is not a group, but simply a differentiable manifold on which"formula_41" acts. The result is known as a homogeneous space. In abstract algebra, the fundamental theorem on homomorphisms, also known as the fundamental homomorphism theorem, relates the structure of two objects between which a homomorphism is given, and of the kernel and image of the homomorphism. The homomorphism theorem is used to prove the isomorphism theorems. Group theoretic version. Given two groups" G" and" H" and a group homomorphism, let" K" be a normal subgroup in" G" and φ the natural surjective homomorphism( where" G"/" K" is the quotient group of" G" by" K"). If" K" is a subset of ker(" f") then there exists a unique homomorphism such that. In other words, the natural projection φ is universal among homomorphisms on" G" that map" K" to the identity element. The situation is described by the following commutative diagram:" h" is injective if and only if. Therefore, by setting we immediately get the first isomorphism theorem. We can write the statement of the fundamental theorem on homomorphisms of groups as" every homomorphic image of a group is isomorphic to a quotient group". Other versions. Similar theorems are valid for monoids, vector spaces, modules, and rings. FCO may mean: In particle physics, a fermion is a particle that follows Fermi– Dirac statistics and generally has half odd integer spin: spin 1/ 2, spin 3/ 2, etc. These particles obey the Pauli exclusion principle. Fermions include all quarks and leptons, as well as all composite particles made of an odd number of these, such as all baryons and many atoms and nuclei. Fermions differ from bosons, which obey Bose– Einstein statistics. Some fermions are elementary particles, such as the electrons, and some are composite particles, such as the protons. According to the spin- statistics theorem in relativistic quantum field theory, particles with integer spin are bosons, while particles with half- integer spin are fermions. In addition to the spin characteristic, fermions have another specific property: they possess conserved baryon or lepton quantum numbers. Therefore, what is usually referred to as the spin statistics relation is in fact a spin statistics- quantum number relation. As | a consequence of the Pauli |
exclusion principle, only one fermion can occupy a particular quantum state at a given time. If multiple fermions have the same spatial probability distribution, then at least one property of each fermion, such as its spin, must be different. Fermions are usually associated with matter, whereas bosons are generally force carrier particles, although in the current state of particle physics the distinction between the two concepts is unclear. Weakly interacting fermions can also display bosonic behavior under extreme conditions. At low temperature fermions show superfluidity for uncharged particles and superconductivity for charged particles. Composite fermions, such as protons and neutrons, are the key building blocks of everyday matter. The name fermion was coined by English theoretical physicist Paul Dirac from the surname of Italian physicist Enrico Fermi. Elementary fermions. The Standard Model recognizes two types of elementary fermions: quarks and leptons. In all, the model distinguishes 24 different fermions. There are six quarks( up, down, strange, charm, bottom and top), and six leptons( electron, electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tauon and tauon neutrino), along with the corresponding antiparticle of each of these. Mathematically, fermions come in three types: Most Standard Model fermions are believed to be Dirac fermions, although it is unknown at this time whether the neutrinos are Dirac or Majorana fermions( or both). Dirac fermions can be treated as a combination of two Weyl fermions. In July 2015, Weyl fermions have been experimentally realized in Weyl semimetals. Composite fermions. Composite particles( such as hadrons, nuclei, and atoms) can be bosons or fermions depending on their constituents. More precisely, because of the relation between spin and statistics, a particle containing an odd number of fermions is itself a fermion. It will have half- integer spin. Examples include the following: The number of bosons within a composite particle made up of simple particles bound with a potential has no effect on whether it is a boson or a fermion. Fermionic or bosonic behavior of a composite particle( or system) is only seen at large( compared to size of the system) distances. At proximity, where spatial structure begins to be important, a composite particle( or system) behaves according to its constituent makeup. Fermions can exhibit bosonic behavior when they become loosely bound in pairs. This is the origin of superconductivity and the superfluidity of helium- 3: in superconducting materials, electrons interact through the exchange of phonons, forming Cooper pairs, while in helium- 3, Cooper pairs are formed via spin fluctuations. The quasiparticles of the fractional quantum Hall effect are also known as composite fermions, which are electrons with an even number of quantized vortices attached to them. Frederick Aaron Savage( born July 9, 1976) is an American actor and television director, known for his role as Kevin Arnold in the American television series" The Wonder Years"( 1988 to 1993). He has earned several awards and nominations, such as People' s Choice Awards and Young Artist Awards. He is also known for playing the Grandson in" The Princess Bride", and voiced the titular protagonist in" Oswald". Savage has worked as a director, and in | 2005 later starred in the |
television sitcom" Crumbs". More recently, Savage returned to acting in the television series" The Grinder", as well as the Netflix series" Friends from College". Early life. Savage was born in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Joanne and Lewis Savage, who was an industrial real estate broker and consultant. Savage grew up in Glencoe, Illinois, before moving to California. His younger brother is actor Ben Savage and his younger sister is actress/ musician Kala Savage. His grandparents were Jewish immigrants from Poland, Ukraine, Germany and Latvia. He was raised as a Reform Jew. Education. Savage was educated at Brentwood School, a private co- educational day school in Brentwood, in the Westside area of Los Angeles County in California. He graduated from Stanford University in 1999, with a bachelor' s degree in English and as a member of Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity. Career. Acting. Savage' s first screen performance was in the television show" Morningstar/ Eveningstar", at the age of nine. He then appeared onscreen in" The Boy Who Could Fly"," Dinosaurs!- A Fun- Filled Trip Back in Time!", and several television shows, including" The Twilight Zone" and" Crime Story" before gaining national attention as the grandson in the 1987 film" The Princess Bride" opposite Peter Falk. In 1988, Savage appeared as Kevin Arnold on" The Wonder Years", the role for which he is best known, and for which he received two Golden Globe nominations and two Emmy nominations for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series. At the age of thirteen, he was the youngest actor ever to receive these honors. He remained on the show until it ended in 1993. During this period, he appeared in several films, most notably" Vice Versa"( 1988), and also starred in" Little Monsters". After" The Wonder Years" ended, Savage returned to high school at age 17, and later attended Stanford. His first television role after high school was the NBC sitcom" Working", which Savage starred in for its two- season run. Savage alsohadaseriesofguestandsupportingrolesinthelate1990sandthe2000s such as on the show" Boy Meets World"( which starred his younger brother Ben Savage) and in the film" Austin Powers in Goldmember" as The Mole. Savage has lent his voice to several animated projects, including" Family Guy"," Kim Possible"," Justice League Unlimited"," Oswald", and" Holidaze: The Christmas That Almost Didn' t Happen". His two lead roles since" The Wonder Years" were on the short- lived sitcoms" Working" and" Crumbs". He appeared as a serial rapist on a 2003 episode of"" and as a womanizing professor on" Boy Meets World". He ranked at#27onVH1' s" 100 Greatest Kid Stars". In July 2008, Savage guest- starred in the web series" The Rascal" on Crackle. In 2015, Savage returned to acting with the Fox series" The Grinder". Producer Nick Stoller approached Savage about playing the role of Stewart on" The Grinder". Savage was uninterested at first, but agreed to meet with the producers of the series because his children attended school with Stoller' s children. Savage eventually agreed to take on the role." The Grinder" was canceled by Fox on May 16, 2016. In 2017, he | joined the cast of the |
Netflix series" Friends from College" as Max Adler, a gay literary agent. Directing and producing. In 1999, Savage began his directing career in which he helmed episodes of over a dozen television series. Savage' s first directing credit was on the short- lived NBC sitcom" Working" which also starred Savage. Following" Working", Savage began observing production on the Disney Channel show" Even Stevens" to further learn the craft of directing. Savage also learned by shadowing Amy Sherman- Palladino, Todd Holland, and James Burrows. His credits include" Boy Meets World"," Drake& amp; Josh" and" Ned' s Declassified" for Nickelodeon, as well as" That' s So Raven"," Hannah Montana", and" Wizards of Waverly Place" for Disney Channel. Additionally, Savage has directed for prime- time network sitcoms including" Modern Family" and" 2 Broke Girls". Besides directing several episodes, Savage co- produced the Disney Channel Original Series" Phil of the Future". In 2007, he was nominated for a Directors Guild award for the" Phil" episode" Not- So- Great- Great Grandpa". Savage has served as a producer for several episodes of" It' s Always Sunny in Philadelphia"," Friends with Benefits"," Party Down"," Phil of the Future"," The Crazy Ones", and" Happy Endings". In 2007, he made his feature film directing debut with the film" Daddy Day Camp". The Futurians were a group of science fiction( SF) fans, many of whom became editors and writers as well. The Futurians were based in New York City and were a major force in the development of science fiction writing and science fiction fandom in the years 1937– 1945. Origins of the group. As described in Isaac Asimov' s 1979 autobiography" In Memory Yet Green", the Futurians spun off from the Greater New York Science Fiction Club( headed by Sam Moskowitz, later an influential SF editor and historian) over ideological differences, with the Futurians wishing to take a more overtly Marxist political stance. Other sources indicate that Donald A. Wollheim was pushing for a more left- wing direction with a goal of leading fandom toward a political ideal, all of which Moskowitz resisted. As a result, Wollheim broke off from the Greater New York group and founded the Futurians in September, 1938. The fans following Moskowitz reorganized into the Queens Science Fiction Club. Frederik Pohl, in his autobiography" The Way the Future Was", said that the origin of the Futurians lay with the Science Fiction League founded by Hugo Gernsback in 1934, the local New York City chapter of which was called the" Brooklyn Science Fiction League" or BSFL, headed by G. G. Clark. Wollheim, John Michel, and Robert A. W. Lowndes were also members of the BSFL. Along with Pohl, the four started calling themselves the" Quadrumvirate". Pohl, commenting about that time, said" we four marched from Brooklyn to the sea, leaving a wide scar of burned out clubs behind us. We changed clubs the way Detroit changes tailfins, every year had a new one, and last year' s was junk". There were several club names during that period, before finally settling on the Futurians. In 1935 there was the" | East New York Science Fiction |
League"( ENYSFL), later the" Independent League for Science Fiction"( ILSF). In 1936 came the International Cosmos Science Club( ICSC), which also involved Will Sykora. Pohl then says that" on reflection' Cosmos' seemed to take in a bit more territory than was justified, so we changed it to the International Scientific Association( it wasn' t International either, but then it also wasn' t scientific)". The ISA then was renamed New York Branch- International Scientific Association( NYB- ISA). In 1937, after a falling- out with Will Sykora and others, the" Quadrumvirate" went on to found the Futurians. Sykora then founded the Queens Science Fiction League with Sam Moskowitz and James V. Taurasi. Later, the QSFL changed into New Fandom. Pohl said the New Fandom and the Futurians were" Addicted to Feuds", that" No CIA nor KGB ever wrestled so valiantly for the soul of an emerging nation as New Fandom and the Futurians did for science fiction". Most of the group' s members also had professional ambitions within science fiction and related fields, and collectively were very effective at achieving this goal, as the roster of members suggests.Atonepointintheearliest1940s, approximately half of all the pulp SF and fantasy magazines in the U. S. were being edited by Futurians: Frederik Pohl at the Popular Publications offshoot Fictioneers, Inc.(" Astonishing Stories" and" Super- Science Stories"); Robert Lowndes at Columbia Publications, most notably with" Science Fiction" and" Future Fiction"( though through the decade to come, Lowndes' s responsibilities would expand to other types of fiction magazine in the chain), and Donald Wollheim at the very marginal Albing Publications with the short- lived, micro- budgeted" Cosmic Stories" and" Stirring Science Stories"( Wollheim soon moved on to Avon Books; Doë" Leslie Perri" Baumgardt also worked on a romance fiction title for Albing). Most of these projects had small editorial budgets, and relied in part, or occasionally entirely, on contributions from fellow Futurians for their contents. Political tendencies. At the time the Futurians were formed, Donald Wollheim was strongly attracted by communism and believed that followers of science fiction" should actively work for the realization of the scientific world- state as the only genuine justification for their activities and existence". It was to this end that Wollheim formed the Futurians, and many of its members were in some degree interested in the political applications of science fiction. Members of the Futurians, including Wollheim, Michel, Lowndes, and Cohen briefly became interested in Technocracy, a utopian movement led by Howard Scott, and attended a study course, although they later dismissed Scott as a" crackpot". Hence the group included supporters of Trotskyism, like Judith Merril and others who would have been deemed far left for the era( Frederik Pohl became a member of the Communist Party in 1936, but quit in 1939). Pohl, in his autobiography," The Way the Future Was", said Wollheim voted for Republican Presidential Candidate Alfred Landon in 1936. First Fandom is an informal association of early, active and well- known science fiction fans. In 1958 a number of fans at Midwestcon realized amid table- talk that they all had been | active in fandom for more |
than 20 years. This inspired the creation of an organization for longstanding fans under the initial chairmanship of Robert A. Madle. Originally only those fans who were known to have been active in fandom before the cutoff date, January 1, 1938, were eligible. Such fannish activity( or" fanac") including writing to letter columns in science fiction magazines, having been published in fanzines, or having participated in science fiction oriented clubs, or just generally doing fannish things. The term itself is an oblique reference to Olaf Stapledon' s classic science fiction epic" Last and First Men". In this book the stages of mankind are enumerated.Thusearly1950s historian of fandom Jack Speer began to label successive generations of fans as First Fandom, Second Fandom, Third Fandom, and so forth... all the way to Seventh Fandom and beyond. Currently the organization allows several classes of membership. For example, a" Dinosaur" is a member who was active before the first Worldcon( World Science Fiction Convention) held on July 4, 1939, while" Associate Membership" requires provable activity in fandom for more than three decades. First Fandom annually presents its First Fandom Hall of Fame award and Sam Moskowitz Archive Award for excellence in science fiction collecting. at the beginning of the Hugo Awards Ceremony at the World Science Fiction Convention. There is an analogous informal society in Finnish fandom called the" Dinosaur Club"; the cutoff being the first major Finnish con Kingcon. References. Bob Madle' s American Letter, Nebula Science Fiction 1959. Fianna Fáil(,; meaning' Soldiers of Destiny' or' Warriors of Fál'), officially Fianna Fáil– The Republican Party(), is a conservative and Christian- democratic political party in Ireland. The party was founded as an Irish republican party on 16 May 1926 by Éamon de Valera and his supporters after they split from Sinn Féin in the aftermath of the Irish Civil War on the issue of abstentionism on taking the Oath of Allegiance to the British Monarchy, which De Valera advocated in order to keep his position as a Teachta Dála( TD) in the Irish parliament, in contrast to his position before the Irish Civil War. Since 1927, Fianna Fáil has been one of Ireland' s two major parties, along with Fine Gael since 1933; both are seen as being centre- right parties, and as being to the right of the Labour Party and Sinn Féin. The party dominated Irish political lifeformostofthe20th century, and, since its foundation, either it or Fine Gael has led every government. Between 1932 and 2011, it was the largest party in Dáil Éireann, but latterly with a decline in its vote share; from 1989 onwards, its periods of government were in coalition with parties of either the left or the right. Fianna Fáil' s vote collapsed in the 2011 general election; it emerged in third place, in what was widely seen as a political realignment in the wake of the post- 2008 Irish economic downturn. By 2016, it had recovered enough to become the largest opposition party, and it entered a confidence and supply arrangement with a Fine Gael– led minority government. In | 2020, after a number of |
months of political stalemate following the general election, Fianna Fáil agreed with Fine Gael and the Green Party to enter into an unprecedented coalition, with the leaders of Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael rotating between the roles of Taoiseach and Tánaiste. Fianna Fáil is a member of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe and of Liberal International. Since 9 February 2019, Fianna Fáil has been in partnership with the Social Democratic and Labour Party in Northern Ireland. History. Fianna Fáil was founded by Éamon de Valera, a former leader of Sinn Féin. He and a number of other members split from Sinn Féin when a motion he proposed— which called for elected members to be allowed to take their seats in Dáil Éireann if and when the controversial Oath of Allegiance was removed— failed to pass at the Sinn Féin Ard Fheis in 1926. His new party adopted its name on 2 April of the same year. While it was also opposed to the Treaty settlement, it rejected abstentionism, instead aiming to republicanise the Irish Free State from within. Fianna Fáil' s platform of economic autarky had appeal among the farmers, working- class people and the poor, while alienating more affluent classes. It largely pre- empted voters of the aforementioned groups from the Labour Party( with its almost identical economic and social policy) following its entry into the Dáil in 1927. Fianna Fáil would go on to style themselves for several decades as“ the real Labour Party.” Cumann na nGaedheal sought to exploit the notion that Fianna Fáil was a party in thrall to communists. During the 1932 general election campaign, Cumann na Gaedheal declared in a newspaper advert that“ the gunmen and Communists are voting for Fianna Fáil today- vote for the Government party.” However, Fianna Fáil won the election. The party first entered government on 9 March 1932. It was in power for 61 of the 79 years between then and the election of 2011. Its longest continuous period in office has been 15 years and 11 months( March 1932– February 1948). Its longest singleperiodoutofofficeinthe20th century was four years and four months( March 1973– July 1977). All of the party' s leaders have served as Taoiseach. The party' s most dominant era was the 41- year period between 1932 and 1973, when party leaders Eamon de Valera, Seán Lemass and Jack Lynch served as Taoiseach in an almost unbroken chain save for six years that John A. Costello of Fine Gael briefly interrupted. De Valera' s reign is acknowledged for having successfully guided Ireland through World War II unscathed but is criticised for leaving Ireland in economic and cultural stagnation. His successors such as Lemass however were able to turn around Ireland' s economic fortunes as well as primed the country for entry into the European Economic Community, later the European Union. Fianna Fáil' s fortunes began to falter inthe1970sand1980s. In 1970 the Arms Crisis threatened to split the entire party in two when Fianna Fáil cabinet ministers Charles Haughey and Neil Blaney were dismissed by Jack Lynch | after being accused of seeking |
to provide arms to the newly emergent Provisional Irish Republican Army. Factional infighting over Northern Ireland, economics and the" moral issues” such as the legalization of divorce, abortion, and contraception plagued the party in this era and grew particularly intense when Charles Haughey later became party leader. Under Haughey, Fianna Fáil lost both the 1981 general election and November 1982 general election to Garret FitzGerald' s Fine Gael during a particularly chaotic time in Ireland' s political and economic history. Numerous failed internal attempts to oust Haughey as leader of the party culminated in the most significant split in the party' s history when a large portion of the membership walked out to create the Progressive Democrats in 1985, under the leadership of Haughey archrival Desmond O' Malley. Haughey was forced to resign as Taoiseach and party leader in 1992 following revelations about his role in a phone tapping scandal. Although the two parties had seemed poised to be bitter enemies owning to the personal conflicts between the memberships, from 1989 onwards Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats served repeatedly in coalition governments together, helping to stabilise Fianna Fáil. In 1994 Fianna Fáil came under the new leadership of Haughey protégé Bertie Ahern, who also became Taoiseach in 1997. Under Ahern, Fianna Fáil was able to claim credit for helping to broker the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 which began the peace process in Northern Ireland, as well the economic upswing caused by the Celtic Tiger which saw Ireland'seconomyboomduringthe2000s. However, this momentum came to a sharp and sudden haul following two events. Firstly, Ahern was forced to resign as Taoiseach and left the party in 2008 following revelations made in the Mahon Tribunal that Ahern had accepted money from property developers. Secondly, the party, which was still in government under a new leader and Taoiseach Brian Cowen, was held responsible for the effects of the post- 2008 Irish economic downturn. The party' s popularity crashed: an opinion poll on 27 February 2009 indicated that only 10% of voters were satisfied with the Government' s performance. In the 2011 general election, it suffered the worst defeat of a sitting government in the history of the Irish state. This loss was described as" historic" in its proportions and" unthinkable". The party sank from being the largest in the Dáil to the third- largest, losing 58 of its 78 seats. This broke 79 consecutive years of Fianna Fáil being the largest single party in the Dáil. That election took place with Michael Martin as leader, as Cowen had resigned as party leader in January 2011, although retained his role as Taoiseach until the election. Cowen' s premiership was sharpely criticised in the media, with" The Sunday Times" describing Cowen' s tenure as Taoiseach as" a dismal failure" and in 2011 the" Irish Independent" calling Cowen the" worst Taoiseach in the history of the State." Recent history. Martin continued to lead Fianna Fáil past 2011; In the 2016 general election Martin' s Fianna Fáil made a moderate recovery while Fine Gael retained control of the government | as a minority government, made |
possible by a confidence and supply agreement with Fianna Fáíl. In 2018 the party was divided internally over how the party would handle that year' s referendum on the Eighth Amendment, the provision in the Irish constitution which forbid abortion, with a significant portion of both the parliamentary party and the ordinary membership in favour of a No vote. Leader Michael Martin signalled his own desire for a Yes vote, but was unable to bring the party under one stance, and ultimately more than half of Fianna Fáil' s TDs campaigned for a No vote. On polling day the Yes side won, 66% to 33%. After the 2020 general election, for the first time in history, Fianna Fáil entered into a coalition government with its traditional rival Fine Gael, as well as the Green Party, with Fianna Fáil leader Micheál Martin serving as Taoiseach. That same year a number of Fianna Fáil members were involved in the" Golfgate" scandal, an event that ultimately led to the resignation of Fianna Fáil deputy leader Dara Calleary. In July 2021 Fianna Fáil suffered what a number of sources suggested might have been the single worse result in its history when the party polled extremely poorly in the 2021 Dublin Bay South by- election. The result prompted Jim O' Callaghan and Cathal Crowe to question whether Martin should lead the party into its next general election. Organisation and structure. Fianna Fáil uses a structure called a cumann system. The basic unit was the" cumann"( branch); these were grouped into" comhairle ceantair"( district branch) and a" comhairle dáil ceantair"( constituency branch) in every constituency. The party claimed that in 2005 they had 50, 000 registered names, but only an estimated 10, 000- 15, 000 members were considered active. However,fromtheearly1990s onward the" cumann" structure was weakened. Every" cumann" was entitled to three votes to selection conventions irrespective of its size; hence, a large number of" cumainn" had become in effect" paper" cumainn"", the only use of which was to ensure an aspiring or sitting candidate got enough votes. Although this phenomenon was nothing new( the most famous example being Neil Blaney' s" Donegal Mafia"). Since the 2007 election, the party' s structure has significantly weakened. This was in part exacerbated by significant infighting between candidates in the run- up to the 2011 general election." The Irish Times" estimated that half of its 3, 000" cumainn" were effectively moribund. This fraction rose in Dublin with the exception of Dublin West, the former seat of both Brian Lenihan Snr and Brian Lenihan Jnr. Ideology. In the modern era, Fianna Fáil is seen as a typical catch- all party and has defined itself as such. Inthe1980s Brian Lenihan Snr declared" there are no isms or[ ide] ologies in my party" while in theearly2000s Fianna Fáil leader Bertie Ahern affirmed the party' s catch- all stance by defining Fianna Fáil as a party that" looks out for the small ranking guy, the middle- ranking guy and assists the big guy". This contrasts with the more working- class orientation Fianna Fáil had in | the early20th century; Upon winning |
the 1932 Irish general election, newly elected Fianna Fáil TD Seán Moylan proclaimed that Fianna Fáil' s win meant a victory of" the owners of the donkey and cart over the pony and trap class".Inthe20th century, Fianna Fáil utilised mainly corporatist policies( embracing the concept of‘ social partnership’ in the latter half), based on the influence of the Roman Catholic Church. This contributed to it winning over many supporters from the lower and middle classes.Inthe1990s, Fianna Fáil was described as a conservative party but also as a nationalist party. It has presented itself as a" broad church" and attracted support from across disparate social classes. Between 1989 and 2011, it led coalition governments with parties of both the left and the right. Fianna Fáil' s platform contains a number of enduring commitments: to Irish unity; to the promotion and protection of the Irish language; and to maintaining Ireland' s tradition of military neutrality. While the party is distinctly more populist, nationalist, and generally more economically interventionist than Fine Gael, the party shares its rival' s support of the European Union. Although part of the liberal ALDE group in the European Parliament, the party has not supported the group' s positions on civil liberties and its liberal nature is disputed, though the party did legalize same- sex civil partnerships in 2010. The party' s name and logo incorporates the words' The Republican Party'. According to Fianna Fáil," Republican here stands both for the unity of the island and a commitment to the historic principles of European republican philosophy, namely liberty, equality and fraternity". The party' s main goal at its beginning was to reunite the North and the South. R. Ken Carty wrote of Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael that they were" heterogeneous in their bases of support, relatively undifferentiated in terms of policy or programme, and remarkably stable in their support levels". Evidence from expert surveys, opinion polls and candidate surveys all fail to identify strong distinctions between the two parties. Many point to Ireland' s Civil War politics, and feel that the basis for the division is the disagreement about the strategy to achieve a united Ireland. Kevin Byrne and political scientist Eoin O' Malley rejected this, and have argued that the differences between the two parties goes much further back in Irish history. They linked the parties to different nationalist traditions( Irish Enlightenment and Gaelic Nationalist) which in turn could be linked to migrations of Anglo- Norman and new English into Ireland and the native Gaelic population. Leadership and president. The following are the terms of office as party leader and as Taoiseach: Fianna Fáil and Northern Ireland politics. On 17 September 2007, Fianna Fáil announced that the party would for the first time organise in Northern Ireland. The then Foreign Minister Dermot Ahern was asked to chair a committee on the matter:" In the period ahead Dermot Ahern will lead efforts to develop that strategy for carrying through this policy, examining timescales and structures. We will act gradually and strategically. We are under no illusions. It will not be | easy. It will challenge us |
all. But I am confident we will succeed". The party embarked on its first ever recruitment drive north of the border in September 2007 in northern universities, and established two' Political Societies', the William Drennan Cumann in Queens University, Belfast, and the Watty Graham Cumann in UU Magee, Derry, which subsequently became official units of Fianna Fáil' s youth wing, attaining full membership and voting rights, and attained official voting delegates at the 2012 Árd Fheis. On 23 February 2008, it was announced that a former Ulster Unionist Party( UUP) councillor, Colonel Harvey Bicker, had joined Fianna Fáil. Bertie Ahern announced on 7 December 2007 that Fianna Fáil had been registered in Northern Ireland by the UK Electoral Commission. The party' s Ard Fheis in 2009 unanimously passed a motion to organise in Northern Ireland by establishing forums, rather than cumainn, in each of its six counties. In December 2009, Fianna Fáil secured its first Northern Ireland Assembly MLA when Gerry McHugh, an independent MLA, announced he had joined the party. Mr. McHugh confirmed that although he had joined the party, he would continue to sit as an independent MLA. In June 2010, Fianna Fáil opened its first official office in Northern Ireland, in Crossmaglen, County Armagh. The then Taoiseach Brian Cowen officially opened the office, accompanied by Ministers Éamon Ó Cuív and Dermot Ahern and Deputies Rory O’ Hanlon and Margaret Conlon. Discussing the party' s slow development towards all- Ireland politics, Mr. Cowen observed:" We have a very open and pragmatic approach. We are a constitutional republican party and we make no secret of the aspirations on which this party was founded. It has always been very clear in our mind what it is we are seeking to achieve, that is to reconcile this country and not being prisoners of our past history. To be part of a generation that will build a new Ireland, an Ireland of which we can all be proud". Fianna Fáil has not contested any elections in Northern Ireland since its registration and recognition there in 2007. At the party' s 2014 Ard Fheis, a motion was passed without debate to stand candidates for election north of the border for the first time in 2019. In 2017, Omagh councillor Sorcha McAnespy said she wished to run in the 2019 Northern Ireland local government election in the constituency under a Fianna Fáil ticket. In October 2017 she was elected as northern representative on the party' s national executive, the" committee of 15". Since 24 January 2019, the party have been in partnership with the Social Democratic and Labour Party( SDLP) formerly the main Irish nationalist party in Northern Ireland, but now smaller than Sinn Féin. There had long been speculation about the eventual partnership for several years prior. This was initially met with a negative reaction from Seamus Mallon, former Deputy Leader of the SDLP, who stated he would be opposed to any such merger. Former leader of the SDLP Margaret Ritchie originally stated publicly that she opposed any merger, announcing to the Labour Party Conference | that such a merger would |
not happen on her" watch". On 10 January 2019, Richie stated that she now supported a new partnership with Fianna Fáil. Both Fianna Fáil and the SDLP currently have shared policies on key areas including addressing the current political situation in Northern Ireland, improving public services in both jurisdictions of Ireland, such as healthcare, housing, education, and governmental reform, and bringing about the further unity and cooperation of the people on the island and arrangements for a future poll on Irish reunification. Representation in European institutions. Fianna Fáil joined the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe( ALDE) party on 16 April 2009, and the party' s Members of the European Parliament( MEPs)satintheALDEGroupduringthe7th European Parliament term from June 2009 to 1 July 2014. The party is a full member of the Liberal International. Prior to this, the party was part of the Eurosceptic Union for Europe of the Nations parliamentary group between 1999 and 2009. Party headquarters, over the objections of some MEPs, had made several attempts to sever the party' s links to the European right, including an aborted 2004 agreement to join the European Liberal Democrat and Reform( ELDR) Party, with whom it already sat in the Council of Europe under the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe( ALDE) banner. On 27 February 2009, Taoiseach Brian Cowen announced that Fianna Fáil proposed to join the ELDR Party and intended to sit with them in the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe( ALDE) Group in the European Parliament after the 2009 European elections. In October 2009, it was reported that Fianna Fáil had irritated its new Liberal colleagues by failing to vote for the motion on press freedom in Italy( resulting in its defeat by a majority of one in the Parliament) and by trying to scupper their party colleagues' initiative for gay rights. In January 2010, a report by academic experts writing for the votewatch. eu site found that FF" do not seem to toe the political line" of the ALDE Group" when it comes to budget and civil liberties" issues. In the 2014 European elections, Fianna Fáil received 22. 3% of first- preference votes but only returned a single MEP, a reduction in representation of two MEPs from the previous term. This was due to a combination of the party' s vote further dropping in Dublin and a two candidate strategy in the Midlands North West constituency, which backfired, resulting in sitting MEP Pat" the Cope" Gallagher losing his seat. On 23 June 2014, returning MEP Brian Crowley announced that he intended to sit with the European Conservatives and Reformists( ECR) ratherthantheALDEgroupduringtheupcoming8th term of the European parliament. The following day on 24 June 2014 Crowley had the Fianna Fáil party whip withdrawn. He has since been re- added to Fianna Fáil' s website. In the European Committee of the Regions, Fianna Fáil sits in the Renew Europe CoR group, with two full and two alternate members for the 2020– 2025 mandate. Cllr. Kate Feeney is member of the Renew Europe CoR Bureau and Group Coordinator in the | SEDEC commission. Cllr. Gillian Coughlan |
is Deputy Coordinator in the ECON Commission. was a powerful family of imperial regents in Japan, holding the title of" Ason", descending from the Nakatomi clan and through them Ame- no- Koyane- no- Mikoto. The Fujiwara prospered since the ancient times and dominated the imperial court until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. The abbreviated form is.The8th century clan history" Tōshi Kaden"( 藤氏家伝) states the following at the biography of the clan' s patriarch, Fujiwara no Kamatari( 614– 669):" Kamatari, the Inner Palace Minister who was also called‘ Chūrō","’ was a man of the Takechi district of Yamato Province. His forebears descended from Ame no Koyane no Mikoto; for generations they had administered the rites for Heaven and Earth, harmonizing the space between men and the gods. Therefore, it was ordered their clan was to be called Ōnakatomi" The clan originated when the founder, Nakatomi no Kamatari( 614– 669) of the Nakatomi clan, was rewarded by Emperor Tenji with the honorific" Fujiwara", which evolved as a surname for Kamatari and his descendants. In time, Fujiwara became known as a clan name. The Fujiwara dominated the Japanese politics of Heian period( 794– 1185) through the monopoly of regent positions, S" esshō" and K" ampaku". The family' s primary strategy for central influence was through the marrying of Fujiwara daughters to emperors. Through this, the Fujiwara would gain influence over the next emperor who would, according to family tradition of that time, be raised in the household of his mother' s side and owe loyalty to his grandfather. As abdicated emperors took over power by exercising" insei"(, cloistered rule)attheendofthe11th century, then followed by the rise of the warrior class, the Fujiwara gradually lost its control over mainstream politics. The Northern Fujiwara( Ōshū Fujiwara) ruled the Tōhoku region( northeast Honshū)ofJapanduringthe12th century.Beyondthe12th century, they continued to monopolize the titles of" Sesshō" and" Kampaku" for much of the time until the system was abolished in the Meiji era. Though their influence declined, the clan remained close advisors to the succeeding Emperors. Asuka/ Nara period. The Fujiwara clan' s political influence was initiated during the Asuka period. Nakatomi no Kamatari, a member of the lower- nobility Nakatomi family led a coup against the Soga in 645 and initiated a series of sweeping government reforms that would be known as the Taika Reform. In 668 Emperor Tenji( reigned 668– 671), bestowed the" kabane" on Kamatari. The surname passed to the descendants of Fujiwara no Fuhito( 659– 720), the second son and heir of Kamatari, who was prominent at the court of several emperors and empresses during the early Nara period. He made his daughter Miyako a concubine of Emperor Monmu. Her son, Prince Obito became Emperor Shōmu. Fuhito succeeded in making another of his daughters, Kōmyōshi, the empress consort of Emperor Shōmu. She was the first empress consort of Japan who was not a daughter of the imperial family itself. Fuhito had four sons; and each of them became the progenitor of a cadet branch of the clan: Among them, the Hokke came to be considered as the leaders of | the entire clan. All four |
brothers died in 737 during a major smallpox epidemic in Japan. Heian period. During the Heian period of Japanese history, the Hokke managed to establish a hereditary claim to the position of regent, either for an underage emperor(" sesshō") or for an adult one(" kampaku"). Some prominent Fujiwaras occupied these positions more than once, and for more than one emperor. Lesser members of the Fujiwara were court nobles, provincial governors and vice governors, members of the provincial aristocracy, and samurai. The Fujiwara was one of the four great families that dominated Japanese politics during the Heian Period( 794– 1185), and the most important of them at that time. The others were the Tachibana, the Taira and the Minamoto. The Fujiwara exercised tremendous power,especiallyduringtheperiodofregencygovernmentsin10thand11th centuries, having many emperors as practically puppet monarchs. The Fujiwara dominated the government of Japan 794– 1160. There is no clear starting point of their dominance. However, their domination of civil administration was lost by the establishment of the first shogunate( i. e., Kamakura shogunate) under Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1192. Fujiwara princes initially served as highest ministers of the imperial Court(" kampaku") and regents(" sesshō") for underage monarchs. The Fujiwara were the proverbial" power behind the throne" for centuries. Apparently they never aspired to supplant the imperial dynasty. Instead, the clan' s influence stemmed from its matrimonial alliances with the imperial family. Because consorts of crown princes, younger sons, and emperors were generally Fujiwara women, the male heads of the Fujiwara house were often the father- in- law, brother- in- law, uncle, or maternal grandfather of the emperor. The family reached the peak of its power under Fujiwara no Michinaga( 966– 1027). He was the grandfather of three emperors, the father of six empresses or imperial consorts, and the grandfather of seven additional imperial consorts; it is no exaggeration to say that it was Michinaga who ruled Japan during this period, not the titular Emperors. As a result of these unusually strong familial links, Michinaga never took the title of Kampaku- he held more than the power that the position would bring, and had no need of the title. The Fujiwara clan is featured prominently in" The Pillow Book", by Sei Shōnagon, and the character of Genji is partially based on Michinaga in the eponymous the Tale of Genji. Fujiwara regime in the Heian period. The Fujiwara Regency was the main feature of government during most of the Heian era. Kyoto( Heian- kyō) was geopolitically a better seat of government; with good river access to the sea, it could be reached by land routes from the eastern provinces. Just before the move to the Heian- kyō, the Emperor had abolished universal conscription in the eighth century and soon local, private militaries came into being. The Fujiwara and the clans of Taira and Minamoto created later during the ninth century were among the most prominent families supported by the new military class. In the ninth and tenth centuries, much authority was lost to the great families, who disregarded the Chinese- style land and tax systems imposed by the government | in Kyoto. Stability came to |
Heian Japan, but, even though succession was ensured for the Imperial family through heredity, power again concentrated in the hands of one noble family, the Fujiwara. Family administrations now became public institutions. As the most powerful family, the Fujiwara governed Japan and determined the general affairs of state, such as succession to the throne. Family and state affairs were thoroughly intermixed, a pattern followed among other families, monasteries, and even the imperial family. As the Soga had taken control of the throne in the sixth century, the Fujiwara by the ninth century had intermarried with the imperial family, and one of their members was the first head of the Emperor' s Private Office. While the earliest parts of the Heian period was marked by unusually strong emperors governing themselves( in particular from Emperor Kanmu to Emperor Saga( 781- 823)), the Fujiwara started to rebuild their influence first under Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu in the first half of the ninth century. Fuyutsugu' s son Fujiwara no Yoshifusa was the first person not from the imperial family to become regent for a minor emperor when he gained that position when his grandson was enthroned as Emperor Seiwa in 858. His adopted son, Fujiwara no Mototsune, had himself further appointed" kampaku"( regent for an adult emperor, a newly invented position). After Mototsune' s death Emperor Uda( who was not the son of a Fujiwara daughter) managed to regain control of much of government. However, after abdicating in favour of his son, Emperor Daigo( 897– 930), while apparently intending to control government from retirement, Mototsune' s son Fujiwara no Tokihira managed to maneuver himself back to very prominent position until his early death in 909. The remaining period of Daigo' s reign was again relatively free from Fujiwara dominance, but from the beginning of the reign of his son Emperor Suzaku, the Fujiwara again re- established their dominance of the court with the leadership of Fujiwara no Tadahira. Nevertheless, the Fujiwara were not demoted by Emperor Daigo but in many ways became stronger during his reign. Central control of Japan had continued to decline, and the Fujiwara, along with other great families and religious foundations, acquired ever larger" shōen" and greater wealth during the early tenth century. By the early Heian period, the" shōen" had obtained legal status, and the large religious establishments sought clear titles in perpetuity, waiver of taxes, and immunity from government inspection of the" shōen" they held. Those people who worked the land found it advantageous to transfer title to shōen holders in return for a share of the harvest. People and lands were increasingly beyond central control and taxation, a de facto return to conditions before the Taika Reform. Within decades of Emperor Daigo' s death, the Fujiwara had absolute control over the court. By the year 1000, Fujiwara no Michinaga was able to enthrone and dethrone emperors at will. Little authority was left for traditional officialdom, and government affairs were handled through the Fujiwara family' s private administration. The Fujiwara had become what historian George B. Sansom has called" hereditary dictators". | The Fujiwara presided over a |
period of cultural and artistic flowering at the imperial court and among the aristocracy. There was great interest in graceful poetry and vernacular literature. Japanese writing had long depended on Chinese ideograms(" kanji"), but these were now supplemented by" kana", two types of phonetic Japanese script:" katakana", a mnemonic device using parts of Chinese ideograms; and" hiragana", a cursive form of" kanji" writing and an art form in itself." Hiragana" gave written expression to the spoken word and, with it, to the rise in Japan' s famous vernacular literature, much of it written by court women who had not been trained in Chinese as had their male counterparts. Three late tenth century and early eleventh century women presented their views of life and romance at the Heian court in" Kagerō Nikki"(" The Gossamer Years") by" the mother of Michitsuna"," Makura no Sōshi"(" The Pillow Book") by Sei Shōnagon, and" Genji Monogatari"(" Tale of Genji") by Murasaki Shikibu( herself a Fujiwara). Indigenous art also flourished under the Fujiwara after centuries of imitating Chinese forms. Vividly colored" yamato- e"( Japanese style) paintings of court life and stories about temples and shrines became common in the mid and late Heian periods, setting patterns for Japanese art to this day. Decline in food production, growth of the population, and competition for resources among the great families all led to the gradual decline of Fujiwara power and gave rise to military disturbances in the mid- tenth and eleventh centuries. Members of the Fujiwara, Taira, and Minamoto families— all of whom had descended from the imperial family— attacked one another, claimed control over vast tracts of conquered land, set up rival regimes, and generally broke the peace of Japan. The Fujiwara controlled the throne until the reign of Emperor Go- Sanjō( 1068– 73), the first emperor not born of a Fujiwara mother since the ninth century. Emperor Go- Sanjō, determined to restore imperial control through strong personal rule, implemented reforms to curb Fujiwara influence. He also established an office to compile and validate estate records with the aim of reasserting central control. Many" shōen" were not properly certified, and large landholders, like the Fujiwara, felt threatened with the loss of their lands. Emperor Go- Sanjō also established the" In no chō", or Office of the Cloistered Emperor, which was held by a succession of emperors who abdicated to devote themselves to behind- the- scenes governance, or" insei"( Cloistered rule). The" In no chō" filled the void left by the decline of Fujiwara power. Rather than being banished, the Fujiwara were mostly retained in their old positions of civil dictator and minister of the center while being bypassed in decision making. In time, many of the Fujiwara were replaced, mostly by members of the rising Minamoto family. While the Fujiwara fell into disputes among themselves and formed northern and southern factions, the insei system allowed the paternal line of the imperial family to gain influence over the throne. The period from 1086 to 1156 was the age of supremacy of the" In no chō" and of the rise of | the military class throughout the |
country. Military might rather than civil authority dominated the government. A struggle for succession in the mid- twelfth century gave the Fujiwara an opportunity to regain their former power. Fujiwara no Yorinaga sided with the retired emperor in a violent battle in 1158 against the heir apparent, who was supported by the Taira and Minamoto. In the end, the Fujiwara were destroyed, the old system of government supplanted, and the" insei" system left powerless as bushi took control of court affairs, marking a turning point in Japanese history. Within a year, the Taira and Minamoto clashed, and a twenty- year period of Taira ascendancy began. The Taira were seduced by court life and ignored problems in the provinces. Finally, Minamoto no Yoritomo( 1147– 99) rose from his headquarters at Kamakura( in the Kantō region, southwest of modern Tokyo) to defeat the Taira, and with them the child emperor Emperor Antoku they controlled, in the Genpei War( 1180– 85). After this downfall, the younger branches of the Fujiwara clan turned their focus from politics to the arts, producing literary scholars including Fujiwara no Shunzei and Fujiwara no Teika. Decline. Only forty years after Michinaga' s death, his Fujiwara heirs were not able to prevent the accession of Emperor Go- Sanjō( reigned 1068– 73), the first emperor since Emperor Uda whose mother was not a Fujiwara. The system of government by retired emperor(" daijō tennō")( cloistered rule) beginning from 1087 further weakened the Fujiwara' s control over the Imperial Court. The Fujiwara-dominatedHeianperiodapproacheditsendalongdisturbancesof12th century. The dynastic struggle known as the Hōgen Disturbance(" Hōgen no Ran") led to the Taira emerging as the most powerful clan in 1156. During the Heiji Disturbance(" Heiji no Ran") in 1160 the Taira defeated the coalition of Fujiwara and Minamoto forces. This defeat marked the end of the Fujiwara' s dominance. Split and enduring influence.Duringthe13th century, the Hokke Fujiwara(" Hokke"), was split into five regent houses: Konoe, Takatsukasa, Kujō, Nijō and Ichijō. They had a" monopoly" to the offices of" sesshō" and" kampaku", and served in turn. The political power had shifted away from the court nobility in Kyoto to the new warrior class in the countryside. However, Fujiwara remained close advisers, regents and ministers to the emperors for centuries, the family remained and politicalreputationandinfluenceevenuntilthe20th century( such as Fumimaro Konoe and Morihiro Hosokawa, who became the Prime Ministers). As such, they had a certain political power and much influence, as often the rival warriors and later bakufu sought their alliance. Oda Nobunaga and his sister Oichi claimed to have descent from the Taira and Fujiwara clans; regent Toyotomi Hideyoshi and shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu were related by marriage to various families from Fujiwara clan. Empress Shōken, wife of Emperor Meiji, was a descendant of the Fujiwara clan. Until the marriage of the Crown Prince Hirohito( Emperor Shōwa) to Princess Nagako of Kuni( posthumously Empress Kōjun) in January 1924, the principal consorts of emperors and crown princes had often been recruited from one of the Sekke Fujiwara. Imperial princesses were often married to Fujiwara lords– throughout a millennium at least. As recently | as Emperor Shōwa' s third |
daughter, the former Princesss Kazuko and Prince Mikasa' s elder daughter, the former Princess Yasuko, married into Takatsukasa and Konoe families, respectively. Likewise a daughter of the last" shōgun" married a second cousin of Emperor Shōwa. Federalism is a mixed or compound mode of government that combines a general government( the central or" federal" government) with regional governments( provincial, state, cantonal, territorial or other sub- unit governments) in a single political system, dividing the powers between the two. It has its roots in ancient Europe. Federalism in the modern era was first adopted in the unions of states during the Old Swiss Confederacy. Federalism differs from confederalism, in which the general level of government is subordinate to the regional level, and from devolution within a unitary state, in which the regional level of government is subordinate to the general level. It represents the central form in the pathway of regional integration or separation, bounded on the less integrated side by confederalism and on the more integrated side by devolution within a unitary state. Examples of a federation or federal province or state include Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bosnia& amp; Herzegovina, Brazil, Canada, Germany, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Russia, Switzerland, and United States. Some characterize the European Union as the pioneering example of federalism in a multi- state setting, in a concept termed the federal union of states. Overview. Etymology. The terms" federalism" and" confederalism" share a root in the Latin word" foedus", meaning" treaty, pact or covenant". Their common early meaning until the late eighteenth century was a simple league or inter- governmental relationship among sovereign states based on a treaty. They were therefore initially synonyms. It was in this sense that James Madison in" Federalist 39" had referred to the new US Constitution as" neither a national nor a federal Constitution, but a composition of both"( i. e. as constituting neither a single large unitary state nor a league/ confederation among several small states, but a hybrid of the two). In the course of the nineteenth century United States, the meaning of federalism would come to shift, strengthening to refer uniquely to the novel compound political form established at the Philadelphia Convention, while the meaning of confederalism would remain at a league of states. Origins. In the narrow sense, federalism refers to the mode in which the body politic of a state is organized internally, and this is the meaning most often used in modern times. Political scientists, however, use it in a much broader sense, referring instead to a" multi- layer or pluralistic concept of social and political life." The first forms of federalism took place in ancient times, in the form of alliances between states. Some examples from the seventh to second century B. C. were the Archaic League, the Aetolic League, the Peloponnesian League, and the Delian League. An early progenitor of federalism was the Achaean League in Hellenistic Greece. Unlike the Greek city states of Classical Greece, each of which insisted on keeping its complete independence, changing conditions in the Hellenistic period drove many city states | to band together even at |
the cost of losing part of their sovereignty. Subsequent unions of states included the first and second Swiss Confederations( 1291- 1798 and 1815- 48), the United Provinces of the Netherlands( 1579- 1795), the German Bund( 1815- 66), the first American union known as the Confederation of the United States of America( 1781- 89), and second American union formed as the United States of America( 1789- 1865). Political theory. Modern federalism is a political system based upon democratic rules and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial/ state governments. The term" federalist" describes several political beliefs around the world depending on context. Since the term" federalization" also describes distinctive political processes, its use as well depends on the context. In political theory, two main types of federalization are recognized: Federalism is sometimes viewed in the context of international negotiation as" the best system for integrating diverse nations, ethnic groups, or combatant parties, all of whom may have cause to fear control by an overly powerful center." However, those skeptical of federal prescriptions sometimes believe that increased regional autonomy can lead to secession or dissolution of the nation. In Syria, for example, federalization proposals have failed in part because" Syrians fear that these borders could turn out to be the same as the ones that the fighting parties have currently carved out." Federations such as Yugoslavia or Czechoslovakia collapsed as soon as it was possible to put the model to the test. Reasons for adoption. According to Daniel Ziblatt, there are four competing theoretical explanations in the academic literature for the adoption of federal systems: Immanuel Kant noted that" the problem of setting up a state can be solved even by a nation of devils" so long as they possess an appropriate constitution which pits opposing factions against each other with a system of checks and balances. In particular individual states required a federation as a safeguard against the possibility of war. Examples. Many countries have implemented federal systems of government with varying degree of central and regional sovereignty. The federal government of these countries can be divided into minimalistic federations, consisting of only two sub- federal units or multi- regional, those that consist of three to dozens of regional governments. They can also be grouped based on their body polity type, such as emirate, provincial, republican or state federal systems. Another way to study federated countries is by categorizing them into those whose entire territory is federated as opposed to only part of its territory comprising the federal portion of the country. Some federal systems are national systems while others, like the European Union are supra national. In general, two extremes of federalism can be distinguished: at one extreme, the strong federal state is almost completely unitary, with few powers reserved for local governments; while at the other extreme, the national government may be a federal state in name only, being a confederation in actuality. Federalism may encompass as few as two or three internal divisions, as is the case in Belgium or Bosnia and Herzegovina. The | governments of Argentina, Australia, Brazil, |
India, and Mexico, among others, are also organized along federalist principles. In Canada, federalism typically implies opposition to sovereigntist movements( most commonly Quebec separatism). In 1999, the Government of Canada established the Forum of Federations as an international network for exchange of best practices among federal and federalizing countries. Headquartered in Ottawa, the Forum of Federations partner governments include Australia, Brazil, Ethiopia, Germany, India, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan and Switzerland. Europe vs. the United States. Sixty percent of the American continent is organized as federal states, while in Europe federations are the exception: Germany, Austria and Switzerland are the only federal states in Europe. In Europe," federalist" is sometimes used to describe those who favor a common federal government, with distributed power at regional, national and supranational levels. Most European federalists want this development to continue within the European Union. Although there are medieval and early modern examples of European states which used confederal and federal systems, contemporary European federalism originated in post- war Europe; one of the more important initiatives was Winston Churchill' s speech in Zürich in 1946. In the United States, federalism originally referred to belief in a stronger central government. When the U. S. Constitution was being drafted, the Federalist Party supported a stronger central government, while" Anti- Federalists" wanted a weaker central government. This is very different from the modern usage of" federalism" in Europe and the United States. The distinction stems from the fact that" federalism" is situated in the middle of the political spectrum between a confederacy and a unitary state. The U. S. Constitution was written as a reaction to the Articles of Confederation, under which the United States was a loose confederation with a weak central government. In contrast, Europe has a greater history of unitary states than North America, thus European" federalism" argues for a weaker central government, relative to a unitary state. The modern American usage of the word is much closer to the European sense. As the power of the U. S. federal government has increased, some people have perceived a much more unitary state than they believe the Founding Fathers intended. Most people politically advocating" federalism" in the United States argue in favor of limiting the powers of the federal government, especially the judiciary( see Federalist Society, New Federalism). The contemporary concept of federalism came about with the creation of an entirely new system of government that provided for democratic representation at two governing levels simultaneously, was implemented in the US Constitution. In the United States implementation of federalism, a bi- cameral general government, consisting of a chamber of popular representation proportional to population( the House of Representatives), and a chamber of equal State- based representation consisting of two delegates per State( the Senate), was overlaid upon the pre- existing regional governments of the thirteen independent States. With each level of government allocated a defined sphere of powers, under a written constitution and the rule of law( that is, subject to the independent third- party arbitration of a supreme court in competence disputes), the two levels were thus brought into | a coordinate relationship for the |
first time. In 1946, Kenneth Wheare observed that the two levels of government in the US were" co- equally supreme". In this, he echoed the perspective of American founding father James Madison who saw the several States as forming" distinct and independent portions of the supremacy" in relation to the general government. Anarchism. Anarchists are against the state, but they are not against political organization or" governance", so long as it is self- governance utilizing direct democracy. The mode of political organization preferred by anarchists, in general, is federalism or confederalism. However, the anarchist definition of federalism tends to differ from the definition of federalism assumed by pro- state political scientists. The following is a brief description of federalism from section I. 5 of" An Anarchist FAQ": Christian Church. Federalism also finds expression in ecclesiology( the doctrine of the church). For example, presbyterian church governance resembles parliamentary republicanism( a form of" political federalism") to a large extent. In Presbyterian denominations, the local church is ruled by elected elders, some of which are ministerial. Each church then sends representatives or commissioners to presbyteries and further to a general assembly. Each greater level of assembly has ruling authority over its constituent members. In this governmental structure, each component has some level of sovereignty over itself. As in" political federalism", in presbyterian ecclesiology, there is shared sovereignty. Other ecclesiologies also have significant representational and federalists components, including the more anarchic congregational ecclesiology, and even in more hierarchical episcopal ecclesiology. Some Christians argue that the earliest source of political realism( or federalism in human institutions; in contrast to theological federalism) is the ecclesiastical federalism found in the Bible. They point to the structure of the early Christian Church as described( and prescribed, as believed by many) in the New Testament. In their arguments, this is particularly demonstrated in the Council of Jerusalem, described in Acts chapter 15, where the Apostles and elders gathered together to govern the Church; the Apostles being representatives of the universal Church, and elders being such for the local church. To this day, elements of federalism can be found in almost every Christian denomination, some more than others. Constitutional structure. Division of powers. In a federation, the division of power between federal and regional governments is usually outlined in the constitution. Almost every country allows some degree of regional self- government, in federations the right to self- government of the component states is constitutionally entrenched. Component states often also possess their own constitutions which they may amend as they see fit, although in the event of conflict the federal constitution usually takes precedence. In almost all federations the central government enjoys the powers of foreign policy and national defense as exclusive federal powers. Were this not the case a federation would not be a single sovereign state, per the UN definition. Notably, the states of Germany retain the right to act on their own behalf at an international level, a condition originally granted in exchange for the Kingdom of Bavaria' s agreement to join the German Empire in 1871. Beyond this the | precise division of power varies |
from one nation to another. The constitutions of Germany and the United States provide that all powers not specifically granted to the federal government are retained by the states. The Constitution of some countries like Canada and India, state that powers not explicitly granted to the provincial governments are retained by the federal government. Much like the US system, the Australian Constitution allocates to the Federal government( the Commonwealth of Australia) the power to make laws about certain specified matters which were considered too difficult for the States to manage, so that the States retain all other areas of responsibility. Under the division of powers of the European Union in the Lisbon Treaty, powers which are not either exclusively of or shared between the Union and the Member States as concurrent powers are retained by the constituent States. Where every component state of a federation possesses the same powers, we are said to find' symmetric federalism'. Asymmetric federalism exists where states are granted different powers, or some possess greater autonomy than others do. This is often done in recognition of the existence of a distinct culture in a particular region or regions. In Spain, the Basques and Catalans, as well as the Galicians, spearheaded a historic movement to have their national specificity recognized, crystallizing in the" historical communities" such as Navarre, Galicia, Catalonia, and the Basque Country. They have more powers than the later expanded arrangement for other Spanish regions, or the Spain of the autonomous communities( called also the" coffee for everyone" arrangement), partly to deal with their separate identity and to appease peripheral nationalist leanings, partly out of respect to specific rights they had held earlier in history. However, strictly speaking Spain is not a federation, but a system of asymmetric devolved government within a unitary state. It is common that during the historical evolution of a federation there is a gradual movement of power from the component states to the centre, as the federal government acquires additional powers, sometimes to deal with unforeseen circumstances. The acquisition of new powers by a federal government may occur through formal constitutional amendment or simply through a broadening of the interpretation of a government' s existing constitutional powers given by the courts. Usually, a federation is formed at two levels: the central government and the regions( states, provinces, territories), and little to nothing is said about second or third level administrative political entities. Brazil is an exception, because the 1988 Constitution included the municipalities as autonomous political entities making the federation tripartite, encompassing the Union, the States, and the municipalities. Each state is divided into municipalities(" municípios") with their own legislative council(" câmara de vereadores") and a mayor(" prefeito"), which are partly autonomous from both Federal and State Government. Each municipality has a" little constitution", called" organic law"(" lei orgânica"). Mexico is an intermediate case, in that municipalities are granted full- autonomy by the federal constitution and their existence as autonomous entities(" municipio libre"," free municipality") is established by the federal government and cannot be revoked by the states' constitutions. Moreover, the federal | constitution determines which powers and |
competencies belong exclusively to the municipalities and not to the constituent states. However, municipalities do not have an elected legislative assembly. Federations often employ the paradox of being a union of states, while still being states( or having aspects of statehood) in themselves. For example, James Madison( author of the US Constitution) wrote in Federalist Paper No. 39 that the US Constitution" is in strictness neither a national nor a federal constitution; but a composition of both. In its foundation, it is federal, not national; in the sources from which the ordinary powers of the Government are drawn, it is partly federal, and partly national..." This stems from the fact that states in the US maintain all sovereignty that they do not yield to the federation by their own consent. This was reaffirmed by the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which reserves all powers and rights that are not delegated to the Federal Government as left to the States and to the people. Bicameralism. The structures of most federal governments incorporate mechanisms to protect the rights of component states. One method, known as' intrastate federalism', is to directly represent the governments of component states in federal political institutions. Where a federation has a bicameral legislature the upper house is often used to represent the component states while the lower house represents the people of the nation as a whole. A federal upper house may be based on a special scheme of apportionment, as is the case in the senates of the United States and Australia, where each state is represented by an equal number of senators irrespective of the size of its population. Alternatively, or in addition to this practice, the members of an upper house may be indirectly elected by the government or legislature of the component states, as occurred in the United States prior to 1913, or be actual members or delegates of the state governments, as, for example, is the case in the German Bundesrat and in the Council of the European Union. The lower house of a federal legislature is usually directly elected, with apportionment in proportion to population, although states may sometimes still be guaranteed a certain minimum number of seats. Intergovernmental relations. In Canada, the provincial governments represent regional interests and negotiate directly with the central government. A First Ministers conference of the prime minister and the provincial premiers is the" de facto" highest political forum in the land, although it is not mentioned in the constitution. Constitutional change. Federations often have special procedures for amendment of the federal constitution. As well as reflecting the federal structure of the state this may guarantee that the self- governing status of the component states cannot be abolished without their consent. An amendment to the constitution of the United States must be ratified by three- quarters of either the state legislatures, or of constitutional conventions specially elected in each of the states, before it can come into effect. In referendums to amend the constitutions of Australia and Switzerland it is required that a proposal be endorsed not | just by an overall majority |
of the electorate in the nation as a whole, but also by separate majorities in each of a majority of the states or cantons. In Australia, this latter requirement is known as a" double majority". Some federal constitutions also provide that certain constitutional amendments cannot occur without the unanimous consent of all states or of a particular state. The US constitution provides that no state may be deprived of equal representation in the senate without its consent. In Australia, if a proposed amendment will specifically impact one or more states, then it must be endorsed in the referendum held in each of those states. Any amendment to the Canadian constitution that would modify the role of the monarchy would require unanimous consent of the provinces. The German Basic Law provides that no amendment is admissible at all that would abolish the federal system. Political philosophy. The meaning of" federalism", as a political movement, and of what constitutes a' federalist', varies with country and historical context. Movements associated with the establishment or development of federations can exhibit either centralising or decentralising trends. For example, at the time those nations were being established, factions known as" federalists" in the United States and Australia advocated the formation of strong central government. Similarly, in European Union politics, federalists mostly seek greater EU integration. In contrast, in Spain and in post- war Germany, federal movements have sought decentralisation: the transfer of power from central authorities to local units. In Canada, where Quebec separatism has been a political force for several decades, the" federalist" impulse aims to keep Quebec inside Canada. Conflict reducing device. Federalism, and other forms of territorial autonomy, is generally seen as a useful way to structure political systems in order to prevent violence among different groups within countries because it allows certain groups to legislate at the subnational level. Some scholars have suggested, however, that federalism can divide countries and result in state collapse because it creates proto- states. Still others have shown that federalism is only divisive when it lacks mechanisms that encourage political parties to compete across regional boundaries. Firmin Abauzit( 11 November 167920 March 1767) was a French scholar who worked on physics, theology and philosophy, and served as librarian in Geneva( Republic of Geneva) during his final 40 years. Abauzit is also notable for proofreading or correcting the writings of Isaac Newton and other scholars. Biography. Firmin Abauzit was born of Huguenot parents on 11 November 1679 at Uzès, in Languedoc. His paternal family traces its origin to an Arab physician who settled inToulouseduringthe9th century. Accordingly, the name“ Abauzit” is liked derived from the Arabic“ Abu Zaid”( father of Zaid). His father died when he was but two years of age; and when, on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, the authorities took steps to have him educated in the Roman Catholic faith, his mother contrived his escape. For two years his brother and he lived as fugitives in the mountains of the Cévennes, but they at last reached Geneva, where their mother afterwards joined them on | escaping from the imprisonment in |
which she was held from the time of their flight. Abauzit at an early age acquired great proficiency in languages, physics, and theology. In 1698, he traveled to Germany, then to Holland, where he became acquainted with Pierre Bayle, Pierre Jurieu and Jacques Basnage. Proceeding to England, he was introduced to Sir Isaac Newton, who found in him one of the earliest defenders, against Castel of his discoveries. Newton corrected in the second edition of his" Principia" an error pointed out by Abauzit, and, when sending him the" Commercium Epistolicum," said," You are well worthy to judge between Gottfried Leibniz and me." The reputation of Abauzit induced William III to request him to settle in England, but he did not accept the king' s offer, preferring to return to Geneva. There, from 1715 he rendered valuable assistance to a society that had been formed for translating the New Testament into French. He declined the offer of the chair of philosophy at the University of Geneva in 1723. He assisted in the French language New Testament in 1726. In 1727, he was granted citizenship in Geneva, and he accepted the office of honorary librarian to Geneva, the city of his adoption. It was while he was in Geneva in his later years that he authored many of his works. Here also was the city of his death past the age of 87, on 20 March 1767. Legacy. Abauzit was a man of great learning and of wonderful versatility. Whatever chanced to be discussed, it used to be said of Abauzit that he seemed to have made it a subject of particular study. Rousseau, who was jealously sparing of his praises, addressed to him, in his" Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse", a fine panegyric; and when a stranger flatteringly told Voltaire he had come to see a great man, the philosopher asked him if he had seen Abauzit. Among his acquaintances, Abauzit claimed Rousseau, Voltaire, Newton, and Bayle. Little remains of the labours of this intellectual giant, his heirs having, it is said, destroyed the papers that came into their possession, because their own religious opinions were different. A few theological, archaeological, and astronomical articles from his pen appeared in the" Journal helvétique" and elsewhere, and he contributed several papers to Rousseau' s" Dictionnaire de musique"( 1767). He wrote a work throwing doubt on the canonical authority of the Apocalypse, which called forth a reply from Dr Leonard Twells, and was published in Denis Diderot' s" Encyclopédie". He also edited and made valuable additions to Jacob Spon' s" Histoire de la république de Genève". A collection of his writings was published at Geneva in 1770(" Œuvres de feu M. Abauzit"), and another at London in 1773(" Œuvres diverses de M. Abauzit"). The Foreign Legion(")" is a corps of the French Army with a specific command and comprising several specialities: infantry, cavalry, engineers and airborne troops. The Legion is also independent from the point of view of its recruitment. History. The Foreign Legion was created by Louis Philippe, the King of France, on 10 March | 1831 to allow the incorporation |
of foreign soldiers into the French Army from the foreign regiments of the Kingdom of France. Recruits included soldiers from the recently disbanded Swiss and German foreign regiments of the Bourbon monarchy. The Royal Ordinance for the establishment of the new regiment specified that the foreigners recruited could only serve outside France. The French expeditionary force that had occupied Algiers in 1830 was in need of reinforcements and the Legion was accordingly transferred by sea in detachments from Toulon to Algeria. Since 1831, the Legion has consisted of hundreds of thousands in active service at its peak, and suffered the aggregated loss of nearly 40, 000 men in France, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Madagascar, West Africa, Mexico, Italy, Crimea, Spain, Indo- China, Norway, Syria, Chad, Zaïre, Lebanon, Central Africa, Gabon, Kuwait, Rwanda, Djibouti, former Yugoslavia, Somalia, the Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast, Afghanistan, Mali, as well as others. The Legion was primarilyusedtohelpprotectandexpandtheFrenchcolonialempireduringthe19th century. The Foreign Legion was initially stationed only in Algeria, where it took part in the pacification and development of the colony. Subsequently, the Foreign Legion was deployed in a number of conflicts, including the First Carlist War in 1835, the Crimean War in 1854, the Second Italian War of Independence in 1859, the French intervention in Mexico in 1863, the Franco- Prussian War in 1870, the Tonkin Campaign and Sino- French War in 1883, supporting growth of the French colonial empire in Sub- Saharan Africa, the Second Franco- Dahomean War in 1892, the Second Madagascar expedition in 1895 and the Mandingo Wars in 1894. In World War I, the Foreign Legion fought in many critical battles on the Western Front. It played a smaller role in World War II than in World War I, though having a part in the Norwegian, Syrian and North African campaigns. During the First Indochina War( 1946– 1954), the Foreign Legion saw its numbers swell. The Legion lost a large number of men in the catastrophic Battle of Dien Bien Phu against forces of the Viet Minh. Subsequent military campaigns included those during the Suez Crisis, the Battle of Algiers and various offensives in Algeria launched by General Maurice Challe including Operation Oranie and Operation Jumelles. During the Algerian War of Independence( 1954– 1962), the Foreign Legion came close to being disbanded after some officers, men,andthehighlydecorated1st Foreign Parachute Regiment(1er REP) took part in the Generals' putsch.Inthe1960sand1970s, Legion regiments had additional roles in sending units as a rapid deployment force to preserve French interests– in its former African colonies and in other nations as well; it also returned to its roots of being a unit always ready to be sent to conflict zones around the world. Some notable operations include: the Chadian– Libyan conflict in 1969– 1972( the first time that the Legion was sent in operations after the Algerian War), 1978– 1979, and 1983– 1987; Kolwezi in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo in May 1978. In 1981,the1st Foreign Regiment and Foreign Legion regiments took part in the Multinational Force in Lebanon. In 1990, Foreign Legion regiments were sent to the Persian | Gulf and participated in Opération |
Daguet, part of Division Daguet.FollowingtheGulfWarinthe1990s, the Foreign Legion helped with the evacuation of French citizens and foreigners in Rwanda, Gabon and Zaire. The Foreign Legion was also deployed in Cambodia, Somalia, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. In the mid-tolate1990s, the Foreign Legion was deployed in the Central African Republic, Congo- Brazzaville and in Kosovo. The French Foreign Legion also took part in operations in Rwanda in 1990– 1994; and the Ivory Coast in 2002 to the present.Inthe2000s, the Foreign Legion was deployed in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan, Operation Licorne in Ivory Coast, the EUFOR Tchad/ RCA in Chad, and Operation Serval in the Northern Mali conflict. Other countries have tried to emulate the French Foreign Legion model. The Foreign Legion was primarily used, as part of the" Armée d' Afrique",toprotectandexpandtheFrenchcolonialempireduringthe19th century, but it also fought in almost all French wars including the Franco- Prussian War, World War I and World War II. The Foreign Legion has remained an important part of the French Army and sea transport protected by the French Navy, surviving three Republics, the Second French Empire, two World Wars, the rise and fall of mass conscript armies, the dismantling of the French colonial empire, and the loss of the Foreign Legion' s base, Algeria. Conquest of Algeria 1830– 1847. Created to fight" outside mainland France", the Foreign Legion was stationed in Algeria, where it took part in the pacification and development of the colony, notably by drying the marshes in the region of Algiers. The Foreign Legion was initially divided into six" national battalions"( Swiss, Poles, Germans, Italians, Spanish, and Dutch- Belgian). Smaller national groups, such as the ten Englishmen recorded in December 1832, appear to have been placed randomly. In late 1831, the first legionnaires landed in Algeria, the country that would be the Foreign Legion' s homeland for 130 years and shape its character. The early years in Algeria were hard on the legion because it was often sent to the worst postings and received the worst assignments, and its members were generally uninterested in the new colony of the French. The Legion served alongside the Battalions of Light Infantry of Africa, formed in 1832, which was a penal military unit made up of men with prison records who still had to do their military service or soldiers with serious disciplinary problems. The Foreign Legion' s first service in Algeria came to an end after only four years, as it was needed elsewhere. Carlist War 1835– 1839. To support Isabella' s claim to the Spanish throne against her uncle, the French government decided to send the Foreign Legion to Spain. On 28 June 1835, the unit was handed over to the Spanish government. The Foreign Legion landed via sea at Tarragona on 17 August with around 1, 400 who were quickly dubbed" Los Algerinos"( the Algerians) by locals because of their previous posting. The Foreign Legion' s commander immediately dissolved the national battalions to improve the" esprit de corps". Later, he also created three squadrons of lancers and an artillery battery from the existing force to increase | independence and flexibility. The Foreign |
Legion was dissolved on 8 December 1838, when it had dropped to only 500 men. The survivors returned to France, many reenlisting in the new Foreign Legion along with many of their former Carlist enemies. Crimean War. On 9 June 1854, the French ship" Jean Bart" embarked four battalions of the Foreign Legion for the Crimean Peninsula. A further battalion was stationed at Gallipoli as brigade depot. Eight companies drawn from both regiments of the Foreign Legion took part in the Battle of Alma( 20 September 1854). Reinforcements by sea brought the Legion contingent up to brigade strength. As the" Foreign Brigade", it served in the Siege of Sevastopol, during the winter of 1854– 1855. The lack of equipment was particularly challenging and cholera hit the Allied expeditionary force. Nevertheless, the" leather bellies"( the nickname given to the legionnaires by the Russians because of the large cartridge pouches that they wore attached to their waist- belts), performed well. On 21 June 1855, the Third Battalion, left Corsica for Crimea. On 8 September the final assault was launched on Sevastopol. Two days later, the Second Foreign Regiment with flags and band playing ahead, marched through the streets of Sevastopol. Although initial reservations had been expressed about whether the Legion should be used outside Africa, the Crimean experience established its suitability for service in European warfare, as well as making a cohesive single entity of what had previously been two separate foreign regiments. Total Legion casualties in the Crimea were 1, 703 killed and wounded. Italian Campaign 1859. Like the rest of the" Army of Africa", the Foreign Legion provided detachments in the campaign of Italy. Two foreign regiments,groupedwiththe2nd Regiment of Zouaves, were part of the Second Brigade of the Second Division of Mac Mahon' s Corps. The Foreign Legion acquitted itself particularly well against the Austrians at the battle of Magenta( 4 June 1859) and at the Battle of Solferino( 24 June).Legionlossesweresignificantandthe2nd Foreign Regiment lost Colonel Chabrière, its commanding officer. In gratitude, the city of Milan awarded, in 1909, the" commemorative medal of deliverance", which still adorns the regimental flags of the Second Regiment. Mexican Expedition 1863– 1867. The 38, 000 strong French expeditionary force dispatched to Mexico via sea between 1862 and 1863 included two battalions of the Foreign Legion, increased to six battalions by 1866. Small cavalry and artillery units were raised from legionnaires serving in Mexico. The original intention was that Foreign Legion units should remain in Mexico for up to six years to provide a core for the Imperial Mexican Army. However the Legion was withdrawn with the other French forces during February– March 1867. It was in Mexico on 30 April 1863 that the Legion earned its legendary status. A company led by Captain Jean Danjou, numbering 62 Legionnaires and 3 Legion officers, was escorting a convoy to the besieged city of Puebla when it was attacked and besieged by three thousand Mexican loyalists, organised in two battalions of infantry and cavalry, numbering 2, 200 and 800 respectively. The Legion detachment under Captain Jean Danjou, Sous- Lieutenant, Sous- | Lieutenant made a stand in |
the" Hacienda de la Trinidad"– a farm near the village of" Camarón". When only six survivors remained, out of ammunition, a bayonet assault was launched in which three of the six were killed. The remaining three wounded men were brought before the Mexican commander Colonel Milan, who allowed them to return to the French lines as an honor guard for the body of Captain Danjou. The captain had a wooden hand, which was later returned to the Legion and is now kept in a case in the Legion Museum at Aubagne, and paraded annually on Camerone Day. It is the Foreign Legion' s most precious relic. During the Mexican Campaign, 6, 654 French died. Of these, 1, 918 were from a single regiment of the Legion. Franco- Prussian War 1870. According to French law, the Foreign Legion was not to be used within Metropolitan France except in the case of a national invasion, and was consequently not a part of Napoleon III' s Imperial Army that capitulated at Sedan. With the defeat of the Imperial Army, the Second French Empire fell and the Third Republic was created. The new Third Republic was desperately short of trained soldiers following Sedan, so the Foreign Legion was ordered to provide a contingent. On 11 October 1870 two provisional battalions disembarked via sea at Toulon, the first time the Foreign Legion had been deployed in France itself. It attempted to lift the Siege of Paris by breaking through the German lines. It succeeded in retaking Orléans, but failed to break the siege. In January 1871, France capitulated but civil war soon broke out, which led to revolution and the short- lived Paris Commune. The Foreign Legion participated in the suppression of the Commune, which was crushed with great bloodshed. Tonkin Campaign and Sino- French War 1883– 1888. The Foreign Legion' s First Battalion( Lieutenant- Colonel Donnier) sailed to Tonkin in late 1883, during the period of undeclared hostilities that preceded the Sino- French War( August 1884 to April 1885), and formed part of the attack column that stormed the western gate of Sơn Tây on 16 December. The Second and Third Infantry Battalions(" chef de bataillon" Diguet and Lieutenant- Colonel Schoeffer) were also deployed to Tonkin shortly afterwards, and were present in all the major campaigns of the Sino- French War. Two Foreign Legion companies led the defence at the celebrated Siege of Tuyên Quang( 24 November 1884 to 3 March 1885). In January 1885 the Foreign Legion's4th Battalion(" chef de bataillon" Vitalis) was deployed to the French bridgehead at Keelung( Jilong) in Formosa( Taiwan), where it took part in the later battles of the Keelung Campaign. The battalion played an important role in Colonel Jacques Duchesne' s offensive in March 1885 that captured the key Chinese positions of La Table and Fort Bamboo and disengaged Keelung. In December 1883, during a review of the Second Legion Battalion on the eve of its departure for Tonkin to take part in the Bắc Ninh Campaign, General François de Négrier pronounced a famous" mot":" Vous, légionnaires, vous êtes | soldats pour mourir, et je |
vous envoie où l' on meurt!"(' You, Legionnaires, you are soldiers in order to die, and I' m sending you to where one dies!') Colonization of Africa. As part of the Army of Africa, the Foreign Legion contributed to the growth of the French colonial empire in Sub- Saharan Africa. Simultaneously, the Legion took part to the pacification of Algeria, suppressing various tribal rebellions and razzias. Second Franco- Dahomean War 1892– 1894. In 1892, King Behanzin was threatening the French protectorate of Porto- Novo in modern- day Benin and France decided to intervene. A battalion, led by commandant Faurax Montier, was formed from two companies of the First Foreign Regiment and two others from the second regiment. From Cotonou, the legionnaires marched to seize Abomey, the capital of the Kingdom of Dahomey. Two and a half months were needed to reach the city, at the cost of repeated battles against the Dahomean warriors, especially the Amazons of the King. King Behanzin surrendered and was captured by the legionnaires in January 1894. Second Madagascar Expedition 1894– 1895. In 1895, a battalion, formed by the First and Second Foreign Regiments, was sent to the Kingdom of Madagascar, as part of an expeditionary force whose mission was to conquer the island. The foreign battalion formed the backbone of the column launched on Antananarivo, the capital of Madagascar. After a few skirmishes, the Queen Ranavalona III promptly surrendered. The Foreign Legion lost 226 men, of whom only a tenth died in actual fighting. Others, like much of the expeditionary force, died from tropical diseases. Despite the success of the expedition, the quelling of sporadic rebellions would take another eight years until 1905, when the island was completely pacified by the French under Joseph Gallieni. During that time, insurrections against the Malagasy Christians of the island, missionaries and foreigners were particularly terrible. Queen Ranavalona III was deposed in January 1897 and was exiled to Algiers in Algeria, where she died in 1917. Mandingo War 1898. From 1882 until his capture, Samori Ture, ruler of the Wassoulou Empire, fought the French colonial army, defeating them on several occasions, including a notable victory at Woyowayanko( 2 April 1882), in the face of French heavy artillery. Nonetheless, Samori was forced to sign several treaties ceding territory to the French between 1886 and 1889. Samori began a steady retreat, but the fall of other resistance armies, particularly Babemba Traoré at Sikasso, permitted the colonial army to launch a concentrated assault against his forces. A battalionoftwocompaniesfromthe2nd Foreign Regiment was created in early 1894 to pacify the Niger. The Legionnaires' victory at the fortress of Ouilla and police patrols in the region accelerated the submission of the tribes. On 29 September 1898, Samori Ture was captured by the French Commandant Gouraud and exiled to Gabon, marking the end of the Wassoulou Empire. Marching Regiments of the Foreign Legion. World War I 1914– 1918. The annexation of Alsace and Lorraine by Germany in 1871 led to numerous volunteers from the two regions enlisting in the Foreign Legion, which gave them the option of French | citizenship at the end of |
their serviceWith the declaration of war on 29 July 1914, a call was made for foreigners residing in France to support their adopted country. While many would have preferred direct enlistment in the regular French Army, the only option immediately available was that of the Foreign Legion. On one day only( 3 August 1914) a reported 8, 000 volunteers applied to enlist in the Paris recruiting office of the Legion. In World War I, the Foreign Legion fought in many critical battles on the Western Front, including Artois, Champagne, Somme, Aisne, and Verdun( in 1917), and also suffered heavy casualties during 1918. The Foreign Legion was also in the Dardanelles and Macedonian front, and was highly decorated for its efforts. Many young foreigners volunteered for the Foreign Legion when the war broke out in 1914. There were marked differences between the idealistic volunteers of 1914 and the hardened men of the old Legion, making assimilation difficult. Nevertheless, the old and the new men of the Foreign Legion fought and died in vicious battles on the Western front, including Belloy- en- Santerre during the Battle of the Somme, where the poet Alan Seeger, after being mortally wounded by machine- gun fire, cheered on the rest of his advancing battalion. Interwar period 1918– 1939. While suffering heavy casualties on the Western Front the Legion had emerged from World War I with an enhanced reputation and as one of the most highly decorated units in the French Army. In 1919, the government of Spain raised the Spanish Foreign Legion and modeled it after the French Foreign Legion. General Jean Mordacq intended to rebuild the Foreign Legion as a larger military formation, doing away with the legion' s traditional role as a solely infantry formation. General Mordacq envisioned a Foreign Legion consisting not of regiments, but of divisions with cavalry, engineer, and artillery regiments in addition to the legion' s infantry mainstay. In 1920, decrees ordained the establishment of regiments of cavalry and artillery. Immediately following the armistice the Foreign Legion experienced an increase of enlistments. The Foreign Legion began the process of reorganizing and redeploying to Algeria. The Legion played a major part in the Rif War of 1920– 25. In 1932, the Foreign Legion consisted of 30, 000 men, serving in six multi-battalionregimentsincludingthe1stForeignInfantryRegiment1er REI– Algeria, Syria and Lebanon;2ndForeignInfantryRegiment2ème REI,3rdForeignInfantryRegiment3ème REI,and4thForeignInfantryRegiment4ème REI– Morocco, Lebanon;5thForeignInfantry5ème REI– Indochina;and1stForeignCavalryRegiment1er REC– Lebanon, Tunisia and Morocco. In 1931, Général Paul- FrédéricRolletassumedtheroleof1st Inspector of the Foreign Legion, a post created at his initiative. While servingasColonelofthe1st Foreign Infantry Regiment( 1925– 1931), Rollet was responsible for planning the centennial celebrations of the Legion' s foundation; scheduling this event for Camarón Day 30 April 1931. He was subsequently credited with creating much of the modern mystique of the Legion by restoring or creating many of its traditions. World War II 1939– 1945. The Foreign Legion played a smaller role in World War II in mainland Europe than in World War I, though it saw involvement in many exterior theatres of operations, notably sea- transport protection through to the Norwegian, Syria- Lebanon, and North African | campaigns. The13th Demi- Brigade, formed |
for service in Norway, found itself in the UK at the time of the French Armistice( June 1940),wasdeployedtotheBritish8th Army in North Africa and distinguished itself in the Battle of Bir Hakeim( 1942). Reflecting the divisions of the time, part of the Foreign Legion joined the Free French movement while another part served the Vichy government. Germany incorporated German legionnaires into the Wehrmacht's90th Light Infantry Division in North Africa. The Syria–LebanonCampaignofJune1941sawlegionnairefightinglegionnaireasthe13e D. B. L.Eclashedwiththe6thForeignInfantryRegiment6e REI at Damascus. Nevertheless,manylegionnairesofthe6thForeignInfantryRegiment6e( dissolved on 31 December 1941) integrated into the Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion R. M. L. E in 1942. Later, a thousand of the rank- and-fileoftheVichyLegionunitjoinedthe13e D. B. L. E. of the Free French forces which were also part( as of September 1944) of Jean de Lattre de Tassigny' s successful amalgam of the French Liberation Army(), the( 400, 000 men) amalgam consisted of the Armistice Army, the FreeFrenchForcesandtheFrenchForcesoftheInteriorwhichformedArmyBandlaterbecamepartoftheFrench1st Army with forces also issued from the French Resistance. Alsace- Lorraine. Following World War II, many French- speaking German former soldiers joined the Foreign Legion to pursue a military career, an option no longer possible in Germany including French German soldiers of Malgré- nous. It would have been considered problematic if the men from Alsace- Lorraine had not spoken French. These French- speaking former German soldiers made up as much as 60 percent of the Legion during the war in Indochina. Contrary to popular belief however, French policy was to exclude former members of the Waffen- SS, and candidates for induction were refused if they exhibited the tell- tale blood type tattoo, or even a scar that might be masking it. The high percentage of Germans was contrary to normal policy concerning a single dominant nationality, and in more recent times Germans have made up a much smaller percentage of the Foreign Legion' s composition. First Indochina War 1946– 1954. During the First Indochina War( 1946– 54) the Foreign Legion saw its numbers swell due to the incorporation of World War II veterans. Although the Foreign Legiondistinguisheditselfinaterritorywhereithadservedsincethe1880s, it also suffered a heavy toll during this war. Constantly being deployed in operations, units of the Legion suffered particularly heavy losses in the climactic Battle of Dien Bien Phu, before the fortified valley finally fell on 7 May 1954. No fewer than 72, 833 served in Indochina during the eight- year war. The Legion suffered the loss of 10, 283 of its own men in combat: 309 officers, 1082 sous- officiers and 9092 legionnaires. While only one of several Legion units involved in Indochina,the1st Foreign Parachute Battalion(1er BEP) particularly distinguished itself, while being annihilated twice.Itwasrenamedthe1st Foreign Parachute Regiment(1er REP) after its third reformation.The1er BEP sailed to Indochina on 12 November and was then engaged in combat operations in Tonkin. On 17 November 1950 the battalion parachuted into That Khé and suffered heavy losses at Coc Xa. Reconstituted on 1 March 1951, the battalion participated in combat operations at Cho Ben, on the Black River and in Annam. On 21 November 1953thereconstituted1er BEP was parachuted into Dien Bien Phu. In this battle, the unit lost 575 killed and | missing. Reconstituted for the third |
time on 19 May 1954, the battalion left Indochina on 8 February 1955.The1er BEP received five citations and the fourragère of the colors of the Médaille militaire for its service in Indochina.The1erBEPbecamethe1st Foreign Parachute Regiment(1er REP) in Algeria on 1 September 1955. Dien Bien Phu fell on 7 May 1954 at 17: 30. The couple of hectares that were the battlefield today are corn fields surrounding a stele which commemorates the sacrifices of those who died there. While the garrison of Dien Bien Phu included French regular, North African, and locally recruited( Indochinese) units, the battle has become associated particularly with the paratroops of the Foreign Legion. During the Indochina War, the Legion operated several armoured trains which were an enduring" Rolling Symbol" during the chartered course duration of French Indochina. The Legion also operated various Passage Companies relative to the continental conflicts at hand. Algerian War 1954– 1962. Foreign Legion paratroops. The legion was heavily engaged in fighting against the National Liberation Front and the Armée de Libération Nationale( ALN). The main activity during the period 1954–1962wasaspartoftheoperationsofthe10thParachuteDivisionand25th Parachute Division.The1st Foreign Parachute Regiment,1er REP,wasunderthecommandofthe10th Parachute Division( France),10ème DP,andthe2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment,2ème REP,wasunderthecommandofthe25th Parachute Division( France),25ème DP.Whileboththe1st Foreign Parachute Regiment(1er REP),andthe2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment(2ème REP), were part of the operations of French parachute divisions(10èmeDPand25ème DP established in 1956), the Legion's1st Foreign Parachute Regiment(1er REP), and the Legion's2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment(2ème REP), are older than the French divisions.The1er REP was the former thrice-reconstituted1st Foreign Parachute Battalion(1er BEP)andthe2èmeREPwastheformer2nd Foreign Parachute Battalion(2ème BEP). Both battalions were renamed and their Legionnaires transferred from Indochina on 1 August 1954 to Algeria by 1 November 1954. Both tracedtheiroriginstotheParachuteCompanyofthe3rd Foreign Infantry Regiment commanded by Legion Lieutenant Jacques Morin attached to the III/1er R. C. P. With the start of the War in Algeria on 1 November 1954, the two foreign participating parachute battalions back from Indochina,the1st Foreign Parachute Battalion(1er BEP, III Formation)andthe2nd Foreign Parachute Battalion(2ème BEP), were not part of any French parachute divisions yet and were not designated as regiments until September and 1 December 1955 respectively. Main operations during the Algerian War included the Battle of Algiers and the Bataille of the Frontiers, fought by 60, 000 soldiers including French and Foreign Legion paratroopers. For paratroopers of the Legion,the1st Foreign Parachute Regiment(1er REP)and2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment(2ème REP), were the only known foreign active parachute regiments, exclusively commanded byPierrePaulJeanpierreforthe1er REP andtheparatroopercommandersofthe2ème REP. The remainder of French paratrooper units of the French Armed Forces were commanded by Jacques Massu, Buchond, Marcel Bigeard, Paul Aussaresses. Other Legion offensives in the mountains in 1959 included operations Jumelles, Cigales, and Ariège in the Aures and the last in Kabylie. The image of the Legion as a professional and non- political force was tarnishedwhentheelite1stForeignParachuteRegiment1er REP, which was alsopartofthe10th Parachute Division played a leading role in the generals' putsch of 1961 and was subsequently disbanded. Generals' putsch and reduction of Foreign Legion. Coming out of a difficult Indochinese conflict, the French Foreign Legion, reinforced cohesion by extending the duration of basic training. Efforts exerted were successful during this transit; however, entering into December 1960 and | the generals' putsch, a crisis |
hit the legion putting its faith at the corps of the Army. For having rallied to the generals' putsch of April 1961,the1stForeignParachuteRegimentofthe10th Parachute Division was dissolved on 30 April 1961 at Zeralda. In 1961, at the issue of the putsch,the1st Mounted Saharan Squadron of the Foreign Legion() received the missions to assure surveillance and policing. The independence of Algeria from the French in 1962 was traumatising since it ended with the enforced abandonment of the barracks command center at Sidi Bel Abbès established in 1842. Upon being notified that the elite regiment was to be disbanded and that they were to be reassigned,legionnairesofthe1er REP burned the Chinese pavilion acquired following the Siege of Tuyên Quang in 1884. The relics from the Legion' s history museum, including the wooden hand of Captain Jean Danjou, subsequently accompanied the Legion to France. Also removed from Sidi Bel Abbès were the symbolic Legion remains of General Paul- Frédéric Rollet( The Father of the Legion), Legion officer Prince Count Aage of Rosenborg, and Legionnaire Heinz Zimmermann( last fatal casualty in Algeria). The Legion acquired its parade song" Non, je ne regrette rien"(" No, I regret nothing"), a 1960 Édith Piaf song sung by Sous- Officiers and legionnaires as they left their barracks for re- deployment following the Algiers putsch of 1961. The song has remained a part of Legion heritage since.The1stForeignParachuteRegiment1er REP was disbanded on 30 April 1961. However,the2ndForeignParachuteRegiment2ème REP prevailed in existence, while mostofthepersonneloftheSaharanCompanieswereintegratedintothe1st Foreign Infantry Regiment,2ndForeignInfantryRegimentand4th Foreign Infantry Regiment respectively. Post- colonial Africa. By the mid-1960s the Legion had lost its traditional and spiritual home in French Algeria and elite units had been dissolved. President de Gaulle considered disbanding it altogether but, being reminded of the Marching Regiments,andthatthe13th Demi- Brigade was one of the first units to declare for him in 1940 and taking also into consideration the effective service of various Saharan units and performances of other Legions units, he chose instead to downsize the Legion from 40, 000 to 8, 000 men and relocate it to metropolitan France. Legion units continued to be assigned to overseas service, although not in North Africa( see below). 1962– present.Intheearly1960s, and besides ongoing global rapid deployments, the Legion also stationed forces on various continents while operating different function units. From 1965 to 1967, the Legion operated several companies,includingthe5th Heavy Weight Transport Company( CTGP), mainly in charge of evacuating the Sahara. The area of responsibility of some of these units extended from the confines of the in- between of the Sahara to the Mediterranean. Ongoing interventions and rapid deployments two years later and the following years included in part: Gulf War 1990– 1991. In September 1990, the1st Foreign Regiment1er RE, the1st Foreign Cavalry Regiment1er REC, the2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment2ème REP, the2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment2ème REI, and the6th Foreign Engineer Regiment6ème REG were sent to the Persian Gulf as a part of Opération Daguet along with the1st Spahi Regiment, the11th Marine Artillery Regiment, the3rd Marine Infantry Regiment, the21st Marine Infantry Regiment, the French Army Light Aviation, the Marine Infantry Tank Regiment, French paratroopers regiments including components of the35th Parachute | Artillery Regiment35ème RAP, the1st Parachute |
HussardRegiment1er RHP,the17thParachuteEngineerRegiment17ème RGP and other airborne contingents. Division Daguet was commanded by Général de brigade Bernard Janvier. The Legion force, mainly comprising 27 different nationalities,wasattachedtotheFrench6thLightArmouredDivision6ème D. L. B, whose mission was to protect the Coalition' s left flank while cover fired by the marine' s artillery. During the Gulf War, DINOPS operated in support of the U. S. Army's82nd Airborne Division, and provided the EOD services to the division. After the cease fire took hold they conducted a joint mine clearing operation alongside a Royal Australian Navy Clearance Diver Team Unit. After the four- week air campaign, coalition forces launched the ground offensive. They quickly penetrated deep into Iraq, with the Legion taking the As- Salman Airport, meeting little resistance. The war ended after a hundred hours of fighting on the ground, which resulted in very light casualties for the Legion. Organization. Regarding the operational aspect, the units of the Foreign Legion belong to different brigades or territorial commands of the French Army. On the other hand, with regard to administrative management, including recruitment, traditions and part of the training, these units depend on the Command of the Foreign Legion( COMLE), which itself is subordinate to the Army. The regiments are now mainly stationed in mainland France, with some units in the overseas departments and territories( mainly in French Guiana). Current deployments. These are the following deployments: Note: English names for countries or territories are in parentheses. Recruitment process. Basic training. While all rank and file members of the Legion are required to serve under" Foreign Status"(" à titre étranger"), even if they are French nationals, non- commissioned and commissioned officers can serve under either French or Foreign Status. Foreign Status NCOs and officers are exclusively promoted from the ranks and in 2016 represented 10% of the Officer Corps of the Legion. French Status officers are either members of other units of the French Army attached to the Legion or promoted Légionnaires who have chosen to become French nationals.BasictrainingfortheForeignLegionisconductedinthe4th Foreign Regiment. This is an operational combat regiment which provides a training course of 15– 17 weeks, before recruits are assigned to their operational units: Education in the French language( reading, writing and pronunciation) is taught on a daily basis throughout all of basic training. Traditions. As the Foreign Legion is composed of soldiers of different nationalities and backgrounds, it is necessary to develop an intense" esprit de corps", which is achieved through the development of camaraderie, specific traditions, the loyalty of its legionnaires, the quality of their training, and the pride of being a soldier in an elite unit. Code of honour. The" Legionnaire' s Code of Honour" is the Legion' s creed, recited in French only. The CodeofHonourwasadoptedinthe1980s. Mottos." Honneur et Fidélité". In contrast to all other French Army units, the motto embroidered on the Foreign Legion' s regimental flags is not" Honneur et Patrie"( Honour and Fatherland) but" Honneur et Fidélité"( Honour and Fidelity)." Legio Patria Nostra"." Legio Patria Nostra"( in French" La Légion est notre Patrie", in English" The Legion is our Fatherland") is the Latin motto of the | Foreign Legion. The adoption of |
the Foreign Legion as a new" Fatherland" does not imply the repudiation by the legionnaire of his original nationality. The Foreign Legion is required to obtain the agreement of any legionnaire before he is placed in any situation where he might have to serve against his country of birth. Marching songs."" Le Boudin"." Le Boudin"" is the marching song of the Foreign Legion. Ranks. All volunteers in the Foreign Legion begin their careers as basic legionnaires with one in four eventually becoming a" sous- officier"( non- commissioned officer). On joining, a new recruit receives a monthly salary of€ 1, 380 in addition to food and lodgings. He is also given his own new rifle, which according to the lore of the" Legion" must never be left on a battlefield. Promotion is concurrent with the ranks in the French Army. Non- commissioned and warrant officers. A" Sous- officier"' s insignia is composed of three components; rank emblem, regimental patch, and seniority chevrons. In the one pictured, the three upward pointing gold chevrons indicate a" Sergent- chef". The diamond- shaped regimental patch(" Écusson") is formed of three green diamond shapes surrounding a grenade emblem, with the three diamonds indicating a Colonial unit, in comparison to one diamond for a unit of Regulars, or two diamonds for a Reserves unit. The Légion grenade emblem has seven flames rather than the usual five, and the two downward pointing seniority chevrons indicate at least 10 years of service. Some" Caporal" s-" Chef" may have as many as six seniority chevrons for 30 or more years of service." Sous- officiers"( NCOs) including warrant officers account for 25% of the current Foreign Legion' s total manpower. Commissioned officers. Most officers are seconded from the French Army though roughly 10% are former non- commissioned officers promoted from the ranks. Seniority chevrons. The Foreign Legion uses gold coloured chevrons(" chevrons d' ancienneté") to indicate seniority. Worn only by ordinary legionnaires and non- commissioned officers beneath rank insignia, each chevron denotes five years of service in the Legion. Honorary ranks. Honorary ranks have been awarded by the French Army to individuals credited with exceptional acts of courage since 1796. In the Foreign Legion, General Paul- Frédéric Rollet introduced the practice of awarding honorary Legion ranks to distinguished individuals, both civilian and military,intheearly20th century. Recipients of these honorary appointments had participated with units of the Legion on active service in an exemplary manner, or had rendered exceptional service to the Legion in non- combat situations. More than 1, 200 individuals have been granted honorary ranks in the Legion" pour services éminent". The majority of these awards have been made to military personnel in wartime, earning titles such as" Legionnaire d' Honneur" or" Sergent- Chef de Légion d' honneur", while other recipients have included nurses, journalists, painters, and ministers who have rendered meritorious service to the Foreign Legion. Pioneers. The" Pionniers"( pioneers) are the combat engineers and a traditional unit of the Foreign Legion. The sapper traditionally sport large beards, wear leather aprons and gloves and hold axes. The sappers were very common in | European armies during the Napoleonic |
Erabutprogressivelydisappearedduringthe19th century. The French Army, including the Legion disbanded its regimental sapper platoons in 1870. However, in 1931 one of a number of traditions restored to mark the hundredth anniversary of the Legion' s founding was the reestablishment of its bearded" Pionniers". In the French Army,sincethe18th century, every infantry regiment included a small detachment of pioneers. In addition to undertaking road building and entrenchment work, such units were tasked with using their axes and shovels to clear obstacles under enemy fire opening the way for the rest of the infantry. The danger of such missions was recognised by allowing certain privileges, such as being authorised to wear beards. The current pioneer platoon of the Foreign Legion is provided by the Legion depot and headquarters regiment for public ceremonies. The unit has reintroduced the symbols of the Napoleonic sappers: the beard, the axe, the leather apron, the crossed- axes insignia and the leather gloves. When parades of the Foreign Legion are opened by this unit, it is to commemorate the traditional role of the sappers" opening the way" for the troops. Cadences and marching steps. Also notable is the marching pace of the Foreign Legion. In comparison to the 116- step- per- minute pace of other French units, the Foreign Legion has an 88- step- per- minute marching speed. It is also referred to by Legionnaires as the" crawl". This can be seen at ceremonial parades and public displays attended by the Foreign Legion, particularly while parading in Paris on 14 July( Bastille Day Military Parade). Because of the impressively slow pace, the Foreign Legion is always the last unit marching in any parade. The Foreign Legion is normally accompanied by its own band, which traditionally plays the march of any one of the Foreign Legion' s regiments, except that of the unit actually on parade. The regimental song of each unit and" Le Boudin" is sung by legionnaires standing at attention. Also, because the Foreign Legion must always stay together, it does not break formation into two when approaching the presidential grandstand, as other French military units do, in order to preserve the unity of the legion. Contrary to popular belief, the adoption of the Foreign Legion' s slow marching speed was not due to a need to preserve energy and fluids during long marches under the hot Algerian sun. Its exact origins are unclear, but the official explanation is that although the pace regulation does not seem to have been instituted before 1945, it hails back to the slow marching pace of the Ancien Régime, and its reintroduction was a" return to traditional roots". This was in fact, the march step of the Foreign Legion' s ancestor units– the" Régiments Étrangers" or Foreign Regiments of the" Ancien Régime" French Army, the" Grande Armée" s foreign units, and the pre- 1831 foreign regiments. Uniform. From its foundation until World War I the Foreign Legion normally wore the uniform of the French line infantry for parade with a few special distinctions. Essentially this consisted of a dark blue coat( later tunic) worn with | red trousers. The field uniform |
was often modified under the influence of the extremes of climate and terrain in which the Foreign Legion served. Shakos were soon replaced by the light cloth kepi, which was far more suitable for North African conditions. The practice of wearing heavy" capotes"( greatcoats) on the march and" vestes"( short hip- length jackets) as working dress in barracks was followed by the Foreign Legion from its establishment. One short lived aberration was the wearing of green uniforms in 1856 by Foreign Legion units recruited in Switzerland for service in the Crimean War. In the Crimea itself( 1854– 59) a hooded coat and red or blue waist sashes were adopted for winter dress, while during the Mexican Intervention( 1863– 65) straw hats or sombreros were sometimes substituted for the kepi. When the latter was worn it was usually covered with a white" havelock"( linen cover)– the predecessor of the white kepi that was to become a symbol of the Foreign Legion. Foreign Legion units serving in France during the Franco- Prussian War of 1870– 71 were distinguishable only by minor details of insignia from the bulk of the French infantry. However subsequent colonial campaigns saw an increasing use of special garments for hot weather wear such as collarless" keo" blouses in Tonkin 1884– 85, khaki drill jackets in Dahomey( 1892) and drab covered topees worn with all- white fatigue dress in Madagascar( 1895).Intheearly20th century the legionnaire wore a red kepi with blue band and piping, dark blue tunic with red collar, red cuff patches, and red trousers. Distinctive features were the green epaulettes( replacing the red of the line) worn with red woollen fringes; plus the embroidered Legion badge of a red flaming grenade, worn on the kepi front instead of a regimental number. In the field a light khaki cover was worn over the kepi, sometimes with a protective neck curtain attached. The standard medium- blue double breasted greatcoat(" capote") of the French infantry was worn, usually buttoned back to free the legs for marching.Fromthe1830s the legionnaires had worn a broad blue woollen sash around the waist, like other European units of the French Army of Africa( such as the Zouaves or the Chasseurs d' Afrique), while indigenous units of the Army of Africa( spahis and tirailleurs) wore red sashes. White linen trousers tucked into short leather leggings were substituted for red serge in hot weather. This was the origin of the" Beau Geste" image. In barracks a white bleached kepi cover was often worn together with a short dark blue jacket(" veste") or white blouse plus white trousers. The original kepi cover was khaki and due to constant washing turned white quickly. The white or khaki kepi cover was not unique to the Foreign Legion at this stage but was commonly seen amongst other French units in North Africa. It later became particularly identified with the Foreign Legion as the unit most likely to serve at remote frontier posts( other than locally recruited tirailleurs who wore fezzes or turbans). The variances of climate in North Africa led the French Army to | the sensible expedient of letting |
local commanders decide on the appropriate" tenue de jour"( uniform of the day) according to circumstances. Thus a legionnaire might parade or walk out in blue tunic and white trousers in hot weather, blue tunic and red trousers in normal temperatures or wear the blue greatcoat with red trousers under colder conditions. The sash could be worn with greatcoat, blouse or veste but not with the tunic. Epaulettes were a detachable dress item worn only with tunic or greatcoat for parade or off duty wear. Officers wore the same dark blue( almost black) tunics as those of their colleagues in the French line regiments, except that black replaced red as a facing colour on collar and cuffs. Gold fringed epaulettes were worn for full dress and rank was shown by the number of gold rings on both kepi and cuffs. Trousers were red with black stripes or white according to occasion or conditions. All- white or light khaki uniforms(fromasearlyasthe1890s) were often worn in the field or for ordinary duties in barracks. Non- commissioned officers were distinguished by red or gold diagonal stripes on the lower sleeves of tunics, vestes and greatcoats. Small detachable stripes were buttoned on to the front of the white shirt- like blouse. Prior to 1914 units in Indo- China wore white or khaki Colonial Infantry uniforms with Foreign Legion insignia, to overcome supply difficulties. This dress included a white sun helmet of a model that was also worn by Foreign Legion units serving in the outposts of Southern Algeria, though never popular with its wearers. During the initial months of World War I, Foreign Legion units serving in France wore the standard blue greatcoat and red trousers of the French line infantry, distinguished only by collar patches of the same blue as the capote, instead of red. After a short period in sky- blue the Foreign Legion adopted khaki, in common with other units of the" Armée d' Afrique", with steel helmets, from early 1916. A mustard shade of khaki drill had been worn on active service in Morocco from 1909, replacing the classic blue and white. The latter continued to be worn in the relatively peaceful conditions of Algeria throughout World War I, although increasingly replaced by khaki drill. The pre- 1914 blue and red uniforms could still be occasionally seen as garrison dress in Algeria until stocks were used up about 1919.Duringtheearly1920s plain khaki drill uniforms of a standard pattern became universal issue for the Foreign Legion with only the red and blue kepi( with or without a cover) and green collar braiding to distinguish the Legionnaire from other French soldiers serving in North African and Indo- China. The neck curtain ceased to be worn from about 1915, although it survived in the newly raised Foreign LegionCavalryRegimentintothe1920s. The white blouse(" bourgeron") and trousers dating from 1882 were retained for fatiguewearuntilthe1930s. At the time of the Foreign Legion' s centennial in 1931, a number of traditional features were reintroduced at the initiative of the then commander Colonel Rollet. These included the blue sash and green/ red epaulettes. | In 1939 the white covered |
kepi won recognition as the official headdress of the Foreign Legion to be worn on most occasions, rather than simply as a means of reflecting heat and protecting the blue and red material underneath. The Third Foreign Infantry Regiment adopted white tunics and trousers for walking-outdressduringthe1930sand all Foreign Legion officers were required to obtain full dress uniforms in the pre- war colours of black and red from 1932 to 1939. During World War II the Foreign Legion wore a wide range of uniform styles depending on supply sources. These ranged from the heavy capotes and Adrian helmets of 1940 through to British battledress and American field uniforms from 1943 to 1945. The white kepi was stubbornly retained whenever possible. From 1940 until 1963 the Foreign Legion maintained four Saharan Companies(" Compagnies Sahariennes") as part of the French forces used to patrol and police the desert regions to the south of Morocco and Algeria. Special uniforms were developed for these units, modeled on those of the French officered Camel Corps(" Méharistes") having prime responsibility for the Sahara. In full dress these included black or white zouave style trousers, worn with white tunics and long flowing cloaks. The Legion companies maintained their separate identity by retaining their distinctive kepis, sashes and fringed epaulettes. The white kepis, together with the sash and epaulettes survive in the Foreign Legion' s modern parade dress.Sincethe1990s the modern kepi has been made wholly of white material rather than simply worn with a white cover. Officers and senior noncommissioned officers still wear their kepis in the pre- 1939 colours of dark blue and red. A green tie and( for officers) a green waistcoat recall the traditional branch colour of the Foreign Legion. From 1959 a green beret( previously worn only by the legion' s paratroopers) became the universal ordinary duty headdress, with the kepi reserved for parade and off duty wear. Other items of currently worn dress are the standard issue of the French Army. Equipment. The Legion is basically equipped with the same equipment as similar units elsewhere in the French Army. These include: Composition. The legionnaires are an integral part of the French Army. Today, they constitute some 7- 8% of its strength( or 11% of the Ground Operational Forces, FOT, French Army operational units). The Foreign Legion is the only unit of the French Army open to people of any nationality. Most legionnaires still come from European countries but a growing percentage comes from Latin America and South Asia. most of the Foreign Legion' s commissioned officers are French with approximately 10 percent being Legionnaires who have risen through the ranks. Legionnaires are highly trained soldiers and the Legion is unique in that it is open to foreign recruits willing to serve in the French Armed Forces. The Legion is today known as a unit whose training focuses on traditional military skills and on its strong esprit de corps, as its men come from different countries with different cultures. Consequently, training is often described as not only physically challenging, but also very stressful psychologically. French citizenship may | be applied for after three |
years' service. The Legion is the only part of the French Military that does not swear allegiance to France, but to the Foreign Legion itself. Any soldier who gets wounded during a battle for France can immediately apply to be a French citizen under a provision known as""(" French by spilled blood"). As of 2021, members come from 140 different countries. Legionnaires were, in the past, forced to enlist under a pseudonym(" declared identity"). This policy existed in order to allow recruits who wanted to restart their lives to enlist. The Legion held the belief that it was fairer to make all new recruits use declared identities. French citizens can enlist under a declared, fictitious, foreign citizenship( generally, a francophone one, often that of Belgium, Canada, or Switzerland). As of 20 September 2010, new recruits may enlist under their real identities or under declared identities. Recruits who do enlist with declared identities may, after one year' s service, regularise their situations under their true identities. After serving in the Foreign Legion for three years, a legionnaire may apply for French citizenship. He must be serving under his real name, must have no problems with the authorities, and must have served with" honour and fidelity". While the Foreign Legion historically did not accept women in its ranks, there was one official female member, Susan Travers, an Englishwoman who joined Free French Forces during World War II and became a member of the Foreign Legion after the war, serving in Vietnam during the First Indochina War. Women were barred from service until 2000, when then- French Defence Minister Alain Richard had stated that he wanted to take the level of female recruitment in the Legion to 20 percent by 2020. Membership by country. As of 2008, legionnaires came from 140 countries. The majority of enlisted men originate from outside France, while the majority of the officer corps consists of Frenchmen. Many recruits originate from Eastern Europe and Latin America. Neil Tweedie of" The Daily Telegraph" said that Germany traditionally provided many recruits," somewhat ironically given the Legion' s bloody role in two world wars." He added that" Brits, too, have played their part, but there was embarrassment recently when it emerged that many British applicants were failing selection due to endemic unfitness." Alsace- Lorraine. Original nationalities of the Foreign Legion reflect the events in history at the time they join. Many former Wehrmacht personnel joined in the wake of World War II as many soldiers returning to civilian life found it hard to find reliable employment. Jean- Denis Lepage reports that" The Foreign Legion discreetly recruited from German P. O. W. camps", but adds that the number of these recruits has been subsequently exaggerated. Bernard B. Fall, who was a supporter of the French government, writing in the context of the First Indochina War, questioned the notion that the Foreign Legion was mainly German at that time, calling it:[ a] canard… with the sub- variant that all those Germans were at least SS generals and other much wanted war criminals. As a rule, and | in order to prevent any |
particular nation from making the Foreign Legion into a Praetorian Guard, any particular national component is kept at about 25 percent of the total. Even supposing( and this was the case, of course) that the French recruiters, in the eagerness for candidates would sign up Germans enlisting as Swiss, Austrian, Scandinavian and other nationalities of related ethnic background, it is unlikely that the number of Germans in the Foreign Legion ever exceeded 35 percent. Thus, without making an allowance for losses, rotation, discharges, etc., the maximum number of Germans fighting in Indochina at any one time reached perhaps 7, 000 out of 278, 000. As to the ex- Nazis, the early arrivals contained a number of them, none of whom were known to be war criminals. French intelligence saw to that. Since, in view of the rugged Indochinese climate, older men without previous tropical experience constituted more a liability than an asset, the average age of the Foreign Legion enlistees was about 23. At the time of the battle of Dien Bien Phu, any legionnaire of that age group was at the worst, in his" Hitler Youth" shorts when the[ Third] Reich collapsed. The Foreign Legion accepts people enlisting under a nationality that is not their own. A proportion of the Swiss and Belgians are actually likely to be Frenchmen who wish to avoid detection. In addition many Alsatians are said to have joined the Foreign Legion when Alsace was part of the German Empire, and may have been recorded as German while considering themselves French. Regarding recruitment conditions within the Foreign Legion, see the official page( in English) dedicated to the subject: With regard to age limits,recruitscanbeacceptedfromagesrangingfrom17½( with parental consent) to 39. 5 years old. Countries that allow post- Foreign Legion contract. In the Commonwealth Realms, its collective provisions provide for nationals to commute between armies in training or other purposes. Moreover, this' blanket provision' between member- states cannot exclude others for it would seem inappropriate to single out individual countries, that is, France in relation to the Legion. For example, Australia and New Zealand may allow post- Legion enlistment providing the national has commonwealth citizenship. Britain allows post- Legion enlistment. Canada allows post- Legion enlistment in its ranks with a completed five- year contract. In the European Union framework, post Legion enlistment is less clear. Denmark, Norway, Germany and Portugal allow post- Legion enlistment while The Netherlands has constitutional articles that forbid it.[ Rijkswet op het Nederlanderschap, Artikel 15,lid1e,( In Dutch:)]( that is: one can lose his Dutch nationality by accepting a foreign nationality or can lose his Dutch nationality by serving in the army of a foreign state that is engaged in a conflict against the Dutch Kingdom or one of its allies). The European Union twin threads seem to be recognized dual nationality status or restricting constitutional article. The United States allows post- legion enlistment in its National Guard of career soldiers( up to the rank of captain) who are Green Card holders. Israel allows post- Legion enlistment. One of the biggest national groups in the Legion are | Poles. Polish law allows service |
in a foreign army, but only after written permission from the Ministry of National Defence. Legacy. Beyond its reputation as an elite unit often engaged in serious fighting, the recruitment practices of the Foreign Legion have also led to a somewhat romanticised view of it being a place for disgraced or" wronged" men looking to leave behind their old lives and start new ones. This view of the legion is common in literature, and has been used for dramatic effect in many films, not the least of which are the several versions of" Beau Geste". Three songs by Edith Piaf, most notably" Non, je ne regrette rien"( No, I regret nothing), became associated with the legion,duringthe1960s when members of the Legion were accused of being implicated in a failed coup d' état during the Algerian War. Today it is still a popular Legion" chant" sung when on parade, adapting it to their unique marching cadence of 88 steps to the minute. Various fictional portrayals and references to the legion have been made over the years, such as in film, television, music, video games and art. Emulation by other countries. Chinese Ever Victorious Army. TheEverVictoriousArmywasthenamegiventoaChineseimperialarmyinthelate19th century. Commanded by Frederick Townsend Ward, the new force originally comprised about 200 mostly European mercenaries, recruited in the Shanghai area from sailors, deserters and adventurers. Many were dismissed in the summer of 1861, but the remainder became the officers of the Chinese soldiers recruited mainly in and around Sungkiang( Songjiang). The Chinese troops were increased to 3, 000 by May 1862, all equipped with Western firearms and equipment by the British authorities in Shanghai. Throughout its four- year existence the Ever Victorious Army was mainly to operate within a thirty- mile radius of Shanghai. It was disbanded in May 1864 with 104 foreign officers and 2, 288 Chinese soldiers being paid off. The bulk of the artillery and some infantry transferred to the Chinese Imperial forces. It was the first Chinese army trained in European techniques, tactics, and strategy. Israeli Mahal. In Israel, Mahal(, an acronym for" Mitnadvei Ḥutz LaAretz", which means" Volunteers from outside the Land[ of Israel]") is a term designating non- Israelis serving in the Israeli military. The term originates with the approximately 4, 000 both Jewish and non- Jewish volunteers who went to Israel to fight in the 1948 Arab– Israeli War including Aliyah Bet. The original Mahalniks were mostly World War II veterans who had previously served in the American and British armed forces. Today, there is a program, Garin Tzabar, within the Israeli Ministry of Defense that administers the enlistment of non- Israeli citizens in the country' s armed forces. Programs enable foreigners to join the Israel Defense Forces if they are of Jewish descent( which is defined as at least one grandparent). Netherlands KNIL Army. Though not named" Foreign Legion", the Dutch Koninklijk Nederlandsch- Indische Leger( KNIL), or Royal Netherlands- Indian Army( in reference to the Dutch East Indies, now Indonesia), was created in 1830, a year before the French Foreign Legion, and is therefore not an emulation but an | entirely original idea and had |
a similar recruitment policy. It stopped being an army of foreigners around 1900 when recruitment was restricted to Dutch citizens and to the indigenous peoples of the Dutch East Indies. The KNIL was finally disbanded on 26 July 1950, seven months after the Netherlands formally recognised Indonesia as a sovereign state, and almost five years after Indonesia declared its independence. Rhodesian Light Infantry and 7 Independent Company.DuringtheRhodesianBushWarofthe1960sand1970s, the Rhodesian Security Forces enlisted volunteers from overseas on the same pay and conditions of service as locally based regulars. The vast majority of the Rhodesian Army' s foreigners joined the Rhodesian Light Infantry( RLI), a heliborne commando regiment with a glamorous international reputation; this unit became colloquially known as the" Rhodesian foreign legion" as a result, even though foreigners never made up more than about a third of its men. According to Chris Cocks, an RLI veteran," the RLI was a mirror of the French Foreign Legion, in that recruiters paid little heed as to a man' s past and asked no questions.... And like the Foreign Legion, once in the ranks, a man' s past was irrelevant." Just as French Foreign Legionnaires must speak French, the Rhodesian Army required its foreigners to be English- speakers. Many of them were professional soldiers, attracted by the regiment' s reputation— mostly former British soldiers, or Vietnam veterans from the United States, Australian and New Zealand forces— and these became a key part of the unit. Others, with no military experience, were often motivated to join the Rhodesian Army by their opposition to communism, or a desire for adventure or to escape the past. After the Rhodesians' overseas recruiting campaign for English- speakers, started in 1974, proved successful, they began recruiting French- speakers as well, in 1977. These francophone recruits were placed in their own unit, 7 Independent Company, Rhodesia Regiment, which was commanded by French- speaking officers and operated entirely in French. The experiment was not generally considered a success by the Rhodesian commanders, however, and the company was disbanded in early 1978. Russian" Foreign Legion". In 2010 the service conditions of the Russian military changed to allow foreigners. The actual term" Russian Foreign Legion" is a colloquial expression without any official recognition. Under the plan, foreigners without dual citizenship are able to sign up for five- year contracts and will be eligible for Russian citizenship after serving three years. Experts say the change opens the way for Commonwealth of Independent States citizens to get fast- track Russian citizenship, and counter the effects of Russia' s demographic crisis on its army recruitment. Spanish" Foreign Legion". The Spanish Foreign Legion was created in 1920, in emulation of the French one, and had a significant role in Spain' s colonial wars in Morocco and in the Spanish Civil War on the Nationalist side. The Spanish Foreign Legion recruited foreigners until 1986 but unlike its French model, the number of non- Spanish recruits never exceeded 25%, most of these from Latin America. It is now called the" Spanish Legion" and only recruits Spanish nationals. Notable members of the Foreign | Legion(" Légion étrangère)"." The following |
is a list of notable People who are or were Members of the Foreign Legion:" Feedback occurs when outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a chain of cause- and- effect that forms a circuit or loop. The system can then be said to" feed back" into itself. The notion of cause- and- effect has to be handled carefully when applied to feedback systems: History. Self- regulating mechanisms have existed since antiquity,andtheideaoffeedbackhadstartedtoentereconomictheoryinBritainbythe18th century, but it was not at that time recognized as a universal abstraction and so did not have a name. The first ever known artificial feedback device was a float valve, for maintaining water at a constant level, invented in 270 BC in Alexandria, Egypt. This device illustrated the principle of feedback: a low water level opens the valve, the rising water then provides feedback into the system, closing the valve when the required level is reached. This then reoccurs in a circular fashion as the water level fluctuates.Centrifugalgovernorswereusedtoregulatethedistanceandpressurebetweenmillstonesinwindmillssincethe17th century. In 1788, James Watt designed his first centrifugal governor following a suggestion from his business partner Matthew Boulton, for use in the steam engines of their production. Early steam engines employed a purely reciprocating motion, and were used for pumping water– an application that could tolerate variations in the working speed, but the use of steam engines for other applications called for more precise control of the speed. In 1868, James Clerk Maxwell wrote a famous paper," On governors", that is widely considered a classic in feedback control theory. This was a landmark paper on control theory and the mathematics of feedback. The verb phrase" to feed back", in the sense of returning to an earlier position in a mechanical process,wasinuseintheUSbythe1860s, and in 1909, Nobel laureate Karl Ferdinand Braun used the term" feed- back" as a noun to refer to( undesired) coupling between components of an electronic circuit. By the end of 1912, researchers using early electronic amplifiers( audions) had discovered that deliberately coupling part of the output signal back to the input circuit would boost the amplification( through regeneration), but would also cause the audion to howl or sing. This action of feeding back of the signal from output to input gave rise to the use of the term" feedback" as a distinct word by 1920.Thedevelopmentofcyberneticsfromthe1940s onwards was centred around the study of circular causal feedback mechanisms. Over the years there has been some dispute as to the best definition of feedback. According to cybernetician Ashby( 1956), mathematicians and theorists interested in the principles of feedback mechanisms prefer the definition of" circularity of action", which keeps the theory simple and consistent. For those with more practical aims, feedback should be a deliberate effect via some more tangible connection. Focusing on uses in management theory, Ramaprasad( 1983) defines feedback generally as"... information about the gap between the actual level and the reference level of a system parameter" that is used to" alter the gap in some way". He emphasizes that the information by itself is not feedback unless translated into action. Types. Positive and negative | feedback. Positive feedback: If the |
signal feedback from output is in phase with the input signal, the feedback is called positive feedback. Negative feedback: If the signal feedback is of opposite polarity or out of phase by 180° with respect to input signal, the feedback is called negative feedback. As an example of negative feedback, the diagram might represent a cruise control system in a car, for example, that matches a target speed such as the speed limit. The controlled system is the car; its input includes the combined torque from the engine and from the changing slope of the road( the disturbance). The car' s speed( status) is measured by a speedometer. The error signal is the departure of the speed as measured by the speedometer from the target speed( set point). This measured error is interpreted by the controller to adjust the accelerator, commanding the fuel flow to the engine( the effector). The resulting change in engine torque, the feedback, combines with the torque exerted by the changing road grade to reduce the error in speed, minimizing the road disturbance. The terms" positive" and" negative" were first applied to feedback prior to WWII.Theideaofpositivefeedbackwasalreadycurrentinthe1920s with the introduction of the regenerative circuit. Friis and Jensen( 1924) described regeneration in a set of electronic amplifiers as a case where" the" feed- back" action is positive" in contrast to negative feed- back action, which they mention only in passing. Harold Stephen Black' s classic 1934 paper first details the use of negative feedback in electronic amplifiers. According to Black: According to Mindell( 2002) confusion in the terms arose shortly after this: Even prior to the terms being applied, James Clerk Maxwell had described several kinds of" component motions" associated with the centrifugal governors used in steam engines, distinguishing between those that lead to a continual" increase" in a disturbance or the amplitude of an oscillation, and those that lead to a" decrease" of the same. Terminology. The terms positive and negative feedback are defined in different ways within different disciplines. The two definitions may cause confusion, such as when an incentive( reward) is used to boost poor performance( narrow a gap). Referring to definition 1, some authors use alternative terms, replacing" positive/ negative" with" self- reinforcing/ self- correcting"," reinforcing/ balancing"," discrepancy- enhancing/ discrepancy- reducing" or" regenerative/ degenerative" respectively. And for definition 2, some authors advocate describing the action or effect as positive/ negative" reinforcement" or" punishment" rather than feedback. Yet even within a single discipline an example of feedback can be called either positive or negative, depending on how values are measured or referenced. This confusion may arise because feedback can be used for either" informational" or" motivational" purposes, and often has both a" qualitative" and a" quantitative" component. As Connellan and Zemke( 1993) put it: Limitations of negative and positive feedback. While simple systems can sometimes be described as one or the other type, many systems with feedback loops cannot be so easily designated as simply positive or negative, and this is especially true when multiple loops are present. Other types of feedback. In general, feedback systems can | have many signals fed back |
and the feedback loop frequently contain mixtures of positive and negative feedback where positive and negative feedback can dominate at different frequencies or different points in the state space of a system. The term bipolar feedback has been coined to refer to biological systems where positive and negative feedback systems can interact, the output of one affecting the input of another, and vice versa. Some systems with feedback can have very complex behaviors such as chaotic behaviors in non- linear systems, while others have much more predictable behaviors, such as those that are used to make and design digital systems. Feedback is used extensively in digital systems. For example, binary counters and similar devices employ feedback where the current state and inputs are used to calculate a new state which is then fed back and clocked back into the device to update it. Applications. Mathematics and dynamical systems. By using feedback properties, the behavior of a system can be altered to meet the needs of an application; systems can be made stable, responsive or held constant. It is shown that dynamical systems with a feedback experience an adaptation to the edge of chaos. Biology. In biological systems such as organisms, ecosystems, or the biosphere, most parameters must stay under control within a narrow range around a certain optimal level under certain environmental conditions. The deviation of the optimal value of the controlled parameter can result from the changes in internal and external environments. A change of some of the environmental conditions may also require change of that range to change for the system to function. The value of the parameter to maintain is recorded by a reception system and conveyed to a regulation module via an information channel. An example of this is insulin oscillations. Biological systems contain many types of regulatory circuits, both positive and negative. As in other contexts," positive" and" negative" do not imply that the feedback causes" good" or" bad" effects. A negative feedback loop is one that tends to slow down a process, whereas the positive feedback loop tends to accelerate it. The mirror neurons are part of a social feedback system, when an observed action is" mirrored" by the brain— like a self- performed action. Normal tissue integrity is preserved by feedback interactions between diverse cell types mediated by adhesion molecules and secreted molecules that act as mediators; failure of key feedback mechanisms in cancer disrupts tissue function. In an injured or infected tissue, inflammatory mediators elicit feedback responses in cells, which alter gene expression, and change the groups of molecules expressed and secreted, including molecules that induce diverse cells to cooperate and restore tissue structure and function. This type of feedback is important because it enables coordination of immune responses and recovery from infections and injuries. During cancer, key elements of this feedback fail. This disrupts tissue function and immunity. Mechanisms of feedback were first elucidated in bacteria, where a nutrient elicits changes in some of their metabolic functions. Feedback is also central to the operations of genes and gene regulatory networks. Repressor( see Lac | repressor) and activator proteins are |
used to create genetic operons, which were identified by François Jacob and Jacques Monod in 1961 as" feedback loops". These feedback loops may be positive( as in the case of the coupling between a sugar molecule and the proteins that import sugar into a bacterial cell), or negative( as is often the case in metabolic consumption). On a larger scale, feedback can have a stabilizing effect on animal populations even when profoundly affected by external changes, although time lags in feedback response can give rise to predator- prey cycles. In zymology, feedback serves as regulation of activity of an enzyme by its direct or downstream in the metabolic pathway( see Allosteric regulation). The hypothalamic– pituitary– adrenal axis is largely controlled by positive and negative feedback, much of which is still unknown. In psychology, the body receives a stimulus from the environment or internally that causes the release of hormones. Release of hormones then may cause more of those hormones to be released, causing a positive feedback loop. This cycle is also found in certain behaviour. For example," shame loops" occur in people who blush easily. When they realize that they are blushing, they become even more embarrassed, which leads to further blushing, and so on. Climate science. The climate system is characterized by strong positive and negative feedback loops between processes that affect the state of the atmosphere, ocean, and land. A simple example is the ice– albedo positive feedback loop whereby melting snow exposes more dark ground( of lower albedo), which in turn absorbs heat and causes more snow to melt. Control theory. Feedback is extensively used in control theory, using a variety of methods including state space( controls), full state feedback, and so forth. In the context of control theory," feedback" is traditionally assumed to specify" negative feedback". The most common general- purpose controller using a control- loop feedback mechanism is a proportional- integral- derivative( PID) controller. Heuristically, the terms of a PID controller can be interpreted as corresponding to time: the proportional term depends on the" present" error, the integral term on the accumulation of" past" errors, and the derivative term is a prediction of" future" error, based on current rate of change. Education. For feedback in the educational context, see corrective feedback. Mechanical engineering. In ancient times, the float valve was used to regulate the flow of water in Greek and Roman water clocks; similar float valves are used to regulate fuel in a carburettor and also used to regulate tank water level in the flush toilet. The Dutch inventor Cornelius Drebbel( 1572- 1633) built thermostats(c1620) to control the temperature of chicken incubators and chemical furnaces. In 1745, the windmill was improved by blacksmith Edmund Lee, who added a fantail to keep the face of the windmill pointing into the wind. In 1787, Tom Mead regulated the rotation speed of a windmill by using a centrifugal pendulum to adjust the distance between the bedstone and the runner stone( i. e., to adjust the load). The use of the centrifugal governor by James Watt in 1788 to regulate the | speed of his steam engine |
was one factor leading to the Industrial Revolution. Steam engines also use float valves and pressure release valves as mechanical regulation devices. A mathematical analysis of Watt' s governor was done by James Clerk Maxwell in 1868. The" Great Eastern" was one of the largest steamships of its time and employed a steam powered rudder with feedback mechanism designed in 1866 by John McFarlane Gray. Joseph Farcot coined the word" servo" in 1873 to describe steam- powered steering systems. Hydraulic servos were later used to position guns. Elmer Ambrose Sperry of the Sperry Corporation designed the first autopilot in 1912. Nicolas Minorsky published a theoretical analysis of automatic ship steering in 1922 and described the PID controller.Internalcombustionenginesofthelate20th century employed mechanical feedback mechanisms such as the vacuum timing advance but mechanical feedback was replaced by electronic engine management systems once small, robust and powerful single- chip microcontrollers became affordable. Electronic engineering. The use of feedback is widespread in the design of electronic components such as amplifiers, oscillators, and stateful logic circuit elements such as flip- flops and counters. Electronic feedback systems are also very commonly used to control mechanical, thermal and other physical processes. If the signal is inverted on its way round the control loop, the system is said to have" negative feedback"; otherwise, the feedback is said to be" positive". Negative feedback is often deliberately introduced to increase the stability and accuracy of a system by correcting or reducing the influence of unwanted changes. This scheme can fail if the input changes faster than the system can respond to it. When this happens, the lag in arrival of the correcting signal can result in over- correction, causing the output to oscillate or" hunt". While often an unwanted consequence of system behaviour, this effect is used deliberately in electronic oscillators. Harry Nyquist at Bell Labs derived the Nyquist stability criterion for determining the stability of feedback systems. An easier method, but less general, is to use Bode plots developed by Hendrik Bode to determine the gain margin and phase margin. Design to ensure stability often involves frequency compensation to control the location of the poles of the amplifier. Electronic feedback loops are used to control the output of electronic devices, such as amplifiers. A feedback loop is created when all or some portion of the output is fed back to the input. A device is said to be operating" open loop" if no output feedback is being employed and" closed loop" if feedback is being used. When two or more amplifiers are cross- coupled using positive feedback, complex behaviors can be created. These" multivibrators" are widely used and include: Negative feedback. A Negative feedback occurs when the fed- back output signal has a relative phase of 180° with respect to the input signal( upside down). This situation is sometimes referred to as being" out of phase", but that term also is used to indicate other phase separations, as in" 90° out of phase". Negative feedback can be used to correct output errors or to desensitize a system to unwanted fluctuations. In feedback | amplifiers, this correction is generally |
for waveform distortion reduction or to establish a specified gain level. A general expression for the gain of a negative feedback amplifier is the asymptotic gain model. Positive feedback. Positive feedback occurs when the fed- back signal is in phase with the input signal. Under certain gain conditions, positive feedback reinforces the input signal to the point where the output of the device oscillates between its maximum and minimum possible states. Positive feedback may also introduce hysteresis into a circuit. This can cause the circuit to ignore small signals and respond only to large ones. It is sometimes used to eliminate noise from a digital signal. Under some circumstances, positive feedback may cause a device to latch, i. e., to reach a condition in which the output is locked to its maximum or minimum state. This fact is very widely used in digital electronics to make bistable circuits for volatile storage of information. The loud squeals that sometimes occurs in audio systems, PA systems, and rock music are known as audio feedback. If a microphone is in front of a loudspeaker that it is connected to, sound that the microphone picks up comes out of the speaker, and is picked up by the microphone and re- amplified. If the loop gain is sufficient, howling or squealing at the maximum power of the amplifier is possible. Oscillator. An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic, oscillating electronic signal, often a sine wave or a square wave. Oscillators convert direct current( DC) from a power supply to an alternating current signal. They are widely used in many electronic devices. Common examples of signals generated by oscillators include signals broadcast by radio and television transmitters, clock signals that regulate computers and quartz clocks, and the sounds produced by electronic beepers and video games. Oscillators are often characterized by the frequency of their output signal: Oscillators designed to produce a high- power AC output from a DC supply are usually called inverters. There are two main types of electronic oscillator: the linear or harmonic oscillator and the nonlinear or relaxation oscillator. Latches and flip- flops. A latch or a flip- flop is a circuit that has two stable states and can be used to store state information. They typically constructed using feedback that crosses over between two arms of the circuit, to provide the circuit with a state. The circuit can be made to change state by signals applied to one or more control inputs and will have one or two outputs. It is the basic storage element in sequential logic. Latches and flip- flops are fundamental building blocks of digital electronics systems used in computers, communications, and many other types of systems. Latches and flip- flops are used as data storage elements. Such data storage can be used for storage of" state", and such a circuit is described as sequential logic. When used in a finite- state machine, the output and next state depend not only on its current input, but also on its current state( and hence, previous inputs). It can | also be used for counting |
of pulses, and for synchronizing variably- timed input signals to some reference timing signal. Flip- flops can be either simple( transparent or opaque) or clocked( synchronous or edge- triggered). Although the term flip- flop has historically referred generically to both simple and clocked circuits, in modern usage it is common to reserve the term" flip- flop" exclusively for discussing clocked circuits; the simple ones are commonly called" latches". Using this terminology, a latch is level- sensitive, whereas a flip- flop is edge- sensitive. That is, when a latch is enabled it becomes transparent, while a flip flop' s output only changes on a single type( positive going or negative going) of clock edge. Software. Feedback loops provide generic mechanisms for controlling the running, maintenance, and evolution of software and computing systems. Feedback- loops are important models in the engineering of adaptive software, as they define the behaviour of the interactions among the control elements over the adaptation process, to guarantee system properties at run- time. Feedback loops and foundations of control theory have been successfully applied to computing systems. In particular, they have been applied to the development of products such as IBM' s Universal Database server and IBM Tivoli. From a software perspective, the autonomic( MAPE, monitor analyze plan execute) loop proposed by researchers of IBM is another valuable contribution to the application of feedback loops to the control of dynamic properties and the design and evolution of autonomic software systems. User interface design. Feedback is also a useful design principle for designing user interfaces. Video feedback. Video feedback is the video equivalent of acoustic feedback. It involves a loop between a video camera input and a video output, e. g., a television screen or monitor. Aiming the camera at the display produces a complex video image based on the feedback. Economics and finance. The stock market is an example of a system prone to oscillatory" hunting", governed by positive and negative feedback resulting from cognitive and emotional factors among market participants. For example: George Soros used the word" reflexivity," to describe feedback in the financial markets and developed an investment theory based on this principle. The conventional economic equilibrium model of supply and demand supports only ideal linear negative feedback and was heavily criticized by Paul Ormerod in his book" The Death of Economics", which, in turn, was criticized by traditional economists. This book was part of a change of perspective as economists started to recognise that chaos theory applied to nonlinear feedback systems including financial markets. is a Japanese reading aid, consisting of smaller kana or syllabic characters, printed either above or next to kanji( logographic characters) or other characters to indicate their pronunciation. It is one type of ruby text. Furigana is also known as and in Japanese. In modern Japanese, it is usually used to gloss rare kanji, to clarify rare, nonstandard or ambiguous kanji readings, or in children' s or learners' materials. Before the post- World War II script reforms, it was more widespread. Furigana is most often written in hiragana, though in certain cases it | may be written in katakana, |
Roman alphabet letters or in other, simpler kanji. In vertical text," tategaki", the furigana is placed to the right of the line of text; in horizontal text," yokogaki", it is placed above the line of text, as illustrated below. These examples spell the word" kanji", which is made up of two kanji characters:(" kan", written in hiragana as) and(" ji", written in hiragana as). Appearance. Furigana may be added by character, in which case the furigana character( s) that correspond to a kanji are centered over that kanji; or by word or phrase, in which case the entire furigana text is centered over several kanji characters, even if the kanji do not represent equal shares of the kana needed to write them. The latter method is more common, especially since some words in Japanese have unique pronunciations(" jukujikun") that are not related to readings of any of the characters the word is written with. Furigana fonts are generally sized so that two kana characters fit naturally over one kanji; when more kana are required, this is resolved either by adjusting the furigana by using a condensed font( narrowing the kana), or by adjusting the kanji by intercharacter spacing( adding spaces around the kanji). In case an isolated kanji character has a long reading— for example( where reads," tazusa")— the furigana may instead spill over into the space next to the neighboring kana characters, without condensing or changing spacing. Three- kana readings are not uncommon, particularly due to" yōon" with a long vowel, such as; five kana are required for and six for, the longest of any character in the Joyo kanji. Very long readings also occur for certain kanji or symbols which have a" gairaigo" reading; the word" centimeter" is generally written as" cm"( with two half- width characters, so occupying one space) and has the seven- kana reading(" senchimētoru")( it can also be written as the kanji, though this is very rare); another common example is"%"( the percent sign), which has the five kana reading(" pāsento"). These cause severe spacing problems due to length and these words being used as units( hence closely associated with the preceding figure). When it is necessary to distinguish between native Japanese" kun' yomi" pronunciations and Chinese- derived" on' yomi" pronunciations, for example in kanji dictionaries, the Japanese pronunciations are written in hiragana, and the Chinese pronunciations are written in katakana. However, this distinction is really only important in dictionaries and other reference works. In ordinary prose, the script chosen will usually be hiragana. The one general exception to this is" modern" Chinese place names, personal names, and( occasionally) food names— these will often be written with kanji, and katakana used for the furigana; in more casual writing these are simply written in katakana, as borrowed words. Occasionally this style is also used for loanwords from other languages( especially English). For example, the kanji( literally" one horn beast") might be glossed with katakana," yunikōn", to show the pronunciation of the loanword" unicorn", which is unrelated to the normal reading of the kanji. Generally, though, such loanwords | are just written in straight |
katakana. The distinction between regular kana and the smaller character forms( yōon and sokuon), which are used in regular orthography to mark such things as gemination and palatalization, is often not made in furigana: for example, the usual hiragana spelling of the word(" kyakka") is, but in furigana it might be written. This was especially common in old- fashioned movable type printing when smaller fonts were not available. Nowadays, with computer- based printing systems, this occurs less frequently. Alignment rules in word processing or typesetting. Various word processing or typesetting software programs, such as Microsoft Word, Adobe InDesign, Adobe InCopy, etc. have features for adding ruby text, especially Japanese furigana. Among formatting features are different rules for aligning the kana over or to the right of the base text, usually either when the base text string is longer than the furigana string or vice versa. Extra spaces may be needed depending on the size of the shorter string( either the ruby string or the base string) relatively to the longer one. Usage. Furigana are most commonly used in works for children, who may not have sufficiently advanced reading skills to recognize the kanji, but can understand the word when written phonetically in hiragana. Because children learn hiragana before katakana, in books for very young children, there are hiragana furigana next to the katakana characters. It is common to use furigana on all kanji characters in works for young children. This is called in Japanese. Numeric characters used for counting( e. g." ni- hon"" two long things";" futatsume"" second";" dai- ni kan"" book 2";" ni- pēji"" page 2"; etc.) are usually not tagged with furigana. Exceptions include a few cases such as 一人/１人" hitori"" one person" and 二人/２人" futari"" two people", which may be tagged with separate kana for each character(/), or non- separated kana for the whole word(/), depending on the style of the publisher in question; or characters for numerals greater than 1, 000( 千), such as 万( 10, 000), 億( 100, 000, 000), etc. Numeric words in established compounds( e. g." ippo"" step";" hitome"" sight; attention"), however, are generally tagged with furigana. Many children' s, shōnen and shōjo manga use furigana( again however, rarely on numerals). Shōnen and shōjo manga tend to have furigana for all non- numeric characters, while some manga( such as early volumes of" Doraemon" and other manga published by Shogakukan), may also ignore furigana on elementary- grade kanji or easy words. Seinen and josei manga ignores furigana most of the time, even on the names of the characters if they' re common names, although some publishers may still routinely use furigana for the first mentions of important characters' names in a volume or chapter. There are also books with a phonetic guide( mainly in hiragana but sometimes in rōmaji) for Japanese learners, which may be bilingual or Japanese only. These are popular with foreigners wishing to master Japanese faster and enjoy reading Japanese short stories, novels or articles. Due to the small type used for furigana, for maximum readability, some manga publishers may use regular kana | instead of small kana. For |
example, はっしん" hasshin" may be spelled はつしん*" hatsushin" instead. Some websites and tools exist which provide a phonetic guide for Japanese web pages( in hiragana, rōmaji or kiriji); these are popular with both Japanese children and foreign Japanese learners. In works aimed at adult Japanese speakers, furigana may be used on a word written in uncommon kanji; in the mass media, they are generally used on words containing non- Jōyō kanji. Furigana commonly appear alongside kanji names and their romanizations on signs for railway stations, even if the pronunciation of the kanji is commonly known. Furigana also appear often on maps to show the pronunciation of unusual place names. Before the war, youths might arguably have been almost illiterate if not for furigana. Names. Japanese names are usually written in kanji. Because there are many possible readings for kanji names, including special name- only readings called nanori, furigana are often used to give the readings of names. On Japanese official forms, where the name is to be written, there is always an adjacent column for the name to be written in furigana. Usually katakana is preferred. Furigana may also be used for foreign names written in kanji. Chinese and Korean names are the most common examples: Chinese names are usually pronounced with Japanese readings and the pronunciation written in hiragana, while Korean names are usually pronounced with Korean readings and the pronunciation written in katakana. Furigana may also be necessary in the rare case where names are transliterated into kanji from other languages( e. g. soccer star Ruy Ramos and politician Marutei Tsurunen.) Language learning. Kanji and kanji compounds are often presented with furigana in Japanese- language textbooks for non- native speakers. Furigana are also often used in foreign- language textbooks for Japanese learners to indicate pronunciation. The words are written in the original foreign script, such as hangul for Korean, and furigana is used to indicate the pronunciation. According to Ministry of Education guidelines, and the opinions of educators, the use of Japanese furigana should be avoided in English teaching due to the differences in pronunciation between English and Japanese. For instance, the word" birthdate" might be glossed in furigana as(" bāsudeito"), which corresponds to an imperfect pronunciation. Punning and double meaning. Some writers use furigana to represent slang pronunciations, particularly those that would be difficult to understand without the kanji to provide their meaning. Another use is to write the kanji for something which had been previously referenced, but write furigana for() or(), meaning" that". This means that the actual word used was" that", but the kanji clarify for the reader what" that" refers to. Another way to use it is to tag() onto words or names for places, to convey something along the line of, for example," here( at this hospital)"() or" here( in LA)"(). Furigana unrelated to the kanji they are assigned to are quite often used to convey certain effects, rather than to denote a phonetic guide, especially in manga, anime, and games both video and tabletop. This usage is known as" gikun"( see also Kanji# Special | readings). The specific types of |
effects vary: furigana could be used to visually reinforce complex ideas without having to use long expressions; to annotate strange, foreign, rarely seen text; to use more artistic or more explanatory spellings for regular words( see Kanji# Gikun); or simply for shorthand for base text abbreviation, thanks to the small type of furigana. For example, the word" nightmare" may be assigned with" shinjitsu"" truth" rather than its true reading," akumu", to convey the meaning of" nightmarish truth". Some authors may even use furigana that means the opposite of what the base text does to reinforce an effect, such as the complicated relationship between characters. For example," shin' yū"" close friend" may be tagged with" raibaru"" rival", to mean" you' re my rival, but also my friend"; or conversely," kōtekishu"" eternal rival" may be tagged with" tomo"" friend". Some manga make use of the furigana renditions of foreign words( especially obscure ones) as the intended reading of a term, and the more familiar kanji for the meaning of such a term. For example, may be assigned with" burakku majikku", the rendition of the English" black magic", to convey a foreign, exotic feel; with" sutēshon"" station"; with" hanīmūn"" honeymoon". This is sometimes done conversely, for example, by using" kissu"" kiss", the more familiar term, as furigana to convey meaning, and" bēze""", the exotic term, as base text. For shorthand purposes, abbreviations such as may be used to make the regular kana spelling that is too long smaller type. In karaoke it is extremely common for furigana to be placed on the song lyrics. The song lyrics are often written in kanji pronounced quite differently from the furigana. The furigana version is used for pronunciation. Also, because the kanji represent meaning while the furigana represent sound, one can combine the two to create puns or indicate meanings of foreign words. One might write the kanji for" blue", but use katakana to write the pronunciation of the English word" blue"; this may be done, for example, in Japanese subtitles on foreign films, where it can help associate the written Japanese with the sounds actually being spoken by the actors, or it may be used in a translation of a work of fiction to enable the translator to preserve the original sound of a proper name( such as" Firebolt" in the Harry Potter series) in furigana, while simultaneously indicating its meaning with kanji. A similar practice is used in native fiction to clarify extended meanings. For example, in a work of science fiction, some astronaut could use the word," furusato", meaning" my hometown", when referring to planet Earth. To clarify that for the reader, the word" furusato"( hometown) might be written in hiragana over the kanji for" chikyuu"( Earth). Other Japanese reading aids. Okurigana. Okurigana are kana that appear inline at normal size following kanji stems, typically to complete and to inflect adjectives and verbs. In this use they may also help to disambiguate kanji with multiple readings; for example,(," agaru") vs.(," noboru"). Unlike furigana, the use of okurigana is a mandatory part of the written language. | Kunten. In the written style |
known as" kanbun", which is the Japanese approximation of Classical Chinese, small marks called" kunten" are sometimes added as reading aids. Unlike furigana, which indicate pronunciation," kunten" indicate Japanese grammatical structures absent from the" kanbun", and also show how words should be reordered to fit Japanese sentence structure. Furikanji. Furigana are sometimes also used to indicate meaning, rather than pronunciation. Over the foreign text, smaller- sized Japanese words, in kana or kanji, corresponding to the" meaning" of the foreign words, effectively translate it in place. While rare now,somelate19th–early20th century authors used kanji as furigana for loanwords written in katakana. This usage is called in Japanese, since" furigana" implies the use of" kana". For example," ririkku"" lyric" may be tagged with" kashi"" lyrics" for clarification rather than for phonetic guidance. Francis II(; 12 February 1768– 2 March 1835) was the last Holy Roman Emperor( from 1792 to 1806) and, as Francis I, the first Emperor of Austria, from 1804 to 1835. He assumed the title of Emperor of Austria in response to the coronation of Napoleon as Emperor of the French. Soon after Napoleon created the Confederation of the Rhine, Francis abdicated as Holy Roman Emperor. He was King of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia. He also served as the first president of the German Confederation following its establishment in 1815. Francis II continued his leading role as an opponent of Napoleonic France in the Napoleonic Wars, and suffered several more defeats after Austerlitz. The marriage of his daughter Marie Louise of Austria to Napoleon on 10 March 1810 was arguably his severest personal defeat. After the abdication of Napoleon following the War of the Sixth Coalition, Austria participated as a leading member of the Holy Alliance at the Congress of Vienna, which was largely dominated by Francis' chancellor Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich culminating in a new European map and the restoration of most of Francis' ancient dominions. Due to the establishment of the Concert of Europe, which largely resisted popular nationalist and liberal tendencies, Francis was viewed as a reactionary later in his reign. Francis II' s grandchildren include Napoleon II( Napoleon' s only legitimate son), Franz Joseph I of Austria, Maximilian I of Mexico, Maria II of Portugal and Pedro II of Brazil. Early life. Francis was a son of Emperor Leopold II( 1747– 1792) and his wife Maria Luisa of Spain( 1745– 1792), daughter of Charles III of Spain. Francis was born in Florence, the capital of Tuscany, where his father reigned as Grand Duke from 1765 to 1790. Though he had a happy childhood surrounded by his many siblings, his family knew Francis was likely to be a future Emperor( his uncle Joseph had no surviving issue from either of his two marriages), and so in 1784 the young Archduke was sent to the Imperial Court in Vienna to educate and prepare him for his future role. Emperor Joseph II himself took charge of Francis' development. His disciplinarian regime was a stark contrast to the indulgent Florentine Court of Leopold. The Emperor wrote that Francis was" stunted in growth"," | backward in bodily dexterity and |
deportment", and" neither more nor less than a spoiled mother' s child." Joseph concluded that" the manner in which he was treated for upwards of sixteen years could not but have confirmed him in the delusion that the preservation of his own person was the only thing of importance." Joseph' s martinet method of improving the young Francis was" fear and unpleasantness." The young Archduke was isolated, the reasoning being that this would make him more self- sufficient as it was felt by Joseph that Francis" failed to lead himself, to do his own thinking." Nonetheless, Francis greatly admired his uncle, if rather feared him. To complete his training, Francis was sent to join an army regiment in Hungary and he settled easily into the routine of military life. After the death of Joseph II in 1790, Francis' father became Emperor. He had an early taste of power while acting as Leopold' s deputy in Vienna while the incoming Emperor traversed the Empire attempting to win back those alienated by his brother' s policies. The strain told on Leopold and by the winter of 1791, he became ill. He gradually worsened throughout early 1792; on the afternoon of 1 March Leopold died, at the relatively young age of 44. Francis,justpasthis24th birthday, was now Emperor, much sooner than he had expected. Emperor. As the head of the Holy Roman Empire and the ruler of the vast multi- ethnic Habsburg hereditary lands, Francis felt threatened by the French revolutionaries and later Napoleon' s expansionism as well as their social and political reforms which were being exported throughout Europe in the wake of the conquering French armies. Francis had a fraught relationship with France. His aunt Marie Antoinette, the wife of Louis XVI and Queen consort of France, was guillotined by the revolutionaries in 1793, at the beginning of his reign, although, on the whole, he was indifferent to her fate. Later, he led the Holy Roman Empire into the French Revolutionary Wars. He briefly commanded the Allied forces during the Flanders Campaign of 1794 before handing over command to his brother Archduke Charles. He was later defeated by Napoleon. By the Treaty of Campo Formio, he ceded the left bank of the Rhine to France in exchange for Venice and Dalmatia. He again fought against France during the War of the Second Coalition. On 11 August 1804, in response to Napoleon crowning himself as emperor of the French earlier that year, he announced that he would henceforth assume the title of hereditary emperor of Austria as Francis I, a move that technically was illegal in terms of imperial law. Yet Napoleon had agreed beforehand and therefore it happened. During the War of the Third Coalition, the Austrian forces met a crushing defeat at Austerlitz, and Francis had to agree to the Treaty of Pressburg, which greatly weakened Austria and brought about the final collapse of the Holy Roman Empire. In July 1806, under massive pressure from France, Bavaria and fifteen other German states ratified the statutes founding the Confederation of the Rhine, with Napoleon | designated Protector, and they announced |
to the Imperial Diet their intention to leave the Empire with immediate effect. Then, on 22 July, Napoleon issued an ultimatum to Francis demanding that he abdicate as Holy Roman Emperor by 10 August. Five days later, Francis bowed to the inevitable and, without mentioning the ultimatum, affirmed that since the Peace of Pressburg he had tried his best to fulfil his duties as emperor but that circumstances had convinced him that he could no longer rule according to his oath of office, the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine making that impossible. He added that" we hereby decree that we regard the bond which until now tied us to the states of the Empire as dissolved" in effect dissolving the empire. At the same time he declared the complete and formal withdrawal of his hereditary lands from imperial jurisdiction. After that date, he reigned as Francis I, Emperor of Austria. In 1809, Francis attacked France again, hoping to take advantage of the Peninsular War embroiling Napoleon in Spain. He was again defeated, and this time forced to ally himself with Napoleon, ceding territory to the Empire, joining the Continental System, and wedding his daughter Marie- Louise to the Emperor. The Napoleonic wars drastically weakened Austria, making it entirely landlocked and threatened its preeminence among the states of Germany, a position that it would eventually cede to the Kingdom of Prussia. In 1813, for the fifth and final time, Austria turned against France and joined Great Britain, Russia, Prussia and Sweden in their war against Napoleon. Austria played a major role in the final defeat of France— in recognition of this, Francis, represented by Clemens von Metternich, presided over the Congress of Vienna, helping to form the Concert of Europe and the Holy Alliance, ushering in an era of conservatism in Europe. The German Confederation, a loose association of Central European states was created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to organize the surviving states of the Holy Roman Empire. The Congress was a personal triumph for Francis, who hosted the assorted dignitaries in comfort, though Francis undermined his allies Tsar Alexander and Frederick William III of Prussia by negotiating a secret treaty with the restored French king Louis XVIII. Domestic policy. The violent events of the French Revolution impressed themselves deeply into the mind of Francis( as well as all other European monarchs), and he came to distrust radicalism in any form. In 1794, a" Jacobin" conspiracy was discovered in the Austrian and Hungarian armies. The leaders were put on trial, but the verdicts only skirted the perimeter of the conspiracy. Francis' brother Alexander Leopold( at that time Palatine of Hungary) wrote to the Emperor admitting" Although we have caught a lot of the culprits, we have not really got to the bottom of this business yet." Nonetheless, two officers heavily implicated in the conspiracy were hanged and gibbeted, while numerous others were sentenced to imprisonment( many of whom died from the conditions). Francis was from his experiences suspicious and set up an extensive network of police spies and | censors to monitor dissent( in |
this he was following his father' s lead, as the Grand Duchy of Tuscany had the most effective secret police in Europe). Even his family did not escape attention. His brothers, the Archdukes Charles and Johann had their meetings and activities spied upon. Censorship was also prevalent. The author Franz Grillparzer, a Habsburg patriot, had one play suppressed solely as a" precautionary" measure. When Grillparzer met the censor responsible, he asked him what was objectionable about the work. The censor replied," Oh, nothing at all. But I thought to myself,' One can never tell'." In military affairs Francis had allowed his brother, the Archduke Charles, extensive control over the army during the Napoleonic wars. Yet, distrustful of allowing any individual too much power, he otherwise maintained the separation of command functions between the Hofkriegsrat and his field commanders. In the later years of his reign he limited military spending, requiring it not exceed forty million florins per year; because of inflation this resulted in inadequate funding, with the army' s share of the budget shrinking from half in 1817 to only twenty- three percent in 1830. Francis presented himself as an open and approachable monarch( he regularly set aside two mornings each week to meet with his imperial subjects, regardless of status, by appointment in his office, even speaking to them in their own language), but his will was sovereign. In 1804, he had no compunction about announcing that through his authority as Holy Roman Emperor, he declared he was now Emperor of Austria( at the time a geographical term that had little resonance). Two years later, Francis personally wound up the moribund Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. Both actions were of dubious constitutional legality. To increase patriotic sentiment during the war with France, the anthem" Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser" was composed in 1797 to be sung as the Kaiserhymne to music by Joseph Haydn. The lyrics were adapted for later Emperors and the music lives on as the Deutschlandlied. Later years. On 2 March 1835, 43 years and a day after his father' s death, Francis died in Vienna of a sudden fever aged 67, in the presence of many of his family and with all the religious comforts. His funeral was magnificent, with his Viennese subjects respectfully filing past his coffin in the chapel of Hofburg Palace for three days. Francis was interred in the traditional resting place of Habsburg monarchs, the Kapuziner Imperial Crypt in Vienna' s Neue Markt Square. He is buried in tomb number 57, surrounded by his four wives. Francis passed on a main point in the political testament he left for his son and heir Ferdinand: to" preserve unity in the family and regard it as one of the highest goods." In many portraits( particularly those painted by Peter Fendi) he was portrayed as the patriarch of a loving family, surrounded by his children and grandchildren. Marriages. Francis II married four times: Children. From his first wife Elisabeth of Württemberg, one daughter, and his second wife Maria Teresa of the Two Sicilies, | eight daughters and four sons: |
Titles, honours and heraldry. Titles. From 1806 he used the titles:" We, Francis the First, by the Grace of God Emperor of Austria; King of Jerusalem, Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia and Lodomeria; Archduke of Austria; Duke of Lorraine, Salzburg, Würzburg, Franconia, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola; Grand Duke of Cracow; Grand Prince of Transylvania; Margrave of Moravia; Duke of Sandomir, Masovia, Lublin, Upper and Lower Silesia, Auschwitz and Zator, Teschen and Friule; Prince of Berchtesgaden and Mergentheim; Princely Count of Habsburg, Gorizia and Gradisca and of the Tirol; and Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia and in Istria". Sir Frederick Augustus Abel,1st Baronet( 17 July 18276 September 1902) was an English chemist who was recognised as the leading British authority on explosives. He is best known for the invention of cordite as a replacement for gunpowder in firearms. Education. Born in London as son of Johann Leopold Abel, Abel studied chemistry at the Royal Polytechnic Institution and in 1845 became one of the original 26 students of A. W. von Hofmann at the Royal College of Chemistry. In 1852 he was appointed lecturer in chemistry at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, succeeding Michael Faraday, who had held that post since 1829. Early career. From 1854 until 1888 Abel served as ordnance chemist at the Chemical Establishment of the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich, establishing himself as the leading British authority on explosives. Three years later was appointed chemist to the War Department and chemical referee to the government. During his tenure of this office, which lasted until 1888, he carried out a large amount of work in connection with the chemistry of explosives. Notable work. One of the most important of his investigations had to do with the manufacture of guncotton, and he developed a process, consisting essentially of reducing the nitrated cotton to fine pulp, which enabled it to be safely manufactured and at the same time yielded the product in a form that increased its usefulness. This work to an important extent prepared the way for the" smokeless powders" whichcameintogeneralusetowardstheendofthe19th century; cordite, the type adopted by the British government in 1891, was invented jointly by him and Sir James Dewar. He and Dewar were unsuccessfully sued by Alfred Nobel over infringement of Nobel' s patent for a similar explosive called ballistite, the case finally being resolved in the House of Lords in 1895. He also extensively researched the behaviour of black powder when ignited, with the Scottish physicist Sir Andrew Noble. At the request of the British government, he devised the Abel test, a means of determining the flash point of petroleum products. His first instrument, the open- test apparatus, was specified in an Act of Parliament in 1868 for officially specifying petroleum products. It was superseded in August 1879 by the much more reliable Abel close- test instrument. Under his leadership, first, guncotton was developed at Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills, patented in 1865, then, the propellant cordite, patented in 1889. In electricity, Abel studied the construction of electrical fuses and other applications of electricity to warlike purposes. Leadership | and honours. He was elected |
a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1860 and received their Royal Medal in 1887. He was president of the Chemical Society( 1875– 77), of the Institution of Electrical Engineers( then the Society of Telegraph Engineers)( 1877), of the Institute of Chemistry( 1881– 82) and of the Society of Chemical Industry( 1883). He was also president of the Iron and Steel Institute in 1891 and was awarded the Bessemer Gold Medal in 1897 for his work on problems of steel manufacture. He was awarded the Telford Medal by the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1879. He was made a Commander of the Order of the Bath( CB) in 1877.andknightedon20April1883He took an important part in the work of the Inventions Exhibition( London) in 1885, and in 1887 became organizing secretary and first director of the Imperial Institute, a position he held till his death in 1902. He was Rede Lecturer and received an honorary doctorate from Cambridge University in 1888. He was upgraded Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath( KCB) on 3 February 1891, created a baronet, of Cadogan Place in the Parish of Chelsea in the County of London, on 25 May 1893 and made a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order( GCVO) on 8 March 1901. Abel died at his residence in Whitehall Court, London, on 6 September 1902, aged 75, and was buried in Nunhead Cemetery, London. The baronetcy became extinct on his death. Family. Abel married twice; first to Sarah Blanch, daughter of James Blanch, of Bristol; secondly after his first wife' s death to Giulietta de La Feuillade. He left no children. Books. He also wrote several articles in the ninth edition of the" Encyclopædia Britannica". Fugazi is a slang word which refers to something that is fake or damaged beyond repair. It may refer to: Fluorescence is the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation. It is a form of luminescence. In most cases, the emitted light has a longer wavelength, and therefore a lower photon energy, than the absorbed radiation. A perceptible example of fluorescence occurs when the absorbed radiation is in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum( invisible to the human eye), while the emitted light is in the visible region; this gives the fluorescent substance a distinct color that can only be seen when exposed to UV light. Fluorescent materials cease to glow nearly immediately when the radiation source stops, unlike phosphorescent materials, which continue to emit light for some time after. Fluorescence has many practical applications, including mineralogy, gemology, medicine, chemical sensors( fluorescence spectroscopy), fluorescent labelling, dyes, biological detectors, cosmic- ray detection, vacuum fluorescent displays, and cathode- ray tubes. Its most common everyday application is in( gas- discharge) fluorescent lamps and LED lamps, in which fluorescent coatings convert UV or blue light into longer- wavelengths resulting in white light which can even appear indistinguishable from that of the traditional but highly inefficient incandescent lamp. Fluorescence also occurs frequently in nature in some minerals and in many biological forms across all kingdoms of | life. The latter may be |
referred to as" biofluorescence", indicating that the fluorophore is part of or is extracted from a living organism( rather than an inorganic dye or stain). But since fluorescence is due to a specific chemical, which can also be synthesized artificially in most cases, it is sufficient to describe the substance itself as" fluorescent". History. An early observation of fluorescence was described in 1560 by Bernardino de Sahagún and in 1565 by Nicolás Monardes in the infusion known as" lignum nephriticum"( Latin for" kidney wood"). It was derived from the wood of two tree species," Pterocarpus indicus" and" Eysenhardtia polystachya". The chemical compound responsible for this fluorescence is matlaline, which is the oxidation product of one of the flavonoids found in this wood. In 1819, Edward D. Clarke and in 1822 René Just Haüy described fluorescence in fluorites, Sir David Brewster described the phenomenon for chlorophyll in 1833 and Sir John Herschel did the same for quinine in 1845. In his 1852 paper on the" Refrangibility"( wavelength change) of light, George Gabriel Stokes described the ability of fluorspar and uranium glass to change invisible light beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum into blue light. He named this phenomenon" fluorescence":" I am almost inclined to coin a word, and call the appearance" fluorescence", from fluor- spar[ i. e., fluorite], as the analogous term" opalescence" is derived from the name of a mineral." The name was derived from the mineral fluorite( calcium difluoride), some examples of which contain traces of divalent europium, which serves as the fluorescent activator to emit blue light. In a key experiment he used a prism to isolate ultraviolet radiation from sunlight and observed blue light emitted by an ethanol solution of quinine exposed by it. Physical principles. Mechanism. Fluorescence occurs when an excited molecule, atom, or nanostructure, relaxes to a lower energy state( usually the ground state) through emission of a photon without a change in electron spin. When the initial and final states have different multiplicity( spin), the phenomenon is termed phosphorescence. The ground state of most molecules is a singlet state,denotedasS0. A notable exception is molecular oxygen, which has a triplet ground state.Absorptionofaphotonofenergyformula_1 results in an excited state of the same multiplicity( spin) of the ground state, usually a singlet( Sn with n& gt; 0). In solution, states with n& gt; 1 relax rapidly to the lowest vibrational level of the first excited state(S1) by transferring energy to the solvent molecules through non- radiative processes, including internal conversion followed by vibrational relaxation, in which the energy is dissipated as heat. Therefore, most commonly, fluorescence occurs from the first singlet excited state,S1. Fluorescence is the emission of a photon accompanying the relaxation of the excited state to the ground state. Fluorescence photons are lower in energy(formula_2) compared to the energy of the photons used to generate the excited state(formula_1) In each casethephotonenergyformula_6 is proportionaltoitsfrequencyformula_7accordingtoformula_8,whereformula_9 is Planck' s constant. TheexcitedstateS1 can relax by other mechanisms that do not involve the emission of light. These processes, called non- radiative processes, compete with fluorescence emission and decrease its efficiency. Examples | include internal conversion, intersystem crossing |
to the triplet state, and energy transfer to another molecule. An example of energy transfer is Förster resonance energy transfer. Relaxation from an excited state can also occur through collisional quenching, a process where a molecule( the quencher) collides with the fluorescent molecule during its excited state lifetime. Molecular oxygen(O2) is an extremely efficient quencher of fluorescence just because of its unusual triplet ground state. Quantum yield. The fluorescence quantum yield gives the efficiency of the fluorescence process. It is defined as the ratio of the number of photons emitted to the number of photons absorbed. The maximum possible fluorescence quantum yield is 1. 0( 100%); each photon absorbed results in a photon emitted. Compounds with quantum yields of 0. 10 are still considered quite fluorescent. Another way to define the quantum yield of fluorescence is by the rate of excited state decay:whereformula_12 is the rate constant of spontaneous emission of radiation andis the sum of all rates of excited state decay. Other rates of excited state decay are caused by mechanisms other than photon emission and are, therefore, often called" non- radiative rates", which can include: dynamic collisional quenching, near- field dipole- dipole interaction( or resonance energy transfer), internal conversion, and intersystem crossing. Thus, if the rate of any pathway changes, both the excited state lifetime and the fluorescence quantum yield will be affected. Fluorescence quantum yields are measured by comparison to a standard. The quinine salt" quinine sulfate" in a sulfuric acid solution was regarded as the most common fluorescence standard, however, a recent study revealed that the fluorescence quantum yield of this solution is strongly affected by the temperature, and should no longer be used as the standard solution. The quinine in 0.1M perchloric acid( Φ= 0. 60) shows no temperature dependence up to 45° C, therefore it can be considered as a reliable standard solution. Lifetime. The fluorescence lifetime refers to the average time the molecule stays in its excited state before emitting a photon. Fluorescence typically follows first- order kinetics:whereformula_15istheconcentrationofexcitedstatemoleculesattimeformula_16,formula_17istheinitialconcentrationandformula_18 is the decay rate or the inverse of the fluorescence lifetime. This is an instance of exponential decay. Various radiative and non- radiative processes can de- populate the excited state. In such case the total decay rate is the sum over all rates:whereformula_20 is the total decay rate,formula_21theradiativedecayrateandformula_22 the non- radiative decay rate. It is similar to a first- order chemical reaction in which the first- order rate constant is the sum of all of the rates( a parallel kinetic model). If the rate of spontaneous emission, or any of the other rates are fast, the lifetime is short. For commonly used fluorescent compounds, typical excited state decay times for photon emissions with energies from the UV to near infrared are within the range of 0. 5 to 20 nanoseconds. The fluorescence lifetime is an important parameter for practical applications of fluorescence such as fluorescence resonance energy transfer and fluorescence- lifetime imaging microscopy. Jablonski diagram. The Jablonski diagram describes most of the relaxation mechanisms for excited state molecules. The diagram alongside shows how fluorescence occurs due to | the relaxation of certain excited |
electrons of a molecule. Fluorescence anisotropy. Fluorophores are more likely to be excited by photons if the transition moment of the fluorophore is parallel to the electric vector of the photon. The polarization of the emitted light will also depend on the transition moment. The transition moment is dependent on the physical orientation of the fluorophore molecule. For fluorophores in solution this means that the intensity and polarization of the emitted light is dependent on rotational diffusion. Therefore, anisotropy measurements can be used to investigate how freely a fluorescent molecule moves in a particular environment.Fluorescenceanisotropycanbedefinedquantitativelyaswhereformula_24istheemittedintensityparalleltopolarizationoftheexcitationlightandformula_25 is the emitted intensity perpendicular to the polarization of the excitation light. Fluorescence. Strongly fluorescent pigments often have an unusual appearance which is often described colloquially as a" neon color"( originally" day- glo"inthelate1960s,early1970s). This phenomenon was termed" Farbenglut" by Hermann von Helmholtz and" fluorence" by Ralph M. Evans. It is generally thought to be related to the high brightness of the color relative to what it would be as a component of white. Fluorescence shifts energy in the incident illumination from shorter wavelengths to longer( such as blue to yellow) and thus can make the fluorescent color appear brighter( more saturated) than it could possibly be by reflection alone. Rules. There are several general rules that deal with fluorescence. Each of the following rules has exceptions but they are useful guidelines for understanding fluorescence( these rules do not necessarily apply to two- photon absorption). Kasha' s rule. Kasha' s rule dictates that the quantum yield of luminescence is independent of the wavelength of exciting radiation. This occurs because excited molecules usually decay to the lowest vibrational level of the excited state before fluorescence emission takes place. The Kasha– Vavilov rule does not always apply and is violated severely in many simple molecules. A somewhat more reliable statement, although still with exceptions, would be that the fluorescence spectrum shows very little dependence on the wavelength of exciting radiation. Mirror image rule. For many fluorophores the absorption spectrum is a mirror image of the emission spectrum. This is known as the mirror image rule and is related to the Franck– Condon principle which states that electronic transitions are vertical, that is energy changes without distance changing as can be represented with a vertical line in Jablonski diagram. This means the nucleus does not move and the vibration levels of the excited state resemble the vibration levels of the ground state. Stokes shift. In general, emitted fluorescence light has a longer wavelength and lower energy than the absorbed light. This phenomenon, known as Stokes shift, is due to energy loss between the time a photon is absorbed and when a new one is emitted. The causes and magnitude of Stokes shift can be complex and are dependent on the fluorophore and its environment. However, there are some common causes. It is frequently due to non- radiative decay to the lowest vibrational energy level of the excited state. Another factor is that the emission of fluorescence frequently leaves a fluorophore in a higher vibrational level of the ground state. In nature. | There are many natural compounds |
that exhibit fluorescence, and they have a number of applications. Some deep- sea animals, such as the greeneye, have fluorescent structures. Compared to bioluminescence and biophosphorescence. Fluorescence. Fluorescence is the temporary absorption of electromagnetic wavelengths from the visible light spectrum by fluorescent molecules, and the subsequent emission of light at a lower energy level. When it occurs in a living organism, it is sometimes called biofluorescence. This causes the light that is emitted to be a different color than the light that is absorbed. Stimulating light excites an electron, raising energy to an unstable level. This instability is unfavorable, so the energized electron is returned to a stable state almost as immediately as it becomes unstable. This return to stability corresponds with the release of excess energy in the form of fluorescence light. This emission of light is only observable when the stimulant light is still providing light to the organism/ object and is typically yellow, pink, orange, red, green, or purple. Fluorescence is often confused with the following forms of biotic light, bioluminescence and biophosphorescence. Pumpkin toadlets that live in the Brazilian Atlantic forest are fluorescent. Bioluminescence. Bioluminescence differs from fluorescence in that it is the natural production of light by chemical reactions within an organism, whereas fluorescence is the absorption and reemission of light from the environment. Fireflies and anglerfish are two examples of bioluminescent organisms. To add to the potential confusion, some organisms are both bioluminescent and fluorescent, like the sea pansy Renilla reniformis, where bioluminescence serves as the light source for fluorescence. Phosphorescence. Phosphorescence is similar to fluorescence in its requirement of light wavelengths as a provider of excitation energy. The difference here lies in the relative stability of the energized electron. Unlike with fluorescence, in phosphorescence the electron retains stability, emitting light that continues to" glow- in- the- dark" even after the stimulating light source has been removed. For example, glow- in- the- dark stickers are phosphorescent, but there are no truly" biophosphorescent" animals known. Mechanisms. Epidermal chromatophores. Pigment cells that exhibit fluorescence are called fluorescent chromatophores, and function somatically similar to regular chromatophores. These cells are dendritic, and contain pigments called fluorosomes. These pigments contain fluorescent proteins which are activated by K+( potassium) ions, and it is their movement, aggregation, and dispersion within the fluorescent chromatophore that cause directed fluorescence patterning. Fluorescent cells are innervated the same as other chromatophores, like melanophores, pigment cells that contain melanin. Short term fluorescent patterning and signaling is controlled by the nervous system. Fluorescent chromatophores can be found in the skin( e. g. in fish) just below the epidermis, amongst other chromatophores. Epidermal fluorescent cells in fish also respond to hormonal stimuli by the α– MSH and MCH hormones much the same as melanophores. This suggests that fluorescent cells may have color changes throughout the day that coincide with their circadian rhythm. Fish may also be sensitive to cortisol induced stress responses to environmental stimuli, such as interaction with a predator or engaging in a mating ritual. Phylogenetics. Evolutionary origins. The incidence of fluorescence across the tree of life is | widespread, and has been studied |
most extensively in cnidarians and fish. The phenomenon appears to have evolved multiple times in multiple taxa such as in the anguilliformes( eels), gobioidei( gobies and cardinalfishes), and tetradontiformes( triggerfishes), along with the other taxa discussed later in the article. Fluorescence is highly genotypically and phenotypically variable even within ecosystems, in regards to the wavelengths emitted, the patterns displayed, and the intensity of the fluorescence. Generally, the species relying upon camouflage exhibit the greatest diversity in fluorescence, likely because camouflage may be one of the uses of fluorescence. It is suspected by some scientists that GFPs and GFP- like proteins began as electron donors activated by light. These electrons were then used for reactions requiring light energy. Functions of fluorescent proteins, such as protection from the sun, conversion of light into different wavelengths, or for signaling are thought to have evolved secondarily. Adaptive functions. Currently, relatively little is known about the functional significance of fluorescence and fluorescent proteins. However, it is suspected that fluorescence may serve important functions in signaling and communication, mating, lures, camouflage, UV protection and antioxidation, photoacclimation, dinoflagellate regulation, and in coral health. Aquatic. Water absorbs light of long wavelengths, so less light from these wavelengths reflects back to reach the eye. Therefore, warm colors from the visual light spectrum appear less vibrant at increasing depths. Water scatters light of shorter wavelengths above violet, meaning cooler colors dominate the visual field in the photic zone. Light intensity decreases 10 fold with every 75 m of depth, so at depths of 75 m, light is 10% as intense as it is on the surface, and is only 1% as intense at 150 m as it is on the surface. Because the water filters out the wavelengths and intensity of water reaching certain depths, different proteins, because of the wavelengths and intensities of light they are capable of absorbing, are better suited to different depths. Theoretically, some fish eyes can detect light as deep as 1000 m. At these depths of the aphotic zone, the only sources of light are organisms themselves, giving off light through chemical reactions in a process called bioluminescence. Fluorescence is simply defined as the absorption of electromagnetic radiation at one wavelength and its reemission at another, lower energy wavelength. Thus any type of fluorescence depends on the presence of external sources of light. Biologically functional fluorescence is found in the photic zone, where there is not only enough light to cause fluorescence, but enough light for other organisms to detect it. The visual field in the photic zone is naturally blue, so colors of fluorescence can be detected as bright reds, oranges, yellows, and greens. Green is the most commonly found color in the marine spectrum, yellow the second most, orange the third, and red is the rarest. Fluorescence can occur in organisms in the aphotic zone as a byproduct of that same organism' s bioluminescence. Some fluorescence in the aphotic zone is merely a byproduct of the organism' s tissue biochemistry and does not have a functional purpose. However, some cases of functional and adaptive | significance of fluorescence in the |
aphotic zone of the deep ocean is an active area of research. Photic zone. Fish. Bony fishes living in shallow water generally have good color vision due to their living in a colorful environment. Thus, in shallow- water fishes, red, orange, and green fluorescence most likely serves as a means of communication with conspecifics, especially given the great phenotypic variance of the phenomenon. Many fish that exhibit fluorescence, such as sharks, lizardfish, scorpionfish, wrasses, and flatfishes, also possess yellow intraocular filters. Yellow intraocular filters in the lenses and cornea of certain fishes function as long- pass filters. These filters enable the species that to visualize and potentially exploit fluorescence, in order to enhance visual contrast and patterns that are unseen to other fishes and predators that lack this visual specialization. Fish that possess the necessary yellow intraocular filters for visualizing fluorescence potentially exploit a light signal from members of it. Fluorescent patterning was especially prominent in cryptically patterned fishes possessing complex camouflage. Many of these lineages also possess yellow long- pass intraocular filters that could enable visualization of such patterns. Another adaptive use of fluorescence is to generate orange and red light from the ambient blue light of the photic zone to aid vision. Red light can only be seen across short distances due to attenuation of red light wavelengths by water. Many fish species that fluoresce are small, group- living, or benthic/ aphotic, and have conspicuous patterning. This patterning is caused by fluorescent tissue and is visible to other members of the species, however the patterning is invisible at other visual spectra. These intraspecific fluorescent patterns also coincide with intra- species signaling. The patterns present in ocular rings to indicate directionality of an individual' s gaze, and along fins to indicate directionality of an individual' s movement. Current research suspects that this red fluorescence is used for private communication between members of the same species. Due to the prominence of blue light at ocean depths, red light and light of longer wavelengths are muddled, and many predatory reef fish have little to no sensitivity for light at these wavelengths. Fish such as the fairy wrasse that have developed visual sensitivity to longer wavelengths are able to display red fluorescent signals that give a high contrast to the blue environment and are conspicuous to conspecifics in short ranges, yet are relatively invisible to other common fish that have reduced sensitivities to long wavelengths. Thus, fluorescence can be used as adaptive signaling and intra- species communication in reef fish. Additionally, it is suggested that fluorescent tissues that surround an organism' s eyes are used to convert blue light from the photic zone or green bioluminescence in the aphotic zone into red light to aid vision. Sharks. A new fluorophore was described in two species of sharks, wherein it was due to an undescribed group of brominated tryptophane- kynurenine small molecule metabolites. Coral. Fluorescence serves a wide variety of functions in coral. Fluorescent proteins in corals may contribute to photosynthesis by converting otherwise unusable wavelengths of light into ones for which the coral' s | symbiotic algae are able to |
conduct photosynthesis. Also, the proteins may fluctuate in number as more or less light becomes available as a means of photoacclimation. Similarly, these fluorescent proteins may possess antioxidant capacities to eliminate oxygen radicals produced by photosynthesis. Finally, through modulating photosynthesis, the fluorescent proteins may also serve as a means of regulating the activity of the coral' s photosynthetic algal symbionts. Cephalopods." Alloteuthis subulata" and" Loligo vulgaris", two types of nearly transparent squid, have fluorescent spots above their eyes. These spots reflect incident light, which may serve as a means of camouflage, but also for signaling to other squids for schooling purposes. Jellyfish. Another, well- studied example of fluorescence in the ocean is the hydrozoan" Aequorea victoria". This jellyfish lives in the photic zone off the west coast of North America and was identified as a carrier of green fluorescent protein( GFP) by Osamu Shimomura. The gene for these green fluorescent proteins has been isolated and is scientifically significant because it is widely used in genetic studies to indicate the expression of other genes. Mantis shrimp. Several species of mantis shrimp, which are stomatopod crustaceans, including" Lysiosquillina glabriuscula", have yellow fluorescent markings along their antennal scales and carapace( shell) that males present during threat displays to predators and other males. The display involves raising the head and thorax, spreading the striking appendages and other maxillipeds, and extending the prominent, oval antennal scales laterally, which makes the animal appear larger and accentuates its yellow fluorescent markings. Furthermore, as depth increases, mantis shrimp fluorescence accounts for a greater part of the visible light available. During mating rituals, mantis shrimp actively fluoresce, and the wavelength of this fluorescence matches the wavelengths detected by their eye pigments. Aphotic zone. Siphonophores." Siphonophorae" is an order of marine animals from the phylum Hydrozoa that consist of a specialized medusoid and polyp zooid. Some siphonophores, including the genus Erenna that live in the aphotic zone between depths of 1600 m and 2300 m, exhibit yellow to red fluorescence in the photophores of their tentacle- like tentilla. This fluorescence occurs as a by- product of bioluminescence from these same photophores. The siphonophores exhibit the fluorescence in a flicking pattern that is used as a lure to attract prey. Dragonfish. The predatory deep- sea dragonfish" Malacosteus niger", the closely related genus" Aristostomias" and the species" Pachystomias microdon" use fluorescent red accessory pigments to convert the blue light emitted from their own bioluminescence to red light from suborbital photophores. This red luminescence is invisible to other animals, which allows these dragonfish extra light at dark ocean depths without attracting or signaling predators. Terrestrial. Amphibians. Fluorescence is widespread among amphibians and has been documented in several families of frogs, salamanders and caecilians, but the extent of it varies greatly. The polka- dot tree frog(" Hypsiboas punctatus"), widely found in South America, was unintentionally discovered to be the first fluorescent amphibian in 2017. The fluorescence was traced to a new compound found in the lymph and skin glands. The main fluorescent compound is Hyloin-L1 and it gives a blue- green glow when exposed to violet | or ultraviolet light. The scientists |
behind the discovery suggested that the fluorescence can be used for communication. They speculated that fluorescence possibly is relatively widespread among frogs. Only a few months later, fluorescence was discovered in the closely related" Hypsiboas atlanticus". Because it is linked to secretions from skin glands, they can also leave fluorescent markings on surfaces where they have been. In 2019, two other frogs, the tiny pumpkin toadlet(" Brachycephalus ephippium") and red pumpkin toadlet(" B. pitanga") of southeastern Brazil, were found to be have naturally fluorescent skeletons, which is visible through their skin when exposed to ultraviolet light. It was initially speculated that the fluorescence supplemented their already aposematic colours( they are toxic) or that it was related to mate choice( species recognition or determining fitness of a potential partner), but later studies indicate that the former explanation is unlikely, as predation attempts on the toadlets appear to be unaffected by the presence/ absence of fluorescence. In 2020 it was confirmed that green or yellow fluorescence is widespread not only in adult frogs that are exposed to blue or ultraviolet light, but also among tadpoles, salamanders and caecilians. The extent varies greatly depending on species; in some it is highly distinct and in others it is barely noticeable. It can be based on their skin pigmentation, their mucous or their bones. Butterflies. Swallowtail(" Papilio") butterflies have complex systems for emitting fluorescent light. Their wings contain pigment- infused crystals that provide directed fluorescent light. These crystals function to produce fluorescent light best when they absorb radiance from sky- blue light( wavelength about 420 nm). The wavelengths of light that the butterflies see the best correspond to the absorbance of the crystals in the butterfly' s wings. This likely functions to enhance the capacity for signaling. Parrots. Parrots have fluorescent plumage that may be used in mate signaling. A study using mate- choice experiments on budgerigars(" Melopsittacus undulates") found compelling support for fluorescent sexual signaling, with both males and females significantly preferring birds with the fluorescent experimental stimulus. This study suggests that the fluorescent plumage of parrots is not simply a by- product of pigmentation, but instead an adapted sexual signal. Considering the intricacies of the pathways that produce fluorescent pigments, there may be significant costs involved. Therefore, individuals exhibiting strong fluorescence may be honest indicators of high individual quality, since they can deal with the associated costs. Arachnids. Spiders fluoresce under UV light and possess a huge diversity of fluorophores. Remarkably, spiders are the only known group in which fluorescence is" taxonomically widespread, variably expressed, evolutionarily labile, and probably under selection and potentially of ecological importance for intraspecific and interspecific signaling". A study by Andrews et al.( 2007) reveals that fluorescence has evolved multiple times across spider taxa, with novel fluorophores evolving during spider diversification. In some spiders, ultraviolet cues are important for predator- prey interactions, intraspecific communication, and camouflaging with matching fluorescent flowers. Differing ecological contexts could favor inhibition or enhancement of fluorescence expression, depending upon whether fluorescence helps spiders be cryptic or makes them more conspicuous to predators. Therefore, natural selection could be | acting on expression of fluorescence |
across spider species. Scorpions are also fluorescent due to the presence of beta carboline in their cuticles. Platypus. In 2020 fluorescence was reported for several specimen of platypus. Plants. Many plants are fluorescent due to the presence of chlorophyll, which is probably the most widely- distributed fluorescent molecule, producing red emission under a range of excitation wavelengths. This attribute of chlorophyll is commonly used by ecologists to measure photosynthetic efficiency. The" Mirabilis jalapa" flower contains violet, fluorescent betacyanins and yellow, fluorescent betaxanthins. Under white light, parts of the flower containing only betaxanthins appear yellow, but in areas where both betaxanthins and betacyanins are present, the visible fluorescence of the flower is faded due to internal light- filtering mechanisms. Fluorescence was previously suggested to play a role in pollinator attraction, however, it was later found that the visual signal by fluorescence is negligible compared to the visual signal of light reflected by the flower. Abiotic. Gemology, mineralogy and geology. Gemstones, minerals, may have a distinctive fluorescence or may fluoresce differently under short- wave ultraviolet, long- wave ultraviolet, visible light, or X- rays. Many types of calcite and amber will fluoresce under shortwave UV, longwave UV and visible light. Rubies, emeralds, and diamonds exhibit red fluorescence under long- wave UV, blue and sometimes green light; diamonds also emit light under X- ray radiation. Fluorescence in minerals is caused by a wide range of activators. In some cases, the concentration of the activator must be restricted to below a certain level, to prevent quenching of the fluorescent emission. Furthermore, the mineral must be free of impurities such as iron or copper, to prevent quenching of possible fluorescence. Divalent manganese, in concentrations of up to several percent, is responsible for the red or orange fluorescence of calcite, the green fluorescence of willemite, the yellow fluorescence of esperite, and the orange fluorescence of wollastonite and clinohedrite. Hexavalent uranium, in the form of the uranyl cation(), fluoresces at all concentrations in a yellow green, and is the cause of fluorescence of minerals such as autunite or andersonite, and, at low concentration, is the cause of the fluorescence of such materials as some samples of hyalite opal. Trivalent chromium at low concentration is the source of the red fluorescence of ruby. Divalent europium is the source of the blue fluorescence, when seen in the mineral fluorite. Trivalent lanthanides such as terbium and dysprosium are the principal activators of the creamy yellow fluorescence exhibited by the yttrofluorite variety of the mineral fluorite, and contribute to the orange fluorescence of zircon. Powellite( calcium molybdate) and scheelite( calcium tungstate) fluoresce intrinsically in yellow and blue, respectively. When present together in solid solution, energy is transferred from the higher- energy tungsten to the lower- energy molybdenum, such that fairly low levels of molybdenum are sufficient to cause a yellow emission for scheelite, instead of blue. Low- iron sphalerite( zinc sulfide), fluoresces and phosphoresces in a range of colors, influenced by the presence of various trace impurities. Crude oil( petroleum) fluoresces in a range of colors, from dull- brown for heavy oils and tars | through to bright- yellowish and |
bluish- white for very light oils and condensates. This phenomenon is used in oil exploration drilling to identify very small amounts of oil in drill cuttings and core samples. Humic acids and fulvic acids produced by the degradation of organic matter in soils( humus) may also fluoresce because of the presence of aromatic cycles in their complex molecular structures. Humic substances dissolved in groundwater can be detected and characterized by spectrofluorimetry. Organic liquids. Organic solutions such anthracene or stilbene, dissolved in benzene or toluene, fluoresce with ultraviolet or gamma ray irradiation. The decay times of this fluorescence are on the order of nanoseconds, since the duration of the light depends on the lifetime of the excited states of the fluorescent material, in this case anthracene or stilbene. Scintillation is defined a flash of light produced in a transparent material by the passage of a particle( an electron, an alpha particle, an ion, or a high- energy photon). Stilbene and derivatives are used in scintillation counters to detect such particles. Stilbene is also one of the gain mediums used in dye lasers. Atmosphere. Fluorescence is observed in the atmosphere when the air is under energetic electron bombardment. In cases such as the natural aurora, high- altitude nuclear explosions, and rocket- borne electron gun experiments, the molecules and ions formed have a fluorescent response to light. In novel technology. In August 2020 researchers reported the creation of the brightest fluorescent solid optical materials so far by enabling the transfer of properties of highly fluorescent dyes via spatial and electronic isolation of the dyes by mixing cationic dyes with anion- binding cyanostar macrocycles. According to a co- author these materials may have applications in areas such as solar energy harvesting, bioimaging, and lasers. Applications. Lighting. The common fluorescent lamp relies on fluorescence. Inside the glass tube is a partial vacuum and a small amount of mercury. An electric discharge in the tube causes the mercury atoms to emit mostly ultraviolet light. The tube is lined with a coating of a fluorescent material, called the" phosphor", which absorbs ultraviolet light and re- emits visible light. Fluorescent lighting is more energy- efficient than incandescent lighting elements. However, the uneven spectrum of traditional fluorescent lamps may cause certain colors to appear different from when illuminated by incandescent light or daylight. The mercury vapor emission spectrum is dominated by a short- wave UV line at 254 nm( which provides most of the energy to the phosphors), accompanied by visible light emission at 436 nm( blue), 546 nm( green) and 579 nm( yellow- orange). These three lines can be observed superimposed on the white continuum using a hand spectroscope, for light emitted by the usual white fluorescent tubes. These same visible lines, accompanied by the emission lines of trivalent europium and trivalent terbium, and further accompanied by the emission continuum of divalent europium in the blue region, comprise the more discontinuous light emission of the modern trichromatic phosphor systems used in many compact fluorescent lamp and traditional lamps where better color rendition is a goal. Fluorescent lights were first available | to the public at the |
1939 New York World' s Fair. Improvements since then have largely been better phosphors, longer life, and more consistent internal discharge, and easier- to- use shapes( such as compact fluorescent lamps). Some high- intensity discharge( HID) lamps couple their even- greater electrical efficiency with phosphor enhancement for better color rendition. White light- emitting diodes( LEDs) became available in the mid-1990s as LED lamps, in which blue light emitted from the semiconductor strikes phosphors deposited on the tiny chip. The combination of the blue light that continues through the phosphor and the green to red fluorescence from the phosphors produces a net emission of white light. Glow sticks sometimes utilize fluorescent materials to absorb light from the chemiluminescent reaction and emit light of a different color. Analytical chemistry. Many analytical procedures involve the use of a fluorometer, usually with a single exciting wavelength and single detection wavelength. Because of the sensitivity that the method affords, fluorescent molecule concentrations as low as 1 part per trillion can be measured. Fluorescence in several wavelengths can be detected by an array detector, to detect compounds from HPLC flow. Also, TLC plates can be visualized if the compounds or a coloring reagent is fluorescent. Fluorescence is most effective when there is a larger ratio of atoms at lower energy levels in a Boltzmann distribution. There is, then, a higher probability of excitement and release of photons by lower- energy atoms, making analysis more efficient. Spectroscopy. Usually the setup of a fluorescence assay involves a light source, which may emit many different wavelengths of light. In general, a single wavelength is required for proper analysis, so, in order to selectively filter the light, it is passed through an excitation monochromator, and then that chosen wavelength is passed through the sample cell. After absorption and re- emission of the energy, many wavelengths may emerge due to Stokes shift and various electron transitions. To separate and analyze them, the fluorescent radiation is passed through an emission monochromator, and observed selectively by a detector. Biochemistry and medicine. Fluorescence in the life sciences is used generally as a non- destructive way of tracking or analysis of biological molecules by means of the fluorescent emission at a specific frequency where there is no background from the excitation light, as relatively few cellular components are naturally fluorescent( called intrinsic or autofluorescence). In fact, a protein or other component can be" labelled" with an extrinsic fluorophore, a fluorescent dye that can be a small molecule, protein, or quantum dot, finding a large use in many biological applications. The quantification of a dye is done with a spectrofluorometer and finds additional applications in: Forensics. Fingerprints can be visualized with fluorescent compounds such as ninhydrin or DFO( 1, 8- Diazafluoren- 9- one). Blood and other substances are sometimes detected by fluorescent reagents, like fluorescein. Fibers, and other materials that may be encountered in forensics or with a relationship to various collectibles, are sometimes fluorescent. Non- destructive testing. Fluorescent penetrant inspection is used to find cracks and other defects on the surface of a part. Dye tracing, using | fluorescent dyes, is used to |
find leaks in liquid and gas plumbing systems. Signage. Fluorescent colors are frequently used in signage, particularly road signs. Fluorescent colors are generally recognizable at longer ranges than their non- fluorescent counterparts, with fluorescent orange being particularly noticeable. This property has led to its frequent use in safety signs and labels. Optical brighteners. Fluorescent compounds are often used to enhance the appearance of fabric and paper, causing a" whitening" effect. A white surface treated with an optical brightener can emit more visible light than that which shines on it, making it appear brighter. The blue light emitted by the brightener compensates for the diminishing blue of the treated material and changes the hue away from yellow or brown and toward white. Optical brighteners are used in laundry detergents, high brightness paper, cosmetics, high- visibility clothing and more. In mathematics, the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, also called the unique factorization theorem, states that every integer greater than 1 can be represented uniquely as a product of prime numbers, up to the order of the factors. For example, The theorem says two things about this example: first, that 1200 be represented as a product of primes, and second, that no matter how this is done,therewillalwaysbeexactlyfour2s, one 3,two5s, and no other primes in the product. The requirement that the factors be prime is necessary: factorizations containing composite numbers may not be unique( for example,formula_2). This theorem is one of the main reasons why 1 is not considered a prime number: if 1 were prime, then factorization into primes would not be unique; for example,formula_3This theorem generalizes to other algebraic structures, in particular to polynomial rings over a field. These structures are called unique factorization domains. Euclid' s original version. Book VII, propositions 30, 31 and 32, and Book IX, proposition 14 of Euclid' s" Elements" are essentially the statement and proof of the fundamental theorem.( In modern terminology: if a prime" p" divides the product" ab", then" p" divides either" a" or" b" or both.) Proposition 30 is referred to as Euclid' s lemma, and it is the key in the proof of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic.( In modern terminology: every integer greater than one is divided evenly by some prime number.) Proposition 31 is proved directly by infinite descent. Proposition 32 is derived from proposition 31, and proves that the decomposition is possible.( In modern terminology: a least common multiple of several prime numbers is not a multiple of any other prime number.) Book IX, proposition 14 is derived from Book VII, proposition 30, and proves partially that the decomposition is unique– a point critically noted by André Weil. Indeed, in this proposition the exponents are all equal to one, so nothing is said for the general case. Article 16 of Gauss'" Disquisitiones Arithmeticae" is an early modern statement and proof employing modular arithmetic. Applications. Canonical representation of a positive integer. Every positive integer" n"& gt; 1 can be represented in exactly one way as a product of prime powers: where" p" 1& lt;" p" 2& lt;...& lt;" p" k are primes and | the" n"" i" are positive |
integers. This representation is commonly extended to all positive integers, including 1, by the convention that the empty product is equal to 1( the empty product corresponds to" k"= 0). This representation is called the canonical representation of" n", or the standard form of" n". For example, Factors" p" 0= 1 may be inserted without changing the value of" n"( for example, 1000= 23× 30× 53). In fact, any positive integer can be uniquely represented as an infinite product taken over all the positive prime numbers: where a finite number of the" n"" i" are positive integers, and the rest are zero. Allowing negative exponents provides a canonical form for positive rational numbers. Arithmetic operations. The canonical representations of the product, greatest common divisor( GCD), and least common multiple( LCM) of two numbers" a" and" b" can be expressed simply in terms of the canonical representations of" a" and" b" themselves: However, integer factorization, especially of large numbers, is much more difficult than computing products, GCDs, or LCMs. So these formulas have limited use in practice. Arithmetic functions. Many arithmetic functions are defined using the canonical representation. In particular, the values of additive and multiplicative functions are determined by their values on the powers of prime numbers. Proof. The proof uses Euclid' s lemma(" Elements" VII, 30): If a prime divides the product of two integers, then it must divide at least one of these integers. Existence. It must be shown that every integer greater than is either prime or a product of primes. First, is prime. Then, by strong induction, assume this is true for all numbers greater than and less than. If is prime, there is nothing more to prove. Otherwise, there are integers and, where, and. By the induction hypothesis, and are products of primes. But then is a product of primes. Uniqueness. Suppose, to the contrary, there is an integer that has two distinct prime factorizations. Let be the least such integer and write, where each and is prime. We see that divides, so divides some by Euclid' s lemma. Without loss of generality, say divides. Since and are both prime, it follows that. Returning to our factorizations of, we may cancel these two factors to conclude that. We now have two distinct prime factorizations of some integer strictly smaller than, which contradicts the minimality of. Uniqueness without Euclid' s lemma. The fundamental theorem of arithmetic can also be proved without using Euclid' s lemma. The proof that follows is inspired by Euclid' s original version of the Euclidean algorithm.Assumethatformula_7 is the smallest positive integer which is the product of prime numbers in two different ways. Incidentally,thisimpliesthatformula_7, if it exists, mustbeacompositenumbergreaterthanformula_9. Now,sayEveryformula_11 mustbedistinctfromeveryformula_12 Otherwise,ifsayformula_13 then there wouldexistsomepositiveintegerformula_14 that is smaller than and has two distinct prime factorizations. One mayalsosupposethatformula_15 by exchanging the two factorizations, if needed.Settingformula_16andformula_17onehasformula_18 It follows thatAs the positive integers less than have been supposed to have a unique prime factorization,formula_20 must occur in the factorization ofeitherformula_21 or. The latter case is impossible, as, being smaller than, must have a unique prime factorization, andformula_20 differs from | everyformula_12 The former case is |
also impossible, as,ifformula_20isadivisorofformula_25itmustbealsoadivisorofformula_26whichisimpossibleasformula_20andformula_28 are distinct primes. Therefore, there cannot exist a smallest integer with more than a single distinct prime factorization. Every positive integer must either be a prime number itself, which would factor uniquely, or a composite that also factors uniquely into primes,orinthecaseoftheintegerformula_9, not factor into any prime. Generalizations. The first generalization of the theorem is found in Gauss' s second monograph( 1832) on biquadratic reciprocity. This paper introduced what is now called the ring of Gaussian integers, the set of all complex numbers" a"+" bi" where" a" and" b" are integers.Itisnowdenotedbyformula_30 He showed that this ring has the four units± 1 and±" i", that the non- zero, non- unit numbers fall into two classes, primes and composites, and that( except for order), the composites have unique factorization as a product of primes. Similarly, in 1844 while working on cubic reciprocity,Eisensteinintroducedtheringformula_31,whereformula_32formula_33 is a cube root of unity. This is the ring of Eisenstein integers,andheprovedithasthesixunitsformula_34 and that it has unique factorization. However, it was also discovered that unique factorization does not always hold.Anexampleisgivenbyformula_35. In this ring one hasExamples like this caused the notion of" prime" to be modified.Informula_35 it can be proven that if any of the factors above can be represented as a product, for example, 2=" ab", then one of" a" or" b" must be a unit. This is the traditional definition of" prime". It can also be proven that none of these factors obeys Euclid' s lemma; for example, 2 divides neither( 1+) nor( 1−) even though it divides their product 6.Inalgebraicnumbertheory2iscalledirreducibleinformula_35( only divisible by itself or a unit)butnotprimeinformula_35( if it divides a product it must divide one of the factors).Thementionofformula_35isrequiredbecause2isprimeandirreducibleinformula_41 Using these definitions it can be proven that in any integral domain a prime must be irreducible. Euclid' s classical lemma can be rephrased as"intheringofintegersformula_42 every irreducible is prime".Thisisalsotrueinformula_43andformula_44butnotinformula_45The rings in which factorization into irreducibles is essentially unique are called unique factorization domains. Important examples are polynomial rings over the integers or over a field, Euclidean domains and principal ideal domains. In 1843 Kummer introduced the concept of ideal number, which was developed further by Dedekind( 1876) into the modern theory of ideals, special subsets of rings. Multiplication is defined for ideals, and the rings in which they have unique factorization are called Dedekind domains. There is a version of unique factorization for ordinals, though it requires some additional conditions to ensure uniqueness. References. The" Disquisitiones Arithmeticae" has been translated from Latin into English and German. The German edition includes all of his papers on number theory: all the proofs of quadratic reciprocity, the determination of the sign of the Gauss sum, the investigations into biquadratic reciprocity, and unpublished notes. The two monographs Gauss published on biquadratic reciprocity have consecutively numbered sections: the first contains§§ 1– 23 and the second§§ 24– 76. Footnotes referencing these are of the form" Gauss, BQ,§" n"". Footnotes referencing the" Disquisitiones Arithmeticae" are of the form" Gauss, DA, Art." n"". These are in Gauss' s" Werke", Vol II, pp. 65– 92 and 93– 148; German translations are pp. 511– 533 and 534– 586 | of the German edition of |
the" Disquisitiones". Dominoes is a family of tile- based games played with gaming pieces, commonly known as dominoes. Each domino is a rectangular tile with a line dividing its face into two square" ends". Each end is marked with a number of spots( also called" pips" or" dots") or is blank. The backs of the tiles in a set are indistinguishable, either blank or having some common design. The gaming pieces make up a domino set, sometimes called a" deck" or" pack". The traditional European domino set consists of 28 tiles, also known as pieces, bones, rocks, stones, men, cards or just dominoes, featuring all combinations of spot counts between zero and six. A domino set is a generic gaming device, similar to playing cards or dice, in that a variety of games can be played with a set. The earliest mention of dominoes is from Song dynasty China found in the text" Former Events in Wulin" by Zhou Mi( 1232– 1298).ModerndominoesfirstappearedinItalyduringthe18th century, but they differ from Chinese dominoes in a number of respects, and there is no confirmed link between the two. European dominoes may have developed independently, or Italian missionaries in China may have brought the game to Europe. The name" domino" is probably derived from the resemblance to a kind of carnival costume worn during the Venetian Carnival, often consisting of a black- hooded robe and a white mask. Despite the coinage of the word" polyomino" as a generalization, there is no connection between the word" domino" and the number 2 in any language. The most commonly played domino games are Domino Whist, Matador, and Muggins( All Fives). Other popular forms include Texas 42, Chicken Foot, Concentration, Double Fives, and Mexican Train. In Britain, the most popular league and pub game is Fives and Threes. Construction and composition of domino sets. European- style dominoes are traditionally made of bone, silver lip ocean pearl oyster shell( mother of pearl), ivory, or a dark hardwood such as ebony, with contrasting black or white pips( inlaid or painted). Some sets feature the top half thickness in MOP, ivory, or bone, with the lower half in ebony. Alternatively, domino sets have been made from many different natural materials: stone( e. g., marble, granite or soapstone); other woods( e. g., ash, oak, redwood, and cedar); metals( e. g., brass or pewter); ceramic clay, or even frosted glass or crystal. These sets have a more novel look, and the often heavier weight makes them feel more substantial; also, such materials and the resulting products are usually much more expensive than polymer materials. Modern commercial domino sets are usually made of synthetic materials, such as ABS or polystyrene plastics, or Bakelite and other phenolic resins; many sets approximate the look and feel of ivory while others use colored or even translucent plastics to achieve a more contemporary look. Modern sets also commonly use a different color for the dots of each different end value( one- spots might have black pips while two- spots might be green, three red, etc.) to facilitate finding matching ends. Occasionally, one | may find a domino set |
made of card stock like that for playing cards. Such sets are lightweight, compact, and inexpensive, and like cards are more susceptible to minor disturbances such as a sudden breeze. Sometimes, the tiles have a metal pin( called a spinner or pivot) in the middle. The traditional domino set contains one unique piece for each possible combination of two ends with zero to six spots, and is known as a double- six set because the highest- value piece has six pips on each end( the" double six"). The spots from one to six are generally arranged as they are on six- sided dice, but because blank ends having no spots are used, seven faces are possible, allowing 28 unique pieces in a double- six set. However, this is a relatively small number especially when playing with more than four people, so many domino sets are" extended" by introducing ends with greater numbers of spots, which increases the number of unique combinations of ends and thus of pieces. Each progressively larger set increases the maximum number of pips on an end by three, so the common extended sets are double- nine( 55 tiles), double- 12( 91 tiles), double- 15( 136 tiles), and double- 18( 190 tiles), which is the maximum in practice. Larger sets such as double- 21( 253 tiles) could theoretically exist, but they seem to be extremely rare if nonexistent, as that would be far more than is normally necessary for most domino games even with eight players. As the set becomes larger, identifying the number of pips on each domino becomes more difficult, so some large domino sets use more readable Arabic numerals instead of pips. History. The oldest confirmed written mention of dominoes in China comes from the" Former Events in Wulin"( i. e., the capital Hangzhou) written by the Yuan Dynasty( 1271– 1368) author Zhou Mi( 1232– 1298), who listed" pupai"( gambling plaques or tiles), as well as dice as items sold by peddlers during the reign of Emperor Xiaozong of Song( r. 1162– 1189). Andrew Lo asserts that Zhou Mi meant dominoes when referring to" pupai", since the Ming author Lu Rong( 1436– 1494) explicitly defined" pupai" as dominoes( in regard to a story of a suitor who won a maiden' s hand by drawing out four winning" pupai" from a set). The earliest known manual written about dominoes is the" Manual of the Xuanhe Period"() written by Qu You( 1341– 1427), but some Chinese scholars believe this manual is a forgery from a later time. In the" Encyclopedia of a Myriad of Treasures", Zhang Pu( 1602– 1641) described the game of laying out dominoes as" pupai", although the character for" pu" had changed, yet retained the same pronunciation. Traditional Chinese domino games include" Tien Gow, Pai Gow, Che Deng", and others. The 32- piece Chinese domino set, made to represent each possible face of two thrown dice and thus have no blank faces, differs from the 28- piece domino set found in the West duringthemid18th century. Chinese dominoes with blank faces were known duringthe17th century. Many | different domino sets have been |
used for centuries in various parts of the world to play a variety of domino games. Each domino originally represented one of the 21 results of throwing two six- sided dice(2d6). One half of each domino is set with the pips from one die and the other half contains the pips from the second die. Chinese sets also introduce duplicates of some throws and divide the tiles into two suits: military and civil. Chinese dominoes are also longer than typical European ones.Theearly18th century saw the" game of domino" surfacing in Europe, appearing first in Italy, before rapidly spreading to Austria, southern Germany and France. From France,thegamewasintroducedtoEnglandbythelate1700s, purportedly brought in French prisoners- of- war.ItappearsinAmericanliteraturebythe1860s and variants soon spring up. In 1889, it was described as having spread worldwide," but nowhere is it more popular than in the cafés of France and Belgium. From the outset, the European game was different from the Chinese one. European domino sets contain neither the military- civilian suit distinctions of Chinese dominoes nor the duplicates that went with them. Moreover, according to Dummett, in the Chinese games it is only the identity of the tile that matters; there is no concept of matching. Instead, the basic set of 28 unique tiles contains seven additional pieces, six of them representing the values that result from throwing a single die with the other half of the tile left blank, and the seventh domino representing the blank- blank( 0– 0) combination. Subsequently 45- piece( double eight) sets appeared in Austria and, in recent times, 55- piece( double nine) and 91- piece( double twelve) sets have been produced. The earliest game rules in Europe describe a simple block game for two or four players. Later French rules add the variant of" Domino à la Pêche"(" Fishing Domino"), an early draw game as well as a three- hand game with a pool. The first scoring game to be recorded was Fives, All Fives or Cribbage Dominoes which appeared in 1863 and borrowed the features of scoring for combinations as well as the cribbage board from the card game of Cribbage. In 1864," The American Hoyle" describes three new variants: Muggins, simply Fives with the addition of another Cribbage feature, the' muggins rule'; Bergen and Rounce; alongside the Block Game and Draw Game. All are still played today alongside games that have sprung up in the last 60 years such as Five Up, Mexican Train and Chicken Foot, the last two taking advantage of the larger domino sets available. Tiles and suits. Dominoes( also known as bones, cards, men, pieces or tiles), are normally twice as long as they are wide, which makes it easier to re- stack pieces after use. A domino usually features a line in the middle to divide it visually into two squares, also called ends. The value of either side is the number of spots or pips. In the most common variant( double- six), the values range from six pips down to none or blank. The sum of the two values, i. e. the total number of pips, may | be referred to as the |
rank or weight of a tile; a tile may be described as" heavier" than a" lighter" one that has fewer( or no) pips. Tiles are generally named after their two values. For instance, the following are descriptions of a tile bearing the values two and five: A tile that has the same pips- value on each end is called a double or doublet, and is typically referred to as double- zero, double- one, and so on. Conversely, a tile bearing different values is called a single. Every tile which features a given number is a member of the suit of that number. A single tile is a member of two suits: for example, 0- 3 belongs both to the suit of threes and the suit of blanks, or 0 suit. In some versions the doubles can be treated as an additional suit of doubles. In these versions, the double- six belongs both to the suit of sixes and the suit of doubles. However, the dominant approach is that each double belongs to only one suit. The most common domino sets commercially available are double six( with 28 tiles) and double nine( with 55 tiles). Larger sets exist and are popular for games involving several players or for players looking for long domino games. The number of tiles in a double- n set obeys the following formula: The total number of pips in a double- n set is found by:formula_2 i. e. the number of tiles multiplied by the maximum pip- count( n) e. g. a 6- 6 set has( 7 x 8)/ 2= 56/ 2= 28 tiles, the average number of pips per tile is 6( range is from 0 to 12), giving a total pip count of 6 x 28=168Thisformulacanbesimplifiedalittlebitwhenformula_3 is made equal to the" total number of doubles in the domino set":formula_4Rules. The most popular type of play are layout games, which fall into two main categories, blocking games and scoring games. Blocking game. The most basic domino variant is for two players and requires a double- six set. The 28 tiles are shuffled face down and form the" stock" or" boneyard". Each player draws seven tiles from the stock. Once the players begin drawing tiles, they are typically placed on- edge in front of the players, so each player can see their own tiles, but none can see the value of other players' tiles. Every player can thus see how many tiles remain in the opponent' s hands at all times during gameplay. One player begins by downing( playing the first tile) one of their tiles. This tile starts the line of play, in which values of adjacent pairs of tile ends must match. The players alternately extend the line of play with one tile at one of its two ends; if a player is unable to place a valid tile, they must continue drawing tiles from the stock until they are able to place a tile. The game ends when one player wins by playing their last tile, or when the game is blocked because neither player can | play. If that occurs, whoever |
caused the block receives all of the remaining player points not counting their own. Scoring game. Players accrue points during game play for certain configurations, moves, or emptying one' s hand. Most scoring games use variations of the draw game. If a player does not call" domino" before the tile is laid on the table, and another player says domino after the tile is laid, the first player must pick up an extra domino. Draw game. In a draw game( blocking or scoring), players are additionally allowed to draw as many tiles as desired from the stock before playing a tile, and they are not allowed to pass before the stock is( nearly) empty. The score of a game is the number of pips in the losing player' s hand plus the number of pips in the stock. Most rules prescribe that two tiles need to remain in the stock. The draw game is often referred to as simply" dominoes". Adaptations of both games can accommodate more than two players, who may play individually or in teams. Line of play. The line of play is the configuration of played tiles on the table. It starts with a single tile and typically grows in two opposite directions when players add matching tiles. In practice, players often play tiles at right angles when the line of play gets too close to the edge of the table. The rules for the line of play often differ from one variant to another. In many rules, the doubles serve as spinners, i. e., they can be played on all four sides, causing the line of play to branch. Sometimes, the first tile is required to be a double, which serves as the only spinner. In some games such as Chicken Foot, all sides of a spinner must be occupied before anybody is allowed to play elsewhere. Matador has unusual rules for matching. Bendomino uses curved tiles, so one side of the line of play( or both) may be blocked for geometrical reasons. In Mexican Train and other train games, the game starts with a spinner from which various trains branch off. Most trains are owned by a player and in most situations players are allowed to extend only their own train. Scoring. In blocking games, scoring happens at the end of the game. After a player has emptied their hand, thereby winning the game for the team, the score consists of the total pip count of the losing team' s hands. In some rules, the pip count of the remaining stock is added. If a game is blocked because no player can move, the winner is often determined by adding the pips in players' hands. In scoring games, each individual can potentially add to the score. For example, in Bergen, players score two points whenever they cause a configuration in which both open ends have the same value and three points if additionally one open end is formed by a double. In Muggins, players score by ensuring the total pip count of the open ends is a | multiple of a certain number. |
In variants of Muggins, the line of play may branch due to spinners. In British public houses and social clubs, a scoring version of"5s- and-3s" is used. The game is normally played in pairs( two against two) and is played as a series of" ends". In each" end", the objective is for players to attach a domino from their hand to one end of those already played so that the sum of the end tiles is divisible by five or three. One point is scored for each time five or three can be divided into the sum of the two tiles, i. e. four at one end and five at the other makes nine, which is divisible by three three times, resulting in three points. Double five at one end and five at the other makes 15, which is divisible by three five times( five points) and divisible by five three times( three points) for a total of eight points. An" end" stops when one of the players is out, i. e., has played all of their tiles. In the event no player is able to empty their hand, then the player with the lowest domino left in hand is deemed to be out and scores one point. A game consists of any number of ends with points scored in the ends accumulating towards a total. The game ends when one of the pair' s total score exceeds a set number of points. A running total score is often kept on a cribbage board.5s- and-3s is played in a number of competitive leagues in the British Isles. Card games using domino sets. Apart from the usual blocking and scoring games, also domino games of a very different character are played, such as solitaire or trick- taking games. Most of these are adaptations of card games and were once popular in certain areas to circumvent religious proscriptions against playing cards. A very simple example is a Concentration variant played with a double- six set; two tiles are considered to match if their total pip count is 12. A popular domino game in Texas is 42. The game is similar to the card game spades. It is played with four players paired into teams. Each player draws seven tiles, and the tiles are played into tricks. Each trick counts as one point, and any domino with a multiple of five dots counts toward the total of the hand. These 35 points of" five count" and seven tricks equals 42 points, hence the name. Competitive play. Dominoes is played at a professional level, similar to poker. Numerous organisations and clubs of amateur domino players exist around the world. Some organizations organize international competitions. Other uses. Besides playing games, another use of domino tiles is the domino show, which involves standing them on end in long lines so that when the first tile is toppled, it topples the second, which topples the third, etc., resulting in all of the tiles falling. By analogy, the phenomenon of small events causing similar events leading to eventual catastrophe is | called the domino effect. Arrangements |
of millions of tiles have been made that have taken many minutes, even hours to fall. For large and elaborate arrangements, special blockages( also known as firebreaks) are employed at regular distances to prevent a premature toppling from undoing more than a section of the tiles while still being able to be removed without damage. The phenomenon also has some theoretical relevance( amplifier, digital signal, information processing), and this amounts to the theoretical possibility of building domino computers. Dominoes are also commonly used as components in Rube Goldberg machines. The Netherlands has hosted an annual domino- toppling exhibition called Domino Day since 1986. The event held on 18 November 2005 knocked over 4 million dominoes by a team from Weijers Domino Productions. On Domino Day 2008( 14 November 2008), the Weijers Domino Productions team attempted to set 10 records: This record attempt was held in the WTC Expo hall in Leeuwarden. The artist who toppled the first stone was the Finnish acrobat Salima Peippo. At one time, Pressman Toys manufactured a product called Domino Rally that contained tiles and mechanical devices for setting up toppling exhibits. In Berlin on 9 November 2009,giantdominotilesweretoppledina20th- anniversary commemoration of the fall of the Berlin Wall. Former Polish president and Solidarity leader Lech Wałęsa set the toppling in motion. A 2- 1 tile is used in the logo of pizza retailer Domino' s Pizza. Dominoes in Unicode. Since April 2008, the character encoding standard Unicode includes characters that represent the double- six domino tiles. While a complete domino set has only 28 tiles, the Unicode set has" reversed" versions of the 21 tiles with different numbers on each end, a" back" image, and everything duplicated as horizontal and vertical orientations, for a total of 100 glyphs. Few fonts are known to support these glyphs. In chemistry, biochemistry, and pharmacology, a dissociation constant(formula_1) is a specific type of equilibrium constant that measures the propensity of a larger object to separate( dissociate) reversibly into smaller components, as when a complex falls apart into its component molecules, or when a salt splits up into its component ions. The dissociation constant is the inverse of the association constant. In the special case of salts, the dissociation constant can also be called an ionization constant. For a general reaction:A_\ mathit{ x}B_\ mathit{ y}& lt;=& gt;\ mathit{ x} A{}+\ mathit{ y} B& lt;/ chem& gt;inwhichacomplexformula_2 breaks down into" x" A subunits and" y" B subunits, the dissociation constant is defined aswhere[ A],[ B], and[ A" x" B" y"] are the equilibrium concentrations of A, B, and the complex A" x" B" y", respectively. One reason for the popularity of the dissociation constant in biochemistry and pharmacology is that in the frequently encountered case where" x"=" y"= 1, KD has a simple physical interpretation:whenformula_4,thenformula_5orequivalentlyformula_6Dissociation constant of water. The dissociation constant of water is denoted" K" w: The concentration of water& lt; chem& gt;H2O& lt;/ chem& gt; is omitted by convention, which means that the value of" K" w differs from the value of" K" eq that would be computed using that concentration. The value | of" K" w varies with |
temperature, as shown in the table below. This variation must be taken into account when making precise measurements of quantities such as pH. In engineering and science, dimensional analysis is the analysis of the relationships between different physical quantities by identifying their base quantities( such as length, mass, time, and electric current) and units of measure( such as miles vs. kilometres, or pounds vs. kilograms) and tracking these dimensions as calculations or comparisons are performed. The conversion of units from one dimensional unit to another is often easier within the metric or SI system than in others, due to the regular 10- base in all units. Dimensional analysis, or more specifically the factor- label method, also known as the unit- factor method, is a widely used technique for such conversions using the rules of algebra." Commensurable" physical quantities are of the same kind and have the same dimension, and can be directly compared to each other, even if they are originally expressed in differing units of measure, e. g. yards and metres, pounds( mass) and kilograms, seconds and years." Incommensurable" physical quantities are of different kinds and have different dimensions, and can not be directly compared to each other, no matter what units they are originally expressed in, e. g. meters and kilograms, seconds and kilograms, meters and seconds. For example, asking whether a kilogram is larger than an hour is meaningless. Any physically meaningful equation, or inequality," must" have the same dimensions on its left and right sides, a property known as" dimensional homogeneity". Checking for dimensional homogeneity is a common application of dimensional analysis, serving as a plausibility check on derived equations and computations. It also serves as a guide and constraint in deriving equations that may describe a physical system in the absence of a more rigorous derivation. The concept of physical dimension, and of dimensional analysis, was introduced by Joseph Fourier in 1822. Concrete numbers and base units. Many parameters and measurements in the physical sciences and engineering are expressed as a concrete number— a numerical quantity and a corresponding dimensional unit. Often a quantity is expressed in terms of several other quantities; for example, speed is a combination of length and time, e. g. 60 kilometres per hour or 1. 4 kilometres per second. Compound relations with" per" are expressed with division, e. g. 60 km/ 1 h. Other relations can involve multiplication( often shown with a centered dot or juxtaposition), powers(likem2 for square metres), or combinations thereof. A set of base units for a system of measurement is a conventionally chosen set of units, none of which can be expressed as a combination of the others and in terms of which all the remaining units of the system can be expressed. For example, units for length and time are normally chosen as base units. Units for volume, however, can be factored into the base units of length(m3), thus they are considered derived or compound units. Sometimes the names of units obscure the fact that they are derived units. For example, a newton( N) is a unit | of force, which has units |
of mass( kg) times units of acceleration( m⋅ s− 2). The newton is defined as. Percentages, derivatives and integrals. Percentages are dimensionless quantities, since they are ratios of two quantities with the same dimensions. In other words, the% sign can be read as" hundredths", since. Taking a derivative with respect to a quantity adds the dimension of the variable one is differentiating with respect to, in the denominator. Thus: Likewise, taking an integral adds the dimension of the variable one is integrating with respect to, but in the numerator. In economics, one distinguishes between stocks and flows: a stock has units of" units"( say, widgets or dollars), while a flow is a derivative of a stock, and has units of" units/ time"( say, dollars/ year). In some contexts, dimensional quantities are expressed as dimensionless quantities or percentages by omitting some dimensions. For example, debt- to- GDP ratios are generally expressed as percentages: total debt outstanding( dimension of currency) divided by annual GDP( dimension of currency)— but one may argue that, in comparing a stock to a flow, annual GDP should have dimensions of currency/ time( dollars/ year, for instance) and thus debt- to- GDP should have units of years, which indicates that debt- to- GDP is the number of years needed for a constant GDP to pay the debt, if all GDP is spent on the debt and the debt is otherwise unchanged. Conversion factor. In dimensional analysis, a ratio which converts one unit of measure into another without changing the quantity is called a conversion factor. For example, kPa and bar are both units of pressure, and. The rules of algebra allow both sides of an equation to be divided by the same expression, so this is equivalent to. Since any quantity can be multiplied by 1 without changing it, the expression"" can be used to convert from bars to kPa by multiplying it with the quantity to be converted, including units. For example, because, and bar/ bar cancels out, so. Dimensional homogeneity. The most basic rule of dimensional analysis is that of dimensional homogeneity. However, the dimensions form an abelian group under multiplication, so: For example, it makes no sense to ask whether 1 hour is more, the same, or less than 1 kilometre, as these have different dimensions, nor to add 1 hour to 1 kilometre. However, it makes perfect sense to ask whether 1 mile is more, the same, or less than 1 kilometre being the same dimension of physical quantity even though the units are different. On the other hand, if an object travels 100 km in 2 hours, one may divide these and conclude that the object' s average speed was 50 km/ h. The rule implies that in a physically meaningful" expression" only quantities of the same dimension can be added, subtracted, or compared. For example, if" m" man," m" rat and" L" man denote, respectively, the mass of some man, the mass of a rat and the length of that man, the dimensionally homogeneous expression is meaningful, but the heterogeneous expression is meaningless. However," | m" man/" L"2man is fine. |
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