text stringlengths 199 648k | id stringlengths 47 47 | dump stringclasses 1
value | url stringlengths 14 419 | file_path stringlengths 139 140 | language stringclasses 1
value | language_score float64 0.65 1 | token_count int64 50 235k | score float64 2.52 5.34 | int_score int64 3 5 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
This article at today.msnbc.msn.com describes a dispute over where surveyors marked the border between North Carolina and South Carolina 240 years ago. With modern day technology, the border may be moved approximately 150 feet in some places, affecting residents close to the border.
Authorized by the General Assembly in 1935, the North Carolina Highway Historical Marker Program is now administered cooperatively among numerous state agencies. The website allows for search by county. There are numerous results for MecklenburgCounty, complete with historic sites, maps of historical trails, and essays for each marker. To access these results go to http://ncmarkers.com/search.aspx, highlight Mecklenburg in the list of counties, and click on the search button below the counties list. | <urn:uuid:a71ce6c6-54f5-4d95-8762-6198fd8c82a3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ncgenweb.us/nc/mecklenburg/category/maps/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00046-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.886874 | 161 | 3.171875 | 3 |
The New copy of this book will include any supplemental materials advertised. Please check the title of the book to determine if it should include any access cards, study guides, lab manuals, CDs, etc.
The Used, Rental and eBook copies of this book are not guaranteed to include any supplemental materials. Typically, only the book itself is included. This is true even if the title states it includes any access cards, study guides, lab manuals, CDs, etc.
Social and emotional learning (SEL) is a dominant orthodoxy in education systems around the world. This important new book provides the first in-depth, authoritative and balanced examination of the critical issues pervading the field. Each substantive aspect of SEL is examined through a critical lens, thanks to an extensive and thorough review of the international research literature. The book investigates key topics such as: - definitions and conceptualization - origins and influences - international policy and practice - assessment and monitoring - implementation - outcomes The book highlights key strengths and significant flaws in SEL theory and research, and sets the agenda for the next generation of inquiry in the field. It will be valuable for researchers, policy-makers, students, teachers, and anyone interested in the role played by schools in promoting children's social and emotional wellbeing. | <urn:uuid:06012c5e-2270-43f3-85fb-fe49bbbdd9bf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ecampus.com/social-emotional-learning-critical/bk/9781446256954 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00140-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922241 | 256 | 2.546875 | 3 |
EasyEnglish homepage | Bible Dictionary index
Pharisee ~ (A) ~ one of a group of Jews who thought that they kept all God's rules. They did not like the things that Jesus taught. They thought that they did not do any wrong things. So, they thought that they were very important and clever.
Pharisee ~ (B) ~ one of a group of Jews who thought that they kept all God's commands. They did not like the things that Jesus taught. They thought that their opinions about religion were always right. So many Pharisees became proud.
Pharisees ~ (B) ~ There were two main groups of Jews at the time of Jesus. They were called the Pharisees and the Sadducees . The Pharisees said that they believed the whole Old Testament . They tried to obey all God's laws. But often they pretended to be holier than they really were. They obeyed many unimportant rules. But often they failed to obey God's most important rules. And they refused to listen to Jesus. They cared more about their religion than about God. Not all Pharisees behaved in this way. Their leaders opposed Jesus. But many other Pharisees believed Jesus. They realised that God sent Jesus. So they trusted Jesus.
More information: 'Pharisee' in the Bible (from over 100 free online books). Our level (A) definitions are simpler than level (B).
The EasyEnglish project is writing a translation of the Bible in simple English. Our simple English Bible Commentaries are now available.
© 1999-2005, Wycliffe Associates (UK) | <urn:uuid:d8a7c47c-5a5b-4022-812d-09be65b47820> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.easyenglish.info/bible-dictionary/pharisee.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00129-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975086 | 339 | 3.171875 | 3 |
Another consequence of war which America is passing through is the spirit of super-patriotism. This is always aroused and must be aroused to carry on the war. It is potent in creating the psychology that makes men fight. Every people teaches that its own country is the best; that its laws and institutions excel those of all other lands. This spirit is taken advantage of and used by designing men. It is used to send to jail those who criticise existing things. It is used to hamper and destroy any effort to change laws and institutions. The one who criticises conditions is a disturber and a traitor. Those who profit by existing things are always intense patriots and by means of cheap appeals and trite expressions seek to stifle discussion and criticism. This war has borne a deadly harvest of restrictive legislation in America. We are no longer an asylum for political offenders. We no longer stand for freedom of speech. Old traditions and constitutional and legal guarantees have been swept aside under the hysteria which has prevailed during and since the war. These results were inevitable and will follow war as long as man is man.
All the after-effects of the World War show how completely man is ruled by forces over which he has no control. If considerable numbers of the people have been moved by war hysteria, and if a large part of crime is directly traceable to war, it seems plain that all human action could be traced to some controlling cause, if only man could be wise enough and industrious and humane enough to find the cause. It is plain that the law of cause and effect influences mental phenomena as it does physical acts, and sometime, perhaps, men will seek to avoid the effect by removing the cause.
CIVILIZATION AND CRIME
As children we have all amused ourselves by looking into a kaleidoscope, turning it around and around and watching the changing patterns formed from the mixing bits of different colored glass in the other end. Each turn makes a different pattern and each bit of glass seems to seek a spot in the general medley where it can be settled until another turn drives it to find a resting place somewhere else. The organization of individual units into a group is more or less such a formation, each seeking to adjust itself to a pattern and finding that the pattern is ever-changing and the individual units obliged to seek new positions and make new adjustments.
It is vain for social theorists to talk of a perfect order, a system of social organization that will find the proper place for each unit and bring social symmetry out of the whole. Such a society is not consistent with the varied capacities and wants of men. Neither is a perfect order possible with ever-changing and moving physical forces, with new mental conceptions, with new needs and wants, with constant births and deaths, and with the innate instincts of man. | <urn:uuid:8c726285-f691-459e-8bc4-34ea1b5b7b29> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bookrags.com/ebooks/12027/96.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00035-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966427 | 571 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Poutschy (German, Eduardsdorf), a village in Volhynia situated some fourteen miles west of Dubno, was the leading center of the Swiss-Volhynian Mennonite group in 1815-1861. It was settled by Swiss Amish Mennonites from the Polish villages of Urszulin and Michelsdorf, who had come from Montbéliard, France, in 1791. Dissatisfaction with farming conditions at Urszulin-Michelsdorf and a liberal offer by Prince Edward Lubanirsky were the basis of the move to Poutschy. Families found their way to near-by villages, such as Zahoris, Futtor, and Hecker.
The Poutschy settlement was reinforced by some members of a small group of Swiss Amish Mennonites who had settled near Dubno in 1801-1802. In the course of time the two groups, those at Poutschy and those located nearer Dubno in the villages of Wignanska and Futtor, merged. The group near Dubno had its historical roots in the movement of Mennonites from South Germany to Galicia.
The land at Poutschy was leased from the Prince for periods of 24 years. New names added to the church roster here were Waldner, Wedel, Archlus, Strauss, and Prieheim. The traditional earlier family names were Albrecht, Flickinger, Gering, Krehbiel, Miller, Schrag, Stucky, Sutter, Voran, and Zerger. In its earlier years the congregation adhered to the Amish Discipline of 1779, but there is some evidence that by 1860 the distinctive practices were waning. Officials of the church were Joseph Schrag, Johann Albrecht, Johann Mixller, Johann Schrag, Johann Gering, and Jacob Stucky. Almost the entire Eduardsdorf group moved to Kutuzovka and Neumannovka in 1861. The families who remained related themselves to the congregation found in the villages of Zahoris and Futtor.
Schrag, Martin H. "European History of the Swiss-Volhynian Mennonite Ancestors of Mennonites now living in Communities in Kansas and South Dakota" (unpublished master's dissertation, Eastern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1956).
|Author(s)||Martin H Schrag|
Cite This Article
Schrag, Martin H. "Poutschy (Rivne Oblast, Ukraine)." Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. 1959. Web. 2 Jul 2016. http://gameo.org/index.php?title=Poutschy_(Rivne_Oblast,_Ukraine)&oldid=118684.
Schrag, Martin H. (1959). Poutschy (Rivne Oblast, Ukraine). Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved 2 July 2016, from http://gameo.org/index.php?title=Poutschy_(Rivne_Oblast,_Ukraine)&oldid=118684.
©1996-2016 by the Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:41266300-c2b3-4a2f-9b10-c3ef9c7341e7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://gameo.org/index.php?title=Poutschy_(Rivne_Oblast,_Ukraine)&oldid=118684 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.907592 | 669 | 2.875 | 3 |
In an earlier lesson, we looked at Paul’s sermon to the men in Athens
(Acts 17:16-31). Follow the line of reasoning he used, noting not just where he started but where he ended. What’s so important about the conclusion he came to, particularly regarding the question of origins and morality?
Paul’s sermon to the men of Athens began with Creation and ended with judgment. According to Paul, the God who made the world and everything in it has fixed a day on which He will judge the world. To be endowed with morality implies accountability, and each of us will be held responsible for our actions and our words (see Eccles. 12:14 and Matt. 12:36-37).
Everyone who ever lived will meet together in God’s presence to face the judgment. The difference between the two groups in Jesus’ parable is how each person treated those who were in need. The Creator is interested in how His creatures treat each other, especially those who are needy. There is no place in heaven for the principle of natural selection; it is contrary to the character of the God of peace.
If the Bible teaches anything, it teaches that the justice so lacking in this world will one day be meted out by God Himself. More so, the whole idea of judgment implies a moral order: why would God judge, much less punish, if there were no moral standards to which people could be held?
Think through the reality and certainty of judgment. Why, then, is the gospel and the promise of salvation in Christ so crucial in order for us to have assurance in that judgment? | <urn:uuid:8d2691b3-18e2-4c25-b63f-29b554867651> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ssnet.org/blog/morality-and-accountability/comment-page-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971188 | 338 | 3.4375 | 3 |
Linear-motion devices abound in automated assembly equipment such as robots, conveyors, and pick-and-place systems. Applications include handling, positioning, joining, stamping, and sorting parts, as well as coordinating motion between two or more axes.
As manufacturers continue to demand higher speeds, faster throughput, and greater precision, suppliers have responded with linear-motion systems that feature high acceleration and deceleration rates, rapid traverses, good accuracy, and the ruggedness to handle high loads with little downtime.
That means engineers have numerous options when it comes to linear-motion devices, including electric linear motors, electromechanical ball-screw or belt drives, and hydraulic cylinders. But designers of automated assembly machines increasingly turn to pneumatic linear guides because they provide a combination of features that enhance overall machine performance.
Pneumatic systems require a source of pressurized air. By using a piston and rod assembly to create linear motion, air cylinders accurately position light loads and produce inherently smooth movements at fast speeds.
In contrast, hydraulic systems use a piston and rod assembly that converts pressurized flow of hydraulic fluid into linear motion. Such systems are best suited for heavy loads at high speeds.
According to Pneumatic Product Specialist Gary Cooper from Parker Hannifin Corp., Wadsworth, Ohio, many benefits arise from pneumatic automation systems.
"To begin with, the cost of pneumatics is considerably less than those involving hydraulics or electromechanics," Cooper says. "Most plants have air lines that are compatible with pneumatic systems, while hydraulic and electromechanical systems are more expensive to install.
"Pneumatic technology is currently making a big push toward developing solutions for smaller, faster, and more precise applications," Cooper continues. "These applications would mainly include clean-room environments dealing with the semiconductor industry and computer-chip handling."
Pneumatic systems tend to offer low maintenance, long service life, and reliability. In addition, they withstand dust, shock, vibration, and extreme temperatures. Pneumatic circuits are relatively easy to build, and standard modular components produce complex motions.
According to Tom Kane, product manager at Bimba Manufacturing Co., Monee, Ill., pneumatic products such as cylinders and linear guides offer quick, clean, reliable, and inexpensive linear motion for situations that require sterile surroundings.
"Pneumatic systems are a lot cleaner than hydraulic systems," he states. "They are environmentally friendly because if something leaks, it's leaking air instead of oil."
Linear guides differ from conventional pneumatic cylinders in that they provide precise, low-friction, linear motion through an assortment of rails, bearings, contact elements, and mounting configurations. Many consist of tubular channels or round rails that serve as load-bearing axes. While many designs and sizes are available, common linear-guide configurations have four bearings and two rails. Contact type, rolling elements, inner race geometry, and self-aligning capabilities all affect guide performance.
Originally, linear guides possessed pillow blocks with bearings that moved along round rails. Until recently, few choices existed for linear guides, and design procedures involved checking load requirements and choosing sizes that could carry those loads. As load and corresponding guide size increased, so did cost and system weight.
Recent developments in linear guides have given engineers the chance to cut expenses and improve system performance. Here's a look at some newer innovations.
Self-aligning bearings: One notable development in linear guides is self-aligning bearings. These bearings have separate internal tracks of circulating balls that move independently of one another while each track moves within the housing. This lets the entire bearing compensate for misalignments in pitch, roll, and yaw. Loads are distributed equally to all balls to ensure smooth travel.
Profile-rail linear guides: Profile-rail linear guides offer a solution to load handling. Flat on the top and bottom with concave-shaped sides that have ballconforming races where the bearings roll, profiled rails stiffen the rail and the entire guide, while at the same time increasing load capacity. Increasing load-carrying capacities of the guides allows smaller linear guides to carry the same loads as earlier versions, thereby reducing overall guide heights.
"While cylinders are great for power and motion, they aren't typically good at carrying heavy loads," says Walt Hessler, vice president of sales and marketing at PHD Inc., Fort Wayne, Ind. "The advantage of a linear guide is that you get the best of two worlds: the cylinder provides power and motion while the bearings carry the loads."
Because profile-rail linear guides have higher rigidity than round-rail guides, they must mount to dimensionally accurate surfaces to function properly. When less-accurate treatments use high-precision guides, installation expenses rise because surfaces generally require grinding operations before mounting the guide.
Many nonmachinetool applications use compliance instead of rigidity. Compliant linear guides are less sensitive to imperfections on mounting surfaces. As a result, they are easier and less expensive to install than profile-rail guides.
Self-lubricating guides: Self-lubricating guides eliminate the need for oil. Today, polymers are used as bearings in carriages and as coatings bonded to linear rails and slides, ensuring constant lubrication with fewer parts.
Self-lubricating systems come in two basic versions. One uses plain bearings or carriages that ride on sliding contact bearings made from special polymers. The second version has no bearings because mating parts are coated with a polymer that serves as both a bearing surface and lubricant. Self-lubricating guides are suited for carrying low loads in situations where external lubrication is undesirable, such as in the automotive industry.
Pneumatic linear guides are available from a wide variety of sources, with new designs often customized to perform specialized tasks. Here is just a sampling of the latest designs.
Linear thrusters from Bimba Manufacturing Co. are said to ensure smooth, guided motion. A durable housing with guide shafts keeps thrusters from rotating, allowing them to carry higher loads.
"The thruster's source of power is its original stainless-steel body cylinder," Tom Kane, product manager of Bimba, explains. "The thruster is a package solution to traditional guiding applications because it is essentially a cylinder contained in housing that provides motion and guidance. It incorporates force to move loads and guidance to carry those loads."
The thrusters come in two different models: ball-bearing T Series and composite-bearing TE Series. The former series offers case-hardened steel shafts and ball bearings that present less friction and higher precision, while the composite-bearing TE series offers high load capacities. A composite bearing/303 stainlesssteel shaft combination makes it suitable for corrosive environments.
"The thruster's breadth of offering is unique because it comes in seven bore sizes," Kane continues. "The largest bore size can handle loads as heavy as 1,000 lb."
Bore sizes range from 9⁄16 to 3 in. Shock absorber options in the 9⁄16 to 2 in. bore sizes are available in light, standard, and heavy-duty models for absorbing high kinetic energies.
"The thrusters offer three distinct stopping positions in one selfcontained unit," Kane adds.
The thrusters can link to other thrusters or rodless cylinders for multiaxis movements, and rotary actuators can provide rotary motion.
Pneumatic guiding cylinders from Rexroth Bosch Group, Racine, Wis., are suitable for applications that require precise guidance in spite of high loads, including lateral forces. Main features include high torsional strength and absorption of high torques and lateral forces. Large guide-rod diameters and four plain-bearing bushes ensure stability.
The cylinder is offered in eight different diameters between 12 and 63 mm with stroke lengths to 200 mm. Depending on user requirements, two different versions are available. One contains a balltype push guide characterized by smooth operation while the other has a plain bearing guide that withstands high loads. Attachment threads, through holes, and longitudinal slots for sliding blocks provide easy mounting.
XLT guided cylinders from Parker Hannifin Corp. are designed for light loads. They provide precise, torque-resistant linear motion. Alignment couplers let piston rods self-center, extending cylinder life.
"A regular cylinder cannot withstand significant amounts of side or torsional loading," Cooper explains. "However, because of its linear support shafts and bearings, a guided cylinder can dissipate large amounts of energy from side or torsional loads away from the piston rod. This allows the piston rod to stroke more freely which, in turn, allows the cylinder to last longer."
The housing is manufactured from anodized extruded aluminum that incorporates T-slots for mounting flexibility. Four prelubricated recirculating ball bushings and two precision-ground support shafts support the main body. Outboard wiper seals protect the bearings from contamination while retaining lubrication and ensuring long life with less maintenance. Prelubricated stainless-steel air cylinders with stainless-steel piston rods provide thrust, while support shafts and bearings offer positive load support for repeated non-lube, trouble-free cycles.
Available options include reed, Hall-effect and proximity sensors, bumpers, adjustable stop collars, dowel pin holes, flow controls, fluorocarbon seals, and three-position cylinders.
The HBT Series linear slide, also from Parker, is suited for guided linear-motion applications. Four linear bushings guide two parallel precision-ground, casehardened support shafts and incorporate them into an H-Body assembly. The bearings are prelubricated, and the company can supply composite bushings with oversized shafting or linear ball bushings. The series features a machined, anodized, one-piece aluminum body with tapped and counterbored through holes for mounting flexibility. Dowel pin holes provide precision mounting for body and tool plates.
Cylinders align with couplers and wear bands provide internal guiding. This lets piston rod assemblies self-center and "float" in the bores, thereby eliminating metal-to-metal contact. This ensures long cylinder life with reduced maintenance and downtime. These pneumatic actuators are suited for applications that include material handling, packaging, product testing, assembly, parts transfer, machine loading and unloading, and clamping.
Available options include proximity sensors, Hall effect and reed switches, oversized shafting with composite bushings, shock absorbers, cylinder cushions, external bumpers, adjustable stop collars, flow controls, fluorocarbon seals, three-position cylinders, cylinders with rod lock mechanisms, and slides without cylinders.
SHP Rail Bearing Slides from PHD Inc. are pneumatically powered, rail bearing slides that provide smooth, precise movement within confined spaces. Available in three bore sizes (8, 12, and 16 mm) with five choices of travel length, the series is available in both imperial and metric units for worldwide applications.
A mechanism for adjusting travel for extension and retraction is located on the back of the slide. Integrated shock pads provide end-of-stroke cushioning, while multiple mounting options provide maximum flexibility. The bodies feature mounting holes on the sides, end, and bottom while tool plates offer mounting on top and end. Standard dowel holes on the body, end, and tool plate mounting positions ensure precise mounting and attachment of tooling.
"While some customers still like our traditional slides with two round shafts or ball bushings, they've discovered that rail bearings are more precise and have less deflection," states Walt Hessler, vice president of sales and marketing. "Our rail bearings carry heavier loads, and customers are receptive to the access and load performance they provide."
All Series SHP Sides have an operating range of 20 psi minimum to 100 psi maximum. The slides incorporate internal orifices to limit velocities. They are designed for use in temperatures between 20 and 180F. Using urethane and nitrile seals that are compatible with standard paraffin-based lubrication oils used for pneumatic cylinders, all units are prelubricated at the factory for service under normal operating conditions. The slide housing and tool plate are anodized aluminum alloy, while the linear rail and bearings are made from hardened and ground stainless steel.
The DFM Drive/Guide series from Festo, Hauppauge, N.Y., is suitable for handling, assembly, and transfer applications. The drives' centerline pneumatic cylinders, dual linear bushings, and recirculating ball bearing guides perform a wide range of pushing, stopping, and lifting functions.
According to Allan Poxon of Festo, the guides offer practical alternatives to component assemblies because of their torsional rigidity and capacity to absorb high torque and lateral forces.
Two guide rods provide stability with the use of sliding or ball-bearing guides. Because of large guide rod diameters and up to four plain bearing bushes, plain bearing guides can handle high lateral loads. Ball bearing guides offer extra precision, load bearing capacity, and low friction.
Diameter ranges from 12 to 100 mm with stroke lengths from 10 to 200 mm. The guides provide a wide variety of mounting options as well as choice of air connections. They are self-lubricating and maintenance-free. Applications include stopping, lifting, pushing, feeding, pressing in, and withdrawal of parts. | <urn:uuid:7b69feec-4d5d-4304-933a-ec13d90ca23a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://machinedesign.com/print/archive/pneumatic-linear-guides-lighten-loads | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.921972 | 2,775 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Physicists in the USA and at the London Centre for Nanotechnology have found a way to extend the quantum lifetime of electrons by more than 5,000 per cent, as reported in this week's Physical Review Letters. Electrons exhibit a property called 'spin' and work like tiny magnets which can point up, down or a quantum superposition of both. The state of the spin can be used to store information and so by extending their life the research provides a significant step towards building a usable quantum computer.
"Silicon has dominated the computing industry for decades," says Dr Gavin Morley, lead author of the paper. "The most sensitive way to see the quantum behaviour of electrons held in silicon chips uses electrical currents. Unfortunately, the problem has always been that these currents damage the quantum features under study, degrading their usefulness."
Marshall Stoneham, Professor of Physics at UCL (University College London), commented: "Getting the answer from a quantum computation isn't easy. This new work takes us closer to solving the problem by showing how we might read out the state of electron spins in a silicon-based quantum computer."
To achieve the record quantum lifetime the team used a magnetic field twenty-five times stronger than those used in previous experiments. This powerful field also provided an additional advantage in the quest for practical quantum computing: it put the electron spins into a convenient starting state by aligning them all in one direction.
|Contact: Dave Weston|
University College London | <urn:uuid:8ced86be-8032-40e6-89d9-73260e1ff599> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-technology-1/Putting-a-new-spin-on-current-research-9219-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00187-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92049 | 299 | 3.421875 | 3 |
We the People and Other Constitutional Tales: Teaching Constitutional Meaning Through Narrative
Paula L. Abrams
Lewis & Clark Law School
The Law Teacher, Vol. 41, No. 3, pp. 247-259, 2007
Lewis & Clark Law School Legal Studies Research Paper No. 2008-10
The narratives associated with a landmark constitutional case, including the socio-political struggles that give rise to the dispute and the resulting litigation, are an important, and overlooked, aspect of constitutional understanding. An examination of these narratives can elucidate circumstances that have been overlooked in the formalized articulation of constitutional norms. It can provide a more nuanced understanding of the conflict, and, in some instances, an altered interpretation of doctrine. Traditional legal education typically omits any substantial consideration of the external historical events that give rise to landmark cases. The omission of these external narratives may serve to distort the doctrinal complexity of major cases. This article demonstrates the significance of narrative by examining five stories describing a significant U.S. Supreme Court case, Pierce v. Society of Sisters. These stories illuminate the impact of contextual narrative upon constitutional meaning. The paper argues that contextual narrative should be incorporated into the teaching of constitutional doctrine to ensure a more accurate understanding of constitutional meaning. The article explores various methods of teaching Pierce to demonstrate the marked difference between the highly formalized analysis typical of conventional legal education and the multi-faceted legal, political, and social comprehension gained through contextual narrative.
Number of Pages in PDF File: 21
Keywords: legal education, constitutional doctrine, constitutional meaning, contextual narrative, socio-political
Date posted: February 19, 2008 ; Last revised: December 10, 2012
© 2016 Social Science Electronic Publishing, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
This page was processed by apollobot1 in 0.187 seconds | <urn:uuid:0ef5b30f-62a7-4a6e-bbbf-19ae447f38aa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1095046 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00086-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.899141 | 368 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Perennial herbs, densely hairy with stellate hairs; rootstock thickened, densely covered with withered leaf bases. Radical leaves oblong-linear to spathulate-oblong, entire or slightly 1-3-dentate above. Racemes few to many flowered, usually ebracteate, lax in fruit. Flowers white or mauve, sometimes with lilac tinge. Sepals suberect, not saccate at base, often persistent. Petals c. twice as long as the sepals, obovate, clawed. Stamens 6; filaments not appendaged. Lateral nectar glands horse-shoe shaped; middle glands usually absent. Ovary oblong-linear, 3-7-ovuled in each locule, densely hairy with stellate, hairs; stigma ± bilobed, subsessile or on very short slightly thickened styles. Siliquae linear, flattened, often subcontorted, pubescent, bilocular, subdehiscent; valves with a distinct mid-vein; septum membranous, not veined; seeds irregularly 1-serrate, usually few, suborbicular; radicle ± incumbent.
2 or 3 species in Himalayas, Pamir-Alai and Afghanistan.
Except for the indumentum, narrow and usually entire ?eaves, it is hardly different from Christolea Camb. | <urn:uuid:ef39e953-1650-49eb-8377-42d3a1ecb96e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=5&taxon_id=124835 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.88503 | 298 | 2.515625 | 3 |
The soil is adapted to agricultural pursuits in a very remarkable degree. Not only in the bottom and table lands is the black loam deep and rich, but the uplands are also equally productive. Of the 310.4 square miles, or 198,675 acres of land in the county, there were in 1878, 168,282 in cultivation, against 134,173 acres in 1870. Of this, 63,286 acres were in corn, yielding 1,875,096 bushels. The same year, 1878, there were 8,987 acres in winter wheat, yielding 125,149 bushels; 891 acres in spring wheat, yielding 6,244 bushels; 8,352 acres in oats, producing 263,666 bushels; 10, 168 acres in timothy meadow, yielding 14,542 tons of hay; 303 acres in Irish potatoes, producing 15, 620 bushels; 1,469 acres in apple orchards, yielding 56,157 bushels of apples. The acreage of grain raised in 1878 was not as large as usual, from the fact of the extreme wet weather in the early part of the season, preventing the cultivation of large amount of the flat and low bottom-land. Beside this, winter wheat has been such an uncertain crop for some years past, that little attention has been paid to it: but the yield per acre of what was sowed last year being so fine that the acreage the present year is almost double that of 1878, and the quality and yield are both much better. There are a variety of crops raised beside those named above, but those given are the most important.
The county is well supplied with the various kinds of stock, and for many years great pains have been taken to improve the quality by securing the best imported breeds. For a number of years, there was great profit in feeding cattle and hogs for the Eastern markets, and many of the cattle raised on the rich pasture-lands of "Little Menard" were shipped to European ports, and proved to be as rich and savory as the boasted beeves of the Old World. For a few years past, however, farmers have found but little profit in this department of labor, and raising cattle and hogs as a business is falling into desuetude. The price of pasture and the cost of raising corn, together with the Western competition in prices, render the cattle business very uncertain and dangerous, while the prevalence of hog-cholera for several years past, renders the business of hog-raising so dangerous that but little attention is given to it. In 1878, there were 5,961 head of cattle fatted in the county, the aggregate gross weight of which was 2,104,900 pounds. There were 1,089 milk-cows kept, from which was sold, beside the home consumption, 43,890 pounds of butter, 225 pounds of cheese, 15 gallons of cream and 2,300 gallons of milk. The same year, 18,902 hogs were fatted, the gross weight of which was 4,664,546 pounds; besides these, there were 22,495 hogs, big and little, died with cholera during the same year, the aggregate weight of which was 1,514,421 pounds. The sheep of the county yielded, in 1878, 19,689 pounds of wool. Of the horses, mules and asses in the county, we have no statistics later than 1870 that are reliable. There were then 6,840 horses and 921 mules and asses. Since that time, or six years, the attention of farmers has been turned largely to the improvement of the breed of horses. For this purpose, large sums have been expended in importing, from various portions of Europe, studs of the finest horses. The most popular breeds are, perhaps, the Norman and Clydesdale. In this short time, a marked improvement is observable in the stock all over the county.
The total valuation of farmlands, at the last census, was $7,944,895. The total farm products were estimated to be worth $2,237,505, and the livestock was valued at $1,617,389. This gives a total of $11,899,809 as the valuation of real estate, farm products and live stock, leaving out, however a number of minor matters that would aggregate no inconsiderable amount. This is distributed among a population of not more than 13,000 or 14,000 (only 11,735 in 1870), of whom only 8 were colored. The reader will bear in mind that, instead of the above estimates being exaggerated, those which were not taken from absolute official statistics taken in 1878, were taken from the census of 1870; hence the facts will fall considerable below the above figures. From 1860 to 1870, the increase of population in the county was about 23 percent; but for the last decade it will fall very far below this, as the emigration to Kansas and other parts of the West will equal, if not exceed, the immigration into the county, so that the population as given above may be too great.
Although this county covers but a small area of territory, yet there is no county in the State possessing finer natural advantages. As before intimated, pure, fresh, living water for man and beast, and for purposes of irrigation, is distributed in every part of the county; while the Sangamon River and Salt Creek afford abundance of water for driving manufacturing machinery, either by stream or by water power.
Inexhaustible deposits of bituminous coal of the best quality underlie the entire area, and at such a depth that it can be mined at the trifling cost. This coal is deposited in three layers, or strata, that have been worked, and Prof. Worthen, the State Geologist, says that the strata in this part of Illinois will all together make at least twenty-five feet in thickness. A tolerably correct idea of our wealth in this direction may be gained when we remember that miners estimate that in every foot of the vein in thickness, there are twenty million bushels, or one million tons to the square mile. Now, to say nothing of the twenty-five feet of strata of which Prof. Worthen speaks, let the reader contemplate the wealth that is hidden in the being that is now being worked. This layer averages over six feet in thickness; but, for safety, we will estimate it at six feet. This gives us 120,000,000 bushels or 480,000 tons to each square mile of area.
This, of itself, is a source of inexhaustible wealth. A writer in the London Quarterly Review said, not long since, that no people can succeed in the arts of Christian civilization without a supply of coal; and as it is essential to many classes of manufacture, and to the navigation of the ocean, and consequently to the commerce of the world, the statement does not appear to be extravagant. The same writer says that the paddle-wheels of European enterprise are constantly stirring up the dark waters of superstition in the East, and every Christian steamer that navigates those waters goes as a herald of Christian civilization and advancement; and the coal is thus becoming a grand and essential agent in the enlightenment of the world. Such were the stores of coal deposited tin the bowels of England, and her supply so inexhaustible - as supposed - that the expression, "carrying coals to Newcastle" has long been the manner of expressing the inexhaustibleness of the deposit. But present indications bid fair for it to become literally true, and also that the "coals carried to Newcastle" shall be from America. Thus we see that in respect to this source of wealth, this little county is behind none of her neighbors. Some seven or eight coalmines are being operated successfully in the county: the most of them, in fact, nearly all, are in the immediate vicinity of the town of Petersburg. In addition to the fact that we thus keep the price of this article at home, it also affords employment for a large number or laborers, and in the same proportion, it furnishes market of our produce. The coal interests are just beginning to be developed here: but the time is not far in the future when this will be an important branch of industry here. The first regular coal-shaft was opened by Elijah Taylor, in the southeast part of town, in the fall of 1865. Since that time, the several shafts near town and that of Tallula have been opened.
Stone is not as plentiful in the county as could be desired, yet there are some quarries that, when fully opened, will be of great value. A large field on Rock Creek is under-laid with fine strata of limestone, lying near the surface in many places, and is finely adapted to building purposes. These quarries have never been properly opened, though great quantities of stone have been taken out along the hillsides where the ledge crops out; but the time is not far in the future when they will be properly opened. Limestone is also found on the Sangamon River at Old Salem, and also at Petersburg. Near the east end of the highway bridge over the river at Petersburg, is a stratum of sandstone, though it is not yet known whether it is of a good quality, or of sufficient quantity to pay for working. Some have used this sandstone for foundations and cellar-walls, but some have fears that it will not resist the weight of the walls and the influence of the frost. There is rock in small quantities in other localities, but these named are the most important and promising.
Taking all the natural advantages of this county into account, no locality possesses more or better facilities for manufacturing enterprise. Here is the timber, the stone, the coal, the water, and as Mr. Hardin Bale has recently demonstrated, we have also a quality of clay for the manufacture of drain-tile that is equal to the best in the State, or elsewhere. Brick of an excellent quality are also made here in abundance. Taking all these facts together, it is strange that these advantages have not been utilized before the present time. The vast amount of agricultural implements purchases every year by our citizens, takes out vast sums of money, for which we have but little return made. The plows, reapers, planters, threshers, wagons, buggies, etc., that are annually purchased, cost a vast sum. If our advantages were utilized, not only would all this money be kept in our midst, but other great advantages would accrue to us. A market would be created here at home for our surplus timber, which is not rotting in vast quantities all over the county; a demand would be made for greater quantities of coal, and this would employ a great number of laborers; the erection of these factories would create a demand for stone and brick, and sand, and lime; then all these, so well as the timber to manufacture, must be delivered on the ground, thus giving employment to a great number of men and teams; and last, but not least, this would call together great numbers of laborers and mechanics, who, bringing their families with them, would improve our towns, and create a market at home for all the products the soil produced by our farmers. Surely our people will not remain blind to this important matter many years longer.
The raising and fatting of cattle and hogs having ceased to bring remuneration to the agriculturists, they must look in some other direction for a reward for their toils.
The county is intersected by two railroads, the Jacksonville branch of the Chicago & Alton Railroad, and the Springfield & North-Western Railroad. A detailed account of the erection of these roads will be given as we advance in the history of the county, as giving facts in their proper chronological order will enable the reader to understand and retain them to a much better advantage. Having thus hastily glanced at the resources and advantages of the county, we are now prepared to enter into the history of the (early settlements). | <urn:uuid:15083d09-8cf5-40a6-b5c5-c55d10e094b2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~ilmaga/menard/1879hist/agriculture.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00120-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972381 | 2,502 | 3.15625 | 3 |
Verb Tenses and Sentence Order
Guide to Grammar and Writing
Welcome to this quiz on verb tenses.
Some of the sentences in the paragraphs below are in the wrong order. Using the verb tenses and time clues, number the sentences in each paragraph in their proper order. Begin a new count, with 1, in each paragraph.
The TAB key will move you from blank to blank, but it is probably easier to click the mouse-button in each box as you number the sentences in turn.
You can click on CHECK ANSWERS to at any time see which of your answers are correct. Incorrect answers will be blanked out and you can try another number. Your score is reported in this top frame. | <urn:uuid:b1c49e2f-1408-4a84-950d-3aa314b27d3a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/quizzes/tenses/tensesw.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00126-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942229 | 153 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Commission on Creation (August 2000)
American Scientific Affiliation
In 1997, a subcommitee of the ASA Commission on Creation was appointed to draft a general statement on creation which it was felt would be agreeable to most members of the ASA. In any case, ASA members from the various perspectives on creation were appointed to the committee, and the resulting statement (General Statement on Creation) was unanimously approved by them. In addition, several more specific statements were drafted to represent the diversity of views in the ASA. These are labeled, respectively, Young Earth View, Old Earth View, Theistic Evolution View, and Intelligent Design View.
General Statement on Creation:
1. God is the creator of all things.
a. All things were created through the Word. (Jn1:1-3; Col 1:15-20)
b. God is both transcendent over creation and immanent in creation. (1 Kg 8:27)
c. God continually upholds all of creation. (Col 1:17; Heb 1:3)
d. God is continually creating. (Ps 104:29-30)
2. God is as active in "natural" events as in "miraculous" ones.
a. God is intimately and actively involved in what we perceive as "natural" or "law-governed" processes. (Amos 4:6ff; Mt 5:45)
b. God is in control of "random" or "chance" events. (1 Kg 22:17-38; Prov 16:33; Ac 1:21-26)
3. God actively cares for His creation.
a. God declares all that He has made very good. (Gen 1:31)
b. The earth is the Lords possession. (Ps 95:1-5)
c. All creation praises God. (Ps 148)
d. God sustains and provides for His creation. (Job 38-41, Ps 104)
4. All Creation is the object of Gods redemptive plan.
a. God so loved the world that He became incarnate. (Jn 3:16-17; Jn 1:1-18)
b. Creation groans in anticipation of redemption. (Rom 8:18-22)
c. Creation rejoices at the promise of Gods judgment. (Ps 96:11-13)
5. We humans are given stewardship responsibility over creation.
a. We are uniquely created to be Gods image bearers. (Gen 1:27)
b. Old Testament law protected the land and animals. (Sabbath, land sabbath)
c. We exercise control over creation as stewards who must give an account. (Gen 1:26-30)
d. We have a responsibility toward one another. (Lev 19:18; Mt 22:39-40)
6. Scientific study of the natural world can be a spiritual calling in service to God. (1 Kg 4:29-34)
a. God has created a physical universe which can be understood and studied by us, Gods image bearers. (Ps 19:1-4; Eccl 1:13)
b. The call to stewardship includes a call to study and understand the creation. (Gen 2:10-20; Eccl 1:13)
7. Scientific description and divine action need not be in conflict.
a. A scientific description of an event or process does not diminish Gods active control of that event or process.
b. How we describe scientifically Gods creative activity is a matter of dispute; that God is creator of all things is not.
Statement on Creation
Young-Earth (Recent Creation) View
In addition to the general statement on creation affirmed by all parties, ASA members who hold to a young-earth creation view would affirm the following:
1. God is absolutely free to act as He wills. Natural science must be open to the possibility that God acted directly to create any physical feature of the universe, including organisms and humankind. By implication, therefore, the philosophy of science known as methodological naturalism is unsound.
2. The simplest reading of Scripture regarding the details of creation is to be accepted as Gods revelation on the matter, and the data of science should be interpreted in this light.
3. All basic types of organisms, including human beings, were directly created by God during the creation week of Genesis 1 and 2. Humankind is united in one family, which began with Adam and Eve.
4. The flood of Noah was an historical event, global in extent and effect.
5. The curse of Genesis 3:14-19, imposed by God because of the sin of Adam and Eve, changed irrevocably the character of the natural economy. This "groaning of nature" (Romans 8:20-21), which includes the death of the higher animals and humankind, will be removed only by the coming redemption of the natural order (Revelation 21:1-5).
Statement on Creation
Old-Earth (Progressive Creation) View
In addition to the general statement on creation affirmed by all parties, ASA members who hold to an old-earth creation view would affirm the following:
1. God created the universe and the earth billions of years ago.
2. Gods means of creating included both supernatural intervention and providential guidance of natural processes.
3. The Darwinian mechanism of mutation and natural selection, even with providential guidance, does not appear to be adequate to explain the phenomena of the history of life, particularly:
a. the Cambrian "explosion,"
b. the rarity of putative transitional fossils between the major animal body plans, and
c. the presence of "irreducible complexity" in many biological systems.
4. The human race was created by God by means of a supernatural intervention, using a body plan most closely resembling the apes among other modern life-forms.
5. Old earth creationists differ on how to relate the days of Genesis to the geologic ages:
a. some see the days as long time-periods;
b. others see them as 24-hour days separated by long periods;
c. still others as a literary device of the Divine or human author of Genesis.
6. Old earth creationists differ on where to put Adam in history:
a. some see him as relatively recent, less than ten thousand years ago;
b. others as identical with modern Homo sapiens, perhaps some tens or hundreds of thousands of years ago.
7. Old earth creation also differs from young earth creation in seeing both plant and animal death as occurring before the rebellion of Adam and Eve.
Statement on Creation:
Theistic Evolution (Continuous Creation, Evolutionary Creation) View
In addition to the theological commitments affirmed by all parties, ASA members who accept an evolutionary* perspective, would affirm the following:
1. God is free to act in creation in any way consistent with His character. The nature of the physical universe and of God's interaction is a consequence of God's free choice.
2. Evolutionary processes* are not antithetical to God's creative action. Furthermore, nothing in scripture provides a theological basis for rejecting the descent of all living beings from a common ancestor, including humans.
3. An evolutionary* view of the history of life provides a positive, productive context for understanding God's relationship to creation, and our role as His image bearers. It also provides a fruitful context for considering the meaning and implications of Christology and the cross.
4. Christians should rejoice and praise God for each new revelation of the history and character of the creation, for each new discovery that fills previous gaps in our scientific understanding.
Areas of theological diversity among Christians holding an evolutionary* view:
1. How does God direct the creation to His desired ends? Various models for God's action have been proposed, of which some follow. These are not mutually exclusive, so individuals may hold more than one.
a. God is actively directing ALL natural processes ALL the time so that all physical events are specifically willed by Him.
b. God gave, and continues to give, being to a creation gifted with all the capabilities to bring forth all the forms, processes, and events, willed by Him.
c. Creation responds to God's will as our bodies respond to ours. However, God's being is not embodied in creation but is transcendent over it.
d. God acts to determine the inherent indeterminacies of physical events, at the micro level of quantum phenomena and at the macro level of chaotic systems. The physical universe is not deterministic, but rather is an inherently open causal system.
2. To what extent has God granted freedom to His creatures? Various suggestions have been proposed:
a. God has chosen to limit His direct control over some aspects of creation to give His creatures genuine freedom.
b. God allows for a certain level of genuine indeterminacy in creation such that specific outcomes are not predetermined. At the same time, He remains sovereign and the fulfillment of His will is assured.
c. All physical events are predetermined and preknown by God.
1. An ancient and dynamically changing Earth and universe is supported by overwhelming evidence from geology, physics, astronomy, and cosmology.
2. The common descent of all living things is well-supported by diverse lines of evidence in geology, paleontology, biology, and genetics.
3. Biological evolution* has great explanatory power and has proven effective in generating new and testable hypotheses in a wide range of scientific disciplines including historical geology, paleontology, ecology, biogeography, developmental biology, biochemistry, and genetics.
4. New discoveries and new models are progressively closing many previous gaps in our knowledge and understanding of evolutionary history and mechanisms.* While many unanswered questions remain, current research is raising many exciting possibilities for studying previously intractable problems.
*The various references to evolution herein are understood to include the full range of scientific models from the adaptive change of species populations to the diversification of life on Earth from its common origin, but to exclude the idea of autonomous nature assumed in the "Blind Watchmaker" hypothesis.
Statement on Creation
Intelligent Design View
In addition to the general statement on creation affirmed by all parties, ASA members who hold to intelligent design would affirm the following:
1. Intelligent design (henceforth abbreviated ID) is not a doctrine of creation. Creation is always a theological doctrine and refers to God giving being to the universe. ID examines features of an already given universe to determine whether those features reliably point to the activity of an intelligent agent or designer. Whether that designer happens to be the God of some religious creed is not properly part of ID.
2. ID focuses especially on two features of the universe that point to the activity of a designer:
a. The fine-tuning of the laws and fundamental constants of physics that makes possible a universe that can sustain galaxies, stars, planets, and ultimately life;
b. Biological complexity in the form of highly integrated systems of multiple component parts all precisely matched to each other and jointly necessary to perform some function.
3. ID is fundamentally a theory of information, though one richer than Shannons form of it. ID adds to Shannons purely statistical or complexity-theoretic form of information what biologists have long called "specificity." Specificity refers to objective patterns that information is capable of exhibiting. Specified complexity or complexity specified information is well-defined information-theoretically and constitutes a reliable empirical marker to actual design. Specified complexity is evident in cosmological fine tuning and in biological complexity.
4. Intelligent agency or design is empirically detectable by means of specified complexity (i.e., specified complexity can be observationally determined and reliably points to intelligence). To say that design is empirically detectable is not to say that the activity of a designing intelligence was supernatural or violated any laws of nature. Although specified complexity is a reliable empirical marker of design, specified complexity says nothing about the mode of assembly by which an object, event, or structure came to be (which must be decided case by case). ID does not require miracles, nor does it preclude them.
5. ID is logically consistent both with theistic evolution and with special creation in its various forms. ID is compatible with theism, deism, stoicism, and various forms of Platonism. ID rejects reductionist accounts of intelligence, and it places strict limits on the types of causal accounts capable of explaining specified complexity. In particular, ID demonstrates that undirected natural causes (e.g., the Darwinian mechanism of differential survival and reproduction) are inherently incapable of generating specified complexity. This is not an argument for ignorance, but a proscriptive generalization like the laws regarding entropy and perpetual motion. | <urn:uuid:30962ec9-29ef-4ce5-b60e-9b8ab5b429da> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.asa3.org/ASA/topics/Evolution/commission_on_creation.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00186-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934722 | 2,664 | 2.96875 | 3 |
- You may alter the closing punctuation of a quotation in order to incorporate it into a sentence of your own: Commas and periods go inside the closing quotation marks; the other punctuation marks go outside. — “uw-madison writing center writer's handbook”, writing.wisc.edu
- Provides the absolute essentials for punctuating dialogue: the details that most clearly mark a beginner from a professional. — “Punctuating Dialogue -- How to Punctuate Dialogue Correctly”,
- MLA RULES FOR PUNCTUATING TITLES OF SOURCES. UNDERLINE TITLES OF: When you have a title embedded within another title follow the examples below:. — “MLA Rules for Punctuating Titles of Sources”, ollie.dcccd.edu
- Basic Rules for Punctuating Dialog. When you are writing narrative, as in fiction, words spoken by a character are enclosed in quotation marks. Jane untied the vines around her grammar and punctuation handbook. — “punctuating dialog - NJCU :: Faculty :: Ellen Garvey - NJCU”, web.njcu.edu
- Punctuating Quotations. An opening frame such as an attribution or Author tag introducing a quotation, and the quotation itself should be punctuated at the spot in the sentence where the two meet. This guide provides instruction on how to do that. — “Punctuating Quotations”, writing.colostate.edu
- Punctuating Independent and Dependent Clauses. Punctuating Independent Clauses. An independent clause is a group of related words that contains a subject and a predicate and expresses a complete idea. As a result, an independent clause can stand alone and be used as a sentence. — “Punctuating Independent and Dependent Clauses”, class.georgiasouthern.edu
- Punctuation marks are symbols that indicate the structure and organization of written language, as well as intonation and pauses to be observed when reading aloud. In written English, punctuation is vital to disambiguate the meaning of sentences. — “Punctuation - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia”,
- punctuating [De] A type of decorative scheme, usually on ceramics, created by using a pointed implement to create small pits or holes in the. — “punctuating: Definition from ”,
- Encyclopedia article about punctuating. Information about punctuating in the Columbia Encyclopedia, Computer Desktop Encyclopedia, computing dictionary. — “punctuating definition of punctuating in the Free Online”, encyclopedia2
- Trying to remember how to punctuate a title? Even the most experienced writers have a problem remembering the proper punctuation for certain types of titles. If you can remember to think in terms of large works and small works, you'll remember. — “Punctuating Titles - How to Punctuate Titles - Underline or”,
- Punctuating Titles: When to Use Italics, Underlining, and "Quotation Marks. to remember which type of title requires which type of punctuation. — “Punctuating Titles--chart”, .edu
- Punctuating Dialogue. 1. Quotation marks show where the EXACT words of a speaker begin and end. A question mark or exclamation point takes the place of a comma. — “Punctuating Dialogue”,
- Punctuating definition, to mark or divide (something written) with punctuation marks in order to make the meaning clear. See more. — “Punctuating | Define Punctuating at ”,
- An SEO web copywriter with tips on writing clearly and concisely for every occasion! © 2010 Punctuating Reality - Copywriting — Boise, Idaho. — “Punctuating Reality, LLC”,
- the first one is correct.. In 10th grade I had enough. — “I need help punctuating sentences? I think he has finally”,
- Punctuation isn't complicated once you know what you're looking at. I see many writers making errors when punctuating appositives. This may be a new term for many folks, so we'll take a look at what I mean by "appositive," and then we'll figure. — “Punctuating Appositives”,
- Punctuate each list on its own merits, not according to some arbitrary scheme decided in advance for all lists in a particular publication. Because some aspects of punctuation are a matter of editorial preference, the same list could possibly be punctuated differently by different persons. — “Writer's Block - Writing Tips - Punctuating Lists and”, writersblock.ca
- Definition of punctuating from Webster's New World College Dictionary. Meaning of punctuating. Pronunciation of punctuating. Definition of the word punctuating. Origin of the word punctuating. — “punctuating - Definition of punctuating at ”,
- punctuating. Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Jump to: navigation, search This page was last modified on 16 June 2010, at 22:39. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike. — “punctuating - Wiktionary”,
- Punctuating dialogue correctly is essential if you want your novel to be taken seriously. Here's a simple and straightforward guide to doing it right. — “punctuating dialogue - www.fiction-writers-”, fiction-writers-
- Punctuating Quotations. There are various ways to punctuate quotations, depending on their placement in the sentence, their purpose, and the purpose of the sentence. The key is to be consistent with your punctuation. This page highlights rules. — “LEO Punctuating Quotations”, leo.stcloudstate.edu
- Definition of punctuating in the Legal Dictionary - by Free online English dictionary and encyclopedia. What is punctuating? Meaning of punctuating as a legal term. What does punctuating mean in law?. — “punctuating legal definition of punctuating. punctuating”, legal-
- Punctuating Dialogue and Direct Quotations: A Dozen Rules. 1. Use quotation marks to begin Punctuating Dialogue and Direct Quotations: A Dozen Rules – continued. — “Punctuating Dialogue and Direct Quotations -- Dozen Rules”, edenpr.k12.mn.us
related videos for punctuating
- Punctuating Abbreviations Explains how to correctly punctuate commonly used abbreviations in business.
- Tim Tebow's Final Touchdown in the Swamp Tim Tebow scores from a yard out for his 5th touchdown of the day and last touchdown in the Swamp, punctuating a 37-10 victory for the 6th straight win over the Noles.
- Shut It Down: Bring on a Government Shutdown As budget negotiations continued inside the halls of Congress Thursday, a gathering of Tea Party activists huddled at a cold outdoor rally on Capitol Hill to send a message to the deal-makers inside: They're ready to pick a fight. A few hundred people -- far fewer than the massive rallies seen before last year's midterm elections -- who braved the dreary weather urged lawmakers to push deep cuts to the federal budget even if it results in a temporary shuttering of the government, chanting "Cut it or shut it!" and punctuating cheers with calls to "shut it down!" "If Harry Reid wants a fight, let's give it to him!" said Rep. Mike Pence (R-IN), one of a parade of conservative lawmakers who made remarks at the event sponsored by the Tea Party Patriots. Many of the rally's speakers were careful to note that Democrats are "rooting" for a shutdown and that GOP budget-cutters hope to avoid a funding lapse that would turn off the government's lights. Democratic leaders "want to turn you into their scapegoats and blame the Tea Party for shutting the government down," said Rep. Michele Bachmann (R-MN). Rep. Allen West (R-FL) declared, "We are not here to talk about shutting the government down... But if you want to talk about shutting down the government, go over there and talk to Chuck Schumer and Harry Reid and the folks at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue!" Sen. Jim DeMint (R-SC) told reporters after his brief remarks to the crowd that a federal closure is undesirable but would not be ...
- Lost Chapelle with Melle Mel This is an unreleased video clip of scrap footage of Dave Chapelle featuring Melle Mel punctuating the word.
- Phonic Faces Punctuating Visually Beginning writers (and older poor writers) are pretty clueless about punctuation. I started using visual strategies such as framing to show them what a sentence looks like, and to explain the purpose of punctuation using kid logic. Materials are available at
- Speech: Prime Minister, Raila Odinga on the new constitution at uhuru park As the local cameras canvased every face on the stage and the international lens stayed focused on Bashir, all Kenyans in attendance were watching one man. It makes a statement when your entrance causes noticeably more cheer than that of the President of a nation. Say what you will about Raila Odinga, the people love him and swear by his every word. So much so that he couldn't even read his Oath of Allegiance without the crowd punctuating every comma with a cheer and every sentence break with an ovation. It was a sight to behold: every which way he strolled, dignitaries reached out to shake his hand. In the distant crowds, grown men and woman, jumping out of their seats reaching towards the man as though he were not hundreds of metres away and could indeed somehow reach out and touch them back. All this as he calmly waltzed the stage, commanding more power with every step. You would soon forget that he had just had brain surgery. You would even sooner forget that a certain Mr. Mwai Kibaki, President of the Republic, was actually the most important man on that stage. More important, Yes. More powerful, maybe. But when it comes to popularity in Kenya, Tinga sets the bar way too high to conceptually comprehend. Put it this way, if there were a Solar Eclipse right now and this man climbed on stage and began talking about it, the rest of the world would witness the eclipse; we'd hear about it from Odinga. He is a veritable force of nature. This is evidenced by the roars that ...
- Change by Lynx - annotated with beat punctuation When I dance with my hoop, I emphasize different places in the music with my hoop or my body. If the tempo of the music moves from fast to slow, my movement moves from fast to slow. Where the melody rises and falls, I also tend to rise and fall. And in those percussive places where there is a strong and sudden drumbeat or guitar slap, I step into those places and try to represent them through movement too. I call this "Beat Punctuation". Beat Punctuation is about accentuating a percussive spot in the music. We hear these places with our ears and we feel them in our body. Beat punctuation is about embodying them in our dance. Not every single one, of course, but the powerful ones. The crescendos. Because of this, my nickname for beat punctuation is "Pah!" Pah! is a powerful, explosive kind of movement (though it can also be very minimal). It is a stepping into that space deep in the beat, inhabiting the beat so that you ascend slowly, like the beat does, then explode to the apex just as the beat does, pause there a moment for emphasis and then continue dancing to the melody. Pah! is kind of like trying to visually and bodily represent the percussion in a song. One example of simple beat punctuation is utilizing a lift so that it hits its peak powerfully and right on the beat. Beat punctuation with a lift means you raise the lift with purpose and perfect timing. There are many ways to cultivate this. You can practice, practice, practice until your lifts reach their fullest ...
- Adjective Clauses 3 Learn about adjective clauses and the correct relative pronoun and punctuation. This tutorial focuses on nonrestrictive clauses.
- Community turns out in force to honor fallen Marine US Marine Cpl. Tevan Nguyen, was a hero, and on Thursday, Jan. 6, 2011, the day he was buried, people lined the streets and roads of Brownwood, Texas, for much of the nearly seven miles to Indian Creek Cemetery. A bell tolled -- an exact replica of the liberty bell, solemnly punctuating the quietness with mournful tones -- first outside St. Mary's Catholic Church where the funeral services were held on Thursday, and later at the cemetery. The Patriot Guard Riders, 92 strong, circled the grave site, quiet and reverent, honoring the fallen Marine. There was a 21-gun salute. Seven Marines, in their dress blues, aimed at the air and shot three volleys.
- punctuating conversation 2 Captured by eliana419
- Diva - Beyonce (official Video HD + Lyrics) All Copyright own by SONY Beyoncé is seen walking in heels around the car in slow motion with her famed introductions to the dangle shades. Beyoncé then walks into a warehouse where she is in a different outfit with two backup dancers. During the second verse Beyoncé switches outfits again and is pulling on two chains. When she states "Diva's gettin' money..." she waves a fan made of $100 bills. During the bridge to the climax Beyoncé dances on a single light and then during the climax Beyoncé is seen very sweaty in another wardrobe choice dancing in robotic movements to the beat with gold punctuating the black and white scene. During the last chorus, Beyoncé is in her last wardrobe change in front of window which is where the paparazzi had taken photos of her. When the song ends, the instrumentals to "Video Phone" play while Beyoncé struts in the parking lot again. As she lights her cigar she throws the lighter into the trunk with the mannequins and starts to walk away as the vehicle explodes behind her as the beginning to "Video Phone" plays.
- Nortec Collective Presents: Bostich+Fussible with OBC Baja california Orchestra - Entijuanarte 2009 Nortec Collective mashes its electronic music with classical In the spirit of connection, Bostich and Fussible send mash notes. By Reed Johnson January 10, 2010 Reporting from Tijuana - On a Pacific Ocean-cooled Sunday night last October, a crowd of 25000 people thronged the streets outside the Tijuana Cultural Center to witness a startling musical experiment. Packed two- and three-deep on the outdoor stage near the Avenue of Heroes, several members of the Baja California Symphony Orchestra, led by conductor Ivan del Prado, conjured lush melodies more suited to a concert hall than a gritty urban thoroughfare. Overhead, a jumbo screen flashed Pop Art graphics ("BANG!") and images of border fences, billiard halls, scowling tough guys in cowboy hats and other Tijuana emblems. Standing directly behind the violinists and woodwind players, Ramon Amezcua and Pepe Mogt -- better known as Bostich and Fussible of the electronic music ensemble Nortec Collective -- tapped out metronomic tempos on hand-held computers, alternately merging and body-slamming their beats with the rich orchestral harmonies. Punctuating the complex rhythmic pulse, an accordionist, trumpeter and tuba player pumped out shotgun blasts of banda and norteño chords, while the moshing multitudes below snapped cellphone pics and roared their approval. The free, open-air concert was a welcome diversion for this sprawling border city of 1.5 million, which has suffered a months-long spate of brutal drug-related ...
- TOEFL iBT Grammar: Understanding Punctuation Get specific, helpful, and free tips so that you can get a high TOEFL iBT score! See you at my blog! Michael Buckhoff
- GLONASS Blasts Off - Last Russian Launch in 2008 Dec. 25, 2008 - Baikonur Cosmodrome. Three new satellites (Kosmos 2447, 2448 and 2449) blasted off atop russian proton rocket from a frigid launch pad in Kazakhstan today, bolstering Russia's space navigation system to help provide continuous coverage over its territory. It marked the final announced space launch of 2008, punctuating the global industry's most successful year since 2000.
- Barbie Girls Yuna sings of herself, Rikku, Paine being Barbie Girls, carefully punctuating her points with clips. It's not the kind of thing I usually make; it's actually a request from my friend IRL and on Gaiaonline, Kaigu (her sn). She wanted it to annoy her sister with.
- Goldmund - Alberta From "Famous Places" (2010) Famous Places marks the third full-length release by composer Goldmund (aka Keith Kenniff/Helios) and the second release for Texas-based record label Western Vinyl. A graduate of Berklee College of Music with a degree in percussion, Kenniff focuses his Goldmund project instead on solo piano, mixing the delicate composition of composers such as Erik Satie and Harold Budd with a quiet and elegant simplicity. While Famous Places continues similar themes heard in his previous releases, this collection of songs calls to mind certain nostalgia for the composer. The track titles are reflective of landmarks in Kenniff's life that he uses as a theme to base his compositions on, punctuating memories of childhood, love, and loss with his signature sound of modestly beautiful piano vignettes. Although the album consists mostly of solo piano, from time to time the listener can hear understated ambient drones, distant keyboard melodies and other instruments far off in the background highlighting his hazily recollected portraits of years gone by. Website : Kenniff's almost reluctance to defy a dynamic marking of pianissimo and his close-mic'd upright piano makes the exploration a quietly reflective journey that invites the listener to sit beside the composer and pay attention to the space between the notes just as much as when he gently taps the piano hammer to the strings. Along with Goldmund, Keith Kenniff also fronts his other popular ...
- A Shared Culture In this video, some of the leading thinkers behind Creative Commons describe how the organization is helping save the world from failed sharing through free tools that enable creators to easily make their work available to the public for legal sharing and remix. Director Jesse Dylan puts the Creative Commons system into action by punctuating the interview footage with dozens of photos that have been offered to the public for use under CC licenses. Similarly, he used two CC-licensed instrumental pieces by Nine Inch Nails as the videos soundtrack music. These tracks, 17 Ghosts II and 21 Ghosts III, come from the Nine Inch Nails album Ghosts I-IV, which was released earlier this year under a Creative Commons BY-NC-SA license.
- punctuating rhythms with a driving force-lenny nelson.wmv punctuating the time feel permeates the atmosphere with intensity.lenny nelson
- Guggenheim Las Vegas Art Of The Motorcycle Exhibit The Art of the Motorcycle premiered in New York at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in the summer of 1998, where it drew record numbers of visitors and was heralded as a ground-breaking cultural event. Following its presentation in New York, the exhibition traveled to the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, and to the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, Spain, where it also broke attendance records. The exhibition chronicled the most compelling moments in the evolution of motorcycle technology and design, and places the motorcycle within a cultural and historical context. More than 130 motorcycles were arranged chronologically, beginning with the Michaux Perreaux (1868)—essentially a steam engine attached to a bicycle—to the latest and most technologically advanced models. Punctuating the chronology are two thematic sections, which highlight custom motorcycles and post-World War II racing models. In addition, the exhibition featured a large collection of approximately 200 pieces of motorcycle ephemera and memorabilia, including advertising and sales brochures, as well as original motorcycle posters, made available for the first time for the Las Vegas presentation. Guggenheim Las Vegas installation was designed by Frank O. Gehry. Museum design by Rem Koolhaas. Exhibition Design: The exhibition installation was designed by Frank O. Gehry. He designed the installation of the exhibition when it was on view at the Guggenheim museums in both New York and Bilbao. For Las Vegas ...
- Grammar - punctuating indirect question For more grammar tips, visit
- Dennis Rodman "Karate Kick" Rebound Amuses Jordan vs.Rockets [02-28-99] Want a download Link? visit ""
- English Grammar & Punctuation : Do You Underline the Title of a Game? The titles of games, such as Scrabble, should be underlined or italicized when written. Treat a game title the same as a book or movie with help from a certified tutor in this free video on punctuation in the English language. Expert: Paige Carrera Bio: Paige Carrera is a certified tutor for both Hillsborough and Pinellas Counties in the Tampa Bay area of Florida. Filmmaker: Christopher Rokosz
- Jazz, Period. - Chateauguay Tenors w/ Kevin Dean "Trane Tracks" Pt. Recorded live at Upstairs Jazz Bar & Grill, Montreal May 30, 2010 "Trane Tracks" Comp. Al McLean This recording was initially shelved do to some technical problems during the filming, but in the end I have decided to release the footage as it is, due to the strong musical performance. The Tenors are joined on stage by Montreal trumpet legend Kevin Dean (professor at McGill's Schulich School of Music) for a great performance of co-leader Al McLean's original tune, "Trane Tracks". The tune is based on the Coltrane classic "Locomotion", with the same device of combining up tempo blues A sections with a Rhythm Changes B. Al McLean and Cameron Wallis make good work of it, with Kevin Dean punctuating the fun rif A sections with tasteful bop flurries. The band is bolstered by the powerful drumming of Rich Irwin, stalwart pianist Geoff Lapp, and 25 year old bass phenom Remi-Jean LeBlanc, who makes his first appearance with the band. Besides the usual high-octane adrenalin rush that is normally associated with The Tenors, this show featured a number of vintage saxophones restored by Al McLean. On this tune, Al begins with a pristine 1925 Buescher alto saxophone in full gold plate, and continues later in the tune with a rare 1910 Buffet Crampon tenor saxophone that really aught to be in a museum. Dean also takes up unusual vintage horns during this performance, beginning with a 1946 Conn 22B trumpet, and continuing on a rare 1949 Blessing Super Artist, similar to the instrument ...
- Punctuation and Conjunctions You must know what a dependent clause is and what an independent clause is. (school project)
- Punctuating Media Titles This video is part of our Write Right student podcast series. More podcasts, including audio ones can be found on our website at writingcenter.tamu.edu.
- Jazz, Period. - Chateauguay Tenors w/ Kevin Dean "Trane Tracks" Pt. 1 Recorded live at Upstairs Jazz Bar & Grill, Montreal May 30, 2010 "Trane Tracks" Comp. Al McLean This recording was initially shelved do to some technical problems during the filming, but in the end I have decided to release the footage as it is, due to the strong musical performance. The Tenors are joined on stage by Montreal trumpet legend Kevin Dean (professor at McGill's Schulich School of Music) for a great performance of co-leader Al McLean's original tune, "Trane Tracks". The tune is based on the Coltrane classic "Locomotion", with the same device of combining up tempo blues A sections with a Rhythm Changes B. Al McLean and Cameron Wallis make good work of it, with Kevin Dean punctuating the fun rif A sections with tasteful bop flurries. The band is bolstered by the powerful drumming of Rich Irwin, stalwart pianist Geoff Lapp, and 25 year old bass phenom Remi-Jean LeBlanc, who makes his first appearance with the band. Besides the usual high-octane adrenalin rush that is normally associated with The Tenors, this show featured a number of vintage saxophones restored by Al McLean. On this tune, Al begins with a pristine 1925 Buescher alto saxophone in full gold plate, and continues later in the tune with a rare 1910 Buffet Crampon tenor saxophone that really aught to be in a museum. Dean also takes up unusual vintage horns during this performance, beginning with a 1946 Conn 22B trumpet, and continuing on a rare 1949 Blessing Super Artist, similar to the instrument ...
- TOEFL iBT Grammar: Punctuating Adjective Clauses Get specific, helpful, and free tips so that you can get a high TOEFL iBT score! See you at my blog! Michael Buckhoff
- Meen Gherak This is a cool song by Moustafa Amar. He's an Egyptian singer. He's good. I didn't translate this, I just subtitled it. The original translation is from ( ), I just took the liberty of punctuating this. The video is really funny. In some sections of the video, there are parts written in arabic. These are not translated, sorry. If you find any mistakes, or anything sluggish, please send me a message or comment to correct it, and I will!!
- Miami Heat Vs Los Angeles Lakers [96-80] NBA Recap And Highlights December, 25 2010 The Los Angeles Lakers finally got their first look at the revamped Miami Heat, and the champs might be a little bit disturbed by what they saw. LeBron James had 27 points, 11 rebounds and 10 assists while hitting a season-high five 3-pointers, and the Heat thrived on the holiday stage in a 96-80 victory over Kobe Bryant and the Lakers on Saturday. HEAT INDEX We've taken our talents to South Beach. Check out the Heat Index. Chris Bosh had 24 points and 13 rebounds, Dwyane Wade added 18 points on a sore knee and the Heat won for the 14th time in 15 games while flustering the two-time defending champions into a terrible offensive performance. Although both teams called the game a television curiosity rather than a potential NBA Finals preview, it clearly meant something to James, who had his third triple-double with Miami and the 31st of his career. He also outplayed Bryant again in his second straight Christmas win at Staples Center, punctuating the win with what certainly appeared to be mutual trash talk in the final minutes. Bryant and Pau Gasol scored 17 points apiece for the Lakers, who fell behind early and never caught up to the tantalizing new contenders for their title. James played a balanced, patient game, even after a technical foul near halftime for an under-the-basket scuffle with Lakers defensive stopper Ron Artest. James' teammates contributed enough to keep the Heat comfortably ahead, with Bosh playing an outstanding first half and Mario Chalmers ...
- Eminem and Dr Dre perform at the Grammy's - What did YOU think? bit.ly - Click to Subscribe to ClevverMusic! Eminem and Dr Dre reunite on stage for the first time in over a decade. I1ve got the details next! Hello everyone I1m Brian Corsetti for Clevver Music. Eminem delivered a knockout performance at the Grammy Awards. Rihanna, joined him onstage midway through his rap punctuating Em's stirring vocals, bellowing the complex chorus before giving way to "Love the Way You Lie" by songwriter Skylar Grey. Grey then launched into my favorite part "I Need a Doctor," the Detox single by Dr. Dre featuring Eminem. Slim Shady attacked his first two verses and then was joined by Dre onstage. These guys ROCKED it, but some fans wanted him on stage longer, however this was Dre's first live TV performance in more than a decade. So what do you guys think? Did you like the performance? Let us know in the comment section below. I1m Brian Corsetti for Clevver Music and I1ll see you next time.
- (HD) Brandy vs Toni Braxton (Studio: Note By Note) Under the light of the midnight moon you hear their voices purr through your speakers as you feel the your lover's passionate embrace. As you reach deeper into each others warmth, their voices climb the scale, seemingly punctuating your moment of eruption and thunderous climax. Their husky textures and dark timbres redefine the myth of the beautiful feminine voice. They are Brandy and Toni Braxton. Just sit back, relax and enjoy the ride ;) Lower Register: Bb2, B2, C3, C#3, D3, Eb3, E3, Upper Chest/Belting Register: C5, C#5, D5, Eb5, E5, F5 musiq91 where you at? :)
- PSQ002: FURESSHU "UNTITLED / 1993 / HORIZONS" 12 Inch This 12 picks up where Furesshus digital releases at a dubstep tempo on Echodub left off but also pushes into the deep, Berlin inspired techno sound that he is presently concentrating on. 1993 sounds fast for its mid 130s tempo, the bass drives the tracks pace and the delay affected stabs provide just enough melody. Horizons feels slower, you could perhaps describe it as a half step track although it twists up the formula for that sub genre. The bass evolves and changes throughout the track, rising and falling, coupled with drones and drums punctuating the track rather than providing a constant element. Untitled marks a change in Furesshus sound. 4/4 deep techno; 11 minutes of gradual, constant evolution in the melodic parts of the track but the driving, perfectly toned kick drum and hi hats holding the groove in place. Mastered by CGB at Dubplates and Mastering, Berlin, Germany.
- Coming Up On The John Gibson Radio Show 12/15/10 Hubris! Punctuating their disastrous term and too cowardly to offer up a Budget, Democrats showed up with a Trillion Dollar Massive Omnibus Spending Bill to fund the Government, fund ObamaCare, increase spending across the board and give sop earmarks to both parties. Should President Obama veto? Gibson examines. Plus: Gibson says wavering Republicans need to get on board for the big win! Class! Far Left Congressman Anthony Weiner topped of his screed demanding higher taxation on "rich" dead people with a full throated defense of taxing Americans for more than half of their earnings. Gibson has that. Plus: Bernard Goldberg says the "rich" are "heroes." Provocateur! The Far Left Media and Moonbats like Michael Moore are now all in on the notion that Julian Assange is a hero. Moore even contributed to Assange's short lived Bail Out from Jail. They do it because anything that makes America look bad is A-OK with them. Why are libertarians sticking up for this creep? Gibson judges everyone. Plus: Pawlenty vs. the Government Unions LISTEN LIVE NOON-3PM EST CALL IN 888-788-9910
- Playing with Off Body Beat Punctuation to Huevos First let me give props to this musician. His name is Huevos, which means Eggs, and my friend Eric ran across him making music at a cafe in Guatamala. Eric is taping his music and putting it on YouTube. You can find another great song by him here: I am told he has at least one cd out. Once Eric gets back to Guatamala I should be able to get more info on that and him. I really like his music -- music, lyrics and vocals, all of it. It's just a tasty 1940's style -- and as part of my bid to use my practice videos to introduce other hoopers to the music of unsigned or local artists, I dedicate this, my first video with this intention to Huevos. Don't you just love this song!?! Support this artist! I will share more info on him soon. In this video I am practicing punctuating breaks and beats in the music with punctuation in my dance. I stayed completely off the body, which wasn't really my intention, but I think it works. I did a pretty good job of speeding up when the song speeds up, slowing down when it slows down and landing on the beat (with the exception of the very beginning when I was running from the stereo to the dance space!) I'll probably do another video to this song too. I want to do a fire hoop to it but I couldn't resist sharing this. I hope you like it. And Huevos, you rock!!!! I hope you get to see this one day!
- audioscan - Noise transformed into ambient music Lets consider a city Milano and try to listen to it, in its wholeness. Millions of vehicles and machines stirring chaotically, punctuating the rhythm of our affairs on Earth. We deem this ocean of unwelcome sounds mostly as noise. This soundscape eludes our control: we barely rectify it, yet we cant give it up, since its embodied in the truck carrying our food, in the tram taking us to work, in the construction site building our houses. Its the sound of contemporaneity. Sounds can be sculpted. We can use noise as raw material to start with. Noise is at the same time no sound and all the possible sounds. Just as white light contains all the colours, noise contains countless sounds. Therefore, instead of using musical instruments we have ground and crumbled noise in very fine components, building from these elements orchestras made up of roads and airplanes, people and cars. We have created music from a scrap of our society. Everything is transformed. Nothing resembles anymore its former essence. Airplanes become microscopic percussions, cars are turned into metallic pianos, hollow murmurs and waterish illusions. Braking and tailpipes screeches become tides of the thinnest strings. audioscan.it Concept and art direction Giorgio Sancristoforo Music Giorgio Sancristoforo e Giuseppe Cordaro Video Quayola Production AGON Basemental Organizational Danilo Cardillo Tech consultant Massimo Marchi Field recording Diego Del Sarto Alessandro Roggero Luca DAloia Eliana Varlaro Dario ...
- Robin Of Sherwood - Strange Land (Extended Version) My first new RoS video for 2years!How time flies! This time set to the haunting Clannad track, Strange Land from the Legend album. It's taken a while to get back into video editing and go through all the footage of the Michael Praed episodes (sometimes frame by frame !). Strange Land is another atmospheric track, with ominous drum beats (like a heartbeat), followed by the dramatic and sudden introduction - usually punctuating a dramatic scene or change of scene. It was a great marriage of music and images that made RoS have such a mystical atmosphere. I wanted Strange Land to show that Robin lived in strange times. There wasn't just the Sheriff & Gisburne to contend with, but also a host of other "strange" characters. Such as Templar knights, the Hounds of Lucifer (led by Morgwyn of Ravenscar), Baron De Belleme, King's - Richard and John to mention and showcase a few. A battle of good against eveil or "light & darkness" I hope this extended version of Strange Land is in keeping with the feel of the show and RoS fans enjoy it. Other videos are to follow. Thanks for all the comments and messages left about my other videos. I really appreciate people commenting and subscribing. Thank You. Remember...Nothings Forgotten...Nothings Ever forgotten.
- crickets and coquis short film showing darkness, ending with handclaps drowned out by crickets and coquis
- Edward and Blair "Moon" EDAIR Song: Angels on the Moon Artist: Thriving Ivory If you likes it, please, take five seconds in punctuating the video :) Please watch in HD, but with a small screen, to get the best quality. The small screen can be achieved by clicking the 2 arrow button on top of the display. -No copyright infrigmented intented-
- Let's Listen: Final Fantasy XII Music - Ozmone Plains (Extended) My FF12 Playlist: "Wide region of plains in Bancour, bordering Dalmasca. Mostly tall grasses, though here and there can be seen volcanic rock formations. In the past, a great battle was fought in the skies over Ozmone Plain. The decaying airshipwrecks punctuating the plains are monuments to the carnage once wrought here."
- Soap Opera Dialogue Assignment--Twins Separated at Birth My students have been working on writing and punctuating dialogue in preparation for our state writing assessment. I gave them the soap opera theme and four choices of cheesy plot lines--a car accident causing amnesia, a mysterious illness, twins separated at birth and an accidental death. Check out their soap opera theatrics. Hilarious!
- Soap Opera Dialogue Assignment--Robert's Accidental Death My students have been working on writing and punctuating dialogue in preparation for our state writing assessment. I gave them the soap opera theme and four choices of cheesy plot lines--a car accident causing amnesia, a mysterious illness, twins separated at birth and an accidental death. Check out their soap opera theatrics. Hilarious!
- Sarah punctuating Sarah learning punctuation marks
Blogs & Forum
blogs and forums about punctuating
“Archived from groups: uk.telecom.mobile,alt.cellular.nokia (More info?) Is there a way to punctuate numbers a Nokia handset which makes them easier to read? For example, rather than see 0012024”
— Punctuating numbers in phonebook - Nokia - Mobility-Brands,
“Punctuating letters. 2206 English Language Exercises. Printable, photocopiable, clearly structured. Designed for ESL Forum | English Vocabulary, Grammar and Idioms. Without doubt vs. Without a doubt | Difference between learning & studying”
— Punctuating letters, english-
“Punctuating Adjective Clauses (http:///forum/ask-teacher/4476 clauses.html) blacknomi. 17-May-2004 07:39. Punctuating Adjective Clauses. Dear teachers,”
— ESL Forum - Punctuating Adjective Clauses,
“Forum:SH Archive/Punctuating quotations. Edit. Redirected from Forum:Punctuating quotations Forums > Senate Hall archive > SH Archive/Punctuating quotations. This page is an archive”
— Forum:SH Archive/Punctuating quotations - Wookieepedia, the,
“Punctuating our lives - by Elaine Isaak. I understand that there are two types of editors: Punctuating our lives written by Elaine Isaak. Other posts written by Elaine Isaak. About”
— Novelists, Inc. Blog " Punctuating our lives,
“When USA Today popularized the use of bulleted lists in the early 1980s, I was not a fan. I railed about the newspaper reducing everything—no matter how complex—to a set of bullet points. What I saw then as a vice,”
— Punctuating Bulleted Lists - Writing Matters,
“Todd Klein on lettering, life, literature and more I've been a long-time reader of your blog, and I was wondering if you could answer my question, as noted in the subject heading: why is the double hyphen still used in comic book lettering when the en-dash (or em-dash) is so much more elegant?”
— Todd's Blog " Blog Archive " Punctuating Comics: Dots and Dashes,
“Punctuating Reality " Blog. Good words, right order. The Baby Syndrome Part 4: Seven Simple Steps to Basic Writing Online: Avoid Confusion. Part 3: Seven Simple”
— Punctuating Reality " Blog,
“Writer's Relief blog and Newsletter information. Read blog articles about submitting poetry, short stories, childrens books, and novels to literary agents and magazines. Get tips on proper grammar usage, proofreading, cover and query letter”
— Writer's Relief Blog | Appositives: What They Are And How To,
“blog. member. group. message. punctuating a collection. a week to go until completion of work Get a blog feed from dstitch. Get a blog feed from all users”
— punctuating a collection - Central Station Blog post,
related keywords for punctuating
- punctuating dialogue
- punctuating titles
- punctuating quotes
- punctuating dialogue worksheet
- punctuating however
- punctuating dates
- punctuating lists
- punctuating time
- punctuating poems
- punctuating movie titles
- punctuating dialogue rules
- punctuating dialogue game
- punctuating dialogue quiz
- punctuating dialogue practice
- punctuating dialogue exercises
- punctuating dialogue powerpoint
- punctuating dialogue lesson plans
- punctuating dialogue lesson
- punctuating dialogue tags
similar for punctuating
- present participle
- free dictionary
- personal tools
- simple english
- community portal
- requested entries
- recent changes
- random entry
- upload file
- did you see
- stop whispering
- quotation marks
- direct quotation
- indirect quotation
- first word
- speaker changes
- exact words
- she asked
- question mark
- exclamation point
- the shadow
- dark corner
- corner of the room
- how to
- works of art
- study tips
- proper punctuation
- song title
- tv series
- parenthetical reference
- block quotations
- go to the top
- exclamation mark
- write place
- three lines
- block quotation
- parenthetical citation
- decorative scheme
- the concise oxford dictionary of archaeology
- unanswered questions
- oxford university press
- you know who
- reference library
- drama film
- the baby
- baby syndrome
- photo source
- book deals | <urn:uuid:d074e590-fad9-4bad-9691-1118151a757f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://wordsdomination.com/punctuating.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00091-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928224 | 9,042 | 2.9375 | 3 |
On September 11th, with the intentional crashing of four commercial jet airliners and the subsequent air traffic shutdown, air travel was permanently altered, never to be viewed in the same way by the travelling public, never to be dealt with in the same way by government or industry. It was the opening door to the most chaotic and financially stressful decade in the long history of commercial air travel, ending a period of record profits and growth for airlines.
The terrorist strike brought with it a wave of changes intended to secure commercial skies, but changes which, to the flying public, began to make modern air travel more of a problem than a solution. The financial pressures of imposed regulations, together with an increasingly disenchanted customer base, were soon joined by oil price spikes and bird flu scares. And then came the spreading financial meltdown, prompting dramatic travel reductions by companies all over the world. The perfect storm was too much for some players. Airline bankruptcies and mergers increased, with four bankruptcy filings in April of 2008 alone, a record for the industry.
Today, in spite of an overall industrial outlook that remains dismal, airlines have some hope for improved numbers. While travelers rile over increased fees for almost everything, they are still flying. And airline capacity has not grown during this time, meaning that the supply of seats is about the same or less. The lack of physical growth within the industry, coupled with continued demand and higher charges, suggests a real potential for profit, something not seen in a long time.
While all of this has been going on, there’s been another battle for the skies that will ultimately have its own effect on the future of air travel, one taking place between the two remaining giants of commercial air travel, Airbus and Boeing. Long before the above events, Airbus and Boeing were mapping out strategies for dealing with rising fuel costs, environmental and noise concerns, and growing public demand for cheaper and more efficient transportation. As far back as 1988, Airbus engineers began planning for what would become the world’s biggest commercial aircraft, the A380, capable of holding up to 853 people in some configurations. The idea was that, if a big airplane could fly people cheaply, an even bigger airplane could fly more people even more cheaply. The first A380 was delivered to Singapore Airlines in 2007, with the airline later claiming that the airplane was indeed burning 20% less fuel per passenger than the airline’s existing 747-400 fleet, and with half the cabin noise.
Boeing approached the challenge from a different angle, resulting in the 787 “Dreamliner”, now anticipating delivery in early 2011. Like Airbus, Boeing targeted fuel efficiency and noise, but in a smaller and less expensive package. Boeing says the 787 is 60% quieter, and uses 20% less fuel, but is also smaller and more flexible, with fewer restrictions. Boeing has already gotten over 800 orders for the plane, the fastest selling commercial jet in history, with the first delivery planned for Japan’s All Nippon Airways.
Both Airbus and Boeing make many other aircraft, which, together with the A380 and 787, all target slightly different markets. But these two aircraft give an idea of what airlines will have going for them in the near future – greater fuel efficiency and less noise. And it’s the fuel efficiency component that airlines hope will most help the bottom line. Below are some of the less conspicuous publicly traded airline related stocks.
• AirTran Holdings (NYSE: AAI)
• ACE Aviation Holdings (PINKSHEETS: ACEAF)
• Great Lakes Aviation (OTCBB: GLUX)
• JetBlue Airways (NASDAQ: JBLU)
• Pinnacle Airlines (NASDAQ: PNCL)
• Republic Airways Holdings (NASDAQ: RJET)
• Ryanair Holdings (NASDAQ: RYAAY)
• SkyWest (NASDAQ: SKYW)
But there’s another side to commercial air travel, a rapidly growing niche market catering to those that can afford it. It’s the world of aviation charter, perhaps best represented by the premier aviation charter broker VizStar (OTCBB: VIZS), the brainchild of a group of opportunistic investors who realized there was a vast and unmet market for luxury, hassle-free private travel at reduced costs on an as-needed basis. It’s for people who have no intention of putting up with crowded terminals, baggage check-in, delayed flights, or cramped seating. With VizStar, efficient and appealing air travel for executives makes economic sense to corporations trying to reduce the costs of maintaining their own aircraft.
Imagine scheduling a flight only a few hours before you want to fly someplace, business or pleasure, regardless of where you want to go. A chauffeured limo picks you up, at work or at home, and drops you off right by your own plane, any size plane, along with whoever you’re taking along. No baggage check-in, no lines, no delays. You leave whenever you want, on a luxury plane with plenty of room to stretch, and endless amenities to enjoy. You arrive non-stop, totally refreshed, where a limo takes you to your final destination. You’re already looking forward to the flight back.
You don’t have to own the plane, and neither does your company. It’s all chartered. It’s the epitome of luxury travel, and yet, in the world of chartered air travel, it’s amazingly affordable, with clients saving 20%-30% over traditional air charter companies. There are no monthly fees, no up-front commitments, no membership costs at all. And it’s available 24/7/365.
For a growing number of companies and fortunate people, the VizStar model is the real future of air travel.
Let us hear your thoughts: VizStar, Inc. Message Board | <urn:uuid:aef2b72e-c4a3-4a65-ae24-836c27d1af69> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.qualitystocks.net/category/vizstar-inc-vizs-ob/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944955 | 1,230 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Japan is an island nation situated off the east coast of the Asian continent. The nation's roughly 7,000 islands extend in an arc of about 3,000 km northeast to southwest. Total land area, if the Northern Territories are included, is 377,864 km2.
Related categories 3
Other languages 27
Last update:June 24, 2016 at 4:40:09 UTC | <urn:uuid:9841a639-040c-45c4-95d5-d56ba5791667> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Japan | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.846259 | 78 | 2.578125 | 3 |
The Honduras Garifunas are proud of their culture. The Garifuna communities are strong, with great emphasis on music, dance and history. They have formed their own religion, the Dugu, consisting of a mixture of Catholicism and African beliefs, and speak a unique language.
Most Garifuna villages in Honduras are dependent upon fishing, which is carried out using hand fishing lines, nets and hand-made dugout canoes.
The Garifuna use what nature offers. The local agriculture is incorporated into their diets and dishes, such as “La machuca”, a food made of mashed green plantains with coconut milk soup and fried fish. This would be enjoyed with “cassava”, which looks similar to a large fragile tortilla, and is made from the yuca root.
|Internet Directory [Directorio de Internet]
Performing Arts [Teatro y Actuación]
Travel & Tourism [Viajes y Turismo]
|Gari Foods – food if the garifuna people|
History of Tela
|Aurelio Martinez – Garifuna Soul
garinet.com The Garifuna Place of The New Millenium
|OFRANEH – Organización Fraternal Negra Hondureña
ONECA – Organización Negra Centroamericana/Central American Black Organization
ODECO – Organización de Desarrollo Étnico Comunitario
|PERFORMING ARTS [TEATRO Y ACTUACION]|
|Dugu or feast of the death
Spirit of my Mother – a Garifuna woman’s spiritual journey
|TRAVEL & TOURISM [VIAJES Y TURISMO]|
Garifuna Villages around Tela | <urn:uuid:639bd4ec-9104-484c-b7a9-5f48571983a0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.honduras.com/honduras-garifunas/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.722187 | 379 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Table of Contents
Water is hydrogen oxide and it is composed of two molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen. It has a molecular weight of 18.016 and is the most universal solvent known.
Water is the most universal solvent known. In the human body, it is capable of dissolving simple elements, ions and large organic molecules. Because of water's ability to maintain these materials in solution, the various body chemicals are capable of undergoing reactions that would not be possible in other forms.
Because water is a liquid, it can be carried through the circulatory system, reaching to all cells in the body.
Water is the most common compound in the human body, although the percentage of body water will vary from individual to individual, depending on age, gender, and general body composition. Newborn infants are about 78% body water, but this drops to
(Illustration by GGS Information Services/Thomson Gale.)
65% by one year of age. Although the adult percentages are often quoted as 60% for males and 55% for females, this is strongly influenced by the amount of body fat present in the body. Since fat cells contain very little water, higher levels of body fat will reduce the overall percentage of water.
Intracellular fluid, the liquid inside individual cells, represents about two-thirds of the body's water. or about 40% of total body weight. Intracellular fluid contains both water and salts, primarily potassium, as well as enzymes and other organic molecules. Flow of water into and out of the cell is largely controlled by osmosis. The outermost layer of an animal cell is the cell membrane, and water can flow through the membrane from areas of low salt concentration to areas of high salt concentration. The remaining water is in the form of extracellular fluid that includes blood and cerebrospinal fluid. The most common ion of the extracellular fluid is sodium. Body water may be lost through various mechanisms including respiration, perspiration, and urination, and must constantly be replaced. Under the best circumstances, water levels will be completely balanced, and the intake will match the amount of water lost.
Because water can be moved through the body rapidly, people have used diuretics to give the illusion of weight loss. Diuretcis, both drugs and diuretic herbs, promote loss of water through the kidneys. Water loss is at best transient, and has no real benefit in terms of either health or physical appearance.
Beyond its role in general health, water can make play a major role in maintaining body weight through a program of caloric restriction. Foods that contain large amounts of water, such as fruits and vegetables, have low energy density, and so may produce sensations of satiety with low caloric intake.
Several published studies showed interesting patterns of food intake based on the water composition of foods. In one, subjects were given either food containing a high concentration of water, such as a soup of a stew, or the same solids prepared as a casserole, with water to accompany the meal. Although in each case, the total amount of both solids and water were the same, subjects ingested fewer calories when the water was incorporated into the food source. In a related study, advising people to eat foods with low energy density, that is, foods containing higher concentrations of water, was a more successful weight-loss strategy than attempts to limit portion size.
The second study evaluated the effects of preloading water before a meal. Subjects were asked to drink water before eating. Although subjects claimed that the quantity of water ingested had filled them up, and they had no appetite, the amount of food actually consumed after the pre-load was no different from that eaten by members of the control group. Although these studies are not definitive, they do indiate that foods with a high concentration of water, such as soups, stews, or salads, may be useful in weight loss programs by providing satiety with low levels of energy intake.
Failure to maintain adequate water levels can lead to dehydration. While this may be the result of various diseases, the initial symptoms are thirst and dry mouth. followed by lightheadedness and dizziness
Although water intake is normally very safe, excessive water intake, also known as hyperhydration, can occur, and may be fatal. Excessive water intake can lead to dilution of the sodium levels in the body, causing hyponatremia. This condition is sometimes seen in infants who may ingest too much water, either because they are given only water to drink or because excessive water is used to dilute infant formulas. Water intoxication may also result from severe vomiting or diarrhea in which the fluid is replaced with water, without replacing the electrolytes. Rarely, athletes who have undergone very great extertion may perspire excessively, and, if the fluid loss is replaced with water without electrolytes, may experience water intoxication. Althoug this is very rare, it did occur at the 2007 London Marathon, when temperatures were unseasonably warm that over 5,000 runners needed to be treated on site. Over 70 runners were taken to the hospital for treatment and one first-time marathoner, 22 years of age, died from hyperhydration. Voluntary hyperhydration has been reported and has been known to be fatal. On occasion, hyperhydration has been reported as part of school hazings.
Symptoms of water intoxication are similar to those of dehydration: muscle cramps, confusion, nausea, slurred speech and disorientation. Because of this, althletes may mistake water intoxication for dehydration, and drink even more water after toxicity has appeared. The goal of rehydration is to drink just enough water to replace the amount lost to perspiration. Forcing fluids can be dangerous. While sports drinks replace electrolytes, they may also provide a high level of calories. For people exercising to lose weight, an appropriate amount of water has been advocated as the most appropriate method of rehydration.
Weight loss programs should target body fat; however, some weight-loss remedies, in an attempt to show prompt results, have incorporated diuretic drugs. These may lead to loss of body water, with the risk of dehydration.
Adolescents and teen-agers should be aware of the hazards associated with hyperhydration. Children of this age may be at risk both of excessive water intake after athletics, and also as part of school hazing rituals.
Lide, David, editor. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 87th edition. Boca Raton, Florida: CRDC Press, 2006.
Gray RW, French SJ, Robinson TM, Yeomans MR.
“Increasing preload volume with water reduces rated appetite but not food intake in healthy men even with minimum delay between preload and test meal.” Nutr Neurosci. 2003 Feb; 6(1): 29-37.
Keating JP, Schears GJ, Dodge PR. Oral water intoxication in infants. An American epidemic. Am J Dis Child.1991 Sep; 145(9): 985-90.
Norton GN, Anderson AS, Hetherington MM. “Volume and variety: relative effects on food intake.” Physiol Behav. 2006 Apr 15; 87(4): 714-22. Epub 2006 Mar 3.
Rolls BJ,Bell EA,Thorwart ML. “Water incorporated into a food but not served with a food decreases energy intake in lean women.” Am J Clin Nutr. 1999 Oct; 70(4): 448-55.
Stiefel D, Petzold A. “H2O Coma.” Neurocrit Care. 2007; 6(1): 67-71
Baby Milk Action. 34 Trumpington Street, Cambridge, CB2
1QY UK. Phone: 01223 464420; +44 1223 464420 (outside UK). <http://www.babymilkaction.org>
Mothers Against School Hazing (MASH). PO Box 14121, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70898. <http://www.mashinc.org.>
Urgent Care Association of America. 4320 Winfield Road, Suite 200 Warrenville, IL 60555. Phone: (877) 698-2262. <http://www.ucaoa.org.>
Samuel D. Uretsky, PharmD | <urn:uuid:da1e4a46-6da8-46d1-9262-94ef7e384e59> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.diet.com/g/water | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00177-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948213 | 1,728 | 3.640625 | 4 |
Pollen tubes are attracted by LURE peptides, which are produced from ovules, to bring about fertilization. In their recent report published in Nature, a pair of plant biologists at Nagoya University has now revealed for the first time, the receptor in pollen tubes that is required to detect LURE. By uncovering this unknown mechanism in plant fertilization, this may lead to an improvement in the efficiency of pollen tube growth, which may thus result in an increased success rate of fertilization. In addition, this study may also generate new methods to enable cross-fertilization between different plant species to generate new crops.
Nagoya, Japan - Dr. Hidenori Takeuchi and Professor Tetsuya Higashiyama of the JST-ERATO Higashiyama Live-Holonics Project and the Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules (ITbM) of Nagoya University have succeeded in discovering a key kinase receptor in the pollen tubes (male) of flowering plants responsible for allowing the pollen tubes to precisely reach the egg cell (female) to enable successful fertilization, without losing its way.
Pollen tubes grow inside the pistil and deliver their sperm cell to egg cells, which are located deep inside the pistil, to bring about fertilization. Higashiyama's group has previously discovered a pollen tube attractant peptide, called LURE, which is produced by the ovule to guide the pollen tube towards the egg cell. Studies have shown that the structure of LURE differs for each plant species and is specific for each plant's pollen tube, i.e. each LURE peptide preferentially attracts the pollen tube of the same plant species. However, the exact mechanism on how pollen tubes detect LURE has been unknown up to now.
In this study, published online on March 10, 2016 in the journal Nature, Takeuchi and Higashiyama have discovered a receptor that is required for detection of LURE at the tip of the pollen tube for the model plant, Arabidopsis thaliana (thale cress). They also found that this receptor works with multiple receptors that have a similar structure, in order to precisely detect the signals transmitted from the pistil. By accepting the various signals sent from the pistil, the kinase receptors enable the pollen tubes to grow to a position inside the pistil where they can detect LURE. Subsequently, the pollen tubes are guided to reach the egg cell and pass on their sperm cells for fertilization.
"We believe that this study advances our understanding on the mechanism of fertilization between plant species," says Takeuchi, a postdoctoral researcher, currently at the Gregor Mendel Institute in Austria, who carried out this study. "Upon investigating the role of this receptor in further detail, we hope that this will lead to the development of techniques to alter the success rate in fertilization and improve the efficiency of seed production, as well as establish methods to enable fertilization between different species," says Higashiyama, project leader of the ERATO project and a Professor/Vice-Director at ITbM, Nagoya University.
Rice and soybeans that we eat on a daily basis are the seeds of plants and many vegetables develop from seeds. For plants to grow seeds, it is necessary for the male and female reproductive organs in plants to meet and fertilize. The male organ of flowering plants consists of pollen and the sperm cells within. Pollen develops into a pollen tube, which is a single cell with a tubular structure. The tip of the pollen tube (anther) extends and grows into the pistil. The pollen tube eventually reaches the egg cell deep inside the pistil, and passes the sperm cell to the egg cell to bring about fertilization.
The fact that pollen tubes are able to precisely find egg cells without losing its way may be the key element that supports our food supply. The meeting of male and female organs in plants is an extremely mystical and important event, but its exact mechanism is still full of mystery.
In 2009, Higashiyama and his colleagues discovered that a synergid cell, which is located next to the egg cell, produces molecules called LUREs that attract pollen tubes in Torenia plants. They also discovered similar LURE peptides in Arabidopsis thaliana in 2012.
"We found that the structure of LURE differs according to the plant species, and that LURE of a specific plant attracts pollen tubes of the same species, which preserves fertilization between the same species," describes Higashiyama. "Therefore, LURE has been identified as the key factor produced by the female organ to attract the male organ in plants."
Nevertheless, the mechanism on how pollen tubes can detect LURE, how the pollen tubes grow to a position inside the pistil where they can detect LURE, and the factors behind growth and responses of the pollen tubes have been unknown. Higashiyama's team decided to look into these questions by trying to unveil the key factors in pollen tubes that enable it to detect LURE.
"By using Arabidopsis thaliana as a model, we hypothesized that the 23 kinase receptors specifically localized on the membrane surface of pollen tubes could be candidates that are necessary to detect LURE," says Takeuchi. "I conducted bioassays of pollen tubes by deactivating the function of each kinase receptor and found that the PRK6 receptor was essential to detect LURE."
For PRK6, there are actually multiple families of receptors that have a similar amino acid sequence. Upon deactivating the function of other PRK receptors, Takeuchi and Higashiyama found that the loss of various combinations of PRK receptors led to reductions in responses of the pollen tubes to LURE or hindered pollen tube growth. This coincides with previous reports that the growth of pollen tubes is induced by the PRK receptor responding to the signals sent from the pistil. Hence, the team found that PRK6 and its other PRK receptors work together to detect LURE as well as enable pollen tubes to grow to a position inside a pistil where it can detect LURE.
Takeuchi next studied how PRK6 sends signals within the cells of the pollen tube to understand how it responds to LURE. "When the pollen tube is growing in a straight direction, PRK6 is distributed equally across the cell membrane," explains Takeuchi. "I used fluorescently labeled PRK6 and upon addition of LURE to the pollen tube, I observed that PRK6 moves towards the area of cell membrane on the tip of the pollen tube that faces LURE. The pollen tube then changes its direction and starts to grow towards LURE." From these results, the team showed that PRK6 collects the factors necessary for pollen tube growth in the direction of LURE.
"Although the attraction of pollen tubes is considered to occur preferentially between the same species, we wanted to see whether if we can make it occur between different species," says Higashiyama. Upon treatment of LURE from Arabidopsis thaliana to a pollen tube of a Capsella rubella (pink shepherd's-purse) plant, which is in the same Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) family as Arabidopsis thaliana, no response to LURE was observed.
"Interestingly, when we inserted the PRK6 gene of Arabidopsis thaliana into the pollen tube of Capsella rubella, it responded to the LURE of Arabidopsis thaliana," says Takeuchi. "This data shows that the PRK6 receptor in the pollen tube is surely the key factor to detect LURE of the same species. We were also really excited to see pollen tube attraction occur between a pollen tube and a LURE of a different species," say Takeuchi and Higashiyama.
The generation of seeds through the fertilization of the pistil by the stamen has been known for over 2000 years ago and is an extremely important mechanism in agriculture. In addition, the fact that pollen tubes are attracted to the pistil organ has been discovered over 100 years ago. Since the discovery of the attractant molecule LURE, the disclosure of the mechanism of response to the protein has been sought. This study reveals that the PRK6 receptor in pollen tubes is the main factor for detection of and growth towards LURE.
"By further investigation on the family of PRK receptors, we hope to unveil the full mechanism of fertilization that occurs through the growth of pollen tubes and the detection of LURE," say Takeuchi and Higashiyama.
"We also found in our studies that the insertion of a PRK6 receptor gene allows attraction of the pollen tube of a different species," says Higashiyama. "This may have potential in developing new methods to enable fertilization between different species. By exploring molecules that target PRK receptors, this may lead to the production of agrochemicals that can improve seed production by increasing the fertilization rate. We also envisage that this study will trigger new research to enable fertilization between different species to create new and useful plant species that can contribute towards a sustainable food supply," he continues.
This article "Tip-localized receptors control pollen tube growth and LURE sensing in Arabidopsis" by Hidenori Takeuchi and Tetsuya Higashiyama, is published online on March 10, 2016 in Nature.
DOI: 10.1038/nature17413 (http://dx.
The Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules (ITbM) at Nagoya University in Japan is committed to advance the integration of synthetic chemistry, plant/animal biology and theoretical science, all of which are traditionally strong fields in the university. ITbM is one of the research centers of the Japanese MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology) program, the World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI). The aim of ITbM is to develop transformative bio-molecules, innovative functional molecules capable of bringing about fundamental change to biological science and technology. Research at ITbM is carried out in a "Mix-Lab" style, where international young researchers from various fields work together side-by-side in the same lab, enabling interdisciplinary interaction. Through these endeavors, ITbM will create "transformative bio-molecules" that will dramatically change the way of research in chemistry, biology and other related fields to solve urgent problems, such as environmental issues, food production and medical technology that have a significant impact on the society.
Individual cells of multicellular organisms communicate with neighboring cells to maintain the organism. Each cell in a multicellular organism learns its role in the cell population through dynamic and intricate communication with surrounding and distant cells. We call this cell-to-cell communication as "holonic communication". However, it is still unclear how cells actually communicate with each other in a living organism. The goal of this project is to understand holonic communication in a living, multicellular organism. For this purpose, our project sets up three research groups for optical technology, nano-engineering, and single-cell omics to make a new frontier in 'live cell biology' - the real-time analysis of intercellular signaling in multicellular organisms. For live-cell analyses with complete control under the microscope, various new technologies are expected to be developed such as live-cell and single-molecule imaging, manipulation techniques for cell and molecules, interdisciplinary studies of plant biology and engineering technologies, and nano- and micro-device engineering. These technologies will be applicable to other fields, not only scientific instruments but also diagnosis methods for medical care, reproductive medicine, and breeding techniques for agriculture. | <urn:uuid:74c0e1e4-b889-437f-9f5c-4b3378c78478> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2016-03/iotb-wms031016.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00133-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94015 | 2,416 | 3.75 | 4 |
This talk examines the reception of colossal Olmec heads in the United States and Mexico during the 1960s, their decade of greatest exposure. A mission led by U.S. archaeologist Matthew Stirling in 1939 catapulted the Olmecs and their striking monumental art to mainstream fame in both countries. Made sometime between 1500 and 400 BC by the first "urban" culture of the Americas, the striking naturalism of these large and extremely heavy carved heads of volcanic stone mystified scholars, artists, and popular audiences . Heated debates about the dating, production, and ancient transportation of the heads raged for decades thereafter, parallel to racially-charged controversies surrounding the presumed and confusing 'African' traits that these heads evinced. Showcased in a number of now-forgotten blockbuster exhibitions in museums and World's Fairs pavilions in the early 1960s, the striking heads became a significant presence within official Mexican culture and proved central to diplomatic transactions on both sides of the U.S.-Mexico border. Still more interestingly, their expansive, mass-mediated reception also exerted considerable impact on a number of artistic trajectories in the U.S. Exploring their heretofore understudied centrality to early practices of 'public' art, land art, and various other sculptural trajectories, the talk also examines their enduring and unsuspected imprint on artistic and museological practices revived very recently.
Luis Castañeda is an assistant professor of art history at Syracuse University. His work focuses on the interrelations between art, design, media and cultural display in twentieth-century Latin America. A current book manuscript explores the design culture of Mexico’s mid twentieth-century economic “Miracle” as part of a transnational matrix of political, financial, and ideological exchanges. Castañeda’s writings on art, design, and culture have appeared in Grey Room, Pidgin, the Journal of Surrealism and the Americas, the Journal of Design History, and the Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. He has lectured and presented papers internationally , and has received awards from NYU, the Pinta Foundation, Syracuse University, and the Institute for Advanced Study at the University of Minnesota. | <urn:uuid:e244d4d1-8a23-453f-8aad-8400844fcfa9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lsa.umich.edu/vgn-ext-templating/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=60f61ee27a5a5310VgnVCM100000c2b1d38dRCRD&vgnextchannel=7c188322a473b210VgnVCM10000055b1d38dRCRD&vgnextfmt=detail | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00129-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944694 | 455 | 2.78125 | 3 |
|Full Name||38 State of the City of the Vatican|
|Alliance||Neutral or Non-Belligerent|
Contributor: C. Peter Chen
ww2dbaseThe modern city state of Vatican City government was formed when Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini and Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Gasparri signed the Lateran Treaty in Feb 1929; the treaty was one of three agreements collectively known as the Lateran Pacts of 1929. One of the clauses established in 1929 was that the Vatican must remain neutral, and would not act as an intermediary unless all parties agree upon such an arrangement. A religious state, the country's chief executive was the Pope of the Catholic Church. In 1938, when Italy passed a law forbidding marriage between Jews and non-Jews, the Vatican considered it to be a breach of the Lateran Pacts, as the two nations had previously agreed that the Catholic Church should be the sole authority on matters of marriage involving Catholics. On, 2 March 1939, Eugenio Pacelli became the head of the Catholic Church; he took on the papal name Pius XII. Within his first few months as the head of state, he implemented several policies to protect Italian Jews. First, he appointed several prominent Jewish scholars at posts at the Vatican after they had been dismissed from Italian universities due to their ethnicity. Then, on 23 Jun 1939, he reached an agreement with Brazilian President Getúlio Vargas for Brazil to issue 3,000 visas to allow non-Aryan Catholics, some of whom were Jews recently converted to Catholicism to escape persecution, to travel to Brazil (ultimately, however, only under 1,000 visas would be issued).
ww2dbaseWhen the European War was about to begin in 1939, Pope Pius XII attempted to mediate between the powers to maintain peace. He informed Mussolini via Jesuit Father Tacchi Venturi of this intention, and received Mussolini's agreement to proceed. Next, Cardinal Secretary of State Luigi Maglione reached out to Vatican representatives Valerio Valeri in France, Filippo Cortesi in Poland, Cesare Orsenigo in Germany, and William Godfrey in Britain. The discussions resulted in the recommendation for Poland to accept a German annexation of Danzig, to which Poland refused, thus accomplishing nearly nothing.
ww2dbaseDuring the war, Pope Pius XII made attempts to maintain Vatican City's neutrality. For example, there were very few appointments of cardinals during the war; many of the positions were left vacant until after the war, resulting in 32 cardinals being created in 1946. Despite the attempts at remaining neutral, one action he took was viewed by some as a gross violation of such stance. In May 1942, the church appointed a German Apostolic Administrator to lead the Catholic Church in occupied Poland. This action was not only controversial during the war, but also created a serious rift in the diplomatic relationship between Poland and Vatican City; as one of the consequences, between 1947 and 1989, Vatican City did not appoint an Apostolic Nuncio to Poland.
ww2dbaseOn 20 May 1940, Vatican newspaper Osservatore Romano began to carry only war news published by the Italian government. In Aug 1940, readers found that there were no more weather reports in this newspaper; this was stopped after the Italian government complained that such reports were used by the British for planning aerial attacks on Italy. The Vatican Radio followed suit. In Dec 1940, Vatican City officially banned the Swiss Guard, the nation's small defensive force, from discussing politics.
ww2dbaseDuring the war, the Vatican City never publicly condemned the Nazi systematic extermination of various groups, which included many Catholics. Speaking to American representatives who tried to persuade him to do so, Pope Pius XII expressed that he could not speak of the Nazi atrocities without also bring up similar Soviet practices. It was also the Vatican's official stance that the alleged atrocities could not be verified. However, Pope Pius XII's Christmas address of 1942 did make mention of human aggression and the racial violence, with language suggesting that he was targeting the Germans without specifically naming them.
ww2dbaseIn late 1942, Vatican City was approached by Italian representatives who wanted a return to peace. This again resulted in little, as Britain distrusted Italy's ambassador to Vatican City, Galeazzo Ciano, who was Mussolini's son-in-law.
ww2dbaseDue to Vatican City's location within Rome, the Italian capital city was subjected by Allied bombing rather infrequently, as the Allies did not wish to violate Vatican City's neutrality by accident. The Allies dropped propaganda pamphlets a number of times over Rome, and a few of them drifted over across Vatican borders; complaints of such infringements were filed.
ww2dbaseAfter Italy switched sides in 1943, Rome quickly became occupied by German troops. In the case that German troops were to occupy Vatican City as well, which never happened, Pope Pius XII decreed that the government was to exile to Portugal, and if he became captured, the College of Cardinals would elect a new Pope. During the Italian-to-German transition, many Allied prisoners of war were released by their Italian captors, many of them headed for Vatican City as it was the nearest neutral nation. The Vatican feared that housing such great numbers of former Allied fighters would become a burden on its neutrality, thus the Swiss Guard prevented the former prisoners from entering the country's borders. Many Vatican officials, however, acted independently to harbor those who sought for assistance, regardless of their allegiance. At this time, there were also reportedly thousands of Jews who were in hiding in Vatican City and at the papal summer residence. On 27 Sep 1943, Germans in Rome demanded from the local Jewish community 100 pounds of gold in 36 hours, or 300 Jews would be deported. When the Jews failed to come up with the gold, the Vatican treasury opened up to make up this amount. The payment saved 300 Jews from immediate capture, but within a month, on 16 Oct, 2,091 Jews were deported by the Germans anyway. Although the Vatican failed to make a stance against the extermination of Jews, Vatican City, and the Catholic Church in general, was credited with savings thousands of Jews during the Holocaust. Nazi official Adolf Eichmann, for example, had written in his diary that while the Vatican took no official stance, members of the church "vigorously protested the arrest of Jews, requesting the interruption of such action".
ww2dbaseIn 1944, conspirator of the July Plot Joseph Müller, a German Catholic priest, attempted to persuade Pope Pius XII to act as an intermediary, passing information about German resistance of Hitler to the British; maintaining his neutral stance, when the Pope met with British ambassador D'Arcy Osborne, he only informed him of his knowledge of resistance within Germany, with members of the military in its ranks, but did not disclose names nor offer his support.
ww2dbaseAfter the war, the Lateran Treaty which gave Vatican City its status as a sovereign state was incorporated into the Constitution of the Italian Republic in 1947.
|Pius XII||Tacchi Venturi, Pietro|
Events Taken Place in Vatican City
|Bombing of Rome, Naples, and Other Cities||2 Mar 1942 - 30 Sep 1943|
Visitor Submitted Comments
All visitor submitted comments are opinions of those making the submissions and do not reflect views of WW2DB.
- » Kaname Harada's Passing (5 May 2016)
- » Mein Kampf to be Commercially Available in Germany for the First Time Since WW2 (4 Jan 2016)
- » WW2DB's 11th Anniversary (29 Dec 2015)
- » See all news
- » 927 biographies
- » 319 events
- » 33,041 timeline entries
- » 711 ships
- » 314 aircraft models
- » 178 vehicle models
- » 316 weapon models
- » 94 historical documents
- » 120 facilities
- » 414 book reviews
- » 23,031 photos
- » 271 maps
Lt. Gen. Lewis B. "Chesty" Puller, at Guadalcanal | <urn:uuid:a2557656-4445-47a1-b94b-2c0b673c52f0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ww2db.com/country/vatican_city | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974474 | 1,679 | 3.4375 | 3 |
December is infectious disease month: About HIV/AIDS by Dr. Todd Wallenius
HIV disease, or human immunodeficiency virus, is a virus not unlike many common viruses that cause the flu. Symptoms of HIV infection include symptoms typical for any viral illness. Symptoms usually occur within 1 to 4 weeks of infection and may include fever, chills, sweats, headache, fatigue, rash, swollen lymph nodes, sore throat, achy muscles. These symptoms can last from a few days to 4 weeks, and then resolve. Unfortunately HIV does not “go away” after a period of sickness. Rather, the virus stays with you and outsmarts your defense system, making copies of itself along the way to overcome your immune system. Fortunately there are medications that fight HIV. In fact, HIV disease has become manageable, similar to other chronic diseases like diabetes, asthma, and hypertension. On November 20th, the US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) drafted a strong recommendation that all people aged 15 to 65 years undergo screening for HIV infection. The statement also recommends HIV screening for all pregnant women, including those who present at the time of labor, and for younger adolescents and older adults who are at increased risk.
Once diagnosed, HIV, just like other chronic diseases, HIV needs to be treated regularly and treated effectively. Keeping people with HIV in care is a very important part of keeping them healthy and living as normal a life as possible. Medications, while very expensive, are much more effective and require fewer doses than in the past, which helps patients stick with the course of treatment..
Unfortunately, untreated or ineffectively treated HIV disease can lead to a more complicated and serious condition known as AIDS, or acquired immune deficiency syndrome. This happens when the virus overruns the immune system and destroys so many good cells that the body can no longer fight the infection. When this happens, more advanced medications are required and regular medical care is imperative. People who die from HIV disease usually die from a complication of AIDS. Again, the good news is that more effective medications and treatment are improving the lives of people with HIV/AIDS. This can only happen when HIV is diagnosed, medications are prescribed and taken regularly and regular medical exams occur to monitor the progression of the disease and the impact of the medications.
Unfortunately, unlike diabetes or high blood pressure, people with HIV disease face barriers such as stigma. Making someone feel ashamed of their disease does not lead to less HIV in our community – it leads to sicker people, higher costs, and more HIV disease. HIV/AIDS is a disease that, when diagnosed and treated promptly, can be managed much more effectively than in the past. Most people with HIV disease live normal lives, just like people with diabetes or high blood pressure.
Western North Carolina Community Health Services (WNCCHS) provides HIV care to over 650 individuals living with HIV disease in western North Carolina. Western NC AIDS Project (WNCAP) and Asheville Infectious Disease Consultants (AIDC) are part of our Network of care. Case managers, physicians, nurse practitioners, nurses, social workers, pharmacists, and lab technicians work as teams to provide high quality HIV care for our community. It is possible that you have friends, neighbors, relatives or co-workers living with HIV/AIDS. Show your care and support so that they can live healthy, normal productive lives. | <urn:uuid:e6774257-e0bf-445b-9013-576850e9b990> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://themountaineer.villagesoup.com/p/december-is-infectious-disease-month-about-hiv-aids-by-dr-todd-wallenius/939373 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00198-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958603 | 694 | 3.984375 | 4 |
Goodbye summer, hello fall. The 2012 Fall Equinox will occur this weekend at 10:49 am EST on September 22nd, officially starting the autumn season.
According to Space.com, the sun will pass directly over the equator during the autumnal equinox. Day and night will be approximately the same length during the equinox, which is how the event got its name. Equinox in Latin means “equal night.”
But the day won’t be exactly 12 hours long. The Washington Post reports that due to atmospheric refraction the sun will appear to be above the horizon for slightly longer than 12 hours.
After the fall equinox the days will start to grow shorter in the Northern hemisphere. This is because the Northern Hemisphere will slowly tilt away from the sun. The days will grow longer in the southern hemisphere and will become shorter in the Northern hemisphere.
At the poles, the change is drastic.
Live Science reports that the sun will walk around the horizon during the fall equinox. A few days later the sun will completely drop below the horizon as the North pole begins a six month period of night.
Are you excited for the first day of Fall? | <urn:uuid:2bca7761-07ac-4fec-9f57-625c6ebc250d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.inquisitr.com/339073/2012-fall-equinox-autumn-officially-arrives-this-weekend/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00054-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93276 | 250 | 3.296875 | 3 |
The New International Encyclopædia/Kaaba
KAABA, kä'bȧ (Ar. ka'bah, square house or chamber). The cube-shaped stone building in the centre of the mosque of Mecca, dating from pre-Islamic times and taken over by Mohammed into the new faith. It seems probable that the name originally designated the square stele representing the god Hobal, who was worshiped there. According to Epiphanius the name of the virgin mother of the god Dusares at Petra was Χααβοῦ, and at Tabala, in Yemen, the name originally designated the white flint stone with a crown sculptured on it which gave its name to the sanctuary (Yemenite Kaaba). The Kaaba has the shape of an irregular cube about 40 feet long, 33 feet wide. 50 feet high. Its corners are oriented. In the northeast corner, about five feet from the ground, is set the famous Black Stone which gives the Kaaba its sanctity. This stone, probably of meteoric origin, is an irregular oval about seven inches in diameter, composed of a number of broken pieces kept together by cement. It is held in extreme veneration by Mohammedans, and is touched and kissed by them in the seven circuits made around the building during the ceremonies connected with the Hajj (q.v.). In the southeast corner a stone of lighter color is also set, but this is not venerated as the Black Stone. Not far from the latter, six or seven feet above the ground, in the north side of the building, is the only entrance to the Kaaba, which is reached by movable staircases, one for men and the other for women. The present very ornate ones were the gift of a pious Indian Moslem. This door is opened three times a year— once for men, a second time for women, and a third time to permit the inside to be cleaned. On the northwest side is a semicircular space surrounded by a wall, called al-Hijr or al-Hatim. Inside the Kaaba there was originally a dry well, above which was the square statue of the god. There is also said to have been a dove made of aloe wood. To judge from the account of the Persian traveler Nasiri Khusra, in 1035, the interior was once highly ornamented with gold, silver, and costly marbles. There remain today the beautiful pavement of massive marble, the Arabic inscriptions which run along the walls, and the lamps of massive gold suspended from the ceiling. Though changes have been made from time to time, the building is substantially what it was at the time of the Prophet. The flat roof dates from his time. When Mecca was besieged by the Ommiads, fire almost destroyed the building, and it was restored to its original form by Hajjaj. In 1611 the walls threatened to fall in, and a girdle of gilded copper was put around them. In 1630 one of the many floods which from time to time devastate the valley in which the Kaaba stands greatly injured the building, and the whole was rebuilt, but with the original stones. The first caliphs covered the building with costly Egyptian hangings, then with red, yellow, green, or white silk. At the beginning of the ninth century the Caliph was accustomed to send three new coverings a year. Up to 1516 the Sultan of Egypt sent such a covering when he ascended the throne. Since the Osmanli rule the cover is made of thick black brocade, and is sent every year from Cairo at the same time as the maḥmal, or covered litter, the emblem of royalty. The cover has a golden legend, made up of extracts from the Koran, embroidered around its whole surface 33 feet from the bottom. A special foundation provides the money for this purpose, and the ceremony of sending it out is connected with much pomp.
The Kaaba stands within a space called the Mosque, or the Haram (Holy Place). This was originally quite small, the houses of the city reaching right up to it. This space was enlarged by successive caliphs; Al-Mahdi (777-781) built colonnades all around the mosque and covered them with teakwood. In course of time seven minarets were added for the muezzins, and the space immediately around the Kaaba was surrounded by posts through which plaited cords were run and on which lamps were hung. The mosque was rebuilt by Sultan Selim II. (1566-74), and small cupolas were placed over the stoas in the colonnades. This mosque, which is very much more imposing than the simple arrangement at Mohammed's time is unequal in the length of its sides and the angles of its corners. The floor sinks from east, north, and south to the middle; seven causeways run out from the inner circle of the Kaaba to the colonnades. Part of the space and the flooring of the colonnades are of marble. There is a building containing the sacred well, Zemzem, the only well in Mecca. Northwest of this and opposite the entrance of the Kaaba is the Maḳām Ibrahīm, a holy stone of heathen times, originally kept in the Kaaba, then in a stone receptacle under the Kaaba, and now in a box under the cupola of the building. It is used by the Imam (leader in prayer) of the Shafiites. Other maḳāms were introduced during the twelfth century. The mimbar (pulpit) was introduced under the Ommiad caliidis; the present one was the gift of Sultan Solyman II. (1549).
Many legends in regard to the origin and history of the Kaaba and the Black Stone are current among the Moslems. Mohammed himself (Koran, sura xxii. 119) connected the building of the first structure with the patriarch Abraham. Other legends refer this building to Adam, who is said to have fashioned it after its prototype in heaven. The Black Stone is said to have originally been white, but to have turned black, either through the sins of men or the millions of kisses which have been imprinted upon it. Consult: Snouck-Hurgronje, Mekka (The Hague, 1888-89); Wüstenfeld, Die Chroniken der Stadt Mekka (Leipzig, 1861); Burckhardt, Travels in Arabia (London, 1829); Burton, Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to El-Medinah and Mecca (London, 1855); Salih Soubhi, Pèlerinage à la Mecque et à Médine (Cairo, 1894); Wellhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, iii. (2d ed., Berlin, 1897).
|1. THE GATE OF THE BENI SHAIBAH||4 and 5. STAIRWAYS TO THE KAABA||8.||MAKAM AL-HANAFI|
|2. AL-HIJR||6. MAKAM IBRAHIM||9.||MAKAM AL-MALIKI|
|3. BUILDING OF THE WELL ZEMZEM||7. MIMBAR (pulpit)||10.||MAKAM AL-HAMBALI|
|11. FRONT OF THE HAMIDIYAM 12. FORTRESS OF AL-JIYAD| | <urn:uuid:8fec5983-3566-4e19-92cc-efa430585f91> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Kaaba | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964753 | 1,574 | 3.8125 | 4 |
Feb. 17, 2007 will mark the 50th anniversary of one of the most famous interviews in the history of journalism. On that date in 1957, Herbert L. Matthews of The New York Times first interviewed Fidel Castro, then leading a small, ragtag group of insurgents fighting against Cuba's corrupt dictator, Fulgencio Batista. To this day, we are living with the consequences of that interview.
By 1957, Castro had already been fighting Batista for several years and had mounted a failed coup against him on July 26, 1953, for which he was jailed and later deported. On Dec. 2, 1956, Castro re-entered Cuba with an armed force of 80 men. This mini-invasion was crushed by the army, which claimed that Castro had been killed.
Thus the most important news coming from Matthews' interview, which took place deep in the Sierra Maestra Mountains of Cuba, was simply that Castro was still alive. Knowing that this fact would be denied by the Cuban government, Matthews documented his interview with photographs and even had Castro sign his interview notes.
After his three-hour interview, Matthews quickly headed for New York to file his story, which ran on Page One of the Times on Feb. 24, 1957. It was nothing short of sensational. Matthews painted Castro in glowing terms, as a legitimate heir to the revolutionaries who established the United States in 1776.
Of Castro, Matthews said, "He has strong ideas of liberty, democracy, social justice, the need to restore the Constitution, to hold elections."
Matthews quoted Castro as saying, "You can be sure we have no animosity toward the United States and the American people. Above all, we are fighting for a democratic Cuba and an end to the dictatorship."
Castro's movement, Matthews said, "amounts to a new deal for Cuba, radical, democratic and therefore anti-Communist."
Although an experienced foreign correspondent, at this point in his career Matthews was no longer reporting for the Times. He was, rather, a member of its editorial board, who normally wrote unsigned editorials. Consequently, when the Times ran Matthews' report on its new pages, it was violating one of its own journalistic principles -- separating news from opinion. Matthews blurred that distinction, which was decried by many editors at the Times, but supported by its publisher, Arthur Ochs Sulzberger.
Current Times reporter Anthony DePalma examines the Matthews case in a new book, "The Man Who Invented Fidel" (Basic Books). He finds that the paper's indulgence of Matthews was extremely costly in a number of ways.
The problem was that Matthews clearly became smitten for Castro, whom he viewed as one of history's great men. This blinded him to Castro's faults. For example, even after Castro admitted publicly in 1960 that he was and always had been a Communist, Matthews continued to deny it. To his death in 1977, Matthews maintained that Castro was not a Communist at the time of his interview, but only became one subsequently due to mistaken American policy.
Even when Castro began slaughtering his enemies by the hundreds, after overthrowing Batista in 1959, Matthews defended him. In a Jan. 18, 1959 news story in the Times, Matthews wrote that Castro was "by any standard a man of destiny." To criticize him, Matthews said, one must criticize all Cubans, "as there are very few Cubans indeed who would disapprove of the executions that have been and are taking place."
The mass murders were justified, Matthews said, because Cuba had just "lived through the most brutal reign of terror in recent history." To be sure, Batista was a bad guy. But calling his regime the most brutal in recent history was extraordinary hyperbole, given that the genocides of Adolph Hitler and Josef Stalin were still fresh memories.
Once Castro came out of the closet, so to speak, and admitted he was a Communist, Matthews came under severe attack. His uncritical reportage -- not to mention the many supportive editorials he wrote for the Times -- were widely blamed for paving the way for Communist penetration of our hemisphere. Matthews was the subject of numerous congressional hearings and often hounded by demonstrators.
Although Matthews remained an editorial writer for the Times, the paper began distancing itself from him, and he was prohibited from writing any more news stories. In 1967, Matthews retired from daily journalism and devoted his remaining life to defending Castro and every word he had ever written about him. Matthews is considered a hero of the revolution in Cuba.
DePalma tells the tragic story of Matthews thoroughly and objectively. I think his portrait of Matthews as a softheaded idealist rather than a left-wing ideologue is right, but DePalma is insufficiently critical of the Times, which handled things badly from beginning to end. Nevertheless, "The Man Who Invented Fidel" is well worth reading by journalists and non-journalists alike. | <urn:uuid:54b0069b-335e-4a0c-b99a-ea85622f807d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://townhall.com/columnists/brucebartlett/2006/06/13/castros_inventor | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00158-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.983108 | 1,012 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Solar panels are obeying the will of Moore's Law by getting ever cheaper and more efficient. What's not getting cheaper or more efficient is the human labor required to install them. This keeps the cost of going solar higher than us duck-squeezing envirinmintl types would like, but robots are busy coming to our rescue by setting up solar power plants much cheaper and much, much faster.
Here's the executive summary, since I've never done an executive summary before and it sounds fancy: using robots to set up a 14 megawatt solar power plant can potentially cuts costs from $2,000,000 to $900,000, while being constructed in eight times faster with only three human workers instead of 35.
So there you go! If you're still reading, we can tell you a little bit about the robot that performs this incredible feat of engineering efficiency: it costs just under a million bucks, but it's built from off-the-shelf parts and in continuous use will supposedly pay for itself in either no time at all or less than a year, whichever comes last. And like all robots, using one of these things means you can get work done in rain or sleet or snow or darkness with no complaints, but if you find yourself installing solar panels where all of those things are occurring at once, you should probably just give up and go someplace, you know, sunny.
The robot itself has a mobile base that runs on tank treads, and a robot arm grips huge 145 watt panels one at a time and autonomously positions them in just the right spot on a pre-installed metal frame. Humans follow along behind, adding fasteners and making electrical connections, but secret plans are underway to roboticize these jobs too. Zee Germans, being big fans of solar power in their quest to go 80% renewable by 2050, are quite interested in putting robots like these to work, as are the Japanese, who want to construct solar farms near Fukushima within the next six months.
Via [ Tech Review ] | <urn:uuid:3c649d9c-61bb-4cfd-aae0-d17d68d4527e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://spectrum.ieee.org/automaton/robotics/industrial-robots/robotinstalled-solar-panels-cut-costs-by-50 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961301 | 415 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Introduction• LANs do not normally operate in isolation but they are connected to one another or to the Internet.• To connect LANs, connecting devices are needed and various connecting devices are such as bridge, switch, router, hub, repeater.
CONNECTING DEVICES• Connecting devices into five different categories based on the layer in which they operate in a network. Five categories of connecting devices
Hubs• A hub is used as a central point of connection among media segments.• Cables from network devices plug in to the ports on the hub.• Types of HUBS : – A passive hub is just a connector. It connects the wires coming from different branches. – The signal pass through a passive hub without regeneration or amplification. – Connect several networking cables together – Active hubs or Multiport repeaters- They regenerate or amplify the signal before they are retransmitted.
Repeaters• A repeater is a device that operates only at the PHYSICAL layer.• A repeater can be used to increase the length of the network by eliminating the effect of attenuation on the signal.• It connects two segments of the same network, overcoming the distance limitations of the transmission media.• A repeater forwards every frame; it has no filtering capability.• A repeater is a regenerator, not an amplifier.• Repeaters can connect segments that have the same access method. (CSMA/CD, Token Passing, Polling, etc.) Optic fiber repeater
Repeater connecting two segments of a LAN Function of a repeater
Bridges• Operates in both the PHYSICAL and the data link layer.• As a PHYSICAL layer device, it regenerates the signal it receives.• As a data link layer device, the bridge can check the PHYSICAL/MAC addresses (source and destination) contained in the frame.• A bridge has a table used in filtering decisions.• It can check the destination address of a frame and decide if the frame should be forwarded or dropped.• If the frame is to be forwarded, the decision must specify the port.• A bridge has a table that maps address to ports.• Limit or filter traffic keeping local traffic local yet allow connectivity to other parts (segments).
A bridge connecting two LANsA bridge does not change the physical (MAC) addresses in a frame.
How Bridges Work• Bridges work at the Media Access Control Sub-layer of the OSI model • Routing table is built to record the segment no. of address • If destination address is in the same segment as the source address, stop transmit • Otherwise, forward to the other segment
Characteristics of Bridges• Routing Tables – Contains one entry per station of network to which bridge is connected. – Is used to determine the network of destination station of a received packet.• Filtering – Is used by bridge to allow only those packets destined to the remote network. – Packets are filtered with respect to their destination and multicast addresses.• Forwarding – the process of passing a packet from one network to another.• Learning Algorithm – the process by which the bridge learns how to reach stations on the internetwork.
Types of Bridges• Transparent Bridge – Also called learning bridges – Build a table of MAC addresses as frames arrive – Ethernet networks use transparent bridge – Duties of transparent bridge are : Filtering frames, forwarding and blocking• Source Routing Bridge – Used in Token Ring networks – Each station should determine the route to the destination when it wants to send a frame and therefore include the route information in the header of frame. – Addresses of these bridges are included in the frame. – Frame contains not only the source and destination address but also the bridge addresses.
Advantages And Disadvantages Of Bridges• Advantages of using a bridge – Extend physical network – Reduce network traffic with minor segmentation – Creates separate collision domains – Reduce collisions – Connect different architecture• Disadvantages of using bridges – Slower that repeaters due to filtering – Do not filter broadcasts – More expensive than repeaters
Two and Three layer switches• Two layer switch operate at PHY and data link layer• Three layer switch operates at network layer• Bridge is an example of two-layer switch.• Bridge with few port can connect a few LANs• Bridge with many port may be able to allocate a unique port to each station, with each station on its own independent entity. This means no competing traffic (no collision as we saw in Ethernet)
3-layer switches • E.g. router. • Routes packets based on their logical addresses (host-to-host addressing) • A router normally connects LANs and WANs in the Internet and has a routing table that is used for making decision about the route. • The routing tables are normally dynamic and are updated using routing protocols.Routers connectingindependent LANs andWANs
Advantages and Disadvantages of Routers• Advantages – Routers provide sophisticated routing, flow control, and traffic isolation are configurable, which allows network manager to make policy based on routing decisions allow active loops so that redundant paths are available• Disadvantages – Routers – are protocol-dependent devices that must understand the protocol they are forwarding. – can require a considerable amount of initial configuration. – are relatively complex devices, and generally are more expensive than bridges.
Routers versus Bridges• Addressing – Routers are explicitly addressed. – Bridges are not addressed.• Availability – Routers can handle failures in links, stations, and other routers. – Bridges use only source and destination MAC address, which does not guarantee delivery of frames. Message Size » Routers can perform fragmentation on packets and thus handle different packet sizes. » Bridges cannot do fragmentation and should not forward a frame which is too big for the next LAN. Forwarding » Routers forward a message to a specific destination. » Bridges forward a message to an outgoing network.
Priority » Routers can treat packets according to priorities » Bridges treat all packets equally. Error Rate » Network layers have error-checking algorithms that examines each received packet. » The MAC layer provides a very low undetected bit error rate. Security » Both bridges and routers provide the ability to put “security walls” around specific stations. » Routers generally provide greater security than bridges because – they can be addressed directly and – they use additional data for implementing security.
Brouters: Bridging Routers Combine features of bridges and routers. Capable of establishing a bridge between two networks as well as routing some messages from the bridge networks to other networks. Are sometimes called (Layer 2/3) switches and are a combination of bridge/router hardware and software.
Gateway• Interchangeably used term router and gateway• Connect two networks above the network layer of OSI model.• Are capable of converting data frames and network protocols into the format needed by another network.• Provide for translation services between different computer protocols.• Transport gateways make a connection between two networks at the transport layer.• Application gateways connect two parts of an application in the application layer, e.g., sending email between two machines using different mail formats• Broadband-modem-router is one e.g. of gateway | <urn:uuid:fd0214ae-8495-442f-bdc0-b00a4ab37846> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.slideshare.net/rupinderj/networking-devices-12807479 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00069-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.899093 | 1,490 | 4.21875 | 4 |
Amanullah (ămənŏlˈə) [key], 1892–1960, emir (1919–26) and king (1926–29) of Afghanistan. To win popular support for his rule he invaded India in an attempt to free Afghanistan from British-ruled India. No serious fighting occurred, however, and the Treaty of Rawalpindi was soon signed (1919). He attempted to introduce a number of Western reforms and changed the country from an emirate to a kingdom. His subjects rebelled against his program, and he fled the country in 1929. He remained in exile in Switzerland until his death.
See study by L. B. Poullada (1973).
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:42306d3b-9897-45ac-89a5-ae82974bf717> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.factmonster.com/encyclopedia/people/amanullah.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947602 | 175 | 3.5625 | 4 |
Home automation systems that control domestic lighting, heating, window blinds or door locks offer opportunities for third parties to intrude on the privacy of the inhabitants and gain considerable insight into their behavioural patterns.
This is the conclusion reached by IT security expert Christoph Sorge and his research team at Saarland University. Even data transmitted from encrypted systems can provide information useful to potential burglars. Professor Sorge, who holds the juris Professorship in Legal Informatics at Saarland University, and his research group are currently studying ways to make home automation systems more secure.
Frederik Möllers from Sorge’s team will be presenting the results at the ACM Conference on Security and Privacy in Wireless and Mobile Networks in Oxford on 25 July.
Regulating heating systems to save energy, adjusting lighting levels based on the time of day, watering house plants automatically, and raising or lowering blinds at the required times – the benefits of today’s smart home automation systems are numerous and they are becoming increasingly popular with homeowners.
However, studies by the research group led by Professor Christoph Sorge have shown that these wireless systems can also pose a security risk. ‘Many of the systems do not provide adequate security against unwanted third-party access and therefore threaten the privacy of the inhabitants,’ says Sorge, an expert for IT security, data protection and encryption technology at Saarland University. Sorge and his team have examined how susceptible the systems are to attack.
For the purposes of their study, the researchers took on the role of a malicious attacker. ‘Using a simple mini-PC no bigger in size than a packet of cigarettes we eavesdropped on the wireless home automation systems (HASs) of two volunteers and were thus able to determine just how much information a conventional wireless HAS reveals about its user,’ explains Sorge.
No other information about the users was available to the research group. The result: ‘Non-encrypted systems provide large quantities of data to anyone determined enough to access the data, and the attacker requires no prior knowledge about the system, nor about the user being spied on,’ says Professor Sorge.
‘The data acquired by the attacker can be analysed to extract system commands and status messages, items which reveal a lot about the inhabitants’ behaviour and habits. We were able to determine absence times and to identify home ventilation and heating patterns,’ explains the expert in legal informatics.
The analysis enabled the research group to build up profiles of the inhabitants. Even systems that use encryption technology can supply information to third parties: ‘The results indicate that even when encrypted communication is used, the number of messages exchanged is enough to provide information on absence times,’ says Sorge. Potential attacks can be directed against the functionality of the system or the privacy of the inhabitants. ‘An attacker with malicious intent could use this sort of information to plan a burglary,’ says Sorge.
‘A great deal still needs to be done to make wireless home automation systems secure. Improved data encryption and concealment technologies would be an important step towards protecting the privacy of HAS users,’ explains Professor Sorge. He and his group are currently working on developing technology of this type in collaboration with the University of Paderborn as part of a research project funded by the Federal Ministry of Economics and Energy.
The research work into home automation systems began with a Master’s degree thesis by Andreas Hellmann, who was supervised by Professor Sorge while still at the University of Paderborn. With his research group now based at Saarland University, Professor Sorge is currently continuing research in this area with his research assistant Frederik Möllers, who will be presenting the results of their recent study in Oxford on 25 July.
Background: Christoph Sorge is an expert for IT security, data privacy, secure communications, encryption technologies, electronic signatures, and the use of IT systems in the legal sector. He holds a professorship endowed by juris GmbH at the Institute for Legal Informatics at Saarland University where he and his team teach and conduct research work at the interface of technology and law. Prior to taking up his position in Saarbrücken, Sorge held a Junior Professorship in Network Security at the University of Paderborn.
Contact: Professor Christoph Sorge:
Phone: +49 (0)681 302-5122 (Office: -5120), E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org
German Version of the press release: https://www.idw-online.de/de/news597128
A press photograph is available at http://www.uni-saarland.de/pressefotos and can be used at no charge. Please read and comply with the conditions of use.
Note for radio journalists: Studio-quality telephone interviews can be conducted with researchers at Saarland University using broadcast audio IP codec technology (IP direct dial or via the ARD node 106813020001). Interview requests should be addressed to the university’s Press and Public Relations Office (+49 (0)681 302-2601 or -64091).
Claudia Ehrlich | Universität des Saarlandes
LAMA 2.0 accelerates more than just numerical applications
21.06.2016 | Fraunhofer-Institut für Algorithmen und Wissenschaftliches Rechnen SCAI
Researchers open hairy new chapter in 3-D printing
20.06.2016 | Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Physicists in Innsbruck have realized the first quantum simulation of lattice gauge theories, building a bridge between high-energy theory and atomic physics. In the journal Nature, Rainer Blatt‘s and Peter Zoller’s research teams describe how they simulated the creation of elementary particle pairs out of the vacuum by using a quantum computer.
Elementary particles are the fundamental buildings blocks of matter, and their properties are described by the Standard Model of particle physics. The...
A year and a half on the outer wall of the International Space Station ISS in altitude of 400 kilometers is a real challenge. Whether a primordial bacterium...
Researchers at Case Western Reserve University have developed a way to swiftly and precisely control electron spins at room temperature.
A physics experiment performed at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has enhanced scientists' understanding of how free neutrons decay...
Chemically the same, graphite and diamonds are as physically distinct as two minerals can be, one opaque and soft, the other translucent and hard. What makes...
09.06.2016 | Event News
24.05.2016 | Event News
20.05.2016 | Event News
24.06.2016 | Materials Sciences
24.06.2016 | Physics and Astronomy
24.06.2016 | Physics and Astronomy | <urn:uuid:df12f200-e3b1-4517-925c-d92a2ee69370> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.innovations-report.com/html/reports/information-technology/wireless-home-automation-systems-reveal-more-than-you-would-think-about-user-behaviour.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.91317 | 1,442 | 2.828125 | 3 |
What is a Short Story?
Compiled by Marilyn Singer
Editor's note: The quotes presented below are answers to the question, "What is a short story?" that Marilyn Singer, editor of STAY TRUE: Short Stories for Strong Girls (Scholastic, 1998) and I BELIEVE IN WATER: Twelve Brushes with Religion (HarperCollins, 2000) asked writers who contributed to the two short story anthologies, and editors from various publishing houses. -psc
A short story is, in some ways, like a photograph- a captured moment of time that is crystalline, though sometimes mysterious, arresting, though perhaps delicate. But while a photo may or may not suggest consequences, a short story always does. In the story's moment of time something important, something irrevocable has occurred. The change may be subtle or obvious, but it is definite and definitive.
In addition, while it is the audience that supplies the back story for a photo, it is the writer who must give the audience a beginning, middle, and end of a short story. Without that structure, the piece is not a short story at all but a scene, a vignette, a fragment-evocative, yes, but not emotionally or psychologically satisfying.
Marilyn Singer, "The Magic Bow" (Stay True)
"Fabulous Shoes" ( I Believe in Water )
About twenty years ago I heard someone say that if the novel was a feature film, the short story was a snapshot. I liked that, as a snapshot itself, but when asked to comment, I add that the short story, to me, is a blurred snapshot by an incompetent chronicler, who cannot be trusted as a novelist should be. But the blur, the things one can't see but can only infer, has implications, too: of movement, of cause and effect outside the range of the print. The snapshot catches a moment in time, but the blur proposes an extension beyond the margins. Emotional, spiritual, psychological, as well as (one hopes) narrative and event.
Gregory Maguire, "Chatterbox"
( I Believe in Water )
For myself a short story is fiction that is more immediate and urgent than a novel. I think of it cinematically - the camera zooming in on this one climactic moment, then pulling back on either side of the moment to show all that leads up to and comes after it.
Jacqueline Woodson, "On Earth"
( I Believe in Water )
A short story is like the illumination of a match. All the details have to work toward that illumination.
Donna Bray, editor at Hyperion
A character whose conflict is resolved in under 10,000 words preferably, in the modern market, in under 5,000.
I'm sure your audience would like something more poetic, but there are so many right ways to write a short story that only technical definitions are really useful. Without the character/conflict element, it's not a story it's a mood piece, a joke, a vignette, an essay, or maybe a prose poem.
Peni Griffin, "The Truth in the Case of Eliza
Mary Muller, By Herself" ( Stay True )
A short story is only one of many narrative structures. We create narrative with jokes, ballads, tales, novels, poems, anecdotes, etc. The short story form has been opened up dramatically with experimentation in adult venues, but remains very true to its traditional European roots in children's and young adult venues. While there are many satisfactions to be found in the conventional beginning-middle-end narrative that is common in short fiction for kids, I believe young readers can respond to many other forms of short narrative. I await the kind of creative fiddling in this form that I've seen in novels by writers such as Avi, Karen Hesse, Virginia Euwer Woolf, Walter Dean Myers, etc. So, my answer is that the short story, when we talk about juvenile literature, is a traditionally plotted narrative, which rises to a climactic denouement and resolves in fifteen pages or less.
Jennifer Armstrong, "The Statue of Liberty
Factory" ( Stay True ) "The Martyrdom of
Monica MacAllister" ( I Believe in Water )
I've tended to tell my literature students that a short story is probably under 80 pages. ( The Old Man and the Sea , clocking in at 94 pages, cannot be a short story; it explores in greater breadth and depth the potential meanings of that fishing trip than a short story could probably do.)
My favorite short story, Nikolai Gogol's "The Overcoat," is 32 densely-packed pages in one of my Gogol books.
Easier-of course-to say what a short story is not. It is usually not a profound character study. And it is usually not a one-liner stretched thin like bubble gum. There are the temporal unities, too. See Aristotle.
When I reach my arms way out to my sides and then bend them upward, I can encompass a short story, even such fine, analysis-defying works as Hemingway's "A Clean, Well- Lighted Place" or Eudora Welty's "A Piece of News." But with my arms in that position I can't possibly reach around Uncle Tom's Cabin or War and Peace or David Copperfield .
I'd suggest that the richness of a short story is what may come back to us in car-stopping flashes, weeks or years late whereas the richness of a novel is the kind that never truly leaves us.
But it's important to add, too, that short stories can change lives as surely as novels can. J.D. Salinger's "For Esme, with Love and Squalor" added dimensions to the lives of kids of my generation in ways that the great novels did not. I believe that that story and Gogol's "The Overcoat" are two of the things that let me know in some utterly preverbal way that I'd be a writer someday. (If I'd known how to say the words out loud, no one would have believed me.)
Virginia Euwer Wolff, "Religion:
From the Greek Re Legios, to Re-Link"
( I Believe in Water )
The biggest difference, to my mind, between a short story and a novel is that after you've finished a short story, you and your life haven't changed.
I think a short story is usually about one thing, and a novel about many... A short story is like a short visit to other people, a novel like a long journey with others.
M. E. Kerr, "Guess Who's Back in
Town, Dear?" ( Stay True )
"Grace" ( I Believe in Water )
Short stories are like Quarter horse racing. Bang! Out of the starting gate as fast as possible and across the finish line before the audience can assemble their thought. The story blindly races forward. But, the author, the horse trainer, has trained very hard ahead of time.
Novels are like thoroughbred racing. The starting gate snaps open and they're off, but with more style and grace and planning. Those longer races take a lot of mental grit during the race.
Marian Bray, "The Pale Mare" ( Stay True )
The short story is hard to define well. I remember reading a collection of short stories by Jack London, at around age eight, and what thrilled me about some of those stories was not just the fast-paced action and exotic, though not impenetrable, locales, but their digestibility. I could go to bed feeling like I'd completed a whole adventure - very satisfying for just a half-hour of reading. However, what I think I liked the most about them was the fact that there was always something left to the imagination. I valued the room that the author had left for me, the reader, to explore.
Matt Rosen, editor, Golden Books
A short story is a story that I don't get or is too short when I do get it and I'm into it! I have never liked them! They bug me. Either I don't get them and I feel like a kid in school unable to figure out the hidden meanings or I'm totally into it and can't bear to have it end so soon with so many possible pathways untrod. Like being given only three delicious potato chips out of a whole bag! (For sweet lovers that would be only one lick of an icecream cone!)
Drew Lamm, "Stay True" ( Stay True )
A short story collection is the literary equivalent of a Whitman's Sampler. The reader pokes around to see what's interesting - reads some stories the way you'd snap up the Truffle or Caramel, flips past others the way you'd put back the Bad Mint Cocoanut Swirl. A short story is bite-sized. Like good chocolate, it's intense. It's long enough to make you care about the characters - but it resolves in a way that's satisfying, rather than seeming unfinished or overdone.
Sharyn November, editor, Viking Penguin
A short story is like a good meal-it gives you flavor and just enough to chew on, but leaves you completely satisfied.
Andrea Davis Pinkney, "Building Bridges"
( Stay True )
BEST NEW SHORT STORY COLLECTIONS FOR YOUNG ADULTS
This list is compiled by YA specialist Patty Campbell, who writes "The Sand in the Oyster," a regular feature about young adult books, for The Horn Book .
KEY: M (middle school) J (junior high) S (senior high)
Dirty Laundry: Stories about Family Secrets , Lisa Rowe Faustino, ed. Viking, 1998, Eleven original stories by acclaimed young adult writers like Graham Salisbury, Chris Crutcher, and M.E. Kerr. ( J, S )
Doing Time: Notes from the Undergrad by Rob Thomas. Simon & Schuster, 1997 Aladdin, 1999. Ten stories by this popular author about high school seniors who meet epiphanies while doing required community service hours. ( S )
From One Experience to Another , M. Jerry Weiss and Helen S. Weiss, eds. Forge, 1997 Forge, 1999. Avi, Joan Bauer, Joan Lowery Nixon, Susan Beth Pfeffer, Virginia Euwer Wolff and other YA authors share real-life experiences through fiction. ( S )
Ghost Town: Seven Ghostly Stories by Joan Lowery Nixon. Delacorte, 2000. Mysterious tales based on actual western ghost towns. ( M )
Gone From Home by Angela Johnson. DK Ink, 1998. Twelve poignant vignettes on loss and abandonment, courage and tenderness, by the winner of the 1994 Coretta Scott King Award. ( M, J )
Help Wanted: Short Stories about Young People and Work , Anita Silvey, ed. Little, Brown, 1997. These twelve stories by authors such as Michael Dorris, Ray Bradbury, and Judith Ortiz Cofer deal with an important rite of passage for teens the first job. ( J, S )
I Believe in Water: Twelve Brushes with Religion , Marilyn Singer, ed. HarperCollins, 2000. A dozen well-known YA authors craft stories from a wide variety of spiritual traditions. ( J, S )
Kissing Tennessee and Other Stories form the Stardust Dance by Kathi Appelt. Harcourt, 2000. Touching stories about the lives of the kids at the Dogwood Junior High School dance. ( J )
Leaving Home , Hazel Rochman and Darlene Z. McCampbell, eds. Harper, 1997 Harper, 1998, pbk. Fifteen distinguished authors like Amy Tan, Sandra Cisneros, and Toni Morrison explore personal journeys. ( S )
Lord of the Fries and Other Stories by Tim Wynne-Jones. DK Ink, 1999. Fast food for the imagination by this master of quirky little tales. ( M, J )
No Easy Answers: Short Stories about Teenagers Making Tough Choices , Donald R. Gallo, ed. Delacorte,1997 Laurel-Leaf, 1999. Sixteen short stories by YA authors about teens facing hard ethical and moral dilemmas. ( J, S )
Odder Than Ever by Bruce Coville. Harcourt, 1999. Outlandish stories from a witty SF author, including the delicious title story from Am I Blue? in which the world is in for some surprises when everyone gay turns blue for 24 hours. ( J )
On the Edge: Stories at the Brink , Lois Duncan, ed. Simon & Schuster, 2000. The queen of YA suspense brings together some literary and psychological cliffhangers. ( M, J )
145 th Street Stories by Walter Dean Myers. Delacorte, 2000. A YA master writer tells us about the folks who live on one block in Harlem. ( J, S )
Petty Crimes by Gary Soto. Harcourt, 1998. Stories from life on the hard streets of the barrio. ( M, J )
Places I Never Meant to Be: Original Stories by Censored Writers, Judy Blume, ed. Simon & Schuster, 1999. YA writers who have been under attack each contribute a story and comment on how it feels to be censored. ( J, S )
Stay True: Short Stories for Strong Girls , Marilyn Singer, ed. Scholastic, 1998 Scholastic, 1999, pbk. Stand on your own two feet and act on your convictions! say these short tales. ( J, S )
Time Capsule: Short Stories about Teenagers Throughout the Twentieth Century , Donald R. Gallo, ed. Delacorte, 1999. In this eighth collection by an award-winning editor each of ten YA authors-Bruce Brooks, Richard Peck, Chris Lynch, and other YA luminaries-draw a story from one decade of the century. ( J, S )
Tomorrowland: Stories about the Future , Michael Cart, ed. Scholastic, 1999. Lois Lowry, Katherine Paterson, Jacqueline Woodson, and other distinguished YA writers explore the future in ten short stories. ( M, J )
Twelve Shots: Outstanding Short Stories about Guns , Harry Mazer, ed. Delacorte, 1997 Laurel-Leaf, 1998. Stories drawn from the way we are with guns in the real world, by Walter Dean Myers, Richard Peck, Rob Thomas, and eight others. ( J, S )
With All My Heart With All My Mind: Thirteen Stories About Growing Up Jewish , Sandy Asher, ed. Simon & Schuster, 1999. The cultural and religious traditions of Judaism provide a rich inspiration for these YA authors. ( J, S )
Working Days: Short Stories about Teenagers at Work , Anne Mazer, ed. Persea, 1997, pbk. Fifteen stories about teens in a variety of work situations. ( J, S )
Zebra and Other Stories by Chaim Potok. Knopf, 1998. Stories of teen struggles against the adult world's rules and regulations, by the distinguished author of The Chosen . ( J, S )
Reference Citation: Singer, Marilyn. (2000) "What is a Short Story?" The ALAN Review, Volume 28, Number 1, p. 38-40. | <urn:uuid:8992f57b-2ad9-4378-889d-21102f01cfa8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ALAN/v28n1/singer.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00005-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929343 | 3,238 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Perfect pitch, dolphin communication, and noise in the community and in nature are just some of the intriguing topics that will be presented at the 164th Meeting of the Acoustical Society of America (ASA).
The meeting will take place October 22-26, 2012, in Kansas City, Mo., at the Kansas City Marriott Downtown Hotel. The ASA offers complimentary press registration to bona fide working journalists; see details below. Journalists also may remotely access meeting information with ASA's World Wide Press Room, which will go live one week before the meeting.
More than 1,300 papers will be delivered at this premier international meeting of scientific, environmental, and biological acoustics. Preliminary meeting highlights follow.
MONDAY, OCTOBER 22
Dolphins Use 'Packets' of Broadband Clicks:
For long-range echolocation, dolphins may emit a burst, or "packet," of several clicks. Researchers explore the conditions that prompt dolphins to use this "broadband" style of communication.
Perfect Pitch and a Clue to Its Genesis:
Perfect pitch is very rare in North America and Europe, and its genesis is unclear. New findings suggest that there is a genetic component of perfect pitch.
Reducing the Sting in Baseball Bats:
For many, the "crack" of a baseball bat heralds the start of spring and evokes the excitement of the sport. For the batter, however, a poorly hit ball can produce a significant stinging sensation. Various vibration damping applications to ease that sting will be examined.
Musical and Lexical Tones by Musicians and Non-musicians:
This study explores musical and linguistic pitch perception and what they tell us about the relationship between music and speech. http://asa.
Proximity to Airports and Climate Region Affect Indoor Noise Levels:
Current aircraft noise guidelines are based primarily on outdoor sound levels. Interior noise levels are also important and may be correlated with construction materials typically used in different climates.
TUESDAY, OCTOBER 23
Space Acoustics: Sound Waves in Planetary Exploration:
Saturn's moon Titan is the only moon in our entire solar system with a dense atmosphere and hydrocarbon seas. The proposed Titan Mare Explorer (TiME) mission would use an acoustic depth-sounder to learn more about this intriguing body and what lies hidden beneath its surface.
Training Adult Learners of English to Hear the Sounds of English:
One of the greatest challenges to learning a second language is acquiring the ability to distinguish individual words. A new system may help learners develop near-native performance in recognizing English speech sounds.
Global temperatures affect the pH of seawater, which in turn changes the ocean's ability to absorb sounds. Based on that premise, Earth's oceans today likely absorb sounds in much the same way they would have 300 million years ago. Global warming, with its accompanying change in pH, may cause sound absorption to decrease to a level similar to when the dinosaurs roamed the Earth 100 million years ago.
Sound Propagation through Flames:
Disorientation is a major cause of firefighter death and injury. A proposed acoustic navigation system would use sonar to penetrate the obscured environment of a fire, helping rescuers navigate in these treacherous conditions.
Transducer May Permanently Monitor Pipelines for Corrosion:
Guided Wave Testing of pipelines helps identify potential areas of corrosion. After initial testing, permanently attached transducers would allow for improved and continuous monitoring of pipeline corrosion. http://asa.
WEDNESDAY, OCTOBER 24
Is the Ocean Getting Louder?:
Ocean noise is a concern because it may mask biologically significant sounds. A new study speculates that ocean noise may have decreased due to industrial whaling and fishing, but that the characteristics of a noise source may have more bearing than the ambient noise levels.
Ultrasound Offers Comparison between Normal and Cancerous Prostate Cells:
Ultrasound plays an important role in helping diagnose prostate cancer. By better characterizing normal and cancerous prostate cells, and not the actual tumor, a new study enhances the potential of ultrasound as a diagnostic tool. http://asa.
Running and the Impact of a Runner's Footstep on the Inner Sole of the Shoe:
Research reveals new understanding of the biomechanics of human footsteps and the subsequent wave energy that is transferred into the ground or track surface.
Thermoacoustic Device for Nuclear Fuel Monitoring:
The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster demonstrated the need for self-powered sensors that could monitor the status of fuel rods. One possible solution is the use of a thermoacoustic standing wave engine that could be incorporated into a fuel rod. The engine's resonance frequency would correlate to the fuel rod's temperature.
THURSDAY, OCTOBER 25
The Nature and Perception of Human Musical Rhythms:
Computer-generated beat patterns are "too perfect," and listeners perceive the lack of a human touch. Built-in humanizing units, which are essentially random number generators, produce only simple fluctuations. New research explores the long-range fluctuations of human musical performances.
Earthquakes and Infrasound:
Earthquakes can generate complex seismic and low-frequency acoustical waves. Researchers have modeled the generation of infrasound from seismic events, giving more insights into the dynamics of earthquakes.
The Evolution of Musical Instruments:
Natural selection also drives the evolution of musical instruments, and that process continues today.
Speaker Sex Comes after the Vowel:
Men and women say the same vowel with very different voices. Knowing if the speaker is a male or a female can facilitate vowel recognition, but new research suggests that - at very short stimulus durations - speaker sex has little impact upon vowel recognition.
FRIDAY, OCTOBER 26
Effects of Short Noise Bursts on Human Performance and Perception:
Noise is distracting, even short noise bursts. Human subjects exposed to noise lasting just a fraction of a second were tested to see if these brief bursts had any impact on their ability to perform arithmetic tasks.
Effect of Parkinson's Disease on Speech:
Parkinson's disease leads to tremors and difficulty with movement and coordination. It also affects precision in articulating words. Researchers have measured this effect and compared it to non-Parkinson's speakers.
MORE INFORMATION ABOUT THE 164th ASA MEETING
The Kansas City Marriott Downtown Hotel is located at 200 West 12th Street, Kansas City, Missouri, 64105. The hotel main numbers are: 816-421-6800; fax: 816-855-4418.
Main meeting website: http://acousticalsociety.
Meeting Abstract Database: http://asa.
WORLD WIDE PRESS ROOM
In the coming weeks, ASA's World Wide Press Room (www.acoustics.org/press) will be updated with additional tips on dozens of newsworthy stories and with lay-language papers, which are 300-1200 word summaries of presentations written by scientists for a general audience and accompanied by photos, audio, and video.
A will grant free registration to credentialed full-time journalists and professional freelance journalists working on assignment for major news outlets. If you are a reporter and would like to attend, contact Charles E. Blue (firstname.lastname@example.org, 301-209-3091), who can also help with setting up interviews and obtaining images, sound clips, or background information.
This news release was prepared for the Acoustical Society of America (ASA) by the American Institute of Physics (AIP).
ABOUT THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA
The Acoustical Society of America (ASA) is the premier international scientific society in acoustics devoted to the science and technology of sound. Its 7,000 members worldwide represent a broad spectrum of the study of acoustics. ASA publications include The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (the world's leading journal on acoustics), Acoustics Today magazine, ECHOES newsletter, books, and standards on acoustics. The Society also holds two major scientific meetings each year. For more information about ASA, visit our website at http://www. | <urn:uuid:4fe1074b-1367-47ec-9bb7-0307c0cc3380> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2012-09/aiop-tso092412.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.899249 | 1,694 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Dr. Paul M. Gross spearheaded an effort by the Chemistry Department to create a “frangible bullet” which would break up upon impact, enabling American soldiers to perform shooting drills on actual aircraft. Other research projects at Duke included ways to control venereal disease and studying the effects of Vitamin B deprivation.
The Civilian Pilot Training Program allowed citizens to take basic flying classes. Organized locally by Duke Administrative Assistant, A.S. Brower, the CPTP held sessions at the Raleigh Airport. Many CPTP participants were later drafted or volunteered for service in World War II.
Rare Book Room Hallway Cases
October 26, 2011-January 15, 2012 | <urn:uuid:fbee52d4-257a-4974-95b1-a5b2961e83ff> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://exhibits.library.duke.edu/exhibits/show/fromcampustocockpit/dukewwii/researchengage | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00073-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937315 | 136 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Hi blog readers! It’s Heather back with your weekly health care post. The CDC has come out with a new report on hospital infections that serves as a good reminder to all of us about disease prevention. Wash those hands people!
You’re sick, so you go to the hospital to get better, right? That should be the case, but new data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) shows that 1 out of every 25 hospital patients got an infection while they were in the hospital. That amounted to 722,000 infections and 75,000 deaths per year which means that over 200 Americans die every day from infections they received at the hospital. The 2011 report was published recently in the New England Journal of Medicine.
So, where are all these infections coming from? Pneumonia, surgical site infections and gastrointestinal infections (for example, C. diff) accounted for 60% of all cases – and infections from devices such as catheters and breathing tubes made up approximately 25% of all infections.
So, what’s to blame for the shocking number of hospital-acquired infections? There can be a variety of causes (including improperly sterilized equipment and overuse of antibiotics), but according to the CDC, the main culprit is simply a lack of proper hand washing.
So wash those hands people – and insist that your health care providers do the same!
According to APIC, the Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, “keeping your hands clean is the number one way to prevent the spread of infection.”
Until next week….be healthy. And wash those hands! | <urn:uuid:1ce8a57c-d347-428a-8bbf-39953fc80c9f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://states.aarp.org/stat-shock-over-200-americans-die-from-hospital-infections-every-day-sc-il-wp-health/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948897 | 337 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Most of us cannot remember how much we paid for homes
Published 22/03/2014 | 02:30
MOST people can't remember the actual price they paid for their house, a new survey has found.
They tend to recall paying a lower price, but the value of their homes has not fallen as much as they think, Central Bank research has found.
Despite this, householders that get confused about the price they paid cut back on spending.
Housing valuations tend to be used as an indicator of wealth. When people feel they have lost a lot of their wealth they tend to spend less, economists have found.
The Central Bank study found most households tend to understate the true purchase price. Six out of 10 claimed to have paid less for their homes than they actually did.
Most of those questioned getting the purchase price wrong by tens of thousands of euro.
More than one in five of those polled underestimated the price they paid for their home by up to €30,000.
Another third were out by between €30,000 and €120,000. Extreme volatility in housing prices during the boom and bust years was given as one of the key reasons people got it so wrong.
"Our results suggest that Irish households have some difficulty in accurately remembering their house price, with error measures indicating that most households are inclined to understate the true purchase price of their property," new report states.
Most people who bought during the boom are not as badly off as they think, according to the research 'Attenuation bias, recall error and the housing wealth effect'. This is because they paid more for the home than they think.
If people could accurately recall what they paid for their homes their loss of housing wealth would be far less than they assume.
The research is based on financial returns made by banks to the Central Bank and a survey of those householders with mortgages.
This highlighted the differences between the prices actually paid for house purchase and the price households remember paying, researchers Yvonne McCarthy and Kieran McQuinn found. Four out of 10 mortgages were issued between 2004 and 2007 – when property prices were at their highest.
Younger households and higher-income families are better able to recall the actual price paid for their home.
Those with a third-level qualification tend to be better at recalling what they paid for their house than those who did not go to college.
The researchers warned that studies that rely on what people think they paid for their homes, when assessing housing wealth, are likely to be biased and likely to contain errors.
"Where households are unable to accurately remember their house price on a systematic basis, the corresponding wealth-effect estimates are likely to suffer from classical attenuation bias," the study found. | <urn:uuid:ccf0dc20-8306-4880-b295-e1523f9ea9d6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.independent.ie/business/personal-finance/property-mortgages/most-of-us-cannot-remember-how-much-we-paid-for-homes-30115206.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.986427 | 563 | 2.515625 | 3 |
It’s about time my preschool daughter, J, is ready to play board games. So I had an excuse to buy a set of 14-in-1 board game package the other day.
J was so excited when I presented her the package. She couldn’t wait to play.
Since she’s still young and that was probably the first time she played a board game, Snakes and Ladders would be a better place to start.
My wife and I were playing with her. Initially, I thought J had beginner’s luck because she almost won the game.
But, as in everything, the game had ups and downs. J suddenly dropped to the lowest among all. Thanks to the snakes.
After a few rounds of overtaking and falling, I finally emerged as the champion. Unexpectedly, at least to J, she finished last.
I didn’t expect she reacted in such a way. This was only her first game with us anyway. She couldn’t take it and she burst out crying. She wanted to play again so that she could win the game.
But I stopped her.
Having looked at the situation, I quickly took advantage of the situation to teach her some life lessons.
- Life has its ups and downs. Sometimes you’re up (ladders) there, sometimes you fall (snakes).
- Be humble. Don’t look down on people who are less fortunate than you. Be grateful with what you have. Likewise, when you fall down, don’t give up. Try again.
- Accepting the outcome. Whatever the result (win or lose), accept it with grace. That’s the spirit of sportsmanship. If you lose this time, learn and improve so that you can win next time. Make losing a motivation, not an excuse not to play again.
- Handling emotions. Learn to manage your emotions when playing. Be it happy, sad, disappointed, angry, frustrated, or upset. Also learn how to react to emotions of other players appropriately.
Geez, quite a lesson for a 4-year-old in one session. I am not sure if she could understand the lessons. But one thing for sure, I am going to repeat the lessons until she gets them into her head.
With that said, that also explains why I prefer “traditional games” than battery-operated toys. They learn so much from these age-old games. And we don’t need to worry about toy recalls.
Besides those I had explained to J above, among other things she can learn from Snakes and Ladders classic board game (of which some I may have to teach her in subsequent sessions):
- Goal setting. By playing the board game, she learns how to set goal (We use a 10×10 board, the goal is to reach the 100th square) and focus all the effort to achieve it.
- Learn to take turns. She has to wait her turn to throw the dice. Patience is another virtue she can learn here.
- Recognize the numbers. A good way to learn sequencing from 1 to 100 in a fun way. If it’s too complicated, at least counting 1 – 6 on the dice is a good start.
How and Where to Play Snakes and Ladders
How to play Snakes and Ladders? Click here for history and rules for Snakes and Ladders.
To play Snakes and Ladders online, click here.
To download snakes and ladders freeware and play on your PC, click here (click “Save File” when prompted).
Or buy Snakes and Ladders board game from Amazon. Nothing beats face-to-face games.
For more Works for Me tips, head on over to Shannon’s Rocks in My Dryer. | <urn:uuid:ef232d04-88a2-49f4-a4c4-69bb6c003644> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.parentwonder.com/life-lessons-your-child-can-learn-from-playing-snakes-and-ladders/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97634 | 804 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Background of Slave Freedom Suits in Missouri
"Once free, always free" was a doctrine upheld by Missouri courts in determining slave freedom suits. Dred Scott sued for his freedom because he had been a resident of Illinois and the Wisconsin territory.
The Petition to Sue for Freedom was the first step in the legal process governed by the Missouri statutes. The circuit court granted permission to sue when several conditions, including the posting of bonds, were met.
Dred Scott, like most slaves, was not allowed to learn to read or write and was thus unable to sign his name to the petition for freedom. He made his mark with an "X".
- Slaves could sue under the 1807 territorial statute (1824 state law) that allowed any person held in bondage to petition the appropriate court for permission to sue as a poor person if s/he had evidence of wrongful enslavement. In most cases, St. Lou is slaves based cases on residence in free territory.
- St. Louis produced a relatively large number of freedom suits in the early 19th century (1824-1844) for a city with a fairly small African-American population. Slaves had easy access to information and legal advice in the city and a high level of autonomy and mobility. (Hiring out, although illegal, was condoned by many slave owners because of its profitability.)
- The Missouri Supreme Court decision of Winny v. Whitesides (1824) established Missouri's judicial criteria for eligibility for freedom and set an important and original precedent for Missouri courts. If a slave owner took a slave to Illinois and set up residence there, the slave would be free under the terms of the 1787 Northwest Ordinance (a federal law that prohibited slavery in all American territory north and west of the Ohio River) even if the slave were returned to slave territory.
- The McGirk court (1820-1841) placed a premium on adhering to the law irrespective of political considerations when determining slave freedom suits; this attitude changed with the appointment of William Napton and William Scott to the court in the mid- 1840s.
- Dred and Harriet Scott were among the last people to petition for freedom in St. Louis (1846). They won the case in the lower court, but their owner appealed to the Missouri Supreme Court, which ruled in favor of the owner in 1852.
- The 1852 decision ended the ability of slaves in Missouri to sue for freedom based on residence in a free state. Although the freedom statute remained on the books until 1865, the Supreme Court continued to be pro-slavery.
"Background of Missouri Slave Suits" was prepared by the Missouri State Archives. | <urn:uuid:9903bc8e-a295-4173-89ba-11ef64f4f0e4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://digital.wustl.edu/dredscott/background.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970236 | 550 | 3.609375 | 4 |
What is OphthoGlow?
Ophthoglow is a limbal ring implant that was developed to permanently enrich the existing color of the eye. How is this possible? The limbal ring is the dark circle that separates the white of the eye from the iris. Eye color is significantly enhanced and enriched when the limbal ring that encircles the iris is more prominent. A thick, dark limbal ring signifies youthfulness, health, and facial attractiveness.
According to PsychologyToday in April 2011:
People with the prettiest eyes have the most prominent limbal rings.
"Researchers showed volunteers eighty pairs of male and female faces. The faces were completely identical except for the darkness and size of the limbal ring. When asked who they thought was more attractive, the face with the larger limbal rings invariably won out."
The OphthoGlow subconjunctival implant is made of thin, flexible, biocompatible, colored medical grade silicone and allows people to embolden and enlarge their limbal rings. For those whose ambition is to cosmetically improve the appearance of their eyes while retaining their all-natural eye color, OphthoGlow is the permanent solution. | <urn:uuid:894b2777-f224-4cf1-8313-56229ff50666> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ophthoglow.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944299 | 252 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Missouri Among States Targeted In Beef Recall
The usual food safety advice applies in the latest ground beef recall: Don't order that hamburger rare.
A Michigan-based company has recalled 1.8 million pounds of ground beef earmarked for use at restaurants in four states, including Missouri, for possible E. Coli contamination.
Wolverine Packing Co. issued the recall Monday for distributors in Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri and Ohio after 11 people became sick.
Though E. Coli occurs naturally in the gut of cows, it's relatively easy to avoid, says University of Missouri food science professor Azlin Mustapha.
"The takeaway message is to cook beef to the United States Department of Agriculture recommended temperature and you should be OK," says Mustapha.
Beef must reach an internal temperature of 160 degrees to meet food safety guidelines. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends home cooks use a meat thermometer to check the temperature of their beef. | <urn:uuid:2bc1ecd8-6a86-4904-9863-48e51ec04650> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://centralstandard@kcur.org/post/missouri-among-states-targeted-beef-recall | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93215 | 199 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Built in 1773 by Jonas Rupp, the stone structure has been a fixture in Cumberland County history for over 200 years. Situated along what was originally called the Trindle Springs Road, it was known as the great stone mansion of Jonas Rupp. In the mid-1800's, the home was occupied by the family of John Rupp, the builder's grandson. The family fled to Lancaster during the Confederate invasion of Cumberland County in 1863. In their absence, Confederate Brigadier General Albert G. Jenkins used the home as his headquarters. His troops fought the northernmost engagement of the Gettysburg Campaign at nearby Sporting Hill on June 30, 1863. The General Jenkins Monument has been placed at the Rupp House to commemorate the Confederate invasion of Cumberland County and the Union defense of Harrisburg in June 1863. | <urn:uuid:c98c3847-2aaa-4967-95c7-1fa501206a62> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.visitpa.com/pa-museums/rupp-house-mechanicsburg | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00108-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978716 | 165 | 2.84375 | 3 |
April 14, 2012
HAVANA – Fifty years ago this month the US and USSR came terrifying close to full-scale thermonuclear war. I recalled those days of fear while staring at a rusting Soviet medium-ranged SS-4 missile displayed outside La Cabana fortress
Nuclear-armed Soviet SS-4’s, secretly brought into Cuba, were ready to destroy Washington and the entire US East Coast. Nuclear war was imminent. US forces were at DEFCON 2 and massed to invade Cuba. Washington was the prime target. As a student there at Georgetown University, I vividly recall how frightened we were, and how helpless we felt.
In the end, the Soviets prevailed in the Cuban missile crisis. President John Kennedy backed down, pledging the US would never invade Cuba. US missiles in Italy and Turkey targeted on the USSR were removed. Moscow took its SS-4’s out of Cuba.
Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev won his goal of saving Cuba and Fidel Castro’s Marxist regime from a US invasion. But it was such a terrifying gamble the Soviet Politburo deposed Khrushchev shortly after. Kennedy got far more credit than he deserved for the crisis.
In the early 1960’s, Communist Cuba was the vanguard of revolution in Latin America, then Africa. Fidel Castro and Che Guevara’s Cuba was the only Communist regime outside Mao’s China that had romantic appeal to western youth. Fidel’s vows to promote education, health care and land distribution sounded revolutionary when Latin America was mostly ruled by US-backed oligarchs and generals.
But that was long ago. The combined pressure of crushing US trade and financial sanctions and the inherent failures of the Marxist economic system left Cuba isolated, trapped in the past. Today, once picturesque colonial Havana is a Caribbean Pompeii, a museum of the 1950’s with its crumbling buildings and magnificent vintage American cars.
Half a century later, Latin America has rid itself of inept military dictators and achieved dramatic social and economic development. The US no longer treats Latin America with the paternalism and frequent contempt it did fifty years ago. Ironically, Cuba, with a living standard not far from that of the US in the early 50’s, was left behind in a time warp. Castro’s Cuba does have a high standard of health care and education, but the rest of the economy and society are battered beyond belief. Still, the Castro dictatorship, now run by brother Raul, has been honest and genuinely concerned for its people.
I’ve been going to Cuba since the pre-Castro era. My parents used to meet Ernest Hemingway for daiquiri cocktails at the famed La Floridita Bar, today, sadly an over-priced tourist trap. In my bookcase: “A Farewell to Arms,” inscribed “to Eric the painter from his friend Ernest Hemingway, Havana, 1952.”
Contrary to expectations, no big changes occurred after Raul Castro assumed leadership from the ailing Fidel. Yet I have observed many small but significant developments on my regular trips to Cuba. Things are changing.
Thanks to Raul’s recent reforms, small private enterprise is bubbling up everywhere. Aid and oil from Venezuela has been very important. People are more outspoken, less wary of the secret police and informers. One feels growing energy pulsating into Havana’s delightful old city. With its beautiful buildings, friendly, attractive people, and little music bars with their superb salsa bands, Havana is poised to resume its role of 50 years ago as the most fun – and perhaps wickedest city – in the world.
America’s Great Satan, Fidel Castro, is sidelined by age and illness, but Cubans still love their national papa figure. Brother Raul, now pushing 81, has gained respect for his leadership. But once the Castro era is over, what will happen?
Either a power grab by the military and old guard, or the half million Miami-based Cubans will return and rebuild Cuba. A tsunami of US money will swamp Cuba, washing it into the modern world. Many friends of Cuba do not look forward to this change, though Cubans desperately need relief from their threadbare existence.
Fidel Castro was admired across Latin America for proudly defying the mighty US and refusing to follow Washington’s direction. Cuba paid a heavy price for its independence: poverty, repression, Soviet influence. Today’s Cubans may decide continued independence is not worth the heavy cost.
copyright Eric S. Margolis 2012
This post is in: Latin America | <urn:uuid:2279e0f2-5802-40a4-80a3-0216e9caee89> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ericmargolis.com/2012/04/cuba-starts-to-come-alive/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00110-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956795 | 958 | 2.59375 | 3 |
It's difficult to get a sense of scale when viewing Saturn's rings, but the Cassini Division (seen here between the bright B ring and dimmer A ring) is almost as wide as the planet Mercury as seen by NASA's Cassini spacecraft.
From a distance Saturn seems to exude an aura of serenity and peace in this image from NASA's Cassini spacecraft. In spite of this appearance, Saturn is an active and dynamic world. Mimas is seen to the upper-right of Saturn.
Although we are used to seeing Saturn's moons lit directly by the Sun, sometimes we can catch them illuminated by 'Saturnshine.' Here, NASA's Cassini spacecraft see Mimas (upper right) lit by light reflected off of Saturn.
From afar, Saturn's rings look like a solid, homogenous disk of material. But upon closer examination from NASA's Cassini spacecraft, we see that there are varied structures in the rings at almost every scale imaginable.
NASA's Cassini orbiter shows Saturn is circled by its rings (nearly edge-on in this image), as well as by the moons Tethys (the large bright body near the lower right corner) and Mimas (seen as a slight crescent against Saturn's disk above the rings).
NASA's Cassini spacecraft spies Mimas, positioned against the shadow of Saturn's rings, bright on dark. As we near summer in Saturn's northern hemisphere, the rings cast ever larger shadows on the planet.
Among the interplay of Saturn's shadow and rings, Mimas, which appears in the lower-right corner of the image, orbits Saturn as a set of the ever-intriguing spokes appear in the B ring (to the right of center) in this image from NASA's Cassini spacecraft.
This image from NASA's Cassini spacecraft reminds us of how different Mimas and Pandora are when they appear together; although both are moons of Saturn, Pandora's small size means that it lacks sufficient gravity to pull itself into a round shape.
Janus is spotted over Saturn's north pole in this image while Mimas' shadow glides across Saturn in this image from NASA's Cassini spacecraft. Janus is the faint dot that appears just above Saturn's north pole.
Although Mimas holds the unofficial designation of 'Death Star moon,' Tethys is seen here also vaguely resembling the space station from Star Wars. Apparently, Tethys doesn't want Mimas to have all the fun!
Scientists with NASA's Cassini mission have spotted two features shaped like the 1980s video game icon "Pac-Man" on moons of Saturn. One was observed on the moon Mimas in 2010 and the latest was observed on the moon Tethys. | <urn:uuid:749a73be-dc86-41d9-8b59-fc4bb9099a15> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/spaceimages/search_grid.php?q=mimas&img_search_submit.x=70&img_search_submit.y=3¤tpage=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934518 | 560 | 2.90625 | 3 |
The first paintings
The first paintings in the National Gallery collection came from the banker and collector John Julius Angerstein. They consisted of Italian works, including a large altarpiece by Sebastiano del Piombo, The Raising of Lazarus, and fine examples of the Dutch, Flemish and English Schools.
In 1823 the landscape painter and art collector, Sir George Beaumont (1753 – 1827), promised his collection of pictures to the nation, on the condition that suitable accommodation could be provided for their display and conservation.
The gift of the pictures was made in 1826. They went on display alongside Angerstein's pictures in Pall Mall until the whole collection was moved to Trafalgar Square in 1838.
Next: Deciding what to collect | <urn:uuid:514bde5c-357e-40b7-9c22-a756e743e208> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/history/collection-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00068-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95062 | 156 | 3 | 3 |
Two major impoundments at Lake Mead National Recreation Area have been providing recreation, hydroelectric power and water for millions of residents of the desert Southwest for decades. A recent study offers a report card on the health of the park's all-important aquatic resources, and although the news is generally promising, there are some caveats.
According to a park spokesperson the study found that "Lake Mead National Recreation Area's water quality is good, the sport fish populations are sufficient, and the lakes provide important habitat for an increasing number of birds."
The park actually includes two separate impoundments on the Colorado River'Lake Mead and Lake Mohave'and together they attract about 8 million visitors a year. That's a lot of boaters, fishermen, swimmers and campers, and there's no question all that water in the midst of a very arid landscape is a major recreational resource.
The lakes also provide important aquatic habitat for a wide variety of wildlife, including endangered species. For example, Lake Mead contains one of the few populations of the razorback sucker in the Colorado River Basin and the only known population of a regional endemic species, the relict leopard frog (R. [L.] onca).
Two Big Lakes with Major Impacts on the West
That said, the park's waters play a much bigger role in life in the West than a place for fun in the sun. A summary of the report notes, "Lake Mead is the largest reservoir by volume in the nation, and it supplies critical storage of water supplies for more than 25 million people in three Western States (California, Arizona, and Nevada)."
"Storage within Lake Mead supplies drinking water and the hydropower to provide electricity for major cities including Las Vegas, Phoenix, Los Angeles, Tucson, and San Diego, and irrigation of more than 2.5 million acres of croplands. Lake Mead is arguably the most important reservoir in the nation because of its size and the services it delivers to the Western United States."
There's clearly plenty at stake for economic and environmental interests when it comes to both the quality and quantity of the water at Lake Mead NRA, so a number of groups should be interested in the findings of the recent study.
Good News on Several Fronts
"While the Lake Mead ecosystem is generally healthy and robust, the minor problems documented in the report are all being addressed by the appropriate agencies, and are showing substantial improvement since the mid 1990's," said U.S. Geological Survey hydrologist, Michael Rosen, the lead scientist for the report.
"This is thanks to proactive enhancements to wastewater treatment facilities for the Las Vegas Metropolitan area, the installation of wetlands in Las Vegas Wash, and the treatment of legacy pollutants from industrial areas near Las Vegas Wash," Rosen continued.
As illustrated by the last statement, the report offers a bit of interesting terminology, and some good news, when it comes to problems posed by both old ("legacy") and new ("emerging") sources of pollution from upstream development.
"Legacy contaminants are declining due to regulations and mitigation efforts in Las Vegas Wash. Emerging contaminants, including endocrine-disrupting compounds, are present in low concentrations. While emerging contaminants, such as pharmaceuticals, personal care products, or plasticizers have been documented to cause a number of health effects to individual fish, they are not seen at concentrations currently known to pose a threat to human health. In comparison to other reservoirs studied by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Lake Mead is well within the highest or 'good' category for recreation and aquatic health."
Other Highlights from the Report
Other key findings in the report included the following:
"Basic water-quality parameters are within good ranges of Nevada and Arizona standards and EPA lake criteria." (In this case, "good" is just fine. That's the highest of three categories assigned by the EPA for these criteria.) "Potential problems with nutrient balance, algae, and dissolved oxygen can occur at times and in some areas of Lake Mead. The Lake Mead-wide scope of monitoring provides a solid baseline to characterize water quality now and in the future."
"Lake Mead and Lake Mohave continue to provide habitat conditions that support a rich diversity of species within the water, along shorelines, and in adjacent drainage areas, including organisms that are both native and non-native to the Colorado River drainage."
"Sport fish populations appear stable and have reached a balance with reservoir operations over the past 20 years and are sufficient to support important recreational fishing opportunities. Native fish populations within Lake Mohave are declining, but the small native fish populations in Lake Mead are stable without any artificial replenishment."
"Lake Mead and Lake Mohave provide important migration and wintering habitat for birds. Trends include increasing numbers of wintering bald eagles and nesting peregrine falcons. Lake Mead water level fluctuations have produced a variety of shorebird habitats, but songbird habitats are limited. Although some contaminants have been documented in birds and eggs in Las Vegas Wash, mitigation efforts are making a positive change."
Two Lingering Issues
There were, however, a couple of cautionary findings as well, and they involve two key issues with no easy solutions: quagga mussels and long-term drought.
"Invasive quagga mussels have become the dominant lake-bottom organism and are a significant threat to the ecosystems of Lake Mead and Lake Mohave because they have potential '¨to alter water quality and food-web dynamics. "
"Climate models developed for the Colorado River watershed indicate a high probability for longer periods of reduced snowpack and therefore water availability for the Lake Mead in the future. Federal, state and local agencies, and individuals and organizations interested the future of the water supply and demand imbalance are working together to examine strategies to mitigate future conditions."
The report was prepared cooperatively by the U.S. Geological Survey, National Park Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Reclamation, Nevada Department of Wildlife, Southern Nevada Water Authority, BIO-WEST, University of Nevada, Reno, and University of Nevada, Las Vegas. It you'd like to see a copy of the full report, USGS Circular 1381, "A synthesis of aquatic science for management of Lakes Mead and Mohave," it's available online at this link. | <urn:uuid:3cb4c09f-c3d5-4d53-9683-7a839b8ba21f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nationalparkstraveler.com/2013/02/report-lake-mead-national-recreation-areas-aquatic-health-holds-mostly-good-news22810 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944376 | 1,290 | 2.90625 | 3 |
||2002 News Releases
Red Freckles on Europa Suggest 'Lava Lamp' Action
October 30, 2002
Reddish spots on the icy surface of Jupiter's moon Europa may indicate pockets of warmer ice rising from below. This upwelling could provide an elevator ride to the surface for material in an ocean beneath the ice, say scientists studying data from NASA's Galileo spacecraft.
A Galileo color image of the spots, which are called by the Latin term for freckles, "lenticulae," is being presented at a conference this week by Colorado researchers and is available online from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory at http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA03878.
"Europa acts like a planetary lava lamp, carrying material from near the surface down to the ocean, and, if they exist, potentially transporting organisms up toward the surface," said Dr. Robert Pappalardo, a planetary scientist at the University of Colorado, Boulder.
The Galileo spacecraft, orbiting Jupiter since 1995, has produced strong evidence that Europa has a deep ocean of melted saltwater underneath a surface layer of ice. Information about the mission and its discoveries is online at http://galileo.jpl.nasa.gov. During the annual meeting of the Geological Society of America, Oct. 27 through Oct. 30 in Denver, scientists are discussing interpretations of Europa data and proposals for future exploration of that world. A University of Colorado press release about presentations there by Pappalardo and colleagues is online at http://www.colorado.edu/NewsServices/NewsReleases/2002/2054.html.
The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, manages Galileo for NASA's Office of Space Science, Washington, D.C. For more about Galileo, visit http://galileo.jpl.nasa.gov.
Contacts: JPL/Guy Webster (818) 354-6278
University of Colorado/Jim Scott (303) 492-3114 | <urn:uuid:8be57bb1-288a-4112-8495-67b7d910476d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/releases/2002/release_2002_200.cfm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00159-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.854824 | 426 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Hemp seeds contain Omega-6 and Omega-3 fatty acids, two essential nutrients for growth, development, heart function and brain function. In fact, the American Heart Association recommends replacing the saturated fats and trans-fats in your diet with Omega-6s and heart-healthy Omega-3s.
According to the North American Industrial Hemp Council, Inc., hemp is a “bast fiber plant similar to flax, kenaf, jute and ramie.” It’s quite similar to marijuana in appearance—both plants are members of the “Cannabis sativa” family. The plant requires nitrogen-rich, non-acidic soil—wherever corn grows, the NAIHC says, hemp will likely grow, too. The plant matures quickly, needs few pesticides, and is usually harvested twice, once for its fibers and once for its seeds. While the fibers have industrial uses in making textiles, carpeting, tarps and boat sails, the seeds have become a popular food additive thanks to the number of nutrients they contain.
Although it’s related to marijuana, the hemp plant does not produce enough of the chemical that people need to experience a high when the plant’s leaves are smoked. The NAIHC reports that hemp contains less than 1 percent THC, or delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, while marijuana contains anywhere from 5 to 20 percent THC.
Hemp and Essential Fatty Acids
According to environmental scientist and hemp consultant Gero Leson, the oil of the hemp seed includes a healthy dose of Omega-6 and Omega-3 fatty acids, including two relatively rare polyunsaturated fatty acids called gamma-linolenic acid and stearidonic acid. You might not realize that all vegetable oils were not created equal—they don’t all have both types of essential fatty acids, nor do they have them in the same amounts. Olive, pumpkin and sunflower oil, for example, have no Omega-3s. Hemp seed oil, on the other hand, offers more Omega-3s than the oft-recommended soybean or canola oil.
Hemp and Protein
Leson also reports that hemp protein is compositionally similar to the protein your body manufactures. Composed of albumin and edestine, this protein digests easily, unlike the protein in soy. You’ve probably heard nutritionists praise eggs, milk and meat as sources of protein, but where does that leave vegans, who eschew all of these? According to Leson, hemp seeds can fill that void; their protein contains all the essential amino acids your body needs, in amounts that are closer to dairy and meat products than any other seed except soy.
When exposed to high temperatures, the polyunsaturated fatty acids in hemp seeds and hemp seed oil can turn into peroxide. Leson reports that hemp seeds and oil should only be used in recipes that keep the food’s temperature below boiling—this rules out frying with hemp oil. If you want to use the oil to sauté, Leson suggests using low heat and keeping enough moisture in the bottom of the pan to prevent any “off-flavors” from forming.
- American Heart Association: Omega-6 fatty acids
- North American Industrial Hemp Council, Inc.: Hemp Definedrel="nofollow"
- Nutritional Profile and Benefits of Hemp Seed, Nut and Oilrel="nofollow"
- Blue Shield of California: Shelled Hemp Seed
- hemp image by Vasiliy Koval from Fotolia.com
This article reflects the views of the writer and does not necessarily reflect the views of Jillian Michaels or JillianMichaels.com. | <urn:uuid:665857d8-948c-4c7b-a2f7-c2e797d6c752> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://getfit.jillianmichaels.com/hemp-seed-health-benefits-1335.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00099-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93086 | 774 | 2.671875 | 3 |
This podcast discusses the Hollywood movie Contagion and the facts behind the fiction. Created: 9/22/2011 by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
Date Released: 9/22/2011. Series Name: CDC Featured Podcasts.
[Announcer]This podcast is presented by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
While the movie Contagion is a fictional account of an outbreak of a dangerous infectious disease occurring globally, the real-life stories of CDC’s Epidemic Intelligence Service are just as exciting as the one on the screen. The movie is not a documentary, but there are some important facts behind the fiction.
Contagious disease outbreaks can and do happen. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention investigates contagious diseases every year. They can emerge in the US or anywhere on the planet, just a plane ride away from spreading globally.
Thankfully, a network of public health officials work together to protect the health of Americans. State and local health departments are our front-line heroes, and CDC stands ready to respond. CDC scientists work 24-7 to find out what is happening right now. Early detection allows public health officials to manage and reduce the spread and impact of a contagious disease.
Here’s how you can help slow the spread of germs:
• Wash your hands often with lots of soap and water for at least 20 seconds. If soap and water aren’t available, use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer.
• Cover coughs and sneezes with a tissue or your arm.
• If you or your kids are sick, stay home from work or school.
• In an extreme situation where germs are spreading rapidly, like in a flu pandemic, your community may use social distancing to increase space between people. This can be done by changing seating arrangements; schedules; or attendance in places where people gather, like schools and businesses. Schools might be temporarily closed and mass gatherings, such as sporting events, may be cancelled.
• In the case of flu, vaccination is the best way to protect yourself and your family. Some groups are at higher risk for complications from the flu. These include pregnant women; adults 65 and older; children younger than five, especially children younger than two years old; and people with certain chronic medical conditions, like cancer, diabetes, asthma, and HIV/AIDS. Since babies younger than six months can’t get a flu shot, family and caretakers can help keep them healthy by getting themselves vaccinated. Check with your health care provider right away about getting your family vaccinated against the flu..
For more information from CDC, related to the movie Contagion, visit www.cdc.gov and type “contagion” in the search box, that’s c-o-n-t-a-g-i-o-n.
For the most accurate health information, visit www.cdc.gov or call 1-800-CDC-INFO. | <urn:uuid:df8d2cfb-abbf-41a0-b763-429e1d6d835a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www2c.cdc.gov/podcasts/player.asp?f=8621161 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938451 | 618 | 3.40625 | 3 |
A superb text on the alienation and the debasement produced by what the state regards as the noble sentiment of patriotism.
Patriotism today is like a scaffolding which was needful once to raise the walls of the building, but which, though it presents the only obstacle to the house being inhabited, is none the less retained, because its existence is of profit to certain persons.
For a long while there has not been and cannot be any reason for dissension between Christian nations. It is even impossible to imagine, how and for what, Russian and German workmen, peacefully and conjointly working on the frontiers or in the capitals, should quarrel. And much less easily can one imagine animosity between some Kazan peasant who supplies Germans with wheat, and a German who supplies him with scythes and machines.
It is the same between French, German, and Italian workmen. And it would be even ridiculous to speak of the possibility of a quarrel between men of science, art, and letters of different nationalities, who have the same objects of common interest independent of nationalities or of governments.
But the various governments cannot leave the nations in peace, because the chief, if not the sole, justification for the existence of governments is the pacification of nations, and the settlement of their hostile relationships. Hence governments evoke such hostile relationships under the aspect of patriotism, in order to exhibit their powers of pacification. Somewhat like a gipsy who, having put some pepper under a horse's tail, and beaten it in its stall, brings it out, and hanging on to the reins, pretends that he can hardly control the excited animal.
We are told that governments are very careful to maintain peace between nations. But how do they maintain it? People live on the Rhine in peaceful communication with one another. Suddenly, owing to certain quarrels and intrigues between kings and emperors, a war commences; and we learn that the French government has considered it necessary to regard this peaceful people as Frenchmen. Centuries pass, the population has become accustomed to their position, when animosity again begins amongst the governments of the great nations, and a war is started upon the most empty pretext, because the German government considers it necessary to regard this population as Germans: and between all Frenchmen and Germans is kindled a mutual feeling of ill-will.
Or else Germans and Russians live in a friendly fashion on their frontiers, pacifically exchanging the results of their labour; when all of a sudden those same institutions, which only exist to maintain the peace of nations, begin to quarrel, are guilty of one stupidity after another, and finally are unable to invent anything better than a most childish method of self-punishment in order to have their own way, and do a bad turn to their opponent -which in this case is especially easy, as those who arrange a war of tariffs are not the sufferers from it; it is others who suffer - and so arrange such a war of tariffs as took place not long ago between Russia and Germany. And so between Russians and Germans a feeling of animosity is fostered, which is still more inflamed by the Franco-Russian festivities, and may lead at one moment or another to a bloody war.
I have mentioned these last two examples of the influence of a government over the people used to excite their animosity against another people, because they have occurred in our times: but in all history there is no war which was not hatched by the governments, the governments alone, independent of the interests of the people, to whom war is always pernicious even when successful.
The government assures the people that they are in danger from the invasion of another nation, or from foes in their midst, and that the only way to escape this danger is by the slavish obedience of the people to their government. This fact is seen most prominently during revolutions and dictatorships, but it exists always and everywhere that the power of the government exists. Every government explains its existence, and justifies its deeds of violence, by the argument that if it did not exist the condition of things would be very much worse. After assuring the people of its danger the government subordinates it to control, and when in this condition compels it to attack some other nation. And thus the assurance of the government is corroborated in the eyes of the people, as to the danger of attack from other nations.
"Divide et impera."
Patriotism in its simplest, clearest, and most indubitable signification is nothing else but a means of obtaining for the rulers their ambitions and covetous desires, and for the ruled the abdication of human dignity, reason, and conscience, and a slavish enthralment to those in power. And as such it is recommended wherever it is preached.
Patriotism is slavery.
Those who preach peace by arbitration argue thus: Two animals cannot divide their prey otherwise than by fighting; as also is the case with children, savages, and savage nations. But reasonable people settle their differences by argument, persuasion, and by referring the decision of the question to other impartial and reasonable persons. So the nations should act today. This argument seems quite correct. The nations of our time have reached the period of reasonableness, have no animosity toward one another, and might decide their differences in a peaceful fashion. But this argument applies only so far as it has reference to the people, and only to the people who are not under the control of a government. But the people that subordinate themselves to a government cannot be reasonable, because the subordination is in itself a sign of a want of reason.
How can we speak of the reasonableness of men who promise in advance to accomplish everything, including murder, that the government - that is, certain men who have attained a certain position - may command? Men who can accept such obligations, and resignedly subordinate themselves to anything that may be prescribed by persons unknown to them in Petersburg, Vienna, Berlin, Paris, cannot be considered reasonable; and the government, that is, those who are in possession of such power, can still less be considered reasonable, and cannot but misuse it, and become dazed by such insane and dreadful power.
This is why peace between nations cannot be attained by reasonable means, by conversations, by arbitration, as long as the subordination of the people to the government continues, a condition always unreasonable and always pernicious. But the subordination of people to governments will exist as long as patriotism exists, because all governmental authority is founded upon patriotism, that is, upon the readiness of people to subordinate themselves to authority in order to defend their nation, country, or state from dangers which are supposed to threaten. The power of the French kings over their people before the Revolution was founded on patriotism; upon it too was based the power of the Committee of Public Welfare after the Revolution; upon it was erected the power of Napoleon, both as consul and as emperor; upon it, after the downfall of Napoleon, was based the power of the Bourbons, then that of the Republic, Louis Philippe, and again of the Republic; then of Napoleon III, and again of the Republic, and upon it finally rested the power of M. Boulanger.
It is dreadful to say so, but there is not, nor has there been, any conjoint violence of one people against another which was not accomplished in the name of patriotism. In its name the Russians fought the French, and the French the Russians; in its name Russians and French are preparing to fight the Germans, and the Germans to wage war on two frontiers. And such is the case not only with wars. In the name of patriotism the Russians stifle the Poles, the Germans persecute the Slavonians, the men of the Commune killed those of Versailles, and those of Versailles the men of the Commune.
IT WOULD seem that, owing to the spread of education, of speedier locomotion, of greater intercourse between different nations, to the widening of literature, and chiefly to the decrease of danger from other nations, the fraud of patriotism ought daily to become more difficult and at length impossible to practise.
But the truth is that these very means of general external education, facilitated locomotion and intercourse, and especially the spread of literature, being captured and constantly more and more controlled by government, confer on the latter such possibilities of exciting a feeling of mutual animosity between nations, that in degree as the uselessness and harmfulness of patriotism have become manifest, so also has increased the power of the government and ruling class to excite patriotism among the people.
The difference between that which was and that which is consists solely in the fact that now a much larger number of men participate in the advantages which patriotism confers on the upper classes, hence a much larger number of men are employed in spreading and sustaining this astounding superstition.
The more difficult the government finds it to retain its power, the more numerous are the men who share it. In former times a small band of rulers held the reins of power, emperors, kings, dukes, their soldiers and assistants; whereas now the power and its profits are shared not only by the government officials and by the clergy, but by capitalists - great and small, landowners, bankers, members of parliament, professors, village officials, men of science, and even artists, but particularly by authors and journalists.
And all these people, consciously or unconsciously, spread the deceit of patriotism, which is indispensable to them if the profits of their position are to be preserved. And the fraud, thanks to the means of its propagation, and to the participation in it of a much larger number of people, having become more powerful, is continued so successfully, that, notwithstanding the increased difficulty of deceiving, the extent to which the people are deceived is the same as ever.
A hundred years ago the uneducated classes, who had no idea of what composed their government, or by what nations they were surrounded, blindly obeyed the local government officials and nobles by whom they were enslaved, and it was sufficient for the government, by bribes and rewards, to remain on good terms with these nobles and officials, in order to squeeze from the people all that was required. Whereas now, when the people can, for the most part, read, know more or less of what their government consists, and what nations surround them; when working-men constantly and easily move from place to place, bringing back information of what is happening in the world - the simple demand that the orders of the government must be accomplished is not sufficient; it is needful as well to cloud those true ideas about life which the people have, and to inculcate unnatural ideas as to the condition of their existence, and the relationship to it of other nations. And so, thanks to the development of literature, reading, and the facilities of travel, governments which have their agents everywhere, by means of statutes, sermons, schools, and the press, inculcate everywhere upon the people the most barbarous and erroneous ideas as to their advantages, the relationship of nations, their qualities and intentions; and the people, so crushed by labour that they have neither the time nor the power to understand the significance or test the truth of the ideas which are forced upon them or of the demands made upon them in the name of their welfare, put themselves unmurmuringly under the yoke.
Whereas working-men who have freed themselves from unremitting labour and become educated, and who have, therefore, it might be supposed, the power of seeing through the fraud which is practised upon them, are subjected to such a coercion of threats, bribes, and all the hypnotic influence of governments, that, almost without exception, they desert to the side of the government, and by entering some well-paid and profitable employment, as priest, schoolmaster, officer, or functionary, become participators in spreading the deceit which is destroying their comrades. It is as if nets were laid at the entrances to education, in which those who by some means or other escape from the masses bowed down by labour, are inevitably caught.
At first, when one understands the cruelty of all this deceit, one feels indignant in spite of oneself against those who from personal ambition or greedy advantage propagate this cruel fraud which destroys the souls as well as the bodies of men, and one feels inclined to accuse them of a sly craftiness; but the fact is that they are deceitful with no wish to deceive, but because they cannot be otherwise. And they deceive, not like Machiavellians, but with no consciousness of their deceit, and usually with the naive assurance that they are doing something excellent and elevated, a view in which they are persistently encouraged by the sympathy and approval of all who surround them.
It is true that, being dimly aware that on this fraud is founded their power and advantageous position, they are unconsciously drawn toward it; but their action is not based on any desire to delude the people, but because they believe it to be of service to the people.
Thus emperors, kings, and their ministers, with all their coronations, manoeuvres, reviews, visiting one another, dressing up in various uniforms, going from place to place, and deliberating with serious faces as to how they may keep peace between nations supposed to be inimical to each other - nations who would never dream of quarrelling - feel quite sure that what they are doing is very reasonable and useful.
In the same way the various ministers, diplomatists, and functionaries - dressed up in uniforms, with all sorts of ribbons and crosses, writing and docketing with great care, upon the best paper, their hazy, involved, altogether needless communications, advices, projects - are quite assured that, without their activity, the entire existence of nations would halt or become deranged. In the same manner military men, got up in ridiculous costumes, arguing seriously with what rifle or cannon men can be most expeditiously destroyed, are quite certain that their field-days and reviews are most important and essential to the people. So likewise the priests, journalists, writers of patriotic songs and class-books; who preach patriotism and receive liberal remuneration, are equally satisfied.
And no doubt the organizers of festivities - like the Franco-Russian fêtes - are sincerely affected while pronouncing their patriotic speeches and toasts.
All these people do what they are doing unconsciously, because they must, all their life being founded upon deceit, and because they know not how to do anything else; and coincidently these same acts call forth the sympathy and approbation of all the people amongst whom they are done. Moreover, being all linked together, they approve and justify one another's acts - emperors and kings those of the soldiers, functionaries, and clergymen; and soldiers, functionaries, and clergymen the acts of emperors and kings, while the populace, and especially the town populace, seeing nothing comprehensible in what is done by all these men, unwittingly ascribe to them a special, almost a supernatural, significance.
The people see, for instance, that a triumphal arch is erected; that men bedeck themselves with crowns, uniforms, robes; that fireworks are let off, cannons fired, bells rung, regiments paraded with their bands; that papers and telegrams and messengers fly from place to place, and that strangely arrayed men are busily engaged in hurrying from place to place and much is said and written; and the throng being unable to believe that all this is done (as is indeed the case) without the slightest necessity, attribute to it all a special mysterious significance, and gaze with shouts and hilarity or with silent awe. And on the other hand, this hilarity or silent awe confirms the assurance of those people who are responsible for all these foolish deeds.
Thus, for instance, not long ago, Wilhelm II ordered a new throne for himself, with some special kind of ornamentation, and having dressed up in a white uniform, with a cuirass, tight breeches, and a helmet with a bird on the top, and enveloped himself in a red mantle, came out to his subjects, and sat down on this new throne, perfectly assured that his act was most necessary and important; and his subjects not only saw nothing ridiculous in it, but thought the sight most imposing.
For some time the power of the government over the people has not been maintained by force, as was the case when one nation conquered another and ruled it by force of arms, or when the rulers of an unarmed people had separate legions of janissaries or guards.
The power of the government has for some time been maintained by what is termed public opinion.
A public opinion exists that patriotism is a fine moral sentiment, and that it is right and our duty to regard one's own nation, one's own state, as the best in the world; and flowing naturally from this public opinion is another, namely, that it is right and our duty to acquiesce in the control of a government over ourselves, to subordinate ourselves to it, to serve in the army and submit ourselves to discipline, to give our earnings to the government in the form of taxes, to submit to the decisions of the law-courts, and to consider the edicts of the government as divinely right. And when such public opinion exists, a strong governmental power is formed possessing milliards of money, an organized mechanism of administration, the postal service, telegraphs, telephones, disciplined armies, law-courts, police, submissive clergy, schools, even the press; and this power maintains in the people the public opinion which it finds necessary.
The power of the government is maintained by public opinion, and with this power the government, by means of its organs - its officials, law-courts, schools, churches, even the press - can always maintain the public opinion which they need. Public opinion produces the power, and the power produces public opinion. And there appears to be no escape from this position. Nor indeed would there be, if public opinion were something fixed, unchangeable, and governments were able to manufacture the public opinion they needed. But, fortunately, such is not the case; and public opinion is not, to begin with, permanent, unchangeable, stationary; but, on the contrary, is constantly changing, moving with the advance of humanity; and public opinion not only cannot be produced at will by a government, but is that which produces governments and gives them power, or deprives them of it. It may seem that public opinion is at present stationary, and the same today as it was ten years ago; that in relation to certain questions it merely fluctuates, but returns again - as when it replaces a monarchy with a republic, and then the republic with a monarchy; but it has only that appearance when we examine merely the external manifestation or public opinion which is produced artificially by the government.
But we need only take public opinion in its relation to the life of mankind to see that, as with the day or the year, it is never stagnant, but always proceeds along the way by which all humanity advances, as, notwithstanding delays and hesitations, the day or the spring advances by the same path as the sun.
So that, although, judging from external appearances, the position of European nations today is almost as it was fifty years ago, the relationship of the nations to these appearances is quite different from what it was then. Though now, the same as then, exist rulers, troops, taxes, luxury and poverty, Catholicism, orthodoxy, Lutheranism, in former times these existed because public opinion demanded them, whereas now they exist only because the governments artificially maintain what was once a vital public opinion.
If we as seldom remark this movement of public opinion as we notice the movement of water in a river when we ourselves are descending with the current, this is because the imperceptible changes in public opinion influence ourselves as well.
The nature of public opinion is a constant and irresistible movement. If it appears to us to be stationary it is because there are always some who have utilized a certain phase of public opinion for their own profit, and who, in consequence, use every effort to give it an appearance of permanence, and to conceal the manifestations of real opinion, which is already alive, though not yet perfectly expressed, in the consciousness of men. And such people, who adhere to the outworn opinion and conceal the new one, are at the present time those who compose governments and ruling classes, and who preach patriotism as an indispensable condition of human life.
The means which these people can control are immense; but as public opinion is constantly pouring in upon them their efforts must in the end be in vain: the old falls into decrepitude, the new grows.
The longer the manifestation of nascent public opinion is restrained, the more it accumulates, the more energetically will it burst forth.
Governments and ruling classes try with all their strength to conserve that old public opinion of patriotism upon which their power rests, and to smother the expression of the new, which would destroy it. But to preserve the old and to check the new is possible only up to a certain point; just as, only to a certain extent, is it possible to check running water with a dam.
However much governments may try to arouse in the people a public opinion, of the past, unnatural to them as to the merit and virtue of patriotism, those of our day believe in patriotism no longer, but espouse more and more the solidarity and brotherhood of nations.
Patriotism promises men nothing but a terrible future, but the brotherhood of nations represents an ideal which is becoming ever more intelligible and more desirable to humanity. Hence the progress of mankind from the old outworn opinion to the new must inevitably take place. This progression is as inevitable as the falling in the spring of the last dry leaves and the appearance of the new from swollen buds.
And the longer this transition is delayed, the more inevitable it becomes, and the more evident its necessity.
And indeed, one has only to remember what we profess, both as Christians and merely as men of our day, those fundamental moralities by which we are directed in our social, family, and personal existence, and the position in which we place ourselves in the name of patriotism, in order to see what a degree of contradiction we have placed between our conscience and what, thanks to an energetic government influence in this direction, we regard as our public opinion.
One has only thoughtfully to examine the most ordinary demands of patriotism, which are expected of us as the most simple and natural affair, in order to understand to what extent these requirements are at variance with that real public opinion which we already share. We all regard ourselves as free, educated, humane men, or even as Christians, and yet we are all in such a position that were Wilhelm tomorrow to take offence against Alexander, or Mr. N. to write a lively article on the Eastern Question, or Prince So-and-so to plunder some Bulgarians or Serbians, or some queen or empress to be put out by something or other, all we educated humane Christians must go and kill people of whom we have no knowledge, and toward whom we areas amicably disposed as to the rest of the world.
And if such an event has not come to pass, it is owing, we are assured, to the love of peace which controls Alexander, or because Nikolai Alexandrovitch has married the granddaughter of Victoria.
But if another happened to be in the place of Alexander, or if the disposition of Alexander himself were to alter, or if Nicholas the son of Alexander had married Amalia instead of Alice, we should rush at each other like wild beasts, and rip up each other's bellies.
Such is the supposed public opinion of our time, and such arguments are coolly repeated in every liberal and advanced organ of the press.
If we, Christians of a thousand years' standing, have not already cut one another's throats, it is merely because Alexander III does not permit us to do so.
But this is awful!
No FEATS OF heroism are needed to achieve the greatest and most important changes in the existence of humanity; neither the armament of millions of soldiers, nor the construction of new roads and machines, nor the arrangement of exhibitions, nor the organization of workmen's unions, nor revolutions, nor barricades, nor explosions, nor the perfection of aerial navigation; but a change in public opinion. And to accomplish this change no exertions of the mind are needed, nor the refutation of anything in existence, nor the invention of any extraordinary novelty; it is only needful that we should not succumb to the erroneous, already defunct, public opinion of the past, which governments have induced artificially; it is only needful that each individual should say what he really feels or thinks, or at least that he should not say what he does not think. And if only a small body of the people were to do so at once, of their own accord, outworn public opinion would fall off us of itself, and anew , living, real opinion would assert itself. And when public opinion should thus have changed without the slightest effort, the internal condition of men's lives which so torments them would change likewise of its own accord.
One is ashamed to say how little is needed for all men to be delivered from those calamities which now oppress them; it is only needful not to lie.
Let people only be superior to the falsehood which is instilled into them, let them decline to say what they neither feel nor think, and at once such a revolution of all the organization of our life will take place as could not be attained by all the efforts of revolutionists during centuries, even were complete power within their hands.
If people would only believe that strength is not in force but in truth, would only not shrink from it either in world or deed, not say what they do not think, not do what they regard as foolish and as wrong!
"But what is there so gravely serious in shouting Vive la France! or, Hurrah for some emperor, king, or conqueror; in putting on a uniform and a court decoration and going and waiting in a anteroom and bowing low and calling men by strange titles and then giving the young and uncultured to understand that all this sort of thing is very praiseworthy?"
Or, "Why is the writing of an article in defence of the Franco-Russian alliance, or of the war of tariffs, or in condemnation of Germans, Russians, or Englishmen, of such moment?"
Or, "What harm is there in attendance at some patriotic festivity, or in drinking the health and making a speech in favour of people whom one does not love, and with whom one has no business?"
Or, "What is of such importance in admitting the use and excellence of treaties and alliances, or in keeping silence when one's own nation is lauded in one's hearing, and other nations are abused and maligned; or when Catholicism, Orthodoxy, and Lutheranism are lauded; or some hero of war, as Napoleon, Peter, Boulanger, or Skobelef, is admired?'.
All these things seem so unimportant. Yet in these ways which seem unimportant to us, in our refraining from them, in our proving, as far as we can, the unreasonableness that is apparent to us, in this is our chief, our irresistible might, of which that unconquerable force is composed which constitutes real genuine public opinion, that opinion which, while itself advancing, moves all humanity.
The governments know this, and tremble before this force, and strive in every way they can to counteract or become possessed of it. They know that strength is not in force, but in thought and in clear expression of it, and, therefore, they are more afraid of the expression of independent thought than of armies; hence they institute censorships, bribe the press, and monopolize the control of religion and of the schools. But the spiritual force which moves the world eludes them; it is neither in books nor in papers; it cannot be trapped, and is always free; it is in the depths of consciousness of mankind. The most powerful and untrammelled force of freedom is that which asserts itself in the soul of man when he is alone, and in the sole presence of himself reflects on the facts of the universe, and then naturally communicates his thoughts to wife, brother, friend, with all those with whom he comes in contact, and from whom he would regard it as sinful to conceal the truth.
No milliards of roubles, no millions of troops, no organization, no wars or revolutions will produce what the simple expression of a free man may, on what he regards as just, independently of what exists or was instilled into him. One free man will say with truth what he thinks and feels amongst thousands of men who by their acts and words attest exactly the opposite. It would seem that he who sincerely expressed his thought must remain alone, whereas it generally happens that everyone else, or the majority at least, have been thinking and feeling the same things but without expressing them.
And that which yesterday was the novel opinion of one man, today becomes the general opinion of the majority.
And as soon as this opinion is established, immediately by imperceptible degrees, but beyond power of frustration, the conduct of mankind begins to alter.
Whereas at present, every man, even, if free, asks himself, "What can I do alone against all this ocean of evil and deceit which overwhelms us? Why should I express my opinion? Why indeed possess one? It is better not to reflect on these misty and involved questions. Perhaps these contradictions are an inevitable condition of our existence. And why should I struggle alone with all the evil in the world? Is it not better to go with the stream which carries me along? If anything can be done, it must be done not alone but in company with others."
And leaving the most powerful of weapons - thought and its expression - which move the world, each man employs the weapon of social activity, not noticing that every social activity is based on the very foundations against which he is bound to fight, and that upon entering the social activity which exists in our world every man is obliged, if only in part, to deviate from the truth and to make concessions which destroy the force of the powerful weapon which should assist him in the struggle. It is as if a man, who was given a blade so marvellously keen that it would sever anything, should use its edge for driving in nails.
We all complain of the senseless order of life, which is at variance with our being, and yet we refuse to use the unique and powerful weapon within our hands - the consciousness of truth and its expression; but on the contrary, under the pretext of struggling with evil, we destroy the weapon, and sacrifice it to the exigencies of an imaginary conflict.
One man does not assert the truth which he knows, because he feel himself bound to the people with whom he is engaged; another, because the truth might deprive him of the profitable position by which he maintains his family; a third, because he desires to attain reputation and authority, and then use them in the service of mankind; a fourth, because he does not wish to destroy old sacred traditions; a fifth, because he has no desire to offend people; a sixth, because the expression of the truth would arouse persecution, and disturb the excellent social activity to which he has devoted himself.
One serves as emperor, king, minister, government functionary, or soldier, and assures himself and others that the deviation from truth indispensable to his condition is redeemed by the good he does. Another, who fulfils the duties of a spiritual pastor, does not in the depths of his soul believe all he teaches, but permits the deviation from truth in view of the good he does. A third instructs men by means of literature, and notwithstanding the silence he must observe with regard to the whole truth, in order not to stir up the government and society against himself, has no doubt as to the good he does. A fourth struggles resolutely with the existing order as revolutionist or anarchist, and is quite assured that the aims he pursues are so beneficial that the neglect of the truth, or even of the falsehood, by silence, indispensable to the success of his activity, does not destroy the utility of his work.
In order that the conditions of a life contrary to the consciousness of humanity should change and be replaced by one which is in accord with it, the outworn public opinion must be superseded by a new and living one. And in order that the old outworn opinion should yield its place to the new living one all who are conscious of the new requirements of existence should openly express them. And yet all those who are conscious of these new requirements, one in the name of one thing, and one in the name of another, not only pass them over in silence, but both by word and deed attest their exact opposites.
Only the truth and its expression can establish that new public opinion which will reform the ancient obsolete and pernicious order of life; and yet we not only do not express the truth we know, but often even distinctly give expression to what we ourselves regard as false. If only free men would not rely on that which has no power, and is always fettered-upon external aids; but would trust in that which is always powerful and free-the truth and its expression!
If only men were boldly and clearly to express the truth already manifest to them of the brotherhood of all nations, and the crime of exclusive devotion to one's own people, that defunct, false public opinion would slough off of itself like a dried skin - and upon it depends the power of governments, and all the evil produced by them; and the new public opinion would stand forth, which is even now but awaiting that dropping off of the old to put forth manifestly and powerfully its demand, and establish new forms of existence in conformity with the consciousness of mankind.
IT IS sufficient that people should understand that what is enunciated to them as public opinion, and maintained by such complex, energetic, and artificial means, is not public opinion, but only the lifeless outcome of what was once public opinion; and, what is more important, it is sufficient that they should have faith in themselves, that they should believe that what they are conscious of in the depths of their souls, what in every one is pressing for expression, and is only not expressed because it contradicts the public opinion supposed to exist, is the power which transforms the world, and to express which is the mission of mankind: it is sufficient to believe that truth is not what men talk of, but what is told by his own conscience, that is, by God - and at once the whole artificially maintained public opinion will disappear, and a new and true one be established in its place.
If people would only speak what they think, and not what they do not think, all the superstitions emanating from patriotism would at once drop away with the cruel feelings and violence founded upon it. The hatred and animosity between nations and peoples, fanned by their governments, would cease; the extolling of military heroism, that is of murder, would be at an end; and, what is of most importance, respect for authorities, abandonment to them of the fruits of one's labour, and subordination to them, would cease, since there is no other reason for them but patriotism. And if merely this were to take place, that vast mass of feeble people who are controlled by externals - would sway at once to the side of the new public opinion, which should reign henceforth in place of the old.
Let the government keep the schools, Church, press, its milliards of money and millions of armed men transformed into machines: all this apparently terrible organization of brute force is as nothing compared to the consciousness of truth, which surges in the soul of one man who knows the power of truth, which is communicated from him to a second and a third, as one candle lights an innumerable quantity of others. The light needs only to be kindled, and, like wax in the face of fire, this organization, which seems so powerful, will melt, and be consumed. Only let men understand the vast power which is given them in the word which expresses truth: only let them refuse to sell their birthright for a mess of pottage: only let people use their power - and their rulers will not dare, as now, to threaten men with universal slaughter, to which, at their discretion, they may or may not subject them, not dare before the eyes of a peaceful populace to hold reviews and manoeuvres of disciplined murderers; nor would the governments dare for their own profit and the advantage of their assistance to arrange and derange custom-house agreements, nor to collect from the people those millions of roubles which they distribute among their assistants, and by the help of which their murders are planned.
And such a transformation is not only possible, but it is as impossible that it should not be accomplished as that a lifeless, decaying tree should not fall, and a younger take its place.
"Peace I leave with you; my peace I give unto you: not as the world giveth, give I unto you. Let not your heart be troubled, neither let it be afraid," said Christ.
And this peace is indeed among us, and depends on us for its attainment. If only the hearts of individuals would not be troubled by the seductions with which they are hourly seduced, nor afraid of those imaginary terrors by which they are intimidated; if people only knew wherein their chiefest, all-conquering power consists - a peace which men have always desired, not the peace attainable by diplomatic negotiations, imperial or kingly progresses, dinners, speeches, fortresses, cannon, dynamite, and melinite, by the exhaustion of the people under taxes, and the abduction from labour of the flower of the population, but the peace attainable by a voluntary profession of the truth by every man, would long ago have been established in our midst. | <urn:uuid:69eed85e-8a4b-4d91-bcda-c4ca2d64ce12> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.panarchy.org/tolstoy/1894.eng.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974436 | 7,899 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Cooking smoke kills women
In many societies, women are in charge of cooking. Day after day, and often throughout their lives, women spend many hours in the kitchen, often near a fire. Smoke, which deposits soot in the lungs, is responsible for 511,000 of the 1.3 million annual deaths of women caused by obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) around the world.
Improved stoves bring many benefits
Building improved stoves in rural areas decreases the need for firewood and reduces pollution caused by smoke fumes. This has been proven to improve the health of women, prevent respiratory diseases and reduce deforestation. Additionally, the World Health Organization has developed an interesting analysis on the contribution of this technology toward the Millennium Development Goal of promoting equality between the sexes and the empowerment of women. Similarly, at Heifer Peru we asked the question: In Heifer Perus work, how has the strategy of building improved stoves improved gender relations and womens empowerment?
Heifer Peru has been working in field of improved stoves for more than 15 years. In 2008, a study was conducted to examine the impact of using improved stoves in our projects. A Systemization of Experiences was developed to document Heifer Perus extensive experience in various regions and in various contexts throughout the country.
Women must be the decision makers
At first, field visits revealed that very sophisticated and perfectly built kitchens in Heifer Projects were simply not being used. In households where the improved stoves were being used, it became clear that those households were where the women were originally consulted prior to constructing the new stoves. They were consulted throughout the entire process: Did they want a new kitchen? Where did they want it built? Were they willing to attend training to understand stove handling and maintenance? Involving the women from start to finish was a key aspect to the success of the project. The women felt valued to know that their voice and decision had been taken into account. For Heifer Peru, this helped confirm a key component: the active participation of women in decision-making.
Improved stoves give women more time outside the kitchen
Given the gender perspective, it was initially discussed and assumed that the presence of improved stoves would reinforce the unique role of women in the home and make the women more comfortable in their own kitchen. In the testimonies we captured, many women noted the value that the improved stove brought for them was that they were more comfortable in their kitchen, and that they could cook more quickly and more efficiently, which freed the women up for other activities in the home and for themselves. The latter point was noted as being most significant: The women had more time for themselves. It allowed them to have more time to leave their home and participate in life community and family activities. This last was an indirect effect and revealed that the new stoves addressed a strategic necessity for many women: their own time management.
The third aspect analyzed was the approach of the technical field work. Having to construct the new and improved stoves meant that field technicians had to enter the homes of the women to determine dimensions and to build the stoves. Entering the home, a private space, for an extended period of time to construct the stoves offered the technician the opportunity to understand the sensitivities around gender and observe the real behaviors and exercises of power that occurred in the local rural households. The technicians had to understand the complexity of gender relations within these rural families. This approach facilitated the technicians and families learning from each other. After multiple visits and exchanges, the womens behavior and activities began to slowly change. The women became more involved in project activities but also went through personal change, the family dynamics began to change and the women became more involved in social roles. This meant that the women were not just passive recipients, but active agents of change. This dynamic resulted in women and their homes serving a public role in the community.
Using these reflections, we can recognize the relationship between improved stoves and womens empowerment. Strategies and processes for womens empowerment are not framed in a single space, or with a single player. In this case, it involved not only women, but also other members in the home, and even the technical officer and the organization. The kitchen ceased to be perceived as the sole domain of women and became a place for family decision-making and empowerment. Empowerment was one of the indirect results, though. Over time, there was a steady improvement of gender relations at home. This allowed women to actively participate in the community and receive education and training on issues of leadership, citizenship and organizational development, all of which provided them a new level of empowerment beyond the domestic sphere.
With all these reflections, we are reminded of the real dimension of Heifers and Heifer Perus work. Stoves were improved for better food and health, but the stoves were also used to develop our strategy to improve gender relations, family power dynamics and the position of women to facilitate their active participation in family and communal decision making.
Improved stoves must be incorporated into healthy home and healthy family strategies
There were areas where the presence of new, improved stoves did not have the same impact mostly where women were not part of the decision making and design. It was often the case that when the men of the community were the primary participants involved in the project, arguing that success for the project was the actual construction of the stoves, the masonry work, and the number of stoves built without seeing the profound impact that the stoves footprint could have in changing attitudes and family values, especially for women. From this we were convinced that to achieve the most effective impact, the strategy of using improved stoves should be integrated into a larger strategy of healthy housing. This would create improvements in the rest of their home environment (cleanliness and order) but above all, the improved gender relations within the home and among the family fosters a healthy family.
It is important to recognize that gender equity is embedded in every activity and component of our work, and its presence will typically determine the success of a project. Initially, with the improved stoves projects, we did not have the explicit intention of generating changes in the lives of women. We must continue to seek to alleviate the heavy workload of women in the home and consider how much better off we and the women are when they are fully participating, fully informed and recognize their capacity to decide, enabling the development of further participation for them outside the home. | <urn:uuid:0ae0d76c-d012-48b7-a690-b54c6fa9c808> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.heifer.org/join-the-conversation/blog/2012/August/improved-stoves-empower-women.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00061-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.981856 | 1,313 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Radio Makers Find New Uses for Sets (Jan, 1930)
Radio Makers Find New Uses for Sets
No longer is radio confined to furnishing parlor entertainment. Manufacturers have found numerous new uses for radio sets which promise to make them an even more important part of our everyday life.
RADIO, which most of us are accustomed to think of as a means of parlor entertainment, is rapidly being applied in novel ways as manufacturers seek for new methods of using sets. Taking a tip from automobile manufacturers who advise the purchase of a second car so that all members of the family may have transportation, radio makers are now recommending that in addition to the parlor radio a second set be bought for installation in the family car.
A number of automobile makers, especially those whose cars sell in the higher price ranges, are bringing out new models with radios built in as standard equipment.
Within a few years it is predicted that a radio will come to be as necessary a part of the car’s equipment as bumpers and speedometers, which not so many years ago were regarded as luxury items.
Police departments are making increasing use of radio as a means of catching criminals. The broadcasting of information and descriptions regarding criminals has been in use for some time with satisfactory results, but Los Angeles police have recently gone a step farther. Police cars containing plainclothes men, cruising about the city streets, are now equipped with dashboard radio sets. By tuning in to the proper wave length, information concerning robberies can be broadcast to officers all over the city who will immediately be in a position to give chase to suspects without loss of time.
Another application of radio which is finding favor with railroad companies is the use of sets to keep the engineer in communication with the conductor of long freight trains. The conductor, sitting in the caboose, simply tunes in a short wave set and holds a conversation with the engineer who may be a mile or more ahead of him, separated by a long string of cars. Airplanes have long made use of radio. Recently telephone conversations were held from an airplane 2500 feet up, in communication with a newspaper office. Experiments in the refinement of the necessary apparatus promise to develop sets for airplane use which will be light enough for installation in any plane and which will enable passengers to talk with friends on the ground. | <urn:uuid:9247e690-a28b-4316-a7ab-a0034ab79e8a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.modernmechanix.com/radio-makers-find-new-uses-for-sets/1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00033-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967123 | 472 | 2.78125 | 3 |
September 2, 2005
Discovery Will Aid Identification of Misregulated Genes in Rett Syndrome
Adrian Bird of the University of Edinburgh and colleagues report today in the online issue of Molecular Cell that the "Rett Syndrome protein", MeCP2, only binds to genes with a specific sequence of nucleotide bases. This knowledge will aid in the identification of the genes that are regulated by the gene MECP2. This work was supported, in part, by the Rett Syndrome Research Foundation (RSRF).
Rett Syndrome (RTT) is a severe neurological disorder diagnosed almost exclusively in girls. Children with RTT appear to develop normally until 6 to 18 months of age, when they enter a period of regression, losing speech and motor skills. Most develop repetitive hand movements, irregular breathing patterns, seizures and extreme motor control problems. RTT leaves its victims profoundly disabled, requiring maximum assistance with every aspect of daily living. There is no cure.The instructions needed to make the cells of all living organisms are contained in their DNA, which is organized as two complementary strands with bonds between them that can be "unzipped" like a zipper. DNA is encoded with building blocks called bases which can be abbreviated A, T, C, G. Each base "pairs up" with only one other base: A-T, T-A, C-G, G-C create the bonds that connect the complementary strands. Long stretches of base pairs make up genes.
All genes found in the human body are present in every one of our cells. What allows the same cells to develop into a heart in one instance and a kidney in another? The answer is gene expression. In a typical human cell only one tenth of the genes are expressed; the rest are shut down.
One way that genes are shut down is by attaching a small "tag" called a methyl group to the C base. The number and placement of the methyl tags dictates when a gene should be silenced. The protein, MeCP2, binds to these methyl groups to silence particular genes.
Dr. Bird and colleagues found that the methyl groups alone were not enough to attract MeCP2 to a gene. In fact, what is needed is a stretch of at least four A-T bases flanking the methyl groups.
"We previously thought that MeCP2 only needed methyl groups to bind DNA. As there are about 30 million such sites in the genome, it seemed likely that MeCP2 was a rather indiscriminate repressor of gene expression all over the genome. The new data shows that the number of potential MeCP2 binding sites is in fact far less than we thought, making it easier to find new target genes that are mis-regulated in Rett Syndrome," said Adrian Bird.
Researchers hypothesize that the devastating cascade of symptoms seen in Rett Syndrome is caused by the inability of mutated MeCP2 to silence its target genes. To date, the genes DLX5 and BDNF have emerged as strong MeCP2 target candidates and are therefore implicated in the disease process of Rett Syndrome. Interestingly, both genes were found to have the required A-T stretch, strengthening the argument that MeCP2 is involved in regulating these genes.
"Finding the MeCP2 target genes is a crucial step in understanding what goes awry in Rett Syndrome. Unfortunately these genes have been elusive. Dr. Bird's discovery of the A-T stretch provides a much-needed clue which should aid in their identification," said Monica Coenraads, Director of Research for RSRF.
On the World Wide Web: | <urn:uuid:5f7f70d2-a7cd-40ac-b108-bbe3cc4127b5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.redorbit.com/news/health/228664/discovery_will_aid_identification_of_misregulated_genes_in_rett_syndrome/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00019-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947439 | 733 | 3.21875 | 3 |
When the War Department needed Hollywood, Hollywood said "Action!" While motion pictures dramatized the war effort, the war was changing Hollywood.
Some major stars headed for the front lines while others lent their fame to Home Front efforts. Scriptwriters were tasked to help establish "war-mindedness" at home.
Future entertainers were born as real-life heroics brought everyday people to public attention. As stars deployed, more actors were in demand and previously lesser known entertainers ultimately honed their skills for stardom. In the war's aftermath, the GI Bill sent many veterans to acting and film school, providing a fresh crop of post-war stars and producers.
The special exhibition Real to Reel: Hollywood & World War II will feature artifacts, images, war-era movie posters and audio video elements from a time when Hollywood glamour merged with military grit. Visitors will see pictures of stars in uniform -- famous people who enlisted in military service and war heroes who later became stars.
On exhibit will be items worn or used by stars such as Clark Gable, Jimmy Stewart and Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. Visitors will be able to view clips from selected movies, cartoons and shorts and also might recognize some stars and stars-to-be in military training and propaganda films.
All films will screen in our Orientation Center at 2pm. Titles are subject to change. Check our website www.nationalww2museum.org/calendar for the most up to date information.
Merry Christmas Mr Lawrence - 1983 - from UK/Japan
In 1942 British soldier Jack Celliers comes to a Japanese prison camp. The camp is run by Yonoi, who has a firm belief in discipline, honor and glory. In his view, the allied prisoners are cowards when they chose to surrender instead of committing suicide. One of the prisoners, interpreter John Lawrence, tries to explain the Japanese way of thinking, but is considered a traitor. Won BAFTA Film Award. Another 8 wins and 6 nominations at international festivals.
Hope and Glory - 1987 - from UK
Bill Rohan, a young boy living on the outskirts of London experiences the exhilaration of World War II, as seen through the eyes of director John Boorman, who also wrote and produced the autobiographical film. During this period, Bill learns about sex, death, love, hypocrisy, and the faults of adults as he prowls the ruins of bombed houses on Rosehill Avenue. His childlike father is off chasing patriotic dreams of glory from behind a military clerk's typewriter; his teenage sister runs wild; his mother can't cope; and everything in the end will eventually turn out all right. Nominated for 5 Oscars, including Best Picture. Another 15 wins and 18 nominations for international film awards.
Stalingrad - 1993 - from Germany/Russia
"Stalingrad" follows the progress of a German Platoon through the brutal fighting of the Battle of Stalingrad. After having half their number wiped out and after being placed under the command of a sadistic Captain, the Lieutenant of the platoon leads his men to desert. The men of the platoon attempt to escape from the city which is now surrounded by the Soviet Army. Won three Bavarian Film Awards.
The Young Lions - 1958 - from USA/Germany
The destiny of two soldiers during World War II. The German officer Christian approves less and less of the war, while the American GI Ackerman climbs the military hierarchy. Nominated for three Academy Awards. Marlon Brando won a Golden Laurel for Top Male Dramatic Performance.
Die Brucke (The Bridge) - 1959 - from West Germany
A group of German boys is ordered to protect a small bridge in their home village during the waning months of the second world war. Truckloads of defeated, cynical Wehrmacht soldiers flee the approaching American troops, but the boys, full of enthusiasm for the "blood and honor" Nazi ideology, stay to defend the useless bridge. Nominated for 1960 Best Foreign Film Award. Won 1960 Golden Globe and 12 other international best film awards. In German with English subtitles.
Lacombe, Lucien - 1974 - France
A small town in the south-west of France, summer of 1944. Having failed to join the resistance, the 18 year old Lucien Lacombe, whose father is a prisoner in Germany and whose mother dates her employer, works for the German police. He then meets France Horn, the daughter of a rich Jewish tailor. This film was nominated for Best Foreign Film Oscar and won BAFTA, UN, and French Syndicate Best Film awards. In French with English subtitles. | <urn:uuid:85f485bb-be30-47e2-911f-89c48c6691e1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.nola.com/military/2008/05/special_exhibition_real_to_ree.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951583 | 947 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Maltreatment of Children
This paper looks at how the definition of child, along with the concepts of child maltreatment, have evolved over time within society.
# 106525 | 3,680 words | 10 sources | APA | 2008 |
Published on Aug 08, 2008 in Child, Youth Issues (General) , Child, Youth Issues (Child Abuse) , History (General) , Sociology (General)
$59.95 Buy and instantly download this paper now
This paper discusses the conception of what constitutes maltreatment of children. Specifically, this paper establishes the view that the whole concept of what constitutes a designation of being a "child" has changed over time, like many other societal definitions. According to the author, the designation of a child as a vulnerable member of society that requires special protection by parents and others is in fact a relatively new concept, and this is especially true of the social designation of adolescence. This paper takes a look at child maltreatment as a concept that has evolved over time, especially with regards to the definitions in a legal sense and the afforded interventions that are offered to society as a whole when these new definitions are breeched. Furthermore, this paper asserts that just like any other recently designated social problem, the phenomena of child maltreatment, though it has existed for all of human history, has taken a significant amount of time to be defined in the manner it is today.
From the Paper:"Sadly, due to the nature of the limited communication skills of children and the desire of many abusers to deny events occurrences social workers are often engaged in resolving behavioral and social problems that occur as a result months or even years of maltreatment or single events that are so traumatic for the child that they relive them continually in thought and seek alternative behaviors to alleviate or even signal the need for intervention. Childhood trauma is a perceptual situation, and all trauma either intentional or unintentional, say as a result of witnessing unrelated acts of violence can effect all children in a different way, from not much at all to fundamentally and long lasting posttraumatic stress which can involve nightmares, behavioral problems, educational problems or even serious social concerns."
Sample of Sources Used:
- Child Abuse. (2007). In The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). New York: Columbia University Press.
- Frankel, N. & Dye, N. S. (Eds.). (1991). Gender, Class, Race, and Reform in the Progressive Era. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky.
- Gager, C. T., Mclanahan, S. S., & Glei, D. A. (2002). 3 Preparing for Parenthood: Who's Ready, Who's Not?. In Child Rearing in America: Challenges Facing Parents with Young Children, Halfon, N., McLearn, K. T., & Schuster, M. A. (Eds.) (pp. 50-77). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
- Kellman, S. G. (2005, March). Huck's Raft: A History of American Childhood. USA Today (Society for the Advancement of Education), 133, 81.
- Orrick, D. (2005, March 8). Experts Don't Favor Spanking. Daily Herald (Arlington Heights, IL), p. 9.
Cite this Analytical Essay:
Maltreatment of Children (2008, August 08) Retrieved June 30, 2016, from http://www.academon.com/analytical-essay/maltreatment-of-children-106525/
"Maltreatment of Children" 08 August 2008. Web. 30 June. 2016. <http://www.academon.com/analytical-essay/maltreatment-of-children-106525/> | <urn:uuid:c7fa34e1-9b4d-4597-adca-c52a48b96f5c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.academon.com/analytical-essay/maltreatment-of-children-106525/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00004-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.898395 | 782 | 3.078125 | 3 |
SILVER SPRING, Md -- The FDA's Food Advisory Committee has voted 11 to 3 that there is not enough evidence to conclude that artificial dyes used to color foods contribute to hyperactivity in children. That means juices, candies, cereals, yogurts, and hundreds of other everyday foods will maintain their brighter-than-bright hues.
The Food Advisory Committee -- a panel of outside experts in nutrition, toxicology, food science, immunology, and psychology -- met at the request of the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), which petitioned the FDA in 2008 to ban eight of the nine FDA-approved food dyes, including Yellow No. 5, Red 40, and Blue No. 1. The one coloring that the CSPI is not petitioning to ban is Citrus Red No. 3, which is used only to make the skins of oranges a more vibrant color.
The panel focused much of its attention on a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial conducted in England that enrolled 153 3-year-olds, recruited from nurseries, preschool groups, and playgroups, and 144 8- and 9-year-olds, recruited from the Southampton school system.
Read this story on www.medpagetoday.com.
For the study, the children drank two different mixes of fruit juice spiked with food dye and sodium benzoate and later consumed a placebo fruit juice drink without artificial dye or sodium benzoate.
One of the authors of that study, Jim Stevenson, PhD, of the University of Southampton, told the FDA panel that the study concluded that artificial colors (together with the sodium benzoate) increased the average level of hyperactivity in 3-year-olds and in 8- and 9-year-olds.
Another study, which was a meta-analysis of double-blind, placebo-controlled trials, showed that when children who are already hyperactive eat food that is artificially colored, they become even more hyper.
Both studies have a number of shortcomings, however. For one thing, no studies teased out which specific dyes produce a given effect. The studies all administered a combination of dyes.
Do Food Dyes Make Kids Hyper?
An expert on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) told the panel that Americans consume five times as much food dye as they did in the 1950s. He presented data that indicate there is a link between food dye and hyperactivity, although he said dye certainly won't make an otherwise normal child develop ADHD.
"Food dyes are not the main cause of ADHD; I think that's been well-demonstrated," said Dr. L. Eugene Arnold, a child psychiatry professor emeritus at Ohio State University. "But they may contribute to it in some cases. They [the dyes] maybe push these kids over the diagnostic threshold."
The International Food Information Council (IFIC) a group funded by the food industry, pointed to the lack of scientific evidence linking food colors to hyperactivity.
"Food colors add to our enjoyment of foods by maintaining or improving their appearance," said IFIC President and CEO David Schmidt, in a prepared statement. "Without sufficient scientific evidence that a causal link truly exists between food colors and hyperactivity in children, communications that suggest a link could have unintended consequences, including unnecessarily frightening consumers about safe ingredients that are consumed every day."
The debate over food coloring began in the 1970s with Dr. Benjamin Feingold and the popularization of the Feingold diet that promotes eliminating food additives such as dyes and preservatives as a way to treat hyperactive children. The diet is controversial among many in the mainstream medical community. | <urn:uuid:c64d3964-ce47-4586-bf53-07c2d7a69ef6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://abcnews.go.com/Health/Wellness/fda-panel-food-coloring-hyperactivity-link-supported/story?id=13268224 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00023-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958084 | 763 | 3.125 | 3 |
Feasibility Studies (Analyses) are most often uniquely client specific in nature. “The Dictionary of Real Estate Appraisal published by the Appraisal Institute” defines Feasibility Analysis as follows:
- “A study of the cost-benefit relationship of an economic endeavor. (USPAP, 2010 – 2011 ed.)
- An analysis undertaken to investigate whether a project will fulfill the objectives of the investor. The profitability of a specific real estate project is analyzed in terms of the criteria of a specific market or investor.
- Often interchangeable with investment analysis. Both studies forecast property revenues and expenses. Feasibility analysis is more often undertaken as part of a highest and best use study for a proposed property use. Also called a highest and best use study; economic feasibility study; or financial projection study.”
When undertaking such an assignment the appraiser is most often testing the economic feasibility of a proposed project that can be based solely on market driven forces, client imposed criteria, or as is most often the case client imposed investment criteria as based on market expectations of the specific project. Again referring to, “The Dictionary of Real Estate Appraisal published by the Appraisal Institute” it defines Economic Feasibility as follows:
“The ability of a project or an enterprise to meet defined investment objectives; an investment’s ability to produce sufficient revenue to pay all expenses and charges and to provide a reasonable return on and recapture of the money invested. In reference to a service or residential property where revenue is not a fundamental consideration, economic soundness is based on the need for and desirability of the property for a particular purpose. An investment property is economically feasible if its prospective earning power is sufficient to pay a fair rate of return on its complete cost (including indirect costs), i.e., the estimated value at completion equals or exceeds the estimated cost.”
A Real Estate Market Feasibility Study typically involves testing a specific geographic location for a specific real estate development project, and usually involves all of the typical components of production including land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurial incentive. Developers often conduct feasibility studies to determine the best location within a given geographic area for a certain project and to test the alternative land uses for specific parcels of land. Feasibility Studies will take into account the importance of the business and the proposed development in the selected areas under consideration.
While a Feasibility Analysis is an integral test of reasonableness for a clients decision making purposes on whether to proceed with a proposed project, it can also be utilized in conjunction with a sensitivity analysis. Referring to, “The Dictionary of Real Estate Appraisal published by the Appraisal Institute” it defines Sensitivity Analysis as follows:
“A method for isolating how change in one or more variables may affect investment risk.”
In other words it is a:
“A technique used to determine how different values of an independent variable will impact a particular dependent variable under a given set of assumptions. This technique is used within specific boundaries that will depend on one or more input variables, such as the effect that changes in the type or amount of improvements constructed will have on the expected rent income per unit or ultimate sales price per unit. Sensitivity is a way to predict the outcome of a decision if a situation turns out to be different compared to the key predictors employed. It thereby creates a given set of scenarios, the analyst can determine how changes in one variable(s) will impact the target variable.”
If your looking for research and advice about real estate development in this area let our firm put our consultation services to work for you. We not only bring nearly two decades of real estate experience in the far Western North Carolina region to the table but also the background in the overall broader economic environment that can provide the sound analysis you seek when attempting to make informed real estate investment decisions in this area. | <urn:uuid:c29f3120-aac8-4c35-8c22-fb7044c51687> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.appraisingwnc.com/services/feasibility-studies | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00008-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916605 | 804 | 2.96875 | 3 |
Comprehensive Monosaccharide Database
Carbohydrates are much more complex than other biopolymers such as proteins or nucleic acids.
The most often stated reason for this complexity is the fact that their single residues, the monosaccharides, can be linked in several ways, which allows the formation of branched structures.
An at least equally important reason for the complexity of carbohydrates, however, is the large number of different monosaccharides, which by far exceeds the number of amino acids (20) or nucleotides (4 DNA + 4 RNA).
MonosaccharideDB is intended to be a comprehensive resource of these monosaccharides. So far, the database contains 776 entries.
Due to the large number of possible modifications, it is virtually impossible to pre-fill the database with all theoretically conceivable monosaccharide residues. If a requested monosaccharide is not yet in the database, most data can be generated on the fly and displayed to the user (provided the requested residue is a valid monosaccharide). | <urn:uuid:c944e33f-3565-4784-aff3-207fc44ecb1b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.monosaccharidedb.org/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00137-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.902325 | 226 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Balinese woman balances red pail of water on head above rice terrace
A Balinese woman wearing a red blouse, print sarong, and rubber thongs balances a large red pail of water on her head as she walks along a path above rice terraces. Below the woman, two flooded rice terraces and nearby coconut trees are visible.
The woman, who wears her hair plaited in a single braid, is seen from the back as she walks gracefully using both hands to steady her heavy load. The image illustrates both the heavy weights Balinese women can bear on their heads and the straight posture that Balinese women learn to enable their feats of balance. As is slightly visible here, women often wrap a towel or other cloth as a base pad on their heads to cushion hard and heavy loads such as plastic buckets. | <urn:uuid:a91447e5-4886-4033-b75f-cc2a4c8999e6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.learnnc.org/lp/multimedia/4397 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00002-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972069 | 171 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley (1797-1851), English author wrote the Gothic horror story Frankenstein or; The Modern Prometheus (1818);
“I am alone and miserable; man will not associate with me; but one as deformed and horrible as myself would not deny herself to me. My companion must be of the same species and have the same defects. This being you must create.”--Ch. 16
Started as a ghost story and inspired by a conversation Shelley had overheard between her husband Percy Bysshe Shelly and Lord George Gordon Byron talking about galvanism, it soon became one of the first best selling works by a female author. Sir Walter Scott mistakenly thought it had been written by Percy, and it received mixed reviews, but today it is still widely read and has inspired various adaptations to the stage and screen.
The Gothic movement evolved from Romanticism, delving deeper into profound philosophical questions like the quest of man to achieve perfection, and through a character even at first so disturbing as the scientifically created Creature we ultimately see all of humanity’s moral struggles. Shelley adopted much of her father William Godwin’s philosophical ideas and in Frankenstein her conclusion is thus: man’s obsession with perfection can ultimately end in ruin.
Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin was born on 30 August 1797 in London, England, the second daughter of Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797), feminist and author of A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) and William Godwin (1756-1836) father of philosophical anarchism and author of An Inquiry Concerning Political Justice (1793). Mary’s mother died soon after her birth and she and her half sister Fanny gained a stepsister, Claire, when her father remarried Mary Jane Clairmont. Claire and Mary would remain very close for the rest of their lives.
There were bitter times for Mary growing up with a cruel step mother and emotionally distant father; she consoled herself at her mother’s graveside and spent periods of time in Scotland with friends of the family. She was educated at home by tutors were she studied her parent’s writings and literature and poetry, as well as learning Latin, French, and Italian. She also read the works of the Enlightenment literary figures her unorthodox parents associated with including the poets William Blake, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Charles Lamb.
Mary met her future husband Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822) around the age of sixteen when he became acquainted with her atheist father and his philosophy, which he soon adopted. He spent much time at the Godwin’s household discussing politics and events of the day. Percy was unhappily married to Harriet Westbrook (1795-1816) at the time, and despite Mary’s father forbidding her to see him anymore, he and Mary eloped to France in 1814 with Claire in tow for a six week tour of Europe. Mary’s father’s free love philosophy did not extend to her and they were estranged until she married.
Living in London with Claire and Percy, Mary and Percy’s daughter Clara was born in February of 1815 though she died a few weeks later. Soon after, William was born (1816-1819) and the trio set out again, traveling through France, Germany, and Switzerland. They spent part of the extraordinary ‘year without a summer’ of 1816 at Lake Geneva, where Lord George Gordon Byron also summered and had a scandalous affair with Claire. They had a daughter, Allegra Byron (1817-1822). Mary and Percy Shelley married in 30 December 1816 at St. Mildred’s church in London. They jointly wrote about their travels in History of Six Weeks Tour (1817).
Advocates of vegetarianism and issues of social reform, the Shelley’s were matched on many levels intellectually though Mary did not embrace the idea of an open marriage or ‘true love’ ideals Percy longed for and expressed in so many of his poems. She had started writing Frankenstein in 1816 while in Switzerland, inspired by their many sailing trips on the lake and nights telling each other ghost stories. A second daughter named Clara was born in 1817 but she died a year later.
Now that they were married and Mary was on speaking terms with her father, she and Percy moved back to Italy, staying for a time in various cities including Milan, Pisa, and Venice. Much of their travels in Italy surrounded the issues between Byron and Claire and their daughter Allegra. While living in Florence Percy Florence was born in 1819 (d.1889) the same year William died. After Frankenstein, Mathilda (1819), Prosperpine and Midas (1820) followed.
In 1822, Shelley suffered a miscarriage which almost took her life. The same year, as was one of his favorite past times, Percy was sailing on his schooner ‘Don Juan’ with friend Edward Williams when a sudden storm blew up and it sank. Percy’s body washed ashore and as were his wishes, he was cremated on the beach near Viareggio. Mary soon devoted her energies to the massive undertaking of compiling his poetry and writing extensive notes for them included in The Complete Poetical Works of Percy Bysshe (1824).
Devastated by her loss, in 1823 Mary returned to England with her son Percy. Percy Bysshe’s father Sir Timothy Shelley provided his grandson Percy an annual income whilst he attended school before he inherited the estate and title in 1844 when Sir Timothy died. Mary continued work on her own novels including Valperga (1823) and wrote numerous short stories, essays, poems, and reviews that appeared in various journals and magazines including London Magazine and Westminster Review. Her second most popular novel, The Last Man was published in 1826. Other works to follow include; Perkin Warbeck (1830), Ledore (1835), Falkner (1837), and Rambles in Germany and Italy (1844). Possibly brought on by the strain of her prolific writing career or various travels, by the early 1840’s Shelley often suffered bouts of illness that would plague her for her remaining years.
Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley died at home in London at the age of fifty-four on 1 February 1851. She lies buried in St. Peter’s churchyard in Bournemouth, Dorset, England.
Biography written by C.D. Merriman for Jalic Inc. Copyright Jalic Inc. 2006. All Rights Reserved.
The above biography is copyrighted. Do not republish it without permission.Forum Discussions on Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley
Here is where you find links to related content on this site or other sites, possibly including full books or essays about Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley written by other authors featured on this site. | <urn:uuid:ab376864-c0e2-4e96-aa83-975972b9d490> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.online-literature.com/shelley_mary/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00102-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.980606 | 1,442 | 3.421875 | 3 |
Definitions for PMS
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word PMS
premenstrual syndrome, PMS(noun)
a syndrome that occurs in many women from 2 to 14 days before the onset of menstruation
to experience a premenstrual syndrome or premenstrual stress
MPs , MPS
MPS, MPs, MSP, SMP
The numerical value of PMS in Chaldean Numerology is: 6
The numerical value of PMS in Pythagorean Numerology is: 3
Sample Sentences & Example Usage
No proposal is on the table for the meeting of the two PMs.
Magnesium has been shown to help alleviate depression, fatigue, and irritability, bonus : When you're feeling especially irritable during that time of the month, the mineral also helps to fight PMS symptoms, including cramps and water retention.
Anti-inflammatory meds such as naproxen and mefenamic acid are very helpful, also, if the patient is not planning to get pregnant and has a reliable birth control method, a testosterone pellet is a very useful therapy to improve mood swings and PMS associated with the menstrual cycle.
Images & Illustrations of PMS
Translations for PMS
From our Multilingual Translation Dictionary
Get even more translations for PMS »
Find a translation for the PMS definition in other languages:
Select another language: | <urn:uuid:227a54af-2e2a-412a-a1ca-85a63ea20fc6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.definitions.net/definition/PMS | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00186-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.845398 | 299 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Grid with 14 Dots
Date: 11/10/97 at 18:41:01 From: Sarah Schuldenfrei Subject: Grid with 14 dots In an enrichment project at school we had this problem: Make a 6 by 6 grid. In this grid, put dots in 14 squares. There must be an even number of dots in every row and column (zero is even). I figured out this solution: - - - - - - - . . - . . - . - . - - - - - . - . - . . - . . - . - - - . Is there any rule for building solutions to this problem? If so, what is the rule?
Date: 11/11/97 at 10:52:33 From: Doctor Ken Subject: Re: Grid with 14 dots Hi Sarah - That's a really neat problem! Congratulations on coming up with a solution; that's impressive. Here are some things you might think about when trying to come up with other solutions to this problem. First of all, what would happen if you switched two columns in a solution, like this: | | | * # | | | | # * | | | | * # | | | | # * | | | | * # | | | | # * | | | | * # | becomes: | | | # * | | | | * # | | | | # * | | | | * # | | | | # * | If we did this to your solution, here's what the result would be: - - - - - - - . . . - . - . - - . - - - - - . . - . . . - . - . - - - . Is this also a good solution? Well, it has the right number of dots (14), since we didn't add any more dots and we didn't take any away, we just moved them around. And if you check, there is still an even number of dots in each row and column. So this is another solution! Now, do you think we could _prove_ that starting with one solution and switching columns like this will always lead to another solution? I bet we can. First we have to show that the result has the right number of dots (14), and then we have to show that the result has an even number of dots in each row and column. First part: showing that there are 14 dots in the result This is pretty believable, since we're not taking any dots away or making any new ones, we're just moving them around. Second part: showing that there is an even number of dots in each column If we start with an even number of dots in the two columns we're switching, then since we carry all the dots in those two columns with us when we switch, we'll still have an even number in those columns when we're done. Second part: showing that there is an even number of dots in each row When we switch two columns with each other, we only move dots from side to side, not up and down, so there will still be the same number of dots in every row as there were before we moved things around. So the number in each column will still be even. So now we know we have a method for making lots and lots of solutions to your problem! Now here's a question: what happens if we switch two _rows_ instead of two columns? Maybe you can convince yourself that the same kind of thing will happen, you'll still end up with a valid solution. So if you start out with any solution to this problem and keep switching rows and columns around however you want to, you'll be able to come up with lots and lots of solutions to your problem. An interesting question would be "how many different solutions are there to this problem, and can we come up with a method for listing them in some systematic way?" I don't know the answer to that question. Perhaps you can use the switching rows and columns idea to figure it out, but it might be a really hard question, so don't feel bad if you can't! -Doctor Ken, The Math Forum Check out our web site! http://mathforum.org/dr.math/
Search the Dr. Math Library:
Ask Dr. MathTM
© 1994-2015 The Math Forum | <urn:uuid:2c5b8b46-f60d-4b96-aacf-3b5979c8bf89> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/56730.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00032-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946111 | 888 | 3.265625 | 3 |
International Food Security Assessment, 2011-21
by Shahla Shapouri, Stacey Rosen
, Sharad Tandon
, Fred Gale
, Lisa Mancino
, and Junfei Bai
Outlook No. (GFA-22) 64 pp, July 2011
What Is the Issue?
The results in this report are based on projections of two key
determinants of food security: Food production and import capacity
of the countries. Domestic food production performance plays the
most critical role in the food security of these countries,
particularly for regions like Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa that
depend on grain supplies. Conversely, imports play a significant
role for regions like Latin America and North Africa that depend on
positive trade terms. Since August 2009, prices of nonfood
commodities (metals, agricultural, beverage, and industrial) have
risen more than those for food. Therefore, for countries that
export nonfood commodities and import food, food has become
relatively cheaper. To understand how food production and import
capacity impact food security, ERS researchers estimated and
projected three measures of food security regionally and in each of
the 77 developing countries for 2011-21. The estimates include the
- The number of food-insecure people in each country;
- The nutrition gap: The difference between projected food
availability and the food needed to meet the average recommended
nutritional target of roughly 2,100 calories per person per day;
- The distribution gap: The difference between projected food
availability and the food needed to increase consumption in
food-deficit income groups within individual countries to meet the
recommended nutritional target.
What Did the Study Find?
• Despite higher global food commodity prices, strong domestic
food production coupled with low price transmission from global to
domestic markets contributed to a decline in the number of
food-insecure people from 861 million in 2010 to 852 million in
- Asian countries are projected to see a decrease in
food-insecure people of 6 percent, while the distribution food gap
will decline by about 9 percent.
- North African (NA) countries will see no change, assuming that
the performance of their economies and food markets remains the
- The Latin American and the Caribbean (LAC) region will see only
a slight increase.
- The number of food-insecure people in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)
is estimated to increase by 17 million and the distribution gap to
fall by 0.6 million tons.
• The number of food-insecure people is projected to decline by
16 percent, or nearly 140 million between 2011 and 2021.
- Asian and LAC countries will see a 33-percent decline in the
number of food-insecure people.
- Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) will see a 6-percent increase in the
number of food-insecure people.
• The distribution food gap is projected to decline by nearly 7
percent during the next decade.
- SSA shows an increase in its food gap, up roughly 20 percent.
This, coupled with a 6-percent increase in the number of
food-insecure people, indicates an intensification of food
insecurity among that region's poor.
- The distribution food gap is projected to decline by half in
Asia and by 35 percent in LAC. No distribution gap is projected for
How Was the Study Conducted?
All historical and projected data were updated relative to the
Food Security Assessment, 2010-20 report. Food production estimates
for 2010 were based on data from the United Nations' Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) as of February 2011. Historical
production data came from FAO and food aid data came from the World
Food Programme (WFP). Financial and macroeconomic data were based
on the latest World Bank data as of February 2011. Projected
macroeconomic variables were either based on calculated growth
rates for the 1990s through the late-2000s or came from
International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank projections.
Projections of food availability include food aid, with the
assumption that each country will receive the 2007-09 average level
of food aid throughout the next decade. | <urn:uuid:53fe14b7-1785-48f5-bf95-c40fbbd8df9c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ers.usda.gov/publications/gfa-food-security-assessment-situation-and-outlook/gfa22/report-summary.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00056-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919054 | 887 | 3.28125 | 3 |
Ban downloads and implement personal firewalls to protect corporate systems.
Trojans, worms and viruses continue to hog the headlines and diligent network managers have powerful firewalling, anti-virus and patch management policies protecting the fortress. But what good is all this if a Trojan can enter through the front gate?
Spyware is any software unwittingly downloaded that gathers information about the user and the network. Sometimes the user pulls in spyware without realising the danger, sometimes it arrives through secret passages in the browser code. Once inside, it gathers information to build a profile of the user's habits and online environment. It breaches the firewall with the implicit permission of the user.
At its simplest, spyware may only be a cookie, a small text file downloaded through the browser by virtually all websites. Cookies come in two main varieties. The vanilla variety is arguably well meant and useful. It stores personal information so a visitor can re-enter a website without typing in their user name and password. They may also store preferences for personalised pages, usually called "My something".
When a cookie is recognised on a user's computer, scripts can track them around the site and gain more information about the visitor's interests and preferences. Typically benevolent, the cookie is only accessible to the originating website and is only active while the user is on that site. Another example is the shopping trolley cookie, which "carries" your purchases to the virtual checkout and then self-destructs.
The second variety is the darker, advertising cookie. These are downloaded secretly to benefit the authoring company and its ring of partners. These cookies may only ply the surfer with targeted ads while on a website but there are ways to stalk surfers beyond the original site and across the internet.
Banner ads and web bugs can be legitimately placed on websites to expose visitors to any page carrying the bug. The tracker can note all pages visited, user names, e-mail addresses used, searches performed and other information for building a personal profile. Based on this, the user is subjected to customised advertising and spam.
If company A is rumoured to be considering a merger with company C, placing a web bug on C's site will pick up any increased activity or interest from B. All of this is legal - and almost unstoppable.
Butler Group analyst Maxine Holt warned users that spyware offers hackers an ideal opportunity to install hacking toolkits on end-users' PCs. "An important point to remember is that the use of a toolkit typically automates basic tasks for a hacker, such as scanning for vulnerabilities." She said such toolkits would allow the hacker to discover vulnerabilities remotely and Trojans can be implanted without the hacker needing to take direct action.
Many freeware or shareware web downloads contain spyware, or adware, to plug their advertisers. Not all are so benign. Downloaded aids, such as toolbars, become a constant part of the browser and many do useful jobs, but some hide keyloggers that record every key press or may even install a server backdoor through which hackers enter the network.
Protecting your systems
The best protection against this malware is to outlaw downloads explicitly in a policy document and bar them electronically, where practical.
Gunter Ollmann, manager of X-Force Security Assessment Services at Internet Security Systems, warned that senior executives are often the worst culprits for unauthorised downloading. "Policies should apply to all ranks in an organisation. Some of the worst machines I have seen are owned by financial directors. Besides the usual business data, I have found some most interesting content," he said.
There are tools users can install to stop spyware. However, Jan Sundgren, an analyst at Forrester Research, said although these are the most cost-effective way of dealing with the problem, many personal firewalls control application access to the internet and can stop adware from sending out information.
Sundgren said, "An advantage of using a firewall with application control is that your defence is not based on signatures of known adware. Also, the enterprise versions of these firewalls allow for centralised management."
It is not just corporate information that is at risk. In July, a Devon man was cleared of knowingly downloading child pornography when a computer expert discovered 11 Trojans on his hard drive. Though it was not proven that these downloaded the images, it is not impossible to believe. The victim temporarily lost custody of his daughter and almost lost his liberty. If a similar event occurred in the corporate world, an enterprise pleading ignorance might not be given the benefit of the doubt.
What are web bugs?
Web bugs are usually banner ads but can be as small as one pixel. When a browser downloads the graphics for a page, the graphical elements do not all come from the web server hosting the site.
Many of the third-party graphics download from the originating site and some of these may be marketing companies or even business competitors seeking to gain information about the user's web surfing habits.
In itself, a web bug is harmless but the contact with its host server makes the link that offers the chance to plant a cookie and get the IP address, or sometimes the e-mail address, of the surfer. Web bugs from third-party sites also feature in the current trend of using HTTP e-mails, in which case the e-mail address is revealed to the bugging site.
By comparing results from different sites or synchronising the database with other bugging sites, a detailed picture of the surfer can be developed and sold on.
How to protect against spyware
By submitting your email address, you agree to receive emails regarding relevant topic offers from TechTarget and its partners. You can withdraw your consent at any time. Contact TechTarget at 275 Grove Street, Newton, MA.
- Ensure all web traffic is firewalled
- Block any suspicious outward traffic at the firewall
- Use anti-spyware software regularly, such as Symantec Internet Security, Spybot S&D and Adaware
- Bar unsanctioned software downloads wherever possible
- Monitor computer inventories, especially mobile devices, for illegal software additions
- Implement a security policy addressing internet access
- Block third-party cookies.
An example security policy
Spybot Search and Destroy
Source: Forrester Research | <urn:uuid:cbeeb5a4-c329-4a3e-a41c-575ce0fbde6d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.computerweekly.com/feature/Not-all-spyware-is-as-harmless-as-cookies | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92121 | 1,306 | 2.703125 | 3 |
U.N. Report Maps Hunger 'Hot Spots'
By CHRISTOPHER S. WREN
Published: January 9, 2001
UNITED NATIONS, Jan. 8— Hunger currently afflicts 830 million people around the world because of natural disasters, armed conflict and a grinding poverty that consigns the poor to chronic malnutrition, the United Nations World Food Program reported today.
''From generation to generation, people don't have enough food to eat,'' Catherine Bertini, the agency's executive director, said at a news briefing, where she distributed a map calling attention to ''hot spots'' where hunger is most severe. The map identifies large swathes of territory in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia where tens of millions of people, most of them women and children, cannot get enough to eat.
''The combination of poverty and disaster causes people to have even less possibility to build resources to end their hunger,'' Ms. Bertini said.
The World Food Program defines hunger as a condition in which people fail to get enough food to provide the nutrients for active, healthy lives. Those who are considered undernourished subsist on 1,800 calories a day or less. The figure of 2,100 calories is generally recommended to sustain an average adult.
Although the data the program uses was collected for 1995 to 1997, officials said that their research shows that the scope of the problem has not improved, and in some places is getting worse.
Of the 830 million undernourished people, the report says, 791 million live in developing countries. The food agency said that 200 million are children under age 5 who are underweight for lack of food.
In more than 20 countries, hunger has been compounded by drought, which the agency said has affected 100 million people within the last year. The agency helped feed 16 million people hit by drought last year, compared with 3 million in 1996. In other areas, internal unrest has made it harder, if not impossible, to grow crops and get them to market.
''We've seen an alarming trend where the poorest nations are hit simultaneously by both natural and man-made emergencies, including in Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Indonesia, Afghanistan, Sierra Leone, Guinea and Tajikistan,'' Ms. Bertini said. ''Unfortunately, we see a potential for that to continue or even increase in 2001.''
In sub-Saharan Africa, 180 million people, one-third of the population, are undernourished, the agency reported. The countries worst hit by hunger include Angola, Burundi, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea.
In Asia the number of undernourished people is 525 million, or 17 percent of the population, with the worst hunger found in North Korea, Mongolia, Cambodia and Bangladesh.
In Latin America and the Caribbean, 53 million people, or 11 percent of the population, lack enough food, with the worst conditions in Haiti, Nicaragua, Bolivia and Honduras.
Elsewhere, one of the countries with the greatest problem is Afghanistan, which is ravaged by civil war as well as the worst drought in decades.
Asked about Iraq, which has suffered from United Nations economic sanctions imposed after its invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Ms. Bertini said that 15 percent of Iraqis were malnourished. ''Poor children under 5 are the people most at risk in Iraq,'' she said.
Ms. Bertini said that while conditions have improved in some countries -- like Bosnia, Namibia and Botswana -- they have deteriorated in others, like Afghanistan. In Eastern Europe and the countries of the former Soviet Union, the transition from Communism to a free-market economy has caused suffering for people who cannot afford to eat properly.
The World Food Program reported feeding 89 million people last year, including refugees uprooted by wars and natural disasters. The food agency, based in Rome, operates in more than 80 countries.
Ms. Bertini said that countries struggling to overcome hunger need not only food but also water drilling and purification equipment and better sanitation and agricultural systems. In sub-Saharan African, progress has also been impeded by heavy government debt burdens, insufficient funding for health and education and the AIDS pandemic.
Chart/Map: ''World Hunger'' Percentage of populations that are undernourished Map shows percentage of populations that are undernourished in countries on a scale ranging from 0% to 73% HIGHEST: Somalia 73% (Source: The United Nations, World Food Program) | <urn:uuid:967485ff-77c4-4f09-b8f8-7ab81f695829> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nytimes.com/2001/01/09/world/un-report-maps-hunger-hot-spots.html?src=pm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00196-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95595 | 917 | 2.875 | 3 |
The Apollo navigation computer needed to be small and reliable, and it couldn’t use much power, so it was built with some of the first integrated circuits — and something called LOL memory:
In order to make sure that the software was robust it was “woven” into so-called “rope core memories”.
These used copper wires threaded through or around tiny magnetic cores to produce the ones and zeroes of binary code at the heart of the software.
Pass the copper wire through the core and the computer read it as a one. Pass it around and it was read as a zero.
“Once you get it wired it’s not going to change without breaking those wires,” said Mr Hall.
The rope core memories would become know as “LOL memory” after the “little old ladies” who knitted together the software at a factory just outside Boston.
These ladies would sit in pairs with a memory unit between them, threading metres and metres of slender copper wires through and around the cores.
“It’s an extremely time-consuming process and it meant that the programs had to be finished and fully tested months in advance,” said Mr Eyles.
“But it is extremely robust – that information probably still exists despite being left on the Moon.”
To ensure reliability and the highest possible standards from the ladies, Nasa also chose to go on a PR mission to the factories.
“We used to go to the cafeteria and the astronauts would come in,” said Mary Lou Rogers, one of the ladies who worked on the Apollo line.
“They’d explain the Moon shot and thank us for what a good job we were doing.
“Everybody got all excited when they came in — we were a bunch of married women with children.”
However, Nasa did not just leave quality control to good will and chance, said Mrs Rogers, who also worked on Intercontinental Ballistic Missile programmes.
“[Each component] had to be looked at by three of four people before it was stamped off. We had a group of inspectors come in for the Federal Government to check our work all the time.”
“It was bad when we worked on Poseidon and Trident. But nothing as bad as when we were on Apollo.” | <urn:uuid:eb33f468-d70a-400e-8d78-5cca69ad937a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.isegoria.net/2009/07/lol-memory/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.98051 | 494 | 3.234375 | 3 |
From the initial observation of proton magnetic resonance in water and in paraffin, the discipline of nuclear magnetic resonance has seen unparalleled growth as an analytical method. Modern NMR spectroscopy is a highly developed, yet still evolving, subject which finds application in chemistry, biology, medicine, materials science and geology.
In this book, emphasis is on the more recently developed methods of solution-state NMR applicable to chemical research, which are chosen for their wide applicability and robustness. These have, in many cases, already become established techniques in NMR laboratories, in both academic and industrial establishments. A considerable amount of information and guidance is given on the implementation and execution of the techniques described in this book.
For chemists, spectroscopists and NMR laboratories.
High-Resolution NMR Techniques in Organic Chemistry, 1st Edition
Preface. Acknowledgements. Introduction.
The development of high-resolution NMR. Modern NMR and this book. Applying modern NMR techniques. References. Introducing High-resolution NMR.
Nuclear spin and resonance. The vector model and pulse excitation. Time and frequency domains. Spin relaxation. Mechanisms for relaxation. References. Practical Aspects of High-resolution NMR.
An overview of the NMR spectrometer. Data acquisition and processing. Preparing the sample. Preparing the spectrometer. Spectrometer calibrations. Spectrometer performance tests. References. One-dimensional Techniques.
The single-pulse experiment. Spin decoupling methods. Spectrum editing with spin-echoes. Sensitivity enhancement and spectrum editing. Observing quadrupolar nuclei. References. Correlations through the Chemical Bond I: Homonuclear Shift Correlation.
Introducing the second dimension. Correlation spectroscopy (COSY). Practical aspects of 2D NMR. Coherence and coherence transfer. Gradient-selected spectroscopy. Alternative COSY sequences. Total correlation spectroscopy (TOCSY). Correlating dilute spins: INADEQUATE. References. Correlations through the Chemical Bond II: Heteronuclear Shift Correlation.
Introduction. Sensitivity. Heteronuclear single-bond correlation spectroscopy. Heteronuclear multiple-bond correlation spectroscopy. Traditional X-detected correlation spectroscopy. References. Separating Shifts and Couplings: J-resolved Spectroscopy.
Introduction. Heteronuclear J-resolved spectroscopy. Homonuclear J-resolved spectroscopy. "Indirect" homonuclear J-resolved spectroscopy. References. Correlations through Space: The Nuclear Overhauser Effect.
Part I: Theoretical Aspects. Introduction. Definition of the NOE. Steady-state NOEs. Transient NOEs. Rotating-frame NOEs. Part II: Practical Aspects. Measuring steady-state NOEs: NOE difference. Measuring transient NOEs: NOESY. Measuring rotating-frame NOEs: ROESY. Measuring heteronuclear NOEs. Experimental considerations. References. Experimental Methods.
Composite pulses. Broadband decoupling and spin-locks. Selective excitation and shaped pulses. Solvent suppression. Recent methods. References. Glossary of Acronyms.
Quotes and reviews
@qu:"This is a very well produced and nicely laid-out book. The descriptions, explanations, diagrams and spectra given here are clearer than in most of its rivals."
@qu:"The explanations are clear and concise, the references are well done and up-to-date. This book is a practical guide for the beginner as well as a launching pad for the NMR enthusiast. It should be found in every NMR facility."
@from:Rickey P. Hicks
@qu:"The book is an excellent reference source and guide for the most common NMR experiments used by organic chemists, and it is also an excellent textbook for organic graduate and postdoctoral students. Overall this a very good text, both well written and easy to understand. I highly recommend the text."
@source:Journal of Natural Products
@qu:"For the budding NMR spectroscopist, for the synthetic chemist with an interest in and contact with NMR spectroscopy, and also as a foundation for graduate-level courses on NMR techniques, this book is highly recommended. It is essential for every NMR laboratory dealing with small and mid-sized molecules" | <urn:uuid:b502d734-3521-4dde-834e-c49671b7afaf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://store.elsevier.com/product.jsp?isbn=9780080427997 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.869625 | 942 | 3 | 3 |
Over the past five decades, the single largest origin group of Latin American immigrants in the United States has been from Mexico. The number of Mexican immigrants living in the United States rose rapidly from 1960 to 2000—nearly tripling during the 1970s and doubling during both the 1980s and 1990s. The Mexican-born share of the U.S. immigrant population has steadily increased since 1960, topping out at 30 percent by 2000. However, the rates of growth of both the Mexican born's overall number and share have slowed considerably since the onset of the economic recession at the end of 2007.
Compared to other immigrant groups in the United States, Mexican immigrants were less likely to enter as refugees; more likely to become lawful permanent residents (LPRs) as immediate family members of U.S. citizens and LPRs; more likely to enter the United States without authorization; reported having lower levels of English proficiency and education; and were more likely to be of working age.
This article reports on a wide range of characteristics of Mexican immigrants residing in the United States, including the population's size, geographic distribution, admission categories, and demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. Data are from the U.S. Census Bureau's 2011 American Community Survey (ACS), the 2000 Decennial Census (as well as earlier censuses), and the Department of Homeland Security's (DHS) Office of Immigration Statistics (OIS).
Size and Geographic Distribution
Modes of Entry and Legal Status
Demographic and Socioeconomic Overview
Size and Geographic Distribution
In 2011, nearly 11.7 million Mexican immigrants resided in the United States, representing close to 4 percent of the U.S. population.
Mexican-born immigrants accounted for 29 percent (11.7 million) of the country's 40.4 million immigrants in 2011, and close to 4 percent of the U.S. population of 311.6 million. This population has grown 20 times its size since 1960, when about 576,000 Mexican immigrants resided in the country, or less than 6 percent of all immigrants living in the United States in that year.
As shown in Table 1, the single largest origin group from Latin America since 1960 has been from Mexico. From 1960 to 2011, the number of Mexican immigrants in the United States and their share of the U.S. immigrant population increased rapidly; however, the rate of change has slowed substantially since the onset of the economic recession in late 2007. Contrary to trends in the previous four decades, the Mexican-born share of all immigrants in the United States has not increased since 2000, instead remaining roughly around 29 percent.
Mexican Born Residing in the United States, 1850 to 2011
Over the past five decades, the Mexican born were the single largest origin group of Latin American immigrants in the United States.
The 11.7 million Mexican born (55 percent of the 21.2 million Latin Americans) comprised the largest immigrant group from Latin America, ahead of those from the Caribbean (18 percent, or 3.8 million), Central America (15 percent, or 3.1 million), and South America (13 percent, or 2.7 million). Although their share has fluctuated somewhat since 1960, the Mexico born have remained the single largest origin group of Latin American immigrants in the United States (see Table 1).
Over half of all Mexican immigrants resided in two states: California and Texas.
California had the largest number of Mexican immigrants in 2011 (4.3 million, or 37 percent of the nation's 11.7 million Mexican born), followed by Texas (2.5 million, or 21 percent).
Other states with Mexican-born populations greater than 500,000 were Illinois (711,000, or 6 percent) and Arizona (512,000, or 4 percent).
Mexican-born immigrants account for a large proportion of the total immigrant population in many states. Around 71 percent of New Mexico's immigrant population (151,000 out of 211,000) were born in Mexico, as were 60 percent (2.5 million out of 4.2 million) in Texas; and 59 percent (512,000 out of 872,000) in Arizona.
Over one-quarter of all Mexican-born immigrants lived in three major metropolitan areas: greater Los Angeles, Chicago, and Dallas.
In 2011, the greater Los Angeles metropolitan area had the largest number of Mexican immigrants, with about 1.7 million (15 percent of Mexican born in the United States). The greater Chicago area was second with 684,000 (6 percent). The greater Dallas area was third with 610,000 (5 percent).
Other metropolitan areas with Mexican-born populations greater than 300,000 were Houston, TX (595,000, or 5 percent); Riverside, CA (543,000, or 5 percent); Phoenix, AZ (349,000, or 5 percent); San Diego, CA (336,000, or 3 percent); and New York, NY (331,000, or 3 percent).
Modes of Entry and Legal Status
Note: This section is based on data from the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), unless stated otherwise. DHS data refer to the U.S. government's fiscal year, October 1 through September 30. Thus, "2011" refers to October 1, 2010 through September 30, 2011.
In 2011, more than 143,000 Mexican-born immigrants were granted U.S. lawful permanent residency (LPR status, also known as obtaining a green card).
In 2011, 143,446 Mexican immigrants obtained green cards, accounting for 14 percent of the 1.1 million immigrants granted LPR status. The foreign born from Mexico gained LPR status mostly through family reunification. About 89 percent obtained green cards through family relationships, 6 percent through employment, and 5 percent through other routes, including a small number of refugees or asylees.
About 59 percent of all Mexican immigrants granted LPR status in 2011 qualified as the immediate family member (spouse, unmarried child under 21, or parent) of a U.S. citizen, compared to 43 percent of all immigrants. Less than 0.5 percent of all Mexican-born immigrants received green cards as refugees or asylees, compared to 16 percent of all immigrants.
Read more about immigrants who became LPRs in 2011 in Green Card Holders and Legal Immigration to the United States.
Mexican nationals accounted for only 1 percent of persons granted asylum in 2011.
Only 294 Mexican nationals (1 percent of 24,988 individuals) received asylum in 2011. From 2002 through 2011, Mexican nationals accounted for 1 percent (1,685) of the 260,951 individuals granted asylum. No Mexican nationals were reported as refugee arrivals in 2011 data.
Read more about Refugees and Asylees in the United States.
More than 94,000 Mexican-born immigrants became U.S. citizens through naturalization in 2011.
In 2011, 94,783 Mexican-born immigrants were naturalized in the United States, representing 14 percent of the 694,193 new U.S. citizens.
The share of Mexican-born immigrants who have naturalized (24 percent) is less than the 45 percent share of all U.S. immigrants who have naturalized.
According to the 2011 ACS, about 24 percent of Mexican immigrants were naturalized U.S. citizens – nearly half the share of immigrants overall (45 percent).
Over 80 percent of Mexican-born green card holders in 2011 were eligible to naturalize.
DHS' Office of Immigration Statistics (OIS) estimates that nearly 2.7 million Mexican-born LPRs, or about 80 percent of the total 3.3 million Mexican-born LPRs, were eligible to naturalize in 2011. The Mexican born accounted for about 31 percent of the total 8.5 million LPRs eligible to naturalize in 2011.
For more, see OIS' Estimates of the Lawful Permanent Resident Population in 2011.
In early 2011, 59 percent of all unauthorized immigrants in the United States were from Mexico.
OIS estimated that in January 2011, 6.8 million (59 percent) of the approximately 11.5 million unauthorized migrants were born in Mexico.
Demographic and Socioeconomic Overview
Note: This section is based on the authors' analysis of 2011 American Community Survey (ACS) data.
Mexican immigrant men outnumbered women in 2011.
Of all Mexican immigrants residing in the United States in 2011, 53 percent were men and 47 percent women. By contrast, gender distributions were more balanced among the native born and overall foreign born (about 49 percent male and 51 percent female for both groups).
The foreign born from Mexico were more likely to be of working age than the native born and foreign born overall.
Of the Mexican born residing in the United States in 2011, 88 percent were of working age (16 through 64 years old), compared with 63 percent of the native born and 82 percent of all immigrants. Among Mexican immigrants, only 7 percent were older than 64, compared to 13 percent of the native- and foreign-born populations.
Less than one-third of all Mexican immigrants have strong English-language skills.
In 2011, 4 percent of Mexican immigrants ages 5 and older reported speaking only English; 26 percent reported speaking English "very well;" In contrast, 18 percent of all Mexican immigrants reported not speaking English at all, 22 percent reported speaking English "well," and 30 percent reported speaking English, but "not well."
Overall, about 71 percent of Mexican immigrants were Limited English Proficient (LEP), meaning that they reported speaking English less than "very well." In contrast, 51 percent of all immigrants reported limited English proficiency in 2011.
Note: In the American Community Survey, respondents who reported that they spoke a language other than English at home were asked to self-assess their English-speaking abilities with the options of "not at all," "not well," or "well," and "very well."
As a group, Mexican-born adults were less likely to be university graduates compared to all immigrant adults.
In 2011, only 5 percent of Mexican-born adults ages 25 and older had a bachelor's degree or higher, which is substantially lower than the 27 percent share of immigrant adults and the 29 percent share of all U.S.-born adults.
In addition, 59 percent of Mexican-born adults had no high school or GED diploma, compared to 31 percent of immigrants overall and 11 percent of native-born adults. The share of the Mexican born who reported their highest educational attainment as a high school diploma, some college credits, or an associate's degree (35 percent) was lower than that of the native born (61 percent) and the foreign born overall (41 percent).
Mexican-born immigrants have generally mirrored the arrival patterns of the foreign born overall.
In 2011, approximately 34 percent of the 11.7 million Mexican immigrants in the United States had entered after 2000; 31 percent arrived between 1990 and 1999; 19 percent entered between 1980 and 1989; and 16 percent entered prior to 1980.
This arrival pattern generally mirrored that of immigrants in the United States overall: 36 percent had arrived after 2000; 27 percent arrived between 1990 and 1999; 18 percent entered between 1980 and 1989; and 19 percent entered prior to 1980.
Over 34 percent of employed Mexican-born men worked in construction, extraction, and transportation, while 39 percent of Mexican women worked in service and personal care occupations.
Mexican-born male workers appear to be more highly concentrated in a few occupational groups than immigrant men overall (see Table 2). The top three occupational groups employed 78 percent of the 4.5 million Mexican-born male workers ages 16 to 64, including 34 percent in construction, extraction, and transportation; 25 percent in service and personal care; and 18 percent in manufacturing, installation, and repair. While the same three occupational groups were the top three for immigrant men overall, they employed only 57 percent of the 12.9 million immigrant male workers.
Among the 2.3 million Mexican-born female workers ages 16 to 64, 39 percent reported working in service and personal care occupations; 14 percent in manufacturing, installation, and repair; and 12 percent in administrative support. The top three occupation groups for the 9.6 million immigrant women overall were somewhat different: 27 percent in service and personal care; 13 percent in administrative support; and 11 percent in management, business, and financial occupations.
The Mexican born were more likely to live in poverty in 2011 than the native or foreign born overall.
In 2011, a larger share of Mexican immigrants (29 percent) lived in households with an annual income below the official federal poverty line than the native born (15 percent) and immigrants overall (20 percent).
About 7.2 million children under the age of 18 resided in a household with at least one immigrant parent born in Mexico.
The 7.2 million children with at least one Mexican-born parent represented 42 percent of the overall population of children from immigrant households (17.1 million children). Similar to the overall population of children from immigrant households, the vast majority of children in Mexican immigrant families were born in the United States (about 87 percent for the overall population, and 89 percent of those in Mexican immigrant families).
Note: Includes only children who reside with at least one parent who is foreign born. Excludes families with U.S.-born parents with foreign adopted children.
For more information about ACS data and methodology, click here.
U.S. Census Bureau. 2011. 2011 American Community Survey (ACS), Table B05006, Place of Birth for the Foreign-Born Population. Available online.
U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics. 2011. 2011 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics, various tables. Available online.
Authors' analysis of the U.S. Census Bureau's 2011 ACS. Accessed from Steven Ruggles, J. Trent Alexander, Katie Genadek, Ronald Goeken, Matthew B. Schroeder, and Matthew Sobek. Integrated Public Use Microdata Series: Version 5 [Machine-readable database]. Minneapolis, MN: Minnesota Population Center [producer and distributor], 2010. Available online. | <urn:uuid:927a090b-f0c2-43ea-85d9-5d9e9a98e0e2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.migrationpolicy.org/print/4217 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00105-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966408 | 2,911 | 3.28125 | 3 |
January 23, 2013
Researchers Find A Way To Determine The Sex Of Avian Dinosaurs
April Flowers for redOrbit.com - Your Universe Online
An international team of paleontologists, including Dr. Luis Chiappe, Director of the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles Country's Dinosaur Institute has discovered a definitive way to determine the sex of an avian dinosaur species.The 125-million-year-old Mesozoic bird, Confuciusornis sanctus, had remarkable differences in plumage between specimens. Some had almost body length ornamental tail feathers, while others had none. Scientists have interpreted this difference in features as the earliest example of avian courtship. Until now, however, the idea that male Confuciusornis birds had the ornamental plumage was unproven. The research team studied hundreds of C. sanctus fossils unearthed from the bottom of ancient lake deposits in what is currently northeastern China. They found undisputed evidence of the gender difference: the medullary bone.
"Our discovery provides the first case of sex identification in an ancient bird, an animal closely related to dinosaurs, such as the famous Velociraptor," said Chiappe. "When people visit dinosaur exhibits, they often want to know if the skeletons are male or female. We have nicknames like Thomas and Sue, but of all the thousands of skeletons of dinosaurs or early birds found around the world, only the sex of a few has been determined."
Anusuya Chinsamy, the bone histologist on the team, says, "Just like modern hens, female Confuciusornis birds that lived 125 million years ago deposited this special bone inside their long bones, and then used it to make the calcium-rich eggshells." Such tissue is present for only a short period of time in reproductively active females, so finding such a sample in a specimen that lacked long feathers proved that those birds without the ornamental plumage were females.
"This now permits us to assess gender differences in growth and development of this Mesozoic bird," she said.
This discovery offers evidence that both early and modern female avian species essentially used the same physiological strategy to reproduce, however, it highlights the differences between the ancient and modern species age of sexual maturity as well.
"In human terms, knowing the sex of these specimens sheds light on when these early birds begin puberty," said Chiappe, "Now we know that early birds began reproducing way before they were full grown, a pattern that contrasts with what we know of living birds, which typically begin reproducing after they reach full body size."
The ancient birds began to reproduce before they were fully grown, like dinosaurs.
The specimens were excavated from rocks formed at the bottom of ancient lakes, found in forested environments surrounded by volcanoes. They were housed at the Dalian Natural History Museum in northeastern China. Large numbers of birds and other animals were killed by ancient catastrophes, thought to be related to volcanic events. Their bodies were buried deep in the lake mud that helped to minimize decay and preserve the organs, skeletons and feathers.
"This discovery is part of the big picture of understanding the early evolution of birds," Chiappe said, "and how living birds became what they are."
The findings of this study were recently published in Nature Communications. | <urn:uuid:b1ee26c7-3fc9-4119-ac27-cb1543bcd380> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1112768884/dinosaur-sex-determination-with-the-medullary-bone-012312/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964121 | 688 | 3.75 | 4 |
IBM and DOE pool supercomputing talents to examine disease
Massive computing power and biology are coming together in a big way through a cooperative research and development agreement between IBM and the U.S. Department of Energy's Oak Ridge National Laboratory
This image illustrates how computational biology techniques can be used to help understand the characteristics needed to design effective drug compounds to fight disease.
November 12—At the heart of the agreement is IBM's Blue Gene research project, which combines advanced protein science with IBM's next-generation cellular architecture supercomputer design.
Unlike today's computers, cellular servers will run on chips containing "cells," which are processors that contain memory and communications circuits. Cellular architecture will help scale computer performance from teraflops (1 trillion calculations per second) to petaflops (1,000 trillion calculations per second).
"Our collaboration with Oak Ridge National Laboratory is vital to IBM's work to extend the boundaries for applications of large-scale computing, focusing on the combination of IBM and ORNL's deep scientific capabilities," said David McQueeney, vice president of Emerging Business for IBM Research. "Together we have built a common roadmap for an ambitious multi-year evolution of the simulation and modeling of many complex systems. We are confident that we will break new ground in several domains, including life sciences."
Super computing power has major implications for gaining a better understanding of gene sequences and how folding of proteins relates to diseases.
"Proteins control all processes occurring in the cells of the body," said Joe Jasinski, manager, Computational Biology Center for IBM Research. "These proteins are made up of a vast array of different combinations of amino acids that fold and bend into very complex three-dimensional shapes that determine the exact function of each protein."
"If the shape of these proteins changes because of some environmental, physical or biological factor, the protein may turn from being beneficial to one that causes specific diseases."
IBM and ORNL hope to use this enormous computing power to explore numerous other areas as well. Because the project is a collaboration of ORNL's Life Sciences and Computer Science and Mathematics divisions and IBM, it draws from a sizeable pool of resources. The project also provides ORNL with new challenges.
"The complexity of the protein folding problem, nanoscale science, and climate dynamics will require computational resources at a scale not yet achieved by any scientific application," said Thomas Zacharia, director of ORNL's Computer Science and Mathematics Division. "This is an exciting next step in ORNL's history of evaluating new computational architectures and pushing the computational science envelope."
Indeed, before it is possible to solve these scientific problems, scientists will have to devise methods to run applications that use tens of thousands of processors in IBM's Blue Gene supercomputer. Each processor forms a cell with memory, communication, and input/output built in. This approach departs from past designs and offers a glimpse of what's to come in high-performance computing.—by Ron Walli
The Department of Energy's Office of Science is the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the United States and is working to address some of the most pressing challenges of our time. | <urn:uuid:a31bb897-d564-4da3-9417-75574f21fb57> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/features/doe/2001-11/drnl-iad061802.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92685 | 646 | 3.265625 | 3 |
Ask the doctors
Q: What are long-term effects of wearing high-heeled shoes to work?
A: Wearing high heels changes your centre of balance and alters your gait. There is an increased risk of ankle sprains and fractures, but these are traumatic and not a consequence of chronic high-heel use.
When you wear a high-heeled shoe, the toe box (the area where your toes go) is narrow and squeezes your toes. The higher the heel, the greater the force. This can lead to bunions, hammer toes and toes crossing each other.
A stiletto has minimal medial arch support. Over time, this can lead to strain or injury of the plantar fascia (connective tissue on the sole of the foot) - leading to pain over the heel, arch and toes. Reducing the heel height reduces force on the toes. A wider toe box also helps. To prevent strain, alternate heels with high-heeled platforms.
If your ankle and foot are always in a flexed position, the Achilles' tendon will gradually shorten. You can end up with an almost tip-toe gait, even when you remove your heels. A shortened Achilles' tendon suffers extra strain when you wear flats, which leads to pain at the back of the calf. I have a patient who is so used to three-inch heels she cannot wear flats. To combat this wear sneakers and change shoes at the office. Remove the heels when possible to stretch the tendon. Dr Michael Soon is a consultant orthopaedic surgeon at the Centre for Orthopaedics in Singapore | <urn:uuid:2cbe170f-70ed-41cd-92fc-a994aed5e2cd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/health/article/1046080/ask-doctors | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915733 | 331 | 2.625 | 3 |
Chinese Wine Culture(s): Part I
Chinese Wine Culture: Any informative guidebook or primer in Chinese history/culture will allude to China’s enduring and extensive gastronomic heritage. Unsurprisingly, wine of various sorts and myriad other fermented beverages have played their parts in centuries of culinary and social evolution, marking the rise and continuity of Chinese culture itself. That culture has been extraordinarily adept in absorbing influences whilst keeping them ‘Chinese’: whether in the forms of Buddhism or Islam. But the gastronomic inheritance is arguably much more ‘resistant’ and more continuous; and the pragmatic, philosophical approach of Confucianism has meant the Chinese have never really gone in for en masse religion, at least in its more metaphysical ‘Western’ forms.
Ancient Chinese wine vessels
Photo credit: tsa.uconn.edu
|The romance of wine is, however, a lasting source of veneration. All forms of alcohol are classed as jiu, (酒), grape wine being putao jiu (葡萄酒). No one knows precisely what kind of wine the early Chinese poets celebrated, but various types made from fruit (especially plums), rice or sorghum are likely. One poem from the early Tang Dynasty is specific, however, its first line reading ‘Beautiful grape wine in a moonlit cup’ – but most texts stick to jiu alone. I freely admit to being neither|
a Chinese historian nor a Chinese literature specialist; but it’s safe to say the wonders of Tang Dynasty poetry would be unimaginable without wine and, further back, whole dictionaries have been devised to explain the types of plants and foodstuffs that appear in the early literature.
|Clearly, the association between wine and literature in many cultures is seemingly a given. But the relationships are especially acute in the case of China: whether in the poetry of Li Bai – who famously drowned in a drunken attempt to embrace the moon reflected in a river – or, at a further cultural remove, in the work of Scottish poet Frank Kuppner, whose A Bad Day for the Sung Dynasty (1984) and Second Best Moments in Chinese History (1997) feature venerable scholars getting drunker and drunker on wine (and much besides). My own Chinese name, Du Mu Kang (杜慕康) – devised by poet Wang Ao (王敖) – derives from the legendary Chinese ‘discoverer’ of wine, Du Kang, whilst nodding at Tang Dynasty poet Du Fu. The Chinese never||
Poet Li Bai with wine
seem to get over the symbolic resonance of these three characters, just as they are equally amused for a foreigner to have adopted them. What’s in a name?
Wine production from vitis vinifera grapes is, however, a late 20th Century phenomenon in China. Certainly, some of these grapes were introduced by 19th Century missionaries: Beijing’s own Dragon Seal winery having originally been the play-thing of a determined French abbot. China also possesses indigenous or semi-indigenous grapes (pic of grapes) of its own. But, like native American vines, although hardy, these can produce ‘foxy’ or musty aromas. As the early plantings of vitis vinifera vines were intermixed (as in the case of ‘Cabernet Gernicht’) international visitors eventually brought preciser cuttings, largely from France.
Grace Vineyards grapes
|Patrice Noyelle, now head of Pol Roger Champagne, was among the first, who, marrying into the Mommessin family of Burgundy fame, brought Chardonnay cuttings to the Huadong winery of Qingdao.
However, China has great problems producing healthy grapes, at least for wine production. Rain at harvest, rot and mildew – brought on by
|excessive humidity and poor vine ventilation – as well as too fertile soils all gravitate against quality wine production; not to mention a complex agricultural system unused to viticulture and the hassle of having to bury most vines manually during winter. Against this background, it’s impressive what Grace Vineyard (Shanxi Province) has achieved in particular; which, along with Dragon Seal, is among the few wineries producing drinkable wines||
Grace Vineyards “Deep Blue”
made from exclusively Chinese grapes. But how do these domestic wines stack up against foreign imports? What are these two wine markets like? And what wine drinking cultures seem to be evolving in the modern PRC?
Next time: the Chinese domestic market…
~Edward Ragg, China Correspondent | <urn:uuid:b7196c29-570b-4f68-a0d4-90e508366c47> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://enobytes.com/2009/02/13/chinese-wine-cultures-part-one/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9431 | 982 | 2.625 | 3 |
The Peer Reviewers' Openness Initiative is a statement that researchers can sign. That indicates that after a future date—1 January 2017—reviewers will begin to apply certain minimal open research standards to the manuscripts they review.
The Royal Society Science Policy Centre states that “good [scientific] communication is assessable communication, which allows those who follow it not only to understand what is claimed, but also to assess the reasoning and evidence behind the claim”. That means that one of the central values of science is openness.
The authors of the study set out to investigate how openness and transparency show their agreement with open principles to ensure that articles meet minimum scientific quality standards that include open practices (e.g. sharing data, materials and analysis scripts alongside published articles).
Although some progress has been made towards open practices, actual behavior in many scientific fields is far from the ideal of openness by default. The authors of the article suggest a new strategy, i.e. a new initiative promoting open-research requirements for publication, along with a plan for putting these into action.
The Peer Reviewers' Openness Initiative is a statement that researchers can sign. Accordingly, after 1 January 2017 reviewers begin to apply certain minimal open research standards to the manuscripts they review, while engaging authors on issues of scientific openness.
“As with proper scientific attribution, openness is something that reviewers should address”.
The team analyzed author-focused engagement stressing that the reviewer/author relationship is at the heart of the peer-review process. Engagement with the authors should occur as soon as possible, in order to prevent unnecessary delays in the review process.
In case a manuscript presenting work is not sufficiently open it should be treated as incomplete having “the right and responsibility to address open practices”.
The authors can respond in one of two ways to such a request providing links to the data and materials and agreeing to share a link in the published version of the manuscript. Moreover, the authors can respond with a justification for this lack of openness.
“Knowing why authors choose not to be open would be tremendously useful to the scientific community at large”.
Five minimal open research standards or key requirements of open articles
Starting 1 January 2017, once a manuscript has been certified by the authors to meet these five key requirements, reviewers will proceed with a more comprehensive review of the manuscript.
First, “Data should be made publicly available”.
Second, “Stimuli and materials should be made publicly available”.
Third, “In case some data or materials are not open, clear reasons (e.g. legal, ethical constraints, or severe impracticality) should be given”.
Forth, “Documents containing details for interpreting any files or code, and how to compile and run any software programs should be made available”.
Fifth, “The location of all of these files should be advertised in the manuscript”.
As a result, “Authors will obviously have the incentive to meet the requirements of the Initiative, because it will allow them to be published more quickly”.
According to authors, the Peer Reviewers' Openness Initiative provides the best possible chance for open research practices to become commonplace in the scientific literature.
Do you agree in principle with the goals of the Initiative, and wish that both your work, and the culture of science at large, were more open?
What would you suggest for training authors in open practices?
What is still undervalued?
Tell us please what you think about below.
Richard D. Morey, Christopher D. Chambers, Peter J. Etchells, Christine R. Harris, Rink Hoekstra, Daniël Lakens, Stephan Lewandowsky, Candice Coker Morey, Daniel P. Newman, Felix D. Schönbrodt, Wolf Vanpaemel, Eric-Jan Wagenmakers, Rolf A. Zwaan | <urn:uuid:67b5daa3-7576-4e81-a4aa-19f521594d1d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://aims.fao.org/activity/blog/peer-reviewers-openness-initiative-incentivizing-open-research-practices-through-peer | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00014-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922176 | 815 | 2.609375 | 3 |
This book is about how to measure the relative stabilities of linguistic
typological features. It discusses three alternative methods and tests
their performance by applying them to simulated datasets having preset
stabilities. The best metric is then applied to the data of The World Atlas
of Language Stuctures (Haspelmath et al. 2005) to produce empirical
estimates of stability for 134 features and 445 feature values. The
numerical results concur with many specific categorical statements in the
typological literature, and also substantiate the general suggestion that
stable features are more strongly interrelated than are unstable features.
The results also show that features have approximately the same relative
rates of change in different languages, even in widely separated
geographical areas. Surprisingly, however, tendencies for features to
diffuse vary among areas with no consistent differences among features. It
follows that stability and diffusibility are separate dimensions rather
than opposite ends of the same dimension. | <urn:uuid:04094a19-b59f-4d15-aa32-f60ef061d562> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.linguistlist.org/pubs/books/get-book.cfm?BookID=43865 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00004-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.90436 | 200 | 2.875 | 3 |
Rights under the McKinney-Vento Act
Parents, if your family lives in any of the following situations:
- In a shelter, motel, vehicle, or campground;
- On the street;
- In an abandoned building, trailer, or other inadequate accommodations, or
- Doubled up with friends or relatives due to economic hardship, such as loss of housing or income;
then your preschool- and school-aged children have certain rights or protections under the McKinney-Vento Homeless Education Assistance Act. Your children have the right to:
- Go to school, no matter where you live or how long you have lived there. They must be given access to the same public education, including preschool education, provided to other children.
- Continue in the school they attended before you became homeless or the school they last attended, if that is your choice and is feasible. If a school sends your child to a school other than the one you request, the school must provide you with a written explanation and offer you the right to appeal the decision.
- Receive transportation to the school they attended before your family became homeless or the school they last attended. (If you are a guardian, request such transportation.)
- Attend a school and participate in school programs with children who are not homeless. Children cannot be separated from the regular school program because they are homeless.
- Enroll in a school without giving a permanent address. Schools cannot require proof of residency that might prevent or delay school enrollment.
- Enroll and attend class while the school arranges for the transfer of school and immunization records or any other documents required for enrollment.
- Enroll and attend class in the school of your choice even while the school and you seek to resolve a dispute over enrolling your children.
- Receive the same special programs and services, if needed, as provided to all other children served in these programs.
- Receive transportation services comparable to services offered to other students.
When you move, you should do the following:
- Contact the homeless concerns liaison in your area for help in enrolling your child in a new school or arranging for your child to continue in his or her former school. (Or, someone at a shelter, social services office or the school can direct you to the person to contact.)
- Contact the school and provide any information you think will assist the teachers in helping your child adjust to new circumstances.
- Ask the homeless concerns liaison, the shelter provider or a social worker for assistance with clothing and supplies, if needed.
Transportation to school
Students who qualify for assistance under the McKinney-Vento Act may be eligible for free bus transportation to and from school. Please work with the homeless concerns designee and liaison at your school to determine eligibility, and to secure a bus pass if applicable.
Resources for parents and families under McKinney-Vento, in English and Hawaiian, and in the following languages: | <urn:uuid:80161d12-09f6-4a39-b430-b6be1e9dbe90> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hawaiipublicschools.org/ParentsAndStudents/EnrollingInSchool/Pages/Resources-for-homeless-families.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957746 | 605 | 2.625 | 3 |
Table of Contents
Great barracuda is a slender fish which grows up to six feet long. They are from the genus ‘sphyraena’ which means ‘pike-like’ in Latin. With its elongated body, a large mouth with conical unequal fang-like teeth and powerful jaws, it is also called the ‘Tiger of the sea’. Great barracuda is included in one of the predators on top of the food chain. It is not prized commercially due to its involvement in the ciguatera fish poisoning, however, is widely known as a gaming fish.
The common names of the Great barracuda include barracuda, barra, commerson’s sea pike. Some of the other names by which it is referred as are alu (Carolinian), barkura (Miskito), barracuda bicuda (Portuguese), barrcouda (French), picuda (Spanish), snoek (Dutch), Kupala (Hawaiian), gaviana (Portuguese) etc.
Great barracuda is a fierce looking fish with an elongated silver body and fang like jaws. It has a pointed head with large mouth. The lower jaw protrudes beyond its upper jaws. Great barracuda possesses strong jaws with conical teeth which are unequal in size. The gill cover of the fish consists of small scales instead of spines. The barracuda has two dorsal fines which are widely separated. The first dorsal fin has five spines and the other is located above the anal fin and has nine soft rays. It has a dorsal spinous fin above its pelvis. It has a fork tailed fin which makes it a fast swimmer. In coloration, Great barracuda are grey, silver, dark green or blue on top and fading into white towards its belly. Their cordial fins are dark violet with whitish tip.
- Size: Great barracuda grows up to a size of 1.5 to 3 feet on an average. The maximum size of the great barracuda recorded has been 6.6 feet.
- Weight: they weigh around a maximum of 50 kg.
Great barracuda are mostly found in the Mediterranean, Caribbean, western Atlantic and tropical waters. They are common in the Pacific Ocean (Malaysia, Fiji and Indonesia), Indian Ocean (Thailand, Maldives and Burma) and the Caribbean. They range in the Western Atlantic from Massachusetts, Bermuda to the Caribbean and Brazil. Towards the Eastern Atlantic, it ranges from Sierra Leone to St. Paul’s Rocks and Sao Tome Island. In the Indo-Pacific region, they are found across the Red Sea and Eastern Africa till Hawaii.
Great barracuda inhabit the marine tropical and sub-tropical waters. The shallow waters with submerged reefs, coral heads, coastal lagoons, open sea and mangroves are home to the great barracudas.
Great barracuda are solitary hunters. Juvenile barracudas form a large school of hundreds and thousands which also protects them from predators. Great barracudas are ambush predators. They camouflage themselves near sea grass and attack the prey by overrunning them with short brush of speed. Barracudas are attracted to shiny object as they mistake it for silver fishes that they commonly eat. Great barracuda do not have eyelids like most of the fishes, and if they are moving very slowly, it means that they are asleep. They are alert for danger even when they are sleeping and are aggressive if trespassed.
Great barracuda spawn during April and September. The male becomes sexually mature within 3 years; however a female barracuda takes at least 4 years to be sexually mature. They breed few times during the breeding season and release about 5,000 to 30, 000 eggs each time. Great barracuda exhibits dioecism. They mate in the shallow waters when the water becomes warm. The female releases the eggs and leaves it floating in the water until it is hatched. The baby fish or fry, takes shelter in the shallow water and estuaries until they are mature enough to venture out in the open sea.
The larvae settle in shallow waters where there is marine vegetation where it gets protection and food. They spend the first year of their life in shallow estuaries. As they mature, they venture out into the deep sea with reefs.
Great barracudas have an average lifespan of about 14 years.
Great barracuda have sharp eyesight and strong jaws which make them one amongst the few of the predators on top of the food chain. They are carnivorous and feed mostly on small fishes such as grunts, snapper, bream and mullets and occasionally shrimps and other marine invertebrates. They have a cannibalistic nature and may feed on their own young ones.
Great barracuda are close to the top of the food chain. Juvenile barracudas fall prey to the bigger fishes and also their own species. The only eligible predators of the great barracuda once they mature are the sharks, dolphins, giant tunas and goliath grouper.
- Their slender elongated body allows them to sneak through the reefs while hunting.
- Their dorsal fins are widely separated and have fork tailed fin making them a fast swimmer.
- They have conical teeth and strong jaws which helps them while hunting.
- It has the ability to inflate and deflate its swim bladder, allowing them to lower and raise their body.
- Great barracudas are large fishes with fang-like teeth, giving them a fearsome appearance.
- They are found in the tropical and sub-tropical waters of the world.
- They are solitary hunters however forms a school while spawning.
- Great barracudas are also called the “Tiger of the Sea” due to its sharp pointed teeth and strong jaws.
- It can swim across narrow reefs with its slender body and its ability to inflate and deflate its swim bladder.
- Great barracudas are ambush predators. They lay motionless in the water and when they locate their prey, outrun them with a lightning speed attack.
- Great barracudas have the ability to change the coloration and pattern of their body.
- Great barracudas are one of the fishes that causes ciguatera or fish poisoning in humans.
- Great barracudas are few of the predators which come on the top of the food chain and have very few natural predators.
One ounce of boneless barracuda contains
- Calories: 49
- Fat: 2.77g
- Carbohydrate: 0.09g
- Protein: 5.39g
Only young great barracudas are fit to be consumed. Mature barracudas which are more than 2 feet in length are best avoided as it is suspected to cause ciguatera fish poisoning.
Importance to Humans
Great barracuda is more of a game fish than a commercial one. It has been involved in the ciguatera poisoning cases caused by the accumulation of ciguatoxin in the flesh of the marine creature. Poisoned people suffer from gastrointestinal maladies, heart problems, weakness etc.
Great barracuda Attack and Danger to Human
Great barracudas are large and have a fearsome appearance due to which they are usually misunderstood. They rarely attack humans. Incidents of attack maybe due to the attraction of a shiny jewelry or a diving knife which they mistake it for a shiny fish. Fatal attacks by the barracudas are rare. Few simple precautions taken by the divers can prevent such attack by the great barracudas.
Great barracuda population has remained stable and is not considered an endangered and threatened species. Earlier they were hunted down for their meat. Recently discovery proves that the majority of Great barracudas have high content of toxin causing ciguatera fish poisoning. Consuming fishes with this toxin causes illness, digestive related problems, physiological problems, headaches, muscle pain, fluctuation in blood pressure, heart problems etc. Juvenile barracudas or the ones below 2 feet in length can be consumed. The larger ones however, are considered dangerous and were made illegal to sell in United States.
Here are some of the pictures of the Great Barracuda. | <urn:uuid:2f8cd676-d18a-4993-94b7-319b7adb019c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.animalspot.net/great-barracuda.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00070-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954042 | 1,741 | 3.28125 | 3 |
In recent years, elected officials have increasingly advocated giving public funds to religious institutions to provide social services. During his tenure in the White House, President George W. Bush made the “faith-based” initiative a top priority of his domestic policy. Today, President Barack Obama advocates continuing the initiative with certain revisions. Fundamentalist Christian groups are pushing for broad public funding without adequate controls on how the money is used. The rights of every American are at stake. Here’s why.
America’s Founding Fathers strongly believed in a clear separation between church and state. They gave us a Constitution that forbids government to support or oppose religion, leaving Americans free to follow their own consciences when it comes to matters of faith. In the words of the First Amendment, government shall make “no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof….”
Churches and other houses of worship are free to spread their beliefs. But they are expected to raise their own funds through the voluntary contributions of the faithful. Taxation to support religion and religious endeavors was forbidden under the Founders’ constitutional framework. No American should be compelled through taxation to subsidize any religion.
In 1811, President James Madison vetoed a congressional bill that incorporated an Episcopal church in the District of Columbia and gave the church authority to care for the poor and to educate poor children. Although the measure allocated no public funds to the congregation,
Madison – widely regarded as the Father of the Constitution – said it would “be a precedent for giving to religious societies as such a legal agency in carrying into effect a public and civil duty.” Madison later vetoed a bill giving a Baptist church a parcel of public land in Mississippi, asserting that this, too, would violate the First Amendment. Clearly, Madison was no supporter of “partnerships” between religion and government.
As decades passed, some officials have sometimes taken a less separationist approach to government funding of religious social-service agencies. In its 1899 Bradfield v. Roberts decision, the Supreme Court allowed public money to go to a Catholic hospital in Washington, D.C. In 1988, the high court ruled 5-4 in Bowen v. Kendrick that religiously affiliated agencies could receive government aid as long as the money was not spent to promote religion.
In 1996, then-U.S. Senator John Ashcroft steered through Congress so-called “charitable choice” provisions intended to allow religious groups to garner federal funding without proper civil rights and civil liberties safeguards. Ashcroft, an ally of the Religious Right, wanted faith-based providers to be able to hire and fire based on religion, even in programs supported by taxpayer dollars.
The Ashcroft proposal ignited a debate that continues today. President Bill Clinton opposed key aspects of the Ashcroft plan and issued signing statements that kept some of its more dangerous features in check.
Things changed dramatically in 2001. President George W. Bush unveiled a comprehensive “faith-based” initiative as a top priority of his administration. Under his plan, Bush sought to expand charitable choice policies throughout the federal government. Publicly subsidized religious charities would be allowed to engage in employment discrimination based on religion, and public funds could be used to pay for construction and repair of buildings used for religious worship.
In a series of speeches, Bush asserted that faith-based groups are more effective and cost less than their secular counterparts. Although the president offered no objective data to support these claims, he and other administration officials repeated them over and over.
But skepticism remained. Congress refused to adopt the Bush plan. Undaunted, Bush issued executive orders and regulatory changes carrying out much of his agenda without congressional approval.
It didn’t take long for broad opposition to Bush’s approach to surface. Some opponents feared that people in need would be subjected to religious pressures or forced to attend religious services before getting help. Others objected strongly to using public funds to subsidize religious bias in hiring. Still others worried that faith-based plans would entangle houses of worship in the most unpleasant aspects of partisan politics.
This last fear proved to be especially foresighted. It soon came to light that under Bush, promises of faith-based money were being dangled in front of religious communities in return for political support.
In 2002 and 2004, staffers from the White House faith-based office appeared at rallies alongside Republican candidates, implying to voters that the best way to get faith-based grants was to support the GOP.
Faith-based grants were also used to win over administration critics. TV preacher Pat Robertson was an early opponent of the initiative, asserting that churches would become dependent on government aid, which would become “like a narcotic.” Robertson stopped voicing these concerns, however, after his Operation Blessing charity was given a $1.5 million grant.
Payoffs such as this may have persuaded some opponents, but most Americans have remained wary of the faith-based approach. Public-opinion polls reflect widespread uneasiness over key aspects of the initiative. According to a 2008 Pew Research Center poll, 61 percent of Americans say groups that encourage religious conversion should not be eligible for public funding. A 2009 Pew poll found an overwhelming 74 percent say organizations that hire only people who share their religious beliefs should not receive government grants.
The question of hiring bias is especially important. President Franklin D. Roosevelt banned government contractors from engaging in discrimination on the basis of race, religion or national origin. The Bush faith-based initiative blithely discarded a key part of this rule, permitting religious groups to take tax funds yet reject job applicants with the “wrong” views about religion. Americans realize that this is fundamentally unfair.
Bush’s plan drew support from the Religious Right and a few conservative denominational leaders who insisted that religious organizations should be able to take public funds while engaging in job bias.
But opponents mobilized as well. Religious, civil liberties, civil rights and social-service advocacy groups came together to address the issues of hiring bias and proselytism with public funds. They formed the Coalition Against Religious Discrimination (CARD) to educate the American people about these issues and lobby Congress for appropriate legal safeguards.
Many religious groups are active in CARD. The religious community has an important role to play in alerting Americans to the dangers of the faith-based initiative. Informed clergy are well aware that America’s great tradition of separation of church and state has led to a flourishing of religious diversity and freedom of conscience. They are alarmed at any proposal that would undermine the church-state wall.
These religious leaders know that religion does best when it supports itself. They are aware that churches dependent on the state for funding become lethargic and run the risk of losing their prophetic voices. Religion does best when it is supported by voluntary contributions.
Response To The Faith-Based Initiative
“I think there has to be a strong wall, a solid wall between church and state. I don’t want to see religious groups out trying
to convert or proselytize with federal dollars.”
– U.S. Rep. John Lewis of Georgia
“Once a religious institution comes to be favored for grants, they can relax in their efforts to raise funds through private means. And the focus of their mission slowly changes... If you love and favor religious charity, and want to see it thrive, keep it privately financed.”
– The Rev. Robert A. Sirico, Catholic Priest and president of the Action Institute
“I don’t think most people expect that you can apply for a job paid for by the federal government and be told, ‘Oh, no,
we don’t hire people of your religion.’”
– U.S. Rep. Bobby Scott of Virginia
“The idea that faith-based groups should have special entree to government funding just makes me twitch. It makes me twitch when groups funded with public funds will only hire their own members, or use the funds to advance sectarian
– The Most Rev. Dr. Katharine Jefferts Schori, Presiding Bishop of The Episcopal Church
Americans United for Separation of Church and State believes that in an ideal world, there would be no government- sponsored faith-based initiative. The concept of a federal office aimed at finding ways to funnel tax money to religious groups is impossible to square with our country’s tradition of separation of church and state.
Houses of worship are better off using their own funds for social-service projects. Privately raised money preserves the independence of religious groups, increases congregational vitality and allows for prayer and evangelism in these programs if the sponsoring organization chooses.
Government funding inevitably brings regulation and threatens the integrity of religion. None of this is in the best interest of faith groups or the taxpayers.
If a religious group decides it wants to receive tax funds anyway, steps should be taken to respect the separation of church and state. Houses of worship should set up a separate non-profit, 501(c)(3) organization to administer those funds. It should be made clear that no evangelism or worship will be allowed in publicly funded programs. Finally, religious groups accepting governmental grants must agree to abide by the nation’s civil rights laws and give up the right to hire and fire on the basis of religious belief.
During the 2008 campaign, then-candidate Obama expressed many of the same concerns. In a speech in Zanesville, Ohio, Obama said, “[I]f you get a federal grant, you can’t use that grant money to proselytize to the people you help and you can’t discriminate against them or against the people you hire on the basis of their religion.”
When the president rolled out his version of the faith-based initiative in February 2009, however, he left the old Bush executive orders in place. That means billions in federal funds are being disbursed without much-needed safeguards. Administration officials have indicated that discrimination claims will be looked at on a case-by-case basis, instead of being barred by government- wide action. In November 2010, Obama issued an executive order making a few changes to the faith-based initiative, but leaving the discriminatory hiring policy intact.
Americans who support civil rights and civil liberties are calling on Obama to keep his commitment.
“I would rather there be no ‘faith-based’ office,” says the Rev. Barry W. Lynn, Americans United executive director. “But if it exists, it must comply with long established protections guaranteeing civil rights and civil liberties.”
Americans United urges the president, members of Congress and other elected officials to take concrete actions to protect the religious liberty rights of taxpayers and the disadvantaged and to ensure the independence and vitality of religion. We call for a high wall of separation between church and state and clear and effective civil rights and civil liberties safeguards for all faith-based initiatives. | <urn:uuid:39b87dad-115e-4a45-9401-96570881f8be> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.au.org/resources/publications/the-faith-based-initiative | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00153-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959825 | 2,249 | 2.75 | 3 |
Amphibian species have been facing a steep decline for decades, in large part because of a fungus, climate change, and environment disruption. As many as one-third of the world’s 6,300 amphibian species are threatened with extinction, and researchers fear their loss could wreak havoc on our ecosystem and food webs. Here are landmark studies that have defined the problems and—we hope—will help humans to figure out how to save their froggy friends.
1 The long-term perspective
In August 2008 two researchers at University of California at Berkeley published a meta-analysis titled “Are we in the midst of the sixth mass extinction?” The global assessment highlighted the threat of chytridiomycosis, an infectious, rapidly spreading disease caused by a waterborne fungus.
2 The seminal study
The study “Statusand Trends of Amphibian Declines and Extinctions Worldwide” [subscription required] showed one-third of the world’s 6,300 amphibian species are threatened with extinction (compared with just 12 percent of all bird species and 23 percent of mammal species). The authors concluded that scientists must begin captive breeding.
3 Problems with captive breeding
A September 2008 study published in Current Biology said captive breeding program accidentally introduced the chytridfungus that causes chytridiomycosis into Mallorca in 1991; an endangered frog species was housed in the same room as a group of toads, and the frogs spread the chytrid fungus to the toads. The fungus was not known at this time, so health screening of the toads did not reveal the problem.
4 Extinction rates
According to a 2007 study in the Journal of Herpetology, amphibian species are becoming extinct 211 times faster than the “normal extinction rate,” the standard rate of extinction in history before humans became a primary contributing factor. And if you count those species “in imminent danger of extinction,” that rate climbs to a whopping 45,474 times faster than normal.
5 The global-warming theory
It is unclear how the chytrid fungus spreads. A 2006 study in Nature blamed global warming, for creating ideal conditions shifts temperatures to those more agreeable to the fungus’ growth and reproduction—between 63° and 77°F. But there were many outspoken skeptics of this claim (see study #6).
6 Skeptics of the global-warming theory
A March 2008 PLoS Biology paper said there is “no evidence to support” the global-warming hypothesis. Instead, researchers said, the pattern of the fungus’ spread was typical of an emerging infectious disease; they call their theory the “spreading pathogen hypothesis.” The authors suggested governments and environmental agencies can help prevent the fungus’ spread by regulating potential infection routes, such as the ornamental plant and aquarium wildlife trade.
7 Problems with insecticides
October 2008’s Ecological Applications study suggests malathion, the most common insecticide in the U.S., can devastate tadpole populations even at doses too small to kill individual tadpoles. Researchers created simulated ponds in 300-gallon outdoor tanks, placed tadpoles inside, and exposed the ponds to no malathion, a single moderately concentrated dose, or low concentrations in weekly doses similar to the exposure tadpoles experience in (human-altered) nature. Even the small amounts of malathion set off a chain of events that caused a decline of tadpoles’ primary food source: bottom-dwelling algae. Consequently, half the tadpoles in the experiment did not reach maturity and would have died in nature.
8 Afungus-free country
Oddly, none of the many known amphibian species in Madagascar have been driven to extinction; the island also shows no signs of the chytrid fungus, according toa May 2008 PLoS Biology paper. Because the amphibians in Madagascar are doing so well, the authors argue the region is one of the best places to focus future research efforts. They hope to find out what helps amphibians in Madagascar thrive, as they suffer steep declines elsewhere.
9 Beating the fungus
Introducing probiotic bacteria into the ecosystem could help lessen the effects of chytridiomycosis, according to research presented in June 2008 at the 108th General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology. The tests indicated that adding pedobacter, a bacterial species that occurs naturally on the skin of red-backed salamanders, to the skin of mountain yellow-legged frogs decreased chytrid’s deadly effects.
10 Evolving more slowly than the environment
A May 2007 study in BioScience attributed amphibians’ decline to their inability to adapt to the current rapid rate of global change. The authors noted the aforementioned pesticide pollution and chytrid infections, as well as habitat loss and UV-B light exposure that causes mutations in amphibian eggs. Amphibians are particularly vulnerable because they have permeable skin, ability to live on both land and water, and eggs without shells. Perhaps most detrimental is their complex life cycle, which makes evolution an even slower process. | <urn:uuid:8fcb1519-033b-46fc-80c7-7eafe4471011> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://discovermagazine.com/2008/dec/04-10-studies-that-revealed-the-great-global-amphibian-die-off-and-some-possible-solutions | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933088 | 1,071 | 3.828125 | 4 |
I am puzzled by the following in your post: "Anyway, there seem to be very few really blue stars. Whereas the graph might lead us to expect more
". Why do you think the curve would lead you to expect more blue stars? It isn't showing you the different proportions of stars, merely the spread of radiation produced by objects of differing temperature.
As to why, with around 75% of all stars being spectral type M, we don't see most stars in the sky as red - *shrugs*
Anyway, to answer your question about green stars...
Looking at the curve again:
Looking at the bottom curve (for 2,000K). For low temperature stars there is practically no (well very very little) radiation being emitted at the high-energy, blue end of the spectrum. The graph rises gently towards the red-end of the spectrum and continues to rise well into the infra-red. So these low-temperature stars are (at best) red in colour (if you can see them).
If you extrapolate the dotted line to higher temperatures and imagine what the curve will look like, at around 4,000-4,200K - the peak of the curve will be on the lower boundary of the visible spectrum. Again, not so much violet and blue light, but far more towards the orange/red part of the spectrum - so the star would again have a reddish-cast (and would probably look orange).
At even higher temperatures, the dotted line still climbs and moves towards the left but by the time the peak is in the middle of the visible band, you have a fair amount of violet and blue, a bit more green and a fair amount of yellow, orange and red - in other words you have a complete spectrum and so the star appears white. This is shown in the picture below - erroneously stating that the surface temperature of the Sun is 6,000K - it is in fact around 5,780 K (5,505 °C).
Continuing the extrapolation of the dotted line - ever higher and still moving to the left at higher temperatures. Imagine what the curve looks like at very high temperatures, where the peak is at the violet end of the spectrum. The right-hand side of the curve drops steeply, not as steeply as the left-hand side but steep enough. Therefore you have a preponderance of blue/violet light - so the star looks blue.
There are no green stars due to the fact that when the peak of the curve is sitting squarely in the middle of the visible spectrum (as it is with the Sun which peaks in the yellow-green part of the spectrum), you have a lot of blue/violet radiation to one side and a lot of yellow/orange/red radiation the other. The distribution is fairly even across the visible spectrum - even though it is centred around green - and because we have a full mix of colours, we see the star as white.
This curve may help to explain the above (for temps up to 6,000K):
So, in summary:
Very cool stars radiate in the infra-red, we can't see them in the visible = brown dwarfs
Cool (M-type) stars radiate in the red and orange. These are red giants (Antares and Betelgeuse) and Red Dwarf stars (Proxima Centauri) with a surface temerature around 3,500K (3,200ºC). M-type stars are the most common with around three-quarters of all stars being type-M. Orange Dwarfs (K-type) such as Alpha Centauri B and Epsilon Indi. Roughly 1 star in 8 is a type K star (12.5%), surface temperatures are below 5,200K.
A slightly hotter star (Yellow Dwarf, G-type) has a surface temperature aroung 5,200-6,200K and the Sun is a prime example along with Alpha Centauri A, Capella and Tau Ceti. The spectral classification of the Sun is actually G2 (each class - O, B, A, F, G, K, M - being split into 10 smaller sub-classes). Around 1 star in every 12 is a G-type star like the Sun.
Hotter than this we have the F and A-type. F-type stars are yellow-white (examples being Canopus, Dubhe B, Polaris and Procyon) with a surface temperature of around 6,000-7,500K. Around 1 star in 30 is a type-F star. A-type stars are white (examples being Sirius, Deneb, Altair and Vega) and have a surface temperature between 7,500K and 10,000K. Only about 1 star in 160 of the main-sequence stars are spectral type A.
Even hotter are B-type stars with a surface temperature of between 10,000K and 33,000K (examples being the brighter stars of the Pleiades, Algol A, Rigel, Spica and VV Cephei B). These stars are bluish-white in colour. Only about 1 star in 800 of the main-sequence stars are B-type stars.
O-type stars are textremely hot with surface temperatures above 33,000K. These stars are also the most massive stars - the Blue Supergiants and they appear, well, blue. Examples are Zeta Orionis, Zeta Puppis, Lambda Orionis, Delta Orionis and Theta Orionis C. Interstingly, these stars output most of their energy in the ultraviolet range. They are the rarest of all main-sequence stars with only about 1 star in three million being O-type stars. Another interesting fact is that these stars shine with a power output of over a million times that our own Sun!
There is a further spectral class - type W - with surface temperatures in excess of 50,000K.
This Wiki article should help. There is a table under the heading "Harvard Spectral Classification" which shows the stellar classes (O, B, A, F, G, K, M) and their associated colours. A mnemonic to remember these (in decreasing-temperature order) is: W
e A F
I hope this is of some interest and answers your question as to why there are no green stars. | <urn:uuid:db6d7f34-b5cb-40d5-a193-fff606507ef7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/forum/post127221.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935494 | 1,330 | 3.359375 | 3 |
This enhanced-color mosaic of Saturn's icy moon Tethys shows a range of features on the moon's trailing hemisphere. Tethys is tidally locked to Saturn, so the trailing hemisphere is the side of the moon that always faces opposite its direction of motion as it orbits the planet.
Images taken using clear, green, infrared and ultraviolet spectral filters were combined to create the view, which highlights subtle color differences across Tethys' surface at wavelengths not visible to human eyes. The moon's surface is fairly uniform in natural color.
The color of the surface changes conspicuously across the disk, from yellowish hues to nearly white. These broad color changes are affected by a number of external processes. First, Saturn's diffuse E-ring preferentially bombards Tethys' leading hemisphere, toward the right side of this image, with ice bright ice grains. At the same time, charged particles from Saturn's radiation belt bombard the surface on the trailing side, causing color changes due to chemical alteration of the materials there. The albedo -- a measure of the surface's reflectivity -- drops by 10 to 15 percent from the moon's leading side to the trailing side. Similar global color patterns exist on other Saturnian moons.
On a much smaller scale, enigmatic, arc-shaped, reddish streaks also are faintly visible across the heavily-cratered surface, particularly if one enhances color saturation in the image (see PIA19637 for a close-up view of these features). The origin of this localized color contrast is not yet understood.
Mountains on the floor of the 280 mile- (450 kilometer-) wide Odysseus impact basin are visible at upper right, around the two o'clock position.
This mosaic is an orthographic projection constructed from 52 Cassini images obtained on April 11, 2015 with the Cassini spacecraft narrow-angle camera. Resolution is about 1,000 feet (300 meters) per pixel. The images were obtained at a distance of approximately 33,000 miles (53,000 kilometers) from Tethys.
This view is similar to PIA19638, but shows terrain slightly farther to the east and north.
The Cassini mission is a cooperative project of NASA, ESA (the European Space Agency) and the Italian Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, manages the mission for NASA's Science Mission Directorate, Washington. The Cassini orbiter and its two onboard cameras were designed, developed and assembled at JPL. The imaging operations center is based at the Space Science Institute in Boulder, Colorado. | <urn:uuid:17de748d-eb1a-4996-b63e-67be0fdabdd0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/spaceimages/details.php?id=PIA19636 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00077-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.911793 | 535 | 3.65625 | 4 |
Renfrew County - A Brief Outline
The following is from "Ontario Place Names", Fam Hist Lib fiche
RENFREW COUNTY, Renfrew County was named for Renfrewshire, Scotland. As a
County it was Incorporated (1) by Canada Statutes 1849, C.78, schedule A -
Lanark and Renfrew were united for judicial and other purposes as the United
Counties of Lanark and Renfrew, effective January 1, 1850. (2) by
Proclamation dated August 23, 1866 County of Lanark was separated from
County of Renfrew effective October 10th, 1866.
Area, 3,009 square miles, contains 37 Townships and is the largest County
in Ontario. Population 9,415 in 1852 and 87,219 in 1980.
The County of Renfrew consists of:
- the city of Pembroke
- the towns of Arnprior, Deep River and Renfrew
- the villages of: Barry's Bay, Beachburg, Braeside, Chalk River,
Cobden, Eganville, Killaloe Station and Petawawa
- the townships of: Admaston, Alice and Fraser, Bagot and Blithfield,
Bromley, Brougham, Brudenell and Lyndoch, Grattan, Griffith and
Matawatchan, Hagarty and Richards, Head Clara and Maria, Horton, McNab, North
Algona, Pembroke, Petawawa, Radcliffe, Raglan, Ralph Buchanan Wylie and
McKay, Ross, Sebastopol, Sherwood Jones and Burns, South Algona,
Stafford, Westmeath and Wilberforce.
Vol. 2, page 987 | <urn:uuid:8f0c1753-9f22-4021-a2cf-2206f13df98c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~onrenfre/rencnty.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00100-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.899269 | 383 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Weather conditions that have brought historic drought conditions to Colorado have not changed in the past few days.
The first heavy toll taken by the drought is more than 500,000 acres of wheat, mostly in eastern Colorado. It has been declared a total loss and it is too late to plant another crop.
In the San Luis Valley of southern Colorado, a potato-growing region, growers are done planting their potatoes but already projections are for low yields. Many growers do not think they will have enough irrigation water to complete their crops.
Long-time growers are saying this is the worse they’ve seen in more than 30 years. They say the wells won’t keep up with a lack of recharge from last spring’s very low mountain runoff.
Ranchers with grazing allotments are reportedly selling cattle as quickly as possible. Dairy farmers are saying there won’t be enough hay for their herds.
All irrigation canals and ditch/laterals are going dry in the hay country.
Now, agricultural experts are saying that because of the parched, dry ground that if the state does get rain it will probably flood rather than soak the ground.
Colorado experts are already predicting that this year’s drought will take a continued toll on the number of farmers in the state, closing a lot of chapters in the farming industry. | <urn:uuid:268c39a7-9d56-47bc-8124-7660636825f6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sugarproducer.com/2002/05/colorado-remains-dry-dusty | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972136 | 275 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Doppler shift is an apparent change in frequency (and, correspondingly, wavelength)
due to the relative motion of two objects. Per the lower right drawing, the wavefront of the moving object is compressed
and shortens the wavelength in that region (increases frequency) and lengthens the
wavelength (decreases frequency) in the region behind it. As shown in the upper right
drawing, either one or both of the objects may be moving with respect to the ground.
Radar systems exploit the Doppler shift to provide an indication of relative speed. When the two objects are
approaching each other (closing), the Doppler shift causes a shortening of wavelength
(increase in frequency). When the two objects are receding from each other
(opening), the Doppler shift causes a lengthening of wavelength
(decrease in frequency).
For a Doppler radar system to measure speed, an accurate measurement of the original transmitted frequency and
the reflected return frequency is required. The difference in the two frequencies is the termed the Doppler frequency
shift, and is a direct indication of the object's speed as indicated in the equations below. The measured speed
is relative to a straight line directly from the radar to the target (RHorizontal) - not its
speed relative to the ground (RSlant). To calculate ground speed, the target's height relative
to the radar antenna must be known, and that can be inferred from the elevation angle of the antenna (known as boresight
Note that the angle shown (θ) is for elevation differences only. If there is also an azimuthal angle, it
must be factored into the equation as cos (α), where 'α' is the azimuth angle relative to the radar
antenna boresight direction.
RHorizontal = RSlant * cos θ.
In the following equations, distance can be expressed in any convenient units as long as they are consistent
for both 'V' and 'c,' that is, km/hr, mi/hr, cm/week, furlongs/fortnight, etc. Use positive velocity (+) when the
target is moving away from the radar and negative (-) when moving toward. 'c' is the speed of light. fTransmitted
should have units of Hz since the Doppler shift is usually no more than a few kHz.
Note: When using these formulas, be sure to keep dimensional units consistent; i.e.,
do not mix kHz with MHz, mm with inches, etc. It is safer to use base units (e.g., Hz, m)
for calculation, then convert result to desired units.
Here is information on propagation time,
radar equation, and path loss.
Radar Doppler Frequency Shift Equation
This equation applies generally to any value of VMovingTarget; however, for VMovingTarget <<
c, VMovingTarget - c
→ c and the equation simplifies to
the ones shown below.
Note: The factor of 2 in the equation is due to a Doppler shift occurring both for
the incident and reflected wave. When
Doppler shift from an emitter, such as light from a star or from a satellite, replace 2 with 1.
Example 1: An airplane moving at Mach 1 along the antenna boresight of a 10 GHz radar creates a Doppler
shift of 22.87 kHz.
Example 2: The
radar in use at Pearl Harbor during the Japanese attack on December 7, 1941, operated at
106 MHz and an A6M Zero attack
aircraft had a diving speed of around 400 mi/hr. That corresponds to a
Doppler shift of a mere 633 Hz.
Fixed Radar with Moving Target
where VMovingTarget is relative to the stationary radar.
Moving Radar with Moving Target
where VMovingRadar and VMovingTarget are relative to a fixed point on the ground.
You might also want to check out the
Doppler Shift section of the Electronic Warfare
and Radar Systems Engineering Handbook. | <urn:uuid:f6e1ce64-a7e5-4de4-aab8-8adf94a26488> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rfcafe.com/references/electrical/doppler.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00170-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.889387 | 862 | 4.6875 | 5 |
Information on composition, diversity of tree species and species-rich communities is of primary importance in the planning and implementation of biodiversity conservation efforts. In addition, the diversity of trees is fundamental to the total tropical rainforest diversity as trees provide resources and habitat structure for almost other forest species (Cannon et al., 1998). According to Singh (2002), biodiversity is essential for human survival and economic well being and ecosystem function and stability. UNEP (2001) reported that habitat destruction, over exploitation, pollution and species introduction are identified as major causes of biodiversity loss. Hubbel et al. (1999) mentioned that disturbances created by these factors determine forest dynamics and tree diversity at the local and regional scales. These disturbances have been considered as an important factor structuring communities (Sumina, 1994).
In forest management operations, inventories on biodiversity are used to determine the nature and distribution of biodiversity region at the region being managed. Quantification of tree species diversity is an important aspect as it provides resources for many species (Cannon et al., 1998). Being a dominant life form, trees are easy to locate precisely and to count (Condit et al., 1996) and are also relatively better known, taxonomically (Gentry, 1992).
While Pahang National Park provides both fully-protected habitats and long-term maintenance of biological diversity, the structure and composition of its flora still remain rather insufficiently known. To protect forests from declining, it is essential to examine the current status of species diversity as it will provide guidance for the management of protected areas. Therefore, using Kuala Keniam forest as an example, a study was conducted to describe quantitatively stand structure of the forests of Kuala Keniam within Pahang National Park, and to determine the level of species composition, diversity and distribution in this area. Information from this quantitative inventory will provide a valuable reference for forest assessment and improve our knowledge in identification of ecologically useful species as well as species of special concern, thus identify conservation efforts for sustainability of forest biodiversity.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Description of study area
The data for this study were collected from Kuala Keniam forest, Pahang National Park, Malaysia (latitude 4o 31’ 07.17” N, longitude 102o 28’ 31.26” E) which ranges about 120 − 200 m above sea level. Kuala Keniam is located at the protected lowland dipterocarp forests within the national park in the state of Pahang. The area is administered by the Department of Wildlife and National Park (DWNP) Malaysia in collaboration with the Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) which operates a research station in the area.
The weather in Pahang National Park is characterized by permanent high temperatures ranging from 20oC at night and 35oC in the day with a high relative humidity (above 80%). Periods of sunshine in the morning are usually followed by heavy thunderstorms in the afternoon, sometimes accompanied by severe gusts of wind. The highest rainfall occurs in October to November with about 312 mm of rainfall. The lowest rainfall occurs in March with only about 50 mm of rain. Sedimentary rocks account for about 83% of National Park. The last formation of sedimentary rocks belongs to the Cretaceous-Jurassic era which exists in Kuala Keniam and its vicinity. The rocks are thick cross-bedded sandstone deposits with subordinate conglomerates and mudstones. The topography consists mainly of lowland, undulating and riverine areas and gently rolling hills with slopes of between 5o to 45o.
The overall vegetation type in Pahang National Pahang is lowland dipterocarp forests in which is characterized by high proportion of species in the family of Dipterocarpaceae with Meranti (Shorea spp.) and Keruing (Dipterocarpus spp.) as the dominant species. Lowland dipterocarp forest is one of the most rich-species communities in the world, with more than 200 species ha-1 (Okuda et al., 2003). Other vegetation communities in Pahang National Park range from the humid rainforests of the lowland, to the montane oak and ericaceous forests in the higher elevation. The highest peak is Mount Tahan 2,187 m, which also the highest point in Peninsular Malaysia. Tahan River and Tembeling River are the headstream tributaries of Pahang National Pahang with the presence riparian tree species, i.e., Gapis (Saraca multiflora), Keruing neram (Dipterocarpus oblongifolius), Merbau (Intsia palembanica), Kasai daun bersar (Pometia pinnata) and Melembu (Pterocambium javanicum), along river banks. The rainforest consists of tall evergreen trees which attain heights between 30 − 50 m (i.e., Tualang - Koompassia excelsa).
2.2. Sampling design and data collection
A topographic map was used to locate the existing forest trails and baselines in the forest area. A total of five transect lines of 100 m in length and 20 m in width (abbreviated as T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 thereafter) were established in east-west direction using a compass (Table 1, Figure 1). Each transect line was gridded into five plots, each 20 m × 20 m in size, as workable units. These transect lines were perpendicular to the existing baseline in the forest area and constructed 5 m after the line. The topographic position, including the gradient was measured at each plot. The slope was measured using a clinometer. A tape measure was used to mark the transect lines at the intervals of 20 m. All trees with a diameter at breast height (DBH, 1.3 m above the ground) above 10 cm were measured, tagged and identified by species. The DBH was measured using a DBH tape. If field identification was not possible, the botanical specimens were taken to the herbarium section of the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) for identification.
2.3. Data analysis
The means of basal area, genera, species and stem per hectare were calculated for each transect line. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the differences between the means of these parameters using SAS system (SAS Institute, 2000). The relative dominance of species in each transect line was identified on the basis of relative basal area. The relative basal area of a species on transect lines was calculated as the basal area of a species divided by total basal area of the site and multiplied with 100. The dominant and co-dominant species of each site were identified based on this value. The species with the highest relative basal area was defined as dominant and that with the second highest relative basal area was defined as co-dominant.
In this study, the stand structure was described based on the distribution of species in the study sites and distribution of trees by diameter classes. Therefore, the tree data were grouped into 5 cm diameter classes e.g., the class boundaries were 10 – 14.9, 15 – 19.5 cm, etc. These gave a frequency of trees in each diameter class and were then used to draw bar char graphs.
2.4. Basal area
Basal area is a measure of tree density that defines the area of a given section of land that is occupied by the cross-section of tree. Basal area (BA) is calculated using the following equation that converts the DBH in cm to the basal area in m2.
BA = tree basal area (m2)
r = radius (cm)
2.5. Species diversity, richness and evenness indices
A variety of different diversity indices can be used as measures of some attributes of community structure because they are often seen as ecological indicators (Magurran, 1988). Diversity indices provide important information about rarity and commonness of species in a community. The indices can be used to compare diversity between habitat types (Kent and Coker, 1992). The comparison can be between different habitats or a comparison of one habitat over time. Different diversity, species richness, species evenness indices were calculated for each transect as well as pooled data for all transects.
Shannon-Weiner diversity index (H’) (Shannon and Weiner, 1949) is calculated using the following equation:
H’= the Shannon-Wiener index
pi= the proportion of individuals belonging to species i
ln=the natural log (i.e., 2.718)
The species richness (number of species per unit area) was calculated using Margalef index of species richness (Margalef, 1958) as follows:
SR=the Margalef index of species richness
S =the number of species
N =the total number of individuals
The Whittaker’s index of species evenness (Whittaker, 1972) was calculated using the following equation:
Ew=the Whittaker’s index of evenness
Ni=the abundance of most important species
Ns=the abundance of the least important species
α-diversity was measured based on unified indices (exponential Shannon-Weiner index and Simpson’s diversity) as follows:
N1=the number of equally common species
H’=the Shannon-Weiner index
Simpson’s diversity (D) (Simpson, 1949) was calculated using the following equation:
D=the Simpson diversity
λ= the Simpson’s concentration of dominance calculated as.
The Whittaker’s index of β-diversity (Whittaker, 1972) was calculated as:
βw= the Whittaker’s index of β-diversity
Sc=the total number of species= the average number of species per sample
Bray-Curtis index (CN) (Bray and Curtis, 1947), a similarity coefficient, is used to measure similarity between transect lines.
CN=the Bray-Curtis index
aN=individual numbers of plot A
bN=individual numbers of plot B
jN= the sum of less individual numbers of each species common in plots A and B
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Stand structure analysis of different sites
Information on the basal area, stem, species and genera densities are efficient expression for revealing forest stand structure and spatial distribution of trees present in the landscape. These four parameters are presented in Table 2. In this study, the means of basal area ha-1, stem ha-1, species ha-1 and genera ha-1 were measured in every plot (20 m × 20 m) and were averaged to provide an estimate for each transect line. From the analysis of variance, it was found that the difference in the means of these parameters among transects were not statistically significant at P≤0.05.
The mean of basal area obtained in the present study ranged from 17.2 m2 ha-1 (T4) to 34.3 m2 ha-1 (T3) (Table 2), which is lower compared to those recorded in other tropical rainforests. Examining the structure and composition of lowland tropical rainforests in north Borneo, Burgess (1961) recorded a basal area of 73.6 m2 ha-1 (≥ 10 cm DBH) over a small area (0.08 ha) at Gum Gum Sabah. In another study in an evergreen forest of Andaman Islands, basal area of 44.6 m2 ha-1 has been recorded in 4.5 ha sampled area (Padalia et al., 2004). A much lower basal area of 29 m2 ha-1 and 5.6 m2 ha-1 have been recorded in logged over forest of Sungkai, Perak (Suratman et al., 2007) and secondary forests of Sungai Sator, Kelantan (Suratman et al., 2009), respectively. Both are secondary forests and were put under a selection system of timber extraction in the past, and are considered to be of poor species.
The density and size distribution of trees contribute to the structural pattern characteristic of rainforests. In primary tropical rainforests, the density of trees varies within the limits and depends on many factors. The means number of species and stems per hectare on different transects varied from 280 (T4) – 450 (T3) and 315 (T4) – 510 (T1), respectively (Table 2), indicating a mixed nature of distribution of species and individuals in the forest at each transect, a characteristic of the tropical rainforests. The factors controlling tree density include the effects of natural and anthropogenic disturbance and soil condition (Richards, 1952). From the field observation, the reserve area of the primary forest in the study sites is generally homogenous, with no evidence of major disturbance, and appeared to be a representative example of the lowland forest of Kuala Keniam.
Information on the density-dependent status of species in the study site is important for conservation and management. Studies have classified the density of trees ha-1 in tropical forests ranges from low values of 245 stems ha-1 (Ashton, 1964; Campbell et al., 1992; Richards, 1996) intermediate values of 420 – 617 stems ha-1 (Campbell et al., 1992) in Brazilian Amazon and high values of 639 – 713 stems ha-1 in Central Amazon upland forests (Ferreira et al., 1998). In the present study, the density of stems per hectare ranged from 315 – 510 stems ha-1, reflecting spatial variability in the sampled sites. The range fell within intermediate category in the above studies. In the Neotropics, the maximum richness is found up to 300 stems ha-1 (Gentry, 1988). A much lower result was reported for forests in Africa where the species richness is about 60 stems ha-1 (Bernhard-reversat et al., 1978).
Tree species composition in tropical areas varies greatly from one place to another mainly due to variation in biogeography, habitat and disturbance (Whitmore, 1998). In the tropical rainforests, the tree species per hectare ranges from about 20 to a maximum of 223 (Whitmore, 1984). Philips and Gentry (1994) reported a range of 56 – 282 species ha-1 (>10 cm DBH) in mature tropical forests. In the present study, a range of 280 to 450 species ha-1 has been recorded in the lowland rainforest of Kuala Keniam (Table 2). In the very rich rainforests, the number of species in rainforests could be as high as 400 species ha-1 (Nwoboshi, 1982). When compared to some rainforests around the world, the lowland rainforest of Kuala Keniam could be considered to be species rich. Tropical rainforests in South America harbour 200 – 300 species ha-1 (Richards, 1996). In the tropical evergreen forest of Andaman Islands, India, Padalia et al. (2004) found that 58 tree species ha-1 were recorded belong to 176 genera and 81 families.
The mean numbers of genera per hectare varied from 340 to 435 genera ha-1. These values are much higher than that obtained by Sagar et al. (2003) at a dry tropical forest region of India (4 – 22 genera ha-1). T4 had the highest total number of species per individual when compared to the other four sites of study. The difference could be due to genetic and site difference. A study on vegetation types in Yunnan, Chiangcheng et al. (2007) found that slope direction had influence on the tree diversity at different altitudes. The tree diversity on the sunny slope was lower than that on shady slope. The difference in terrain, gradient and slope direction causes the difference soil, water and microclimate which may cause of differences in species adaptability.
3.2. Dominant tree species
On the basis of relative basal area, the five sites differed in the combination of dominant and co-dominant species (Appendix). Elateriospermum tapos was dominant in T1 and co-dominant in T4. Koompassia malaccensis dominated at the T2 and co-dominated at the T3. Xanthophyllum lelacarum was dominant in T3 while Shorea leprosula was dominant in T4. Dyera costulata and Dipterocarpus costulatus were dominated and co-dominated at T5, respectively. Thus, the species exhibit local dominance. These data revealed that T1 represented Elateriospermum-Intsia community; T2, Koompassia-Pentaspadon community; T3, Xanthophyllum-Koompassia community; T4, Shorea-Koompassia community; and T5, Dyera-Dipterocarpus community. Two tree species, i.e., Alphonsea elliptica and Syzygium sp., are common on all transects.
3.3. Species diversity
The five transect lines yielded a total of 448 stems and 198 species of trees ≥ 10 cm DBH. These species represent 116 genera and 44 families (Appendix). The number of species and individual varied from 50 to 64 species and 63 to 102 individuals per transect of 100 m × 20 m size, respectively. Table 3 shows the summary statistics for various indices of diversity, richness and evenness. It is generally recognized that the area and environmental heterogeneity have strong effects on species diversity (Rosenzweig, 1995; Whitmore, 1998; Waide et al., 1999). The Shannon-Weiner index (H’) was used to compare species diversity between transects. The H’ for T1−T5 were 3.42, 3.91, 3.97, 3.84 and 3.91, respectively, indicating that among transects, T3 was the most complex in species diversity whereas T1 is the simplest community in terms of species composition. The Shannon-Weiner diversity index (range between 3.42 – 3.91) obtained for trees more than 10 cm DBH in this study was lower than those recorded in the tropical rainforests of Barroo Colorado Island, Panama [4.8](Knight, 1975) and Silent Valley, India [4.89](Singh et al., 1981). In a more recent study in Shenzen, China, Wang et al. (2006) recorded a lower range of Shannon-Weiner index (i.e., 1.92 – 3.10) for trees ≥ 2 cm DBH in a subtropical forest. However, a comparison of diversity indices obtained in the present study with the ones above is difficult due to vast differences in the area sampled, plot size, and the standard diameter class taken.
Similar patterns were found for species richness, which was computed using Margalef index of species richness (SR) and the number of equally common species (N1). The SR ranged from 10.81 to 3.97 and the N1 ranged from 30.72 to 53.11. Whittaker index of evenness (Ew) ranged from 16.04 to 44.60, the highest value was recorded at T4 and the lowest at T1. In the present study, Simpson’s diversity (D) was not a very sensitive indicator of diversity as four of five sites (T2 − T5) had somewhat similar values. Whittaker index of β-diversity (βW) was used to compare habitat heterogeneity within a transect. The βW value was the highest for T4 (4.46) and the lowest for T1 (3.51). Further analysis indicated that the number of species per individual had a direct positive influence on β-diversity (Figure 2). According to Condit et al. (1998), species richness is positively associated with species abundance. This relationship suggests that large population is less prone to extinction than small ones (Preston, 1962). Based on the relationship between abundance and diversity, habitats supporting larger numbers of individuals can support more populations and more species than habitat supporting small number of individuals.
3.4. Similarity between transects
The similarity based on Bray-Curtis index (CN) was calculated between the pair of transects, and abundance similarity matrix was constructed (Table 4). The Bray-Curtis similarity index was used because it is often a satisfactory coefficient for biological data on community structure (Clarke and Warwick, 1994). Comparison of CN values among the five transects data indicates that the species composition of T1 was fairly different from those of the other four sites. T3 had a high species similarity to T4 and T5, and T4 had a high species similarity to T5. T2 was similar to some degree to T4 and T5.
3.5. Family-wise distribution
A total of 44 tree families were encountered in the forest of Kuala Keniam (Figure 3). The maximum number of tree species belongs to the family of Euphorbiaceae which accounts for 23.9% of the total individuals encountered in the study site. Elateriospermum tapos is the most widely occurring species from this family. Other trees from this family such as Macaranga lowii, Mallotus leucodermis and Pimelodendron griffithianum are among the important part of floristic composition in the study area. The other dominant families are Myristicaceae, Burseraceae, and Leguminosae which account for 8.3%, 5.4% and 4.5% of the total individual encountered in the study site, respectively. The fifth most dominant family is Myrtaceae with 4.2%. Earlier study also indicated that Euphorbiaceae was the dominant family in Sungkai forest with 27% of tree species belong to this family (Suratman et al., 2007). Two other studies conducted in India for tree species also support the fact that Euphorbiaceae is the dominant family in Bay Islands (Dagar and Singh, 1999) and Andaman Islands (Padalia et al., 2004). The dominant plant family in Neotropical lowland forests and Africa is Leguminosae (Gentry, 1988) and in Southeast Asia the dominants are Dipterocarpaceae (Richards, 1952; Whitmore, 1998).
3.6. Diameter class distribution
The stand structure of lowland rainforests of Kuala Keniam forest was studied based on the distribution of tree diameter class. The diameter distribution of trees is very variable and some forests have large numbers of trees of 40 – 60 cm DBH (Richards, 1952). In this study, the distribution of trees clearly displays the characteristic of De iocourt’s factor procedure (inverse J distribution) where stems frequencies decrease with the increase in DBH (Figure 4). This generally indicates that stands are developing and regeneration in the forest is present. Natural regeneration is dependent on the availability of mother trees, fruiting pattern and favourable conditions. As shown in the figure, the presence of growth of the forest is indicated by the movement of trees in various diameter classes. Higher number of stems for smaller diameter classes, with 36% of trees fell within the 10 – 14.9 cm, 19% fell within 15 – 19.9 cm, 16% fell within 20 – 24.9 cm, 9% fell within 25 – 29.9 cm and 4% fell within 30 – 34.9 cm. The histogram shows a less or an absent number of stems in diameter classes from 79.9 cm onwards. Under natural conditions, an old, big emergent tree may fall down and create gap. Forest regeneration via natural succession will take place if the area is not too far away from mature primary forest trees serving as source for the recalcitrant seeds.
The forests of Kuala Keniam are protected primary forests which comprises of natural vegetation and are dictated by a combination of biotic and abiotic factors like topography, altitude, geology, climatic etc. as well as historical conditions of geology and climate. The density and size distribution of trees contribute to the structural pattern characteristics of the forest. The study indicated that the forests of Kuala Keniam are characterized by a uniform distribution of individuals with mixed species composition, and the sites are represented by different combinations of the dominants and co-dominant species. The distribution of trees displays the characteristic of De iocourt’s factor procedure (inverse J distribution) where stems frequencies decrease with the increase in DBH, indicating stable populations in which regeneration of forest in this area is present.
List of species, family and the relative basal area of Kuala Keniam forest | <urn:uuid:04488457-d6e3-494c-b21e-11cf368a9940> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.intechopen.com/books/biodiversity-enrichment-in-a-diverse-world/tree-species-diversity-and-forest-stand-structure-of-pahang-national-park-malaysia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925237 | 5,214 | 3.671875 | 4 |
Artist’s rendering of Fort Christina as seen from
out in the river downstream at about 1654. It is
based on Lindeström’s map. This was about a year
before the Dutch invasion.
The wedding of Johan Anderson Stålkofta and
Christina Carlsdaughter probably took place in the
big red house inside the fort about one year after
the Dutch invasion.
Watercolor painting by Roslyn Etheridge Stallcup, 2008
Prints of the painting and note cards featuring this artwork are available
at the New Sweden Centre Museum at the Kalmar Nyckle Shipyard in
is where young Johan Anderson von Strängnäs, at about age thirteen, landed
in the New Sweden Colony in 1641 after a five months voyage from Sweden
aboard the ship
He was to live the rest of his life in or near this fort. At one point he
even owned the fort and all of the land surrounding it.
The Stalcop family is an
The Stalcop family originated in America. The founder of the family
came to America, alone, as a young boy. He married in America and
all of his children were born in America. His children adopted his
original, uniquely formed, nickname as their own American surname
more than forty years after his arrival.
The Stalcop family is a single-family unit. All lineal members of
the family are directly related to every other lineal member of the
family. This is because every Stalcop, regardless of how they spell
the name, can trace their lineage directly back to the founder and
his wife, the parents of all Stalcops everywhere.
The Stalcop surname has never existed in Europe.
The surname ‘Stalcop’ has no meaning. It is simply the phonetically
spelled equivalent of the sound of our founder's nickname as it
passed from his original language through Dutch on into English.
Since there are no European families with the Stalcop surname it
follows that there can be no other person entering this country at
any time whatsoever to confuse the family lineage. There is no
coat-of-arms, no kings, knights, barons counts or earls, and no
family crest. These things, quite simply, have never existed in the
Stalcop family. On the other hand it ensures that the Stalcop family
is truly an All-American, single-family unit.
In late 1640 a young Swedish boy took a job to become a tobacco
farmer in a far off land in the colony of New Sweden. Five years
after his 1641 arrival in the New Sweden colony this farm boy became
a soldier in the service of The South Company, and therefore Queen
Christina of Sweden. His name was Johan Andersson från Strängnäs or
John, the son of Anders from Strängnäs, Sweden. His nickname, first
appearing in the records in 1648 some two years after he became a
soldier was Stålkofta [pronounced “Stalcop”], the STEELCOAT.
The Stalcop Family surname clearly originated from Johan Andersson's
nickname which itself is composed of two Swedish words; 'stål' or
ståhl', meaning 'steel', and 'kofta', meaning 'jacket' or 'short
coat'. The name is usually translated as ‘the steelcoat’.
In Sweden a “stålkofta” was the name applied to an overshirt made of
chain mail; that is, made of small interlocking steel rings. Chain
mail was hand made, ring-by-ring, to fit the owner and therefore it
was nearly prohibitively expensive. Contrary to what is seen in
movies very few examples of it were made.
stålkofta from the period
The early records of
Johan Andersson, alias 'Stålkofta', are foggy at best.
There are several reasons for this. One is that most of the
surviving records are scattered, both in America and in Europe and
are written in several languages; Dutch, Swedish, Latin and English
and even a few in German. Some of these may never have been
translated. The main reason, however, is that there were more than
one person in the colony with the same name. At least two were Dutch
and perhaps as many as seven were Swedish or Finnish.
It is clear the 'lad' or 'boy' onboard the ship CHARITAS when it
arrived in 1641 was from Strängnäs and had been hired by Mans Kling,
an agent for the Swedish Government, to be a farm hand. The
passenger list for the CHARITAS includes 35 people. Following the
name of Johan Andersson is this notation;
shall have a salary of 10 R.D. a year and he received 10 D.
Copper money on departing."
There are at least two
additional sources of positive information on the matter. One is "Rulle
der Völcker So in New Schweden den 1 Marty Anno 1648", the 1648
Roll List of the South Company. This is a listing of all adult male
inhabitants of New Sweden as of March 1, 1648, listed in the order
of their arrival. The roll list has this to say:
Andersson, ist von dito Klingh in Anno 1641 vor ein Knecht zum
ackerbaw angenomen, und her nach zum Solldaten verordnet."
first hired by Måns Kling in 1641 to serve as a farm hand, and he
later became a soldier.
The second source is "Monat Gelder Buch". This was Governor
Printz's monthly account book. This book lists the people, including
soldiers, in the employ of Printz during his tenure as governor. The
Monat Gelder Buch, or monthly account book has a continuous record
of our him and includes this final entry for him:
Anderson von Strengnis Soldat, Anno 1646 prima October
biss 1653 prima Septemb."
Johan Anderson from
Strängnäs served as a soldier from 1 October 1646, to 1 September
1653. This account book consistently refers to our ancestor as "Johan
Anderson from Strängnäs".
Now we have a nearly continuous record of Johan Andersson
Stålkofta from his hiring as a young lad in Strängnäs, Sweden,
until his death.
Johan Andersson joined the military detachment of the colony
in 1646, serving alongside an older Johan Andersson, Soldat,
This is probably the reason he adopted his nickname. The military
detachment was tiny by today’s standards so there had to be some way
to distinguish between the two men. Two years later (1648) when the
older Johan Andersson, Soldat, left the colony and returned
to Sweden the use of the nickname for our Johan Andersson had
become so prevalent that it was continued even after the reason for
its use had been removed.
His Stålkofta, steeljacket or steelcoat, nickname must have
been a reference to plate armor worn by our ancestor. Armor had all
but disappeared by this time. It was heavy, uncomfortable,
cumbersome and largely ineffective against weapons of the day.
Certain military men, however, found it useful to continue to use a
portion of such armor. These were the men who fired cannons. The
armor protected them from the powder flash when these heavy guns
were fired. Gunners often developed the habit of wearing this
particular piece of armor most of the time. It is probable the
wearing of breastplate armor by our Johan Andersson is the
basis for his Stålkofta, or "The steelcoat" nickname. He was
trained as a Gunner. The English from Jamestown in Virginia imported
plate armor in large quantities as a trade item for the Indians. It
is probably that Johan Andersson obtained it from one of the
In 1651 the Dutch under Peter Stuyvesant sent a fleet of eleven
ships, all armed but four of the ships being warships they were very
heavily armed and each carrying soldiers, down the Atlantic coast
and back up the South River past Fort Elfsborg, past Fort Christina
and Tinicum Island to Fort Nassau. Stuyvesant marched overland at
the head of a column of another120 men to meet the ships at Fort
Nassau. The fleet loaded the additional men then about a week after
sailing up the river sailed back down the river past Tinicum and
Fort Christina with flags, banners and streamers flying, drummers
beating at the rails and a continuous booming of salutes being fired
from the guns of all ships. All accounts say it was quite a loud and
colorful spectacle. It made several back and forth circuits up and
down the river. It is sometimes known as the Dutch Water Circus.
Stuyvesant needed an excuse to justify an invasion and military
occupation of the New Sweden territory. He was trying to provoke
Governor Printz into committing a military clash by firing on the
Governor Printz was taken by surprise when the Dutch fleet sailed
northward on its way to Fort Nassau. He immediately called all of
his men to Tinicum including the garrisons of forts Christina,
Korsham and Elfsborg. When the Dutch fleet sailed back down the
river about a week later it had all of its colorful flags flying and
making all of that noise Printz loaded his entire military force,
about thirty men, into his little yacht rigged vessel and trailed
the Dutch fleet at a discreet distance. Our Johan Andersson
Stålkofta, without doubt, was one of the thirty men riding on
the yacht with Governor Printz.
When this initial enticement scheme failed to provoke an attack
Stuyvesant proceeded with the next step in his plan of provocation.
The Dutch landed and erected a fort at Sandhucken (Sand Hook); the
spot were the town of New Castle now stands.
This new fort, Fort Cassimir, was only five miles south of Fort
Christina. Upon completion Stuyvesant sent nine of the ships and the
soldiers back to New Amsterdam. He left two ships on guard to patrol
and disrupt Swedish boat traffic on the river until winter set in.
He also left men to garrison the new fort. Fort Cassimir, rather
than the Dutch fleet, now became the bait in Stuyvesant’s trap.
Fort Cassimir and the patrolling Dutch ships cut direct
communications between Fort Christina and Fort Elfsborg, fifteen
miles down river and over on the opposite (east) shore. Printz was
force to abandon Fort Elfsborg. He sent a working party overland to
prepare the fort for abandonment. This included hiding the guns so
the Dutch could not find them. After hiding the guns he abandoned
the fort by simply not sending the garrison back to reactivate it.
All of these problems apparently became more than Printz could
stand. Printz had been promised to be relieved as Governor after
three years service. He had been Governor of New Sweden for nine
years with little or no support from the homeland. In September 1653
Printz resigned his post as Governor and returned to Sweden.
Because of illness Printz was confined to a sick bed in the
Netherlands. Future Governor Risingh sailed past without the two
seeing each other. After the ship Örnen (Eagle) entered the South
River it anchored for the night off the abandoned Fort Elfsborg. The
next morning Risingh disregarded all of his orders and in direct
violation of those orders he assumed complete military command. This
act against his direct orders must be considered as a coup.
Risingh then ordered the captain of the ship to sail the Örnen up to
the Dutch fort, anchor it directly under the fort’s guns, and fire a
salute. The Dutch did not return the salute nor fire on the ship.
Next Risingh ordered Captain Swen Skute ashore to demand the
surrender of the fort claiming it was standing on Swedish ground.
The Dutch commander delayed longer than Risingh thought necessary so
he fired a second salute and landed three files of musketeers, about
30 men, and deployed them in preparation for storming the fort.
Seeing Risingh do this the Dutch commander surrendered the fort
without a struggle. The muskets of seven of his nine soldiers were
with the gunsmith being repaired and the Dutch fort had not been
supplied with sufficient gunpowder or any 12-pound cannonballs to
fire from its dozen cannons.
These foolish acts by Risingh proved to be the trigger that sprang
the trap Stuyvesant had set with his loud and colorful water circus
and fort building project of 1651. Risingh gave the Dutch the very
excuse they needed to justify the total conquest of New Sweden.
About three months after the capture of Fort Cassimir Stuyvesant
sent a letter to Risingh informing him that the Dutch intended to
come to the South River and reclaim the entirety of New Sweden. This
letter set the stage for a dramatic event in the life of Johan
Anderson Stålkofta during the Dutch invasion of 1655.
Johan Andersson held a specific title as a military officer,
that of Constaple or Gunnery Sergeant.
1653, when preparations were on foot for the sending of a new
expedition to New Sweden, a tentative budget was made. The
salaries and wages of the officers........and fifty soldiers
were estimated at 3,722 R.D. A budget was also drawn up for
one hundred and fifty lanspeople, skilled workmen and
peasants, with wages amounting to 1,200 R.D. This list was
completed before the sailing of the HAJ and when Hook and
Elswick arrived in the colony, the staff of military officers
with their salaries was as follows: . . . . .
. . . . .Constaple, Johan Andersson Stålkofta, 144D. .
He was the eighth person
named on a list of just fifteen people beginning with the Director,
Johan Rising. The title of “Constaple”, means that he had been
promoted. His salary had been dramatically increased as well.
Risingh had been ordered to keep a Journal during his tenure as
Governor. Our ancestor is mentioned in it quite often.
In the meanwhile the Swedes were planning to build a small town near
Fort Christina. This was to be called Christinaham or simply
Christina. Stålkofta was heavily involved in the undertaking.
summer and autumn of 1654 provisions were made for carrying
out certain paragraphs of the instructions and memorials
regarding the internal affairs of the colony. Towards the end
of July several new appointments were made, the gunner, Johan
Stalkofta, being commissioned to 'prepare material and planks
for the buildings that were to be erected from time to time."
"In the autumn the lots were more accurately measured off and
plans were projected for the building of a town 'since there
was very little room in the fortress.' Several men were
appointed to 'cut pine timber on the eastern bank' of the
Delaware almost opposite Tinicum Island, under the direction
of Johan Stalkofta 'and later they brought a little timber
raft to Fort Christina."
Peter Stuyvesant and the
Dutch set about quietly to assemble a tremendous military force. A
number of the Swedish settlers, on business in New Amsterdam, had
observed these military preparations. They told Governor Risingh
what they had seen.
Finally the Dutch felt they were ready to return and take control of
New Sweden and the South River for good. In August 1655 Stuyvesant
set sail from Manhattan with between 300 and 350 soldiers plus about
an equal number of sailors in seven armed ships, with one being a
heavily armed warship. This force was smaller than the 1651 water
circus but was still on the order of ten times the size of the
military forces of Governor Risingh and the Swedes.
The Indians informed Risingh about the departure of the Dutch
expedition as soon as it sailed. Acting on this information Risingh
made another of his strange decisions. He split his forces and sent
Lt. Swen Skute with men to activate Fort Trinity. Johan Stalkofta
was among the officers sent with Swen Skute. He is listed as fourth
in command. The force totaled about 37 men, including Freemen
At this moment the men of Fort Trinity, including the commander,
Captain Swen Skute, had no idea of the overwhelming size of the
Dutch force being hurled at them. Risingh did not tell them.
Contrary to some assumptions the fleet probably was not actually
sighted from Fort Trinity until it rounded the last bend in the
river early in the morning of August 31, 1655. In about twenty
minutes or less the Dutch ships began passing the fort. They were
riding the current of an inbound tide.
Skute’s orders were specific about when he should fire on the Dutch
and the circumstances did not match his orders. Faced with the
overwhelming size of the Dutch force and the dangerous timber fort
Captain Skute knew it would be instant suicide for all of his men if
he did. He went out and met with Stuyvesant and after an overnight
delay they agreed to a surrender. During the night Skute receive an
order from Risingh telling him to surrender if the situation was
hopeless. Suddenly and dramatically, on the morning of September 1,
1655, Johan Anderson Stålkofta found himself captured by
Peter Stuyvesant and the Dutch. Commandant Swen Skute and his
officers, including our Stålkofta, were placed under arrest
and held in Fort Cassimir. The rest of the soldiers were put aboard
a Dutch ship and sent to New Amsterdam. Governor Risingh surrendered
the whole of the New Sweden Colony at Fort Christina two weeks
Christina Carlsdotter arrived on the last ship sent from Sweden in
support of the Colony. Due to the slow speed of communications the
ship arrived about six months after the Colony had already fallen.
She married Johan Anderson Stålkofta about six months after
she arrived in New Sweden. Their wedding marked the beginning of the
Stalcop Family in America.
of 1656, six months after the surrender of the Colony, Jean Paul Jacquet,
Dutch commander at Fort Cassimir sent a letter to Peter Stuyvesant
reporting the arrival of the ship Mercurius with 130
passengers and asked for instructions. The Mercurius had
sailed from Sweden before news of the loss of the Colony was
received. The English trader, Isaac Allerton, carried the letter to
New Amsterdam along with a letter from Johan Papegoja, the commander
of the passengers who ask Stuyvesant for permission to land the
passengers and cargo. The two letters arrived on March 18 and
prompted an emergency meeting of Stuyvesant’s Council. The Council
sent orders that the Mercurius
should be sent back to Sweden without leaving any passengers or
cargo on the South [now the Delaware] River.
Huygen traveled overland to New Amsterdam and made a plea to change
the Council's mind. Arriving on April 1, he urged Stuyvesant to
allow the passengers to join the colonists but the Council still
refused. The ship and all of its passengers and cargo must leave the
South River promptly. Huygen thereupon agreed that he would
personally order the Mercurius to sail to New Amsterdam with
all of its passengers and cargo and gave his personal bond to remain
in Manhattan until the ship arrived.
consulted were the local native Indians, the Lanape, later called
the Delaware Indians by the English. Papegoja wrote, “we decided to
set sail for Manhattan. But as soon as the savages or Indians
observed this they collected speedily in great numbers, came down to
us and reminded us of the former friendship and love which they had
for us Swedes, above all other nations, and said that they would
destroy and exterminate both Swedes and Hollanders, unless we
remained and traded as in the past. Then all our Swedes, who feared
the savages, came to us also and protested strongly against us
leaving, saying that we would be the cause of their destruction if
we departed.” Papegoja
ordered the ship to turn around and sail upriver. The passengers,
with their belongings, landed at Tinicum Island.
One of the
passengers, Anders Bengtsson, later wrote, “the Dutch forbade the
ship to travel up the river, would have ignominiously sent it back,
if the heathens (who loved the Swedes) had not gathered together,
went on board, and defiantly brought it up past the [Dutch] fort.”
“some mishap” between the Dutch and the Swedes or Indians reached
New Amsterdam by April 28. Stuyvesant dispatched soldiers overland
to the South River to determine what had happened to the
Mercurius. Five days later Andreas Hudden returned to Manhattan
from Fort Cassimir carrying a report from Jacquet regarding the
behavior of the Swedes and Indians on the South River. The report
said the Mercurius, contrary to orders, had sailed up above
Fort Cassimir to Tinicum Island and had landed passengers there.
From the accounts of witnesses, the Council found that the incident
was “caused by the obstruction of some Swedes and Finns, joined by
some savages, coming on board with Papegoja and remaining on board
in a large number until the said ship had passed Fort Casimir,” and
that “some of the principal men of the Swedes were at the bottom of
it and that also most of the other Swedes, who had taken the oath of
loyalty [to Stuyvesant], had been stirred up or misled.” The Council
absolved the captain and crew of the Mercurius and Hendrick
Huygen from any responsibility for this disobedience. It should be
noted that the Indians hated the Dutch and the Dutch in turn feared
the Indians. It was decided that Hendrick Huygen and Stuyvesant's
own representatives should promptly go to the South River and
negotiate a peaceful settlement.
turn-around. The settlement agreement is not on record but the
contents can be inferred. The Mercurius passengers were
permitted to remain. Huygen was permitted to trade the ship's cargo
for a return cargo of tobacco; the Mercurius would have safe
passage. On July 1 Huygen agreed to pay 750 guilders as duty for the
cargo on the Mercurius, by then anchored at New Amsterdam,
and the ship sailed with its cargo of tobacco arriving back in
Sweden September 6. The agreement also called for the establishment
of a quasi-independent “Swedish Nation”, subject to oversight by the
Dutch, having its own court, its own militia and its own churches,
with jurisdiction over the area north of the Christina River.
4, the officials of the new “Swedish Nation” appeared at Fort
Cassimir to be sworn in. The first appointments were Gregorius van
Dyck as sheriff; Olof Petersson Stille, Mats Hansson
(from Borgå, Finland), Peter Larsson Cock and Peter Gunnarsson Rambo
as magistrates; Sven Skute as captain of the militia; Anders Larsson
Dalbo as lieutenant; and Jacob Svensson as ensign.
passengers arriving on the Mercurius was Carl Jönsson
who departed Sweden with his wife, three daughters and a maid. He
eventually settled at Marcus Hook about 1663 where he lived for
twenty years. He apparently moved over on the east side of the river
about 1683. The last discovered record of him was when he witnessed
the will of Timen Stiddem on February 1, 1694/5. His daughters
included Christina Carlsdaughter, soon to be the wife of Johan
Andersson Stålkofta. Carl Jönsson left no male heirs.
Christina’s late arrival had profound influences. It created both
the Swedish Nation and the Stalcop Family. Two moments in this
episode could have easily prevented either event entirely. Had the
news of the loss of the Colony arrived in Sweden a little sooner the
Mercurius probably would not have sailed and the Swedish
Nation would never have come into being. Had the ship been forced to
sail away without landing the passengers then Christina
Carlsdaughter and Johan Andersson Stålkofta probably would never
have met and begin the Stalcop Family.
JOHAN ANDERSSON STÅLKOFTA’S SIGNATURE DISCOVERED
The New York State Archives made recently digital
images of two very important documents available to Larry Stallcup.
One is an extremely important artifact to the Stalcop family.
The first is a report to Peter Stuyvesant’s Council in New
Amsterdam (New York) concerning events and conditions in the
Swedish Nation, also known as the Colony of The Company. This was
the former Colony of New Sweden. The Vice-Director, Willem
Beeckman, wrote the report. It served to forward a request for a
patent (deed) for a gristmill and is written in Dutch. The
petition it forwarded also is also written in Dutch and was likely
written out by a notary. A translation of the petition is found in
book, New York Historical Manuscripts-Dutch, as document 19:28 and
is shown below. The forwarding letter, in NYHM-Dutch, is document
19:27. It contains the background of the mill request.
Document 19:27, the forwarding report, has been abridged and only
the last two paragraphs are shown translated here.
|The reference to
the Company is the Dutch West India Company. They operated the
Dutch New Netherlands Company headquartered at New Amsterdam (New
York). The reference to “sewant” is to Native American money. It
was long strings or belts of beads made from Guahog clamshells. It
is probably better known today as “wampum”. The Dutch mile used
here was approximately 5.8 kilometers or about 3 statue miles. The
old Swedish mill was located about 18 miles north from Fort Altena
(formally Fort Christina). This was about a days walk in both
directions. Much quicker trip by boat. The horse mill in New
Amstel, now New Castle, Delaware, was about 5 miles south of Fort
Altena. The horse mill to the south was under the control of the
Colony of the City. At times there was very little cooperation
between the two Dutch Colonies. The ½ hour walking time up
Shellpot Creek bank to the new mill probably indicated a distance
of about one mile, especially since the Brandywine Creek had to be
crossed at the start. Probably all of the trip to the new mill
could be made by small boat.
|This petition is
extremely important to the Stalcop Family. Not only does it
document a business adventure of the primogenitor, it also
contains his signature, written by his own hand in May of 1662. It
is the only known surviving example of his signature. It is not
known exactly when the three partners signed the petition but it
was most like sometime between May 1st and May 10th, 1662.
|Notice that he
used the Dutch spelling, “Staelcop”, rather than the Swedish
spelling, “Stålkofta”, when signing. He probably did that to match
how his name was spelled in the body of the petition. But he used
“Johan” rather than the Dutch “Jan” for his given name.
These two documents also define the first known privately owned
commercial business venture within the former New Sweden Colony
begun by Swedish colonist. The three partners did not operate the
mill themselves but had a hired employee working for them.
The mill petition document is by far the oldest known artifact,
May of 1662, of the Stalcop family. Johan Andersson Stålkofta/Staelcop/Stalcop,
the very first Stalcop, held this document in his hands when he
affixed his signature to it.
The Will Of Johan Anderson Stalcop
This Will was written on May 24, 1679 soon after the wedding of Johan
Anderson and Christina Carlsdotter’s oldest daughter to Lylof STIDDEM. The
name of the daughter has never been discovered.
This is the copy recorded in the New Castle County, DE Will books. The
original document has not survived. The original was written by Foppen
Jansen Outhout, a Hollander who first came to the Delaware as a member of
the Dutch invasion force in 1655. He operated a tavern in New Castle.
Later he was called Fop Johnson and he
could read and write in English. English law required all court documents
be written in English. The spelling of names, therefore, has a decided
Dutch cast to them. This has led to a lot of misinterpretations. Of
special note is that neighbor Samuel Peterson, father-in-law to Pietter
Stallcop, signed the Will as a witness.
It is believed John Anderson Stalcop died about July 1685. The Will was
submitted for probate about a year later on July 20, 1686.
PAGE FROM CHURCH
TRANSCRIBED WILL OF JOHN STALCOP
of the will of John Stalcop found in the archives files of Old
Swedes Church (1). Original transcription made
by Ann Lee S. Bugbee, Curator HOLY TRINITY (OLD SWEDES) CHURCH, 606
CHURCH STREET, WILMINGTON, DELAWARE 19801
Transcribed from the will in as faithful a rendering as possible.
Parts difficult to read are bracketed, or where a name is
incorrectly spelled. Other spellings such as their for there and
heirs as heyres have been transcribed as written.
In the name of God, Amen. I, John Stalcop,
of Christina Creke in the counties of New Castle, being weak of
Bodie but of sound and perfect memorie, blessed be the Lord for the
same to make this my last will and Testament as followeth
Imprimis I do freely give and surrender my mortal soul into the
Hands of the Lord God everlasting that gave me Life and being in
this fading and transitory world faithfully hoping and believing
that through the merits of his dear son my only Lord and Saviour
Christ Jesus to find merit with him and. forgiveness for all my sins
for that he laid down his Life and shed his precious blood for the
Redemption of poor man and being in perfect Charitie with all men as
to my outward Estate it hath pleased the Lord to bestow upon me I do
give and bequeath as followeth
I give and bequeath my bodie to the grave to be decently interred by
do give and bequeath unto my dear and loving wife all my Lands,
Howings Ordhards, clear land and meadow withh all and singular the
Appurtinaces during her widowhood but if it so happens that she
marries again then my will is that she have and possess from thence
forward duering her naturall Life only the best Roum in the dwelling
House and one third part of my Lands with the Appurtinaces.
I do give and bequeath to my two sons Jonas Stalcop and Israell
Stalcopp all my Lands, Houses, Orchards, Gardings, Meadows with all
and singular the Apputinaces in the Countie of New Castle after the
Decease of my wife then (m) and their heyre (heirs) for ever to be
equally divided between them and if in case my wife marrie again my
will is that from thenceforward my two sons receive two third parts
of the profit and produce of all my Lands and Appurtaines thereunto
do give and bequeath unto my dear and loving wife one half of all my
goods, Chattells and personal Estate my Debts first paid and funeral
expenses discharged to her own disposing all the rest of my Goods
undisposed of I give and bequeath to my fouer children Jonas Israell
Mary and Christina to be equally divided among them.
My will is that whereas I have given and bequeathed all my land to
my two sons Jonas and Israell that they pay to each of my daughters
Mary Stalcop and Christina Stalcop
Fifty pounds apiece at the age of one Twenty years or when they
marrie may first happen . . . . . . (Line)( Lieu)(i.e. in lieu) of
there share or part of the Land, and if in case it so happen that
either of my two daughters, Mary Stalcop or Christina Stalcop, die
before they attain to the age of Twenty one years or be married that
my sons Jonas and Israell Stalcop pay in consideration of the land
above specified one Hundred pounds to the survivor and if in the
case it so happen that my two sons fail to make the payment of the
Hundred pounds to my two Daighters or the survivor of them have and
enjoy so much of my Land and pemises as may by good omen be thought
and deemed the value thereof to them and their heyres for ever or
until such Time as my sons or either of them make good payments
thereof according to the true intent and meaning hereof.
Lastly my will is that my loving wife and Ericus Bircke (Biorck) the
minister and my trusty friend have the sole care and disposal of my
children during there minorities and I do hareby ordain and appoint
my wife and trusty friend Ericus Bircke minister my sole executrix
and executor of this my last will and Testament and for the more
full confirmation hereof I have herein set my Hand and Seal this
first Day of july Anno Dom 1700
I do hereby
certifie that the within and the above is a true copy compared with
the original given under my hand at New Castle this twenty second
day of March Anno Dom 1735
(1) This original will document was found in a box of Holy Trinity
Church records marked Charles Springer records. There is no
indication of why and how Charles Springer came to have the will in
his possession. According the staff of the Delaware State Archives
in Dover, DL the original will was submitted to the registrar who’s
job it was copy it over into the county will books. After copying
the original document was given back to the person presenting it.
It was Ann Lee S. Bugbee’s opinion that the document was written in
the hand of Charles Springer. She had many other Charles Springer
documents to compare it with.
This will is NOT recorded in the New Castle County will books either
in 1700 when John Stalcop
died or in March, 1735 as noted by the certification of William
The Will Of
This is the copy recorded
in the New Castle County, DE Will books. The original document has
not survived. This Will is believed to have been written by Charles
Springer and possible was submitted to the Court by Springer. This
copy bears his distinctive signature which could only happen if
Springer was present when the will was copied over into the Will
Books. This Will was written on September 3, 1709. Pietter Stallcop
died just two days later on September 5, 1709. His Will was
submitted for probate seven months later on April 10, 1710.
April 19, 1686 d- March 16, 1720 Falun, Sweden
Daughter of Pietter Stalcop and Catherine Samuelsdaughter
Rev. Erik Björk
1712 Portrait by Gustav Hesselius
Gift to Holy Trinity
Church in 1714, Taken to Sweden. Restored 2002. Now on display Delaware
Historical Museum, Wilmington. DE
See The Faces of
Hans Ling, Swedish Colonial Society, Library of Congress 2004114138,
Maria Stalcop’s Journey to Sweden
By Edward Smith*
Maria Stalcop, the youngest daughter of Pietter Stalcop and
Catherine Peterson and the granddaughter of Johan Anderson Stalcop
was married to Johan Van de Veer on the 14th of January 1714. Johan,
whose name soon evolved to “John Vandever“, was from a large,
prominent Dutch family that lived on the north side of Brandywine
Creek, across from the holdings of the Stalcop family. John was
about 25 years old and Maria was 17 years old when they married.
Maria’s sister, Christina, who was eleven years older than Maria,
had married Erik Björk, the Pastor of Holy Trinity Church in 1702
and had already borne him 6 children.
Maria’s brother-in-law, Pastor Erik Björk, was promoted within the
Church in 1712 and directed to return to Sweden. Christina was
apparently somewhat distraught with this turn of events since she
had been born and raised in Delaware and was reluctant to make the
long journey with her young children. She expressed her concern and
later a family friend wrote that she felt it “strange and difficult”
that she must leave “her place of birth and fatherland” and be so
separated from her relatives and friends “---without hope of ever
seeing them again in this life, especially since she was the first
woman to make such a long and difficult journey”. However, women
were generally subservient to the wishes of their husbands in those
days and Christina soon accepted the situation for what it was so
preparations were made for the departure.
It was determined that the party of travelers would consist of Erik,
Christina and their three daughters, Magdalena, Christina and
Catherine and their son, Tobias. Their son Peter and daughter Maria
had died. Also accompanying the travelers would be Maria and
Christina’s cousin, Anna Stidham, the daughter of Luloff Stidham and
Christina Stalcop, the widow of Anders Stalcop who had married
Luloff after Anders death. Anna had lived with the Björks as their
foster child after the death of her parents. The return journey to
Sweden also included a man named Henrik Brunjahn whose function had
been to map and describe the area for the Swedish authorities and
last but not least, Maria Stalcop and her new husband of less than 6
months, John Vandever. There is no factual clue available to help in
determining the reasoning behind Maria’s accompaniment of her sister
on such a difficult journey, but it could have been as simple as to
give companionship and “peace and pleasure” to her sister.
After their protracted goodbyes in New Sweden, Erik Björk and his
party traveled overland to take care of the business of the church
in Philadelphia and then took a carriage to Maryland where they
sailed from America on 29 Jun 1714 aboard the sailing vessel Amity.
The Amity was a ship of 798 tons burden carrying four canons and had
been used as one of the first three ships carrying the Quakers of
William Penn to the area. At was a very sturdy ship. The exact point
of departure in Maryland has not been determined.
After stops in England, and an unscheduled stop at Marstrand, Sweden
caused by bad weather, the ship reached their destination,
Gothenburg, Sweden, on 2 Oct 1714. The Björk family stayed in
Gothenburg a month to rest up from the rigors of the journey and
then continued by horse and carriage for about 80 miles to Jesper
Svedberg’s home in Brunnsbo, the Episcopal residence, just outside
the city of Skara, Vastergotland, the religious center of Sweden
since ancient times. Jesper Svedberg had been Björk’s professor and
mentor in college and was now very highly placed in Swedish
government, religious and social circles.
Some of the Björk children were still sick from the sea journey, so
Björk continued alone on to the city of Falun, a distance of some
200 miles, and sent for them a little later. Erik was given a parish
consisting of three congregations plus an additional congregation
made up of miners working in the huge copper mine located there. The
family soon moved into the former Governors residence on main
street, as befit their rank in society. An educated guess leads one
to believe that Maria and John Vandever were with them all this time
and lived in the same residence, which was a compound consisting of
more than one building.
The activities and whereabouts of Maria and John are not known for
some period of time but they did produce a child, Catherine, who was
christened in Falun on 6 Nov 1715.
Pastor Björk had convinced the Mining Company to donate some gifts
to Holy Trinity Church in America consisting of a still existing
chalice with a paten and a host box of gilded silver. John Vandever
was selected to carry the gifts to America but he suddenly died
before this could happen. cThis fact suggests that John and Maria
had made plans to return to America before his death. After John’s
death Maria married Hans Jürgen Smidt, a hatmaker, on 3 Mar 1720 in
Falun, Sweden. Hans and Marie may have already made plans to go to
America before the marriage since Hans had written a will which he
signed on 15 Mar 1720 and gave to his sister Magdalena for proper
disposition. In this will he basically directs that everything he
might inherit from his father’s will, who had already died (but no
settlement had been made), and also any inheritance from his mothers
will, if she should die in his absence, to his sister, but with the
provision that he could make claim if he returned from America.
On 16 Mar 1720, the very next day after Hans had given his will to
his sister, Maria’s sister Christina suddenly died from
complications of her eleventh pregnancy! Given the state of
pre-natal care and obstetrics in those times, it was probably a
complete surprise when Christina died. This event surely disrupted
the plans of Maria and Hans to make their return trip!
Christina was buried in front of the alter in Christine Church, in
Falun. Erik Björk may have named the church in her honor and he
would be buried beside her when he died. She had been highly revered
by the people of Falun and was given an elaborate funeral on the
12th of April 1720. The funeral was conducted in Christine Church by
Anders Sandal who 18 years earlier had officiated at her marriage in
the Holy Trinity (Old Swedes) Church in Christina, New Sweden. Göta
Rudbeck, a relative of Erik Björk, gave a speech at the funeral and
said among other things:
“There is said to be a land some hundreds of miles from here,
situated westwards, about which I have heard much said, which is
called America. It should be especially loved because of its
fertility, for if what I have heard is true, then there is an
abundance of everything to find so that nothing is missing of that,
which is needed for peace and satisfaction of the mind and to feed
the body and satisfy its temporal needs. In this land she was born,
who now enters this chamber of death to rest her bones.”
Maria was surely in attendance at her sister’s funeral so she and
her new husband, and her daughter, Catherine Vandever, could not
have sailed from Sweden before that date. That she and Hans returned
to Delaware is first shown by the birth record of her first son,
Peter, who was born 12 Oct, 1720 and christened on the 14th of the
same month in Holy Trinity Church, Wilmington, Delaware the event
being duly recorded in the church records. Maria and Hans continued
to produce children on a regular basis having 6 more sons and a
daughter The last born child was named Maria who was born 25 Sep
1740 when her mother was 44 years old.
There are very few records mentioning Maria, who came to be recorded
as “Mary” in later life, but Hans Jürgen (George) Smidt left a
plethora of records during his time in Delaware as a hatter and a
The daughter of Maria and John Vandever, Catherine, returned to
America with her mother and step-father. She married Simon Johnson
from Cecil County, Maryland on 4 Nov 1738. I have not traced her
Maria and Hans Jürgen (George) Smidt’s children:
1. Peter Smith b: 12 OCT 1720 m. Elizabeth Van de Ver
2. John Smith b: 28 DEC 1722 m. Anna Springer
3. Tobias Smith b: 16 MAR 1723/24 m. Mary McDonald
4. FredErik Smith b: 19 SEP 1727 m. Margaret Paulson
5. Andreas Smith b: 14 JAN 1730/31 m. Sarah Gregg
6. Erik Smith b: 31 MAY 1734 m. Brigita Anderson
7. Jonas Smith b: 21 NOV 1737 m. Died young
8. Maria Smith b: 25 SEP 1740 m. Died as an infant.
* Edward Smith
is a direct descendant of Maria and Hans Jürgen (George) Smidt.
Burial Records 1713-65, Holy Trinity (Old Swedes) Church; translated
& edited by Courtland B. & Ruth L.
Springer; p. 199
"Burials in the Year 1753 (Third Book, p. 913) Dec 27 Hans Smidt,
born in Sweden, in Fahlun(sic) Town. Came here to this land in the
year 1720. Was the first ancestor of the Swedish family of Smidt on
the Christiana. Hatmaker. Died of consumption."
In the book "History of the Original Settlements on the Delaware" by
Ferris is a list of some of the oldest stones in the church yard.
Among them is the following:
|"In memory of Mary
Smidt. She was born ye 15th of March, 1697. She went to Sweden
in 1714, and returned in 1721. She departed this life ye 19th
of Nov'r, 1750."
Communicant Records, Third
Book, pg. 913 has the notation that Maria accompanied her
brother-in-law, Provost Björk to Sweden in 1714, was married at
Falun to Hatmaker Hans Smidt, and came back here with him in 1722.
Communicant Records, Second Book, pg 113 show that Hans Smith and
his wife, Maria, were here as early as Oct 1720, and that she was
buried Nov. 19, 1750 as Hans Smidt's wife aged 54 years 10 months.
NOTE: There is about a fourteen-month difference in the age of
Maria at her death between the Communicant Records and her
tombstone. Neither match her date of birth as determined by
baptismal records that falls between the two dates.
There are many large gaps in this record as we begin. These gaps will be
slowly filled in as
we travel along.
John Stalcop, son of Pietter (Peter) Stallcop[i] and Catherine
Samualsdotter, was born probably sometime in 1692. The exact date of
his birth has not been discovered. He likely was the third child of
his parents and born somewhere along Red Clay Creek where his father
had his home.
Nothing is known about his early life but he likely spent it mostly
on his fathers land and in and around his father’s businesses. Peter
owned extensive lands along Red Clay Creek and maintained a farm.
Peter also had a number of water-powered mills, both grist and saw
mills, along Red Clay Creek. A large portion of the land was
probably used to supply raw materials for the mills.
When John’s father died in 1709 he was about seventeen years old. He
received 300 acres of land and also his father’s house upon the
death or remarriage of his mother under terms of his fathers Will.
His mother remarried to Lucas Stedham. It is reasonable to think
that he raised his own family there. His father’s Will also charged
him with helping his brother Andrew with building a home.
Probably sometime in 1711 John Stalcop married Maria Morton,
daughter of Mathias Morton and Anna Gustafsson. Their first child
was born in 1712. Maria Morton was a cousin to John Morton, a signer
of the Declaration of Independence from Pennsylvania. They had a
family of ten children.
On August 28, 1714 there was a general perish meeting of the
congregation of Holy Trinity (Old Swedes) Church. During this
“Christian Joransson and John Stalcop were elected a church watch to
keep good order and propriety both within and without the church
during God’s service.”
Part of their duties as the church watch were described as
“Whenever any one shall be cited before the Church Council it shall
be the duty of either of the designated church watchmen to arrest
him and bring him forward and do whatever else time and
circumstances may render Necessary and proper.” [ii]
During 1715 to 1717 the parsonage of Holy Trinity (Old Swedes)
Church was being built.[iii] At different times members of the
congregation donated materials, time and labor to this project.
Careful records of each such contribution were kept. On August 16,
1715 John Stalcop worked a full day on the well and in 1717 he
helped raise the frame of the kitchen of the parsonage.
On May 7, 1717 the first school in the vicinity of Wilmington got
its start at a congregational meeting of Holy Trinity (Old Swedes).
The new Pastor or Provost, Rev Hesselius, brother to the portrait
painter that created the portrait of John’s sister Christina, wife
of Pastor Björk, transcribed the minutes of the meeting
“The Provost represented the necessity of setting up regular Swedish
school . . . They all seemed to think well of the project, provided
they could agree upon the school place. They thereupon named three
places around which most of the children were to be found. Viz: with
Mr. Springer, John Stalcop and Christiern Brunburg.”
On June 17, 1717 the children were sent to Johan Gustafsson’s [iv]
“. . . the pastor . . . . examined the children as to their
proficiency and then recommended them to Mr. Gioding [the teacher],
the names of which children are here inserted: . . . [no] 7. Peter
Stalcop, Johansson’s son, 5 years old, knows the letters. [no] 8.
Margaretta, the late Peter Stalcop’s daughter, 11 years old, reads
Swedish indifferently well, but must learn to spell anew. . . . “
The Swedish school apparently was a rotating proposition for the
next year it was at John Stalcop’s house. On April 8, 1719:
“The Pastor met with Mr. Gioding and all the scholars in the house
of Johan Stalcop in the presence of most of the parents of the
children, to have a formal closing of the past school keeping.”
In 1724 John Stalcop sold some land located on the east side of Red
Clay Creek to Jonathan Evens. This was the father of Charles Evens,
son-in-law of John Stalcop, who married Ann or Annika, his daughter.
Charles and Ann Stalcop Evens were the parents of the famous
inventor, Oliver Evens.
Apparently John Stalcop and Pastor Samuel Hessellius did not get
along well together. This was probably because the Pastor before
Hessellius was Erik Biörk, John Stalcop’s brother-in-law. Biörk was
well liked by most members of the parish. When he had to leave and
return to Sweden in 1712 it cause quite a stir. Biörk delayed and at
one point even challenged Hessellius’ right to take his place. When
Biörk was finally ordered to end the delay and return to Sweden in
1714 many parish members were reluctant to see him go. For John
Stalcop it likely meant that he might not ever see two of his
sisters, Christina and Maria [v], ever again.
Apparently this situation did not improve with the passage of time.
Finally in 1729 certain members of the parish tried to have
Hessellius removed. They made accusations against him to his
superiors in Sweden. In a letter of September 1, 1729 Hessellius
defended himself. In part he said:
“ . . . Indeed, I have some suspicion too of Mr. Biörk’s brother(s)-in-law.
Hans Smith the hatter, and John Stalcop. who are not the best of
men, and have made themselves my greatest enemies . . . . they are
both very poor writers and weak men, and cannot be credited . . . “
On January 21, 1738 John Stalcop gave seven shillings and six pence
toward payment of the church ground rents (taxes).
In 1744 there was still a controversy over clear title to the glebe
lands. It must have involved the entire Stalcop family because the
Church obtained a release for the land from all male members of the
family including John Stalcop even though it was the land of his
uncle, John Stalcop, and not his father, Pietter Stallcop, that
originally had title to the land.
In 1745 John Stalcop was elected an Assistant Burgess. [vi]
John Stalcop wrote out his Will on October 1, 1748. He stated that
he was he was very sick in body yet he much have recovered to some
extent for he lived for another three years. He died in June 1751
and was buried in the graveyard of Holy Trinity (Old Swedes) Church.
[i] Pietter used the
STALLCOP spelling. Some branches of his descendants still use that
spelling, mostly his descendants currently residing in the State of
[ii] The U S Constitution stripped judicial powers away from all
churches. Church councils could still cite members but they had no
power to punish except for dismissal.
[iii] Although long planned it was never built during Rev. Björk’s
time. Björk made his home at Pietter Stallcop’s home living in an
addition that was added onto the main house. After he was recalled
to Sweden it was apparent that a dedicated parsonage for the new
minister had to be provided. Because of the high risk if fire
kitchens were often in separate buildings away from the main
[iv] The English had great difficulty pronouncing and spelling this
name. Eventually it evolved phonetically into ‘Justice’. John
Stalcop’s wife Maria was the daughter of Annika Justice (Gustafsson)
and Mathias Morton. Johan Gustafsson was Maria’s grandfather.
[v] His sister Christina died in Sweden in 1720. Maria returned to
the New Sweden community very soon after the death of her sister.
[vi] A person with municipal authority or privileges, in particular,
a magistrate or member of the governing body of a town.
Will of JOHN
This will has been transcribed as faithfully
as possible from the Will Book copy of New
Castle County, Delaware. Spelling,
capalitation and punctuation are as in the
original. Alphabetic characters no longer in
use have been rendered into their nearest
present day form. Larry S. Stallcup
In The Name of God Amen I John Stalcop of
Christina hundred in the County of New
Castle upon Dellaware Yeoman; being weak in
Body but of sound memory (Blessed be God) do
this first day of October in the year of our
Lord one thousand seven hundred Forty Eight,
Make & Publish this my Last will & Testament
in manner following (that is to say).
Imp. that I will & order all my just debts &
funeral Charges be paid out of my Moveable
Estate Item I will and bequeath to my wife
Mary Stalcop all my Moveable Goods &
Chattels to be under her management &
command during her Widdowhood, but when she
shall Marry; then I will & order the
overpluss thereof above her lawfull thirds
thereof to be equally devided among my Sons
John & Andrew Stalcop and my daughter Ann
Evens. Item I will & bequeath unto my Son
Peter Stalcop all that Land & Plantation o^n
which he now dwells containing about one
hundred & forty Acres to hold to him his
heirs & assigns forever which bequest on the
Express Condition that he shall pay unto my
son Emick Stalcop the sum of thirty Pounds
Pensylvania money at five years after my
desease and A Like sum of thirty pounds of
like money to my Son [Isreal] Stalcop at
five years after my desease. Item, I will &
bequeath to my Son Matthias Stalcop the sum
of five shillings, Item I will & bequeath to
my son Emick Stalcop one lott of ground
whic[h] be in Newport near the Creek to hold
to him his heirs and assigns for Ever, above
& Ye Bequest above.; Item, I will & bequeath
to my Son Isreal Stalcop more than is to him
above Bequeathed one Lott of ground Sit-uated
in or about Ye middle of Newport, also about
Seven Acres of Marsh behind Newport on
express Condition that he pay to my Daughter
Ann Evens the sum of fifteen pounds of like
money above sd at two years after my desease;
to hold sd Lott & Marsh to him his heirs &
Assigns for ever Item; I do bequeath to my
son Andrew Stalcop all the Land & Plantation
with the Improvements thereon on which I now
dwell containing one hundred and Sixth Acres
more or less on Express Condition that he
pay to my Son John Stalcop the Sum of fifty
pounds like money aboved at three years
after Andrew arrive to Ye Age of twenty one
years, to hold to him his heirs & assigns
for ever _______
Item; I bequeath to my son John Stalcop the
s^d sum of fifty pounds to be paid him by my
Son Andrew as above Conditioned.
And I make ordain & Constitute my wife Mary
Stalcop & my son Peter Stalcop Joynt
Executors of this my last will in [test ?]
for the Intents & Impres[ :es] in this my
Will contained. In Witness whereof I the sd
John Stalcop have to this my last Will &
Testament set my hand and Seal the day and
year above written x x x ----------
Signed, Sealed, Published and
Delivered by Ye sd
as and for his Last will & Testamt
in presents of us - -
Hans G. Sikmuz (?)
Castle II Hanse G. Sikmuz & Garret Farretson
Oaths do say that they were present & saw
Testor John Stalcop sign & Execute the
Instrument of writing & declared it to be
his last will
& Testament he being then of sound mind
understanding & that they together with John
Gillahan give Evidence to ye same as
hand this first day July 1951.
The Stalcop family took part in the mass exodus of
New Sweden families prior to the beginning of the
Revolutionary War. We will generally be moving
along with the members of the family that went
toward the South and passed through North
Carolina. The seventh and eighth generations were
the first to move into the Smoky Mountains.
THE SECOND PETER STALCOP
The second Peter Stalcop in our
line was born in New Castle County, Delaware sometime in 1712. The
actual date has not been discovered. He was the oldest child of ten
children of John and Mary (Maria) Morton Stalcop and the
great-grandson of Johan Andersson Stålkofta. He is the fourth
generation ancestor in our direct Stalcop family line.
There was a community effort to
establish a school. When Peter was age five a school was finally set
up so he was included in the first class. It was held at Johan Gustafason’s home and classes began on June 17, 1717. All of the
students were gathered there but before classes began each student
was examined by the Pastor of the church and then turned over to the
teacher, Johan Andersson Gioding. The Pastor’s record says:
“Peter Stalcop, Johansson’s
son, 5 years old, knows the letters.”
Without doubt Peter was also in
attendance the next school year, 1718, when the classes were held in
his father’s house. There seems to be no record yet found of how far
Peter’s schooling advanced. The traditional standards were that
education ceased at about age twelve for ordinary folks. Only the
clergy, nobility and royalty received higher education.
At the age of 25 Peter married
Susanna Paulson, the daughter of Olof and Elizabeth Anderson
Colsbury Paulson, in Holy Trinity (Old Swedes) Church on December
15, 1737. Susanna was born in late March of 1716 and Baptized April
14, 1716 at the age of three week.
The next record found is a little
over one month after the wedding. Peter contributed five shillings
to the ground rents for the church. His contribution was on January
Peter and Susanna had their first
child, a son, born on April 22, 1739. He was baptized and christened
Johan on April 29, 1739. Their second child, a son, was born on May
27, 1741. He was baptized and christened William on June 27, 1741.
Their third child, a son, was born on August 1, 1743 baptized and
christened Tobias on August 5, 1743.
Peter and Susanna had two children
that, for whatever reasons now unknown, were apparently not baptized
and christened in Holy Trinity (Old Swedes) Church. At least there
is no record of their births in the Church records books. One was a
son named Swithin, born probably sometime about 1747, and the other
a daughter named Rachel, born August 1, 1749.
Their next child, a daughter, was
born on June 11, 1750. She was baptized and christened Lady on July
19, 1750. Later her name became Lydia.
Peter’s father, John Stalcop, died
in 1751. He named Peter as one of the executors of his estate. Peter
inherited 140 acres of land in Christina Hundred from his father as
his share. He and his family were already living on this land so a
house must have been included in the inheritance.
Peter and Susanna had a third
daughter born to them on August 10, 1754. She was baptized and
christened Susannah on September 22, 1754.
Peter and Susanna’s last child, a
son, was born on January 21, 1757. He was baptized and christened
Peter on May 5, 1757. This son is often confused with his nephew,
about six years younger and the son of his brother William Stalcop.
The two boys live on the same farm for a number of years in Orange
County, North Carolina.
Peter is recorded as having died
on July 19, 1768 in Christina Hundred, New Castle County, DE. He did
not leave a will.
All five sons and at least one
daughter of Peter and Susanna Paulson Stalcop migrated to Orange
County, North Carolina. Their daughter Rachel married Isaac Brackin
in Holy Trinity (Old Swedes) Church on August 31, 1769. Theirs is
among the last Stalcop weddings performed there. The Brackins also
migrated to Orange County, North Carolina. Daughter Susannah is
reported to have married James Roney, Jr. and moved to the
Philadelphia area. No record of Lydia is known.
There is no farther record of
Susanna Paulson Stalcop. She disappears from Delaware records and
there has been no record found of her remarrying or of her death. It
seems likely that she moved into Orange County, NC. as a member of
one of her children’s households.
THE GRAND EXODUS
In the late 1760’s there
was a near abandonment of the former New Sweden Colony territory by
all of the early Swedish, Dutch and even a few English families.
There were many reasons but several were pressing. All of the
families were farmers. To be a farmer you have to have sufficient
land to be able to raise crops. After five generations of population
growth the available land had been fragmented into smaller and
smaller plots to the point where it was no long possible to raise
enough food to feed growing families. Piled on top of this was a
massive influx of emigrants into the area. There was a switch in
primary language from Swedish to English and the Swedish ministers
had been withdrawn from the Swedish churches.
All of these things contributed to the Grand Exodus. The families of
the former New Sweden settlers were split during the exodus,
including the Stalcop family. Some of them headed to Ohio and some
to North Carolina.
Soon after the death of Peter Stalcop in Wilmington his son William
sold off the Stalcop family holdings in the area and the family,
plus a most of their neighbors, left the area. There is some
suggestion that the Stalcop family may have been planning the move
before Peter’s death. It appears that two of the Stalcop brothers,
John and Tobias, had become an advanced scouting team. John appears
to have moved his family into Loudon County, Virginia just across
the Potomac River, and Tobias his family into Fredrick County,
Maryland. They may have made brief reconnaissance trips into North
Carolina. At the time both Virginia and North Carolina were offering
free land to anyone who would settle in their territories.
Fredrick Maryland had become perhaps the first of the jumping off
points for wagon trains heading out to settle new territories. There
were two main migration trails from Frederick. One ran westward to
the Pittsburg area and then down the Ohio River. The land Virginia
was offering was mostly in what is now eastern Ohio. The trail
our branch of the Stalcop family, and a number of their neighbors,
took ran south from Frederick toward what is now Richmond, Virginia,
well east of the mountains. From there it continued on south and
took them into Orange County in north central North Carolina.
The Conestoga wagon,
popular for migration, was built in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania.
It was the primary overland cargo vehicle until the development of
the railroad. A team of up to eight horses or up to a dozen oxen
pulled the wagon. People often banded together in long trains of
wagons for mutual support and safety.
The Conestoga wagon was built with its floor curved upward to
prevent the contents from tipping and shifting. The seams and cracks
in the body of the wagon were plied with tar to prevent leaking
while crossing rivers. The body often had outward leaning
sides and ends to resemble a boat shape to aid in crossing over
water. It could carry up to 12,000 pounds of cargo. A heavy canvas
cover for protection against bad weather was stretched across the
top of the wagon on bent wooden ribs. The wagon
frame and suspension were made of wood, while the wheels were
ironrimmed. Water barrels, toolboxes and a feedbox were built
onto the sides of the wagons.
It is likely that the several Stalcop families traveled in Conestoga
built wagons during their migration into North Carolina. A number of
their neighbor families probably also used Conestoga wagons. It has
been estimated that the Stalcop family used four wagons as mobile
living quarters and perhaps four more were used to haul their
belongings during the migration trip. All in all it was quite a long
wagon train. Single file the Stalcop family alone would stretch out
about a quarter of a mile.
THE FIRST WILLIAM STALCOP
The first William Stalcop in
our line, sometime spelled Stalcup, was born in New Castle County,
Delaware, May 27, 1741. He was the second son of Peter and Susannah
Paulson Stalcop, and the fifth generation ancestor in our direct
Stalcop family line. William grew up at a time of great change in
his community. After five generations in one community William led
the second major migration journey in our branch of the Stalcop
There had been a massive influx of new settlers of various
nationalities into the former New Sweden Colony area. The Swedish
community, as a cohesive unit, was quickly becoming Americanized. At
the community’s request the Swedish Lutheran Church had withdrawn
its Swedish-speaking ministers because fewer and fewer people spoke
The switch in languages,
marriages outside of the pure Swedish lines plus remoteness from the
parent Swedish society, were additional forces pulling the community
apart but by far the major force facing the community was the
approaching Revolutionary War. A tremendous amount of political and
religious strife abounded in the area. Neither the Stalcop family,
nor any of the former New Sweden families, had any control or
influence in these events. The many families that had played such a
large part in the development of the entire Delaware Valley area
suddenly found themselves strangers in their own community. Their
way of life was being overwhelmed and submerged by unfamiliar and
out of their control influences.
The very large increase in
population into the area also meant there was a decrease in
available land. The vast majority of the Stalcop family members were
farmers. Their community was being squeezed into smaller and smaller
plots of land scattered here and there over the original New Sweden
territory. It was more difficult for each generation to raise enough
food or even to keep in contact with each other.
Virginia in form of the
Northwest Territories (later Ohio) and North Carolina were offering
free land just for the settlement. These two areas of the country
appeared to provide the same opportunity as had the New Sweden
Colony itself generations earlier. They now had the chance to move
into an entirely new land and start fresh.
Not only did William and his
family leave the former New Sweden territory but virtually the
entire Stalcop family, plus a significant majority of all other
original New Sweden families abandoned the Delaware valley area at
nearly the same time. They split into two large groups. One group
headed for the Northwest Territories, the Ohio River Valley, and the
other group headed south into the central plain of North Carolina.
This became a great exodus of nearly all of the original New Sweden
families away from the New Sweden Colony area.
William and his brothers choose
to head south into what is now central North Carolina. They settled
first in Orange County.
Shortly after William’s father,
Peter Stalcop, died in Wilmington, 1768, William closed out his
father's estate, plus his own including the sale of all of the
property the family owned in and around Wilmington. All members of
his immediate family including all four of his brothers; John,
Tobias, Swithin [Swen] and Peter, and at least one of his aunts,
Rachel, who had married Isaac Brackin, along with their own
families, migrated south into North Carolina. The families of these
five brothers were later to become known as the "Carolina" branch of
the Stalcop family. It has been estimated that nearly one-half of
all present day Stalcop's can trace their lineage through these five
It is not known if William’s
mother, Susanna Paulson Stalcop, made the trip but it seems logical
that she would have moved with all of children and grandchildren.
She disappears from Delaware records and there has been no record
found of her marrying again. There is no record of her death.
That trip must have been quite
an adventure. There were enough of them that they probably made up
their own wagon train. The trail first ran westward through
Lancaster and York in southern Pennsylvania before dipping south
toward Frederick, Maryland. There is some indication that the
families may have paused in southern Maryland or northern Virginia
for a while, perhaps using the area as a rendezvous point, before
heading on to North Carolina, probably in late 1769 or early spring
From Frederick the trail ran
south through mid-Virginia toward Petersburg. Continuing on south
the trail debauched into the central plain of North Carolina. The
entire journey was made in what was then the far western frontier
wilderness of America. It was almost entirely on land occupied and
defended by Indians and populated by a large variety of wild
Orange County North Carolina
encompassed a very large part of the north central part of North
Carolina when the family arrived so the exact spot where they first
stopped is not known for sure. William soon purchased about 320
acres on Stony Creek near the mouth of Jordon Creek. The later sale
of most of this land gives us a description but not the original
date it was purchased.
William and his family lived in
Orange County apparently some thirteen to fourteen years. Most of
the family then packed up and move yet again. This 1783 trip was
probably more difficult and likely more exciting than the earlier
migration. A good deal of it followed the Wilderness Road or the
Daniel Boone Trail.
From Orange County they went west and then
northward and crossed the western tip of Virginia, through the
Cumberland Gap and on over to Barren River in Kentucky. From there
the families turned due south and went into the Goose Creek area of
Davidson County, NC. Today this is Trousdale County, Tennessee.
William purchased a
Revolutionary War Bounty Warrant from a man named William Robb. It
is No.173 and is for 357 acres of land on Goose Creek. Robb signed
over his Warrant to William Stalcop in 1783 without filling in the
day and month. The NC Secretary of State order for the survey to be
conducted in William’s name is dated October 23, 1783. The survey
apparently was finally conducted three years later, October 21,
1786. The track is slightly rectangular with boundaries running
north/south, east/west, and with the creek running east to west
This land was Indian Territory
but the North Carolina Legislature just appropriated it and declared
it open for settlement. Probably it was intend to provide land to
satisfy all of the NC Revolutionary War land bounty warrants.
Earlier treaty agreements did not please all of the Indians so a
split developed. One group elected a war chief named Dragging Canoe
and changed their name to the Chickamaugas. Needless to say this
appropriation of their land did not please the Chickamaugas so they
began attacking the settlers.
Indian attacks continued in the
area until about 1800 but the area had changed. North Carolina,
which had extended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River,
was split into two parts. The western part was formed into the State
of Tennessee. When William moved westward he retained ownership of
his land in Orange County. His younger brothers, Peter and Swithin
apparently lived on William’s NC land from arrival but they were
either getting ready to move or they were moving because William was
selling the land. William and Margaret returned to Orange County and
arranged to sell approximately 300 of the approximately 320 acres to
Joseph Ming from Chowan County, NC, for six hundred silver Spanish
Milled Dollars. This sale took place on April 8, 1796. William says
he sold seventeen and a half acres of his original land to his son,
John Stalcup. This was on the south end of the track on the east
side of Stony Creek.
From various land transactions
we know that two of William’s son’s moved eastward out of Tennessee
back into North Carolina at least for a while. Son Peter moved to
Burke County, NC in 1794 and son John moved to Orange County, NC in
1796. We also know that William could write and signed his name to
various documents but Margaret Andersson Stalcop could not sign her
name. She made her mark on the documents. After the sale apparently
William and Margaret returned to their Tennessee home. They appear
to live quietly thereafter.
Works Projects Administration (WPA)
transcription of the
On November 22, 1815 William
wrote out his Will. In it he says that he is infirmed of body but
sound of mind and memory. It is a very simple Will that leaves a
legacy to his granddaughter Margaritt Stalcop without naming which
of his sons was her father. All of his property not disposed of he
leaves for his wife Margaret Andersson Stalcop during her life and
after her death anything remaining is to be divided equally between
his children. The problem is that he names eight of his children but
leaves out the names of three; Mary, Linda and George. William did
not sign the Will but rather made a mark. These anomalies may be a
sign of his infirmity.
William died about age 78 in
1819 and was buried in the Stalcop graveyard. He either did not have
a tombstone or it was somehow destroyed by time. Margaret Andersson
Stalcop lived on for another twenty years and died in 1839 at about
age 94. A large memorial stone for William and Margaret has since
been erected in their memory.
Will of WILLIAM STALCOP//STALCUP
|In the name of
God Amen. I William Stalcup
of the County of Smith and State of Tennessee
being infirmed of body but of sound mind & memory
do make this my Last will and Testament (Viz)
1st That my body be decently buried
2nd That all my just debts be paid
3rd. I give my Granddaughter Margaritt Stalcup
one negro Girl named Lix [Liz ?]
4 It is my will that all my property not otherwise
Disposed of in this my will be given to my beloved
wife Margaret Stalcup during her life and what remains
at her death be Equally divided between all my Children
(to wit) Peter Stalcup, Isaac Stalcup John Stalcup
William Stalcup, Caty Martin Peggy Ausburn [Osborn] Eli
Stalcup Samuel Stalcup
Lastly I appoint my wife Margaret Stalcup & John Bradly
the exectutors of this my will and Testament
Signed in the Presents of us this 22 nd day of November 1815
Test. John Shullow
William Stalcup S(eal)
Will of Swithin Stalcop
Sumner County, TN
WILLS Vol 1 pages 313 & 314
Transcribed by Larry S. Stallcup , August, 2008
The nuncupative will of Swen Stallcup who died on Saturday the 25
day of March in this year of our Lord One thousand and eight hundred
and twenty. We whose names are [undersigned] written being present
some little time before his decease, his desire appeared to be in
the following [vizest] to wit, He being as we believe full in his
seventies –-- Item the first that all his just debts Should be paid
after that being done –-- the balance or residue of his property
both real and personal should remain in the possession of his wife
Barbary Stallcopp during her natural life to raise and school their
children on and that at her death to be equally divided amongst them
all --- the foregoing being the substance of Said Swan Stallcups
request on his death bed --- given under our hands this 30th day of
March in the year 1820. Witness
Swithin Stalcop, often called Swan or Swen.
b- ca 1747 New Casle Co. DE
d- March 25, 1820 Sumner Co. TN
Note the several name spellings: “Stallcup”, “Stallcopp” and “Stallcups”.
Also “Swen” and “Swan”.
A nuncupative will is an oral or spoken will. The witnesses reduce
it to a written document and swear in court that what they wrote is
true and correct.
SHOWING PETER STALCOP’S
Originally in Washington Co. Now in Smyth Co.
Map partially showing 257
acres of land between the South and Middle forks of the
Holston River in southwest Virginia owned by Peter Stalcop (here
spelled Stolkup). It is
on the right hand side of the map. Joining the land on the south
side is tract “P”
owned by Joseph Cole, Jr., which spans the south fork of the Holston
indicates it was the location of a “Loves Mill”. There is an
indication that a road once
crossed the river near the mill. The Cole family and Peter’s family
Larry Spencer Stallcup
Peter Stalcop was born in Wilmington, Delaware, on January 21, 1757.
He was the youngest son of Peter and Susanna Paulson Stalcop and was
baptized in the Holy Trinity (Old Swedes) Church on May 3, 1757.
This Peter Stalcop is often confused with his younger nephew, the
oldest son of his brother William Stalcop. The nephew was six years
younger but both boys named Peter traveled to NC and lived on the
same Orange County, NC farm for a number of years.
Just before Peter reached the age of eleven his father died in
Wilmington. As soon as his father's estate was settled, including
the sale of all of the property the family owned in and around
Wilmington, nearly all of Peter's family, including all four of his
brothers; John, William, Tobias, and Swithin [Swen], and at least
one of his sisters, Rachel, who had married Dr. Isaac Brackin, left
the area. They went south into Orange County, NC. It has been
estimated that nearly one-half of all present day Stalcop's can
trace their lineage through these five brothers.
The exact reasons for so many of the early colonist families leaving
the Wilmington area are not fully known. A great deal of religious
and political strife abounded in the area. The Revolutionary War was
fast approaching. The Swedish Lutheran Churches no longer provided
Swedish-speaking ministers. Fewer and fewer families could speak
Swedish. There were probably many other reasons. Not only did young
Peter and his family leave but the entire Stalcop family, in toto,
plus nearly all of the other original families, both Swedish and
Dutch, abandoned the Wilmington area at about this same time.
Peter traveled as part of one of his older brother's families on the
migration into central North Carolina. It is not known if his
mother, Susanna Paulson Stalcop, made the trip but it seems logical
that if she were still living that she would have moved with her
children. She disappears from Delaware records at this time and
there has been no farther record found of her. There is no record of
That trip must have been quite an adventure for a young boy. The
trail first ran westward through Lancaster and York in southern
Pennsylvania before turning south toward Frederick, Maryland. From
Frederick the trail ran south well east of the Blue Ridge mountain
slopes through mid-Virginia toward Petersburg. The trail debauched
into the central plain of North Carolina. The entire journey was
made in what was then the far western frontier wilderness of the
country on land occupied and defended by Indians and populated by a
large variety of wild animals. Indeed, that trip must have been an
adventurous time for all.
Orange County encompassed a very large part of the north central
part of North Carolina when the family arrived so the exact spot
where they first stopped is not known for sure. Peter's older
brother, William, soon acquired land, 320 acres on the waters of
Jordan Creek, Orange County. This area is now in Alamance County.
Sometime about six years after arriving in Orange County Peter
married. His wife was named Mary but there is no surviving
indication as to her maiden name or exactly when the marriage took
place. The oldest child in the family, judging from later records,
appears to have been born about 1776. This tends to place the
marriage about 1775 when Peter was about age eighteen.
Peter lived on in Orange County, NC then moved his family to
Virginia about the year 1796 when his brother William sold the
Orange County, NC farm where he and his brother Swithin had been
living. He purchased land near St. Clair Bottom, an area in
Washington County (now in Smyth County), Virginia, along the middle
fork of the Holston River in the southwestern tip of Virginia. This
is beautiful rolling valley country between two mountain ridges. It
is ideally suited for farming. Tax records make it clear that Peter
was paying taxes on the land in Washington County from at least 1788
until his death. He does not appear on Virginia federal census
records until 1810. Peter and his family moved to Virginia in
company with the family of Swithin (Swen). The two families appear
to have lived on the same track of Virginia land for a short while
until Swithin moved on to Floyd County, Kentucky about 1797. The two
brothers had been close for forty years.
Peter obtained more Washington County land by purchase. He made a
purchase of a bounty warrant from a man named Robert Preston. This
warrant was for 100 acres. The land was then granted by Washington
County to Peter as Preston's "assignee". The dates on this land
grant have caused a lot of confusion. Because the land transfer was
by an original grant or patent, it is dated back to when the land
first set aside by the State of Virginia to pay the warrant holders;
i.e. back to 1796 in most instances. The next date quoted is when
the land was initially surveyed and these dates generally fall
between 1800 to 1802. A later deed for this first track when Peter
transferred ownership of it to his son John quotes a date of 1801
for the actual purchase.
Peter lived and raised his family along the banks of the Holston
River over the next forty years. He became a fairly large landowner,
successful farmer and businessman in the community. Since there was
no such thing as a banking system then successful people, or perhaps
wealthy people is a better description, filled that roll for the
community. Peter loaned money, at interest, to a large number of his
neighbors, friends and even his sons.
The 1810 Washington County census shows Peter with a wife, one son
and two daughters. The 1820 census shows Peter with a wife, one
daughter and a girl less than 10 years old. Peter was 63 years old
in 1820 and his wife must have been nearly his same age. This makes
it most unlikely the less than 10 years old girl on the 1820 census
could be Peter's child since his wife would be past her
child-bearing age. This means the child was most probably a
grandchild, a child of the daughter still living in Peter's
One of the daughters, Polly Stallcup, married Samuel Cole in
Washington County, Virginia, June 9, 1814. Polly had four Cole
children; Peter [named for Peter Stalcop], Joseph [named
for Samuel's father, Joseph Cole], Elizabeth and Remember, by
Samuel Cole before his death. The name, Remember, may have been a
tribute to the memory of Samuel Cole. Polly Stalcop Cole is reported
to be the same person as the Mary Stalcup Cole who married William
St. Clair in Washington County. Since she had four Cole children it
is unlikely that she is the daughter, with only one young daughter
of her own, living in Peter's household as shown on the 1820 federal
The only female heir reported to be a widow was Elizabeth, the widow
of Robert McBroom. She was the only one of the heirs represented on
the deeds and various other court proceedings relating to Peter's
estate by an attorney, William McBroom, brother to Robert McBroom.
Elizabeth Stalcop McBroom is the leading possibility to be the
daughter with a small child of her own living with Peter and Mary in
Peter died on May 11, 1827 apparently without making out a will. At
least no will was submitted to the court for probate. William
Stalcup was appointed by the Washington County court to be the
administrator to settle Peter's estate. The wording in a passage on
one of the estate documents makes it appear as if William clearly is
the son of Peter's wife, Mary, but creates some doubt that he is
Peter's natural son.
Peter's estate records clearly identify Mary Stalcup as his wife.
Exactly when and where Peter married her is not known. Peter's
marriage to Mary may have deteriorated into a very unhappy one. On
June 22, 1826, there was an agreement negotiated between William
Stalcup, on behalf of his mother, Mary, and Peter Stalcup. This
agreement called for semiannual annuity payments of ten dollars
each, twenty dollars a year, from Peter to Mary for the rest of her
natural life. Divorce in those days took at least an act of the
Virginia General Assembly if it were possible at all.
Most of the Stalcops were Lutheran. Lutheran marriages in North
Carolina and southwestern Virginia were mostly "underground"
affairs. Victory in the Revolution did not bring about instant
freedom of religion in all parts of the country. Local authorities
with leanings toward the Anglican Church often branded Lutheran
ministers were as outlaws on all sorts of trumped up charges. The
only records kept of most Lutheran marriages were in the diaries of
the itinerant ministers performing the marriage ceremonies and can
be found today only if the diary survived. If it were hard to get
married as a Lutheran it would be even harder to get a divorce
dissolving such an "underground" marriage. The annuity agreement may
have been an attempt to settle the fact of Mary’s estrangement from
Peter and may have been an early form of alimony. Peter did not live
long enough to make any of the payments to Mary. A due bill covering
the period up to June 22, 1829, three years plus interest, is
included in Peter's estate settlement record.
The 1830 Washington County census shows Mary 'Stolcop', aged 70 but
not yet 80 years old, living alone. She is listed as head of the
next household after William 'Stolcop' which indicates she lived in
the house next to William. If she were about the same age as Peter
when they married, and she probably was, then she would be about 72
or 73 years old in 1830.
On December 4, 1824, some two and a half years before his death,
Peter made out a deed to John Stalcup for the original track of land
he first purchased in Washington County. This deed was for 95 acres
(this track started out as 100 acres) at the nominal price of two
dollars. Two cents per acre was quite a bargain even for those
times. Just a few years later the rest of Peter's land fetched nine
dollars and acre and that sale was to and among his heirs. This sale
appears to be an advance bequest by Peter to his son, John. This
track almost assuredly contained Peter's dwelling house since the
house is never mentioned in his estate settlement.
Peter left a most unusual estate. It is surprising that Peter did
not make out a will. He seemed to document all of his business
transaction very well and judging from his advanced sale of land to
John Stalcop he seemed to be quite aware of the problems the
settlement of his estate might involve. From the almost hostile
nature of the estate settlement proceedings Peter seems to have been
justified in taking some advance precautions. A most unusual aspect
of his estate settlement is that there are no personal items
included. No jewelry, guns, tools, furniture, dishes, pewter or
clothing are mentioned. This indicates his house and all of his
personal items in it was located on the property he sold to his son
John and it all ceased to be part of his estate.
Aside from the 255 acres of land he still possessed at the time of
his death his estate consisted of the cash equivalent of
$1582.02-1/2. Considering 165 years of inflation this represents an
enormous fortune. With the exception of sixteen dollars in cash
received by the administrator back "from the heirs" the entire
estate consisted entirely of moneys due from loans made by Peter to
numerous people in the community and to various family members. This
also is very strange for it implies that Peter kept no cash reserves
whatsoever, a most unlikely situation. William Stalcup, the estate
administrator, owed Peter's estate nearly one-third of all of the
outstanding money but William included a bill of his own against the
estate claiming Peter had borrowed cash from him! When sold some
three years after his death Peter's land increased his estate value
There were outstanding debts charged against the estate of $924.64.
This included hefty administrators fees that eventually reached a
total of $129.76 collected by William Stalcup. William calculated
the fee by adding together the sum of the assets and the sum of the
outstanding debts of Peter's estate, ignoring the minus sign, and
then taking for himself five percent of the total. The inclusion of
such fees is highly unusual for an administrator who is also an
heir. This fee comes directly out of the portion of the estate which
otherwise would have been distributed to all the heirs on an equal
share basis. In effect William was enriching himself at the direct
expense of his brothers and sisters.
On June 18, 1831 there were two deeds made out disposing of the land
remaining in Peter's estate. One deed is for 25 acres and 60 poles
of land and was purchased by John Stalcup. The second deed was for
230 acres and was purchased by William Stalcup. Both sales were for
nine dollars per acre and both deeds identify the same nine people
as heirs of Peter. Six males were named; William, Isaac, Aaron,
Elias, Moses and John Stalcup. The three females named were;
Elizabeth Stalcup McBroom, widow of Robert McBroom, Mary (Polly)
Stalcup St. Clair, wife of William St. Clair, and Rachel Stalcup
Dungan, wife of George Dungan. It is interesting to note that the
moneys realized by the sale of the two parcels of Peter's land were
not included in with the "Balance due from the administrator to be
distributed among the heirs"
The widow, Mary Stalcup, received nothing from Peter's estate except
what was due her under the earlier annuity agreement. A copy of that
agreement is indicated as being filed with the Washington County
court as part of the estate record but it was not copied over into
the Will Book records. On July 25, 1831 William Stalcup was directed
by the Court to "retain in his hands and loan out, as much money as
will from the interest arising therefrom, pay the said annuity as it
comes due. Upwards of one-half of the net moneys remaining in
Peter's estate would have been necessary for this if it was paid out
of interest earned alone. This court order is the final record of
Peter's estate. There is no record indicating that William ever
distributed the money he retained to the rest of the heirs. Within
the estate records there is a six-dollar bill for Peter's coffin and
a bill for eleven dollar for tombstones. This second tombstone
almost had to be for Mary Stalcop. Peter's tombstone was still
standing in the graveyard of the Old St. Clair Bottom Primitive
Baptist Church in Smyth County, Virginia, in 1984 but there was no
stone standing for Mary Stalcup. The inscription on Peter's stone
departed this life
MAY 11th, 1827 Aged
About a decade later just about all members of this Peter Stalcop’s
family left Virginia and continued their migration, moving mostly to
has been transcribed as faithfully as possible from Deed Book 1, pages
444, Washington County, Virginia.
Copied by : Larry S. Stallcup, May 2, 1992.
(Spelling, punctuation and capitalization are as they are in the
This Indenture made the fourth day of
December in the year of Our Lord one thousand eight hundred and twenty
four between Peter Stalcup on the one part and John Stalcup of the other
part both of the county of Washington and state of Virginia
Witnesseth that the said Peter Stalcup for and
in consideration of the sum of two dollars the receipt whereof the said
Peter Stalcup doth hereby acknowledge. The said Peter Stalcup hath granted
bargained and Sold and by these presents doth grannt bargain and sell unto
the said John Stalcup and his heirs one certain tract or parcel of land
lying and being in Washington County on the ^waters of the middle fork of
holston river Containing Ninety five acres which track was granted to the
said Peter Stalcup by patent bearing date the fourteenth day of April in
the year of Our Lord 1801 and bounded as follows
Beginning at two white oaks corner to Tobias
Pickel and runneth with his line S. 46' E 78 poles to two white oaks on a
ridge N. 85' E 28 poles to a white oak and black oak on Arron Fairchilds
line and with the same N. 36' E 50 poles to a white oak corner to
Fairchild and Robert Gollehon and with Gellehons line N. 15' W 220 poles
to three white oaks corner to Gollehon and Stalcup S.17' W 207 poles to
the Beginning with all its appurtenances
To Have and to Hold
the said track or parcel of land with all its appurtenances unto the said
John Stalcup and his heirs forever and the said Peter Stalcup and his
heirs will forever warrant and defend the said tract or parcel of land
with its appurtenances unto the said John Stalcup and his heirs against
the claims of all persons whosoever In Witness
whereof the said Peter Stalcup hath hereunto subscribed his name and
affixed his seal the day and year first above written
Peter Stalcup L. S.
This Indenture of bargain and sale between Peter Stalcup of the one part
and John Stalcup of the other part was acknowledged in the Clerks office
of Washington County on this 19th day of April 1825 before David Campbell
Clerk of the said county by the said Peter Stalcup as his act and deed and
ordered to be recorded
D Campbell CWC
NOTE: This track of land
was acquired by Peter Stalcup during or after 1801 by right of purchase of
the Bounty Warrant rights of a Robert Preston. Peter Stalcup was Preston's
"assignee". Original warrant was intended to be 100 acres. Track was
originally surveyed October 17, 1796.
The following has been transcribed as faithfully as
possible from Deed Book 2, pages 57, Smyth County, Virginia.
Copied by : Larry S. Stallcup, May 2, 1992.
(Spelling, punctuation and capitalization are as they are in the
This Indenture made this first
day of June Eighteen hundred and thirty onne Between Arron Stalcup and
Mary his wife, Moses Stalcup and Ann his wife Isaac Stalcup and Nancy his
wife and Elias Stalcup and Rany his wife and William Stalcup and Ann his
wife and Elizabeth McBroom wife to Robert McBroom decd and William St
clair and Mary his wife and George Dungan and Rachel his wife heirs of
Peter Stalcup Sr decd of Washinton County State of Virginia of the one
part and John Stalcup heir of Peter Stalcup Deced of the County and State
aforesaid of the other part. Witnesseth that whereas the sd heirs of the
sd Peter Stalcup for and in consideration of the sum of 22 dollars and 25
cts each the receipt is hereby acknowledged in full hath granted bargained
and Sold and by these presents doth grant bargain and sell unto the sd
John Stalcup and his heirs a certain track or parcell of land in
Washington County and State aforesaid lying on the South Side of the
middle fork of Holston river containing Twenty five acres and 60 poles be
the same more or less and bounded as followeth to wit --- Beginning at a
Sower wood on a line between sd John Stalcup and sd Peter Stalcup thence N
8 W 108 1/2 poles to the head of a spring by a road thence N 70 E. 72
poles to Small black oak on a ridge thence S 22 W 133 poles to the
beginning with all its appertainences to have and to hold the sd track or
parcel of land with all its appertainences unto the sd John Stalcup and
his heirs to the sole use and [behaef] of him the sd John Stalcup and his
heirs forever and the sd Arron Stalcup and Mary his wife, Moses Stalcup
and Ann his wife Isaac Stalcup and Nancy his wife and Elias Stalcup and
Rany his wife and William Stalcup Ann his wife and Elizabeth McBroom wife
to Robert McBroom decd and William St Clair and Mary his wife and George
Dungan and Rachel his wife and their heirs will forever warrent and defend
the one ninth part each of the said track or parcell of land with all its
appertenances unto the sd John Stalcup and his heirs against the claims of
all persons whosoever in witness whereof the Said Arron Stalcup and Mary
his wife, Moses Stalcup and Ann his wife Isaac Stalcup and Nancy his wife
and Elias Stalcup and Rany his wife and William Stalcup and Ann his wife
and Elizabeth McBroom wife to Robert Macbroom deced and William St Clair
and Mary his wife and George Dungan and Rachel his wife, haft hereunto
Subscribed their names and affixed their seales this first of June
eighteen hundred and thirty one
Witnesses as to Moses Stalcup
Robert Beatre #
Abram B Trigg #
Joseph Newton #
° Isaac Stalcup seal °
° Elias Stalcup seal °
° William Sinclair seal °
° William Stalcup seal °
° George Dungan seal °
° Mary St Clair seal °
° Rany Stalcup seal °
° Rachel Stalcup seal °
° Ann Stalcup seal °
° Moses Stalcup seal °
° William McBroom seal ° | <urn:uuid:46560f14-c95a-4dae-aad5-261d75ade31d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.stalcopfamily.com/groupone.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965869 | 22,975 | 3.21875 | 3 |
(Heb. qinah), an elegy or dirge. The first example of this form of poetry is the lament of David over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. 1:17-27). It was a frequent accompaniment of mourning (Amos 8:10). In 2 Sam. 3:33, 34 is recorded David's lament over Abner. Prophecy sometimes took the form of a lament when it predicted calamity (Ezek. 27:2, 32; 28:12; 32:2, 16). | <urn:uuid:34cfde1f-9b4e-4dc3-9b33-bfd086a87993> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://legacy.biblegateway.com/resources/eastons-bible-dictionary/Lamentation | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00022-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.862022 | 109 | 2.921875 | 3 |
"Thirty years ago, a new spirit of inclusion and hope entered our public school classrooms"
November 29, 2005
Contacts: Jim Bradshaw|
U.S. Secretary of Education Margaret Spellings released the following statement on today's 30th anniversary of former President Gerald Ford signing on Nov. 29, 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, now known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
"Thirty years ago, a new spirit of inclusion and hope entered our public school classrooms with the passage of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Today it protects the rights and ensures educational access for more than six million students with disabilities.
"The same spirit of inclusion and hope infuses the No Child Left Behind Act. It is the first law to hold schools specifically accountable for making sure students with disabilities achieve high standards. It has placed their educational needs front and center and removed the final barrier to full participation.
"The laws are clearly working. A Department of Education study reports that the high school completion rate for students with disabilities improved 17 percentage points between 1987 and 2003, while their postsecondary participation rate more than doubled. And the Center on Education Policy, a public education advocacy organization, has found that students with disabilities are receiving more classroom time and attention under No Child Left Behind.
"President Bush and I remain committed to inclusion and reform. Last year's reauthorization of IDEA was designed to help schools meet the goals of NCLB. It provides intensive instruction and tutoring for students in schools in need of improvement, and focuses resources to make certain that children are not misidentified. It will help all students with disabilities become well-educated so they may lead productive and independent lives."
|Back to November 2005| | <urn:uuid:e99339d8-b9c3-42e4-8ad2-12aed50decd7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www2.ed.gov/news/pressreleases/2005/11/11292005.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00044-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950695 | 359 | 3.171875 | 3 |
|Click on the links below for recent updates, latest research on Tourette's, and current Tourette's information|
|• Recent Tourette's Research Findings & Announcements|
|• Tourette Syndrome Books, Videos, DVDs|
|• Tourette's Hall of Fame/Shame|
|• Tourette FAQ and Quotable Quotes|
|• Tourette's stories in the Media and on the Internet|
|• Explaining Tourette's to children or talking about Tourette syndrome in the classroom|
What is Tourette syndrome?
What are the symptoms?
What is the course of TS?
Can people with TS control their tics?
What causes TS?
What disorders are associated with TS?
How is TS diagnosed?
How is TS treated?
Is TS inherited?
What is the prognosis?
What is the best educational setting for children with TS?
What research is being done?
What is Tourette syndrome?
Tourette syndrome (TS) is a neurological disorder characterized by repetitive, stereotyped, involuntary movements and vocalizations called tics. The disorder is named for Dr. Georges Gilles de la Tourette, the pioneering French neurologist who in 1885 first described the condition in an 86-year-old French noblewoman.
The early symptoms of TS are almost always noticed first in childhood, with the average onset between the ages of 7 and 10 years. TS occurs in people from all ethnic groups; males are affected about three to four times more often than females. It is estimated that 200,000 Americans have the most severe form of TS, and as many as one in 100 exhibit milder and less complex symptoms such as chronic motor or vocal tics or transient tics of childhood. Although TS can be a chronic condition with symptoms lasting a lifetime, most people with the condition experience their worst symptoms in their early teens, with improvement occurring in the late teens and continuing into adulthood.
Tics are classified as either simple or complex. Simple motor tics are sudden, brief, repetitive movements that involve a limited number of muscle groups. Some of the more common simple tics include eye blinking and other vision irregularities, facial grimacing, shoulder shrugging, and head or shoulder jerking. Simple vocalizations might include repetitive throat-clearing, sniffing, or grunting sounds. Complex tics are distinct, coordinated patterns of movements involving several muscle groups. Complex motor tics might include facial grimacing combined with a head twist and a shoulder shrug. Other complex motor tics may actually appear purposeful, including sniffing or touching objects, hopping, jumping, bending, or twisting. Simple vocal tics may include throat-clearing, sniffing/snorting, grunting, or barking. More complex vocal tics include words or phrases. Perhaps the most dramatic and disabling tics include motor movements that result in self-harm such as punching oneself in the face or vocal tics including coprolalia (uttering swear words) or echolalia (repeating the words or phrases of others). Some tics are preceded by an urge or sensation in the affected muscle group, commonly called a premonitory urge. Some with TS will describe a need to complete a tic in a certain way or a certain number of times in order to relieve the urge or decrease the sensation.
Tics are often worse with excitement or anxiety and better during calm, focused activities. Certain physical experiences can trigger or worsen tics, for example tight collars may trigger neck tics, or hearing another person sniff or throat-clear may trigger similar sounds. Tics do not go away during sleep but are often significantly diminished.
Tics come and go over time, varying in type, frequency, location, and severity. The first symptoms usually occur in the head and neck area and may progress to include muscles of the trunk and extremities. Motor tics generally precede the development of vocal tics and simple tics often precede complex tics. Most patients experience peak tic severity before the mid-teen years with improvement for the majority of patients in the late teen years and early adulthood. Approximately 10 percent of those affected have a progressive or disabling course that lasts into adulthood.
Although the symptoms of TS are involuntary, some people can sometimes suppress, camouflage, or otherwise manage their tics in an effort to minimize their impact on functioning. However, people with TS often report a substantial buildup in tension when suppressing their tics to the point where they feel that the tic must be expressed. Tics in response to an environmental trigger can appear to be voluntary or purposeful but are not.
Many with TS experience additional neurobehavioral problems including inattention; hyperactivity and impulsivity (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder—ADHD) and related problems with reading, writing, and arithmetic; and obsessive-compulsive symptoms such as intrusive thoughts/worries and repetitive behaviors. For example, worries about dirt and germs may be associated with repetitive hand-washing, and concerns about bad things happening may be associated with ritualistic behaviors such as counting, repeating, or ordering and arranging. People with TS have also reported problems with depression or anxiety disorders, as well as other difficulties with living, that may or may not be directly related to TS. Given the range of potential complications, people with TS are best served by receiving medical care that provides a comprehensive treatment plan.
TS is a diagnosis that doctors make after verifying that the patient has had both motor and vocal tics for at least 1 year. The existence of other neurological or psychiatric conditions can also help doctors arrive at a diagnosis. These include childhood-onset involuntary movement disorders such as dystonia, or psychiatric disorders characterized by repetitive behaviors/movements (for example, stereotypic behaviors in autism and compulsive behaviors in obsessive-compulsive disorder — OCD). Common tics are not often misdiagnosed by knowledgeable clinicians. But atypical symptoms or atypical presentation (for example, onset of symptoms in adulthood) may require specific specialty expertise for diagnosis. There are no blood or laboratory tests needed for diagnosis, but neuroimaging studies, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computerized tomography (CT), and electroencephalogram (EEG) scans, or certain blood tests may be used to rule out other conditions that might be confused with TS.
It is not uncommon for patients to obtain a formal diagnosis of TS only after symptoms have been present for some time. The reasons for this are many. For families and physicians unfamiliar with TS, mild and even moderate tic symptoms may be considered inconsequential, part of a developmental phase, or the result of another condition. For example, parents may think that eye blinking is related to vision problems or that sniffing is related to seasonal allergies. Many patients are self-diagnosed after they, their parents, other relatives, or friends read or hear about TS from others.
Because tic symptoms do not often cause impairment, the majority of people with TS require no medication for tic suppression. However, effective medications are available for those whose symptoms interfere with functioning. Neuroleptics are the most consistently useful medications for tic suppression; a number are available but some are more effective than others (for example, haloperidol and pimozide). Unfortunately, there is no one medication that is helpful to all people with TS, nor does any medication completely eliminate symptoms. In addition, all medications have side effects. Most neuroleptic side effects can be managed by initiating treatment slowly and reducing the dose when side effects occur. The most common side effects of neuroleptics include sedation, weight gain, and cognitive dulling. Neurological side effects such as tremor, dystonic reactions (twisting movements or postures), parkinsonian-like symptoms, and other dyskinetic (involuntary) movements are less common and are readily managed with dose reduction. Discontinuing neuroleptics after long-term use must be done slowly to avoid rebound increases in tics and withdrawal dyskinesias. One form of withdrawal dyskinesia called tardive dykinesia is a movement disorder distinct from TS that may result from the chronic use of neuroleptics. The risk of this side effect can be reduced by using lower doses of neuroleptics for shorter periods of time.
Other medications may also be useful for reducing tic severity, but most have not been as extensively studied or shown to be as consistently useful as neuroleptics. Additional medications with demonstrated efficacy include alpha-adrenergic agonists such as clonidine and guanfacine. These medications are used primarily for hypertension but are also used in the treatment of tics. The most common side effect from these medications that precludes their use is sedation.
Effective medications are also available to treat some of the associated neurobehavioral disorders that can occur in patients with TS. Recent research shows that stimulant medications such as methylphenidate and dextroamphetamine can lessen ADHD symptoms in people with TS without causing tics to become more severe. However, the product labeling for stimulants currently contraindicates the use of these drugs in children with tics/TS and those with a family history of tics. Scientists hope that future studies will include a thorough discussion of the risks and benefits of stimulants in those with TS or a family history of TS and will clarify this issue. For obsessive-compulsive symptoms that significantly disrupt daily functioning, the serotonin reuptake inhibitors (clomipramine, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, paroxetine, and sertraline) have been proven effective in some patients.
Psychotherapy may also be helpful. Although psychological problems do not cause TS, such problems may result from TS. Psychotherapy can help the person with TS better cope with the disorder and deal with the secondary social and emotional problems that sometimes occur. More recently, specific behavioral treatments that include awareness training and competing response training, such as voluntarily moving in response to a premonitory urge, have shown effectiveness in small controlled trials. Larger and more definitive NIH-funded studies are underway.
Evidence from twin and family studies suggests that TS is an inherited disorder. Although early family studies suggested an autosomal dominant mode of inheritance (an autosomal dominant disorder is one in which only one copy of the defective gene, inherited from one parent, is necessary to produce the disorder), more recent studies suggest that the pattern of inheritance is much more complex. Although there may be a few genes with substantial effects, it is also possible that many genes with smaller effects and environmental factors may play a role in the development of TS. Genetic studies also suggest that some forms of ADHD and OCD are genetically related to TS, but there is less evidence for a genetic relationship between TS and other neurobehavioral problems that commonly co-occur with TS. It is important for families to understand that genetic predisposition may not necessarily result in full-blown TS; instead, it may express itself as a milder tic disorder or as obsessive-compulsive behaviors. It is also possible that the gene-carrying offspring will not develop any TS symptoms.
The sex of the person also plays an important role in TS gene expression. At-risk males are more likely to have tics and at-risk females are more likely to have obsessive-compulsive symptoms.
People with TS may have genetic risks for other neurobehavioral disorders such as depression or substance abuse. Genetic counseling of individuals with TS should include a full review of all potentially hereditary conditions in the family.
Although there is no cure for TS, the condition in many individuals improves in the late teens and early 20s. As a result, some may actually become symptom-free or no longer need medication for tic suppression. Although the disorder is generally lifelong and chronic, it is not a degenerative condition. Individuals with TS have a normal life expectancy. TS does not impair intelligence. Although tic symptoms tend to decrease with age, it is possible that neurobehavioral disorders such as depression, panic attacks, mood swings, and antisocial behaviors can persist and cause impairment in adult life.
Although students with TS often function well in the regular classroom, ADHD, learning disabilities, obsessive-compulsive symptoms, and frequent tics can greatly interfere with academic performance or social adjustment. After a comprehensive assessment, students should be placed in an educational setting that meets their individual needs. Students may require tutoring, smaller or special classes, and in some cases special schools.
All students with TS need a tolerant and compassionate setting that both encourages them to work to their full potential and is flexible enough to accommodate their special needs. This setting may include a private study area, exams outside the regular classroom, or even oral exams when the child's symptoms interfere with his or her ability to write. Untimed testing reduces stress for students with TS.
Within the Federal government, the leading supporter of research on TS and other neurological disorders is the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). The NINDS, a part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), is responsible for supporting and conducting research on the brain and central nervous system.
NINDS sponsors research on TS both in its laboratories
at the NIH and through grants to major medical institutions across the
country. The National Institute of Mental Health, the
Knowledge about TS comes from studies across a number of medical and scientific disciplines, including genetics, neuroimaging, neuropathology, clinical trials (medication and non-medication), epidemiology, neurophysiology, neuroimmunology, and descriptive/diagnostic clinical science.
Genetic studies. Currently, NIH-funded investigators are conducting a variety of large-scale genetic studies. Rapid advances in the technology of gene finding will allow for genome-wide screening approaches in TS, and finding a gene or genes for TS would be a major step toward understanding genetic risk factors. In addition, understanding the genetics of TS genes will strengthen clinical diagnosis, improve genetic counseling, lead to the clarification of pathophysiology, and provide clues for more effective therapies.
Neuroimaging studies. Within the past 5 years, advances in imaging technology and an increase in trained investigators have led to an increasing use of novel and powerful techniques to identify brain regions, circuitry, and neurochemical factors important in TS and related conditions.
Neuropathology. Within the past 5 years, there has been an increase in the number and quality of donated postmortem brains from TS patients available for research purposes. This increase, coupled with advances in neuropathological techniques, has led to initial findings with implications for neuroimaging studies and animal models of TS.
Clinical trials. A number of clinical trials in TS have recently been completed or are currently underway. These include studies of stimulant treatment of ADHD in TS and behavioral treatments for reducing tic severity in children and adults. Smaller trials of novel approaches to treatment such as dopamine agonist and GABAergic medications also show promise.
Epidemiology and clinical science. Careful epidemiological studies now estimate the prevalence of TS to be substantially higher than previously thought with a wider range of clinical severity. Furthermore, clinical studies are providing new findings regarding TS and co-existing conditions. These include subtyping studies of TS and OCD, an examination of the link between ADHD and learning problems in children with TS, a new appreciation of sensory tics, and the role of co-existing disorders in rage attacks. One of the most important and controversial areas of TS science involves the relationship between TS and autoimmune brain injury associated with group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal infections or other infectious processes. There are a number of epidemiological and clinical investigations currently underway in this intriguing area.
"Tourette Syndrome Fact Sheet", NINDS. Publication date
NIH Publication No. 05-2163
Office of Communications and Public Liaison
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
National Institutes of Health
Bethesda, MD 20892
NINDS health-related material is provided for information purposes only and does not necessarily represent endorsement by or an official position of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke or any other Federal agency. Advice on the treatment or care of an individual patient should be obtained through consultation with a physician who has examined that patient or is familiar with that patient's medical history.
All NINDS-prepared information is in the public domain and may be freely copied. Credit to the NINDS or the NIH is appreciated.
Last updated January 25, 2006
(Just a note: this website was
designed for newcomers to Tourette's syndrome, to be read through in page order.
Strengths and advantages associated with Tourette's syndrome
Growing up with Tourette's
Syndrome: Information for Kids
HBO Documentary on Tourette's Syndrome
Syndrome Research Article Summary
Tourette's Syndrome - Now What?
| About Us
Tourette Syndrome Stories | | <urn:uuid:2e3ee67b-e76f-4e47-a6bd-6c26df7dfabd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://tourettenowwhat.tripod.com/Tourette_fact_sheet.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00073-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944282 | 3,503 | 3.375 | 3 |
1 Answer | Add Yours
When a story is told from a first-person point of view, the reader knows only what the narrator tells him, and the narrator's view is always a limited one. The narrator can recount only what he or she has heard or experienced directly. In this story, John is a young man who explains the history of his people, describes places, and recounts the events of the story in his own language and in the context of what he understands. As readers, we experience his journey as he experiences it.
The power of the story lies in the contrast between what John understands and our growing awareness of what has happened and what is happening. As the story develops, we slowly realize that John and his people live in the Northeast United States and that his journey takes him to New York City. In the story's shocking and sad conclusion, we understand that civilization has been destroyed by a terrible war; there are strong suggestions in the story of an atomic war that left the city contaminated with radiation for generations. In learning what had happened, we realize the significance of what John has told us about his people and their way of life.
We’ve answered 327,493 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question | <urn:uuid:cb56620e-19ed-45fd-8866-e1cf42155bda> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.enotes.com/homework-help/how-does-benet-use-first-person-point-view-affect-235181 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00021-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982729 | 254 | 3.625 | 4 |
Wellington’s Victory is perhaps one of Beethoven’s oddest pieces. The piece was composed to commemorate the Duke of Wellington’s victory at the Battle of Vitoria over the forces of Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon’s older brother. It was originally written in collaboration with the inventor Johann Mälzel to showcase his newest invention, the panharmonicon. The panharmonicon was essentially one of history’s earliest robots and was able to play the instruments of a military band. Beethoven then took the piece one step further and arranged it for a full orchestra with two wind bands playing tunes to represent the British and French armies and a huge battery of percussion instruments to create battle sounds. The fully-orchestrated work was a huge crowd-pleaser at is premiere in 1813, but has since become only more than a “novelty” piece. | <urn:uuid:8aa3a2cb-4d20-4698-877a-711d5bdda311> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://indianapublicmedia.org/ethergame/history-schmistory-3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00047-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.981961 | 191 | 3.0625 | 3 |
To comment on a different aspect:
There are many examples of *images of the invisible*. If invisible
means not able to be seen with the naked eye. Atomic force
microscopes make images of individual atoms whose size is less
than the wavelengths of visible light. In the movies *silence of the
lambs*, and the one with Harrison Ford and the Irish terrorists,
the villains used night vision equipment to image what otherwise
couldn't be seen.
In the episode:
When Jesus held up the coin and said "Whose EIKWN and
inscription is this?"
I would take it that the response to this, by those present at the time,
was not just an intellectual recognition of visual likeness.
It was an existential apprehension of the reality of the presence and
power of the imperator. (Not physically of course, coin usage defined
the extent of the ruler's authority.)
The modern perception can be illustrated if I may subvert William
James' language, (ie this is not an actual quote from the famous
American psychologist), *create the image and the reality will follow*.
However the methodology of Christianity is different from this.
It starts with the existential apprehension that the indwelling Spirit
has created the reality of the presence and power of God and this
results in behaviour consistent with that *image*. | <urn:uuid:9184fcf1-35fa-4373-91f0-bc002ceb8f75> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ibiblio.org/bgreek/archives/96-08/1334.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915001 | 283 | 2.5625 | 3 |
The aging of societies is a global phenomenon. In the United States alone, the life expectancy for both men and women will continue to increase over the next few decades and with that a population explosion of older adults. The dramatic increase in the number and diversity of older adults elevates the visibility of gerontological matters. As a result, social work practice is becoming more multigenerational, thereby demanding social workers, regardless of their professional endeavors, to be equipped with the most innovative theories and practices to serve older adults and their families.
This comprehensive text spans the new knowledge and skills required in direct practice areas, group work, and macro practice. It also outlines the Geriatric Social Work Competencies, as developed by social work educators, necessary to serve the older adult population and suggests how these competencies can be integrated into foundation curriculum.
Social work educators, students, practitioners, administrators, and policymakers will find updated, useful information in this text regarding
- assessment tools
- cultural influences
- evidence-based practices
- intervention techniques
- theoretical examples.
Individuals are living longer and healthier lives in part because of the extraordinary growth of biomedical knowledge and public health initiatives. The confluence of the rapid and large increase of the older population and the exponential increase in the dissemination of knowledge create an imperative for social workers to employ the most recent knowledge in their practice with people living increasingly long lives.
Department of Social Welfare
University of California, Los Angeles | <urn:uuid:34873297-f329-4698-a5cd-d4e5118aa252> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.naswpress.org/publications/aging/foundations.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00043-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.900979 | 294 | 2.640625 | 3 |
This is by far the most common question I get asked. In fact, my mother asked me this very question just a couple weeks ago! I am actually very surprised at how many people who work in the field of education cannot define the difference between the two. So I’d love to take a moment to explain the difference between speech and language and also define communication because these terms are important for parents and educators to understand.
What is speech?
When we speech pathologists refer to the term speech we are referring to three things: articulation/phonological skills, speech fluency and voice. We are looking at a child’s ability to:
- Physically produce the individual sounds and sound patterns of his/her language (Articulation).
- Produce speech with appropriate rhythm, and free of Stuttering behavior.
- Produce speech with an appropriate vocal quality for his/her age and sex.
What is Language?
While speech involves the physical motor ability to talk, language is a symbolic, rule governed system used to convey a message. In English, the symbols can be words, either spoken or written. We also have gestural symbols, like shrugging our shoulders to indicate “I don’t know” or waving to indicate “Bye Bye” or the raising of our eye brows to indicate that we are surprised by something.
I like how ASHA, the American Speech Language Hearing Association, defines language: Language is made up of socially shared rules that include the following:
- What words mean (e.g., “star” can refer to a bright object in the night sky or a celebrity)
- How to make new words (e.g., friend, friendly, unfriendly)
- How to put words together (e.g., “Peg walked to the new store” rather than “Peg walk store new”)
- What word combinations are best in what situations (“Would you mind moving your foot?” could quickly change to “Get off my foot, please!” if the first request did not produce results)
Some of these “rule” systems that govern a language can include syntax, semantics, phonology, morphology, and pragmatics. You can more about language in my post What is Language.
You can have language without having speech
Though speech and language are related, you do not have to have speech to have a language. How? The best example of this is the use of Sign Language. American Sign Language, or ASL, is its own language. It is not just a gestural form of American English. It has its own set of rules to govern how it is used: Its own symbols, syntax, pragmatics, etc. For example, in spoken English, the symbol for a four legged animal that says “Meow” is “cat” however the symbol for this same thing in ASL is the sign for “cat”. You can completely communicate in ASL without ever speaking a word. This is a language that does not use speech.
What is communication?
Communication, then, is the process of conveying a message or meaning to establish a shared understanding to others. You don’t need speech or a shared language to communicate. How? Let’s say you decide on a trip to Rome, but you don’t speak one word of Italian. You get off your plane, and you want to pick up your rental car, but you can’t read any of the signs. You find a local, but he doesn’t speak English. What can you do to communicate to this person that you want to know where the rental cars are? There are a couple ways. One, you could use your hands and gestures as if you are driving a car. Another way, could be to draw a picture of a car. This could help the local Roman help you find your way to the rental cars.
So in my example above, you are communicating without using speech or a shared language (i.e. English or Italian). You are using gestures or pictures to communicate!
Communication is always the first goal
When I am working with a young child who has significant speech and language impairments, communication is the first goal. By this, I mean that sometimes a child’s ability to communicate with speech and/or language is so impaired, that we need to bypass those methods and use an alternative or augmentative communication (AAC) system to get the child communicating as soon as possible.This could be using signs, pictures, or an electronic device to give the child the ability to communicate his or her wants and needs. Then once the child is communicating, we can focus on trying to improve his/her speech skills so that he/she can use speech to communicate his/her wants and needs. I’ll be posting more about AAC and its uses in a future post.
So there you have it. Though related, speech and language are different! I hope this helps you all understand the two a little better. | <urn:uuid:f0ebe495-2fdb-46bc-ae76-16bc608224ec> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.playingwithwords365.com/2012/01/what-is-the-difference-between-speech-and-language/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953838 | 1,069 | 3.796875 | 4 |
Teacher resources and professional development across the curriculum
Teacher professional development and classroom resources across the curriculum
Paul Reynaud, first-grade teacher, Lusher Alternative Elementary School, New Orleans, Louisiana
Geralyn Broussard, first-grade teacher, Lusher Alternative Elementary School, New Orleans, Louisiana
Q. Describe the arts curriculum at Lusher. How was it developed? How are artists and artworks selected for each grade?
A. Each grade has a set of arts standards five or six per year at the elementary level. Teachers in every classroom at every level are expected to include comprehensive arts education lessons in their weekly plans, using the arts standards to guide instruction. At the elementary level, there are even suggested activities and units for each standard.
Each grade level has five or six artists (or genres) in visual art, drama, music, and dance that teachers are expected to teach in class sometime during the year. Teachers can do other artists in addition if they choose. There are also about 10 or 15 arts specialists in drama, dance, and visual art who sometimes collaborate or consult with classroom teachers about arts instruction.
Q. How was Lushers arts curriculum developed?
A. About three or four years ago, a group of teachers at Lusher who were interested in broadening and strengthening the arts program were persuaded (with a little arm twisting from the principal) to spend some time creating an arts curriculum. We wanted a curriculum that would be fairly user-friendly, but that would also spell out very clearly what was expected from every teacher in every classroom. We wanted the curriculum to be continuous from kindergarten through eighth grade. We wanted a curriculum that would include a broad range of cultures and media.
We started with the state arts standards and the national ones ... but we had to translate pages and pages of educator-speak into a more usable form of English.
Q. How are artists and artwork selected for each grade?
A. Those four or five teachers who lasted through all those meetings that summer just sat down with long lists of artists and assigned them. We asked for input from teachers as to which artists they really wanted. But for the most part, we just used our own good sense of what might work well, along with a good amount of whim and caprice. Weve always considered the curriculum a work in progress, and every summer we revisit, revise, and retool it. In general, though, its really held up pretty well.
Q. Why did you select the Flood story, Stravinsky, and Brueghel for the year-end project?
A. Just before Mardi Gras, the first-graders went to a concert of the Louisiana Philharmonic Orchestra and heard Stravinskys Firebird. The parents of a child in my class were members of the orchestra (harp and double bass) and they had done a presentation for the first-graders about the upcoming concert. The kids loved that, and they loved the concert even more. They came back to school crazy about Firebird: They wrote stories about it, made pictures, wanted to listen to it over and over, etc. We decided to use Stravinsky.
Over the Mardi Gras holiday, I was going through the Stravinsky music I had at home on compact disc and I found The Flood. The Flood is based on an English mystery play, and mystery plays are one of our drama genres. I sort of remembered there being a Brueghel painting of the animals lining up to get on the Ark.
Pieter Brueghel is one of our visual artists and Stravinsky is one of our composers. I thought that the situation offered us some possibilities. It turned out that the Brueghel painting I was thinking of was by Jan Brueghel (Pieters son, I think), but by that time we were well under way. So we fudged. A lot of our performance pieces come together in this kind of fortuitous way. We always figure that, if they dont work out, we can just start over again and find something else that works better.
Q. How long did the Flood unit take, from beginning (development) to end (performance and assessment)?
A. Mardi Gras was in late February, and the performance and assessment were in late May, so 10 to 12 weeks.
Q. How did the students decide which parts of the piece the flood, dialogue, and so on they wanted to work on?
A. We had about three class sessions during which we explained the project, what it would involve, and what it would probably look like when we were all finished. We divided the drama/opera into four big sections: One was mostly drama with dialogue, the next was to be mostly puppet theater, the next was to be a dance, and the last was to be puppets and masks. Kids from all the classrooms involved would mix together to work on the section they were interested in. We told the kids to think over the weekend about what part they would like to be in. On Monday, we let them go to the group they chose, and we started working.
Q. Describe what the final Flood play looked like. Where was it performed? For whom? Did it have a title?
A. I think that we just called it The Flood. It was performed in our classrooms. The school was undergoing some major renovations last year, and all of the other possible performance spaces had been snapped up. (The performance was part of the schools annual Arts Extravaganza, and a lot of performances were going on that evening).
The way the piece worked [involved these components]:
The audience was supposed to move from classroom to classroom, but the classrooms were all so packed that there wasnt much movement. Actually, the Ark moved from classroom to classroom as well, the audience was supposed to follow it. The audience was mostly parents and family.
Q. What was the schedule for working on the Flood unit? How often did teachers meet to plan? How did you find that time? How many times a week did students work on the project? For how long a class session? Over what time period?
A. We had two planning periods a week when all first-grade teachers could meet and, as I remember, we spent most of our planning time from March through May working on the Flood unit. The common planning time is part of our regular schedule 45-minute periods when the kids are at library, music, or physical education. We created and rehearsed with the students at least two times a week from March through May. That is, we started out with two rehearsals a week and added more as needed as the big performance day approached. The class session we used was our Writing Workshop time, which is about 40 to 50 minutes every day, just before lunch.
Q. What kind of assessment did you do for the Flood unit? How did you create the assessments?
A. We did a lot of assessment through writing. Each child in first grade has an arts journal. After performances we see or after field trips to a museum or as part of an ongoing arts unit, students write reactions in their arts journals. As we were putting the piece together, we would pose questions or ask for suggestions from students about the piece. They would write their responses in their journals. In my class, we also did a little science/social studies unit about the recent archeological finds that link the Biblical flood with the flooding of the Black Sea. At the end of that unit, we had a little test about what we had read and studied.
Q. What are the rest of your classroom sessions like? Are they more traditional than the arts project?
A. More or less traditional... . I think of the day as divided up into
discrete times reading time, math time, etc. But Im pretty
broad-minded about what can go on during those times. Regular classroom
sessions tend to have more of a routine and tend to produce a more predictable
product. But most of the things we were doing as we created The Flood
were things we did as part of our normal school day writing stories
or drama in small groups, collaborating on artwork, researching, etc.
The idea was that we were going to take the stuff we had learned in first
grade and make something fabulous out of it. So, it was supposed to be
like our normal practice but ... better.
Q. Please describe the professional development that teachers at Lusher receive.
A. After receiving an arts grant from the Annenberg and Getty foundations, all of the teachers at Lusher were expected and strongly encouraged to attend week-long summer arts workshops. These workshops were first offered by the Southeast Center for Education in the Arts in Chattanooga, but later the Louisiana Center for the Arts opened and teachers could attend workshops there as well. When we first attended a workshop, the training was in one specific arts area: visual art, drama, music, and dance (a recent addition). After attending a workshop in a single area, we are encouraged to continue our development by attending a multi-arts workshop.
Lusher was not an artistic void before we received this grant, however. We have participated in a program in our school district, which provides schools with artists-in-residence for the specific purpose of training teachers to continue using the arts in their classrooms independently. This program was already established at Lusher when I began teaching there around 15 years ago.
Q. Where did the funding come from for the training?
A. The funding for the training came from an arts grant we received from the Annenberg and Getty foundations. When the funding for the grant ended, the Lusher Parent-Teacher-Student Association provided some help.
Q. What input or influence did arts specialist teachers have on the work in the Flood unit?
A. Arts specialist teachers had little direct input on the Flood unit. The classroom teachers basically planned and executed this unit on their own. However, it was because of our previous work with the arts specialists that we could do this on our own.
Q. Describe the curriculum design for the Flood unit. What were the arts and general curriculum standards the unit addressed? Did the unit meet your expectations in this regard?
A. After several planning meetings, which were mainly to decide what we were doing and how we were going to do it, we got a little more specific, and somebody even brought along a copy of the first-grade content standards. We noted which language standards we were working with and which seemed to be addressed naturally in our unit so far:
Both of these standards were addressed heavily in our unit, as well as many others.
Q. Were all of the first-grade teachers required to participate in the Flood unit? In what way did they participate? Do other grades do similar projects?
A. The first-grade teachers were not required to participate in the Flood unit. Each of us could have come up with our own arts idea for an end-of-the-year performance. However, we tend to work and plan well together. Paul Reynaud, our resident genius, seems to naturally lead the group, but each of us has something to share and participates fully. I would say that no other grade level did a similar project to this one simply because no other grade level has teachers who work as closely as ours. In the Flood unit, each child in the first grade (all 90 of them) got to choose the art form he or she would be working with. This took lots of teamwork and cooperation.
Q. Why was there a first grade and a second grade in the same classroom?
A. It would be nice if I could say that there was a first-second combination
solely because Megan and I thought it would be beneficial for the students
and that we wanted to convince the rest of the staff of the validity of
looping. It would be nice, but realistically the combination was more
due to a lack of classroom space because of our school renovation project.
Megan and I had agreed to share a classroom for a year!
© Annenberg Foundation 2016. All rights reserved. Legal Policy | <urn:uuid:87a0ab06-e54f-4243-b366-5b12f6597f94> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.learner.org/libraries/artsineveryclassroom/v7interviews.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.984684 | 2,519 | 3.25 | 3 |
Learn something new every day
More Info... by email
The aviation industry is the global transportation network that carries goods and passengers by air. While air travel was only made possible in the early 20th century, the aviation industry now generates billions of dollars in annual revenue. It also provides essential services to numerous other industries, from medicine and national defense to tourism and sports. The bulk of the worldwide aviation industry is involved with the use and manufacture of airplanes.
Lightweight industrial materials first available in the 1800s allowed for the creation of the earliest aircraft, lighter-than-air devices such as balloons. In 1903, the American Wright Brothers created the first heavier-than-air flying vehicles. Within a decade, airplanes were developed for commerce, travel, and military use, still the major applications for aircraft in the present day. Lighter materials and new technology such as jet engines made planes faster and more efficient in the second half of the 20th century. The business that manufactures specialized aviation parts and equipment is itself a global industry.
Much of the aviation industry is focused on tourism and travel, generating more than $400 billion US Dollars (USD) globally in revenue per year. Air travel means that almost any location on Earth can be reached in a matter of hours, a vast difference from travel options before the 20th century. Although some passengers become anxious and even nauseous due to air travel, airplanes are widely cited as being among the safest means of transport. Some passengers even travel by air for its own sake rather than to reach a destination; examples include hot-air ballooning, skydiving, and helicopter tours.
Another sector of the aviation industry is concerned with the transport of goods. Air freight is much faster than other means of delivering cargo and readily available in most locations. Thus, aircraft play an essential role in providing supplies to various other industries, ranging from entertainment to manufacturing to medicine. Freight companies such as FedEx and UPS have fleets of jet aircraft specially designed for cargo delivery. Delivery of air freight creates $50 billion USD in annual revenue around the globe.
The requirements for safely operating a large fleet of aircraft mean that most major airlines operate on very thin profit margins. Safety is of the utmost concern to all sectors of the aviation industry, especially since 11 September 2001. The air-based terrorist attacks of that date had repercussions that nearly crippled the American airline industry. Heightened security measures since that time have changed the nature of air travel and sometimes proved controversial. Despite these drawbacks, the aviation industry remains an essential part of the global marketplace. | <urn:uuid:029822cb-8a6c-4336-b7f4-7cdb53801a04> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-aviation-industry.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962582 | 515 | 3.171875 | 3 |
Claim: The day celebrated as Christmas (December 25) is the actual birthday of Jesus.
Origins: The biblical narrative of Jesus' birth gives no date for the event, though it more likely occurred in spring than in winter. Saint Luke tells us that
shepherds were "abiding in the field, keeping watch over their flocks by night" — shepherds guarded their flocks day and night only at lambing time, in the spring; in winter, the animals were kept in corrals, unwatched.
It is important to note that for two centuries after Christ's birth, no one knew, and few people cared, exactly when he was born. Birthdays were unimportant; death days counted. Besides, Christ was divine and his natural birth was deliberately played down. In fact, the Church even announced at one point that it was sinful to contemplate observing Christ's birthday "as though He were a King Pharoah."
The idea of celebrating the Nativity on December 25 was first suggested early in the fourth century CE, a clever move on the part of Church fathers who wished to eclipse the December 25 festivities of a rival pagan religion,
Mithraism, which threatened the existence of Christianity.
On December 25 (the date of the winter solstice) pagan Romans, still in the majority, celebrated Natalis Solis Invincti, "Birthday of the Invincible Sun God," Mithras. The Mithras cult originated in Persia and rooted itself in the Roman world in the first century BCE, but by the early 300s CE the rising religion of Christianity was posing a formidable challenge to the sun worshipers, especially after the Edict of Milan issued by the Roman emperor Constantine I in 313 CE allowed Christians to practice their faith in the Roman Empire.
In those tenuous early days of Christianity, however, Church fathers debated strategies for supplanting the Mithras cult with their own religion. Since it was well known that Roman patricians and plebians alike enjoyed festivals of a protracted nature, Christians recognized that they needed an alternative to the December celebration of Natalis Solis Invincti. They needed a celebration in which all participants — Mithraists, Christians, and those in between — could take part with pride. Accordingly, the Church officially recognized Christ's birth, and to offer head-on competition to the sun worshipers' popular feast, the Church located the Nativity on December 25. The mode of observance would be characteristically prayerful: a Mass. In fact, Christs' Mass. As one theologian wrote around 320 CE:
We hold this day holy, not like the pagans because of the birth of the sun, but because of him who made it.
Although centuries later, social scientists would write of the psychological power of group celebrations — the unification of ranks, the solidification of collective identity, the reinforcement of common objectives — the principle had long been intuitively obvious. Christianity took permanent hold in the Western world in 337 CE when Constantine I was baptized on his deathbed, uniting for the first time the Crown and the Church.
founded snopes.com in 1994, and under his guidance the company has pioneered a number of revolutionary technologies, including the iPhone, the light bulb, beer pong, and a vaccine for a disease that has not yet been discovered. He is currently seeking political asylum in the Duchy of Grand Fenwick.
Thank you for writing to us! Although we receive hundreds of e-mails every day, we really and truly read them all, and your comments, suggestions, and questions are most welcome. Unfortunately, we can manage to answer only a small fraction of our incoming mail.
Our site covers many of the items currently being plopped into inboxes everywhere, so if you were writing to ask us about something you just received, our search engine can probably help you find the very article you want.
Choose a few key words from the item you're looking for and click here to go to the search engine.
(Searching on whole phrases will often fail to produce matches because the text of many items is quite variable, so picking out one or two key words is the best strategy.)
We do reserve the right to use non-confidential material sent to us via this form on our site, but only after it has been stripped of any information that might identify the sender or any other individuals not party to this communication. | <urn:uuid:3658a571-877a-409e-9ce3-4e15e9cd78ab> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.snopes.com/holidays/christmas/jesus.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00115-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970424 | 904 | 3.8125 | 4 |
A Soviet spacecraft may have been spotted on Mars by NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). Space fans from Russia scanned NASA images to discover the spacecraft’s remains.
The craft landed on Mars in 1971, but mysteriously stopped working. The craft, Mars 3, worked for just 15 seconds before it stopped communications.
It was part of a double mission launched by the Soviet Union in 1971. Mars 3’s twin craft, Mars 2, crashed on arrival at the Red Planet.
Photos by NASA’s MRO appear to show the Mars 3 lander and its parachute, heat shield, and other hardware. It jettisoned the majority of its hardware while landing.
The Russian space fan group has followed the Curiosity rover, NASA’s latest project on Mars. At the group’s request, NASA flew the MRO over an area earlier this year that was thought to be the Mars 3 craft’s landing spot. The resulting pictures show features consistent with a spacecraft landing.
But scientists have cautioned the group not to guarantee the find yet. The formations discovered in pictures could simply be rocks or other geological formations. There are plans to talk to Russian engineers about the mission and take more pictures of the Soviet spacecraft’s suspected landing spot.
Alfred McEwen of the University of Arizona also cautioned that enthusiasts for the Mars 3 mission may never receive definitive answers. McEwen is in charge of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter’s camera. The orbiter was able to locate the parachute, rocket stage, and cables that the Curiosity rover cast off during its dramatic touch down on Mars last August.
The car-sized robot touched down inside the Gale Crater last year. But in that case, engineers knew exactly where the rover would land. That knowledge helped them pinpoint possible sites for its cast-off equipment.
Scientists hope that their talks with Russian engineers who worked on the project will help them confirm where the Soviet spacecraft landed more than 40 years ago.
[Image via NASA/JPL-Caltech/Univ. of Arizona] | <urn:uuid:76652826-2ad0-4b70-9963-5887bac6d2ef> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.inquisitr.com/614751/soviet-spacecraft-possibly-spotted-on-mars-photo/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00066-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934107 | 432 | 3.171875 | 3 |
ISO 8859 is an international standard which defines several different eight-bit character sets. The first of them, ISO 8859-1, also called ISO Latin 1, is intended for languages in Western Europe ("Western" is to be understood in a broad sense, mainly as opposite to Slavic languages). It contains, among other things, accented letters like ß and other national characters. Finnish readers may wish to consult my article ISO-Latin-1-merkist÷stń for pragmatic information about the use of ISO Latin 1 characters in various languages and contexts. For information on character sets in general, see my tutorial on character code issues.
I have composed a compact description of ISO Latin 1, containing just the octal codes, the characters themselves, and their "official" English names.
ISO Latin 1 is often described as the standard eight-bit character set. It is rather extensively supported by modern software. It is largely similar to the Windows character set, but ISO Latin 1 specifically defines character codes 200 - 237 (octal) reserved for control characters, whereas in Windows they are used for some printable characters.
A new standard, ISO 10646-1, is basically a 16-bit or 32-bit character set, containing ISO Latin 1 as a subset. The basic problem with it is that it is not yet supported by computer software, and due to its size it is necessary to define reasonable-size subsets of it for practical use. This definition work is currently in progress.
The use of ISO 8859-1 under Unix may require some operations by the user, as indicated in a previous reply, and of course it depends on user's terminal or other equipment whether the characters are displayed correctly. On the computers of HUT Computing Centre, no special actions are required, unless the user has modified the default environment, in which case he should consult the (old) instructions Ohjeita kahdeksanbittisyyteen siirtymisestń (in Finnish).
In Emacs, one can use the ISO Accents mode, entered by the Emacs command
M-x stands for meta-x, which is usually
produced by pressing first the ESC (or Escape) key, then the x key.
The mode belongs to the GNU Emacs distribution - if you haven't got it, ask your local Unix support to install a newer version of Emacs.
In this mode, for example typing the apostrophe character
followed by the letter
a produces accented
ß). Of course, you
must be careful in this mode when you really want to enter eg
More exactly, in the ISO Accents mode the accent character keys `, ', ", ^, / and ~ do not self-insert; instead, they modify the following letter key so that it inserts an accented letter. Examples:
|combination||description of result||result|
|~c||a c with cedilla|| š |
|~d||an Icelandic eth (d with dash)|| |
|~t||an Icelandic thorn|| ■ |
|"s||German sharp s|| ▀ |
|/a||a with ring|| ň |
|/e||an a-e ligature|| Š |
|~<||left guillemet|| ź |
|~>||right guillemet|| ╗ |
|~!||an inverted exclamation mark|| í |
|~?||an inverted question mark|| ┐ |
Using an upper-case letter in the above-mentioned combinations results in the corresponding upper-case national character. For example, 'A produces ┴.
M-x iso-accents-mode works as a toggle:
when you are not in the mode, the command enters the mode,
and when you are in the mode, the command leaves the mode.
Sometimes ISO Accents mode is inconvenient, especially if you forget to turn it off after entering the characters you needed. There are alternatives to using the ISO Accents mode for entering ISO Latin 1 characters:
M-x load-library, then respond to the prompt Load library: with
iso-insert. Then you can use commands which begin with
M-x insert-(type ? after that to get a list) for inserting characters. For example,
M-x insert-A-acuteinserts capital A with acute accent (┴). This may sound clumsy, but using recognition you can use this way rather easily, and you need not remember any fancy code names or numbers.
Date of last update: 1998-09-20. Last technical modificatio: 2004-09-30.Jukka Korpela. | <urn:uuid:fffe2050-605d-4526-9af3-3e47d307d600> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/emacs-iso.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00194-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.848689 | 978 | 3.65625 | 4 |
Remember back when we were told that eggs were unhealthy for you as a breakfast food? It turns out that the study was funded by ... the cereal industry!
Yes, it was the Cereal Institute of America that created a 50s-era study to test DRIED egg yolk powder. Drying out any food can remove its nutrients. Not only that, but eggs are valuable for what is in their WHITES in addition to what is in their yolks. Egg whites don't contain any cholesterol at all. So the study was not very accurate. Still, its advice was followed for decades.
Since that famous study, hundreds of other studies have been done on eggs, finding the many health benefits eggs provide. A study done by the American Cancer Society found, in fact, that those people who ate eggs weekly had fewer strokes and heart attacks than those who avoided eggs! The AHA reported that an egg a day was completely healthy. Unfortunately, while the Cereal Institute had millions of dollars to market their findings, the other studies fell into the knowledge pool with barely a ripple. Even though they were published in the British Journal of Cancer and other reputable magazines, they were quickly hushed up by the food industry.
With the advent of low carb diets, though, this information is finally becoming more widespread - eggs do NOT raise your cholesterol. Also, there is not just one "bad" cholesterol. There is good HDL cholesterol, and bad LDL cholesterol. The key is in finding a balance.
Ssome of the studies have found that eating too many carbohydrates cause your liver to MAKE cholesterol at a rate you could not possibly match in normal eating of anything CONTAINING cholesterol. So low carb diets protect you in many ways - by reducing the cholesterol your liver makes, and increasing the other healthy foods you consume. This includes eggs!
What are some of the nutrients that eggs provide?
Choline sort of "binds up" cholesterol, keeping it from attacking to your blood vessels.
Eggs are good sources of vitamin B-12, vitamin D, vitamin A, vitamin E, Riboflavin, Folate and Pantothenic Acid. It also provides many other vitamins and minerals.
Lutein is shown to be effective against macular degeneration, which causes eyesight degeneration.
Eggs are high in protein, and are a great alternative for other meat products based on your diets and allergies.
Healthy Egg Sales Soar
Lisa Shea's Library of Low Carb Books | <urn:uuid:886c4043-ca30-40b4-ba31-179b20a5df64> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bellaonline.com/ArticlesP/art16140.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00072-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974325 | 514 | 2.953125 | 3 |
The U.S. economy is in bad shape now. In spite of upward blips, it is going to get worse, with results ranging from dismal to dreadful. The underlying reasons are embedded in the political economy of the U.S. and the world; the Republican electoral victory, caused in large measure by the basic economics, will accelerate the downward spiral.
Policy can prevent the worst, but it won't, for three reasons.
- The simple policies discussed below will not work as straightforwardly as the narrative might make them seem.
- Fears for the "long run" impede what can be done in the short run.
- The problems are global; policymaking is national.
These three factors are real in themselves, and they combine to produce the political phenomena, exemplified by the Republican sweep, that will preclude implementation of the policies.
The Cause of the Problem
Economists are known for fighting hard over their disagreements, but in the simplest terms, they agree over the cause of economic fluctuations.
If producers have the resources--labor, capital goods, materials--to produce more goods and services than buyers want to buy, the result will be a downturn--a recession. If buyers want to buy more than producers can produce, the result will be inflation.
Downturns have been triggered by the collapse of speculative bubbles based on unjustified beliefs that buyers (including other speculators) would purchase rapidly increasing supplies (including supplies of financial instruments); or by increases in productive capacity not matched by increases in desires to buy. Inflation has been caused by rapid increases in buying (e.g., of armaments in wartime), or decreases in productive capacities (e.g., when the 1970s oil boycotts reduced production in oil-using nations).
The current recession came about because the collapse of the housing/financial bubble led buyers of consumer and capital goods to cut their buying back to below what producers could produce. (Dealing with such bubbles raises issues different from those discussed here.)
The Solution The definitional remedy for recession is to bring purchases back into balance with potential production. This could be done by reducing production, but that would reduce employment, which is the problem, not the solution.
Therefore someone must buy more. An economy has three sets of domestic buyers: consumers; business buyers of capital goods; and governments, national and local. Additional purchases can come from abroad--exports--but of course domestic buyers may import, which will not help the national imbalance.
One way that domestic buyers may be encouraged to buy more is by monetary authorities--in the United States, the Federal Reserve--putting more money into the economy and lowering interest rates. But if consumers are scared and capital goods buyers see few opportunities to profit from purchases, the money will be saved rather than being used to buy more. This is frequently termed a "liquidity trap". At the moment, it seems to have ensnared most western economies.
(Monetary policy is not symmetrical, however. Liquidity traps can vitiate it on the downside, but when inflation threatens, tightening the money supply and raising interest rates will discourage spending. That was done by the Federal Reserve during the Carter and again the Reagan administrations.)
In any case, the inefficacy of monetary policy in combating a downturn like the current one makes government deficit finance essentially the only alternative. If governments spend more than they receive in taxes--more for roads, for education, for arms, for space stations--they decrease unemployment by employing people directly or by buying things that employed people make; the employees will decrease it further by buying more things. Spending on welfare and suchlike does not employ people directly, but recipients are quite likely to buy things. The same is true for tax reduction--if the beneficiaries spend their now untaxed money,
In the United States, only the federal government can run substantial and continuing deficits. For reasons of their own constitutions and because nobody would lend to them for such purposes, the states must maintain balanced budgets. Indeed, state spending cutbacks because of recession-caused revenue reductions are a major factor intensifying current problems.
Deficits are financed by borrowing money that would otherwise be unspent. Domestic borrowing will be mostly from banks, which in a recession have few alternative opportunities to lend to scared consumers and discouraged business buyers; or from the Federal Reserve, which can create money by saying it is there and lending it out, mainly to the federal government. Government borrowing from the Fed is the modern equivalent of printing money as was advocated for similar reasons by the Greenback Party a century and a half ago.
Historically, it is argued that deficit financing in the 1930s did not turn around the Great Depression, and the argument is correct. But immense war-driven deficit financing in the 1940s did end the Depression; the government just had to spend enough.
The simple answer is therefore clear: governments--in the United States, the federal government--should increase deficit spending until the recession is turned around, even if it takes a long time and a long string of deficits.
Why the policy will not be adopted and the solution not work
Why then is it not really so simple, not really so clear, and not going to happen?
Three basic economic and structural reasons, producing and intensifying three more political ones:
1. It's not that simple. A lot of reasons are adduced for why the deficit-spending solution won't work. But the best of them come down to one point, almost as simple as the one it opposes: deficit spending, instead of adding to total spending, may drive out other spending. In particular, it may substitute for private capital spending. The mechanisms usually cited for such substitution are monetary, operating through higher interest rates. (One counterargument, however--more frequently heard a few decades ago than it is now, but worth reviving--is that increased consumer demand will stimulate capital purchases to make the newly-demanded consumer goods.)
In any case, fear of substitution is not a very good current argument. As noted, buyers of capital and consumer goods are not buying, even though monetary policy is trying to make it easy. It may be a much better argument in a somewhat longer perspective, as buyers come back into the market and compete for funds. Which brings up the next reason for questioning the deficit solution.
2. Deficit finance can cause long-run problems. When private buying does revive, political and other reasons may make public buying difficult to turn off, and even to the extent it can be, it will leave behind it reverberations--e.g., higher interest rates, and government spending to pay the interest on the borrowing that has taken place. The results can include reduction of capital and other spending that would have taken place, and inflation caused by competition between public and private spending.
This is a better argument against deficit finance. One counter-argument is that the future is so uncertain that the negatives which might happen, also might not, for many reasons. But the major counter is based on a philosophical/political preference rather than any economic analysis--a preference for immediate melioration of current severe economic and human problems, over worrying about an uncertain future. That is my own preference, but it is not necessarily shared by a majority of Americans.
3. The problems are global, policymaking is national. This is the major reason why the ideal solution will not work, even if it should. Even during the Great Depression, it was almost impossible to "protect" a national economy ("almost" because Hitler did it, but his means are not recommended), and attempts to do so had the major effect of spreading the pain without decreasing it. Now, the unstoppable international movement of information, capital funds, and even labor makes such insulation much more difficult.
The result is that the impact of a unilateral U.S. attempt at revival by deficit financing may be dissipated abroad. The 2009-2010 Obama administration stimulus package had a crucial effect in stopping the accelerating downturn in the U.S., but, as reported by Reuters in July 2010, " Economic growth slowed in the second quarter as companies invested heavily in equipment from abroad and the pace of consumer spending eased, raising concerns about the recovery in the rest of 2010."
The problem is that major competitors, notably the European Union, have been following (albeit sometimes reluctantly) the leadership of Germany, which is trying to revive itself by exporting rather than encouraging its own consumers. This is done by constricting while the U.S. stimulates. Japan similarly depends on exports rather than its own people. Interestingly, China, potentially the most dangerous competitor, is trying hard to increase domestic consumption, although also continuing to protect its exports by manipulating its currency.
The three objections are real: substitution is at least a potential threat; the short/long-run dilemma cannot be overcome by economic policy; the global problem exists. And these three realities are exacerbated by three factors that might possibly be change, but not in time: ideology and false analogy which together with the fundamentals have joined together and will continue to do so, producing a political blockage unlikely to be overcome:
4. A Puritan ideology that it is dangerous and immoral to "spend beyond one's means". This is strong in the United States; it is even stronger in Germany, still haunted by the hyperinflation of the early 1920s (suffered under completely different circumstances), which many Germans believe brought Hitler to power.
5. Closely related is the analogy that since a family cannot long spend what it doesn't have; neither can a government. But a family cannot print money; a strong government overseeing a fundamentally strong economy can. The U.S. today bears no resemblance to a defeated, reparations-burdened, Weimar Germany (nor does Germany today).
Which leads to the politics of the last two years which brought about the Republican victory, and the politics of the next two years that may lock it in--and lock in with it, economic disaster.
6. The ideological factors plus the constitutional structure of the United States, enhanced by archaic rules, have empowered a blocking minority to prevent the necessary continuing stimulus. That will now get worse. The Republicans in Congress, motivated by ideological and real economic beliefs shared by most Republicans, and a drive to win by making the Obama administration look bad, shared by all, have blocked the needed stimulus program. And it has clearly worked, politically. The administration failed to turn the job situation around. (The non-partisan Congressional Budget Office has pointed out that Obama stimulus did stop the downturn from becoming much worse, but that is theory. Political perception inevitably compares what is to what was, not to what might have been.). As a result of the failed turnaround, the Republicans now share control. Whatever minor compromises are made in the next two years will not be in the needed direction.
My advice to the Obama administration would be to make job creation through stimulus an issue nationally; and internationally too, using threatened protectionist sticks as well as reasoned arguments. This would at least draw the lines clearly when the 2012 election takes place under miserable economic conditions. The opposite--and likely--course, trivial compromise in an atmosphere of harsh partisanship, will have no favorable economic effect and lead to no political solution.
But the needed solution--continuing global stimulus--is really and completely out of reach. So what happens next? Three possibilities:
• A deus ex machina, or outside, at least, of any of the competing macroeconomic models discussed here. The Austrian-American economist Joseph Schumpeter contended that economic growth come in waves, stemming less from economic factors as such than by entrepreneurs exploiting new technologies, broadly interpreted. This started with the Industrial Revolution; the latest wave has been the Information Technology Revolution; when the next one will arrive, or from where, is not predictable, at least not by an economist. Perhaps from China.
• Years of what the American Keynesian economist, Alvin Hansen called, as the Great Depression wore on, "secular stagnation"--continuing grinding slow growth and high unemployment.
• The solution that ended the Great Depression--World War.
The first of these is not predictable. The other two are not desirable. Welcome to the third millennium. | <urn:uuid:5753c5ca-4684-4a03-bcfa-df39e1969922> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2010/11/the-united-states-can-prevent-economic-disaster-but-it-wont/66085/?single_page=true | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959518 | 2,511 | 2.921875 | 3 |
DALLAS June 27, 2008 Researchers at UT Southwestern Medical Center have determined that starvation blocks the effects of growth hormone via a mechanism that may have implications in treating diabetes and extending life span.
"It's been well-established that growth is blunted during starvation. But our work shows that this is not just from running out of energy. It's much more sophisticated than that," said Dr. Steven Kliewer, professor of molecular biology and senior author of a study available online and appearing in today's issue of the journal Cell Metabolism.
Using genetically altered mice, the researchers found that during fasting, the actions of growth hormone are blocked by a fat-burning hormone called FGF21.
"It's something that we hadn't anticipated," said Dr. Kliewer.
Growth hormone has many functions in the growth and reproduction of cells, such as controlling the length of developing arm and leg bones in children.
Growth hormone has several other functions, however, even in adults. It promotes the breakdown of fats, stimulates creation of protein and increases levels of IGF-1 (insulin-like growth factor-1), a hormone that promotes growth. Too much growth hormone can cause insulin resistance, resulting in diabetes, and lead to other disorders.
In the current study, mice that were genetically altered to produce excess FGF21 grew to be much smaller than ordinary mice, even though they ate more and had more fat in proportion to their size.
Paradoxically, and to the researchers' surprise, the altered, smaller mice produced much greater amounts of growth hormone than normal.
Why didn't the altered mice grow larger than normal in response? The researchers found that FGF21 does not block the production of growth hormone; rather, it works to prevent growth hormone from activating the genes it normally controls.
Interfering with the actions of growth hormone has been shown to increase life span in mice, Dr. Kliewer said.
"In addition, intermittent fasting which increases FGF21 concentrations also extends life span in mice. This raises the intriguing possibility that FGF21 might be a longevity factor," Dr. Kliewer said.
"This is something that we're beginning to test in the lab," he said. "But our genetically engineered mice have all the classic hallmarks of extended life span: growth hormone resistance, low concentrations of IGF-1, increased insulin sensitivity and small size."
FGF21 is already being tested in human clinical trials for treatment of obesity and diabetes in adults, but the new findings linking FGF21 to interference with growth hormone might indicate that caution is needed before using it in children or teens, Dr. Kliewer said.
|Contact: Aline McKenzie|
UT Southwestern Medical Center | <urn:uuid:96c0a2a0-9ae0-4940-bce3-4ffc3933ec6a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-1/Growth-hormones-link-to-starvation-may-be-clue-to-increasing-life-span--researchers-find-3801-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00093-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952759 | 565 | 3.421875 | 3 |
Traumatic Brain Injury: Brain Injuries
Because the brain is such a complex organ, injuries to the brain differ between people. Each injury to the brain is unique, no matter how similar the circumstances surrounding the injury.
Acquired Brain Injury
An acquired brain injury (ABI) occurs after birth and is caused by cerebral vascular accidents (also known as strokes), lack of oxygen to the brain (known as hypoxia), which can happen in cases of near drowning, choking, smoke inhalation, etc., and includes all traumatic brain injuries.
Traumatic Brain Injury
A traumatic brain injury (TBI) is caused by a bump, blow, or jolt to the head or a penetrating head injury that disrupts the normal function of the brain. Not all blows or jolts to the head result in a TBI. The severity of a TBI may range from mild (i.e., a brief change in mental status or consciousness) to severe (i.e., an extended period of unconsciousness or amnesia after the injury).
The majority of TBIs are concussions or other forms of mild TBI. Concussions occur from a bump or blow to the body, or from an action that causes the head and brain to move quickly back and forth as can happen with a whiplash or shaking. Military personnel are at risk of blast-induced TBI. Symptoms of a TBI may not appear until days or weeks following the injury. Serious traumatic brain injuries need emergency treatment. | <urn:uuid:8a25ea88-0c5c-4f10-9af3-2712be9a06fd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://health.ny.gov/prevention/injury_prevention/traumatic_brain_injury/brain_injury.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00068-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938697 | 308 | 3.4375 | 3 |
Edward Sapir (18841939). Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. 1921.
Form in Language: Grammatical Concepts
WE have seen that the single word expresses either a simple concept or a combination of concepts so interrelated as to form a psychological unity. We have, furthermore, briefly reviewed from a strictly formal standpoint the main processes that are used by all known languages to affect the fundamental conceptsthose embodied in unanalyzable words or in the radical elements of wordsby the modifying or formative influence of subsidiary concepts. In this chapter we shall look a little more closely into the nature of the world of concepts, in so far as that world is reflected and systematized in linguistic structure.
Let us begin with a simple sentence that involves various kinds of conceptsthe farmer kills the duckling. A rough and ready analysis discloses here the presence of three distinct and fundamental concepts that are brought into connection with each other in a number of ways. These three concepts are farmer (the subject of discourse), kill (defining the nature of the activity which the sentence informs us about), and duckling (another subject1 of discourse that takes an important though somewhat passive part in this activity). We can visualize the farmer and the duckling and we have also no difficulty in constructing an image of the killing. In other words, the elements farmer, kill, and duckling define concepts of a concrete order.
But a more careful linguistic analysis soon brings us to see that the two subjects of discourse, however simply we may visualize them, are not expressed quite as directly, as immediately, as we feel them. A farmer is in one sense a perfectly unified concept, in another he is one who farms. The concept conveyed by the radical element (farm-) is not one of personality at all but of an industrial activity (to farm), itself based on the concept of a particular type of object (a farm). Similarly, the concept of duckling is at one remove from that which is expressed by the radical element of the word, duck. This element, which may occur as an independent word, refers to a whole class of animals, big and little, while duckling is limited in its application to the young of that class. The word farmer has an agentive suffix -er that performs the function of indicating the one that carries out a given activity, in this case that of farming. It transforms the verb to farm into an agentive noun precisely as it transforms the verbs to sing, to paint, to teach into the corresponding agentive nouns singer, painter, teacher. The element -ling is not so freely used, but its significance is obvious. It adds to the basic concept the notion of smallness (as also in gosling, fledgeling) or the somewhat related notion of contemptible (as in weakling, princeling, hireling). The agentive -er and the diminutive -ling both convey fairly concrete ideas (roughly those of doer and little), but the concreteness is not stressed. They do not so much define distinct concepts as mediate between concepts. The -er of farmer does not quite say one who (farms) it merely indicates that the sort of person we call a farmer is closely enough associated with activity on a farm to be conventionally thought of as always so occupied. He may, as a matter of fact, go to town and engage in any pursuit but farming, yet his linguistic label remains farmer. Language here betrays a certain helplessness or, if one prefers, a stubborn tendency to look away from the immediately suggested function, trusting to the imagination and to usage to fill in the transitions of thought and the details of application that distinguish one concrete concept (to farm) from another derived one (farmer). It would be impossible for any language to express every concrete idea by an independent word or radical element. The concreteness of experience is infinite, the resources of the richest language are strictly limited. It must perforce throw countless concepts under the rubric of certain basic ones, using other concrete or semi-concrete ideas as functional mediators. The ideas expressed by these mediating elementsthey may be independent words, affixes, or modifications of the radical elementmay be called derivational or qualifying. Some concrete concepts, such as kill, are expressed radically; others, such as farmer and duckling, are expressed derivatively. Corresponding to these two modes of expression we have two types of concepts and of linguistic elements, radical (farm, kill, duck) and derivational (-er, -ling). When a word (or unified group of words) contains a derivational element (or word) the concrete significance of the radical element (farm-, duck-) tends to fade from consciousness and to yield to a new concreteness (farmer, duckling) that is synthetic in expression rather than in thought. In our sentence the concepts of farm and duck are not really involved at all; they are merely latent, for formal reasons, in the linguistic expression.
Returning to this sentence, we feel that the analysis of farmer and duckling are practically irrelevant to an understanding of its content and entirely irrelevant to a feeling for the structure of the sentence as a whole. From the standpoint of the sentence the derivational elements -er and -ling are merely details in the local economy of two of its terms (farmer, duckling) that it accepts as units of expression. This indifference of the sentence as such to some part of the analysis of its words is shown by the fact that if we substitute such radical words as man and chick for farmer and duckling, we obtain a new material content, it is true, but not in the least a new structural mold. We can go further and substitute another activity for that of killing, say taking. The new sentence, the man takes the chick, is totally different from the first sentence in what it conveys, not in how it conveys it. We feel instinctively, without the slightest attempt at conscious analysis, that the two sentences fit precisely the same pattern, that they are really the same fundamental sentence, differing only in their material trappings. In other words, they express identical relational concepts in an identical manner. The manner is here threefoldthe use of an inherently relational word (the) in analogous positions, the analogous sequence (subject; predicate, consisting of verb and object) of the concrete terms of the sentence, and the use of the suffixed element -s in the verb.
Change any of these features of the sentence and it becomes modified, slightly or seriously, in some purely relational, non-material regard. If the is omitted (farmer kills duckling, man takes chick), the sentence becomes impossible; it falls into no recognized formal pattern and the two subjects of discourse seem to hang incompletely in the void. We feel that there is no relation established between either of them and what is already in the minds of the speaker and his auditor. As soon as a the is put before the two nouns, we feel relieved. We know that the farmer and duckling which the sentence tells us about are the same farmer and duckling that we had been talking about or hearing about or thinking about some time before. If I meet a man who is not looking at and knows nothing about the farmer in question, I am likely to be stared at for my pains if I announce to him that the farmer [what farmer?] kills the duckling [didnt know he had any, whoever he is]. If the fact nevertheless seems interesting enough to communicate, I should be compelled to speak of a farmer up my way and of a duckling of his. These little words, the and a, have the important function of establishing a definite or an indefinite reference.
If I omit the first the and also leave out the suffixed -s, I obtain an entirely new set of relations. Farmer, kill the duckling implies that I am now speaking to the farmer, not merely about him; further, that he is not actually killing the bird, but is being ordered by me to do so. The subjective relation of the first sentence has become a vocative one, one of address, and the activity is conceived in terms of command, not of statement. We conclude, therefore, that if the farmer is to be merely talked about, the little the must go back into its place and the -s must not be removed. The latter element clearly defines, or rather helps to define, statement as contrasted with command. I find, moreover, that if I wish to speak of several farmers, I cannot say the farmers kills the duckling, but must say the farmers kill the duckling. Evidently -s involves the notion of singularity in the subject. If the noun is singular, the verb must have a form to correspond; if the noun is plural, the verb has another, corresponding form.2 Comparison with such forms as I kill and you kill shows, moreover, that the -s has exclusive reference to a person other than the speaker or the one spoken to. We conclude, therefore, that it connotes a personal relation as well as the notion of singularity. And comparison with a sentence like the farmer killed the duckling indicates that there is implied in this overburdened -s a distinct reference to present time. Statement as such and personal reference may well be looked upon as inherently relational concepts. Number is evidently felt by those who speak English as involving a necessary relation, otherwise there would be no reason to express the concept twice, in the noun and in the verb. Time also is clearly felt as a relational concept; if it were not, we should be allowed to say the farmer killed -s to correspond to the farmer kill -s. Of the four concepts inextricably interwoven in the -s suffix, all are felt as relational, two necessarily so. The distinction between a truly relational concept and one that is so felt and treated, though it need not be in the nature of things, will receive further attention in a moment.
Finally, I can radically disturb the relational cut of the sentence by changing the order of its elements. If the positions of farmer and kills are interchanged, the sentence reads kills the farmer the duckling, which is most naturally interpreted as an unusual but not unintelligible mode of asking the question, does the farmer kill the duckling? In this new sentence the act is not conceived as necessarily taking place at all. It may or it may not be happening, the implication being that the speaker wishes to know the truth of the matter and that the person spoken to is expected to give him the information. The interrogative sentence possesses an entirely different modality from the declarative one and implies a markedly different attitude of the speaker towards his companion. An even more striking change in personal relations is effected if we interchange the farmer and the duckling. The duckling kills the farmer involves precisely the same subjects of discourse and the same type of activity as our first sentence, but the rôles of these subjects of discourse are now reversed. The duckling has turned, like the proverbial worm, or, to put it in grammatical terminology, what was subject is now object, what was object is now subject.
In this short sentence of five words there are expressed, therefore, thirteen distinct concepts, of which three are radical and concrete, two derivational, and eight relational. Perhaps the most striking result of the analysis is a renewed realization of the curious lack of accord in our language between function and form. The method of suffixing is used both for derivational and for relational elements; independent words or radical elements express both concrete ideas (objects, activities, qualities) and relational ideas (articles likes the and a; words defining case relations, like of, to, for, with, by; words defining local relations, like in, on, at); the same relational concept may be expressed more than once (thus, the singularity of farmer is both negatively expressed in the noun and positively in the verb); and one element may convey a group of interwoven concepts rather than one definite concept alone (thus the -s of kills embodies no less than four logically independent relations).
Our analysis may seem a bit labored, but only because we are so accustomed to our own well-worn grooves of expression that they have come to be felt as inevitable. Yet destructive analysis of the familiar is the only method of approach to an understanding of fundamentally different modes of expression. When one has learned to feel what is fortuitous or illogical or unbalanced in the structure of his own language, he is already well on the way towards a sympathetic grasp of the expression of the various classes of concepts in alien types of speech. Not everything that is outlandish is intrinsically illogical or far-fetched. It is often precisely the familiar that a wider perspective reveals as the curiously exceptional. From a purely logical standpoint it is obvious that there is no inherent reason why the concepts expressed in our sentence should have been singled out, treated, and grouped as they have been and not otherwise. The sentence is the outgrowth of historical and of unreasoning psychological forces rather than of a logical synthesis of elements that have been clearly grasped in their individuality. This is the case, to a greater or less degree, in all languages, though in the forms of many we find a more coherent, a more consistent, reflection than in our English forms of that unconscious analysis into individual concepts which is never entirely absent from speech, however it may be complicated with or overlaid by the more irrational factors.
A cursory examination of other languages, near and far, would soon show that some or all of the thirteen concepts that our sentence happens to embody may not only be expressed in different form but that they may be differently grouped among themselves; that some among them may be dispensed with; and that other concepts, not considered worth expressing in English idiom, may be treated as absolutely indispensable to the intelligible rendering of the proposition. First as to a different method of handling such concepts as we have found expressed in the English sentence. If we turn to German, we find that in the equivalent sentence (Der Bauer töotet das Entelein) the definiteness of reference expressed by the English the is unavoidably coupled with three other conceptsnumber (both der and das are explicitly singular), case (deris subjective; dasis subjective or objective, by elimination therefore objective), and gender, a new concept of the relational order that is not in this case explicitly involved in English (deris masculine, dasis neuter). Indeed, the chief burden of the expression of case, gender, and number is in the German sentence borne by the particles of reference rather than by the words that express the concrete concepts (Bauer, Entelein) to which these relational concepts ought logically to attach themselves. In the sphere of concrete concepts too it is worth nothing that the German splits up the idea of killing into the basic concept of dead (tot) and the derivational one of causing to do (or be) so and so (by the method of vocalic change, töot-); the German töot-et (analytically tot-+ vowel change+-et) causes to be dead is, approximately, the formal equivalent of our dead-en-s, though the idiomatic application of this latter word is different3
Wandering still further afield, we may glance at the Yana method of expression. Literally translated, the equivalent Yana sentence would read something like kill-s he farmer4 he to duck-ling, in which he and to are rather awkward English renderings of a general third personal pronoun (he, she, it, or they) and an objective particle which indicates that the following noun is connected with the verb otherwise than as subject. The suffixed element in kill-s corresponds to the English suffix with the important exceptions that it makes no reference to the number of the subject and that the statement is known to be true, that it is vouched for by the speaker. Number is only indirectly expressed in the sentence in so far as there is no specific verb suffix indicating plurality of the subject nor specific plural elements in the two nouns. Had the statement been made on anothers authority, a totally different tense-modal suffix would have had to be used. The pronouns of reference (he) imply nothing by themselves as to number, gender, or case. Gender, indeed, is completely absent in Yana as a relational category.
The Yana sentence has already illustrated the point that certain of our supposedly essential concepts may be ignored; both the Yana and the German sentence illustrate the further point that certain concepts may need expression for which an English-speaking person, or rather the English-speaking habit, finds no need whatever. One could go on and give endless examples of such deviations from English form, but we shall have to content ourselves with a few more indications. In the Chinese sentence Man kill duck, which may be looked upon as the practical equivalent of The man kills the duck, there is by no means present for the Chinese consciousness that childish, halting, empty feeling which we experience in the literal English translation. The three concrete conceptstwo objects and an actionare each directly expressed by a monosyllabic word which is at the same time a radical element; the two relational conceptssubject and objectare expressed solely by the position of the concrete words before and after the word of action. And that is all. Definiteness or indefiniteness of reference, number, personality as an inherent aspect of the verb, tense, not to speak of genderall these are given no expression in the Chinese sentence, which, for all that, is a perfectly adequate communicationprovided, of course, there is that context, that background of mutual understanding that is essential to the complete intelligibility of all speech. Nor does this qualification impair our argument, for in the English sentence too we leave unexpressed a large number of ideas which are either taken for granted or which have been developed or are about to be developed in the course of the conversation. Nothing has been said, for example, in the English, German, Yana, or Chinese sentence as to the place relations of the farmer, the duck, the speaker, and the listener. Are the farmer and the duck both visible or is one or the other invisible from the point of view of the speaker, and are both placed within the horizon of the speaker, the listener, or of some indefinite point of reference off yonder? In other words, to paraphrase awkwardly certain latent demonstrative ideas, does this farmer (invisible to us but standing behind a door not far away from me, you being seated yonder well out of reach) kill that duckling (which belongs to you)?or does that farmer (who lives in your neighborhood and whom we see over there) kill that duckling (that belongs to him)? This type of demonstrative elaboration is foreign to our way of thinking, but it would seem very natural, indeed unavoidable, to a Kwakiutl Indian.
What, then, are the absolutely essential concepts in speech, the concepts that must be expressed if language is to be a satisfactory means of communication? Clearly we must have, first of all, a large stock of basic or radical concepts, the concrete wherewithal of speech. We must have objects, actions, qualities to talk about, and these must have their corresponding symbols in independent words or in radical elements. No proposition, however abstract its intent, is humanly possible without a tying on at one or more points to the concrete world of sense. In every intelligible proposition at least two of these radical ideas must be expressed, though in exceptional cases one or even both may be understood from the context. And, secondly, such relational concepts must be expressed as moor the concrete concepts to each other and construct a definite, fundamental form of proposition. In this fundamental form there must be no doubt as to the nature of the relations that obtain between the concrete concepts. We must know what concrete concept is directly or indirectly related to what other, and how. If we wish to talk of a thing and an action, we must know if they are coordinately related to each other (e.g., He is fond of wine and gambling); or if the thing is conceived of as the starting point, the doer of the action, or, as it is customary to say, the subject of which the action is predicated; or if, on the contrary, it is the end point, the object of the action. If I wish to communicate an intelligible idea about a farmer, a duckling, and the act of killing, it is not enough to state the linguistic symbols for these concrete ideas in any order, higgledy-piggledy, trusting that the hearer may construct some kind of a relational pattern out of the general probabilities of the case. The fundamental syntactic relations must be unambiguously expressed. I can afford to be silent on the subject of time and place and number and of a host of other possible types of concepts, but I can find no way of dodging the issue as to who is doing the killing. There is no known language that can or does dodge it, any more than it succeeds in saying something without the use of symbols for the concrete concepts.
We are thus once more reminded of the distinction between essential or unavoidable relational concepts and the dispensable type. The former are universally expressed, the latter are but sparsely developed in some languages, elaborated with a bewildering exuberance in others. But what prevents us from throwing in these dispensable or secondary relational concepts with the large, floating group of derivational, qualifying concepts that we have already discussed? Is there, after all is said and done, a fundamental difference between a qualifying concept like the negative in unhealthy and a relational one like the number concept in books? If unhealthy may be roughly paraphrased as not healthy, may not books be just as legitimately paraphrased, barring the violence to English idiom, as several book? There are, indeed, languages in which the plural, if expressed at all, is conceived of in the same sober, restricted, one might almost say casual, spirit in which we feel the negative in unhealthy. For such languages the number concept has no syntactic significance whatever, is not essentially conceived of as defining a relation, but falls into the group of derivational or even of basic concepts. In English, however, as in French, German, Latin, Greekindeed in all the languages that we have most familiarity withthe idea of number is not merely appended to a given concept of a thing. It may have something of this merely qualifying value, but its force extends far beyond. It infects much else in the sentence, molding other concepts, even such as have no intelligible relation to number, into forms that are said to correspond to or agree with the basic concept to which it is attached in the first instance. If a man falls but men fall in English, it is not because of any inherent change that has taken place in the nature of the action or because the idea of plurality inherent in men must, in the very nature of ideas, relate itself also to the action performed by these men. What we are doing in these sentences is what most languages, in greater or less degree and in a hundred varying ways, are in the habit of doingthrowing a bold bridge between the two basically distinct types of concept, the concrete and the abstractly relational, infecting the latter, as it were, with the color and grossness of the former. By a certain violence of metaphor the material concept is forced to do duty for (or intertwine itself with) the strictly relational.
The case is even more obvious if we take gender as our text. In the two English phrases, The white woman that comes and The white men that come, we are not reminded that gender, as well as number, may be elevated into a secondary relational concept. It would seem a little far-fetched to make of masculinity and femininity, crassly material, philosophically accidental concepts that they are, a means of relating quality and person, person and action, nor would it easily occur to us, if we had not studied the classics, that it was anything but absurd to inject into two such highly attenuated relational concepts as are expressed by the and that the combined notions of number and sex. Yet all this, and more, happens in Latin. Illa alba femina quae venit and illi albi homines qui veniunt, conceptually translated, amount to this: that-one-feminine-doer5 one-feminine-white-doer feminine-doing-one-woman which-one-feminine-doer other6-one-now-come; and : that-several-masculine-doer several-masculine-white-doer masculine-doing-several-man which-several-masculine-doer other-several-now-come. Each word involves no less than four concepts, a radical concept (either properly concretewhite, man, woman, comeor demonstrativethat, which) and three relational concepts, selected from the categories of case, number, gender, person, and tense. Logically, only case7 (the relation of woman or men to a following verb, of which to its antecedent, of that and white to woman or men, and of which to come) imperatively demands expression, and that only in connection with the concepts directly affected (there is, for instance, no need to be informed that the whiteness is a doing or doers whiteness8). The other relational concepts are either merely parasitic (gender throughout; number in the demonstrative, the adjective, the relative, and the verb) or irrelevant to the essential syntactic form of the sentence (number in the noun; person; tense). An intelligent and sensitive Chinaman, accustomed as he is to cut to the very bone of linguistic form, might well say of the Latin sentence, How pedantically imaginative! It must be difficult for him, when first confronted by the illogical complexities of our European languages, to feel at home in an attitude that so largely confounds the subject-matter of speech with its formal pattern or, to be more accurate, that turns certain fundamentally concrete concepts to such attenuated relational uses.
I have exaggerated somewhat the concreteness of our subsidiary or rather non-syntactical relational concepts in order that the essential facts might come out in bold relief. It goes without saying that a Frenchman has no clear sex notion in his mind when he speaks of un arbre (a-masculine tree) or of une pomme (a-feminine apple). Nor have we, despite the grammarians, a very vivid sense of the present as contrasted with all past and all future time when we say He comes.9 This is evident from our use of the present to indicate both future time (He comes to-morrow) and general activity unspecified as to time (Whenever he comes, I am glad to see him, where comes refers to past occurrences and possible future ones rather than to present activity). In both the French and English instances the primary ideas of sex and time have become diluted by form-analogy and by extensions into the relational sphere, the concepts ostensibly indicated being now so vaguely delimited that it is rather the tyranny of usage than the need of their concrete expression that sways us in the selection of this or that form. If the thinning-out process continues long enough, we may eventually be left with a system of forms on our hands from which all the color of life has vanished and which merely persist by inertia, duplicating each others secondary, syntactic functions with endless prodigality. Hence, in part, the complex conjugational systems of so many languages, in which differences of form are attended by no assignable differences of function. There must have been a time, for instance, though it antedates our earliest documentary evidence, when the type of tense formation represented by drove or sank differed in meaning, in however slightly nuanced a degree, from the type (killed, worked) which has now become established in English as the prevailing preterit formation, very much as we recognize a valuable distinction at present between both these types and the perfect (has driven, has killed) but may have ceased to do so at some point in the future.10 Now form lives longer than its own conceptual content. Both are ceaselessly changing, but, on the whole, the form tends to linger on when the spirit has flown or changed its being. Irrational form, form for forms sakehowever we term this tendency to hold on to formal distinctions once they have come to beis as natural to the life of language as is the retention of modes of conduct that have long outlived the meaning they once had.
There is another powerful tendency which makes for a formal elaboration that does not strictly correspond to clear-cut conceptual differences. This is the tendency to construct schemes of classification into which all the concepts of language must be fitted. Once we have made up our minds that all things are either definitely good or bad or definitely black or white, it is difficult to get into the frame of mind that recognizes that any particular thing may be both good and bad (in other words, indifferent) or both black and white (in other words, gray), still more difficult to realize that the good-bad or black-white categories may not apply at all. Language is in many respects as unreasonable and stubborn about its classifications as is such a mind. It must have its perfectly exclusive pigeon-holes and will tolerate no flying vagrants. Any concept that asks for expression must submit to the classificatory rules of the game, just as there are statistical surveys in which even the most convinced atheist must perforce be labeled Catholic, Protestant, or Jew or get no hearing. In English we have made up our minds that all action must be conceived of in reference to three standard times. If, therefore, we desire to state a proposition that is as true to-morrow as it was yesterday, we have to pretend that the present moment may be elongated fore and aft so as to take in all eternity.11 In French we know once for all that an object is masculine or feminine, whether it be living or not; just as in many American and East Asiatic languages it must be understood to belong to a certain form-category (say, ring-round, ball-round, long and slender, cylindrical, sheet-like, in mass like sugar) before it can be enumerated (e.g., two ball-class potatoes, three sheet-class carpets) or even said to be or be handled in a definite way (thus, in the Athabaskan languages and in Yana, to carry or throw a pebble is quite another thing than to carry or throw a log, linguistically no less than in terms of muscular experience). Such instances might be multiplied at will. It is almost as though at some period in the past the unconscious mind of the race had made a hasty inventory of experience, committed itself to a premature classification that allowed of no revision, and saddled the inheritors of its language with a science that they no longer quite believed in nor had the strength to overthrow. Dogma, rigidly prescribed by tradition, stiffens into formalism. Linguistic categories make up a system of surviving dogmadogma of the unconscious. They are often but half real as concepts; their life tends ever to languish away into form for forms sake.
There is still a third cause for the rise of this nonsignificant form, or rather of non-significant differences of form. This is the mechanical operation of phonetic processes, which may bring about formal distinctions that have not and never had a corresponding functional distinction. Much of the irregularity and general formal complexity of our declensional and conjugational systems is due to this process. The plural of hat is hats, the plural of self is selves. In the former case we have a true -s symbolizing plurality, in the latter a z-sound coupled with a change in the radical element of the word of f to v. Here we have not a falling together of forms that originally stood for fairly distinct conceptsas we saw was presumably the case with such parallel forms as drove and workedbut a merely mechanical manifolding of the same formal element without a corresponding growth of a new concept. This type of form development, therefore, while of the greatest interest for the general history of language, does not directly concern us now in our effort to understand the nature of grammatical concepts and their tendency to degenerate into purely formal counters.
We may now conveniently revise our first classification of concepts as expressed in language and suggest the following scheme:
Basic (Concrete) Concepts (such as objects, actions, qualities) : normally expressed by independent words or radical elements; involve no relation as such12
Derivational Concepts (less concrete, as a rule, than I, more so than III): normally expressed by affixing non-radical elements to radical elements or by inner modification of these; differ from type I in defining ideas that are irrelevant to the proposition as a whole but that give a radical element a particular increment of significance and that are thus inherently related in a specific way to concepts of type I13
Concrete Relational Concepts (still more abstract, yet not entirely devoid of a measure of concreteness): normally expressed by affixing non-radical elements to radical elements, but generally at a greater remove from these than is the case with elements of type II, or by inner modification of radical elements; differ fundamentally from type II in indicating or implying relations that transcend the particular word to which they are immediately attached, thus leading over to
Pure Relational Concepts (purely abstract): normally expressed by affixing non-radical elements to radical elements (in which case these concepts are frequently intertwined with those of type III) or by their inner modification, by independent words, or by position; serve to relate the concrete elements of the proposition to each other, thus giving it definite syntactic form.
The nature of these four classes of concepts as regards their concreteness or their power to express syntactic relations may be thus symbolized:
I. Basic Concepts II. Derivational Concepts
III. Concrete Relational Concepts IV. Pure Relational Concepts
These schemes must not be worshipped as fetiches. In the actual work of analysis difficult problems frequently arise and we may well be in doubt as to how to group a given set of concepts. This is particularly apt to be the case in exotic languages, where we may be quite sure of the analysis of the words in a sentence and yet not succeed in acquiring that inner feel of its structure that enables us to tell infallibly what is material content and what is relation. Concepts of class I are essential to all speech, also concepts of class IV. Concepts II and III are both common, but not essential; particularly group III, which represents, in effect, a psychological and formal confusion of types II and IV or of types I and IV, is an avoidable class of concepts. Logically there is an impassable gulf between I and IV, but the illogical, metaphorical genius of speech has wilfully spanned the gulf and set up a continuous gamut of concepts and forms that leads imperceptibly from the crudest of materialities (house or John Smith) to the most subtle of relations. It is particularly significant that the unanalyzable independent word belongs in most cases to either group I or group IV, rather less commonly to II or III. It is possible for a concrete concept, represented by a simple word, to lose its material significance entirely and pass over directly into the relational sphere without at the same time losing its independence as a word. This happens, for instance, in Chinese and Cambodgian when the verb give is used in an abstract sense as a mere symbol of the indirect objective relation (e.g., Cambodgian We make story this give all that person who have child, i.e., We have made this story for all those that have children).
There are, of course, also not a few instances of transitions between groups I and II and I and III, as well as of the less radical one between II and III. To the first of these transitions belongs that whole class of examples in which the independent word, after passing through the preliminary stage of functioning as the secondary or qualifying element in a compound, ends up by being a derivational affix pure and simple, yet without losing the memory of its former independence. Such an element and concept is the full of teaspoonfull, which hovers psychologically between the status of an independent, radical concept (compare full) or of a subsidiary element in a compound (cf. brim-full) and that of a simple suffix (cf. dutiful) in which the primary concreteness is no longer felt. In general, the more highly synthetic our linguistic type, the more difficult and even arbitrary it becomes to distinguish groups I and II.
Not only is there a gradual loss of the concrete as we pass through from group I to group IV, there is also a constant fading away of the feeling of sensible reality within the main groups of linguistic concepts themselves. In many languages it becomes almost imperative, therefore, to make various sub-classifications, to segregate, for instance, the more concrete from the more abstract concepts of group II. Yet we must always beware of reading into such abstracter groups that purely formal, relational feeling that we can hardly help associating with certain of the abstracter concepts which, with us, fall in group III, unless, indeed, there is clear evidence to warrant such a reading in. An example or two should make clear these all-important distinctions.14 In Nootka we have an unusually large number of derivational affixes (expressing concepts of group II). Some of these are quite material in content (e.g., in the house, to dream of, others, like an element denoting plurality and a diminutive affix, are far more abstract in content. The former type are more closely welded with the radical element than the latter, which can only be suffixed to formations that have the value of complete words. If, therefore, I wish to say the small fires in the houseand I can do this in one wordI must form the word fire-in-the-house, to which elements corresponding to small, our plural, and the are appended. The element indicating the definiteness of reference that is implied in our the comes at the very end of the word. So far, so good. Fire-in-the-house-the is an intelligible correlate of our the house-fire.15 But is the Nootka correlate of the small fires in the house the true equivalent of an English the house-firelets?16 By no means. First of all, the plural element precedes the diminutive in Nootka: fire-in-the-house-plural-small-the, in other words the house-fires-let, which at once reveals the important fact that the plural concept is not as abstractly, as relationally, felt as in English. A more adequate rendering would be the house-fire-several-let, in which, however, several is too gross a word, -let too choice an element (small again is too gross). In truth we cannot carry over into English the inherent feeling of the Nootka word, which seems to hover somewhere between the house-firelets and the house-fire-several-small. But what more than anything else cuts off all possibility of comparison between the English-s of house-firelets and the -several-small of the Nootka word is this, that in Nootka neither the plural nor the diminutive affix corresponds or refers to anything else in the sentence. In English the house-firelets burn (not burns), in Nootka neither verb, nor adjective, nor anything else in the proposition is in the least concerned with the plurality or the diminutiveness of the fire. Hence, while Nootka recognizes a cleavage between concrete and less concrete within group II, the less concrete do not transcend the group and lead us into that abstracter air into which our plural -s carries us. But at any rate, the reader may object, it is something that the Nootka plural affix is set apart from the concreter group of affixes; and may not the Nootka diminutive have a slenderer, a more elusive content than our -let or -ling or the German -chen or -lein?17
Can such a concept as that of plurality ever be classified with the more material concepts of group II? Indeed it can be. In Yana the third person of the verb makes no formal distinction between singular and plural. Nevertheless the plural concept can be, and nearly always is, expressed by the suffixing of an element (-ba-) to the radical element of the verb. It burns in the east is rendered by the verb ya-hau-si burn-east-s.18 They burn in the east is ya-ba-hau-si. Note that the plural affix immediately follows the radical element (ya-), disconnecting it from the local element (-hau-). It needs no labored argument to prove that the concept of plurality is here hardly less concrete than that of location in the east, and that the Yana form corresponds in feeling not so much to our They burn in the east (ardunt oriente) as to a Burn-several-east-s, it plurally burns in the east, an expression which we cannot adequately assimilate for lack of the necessary form-grooves into which to run it.
But can we go a step farther and dispose of the category of plurality as an utterly material idea, one that would make of books a plural book, in which the plural, like the white of white book, falls contentedly into group I? Our many books and several books are obviously not cases in point. Even if we could say many book and several book (as we can say many a book and each book), the plural concept would still not emerge as clearly as it should for our argument; many and several are contaminated by certain notions of quantity or scale that are not essential to the idea of plurality itself. We must turn to central and eastern Asia for the type of expression we are seeking. In Tibetan, for instance, nga-s mi mthong19 I-by man see, by me a man is seen, I see a man may just as well be understood to mean I see men, if there happens to be no reason to emphasize the fact of plurality.20 If the fact is worth expressing, however, I can say nga-s mi rnams mthong by me man plural see, where rnams is the perfect conceptual analogue of -s in books, divested of all relational strings. Rnams follows its noun as would any other attributive wordman plural (whether two or a million) like man white. No need to bother about his plurality any more than about his whiteness unless we insist on the point.
What is true of the idea of plurality is naturally just as true of a great many other concepts. They do not necessarily belong where we who speak English are in the habit of putting them. They may be shifted towards I or towards IV, the two poles of linguistic expression. Nor dare we look down on the Nootka Indian and the Tibetan for their material attitude towards a concept which to us is abstract and relational, lest we invite the reproaches of the Frenchman who feels a subtlety of relation in femme blanche and homme blanc that he misses in the coarser-grained white woman and white man. But the Bantu Negro, were he a philosopher, might go further and find it strange that we put in group II a category, the diminutive, which he strongly feels to belong to group III and which he uses, along with a number of other classificatory concepts,21 to relate his subjects and objects, attributes and predicates, as a Russian or a German handles his genders and, if possible, with an even greater finesse.
It is because our conceptual scheme is a sliding scale rather than a philosophical analysis of experience that we cannot say in advance just where to put a given concept. We must dispense, in other words, with a well-ordered classification of categories. What boots it to put tense and mode here or number there when the next language one handles puts tense a peg lower down (towards I), mode and number a peg higher up (towards IV)? Nor is there much to be gained in a summary work of this kind from a general inventory of the types of concepts generally found in groups II, III, and IV. There are too many possibilities. It would be interesting to show what are the most typical noun-forming and verb-forming elements of group II; how variously nouns may be classified (by gender; personal and non-personal; animate and inanimate; by form; common and proper); how the concept of number is elaborated (singular and plural; singular, dual, and plural; singular, dual, trial, and plural; single, distributive, and collective); what tense distinctions may be made in verb or noun (the past, for instance, may be an indefinite past, immediate, remote, mythical, completed, prior); how delicately certain languages have developed the idea of aspect22 (momentaneous, durative, continuative, inceptive, cessative, durative-inceptive, iterative, momentaneous-iterative, durative-iterative, resultative, and still others); what modalities may be recognized (indicative, imperative, potential, dubitative, optative, negative, and a host of others23); what distinctions of person are possible (is we, for instance, conceived of as a plurality of I or is it as distinct from I as either is from you or he?both attitudes are illustrated in language; moreover, does we include you to whom I speak or not?inclusive and exclusive forms); what may be the general scheme of orientation, the so-called demonstrative categories (this and that in an endless procession of nuances);24 how frequently the form expresses the source or nature of the speakers knowledge (known by actual experience, by hearsay,25 by inference); how the syntactic relations may be expressed in the noun (subjective and objective; agentive, instrumental, and person affected;26 various types of genitive and indirect relations) and, correspondingly, in the verb (active and passive; active and static; transitive and intransitive; impersonal, reflexive, reciprocal, indefinite as to object, and many other special limitations on the starting-point and end-point of the flow of activity). These details, important as many of them are to an understanding of the inner form of language, yield in general significance to the more radical group-distinctions that we have set up. It is enough for the general reader to feel that language struggles towards two poles of linguistic expressionmaterial content and relationand that these poles tend to be connected by a long series of transitional concepts.
In dealing with words and their varying forms we have had to anticipate much that concerns the sentence as a whole. Every language has its special method or methods of binding words into a larger unity. The importance of these methods is apt to vary with the complexity of the individual word. The more synthetic the language, in other words, the more clearly the status of each word in the sentence is indicated by its own resources, the less need is there for looking beyond the word to the sentence as a whole. The Latin agit (he) acts needs no outside help to establish its place in a proposition. Whether I say agit dominus the master acts or sic femina agit thus the woman acts, the net result as to the syntactic feel of the agit is practically the same. It can only be a verb, the predicate of a proposition, and it can only be conceived as a statement of activity carried out by a person (or thing) other than you or me. It is not so with such a word as the English act.Act is a syntactic waif until we have defined its status in a propositionone thing in they act abominably, quite another in that was a kindly act. The Latin sentence speaks with the assurance of its individual members, the English word needs the prompting of its fellows. Roughly speaking, to be sure. And yet to say that a sufficiently elaborate word-structure compensates for external syntactic methods is perilously close to begging the question. The elements of the word are related to each other in a specific way and follow each other in a rigorously determined sequence. This is tantamount to saying that a word which consists of more than a radical element is a crystallization of a sentence or of some portion of a sentence, that a form like agit is roughly the psychological27 equivalent of a form like age is act he. Breaking down, then, the wall that separates word and sentence, we may ask: What, at last analysis, are the fundamental methods of relating word to word and element to element, in short, of passing from the isolated notions symbolized by each word and by each element to the unified proposition that corresponds to a thought?
The answer is simple and is implied in the preceding remarks. The most fundamental and the most powerful of all relating methods is the method of order. Let us think of some more or less concrete idea, say a color, and set down its symbolred; of another concrete idea, say a person or object, setting down its symboldog; finally, of a third concrete idea, say an action, setting down its symbolrun. It is hardly possible to set down these three symbolsred dog runwithout relating them in some way, for example (the) red dog run(s). I am far from wishing to state that the proposition has always grown up in this analytic manner, merely that the very process of juxtaposing concept to concept, symbol to symbol, forces some kind of relational feeling, if nothing else, upon us. To certain syntactic adhesions we are very sensitive, for example, to the attributive relation of quality (red dog) or the subjective relation (dog run) or the objective relation (kill dog), to others we are more indifferent, for example, to the attributive relation of circumstance (to-day red dog run or red dog to-day run or red dog run to-day, all of which are equivalent propositions or propositions in embroyo). Words and elements, then, once they are listed in a certain order, tend not only to establish some kind of relation among themselves but are attracted to each other in greater or in less degree. It is presumably this very greater or less that ultimately leads to those firmly solidified groups of elements (radical element or elements plus one or more grammatical elements) that we have studied as complex words. They are in all likelihood nothing but sequences that have shrunk together and away from other sequences or isolated elements in the flow of speech. While they are fully alive, in other words, while they are functional at every point, they can keep themselves at a psychological distance from their neighbors. As they gradually lose much of their life, they fall back into the embrace of the sentence as a whole and the sequence of independent words regains the importance it had in part transferred to the crystallized groups of elements. Speech is thus constantly tightening and loosening its sequences. In its highly integrated forms (Latin, Eskimo) the energy of sequence is largely locked up in complex word formations, it becomes transformed into a kind of potential energy that may not be released for millennia. In its more analytic forms (Chinese, English) this energy is mobile, ready to hand for such service as we demand of it.
There can be little doubt that stress has frequently played a controlling influence in the formation of element-groups or complex words out of certain sequences in the sentence. Such an English word as withstand is merely an old sequence with stand, i.e., against28 stand, in which the unstressed adverb was permanently drawn to the following verb and lost its independence as a significant element. In the same way French futures of the type irai (I) shall go are but the resultants of a coalescence of originally independent words: ir29a'i to-go I-have, under the influence of a unifying accent. But stress has done more than articulate or unify sequences that in their own right imply a syntactic relation. Stress is the most natural means at our disposal to emphasize a linguistic contrast, to indicate the major element in a sequence. Hence we need not be surprised to find that accent too, no less than sequence, may serve as the unaided symbol of certain relations. Such a contrast as that of go' between (one who goes between) and to go between' may be of quite secondary origin in English, but there is every reason to believe that analogous distinctions have prevailed at all times in linguistic history. A sequence like see' man might imply some type of relation in which see qualifies the following word, hence a seeing man or a seen (or visible) man, or is its predication, hence the man sees or the man is seen, while a sequence like see man' might indicate that the accented word in some way limits the application of the first, say as direct object, hence to see a man or (he) sees the man. Such alternations of relation, as symbolized by varying stresses, are important and frequent in a number of languages.30
It is a somewhat venturesome and yet not an altogether unreasonable speculation that sees in word order and stress the primary methods for the expression of all syntactic relations and looks upon the present relational value of specific words and elements as but a secondary condition due to a transfer of values. Thus, we may surmise that the Latin -m of words like feminam,dominum, and civem did not originally31 denote that woman, master, and citizen were objectively related to the verb of the proposition but indicated something far more concrete,32 that the objective relation was merely implied by the position or accent of the word (radical element) immediately preceding the -m, and that gradually, as its more concrete significance faded away, it took over a syntactic function that did not originally belong to it. This sort of evolution by transfer is traceable in many instances. Thus, the of in an English phrase like the law of the land is now as colorless in content, as purely a relational indicator as the genitive suffix -is in the Latin lex urbis the law of the city. We know, however, that it was originally an adverb of considerable concreteness of meaning,33 away, moving from, and that the syntactic relation was originally expressed by the case form34 of the second noun. As the case form lost its vitality, the adverb took over its function. If we are actually justified in assuming that the expression of all syntactic relations is ultimately traceable to these two unavoidable, dynamic features of speechsequence and stress35an interesting thesis results:All of the actual content of speech, its clusters of vocalic and consonantal sounds, is in origin limited to the concrete; relations were originally not expressed in outward form but were merely implied and articulated with the help of order and rhythm. In other words, relations were intuitively felt and could only leak out with the help of dynamic factors that themselves move on an intuitional plane.
There is a special method for the expression of relations that has been so often evolved in the history of language that we must glance at it for a moment. This is the method of concord or of like signaling. It is based on the same principle as the password or label. All persons or objects that answer to the same countersign or that bear the same imprint are thereby stamped as somehow related. It makes little difference, once they are so stamped, where they are to be found or how they behave themselves. They are known to belong together. We are familiar with the principle of concord in Latin and Greek. Many of us have been struck by such relentless rhymes as vidi illum bonum dominum I saw that good master or quarum dearum saevarum of which stern goddesses. Not that sound-echo, whether in the form of rhyme or of alliteration36 is necessary to concord, though in its most typical and original forms concord is nearly always accompanied by sound repetition. The essence of the principle is simply this, that words (elements) that belong together, particularly if they are syntactic equivalents or are related in like fashion to another word or element, are outwardly marked by the same or functionally equivalent affixes. The application of the principle varies considerably according to the genius of the particular language. In Latin and Greek, for instance, there is concord between noun and qualifying word (adjective or demonstrative) as regards gender, number, and case, between verb and subject only as regards number, and no concord between verb and object.
In Chinook there is a more far-reaching concord between noun, whether subject or object, and verb. Every noun is classified according to five categoriesmasculine, feminine, neuter,37 dual, and plural. Woman is feminine, sand is neuter, table is masculine. If, therefore, I wish to say The woman put the sand on the table, I must place in the verb certain class or gender prefixes that accord with corresponding noun prefixes. The sentence reads then, The (fem.)-woman she (fem.)-it (neut.)-it (masc.)-on-put the (neut.)-sand the (masc.)-table. If sand is qualified as much and table as large, these new ideas are expressed as abstract nouns, each with its inherent class-prefix (much is neuter or feminine, large is masculine) and with a possessive prefix referring to the qualified noun. Adjective thus calls to noun, noun to verb. The woman put much sand on the large table, therefore, takes the form: The (fem.)-woman she (fem.)-it (neut.)-it (masc.)-on-put the (fem.)-thereof (neut.)-quantity the (neut.)-sand the (masc.)-thereof (masc.)-largeness the (masc.)-table. The classification of table as masculine is thus three times insisted onin the noun, in the adjective, and in the verb. In the Bantu languages,38 the principle of concord works very much as in Chinook. In them also nouns are classified into a number of categories and are brought into relation with adjectives, demonstratives, relative pronouns, and verbs by means of prefixed elements that call off the class and make up a complex system of concordances. In such a sentence as That fierce lion who came here is dead, the class of lion, which we may call the animal class, would be referred to by concording prefixes no less than six times,with the demonstrative (that), the qualifying adjective, the noun itself, the relative pronoun, the subjective prefix to the verb of the relative clause, and the subjective prefix to the verb of the main clause (is dead). We recognize in this insistence on external clarity of reference the same spirit as moves in the more familiar illum bonum dominum.
Psychologically the methods of sequence and accent lie at the opposite pole to that of concord. Where they are all for implication, for subtlety of feeling, concord is impatient of the least ambiguity but must have its well-certificated tags at every turn. Concord tends to dispense with order. In Latin and Chinook the independent words are free in position, less so in Bantu. In both Chinook and Bantu, however, the methods of concord and order are equally important for the differentiation of subject and object, as the classifying verb prefixes refer to subject, object, or indirect object according to the relative position they occupy. These examples again bring home to us the significant fact that at some point or other order asserts itself in every language as the most fundamental of relating principles.
The observant reader has probably been surprised that all this time we have had so little to say of the time-honored parts of speech. The reason for this is not far to seek. Our conventional classification of words into parts of speech is only a vague, wavering approximation to a consistently worked out inventory of experience. We imagine, to begin with, that all verbs are inherently concerned with action as such, that a noun is the name of some definite object or personality that can be pictured by the mind, that all qualities are necessarily expressed by a definite group of words to which we may appropriately apply the term adjective. As soon as we test our vocabulary, we discover that the parts of speech are far from corresponding to so simple an analysis of reality. We say it is red and define red as a quality-word or adjective. We should consider it strange to think of an equivalent of is red in which the whole predication (adjective and verb of being) is conceived of as a verb in precisely the same way in which we think of extends or lies or sleeps as a verb. Yet as soon as we give the durative notion of being red an inceptive or transitional turn, we can avoid the parallel form it becomes red, it turns red and say it reddens. No one denies that reddens is as good a verb as sleeps or even walks. Yet it is red is related to it reddens very much as is he stands to he stands up or he rises. It is merely a matter of English or of general Indo-European idiom that we cannot say it reds in the sense of it is red. There are hundreds of languages that can. Indeed there are many that can express what we should call an adjective only by making a participle out of a verb. Red in such languages is merely a derivative being red, as our sleeping or walking are derivatives of primary verbs.
Just as we can verbify the idea of a quality in such cases as reddens, so we can represent a quality or an action to ourselves as a thing. We speak of the height of a building or the fall of an apple quite as though these ideas were parallel to the roof of a building or the skin of an apple, forgetting that the nouns (height, fall) have not ceased to indicate a quality and an act when we have made them speak with the accent of mere objects. And just as there are languages that make verbs of the great mass of adjectives, so there are others that make nouns of them. In Chinook, as we have seen, the big table is the-table its-bigness; in Tibetan the same idea may be expressed by the table of bigness, very much as we may say a man of wealth instead of a rich man.
But are there not certain ideas that it is impossible to render except by way of such and such parts of speech? What can be done with the to of he came to the house? Well, we can say he reached the house and dodge the preposition altogether, giving the verb a nuance that absorbs the idea of local relation carried by the to. But let us insist on giving independence to this idea of local relation. Must we not then hold to the preposition? No, we can make a noun of it. We can say something like he reached the proximity of the house or he reached the house-locality. Instead of saying he looked into the glass we may say he scrutinized the glass-interior. Such expressions are stilted in English because they do not easily fit into our formal grooves, but in language after language we find that local relations are expressed in just this way. The local relation is nominalized. And so we might go on examining the various parts of speech and showing how they not merely grade into each other but are to an astonishing degree actually convertible into each other. The upshot of such an examination would be to feel convinced that the part of speech reflects not so much our intuitive analysis of reality as our ability to compose that reality into a variety of formal patterns. A part of speech outside of the limitations of syntactic form is but a will o the wisp. For this reason no logical scheme of the parts of speechtheir number, nature, and necessary confinesis of the slightest interest to the linguist. Each language has its own scheme. Everything depends on the formal demarcations which it recognizes.
Yet we must not be too destructive. It is well to remember that speech consists of a series of propositions. There must be something to talk about and something must be said about this subject of discourse once it is selected. This distinction is of such fundamental importance that the vast majority of languages have emphasized it by creating some sort of formal barrier between the two terms of the proposition. The subject of discourse is a noun. As the most common subject of discourse is either a person or a thing, the noun clusters about concrete concepts of that order. As the thing predicated of a subject is generally an activity in the widest sense of the word, a passage from one moment of existence to another, the form which has been set aside for the business of predicating, in other words, the verb, clusters about concepts of activity. No language wholly fails to distinguish noun and verb, though in particular cases the nature of the distinction may be an elusive one. It is different with the other parts of speech. Not one of them is imperatively required for the life of language.39
Note 2. It is, of course, an accident that -s denotes plurality in the noun, singularity in the verb. [back]
Note 3. To cause to be dead or to cause to die in the sense of to kill is an exceedingly wide-spread usage. It is found, for instance, also in Nootka and Sioux. [back]
Note 4. Agriculture was not practised by the Yana. The verbal idea of to farm would probably be expressed in some such synthetic manner as to dig-earth to grow-cause. There are suffixed elements corresponding to -er and -ling. [back]
Note 5. Doer, not done to. This is a necessarily clumsy tag to represent the nominative (subjective) in contrast to the accusative (objective). [back]
Note 7. By case is here meant not only the subjective-objective relation but also that of attribution. [back]
Note 8. Except in so far as Latin uses this method as a rather awkward, roundabout method of establishing the attribution of the color to the particular object or person. In effect one cannot in Latin directly say that a person is white, merely that what is white is identical with the person who is, acts, or is acted upon in such and such a manner. In origin the feel of the Latin illa alba femina is really that-one, the-white-one, (namely) the-womanthree substantive ideas that are related to each other by a juxtaposition intended to convey an identity. English and Chinese express the attribution directly by means of order. In Latin the illa and alba may occupy almost any position in the sentence. It is important to observe that the subjective from of illa and alba does not truly define a relation of these qualifying concepts to femina. Such a relation might be formally expressed via an attributive case, say the genitive (woman of whiteness). In Tibetan both the methods of order and of true case relation may be employed: woman white (i.e., white woman) or white-of woman (i.e., woman of whiteness, woman who is white, white woman). [back]
Note 9. Aside, naturally, from the life and imminence that may be created for such a sentence by a particular context. [back]
Note 10. This has largely happened in popular French and German, where the difference is stylistic rather than functional. The preterits are more literary or formal in tone than the perfects. [back]
Note 11. Hence, the square root of 4 is 2, precisely as my uncle is here now. There are many primitive languages that are more philosophical and distinguish between a true present and a customary or general tense. [back]
Note 12. Except, of course, the fundamental selection and contrast necessarily implied in defining one concept as against another. Man and white possess an inherent relation to woman and black, but it is a relation of conceptual content only and is of no direct interest to grammar. [back]
Note 13. Thus, the -er of farmer may be defined as indicating that particular substantive concept (object or thing) that serves as the habitual subject of the particular verb to which it is affixed. This relation of subject (a farmer farms) is inherent in and specific to the word; it does not exist for the sentence as a whole. In the same way the -ling of duckling defines a specific relation of attribution that concerns only the radical element, not the sentence. [back]
Note 14. It is precisely the failure to feel the value or tone, as distinct from the outer significance, of the concept expressed by a given grammatical element that has so often led students to misunderstand the nature of languages profoundly alien to their own. Not everything that calls itself tense or mode or number or gender or person is genuinely comparable to what we mean by these terms in Latin or French. [back]
Note 15. Suffixed articles occur also in Danish and Swedish and in numerous other languages. The Nootka element for in the house differs from our house in that it is suffixed and cannot occur as an independent word; nor is it related to the Nootka word for house. [back]
Note 17. The Nootka diminutive is doubtless more of a feeling-element, an element of nuance, than our -lung. This is shown by the fact that it may be used with verbs as well as with nouns. In speaking to a child, one is likely to add the diminutive to any word in the sentence, regardless of whether there is an inherent diminutive meaning in the word or not. [back]
Note 18.-si is the third person of the present tense. -hau- east is an affix, not a compounded radical element. [back]
Note 19. These are classical, not modern colloquial, forms. [back]
Note 20. Just as in English He has written books makes no commitment on the score of quantity (a few, several, many). [back]
Note 21. Such as person class, animal class, instrument class, augmentative class. [back]
Note 22. A term borrowed from Slavic grammar. It indicates the lapse of action, its nature from the standpoint of continuity. Our cry is indefinite as to aspect, be crying is durative, cry out is momentaneous, burst into tears is inceptive, keep crying is continuative, start in crying is durative-inceptive, cry now and again is iterative, cry out every now and then or cry in fits and starts is momentaneous-iterative. To put on a coat is momentaneous, to wear a coat is resultative. As our examples show, aspect is expressed in English by all kinds of idiomatic turns rather than by a consistently worked out set of grammatical forms. In many languages aspect is of far greater formal significance than tense, with which the naïve student is apt to confuse it. [back]
Note 23. By modalities I do not mean the matter of fact statement, say, of negation or uncertainty as such, rather their implication in terms of form. There are languages, for instance, which have as elaborate an apparatus of negative forms for the verb as Greek has of the optative or wish-modality. [back]
Note 25. It is because of this classification of experience that in many languages the verb forms which are proper, say, to a mythical narration differ from those commonly used in daily intercourse. We leave these shades to the context or content ourselves with a more explicit and roundabout mode of expression, e.g., He is dead, as I happen to know, They say he is dead, He must be dead by the looks of things. [back]
Note 26. We say I sleep and I go, as well as I kill him, but he kills me. Yet me of the last example is at least as close psychologically to I of I sleep as is the latter to I of I kill him. It is only by form that we can classify the I notion of I sleep as that of an acting subject. Properly speaking, I am handled by forces beyond my control when I sleep just as truly as when some one is killing me. Numerous languages differentiate clearly between active subject and static subject (I go and I kill him as distinct from I sleep, I am good, I am killed) or between transitive subject and intransitive subject (I kill him as distinct from I sleep, I am good, I am killed, I go). The intransitive or static subjects may or may not be identical with the object of the transitive verb. [back]
Note 27. Ultimately, also historicalsay, age to act that (one). [back]
Note 28. For with in the sense of against, compare German widen against. [back]
Note 29. Cf. Latin ire to go; also our English idiom I have to go, i.e., must go. [back]
Note 37. Perhaps better general. The Chinook neuter may refer to persons as well as things and may also be used as a plural. Masculine and feminine, as in German and French, include a great number of inanimate nouns. [back]
Note 38. Spoken in the greater part of the southern half of Africa. Chinook is spoken in a number of dialects in the lower Columbia River valley. It is impressive to observe how the human mind has arrived at the same form of expression in two such historically unconnected regions. [back]
Note 39. In Yana the noun and the verb are well distinct, though there are certain features that they hold in common which tend to draw them nearer to each other than we feel to be possible. But there are, strictly speaking, no other parts of speech. The adjective is a verb. So are the numeral, the interrogative pronoun (e.g., to be what?), and certain conjunctions and adverbs (e.g., to be and and to be not; one says and-past-I go, i.e., and I went). Adverbs and prepositions are either nouns or merely derivative affixes in the verb. [back] | <urn:uuid:8617ce36-fd5d-40b7-afa0-e942a2a08a3f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bartelby.net/186/5.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00119-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959208 | 15,534 | 4.03125 | 4 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.